THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


A£6 


TO      THE 


P 


J  • 


ATRONS    of   the  Arts  and  Sciences;    the 
promoters  of  ufeful  and  ornamental  Literature 


\   in  the  United  States   of  America,  whofe   communi- 
^    cations    have   enriched  this    extenfive    and    impor- 
tant work ;  and  by  whofe  generous  encouragement 
this  arduous  enterprife  has  been  brought  to  its  com- 


^  pletion ; 


^ 


Philadelphia, 
1798. 


'The    American  Edition  of  the 
ENCTCLOPJEDIA 
is  Dedicated, 
with  the  mod  grateful  refpefl:, 
by  their  much  obliged  fervant, 
THOMAS    DOBSOK 


S9S115 


PREFACE. 


i  HE  utility  of  fcience,  and  the  delight  which  it  affords  to  the  human  mind,  are  ac- 
knowledged by  every  man  who  is  not  immerfed  in  the  groffeft  ignorance.  It  is  to  the 
philofopher  that  the  hufbandnian,  the  archite<5t,  the  carpenter,  and  the  feaman.  Sec. 
are  indebted  for  the  principles  of  thofe  arts,  by  which  they  furnifli  us  with  mod  of 
the  accommodations,  and  with  all  the  elegances,  of  civilized  life ;  whilfl  the  pleafure 
experienced  in  the  very  progrefs  of  philofophical  refearch  is  fuch,  as  both  reafon  and 
revelation  intimate,  not  obfcurely,  will  conftitute  part  of  our  happinefs  in  a  future  flate. 

Small,  however,  would  be  the  attainments  of  any  man  in  fcience,  were  they  confined 
within  the  limits  of  his  own  refearches.  Our  knowledge  of  corporeal  nature  originates 
in  thofe  perceptions  which  we  have  by  the  organs  of  fenfe  ;  and  which,  treafured  up  in 
the  memory,  we  can,  by  the  powers  of  reafon  and  imagination,  varioufly  modify,  ar- 
range, and  combine,  fo  as  from  a  number  of  particular  truths  to  form  to  ourfelves  ge- 
neral principles.  But  thefe  principles  would  be  few  indeed,  had  each  individual  no 
other  materials  of  which  to  form  them  than  the  perceptions  furniflied  immediately  by 
his  own  fenfes.  It  has  long  been  a  matter  of  general  regret,  that  the  progrefs  of  fcience 
has  been  flow  and  laborious ;  but  it  never  could  have  commenced,  or  could  have  only 
commenced,  were  every  man  obliged  to  begin  his  career  from  his  own  fenfiitions,  with- 
out availing  himfelf  of  the  difcoveries  of  others  who  have  travelled  over  the  fame  ground 
before  him. 

To  this  narrow  field,  however,  philofophical  invefligation  is  not  confined.  By 
means  of  the  arts  of  writing  and  drawing,  the  difcoveries  of  one  individual  may  be 
made  accefilble  to  another,  and  the  fcience  of  every  age  and  of  every  country  treafur- 
ed up  for  the  ufe  of  ages  and  countries  the  moft  remote.  Hence  arifes  the  utility  of 
what  is  generally  called  literature,  or  the  knowledge  of  the  languages,  cuftoms,  and 
manners,  which  have  prevailed  among  the  various  nations  of  the  earth.  Without  this 
knowledge  the  fcience  of  the  ancients  would  be  locked  up  from  the  moderns ;  and 
even  the  difcoveries  of  modern  nations  would  be  inaccelTible  to  each  other. 

With  all  the  aid  which  can  be  furniflied  by  one  age  or  nation  to  another,  the  la- 
bours of  the  philofopher  flill  prefent  themfelves  as  immenfe  and  difficult.  His  objeft 
comprehends  uni\erfal  nature,  of  which  nothing  can  be  known  but  by  fenfation  and 
reflcftion ;  but  the  objefts  of  fenfe  arc  all  individuals,  almoft  infinite  in  number,  and 
for  ever  changing :  fo  that  inflead  of  a  fyflem  of  fcience,  the  firft  view  of  the  corporeal 
world  would  lead  us  to  imagine,  that  from  our  mofl  diligent  refearches  nothing  could 
be  obtained  but  a  vafl  collection  of  particular  truths.  Such  a  collection,  whiHt  it 
would  burden  the  memory,  could  be  of  little  advantage  to  the  arts  of  life ;  for  we  arc 
very  feldom  brought,  on  different  occafions,  into  circumflances  fo  perfefHy  fimilar,  as 
to  require,  without  the  fmallcil  variation,  the  fame  coudud. 

Vol.  I.  Part  I.  a  But 


IT  PREFACE. 

But  though  all  the  objefts  of  fenfe,  of  memory,  and  of  confcioufnefs,  are  unqueftion- 
ably  individuals  diftinft  from  each  other,  the  contemplative  mind  of  man  obferves 
among  them  various  refemblanccs  and  analogies.  It  obftrves,  that  the  fenHition  com- 
municated to  the  fight  by  fnow  is  fimilar  to  that  communicated  by  milk,  paper,  chalk, 
and  a  thoufand  other  objefts ;  that  all  external  objefts  are  folid,  extended,  divifible, 
and  of  fome  figure ;  that  the  path  defcribed  by  a  planet  round  the  fun  rcfemblcs 
that  defcribed  by  a  cannon  bail  over  the  furface  of  the  earth ;  and  that  many 
of  the  aftions  of  brutes  are  fimilar  to  thofe  which  we  are  impelled  to  perform  by  the 
internal  feelings  of  defire  and  averfion. 

This  view  of  nature,  quiefcent  and  aftive,  fuggefted  to  the  philofopher  the  expedi- 
ency of  ftudyin^  the  vaft  multitude  of  objefls  which  compofe  the  univcrfe  ;  not  indi- 
vidually, but  in  groups  clafled  together  according  to  their  perceived  refemblanccs  or 
analogies.  He  faw  that  his  labour  would  thus  be  at  once  ihortencd  and  rendered  in- 
finitely more  ufeful  ;  but  he  likewife  faw,  or  ought  to  have  feen,  that  it  would  by  no 
means  be  taken  wholly  away.  Much  cautious  attention  is  requifite  to  dafs  objeifls  in 
human  fyftems  as  they  are  in  faft  claffcd  in  the  fyflcm  of  nature.  Analogies  are  apt 
to  be  miftaken  for  refemblanccs  ;  a  refemblancc  in  a  few  particulars  for  a  refemblrince 
in  all ;  and  events,  which  have  in  reality  very  little  in  common,  to  be  attributed  to 
the  fame  or  funilar  caufes.  Thefe  miflakes  can  be  avoided  only  by  a  painful  in- 
duftion  of  fafts,  by  means  of  experiments  accurately  made  on  individual  objefts  ;  and 
it  was  but  very  lately  that  induction  was  employed  as  the  inftrument  of  fcientific  re- 
fearch. 

In  ancient  Greece,  where  philofophy  firfl;  aflumed  a  fyftematic  form,  all  the  objefts 
of  human  thought  were  ranged  under  ten  CATEGORIES  or  predicaments;  and  every 
thing  which  could  be  affirmed  or  denied  of  thefe  categories  was  fuppofcd  to  be  com- 
prehended under  five  clafles  called  predicables.  Among  the  Greek  phiiofophers, 
therefore,  the  ufe  of  indudion  was  to  afcertain  the  category  to  which  any  particular 
object  belonged;  after  which,  nothing  more  wa:  .jbe  done  but,  by  a  ihort  procefs  of 
fyllogillic  rcafoning,  to  affirm  or  deny  of  that  objeft  whatever  could  be  affirmed  or 
denied  of  its  category. 

To  this  ancient  arrangement  of  human  knowledge  many  infuperable  objeftions  have 
been  urged.  But  it  mull  be  confefTed,  that  the  arrangements  which  have  been  propo- 
fcd  in  its  flead,  by  the  fages  of  modern  times,  have  little  claim  to  greater  perfeftion. 
Locke  claffed  all  things  under  three  categories  ;  substances,  modes,  and  ideas. 
Hume  reduced  the  number  to  two  ;  impressions  and  ideas.  The  former  of  thefe 
philofopliers  admitted  of  only  four  predicables,  all  different  from  thofe  of  the  ancients  ; 
the  latter  at  firil  extended  the  number  to  feven,  but  afterwards  reduced  it  to  three ; 
among  which  none  of  the  ancient  predicables  are  to  be  found,  and  only  one  of  thofe 
which  had  been  admitted  by  Locke. 

These  different  claffifications  of  knowledge  are  the  natural  confequences  of  mens  at- 
tempting what  the  greateft  powers  of  the  human  intellecft  will  never  be  able  to  accom- 
plilh.  It  certainly  was  the  aim  of  Arillotle,  or  whoever  was  the  inventor  of  the  categories 
and  the  predicables,  to  delineate  the  whole  region  of  human  knowledge,  aftual  and 
poffible  ;  to  point  out  the  limits  of  every  diftrift  ;  and  to  affign  to  every  thing  which 
can  be  the  object  of  human  thought  its  proper  place  in  the  vaft  arrangement.  Such 
an  attempt  evinces  the  ambition  of  its  author :  nor  has  the  ambition  been  much  lefs  of 
fome  of  thofe  by  whom  the  raffi  arrogance  of  the  Stagyrite  has  been  moll  feverely 
cenfured.  Locke  fays  cxprcfsly,  that  as  the  objects  of  our  knowledge  are  confined  to 
fubllances^  modes,  and  ideas,  fo  we  can  difcover  nothing  of  thefe,  but  i/?,  their  identity 
or  diverfity  ;  2d,  their  relation  ;  T,d,  their  co-cxiflence  or  neecffary  connexion ;  and  4ihy 
their  real  exUlence  :  while  Ilurae  declares,  with  fome  hefitation  indeed,  that  we  caa 
know  nothing  but  the  refemblance,  contiguity  iu  time  or  place,  and  canfation  of  our  im- 
preffions  and  ideas. 

These 


PREFACE. 

These  attempts,  as  well  modern  as  ancient,  to  contraft  the  whole  furniture  of  the 
human  mind  into  the  compafs  of  a  nut-fhell,  and  to  give  at  once  a  compleat  chart  of 
knowledge,  have  been  ccnfured,  not  only  as  prefumptuous,  but  as  the  fertile  fources  of 
error,  by  a  philofopher  whofe  writings  do  honour  to  this  age  and  nation.  "  To 
make  a  perfect  divilion  (fays  Dr  Rcid),  a  man  muft  have  a  perfect  com43rchenfion  of 
the  whole  fubjcift  at  one  view.  When  our  knowledge  of  the  fuhjeft  is  imperfeft,  anv 
diviGon  we  can  make  mufl:  be  like  the  firft  iketch  of  a  painter,  'to  be  extended,  con- 
trafted,  or  mended,  as  the  fubject  Ihall  be  found  to  require.  Yet  nothing  is  mere 
common,  not  only  among  the  ancient  but  even  among  modem  philofophers,  than  to 
draw  from  their  incomplete  divilions,  conclulions  which  fuppofe  them  to  be  perfect. 
A  divlfion  is  a  repolitory  which  the  philofopher  frames  for  holding  his  ware  in  con- 
venient order.  The  philofopher  maintains,  that  fuch  or  fuch  a  thing  is  not  good 
ware,  becaufe  there  is  no  place  in  his  ware  room  that  fits  it.  We  are  apt  to  yield  tu 
this  argument  in  philofophy,  but  it  would  appear  ridiculous  in  any  other  traiEc." 

The  truth  of  thefe  obfervations  will  be  controverted  by  no  man  who  is  not  an  abfo- 
lute  ftranger  to  the  various  fyftems,  ancient  and  modem,  of  what  has  been  called  the 
fir  II  philofophy. 

But  if  every  fcientific  arrangement  of  knowledge  which  has  hitherto  been  propofed 
be  fo  very  imperfeft,  what  judgment  are  we  to  form  of  that  which  is  adopted  by  the 
compilers  of  Dictionaries  or  Encyclopaedias,  in  which  the  arts  and  fcicnces  are  arranged 
according  to  the  order  of  the  alphabet,  and  A,  B,  C,  &c.  confidered  as  the  categories  ? 
The  author  whom  we  have  juH:  quoted  affirms,  that  of  all  methods  of  arrangement  this  is 
the  mofl:  antiphilofophical ;  and  if  he  allude  only  to  fuch  Encyclopaedias  as  arc  mere 
di<flionaries,  in  which  the  feveral  arts  and  fciences  are  broken  into  fragments,  fcattered 
through  the  work  according  as  the  alphabet  has  happened  to  difpofe  of  the  various 
technical  terms  which  have  place  in  each,  his  alTertion  is  unqueitionably  true.  Its 
truth  is  indeed  admitted  by  Chambers  himfelf,  the  compiler  of  one  of  the  ferfl  and  mofl 
valuable  of  thefe  dictionaries,  who  fpeaks  of  the  works  of  his  predeceflbrs  as  containing 
nothing  but  a  multitude  of  materials,  or  a  confufed  heap  of  incoherent  parts.  "  For- 
mer lexicographers  (fays  he)  fcarce  attempted  any  thing  like  Itrufture  in  their  works  ; 
they  fecm  not  to  have  been  aware  that  a  diftionary  is  in  fome  meafure  capable  of  the 
advantages  of  a  continued  difcourfe:  and  hence  it  is,  that  wc  fee  nothing  like  a  whole 
in  what  they  have  done." 

Proposing  to  remedy  this  defeft  in  his  own  Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  he  in- 
forms us,  that  "  his  view  was  to  confider  the  feveral  matters,  not  only  in  ihemfelves, 
but  relatively,  or  as  they  refpecft  each  other ;  both  to  treat  them  as  fo  many  wholes,  and 
as  fo  many  parts  of  fome  greater  whole  j  and  to  point  out  their  connciftion  with  each 
other,  and  with  that  whole,  by  reference :  fo  that  by  a  courfe  of  references  from  gene- 
rals to  particulars,  from  premifes  to  conclufions,  from  caufe  to  effeft,  and  vice  ■vcrfa, 
a  communication  might  be  opened  between  the  feveral  parts  of  the  work,  and  the  de- 
tached articles  be  in  fome  meafure  replaced  in  the  natural  order  of  fciencc,  out  of  which 
the  alphabetical  order  had  removed  them."  To  enable  the  reader  with  the  greater  cafe 
to  replace  in  the  order  of  fcience  the  various  articles  fcattered  through  the  diftionary, 
he  furnilhed  him  in  the  preface  with  what  muft  be  confidered  as  an  elegant  analyfis  of 
human  knowledge  ;  by  which  may  be  feen,  at  one  view,  the  mutual  dependence  of  the 
feveral  parts  upon  each  other,  and  the  incimate  connexion  of  the  whole. 

But  though  the  found  judgment  of  Mr.  Chambers  thus  direftcd  him  to  make  the  ar- 
rangement of  his  Cyclopcrdia  vaftly  preferable  to  that  of  any  work  of  the  i'anie  kmJ 
which  had  been  publifhed  before  it;  we  are  afraid  that,  in ' its  original  form,  it  was 
Hill  liable  to  the  objections  of  Dr  Reid.  Had  all  the  articles  in  the  work  been  treated 
in  fufficient  detail  to  conftitute,  when  reunited  in  the  order  of  fciencc,  fo  many  com- 
plete fyftems ;  yet  the  multitude  of  references  was  fo  great,  that  this  reunion  could  not 
have  been  made  but  by  a  degree  of  irkfome  labour,  to  which  few  readers  will  ever  fub- 

mit. 


VI 


R      E      1- 


A 


E. 


itiit  (a).  The  work  therefore,  with  all  its  improvements,  was  flill  a  book  of  flireds 
and  patches,  rather  than  a  fcientific  di<5tionary  of  arts  and  fciences ;  and  confidcring 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet  as  the  categories,  the  arrangement  was  certainly  inconve- 
nient as  well  as  antiphilofophical. 

Of  this  inconveniency,  infeparablc  from  a  mere  diBlonary  of  arts  and  fciences,  the 
original  Compilers  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  were  fully  aware  ;  and  they  refolved 
to  conftruft  their  own  Work  upon  a  plan  from  which  it  might  be  completely  removed. 
They  were  equally  apprifed  with  their  predeceflbrs  of  the  utility  of  explaining  by  it- 
felf  every  technical  term,  and  of  illullrating  every  particular  topic,  in  the  wide  circle 
of  the  arts  and  fciences ;  but  they  were  at  the  fame  time  fenllble,  that  it  is  only  by 
thinking  in  method,  and  reducing  their  ideas  to  the  order  of  nature,  that  mankind  can 

make 


(a)  To  be  convinced  of  the  troth  of  this  affertion,  one  needs  but  to  call  his  eye  over  the  author's  table  of  arrangement. 
It  is  as  follows. 

C  Meteorology. 
Senfible  ;  confiding  in  the  perception  of  phenomena  or  external  ob-  |  Hydrology. 
je<5ls — called    I'livsiOLOGY   or   Natural    History;  and  which,  <i  Mineralogy. 
according  to  the  different  kinds  of  fuch  objedls,  divides  into —      |  Phytology. 


o 
p 
w 

.-4 

c 


Kaluralzv\A 
Scinilijual ; 
which  is  ei 
ther     — 


:!-<! 


Rational :  confiding  in 
theperception  of  the  in-  < 
trinlic  charmfters  or  ha- 
bitudes of  fenfible  ob- 
jeifts — either  their  — 


I^Zoology. 
'  Po-wers,  and  Properties — call  Physics,  and  Natural  Philosophy. 

^bjlrafls — called  Metaphysics,  which  fubdivides  into -J  p.  . 
^lantities — called  Pure  Ma-  ("Arithmetic — whence -J 


LOGY. 

matology. 
Analytics. 
_  Algebra. 
Trigonometry. 


Or, 


^lanllties — called  Pure  Ma-  ("Arithmetic— 

thematics — which  divides,  I  -  r,i 

,.  t-     ,   1  •   fi     ,< /-.  u  f  lRlGO^•o^ 

according   to  the  lubjetl  ot  I  (jeometry — whence  J  p 

the  quantity,  into  —      lStatics      )  ,, 

'  •'  *-  (.  .S  p  h  r  R I  cs. 

lefs — called  f  Ethics,  or  Natural  CPoliti 

doi^rine  of<      Religion — whence  (^Law. 

divides  into  i.T"eology,  or  Revelation. 


Relations  to  our  happinefs — called 
Religion,    or    the    t"    "  ' 
1_    Offices,  which   fubd 


'  Intnnal;  employed  in  difcovering  their  agreement  and  difagreement;  ortheirrelationsinrefpefl  of  truth 
called  Logics. 


/inljiciahr.il 
Tetlmical, 
(confiding 
in  the  appli- 
cation of  na-  < 
turalnotices 
to    farther 
puipofes), 
wljich   is 
either  — 


Or, 


BMY. 

\L  Magic, 


&c 


■  Liiletit  po'-.uers  and  properties  of  bodies —  f  Alchem' 
called  Chemistry — whence  (^Naturai 

r Optics,Catoptrics,Dioptrics,  f  Plrspectivs. 
—  whence  j Painting. 
Phonics — whence  Music. 
Hydrostatics,  Hydraulics. 

PnIiUMATICS. 


'  Real,    ein- 
pl(<ycd    in 
difcoveiin?  > 
and  apply 


t 


External; 
which  is 
either 


ing  the 


Or, 


^uantitiesoiho. 
dies  —  called 
Mixed  Ma- 
thematics ; 
wliich, accor- 
ding to  the 
different  fub- 
je^fts,  refolves 
into   


r  Architecture. 
Mechanics — whence  <  Sculpture. 

(.Trades  and  Manufactures. 


T,  ,  f  The  Military  y/r/. 

rYROTECHNiA-wnence  <  ,- 

i  iORTIFICATION. 
,  ,  fCHRONOLOGY. 

AsTRONOMV — wlience  -J  t-i 

l_  UlALLING. 

Geography,  Hydro-  f  Navigation. 
GRAPHY — whence  ^Commerce. 
Stntclure  AVid  economy  oi  organical  bodies,  called  Anatomy. 


Relations  thereof 
to  the  prefer- 
vation  and  ira- 
prnvemciu  — 
ciiher  of  — 


...  ,,    ,  CMedicine. 

r  Animals called  -J  ,j 

.^Pharmacy. 

Vegetables — called  <  p 

f  Parrying. 
{^Manhgk-wIi 


Brut! 


-  called 


f  Hunting. 
'  Falconry, 


lencc  j  T-  <■ 

(,  iisHiHG,  &:c. 


Symholical,  employ 
framing  and  appl 


WorJs,  or  articulate  figns  of  ideas — called  Grammar. 


{Words,  or  articulate  ligns  oi  ideas — c? 
Armories — called  Heraldry. 
Tropes  and  Figures — called  Rhetoric 
Fables — called  Poetry. 


Such 


PREFACE.  vii 

make  any  progrefs  in  ufcful  knowledge.  To  accomplifli  therefore  efTciftually  wliat  Mr 
Chambers  by  means  of  his  prefatory  fcientifical  analyfis  attcmpicd  in  vain,  they  endea- 
voured to  give  a  compendious,  yet  clear  and  fatisfa^tory,  account  of  the  fcveral  arts 
and  fciences  under  their  proper  denominations,  whiift  the  fubordinate  articles  in  each 
were  likewifc  explained  under  their  technical  terms.  'I'hcfe  fubordinate  articles  they 
divided  into  three  kinds  ;  of  which  the  firft  confifls  of  fuch  as,  independent  of  particu- 
lar fyftems,  admit  of  a  full  and  complete  illuftration  under  their  proper  names  ; 
the  fecond,  of  fuch  as  require  to  be  partly  difcufTcd  under  the  fyftems  to  which  they 
belong,  and  partly  under  their  own  denominations ;  and  the  third,  of  fuch  as  apper- 
tain to  fyftems  of  which*  all  the  parts  muft  be  elucidated  together.  Articles  of  the  firft 
kind  admit  of  no  references  ;  thofe  of  the  fecond,  being  only  partially  explained  under 
their  proper  denominations,  demand  references  to  the  fyftems  where  the  illuftrations 
are  completed  ;  and  thofe  of  the  lad  are  wholly  referred  to  the  fyftems  of  which  they 
arc  conftiiucnts. 

Such  has  been  the  arrangement  of  the  Arts  and  Sciences  in  every  edition  of  the  En- 
cyclopcedia  Britannica ;  and  it  furely  falls  not  under  that  cenfure  which  Dr  Reid  pro- 
nounced with  jullice  on  many  other  works  bearing  a  fimilar  title. 

In  the  fpirit  of  true  philofophy,  that  great  man  obferves,  that  the  fame  fubjeft  may 
admit,  and  even  require,  various  divifions,  according  to  the  different  points  of  view 
from  which  it  is  contemplated ;  and  we  doubt  not  but,  if  he  had  been  afkcd,  he  would 
candidly  have  acknowledged,  that  the  divifions  and  arrangement  of  the  Encyclopa-dia 
Britannica  are  calculated  to  anfwer  every  purpofe  which  can  be  expeftcd  from  a  gene- 
ral repofitory  of  arts,  fciences,  and  mifcellaneous  literature.  They  are  fuch  as  mull 
give  to  readers  of  every  delcription  the  moft  eafy  accefs  to  the  objects  of  their  purfuit  ; 
for  whiKl  the  philofoplier  or  fyftematic  artift  may  be  fully  and  regularly  informed  by 
turning  to  the  general  name  of  the  fcience  or  art  which  he  willies  to  explore,  the  man 
who  has  occalion  to  confult  only  particular  topics  will  find  them  illuftrated  under  the 
terms  by  which  they  are  denominated.  Contemplated  from  this  point  of  view,  the 
arrangement  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  needs  not  flirink  from  a  comparifon  e\en 
with  that  of  the  Encyclopedic  Methodiquc ;  for  though  that  voluminous  work,  confilling 
of  a  dictionary  of  dictionaries,  may  have  the  appearance  of  being  more  fyilematically 
arranged  ;  yet  we,  who  have  had  occafion  to  confult  it  frequently,  have  never  found 
our  oljjeCt:  the  more  readily  for  having  been  obliged  to  travel  in  quefl:  of  it  through 
different  alphabets. 

A  DICTIONARY,  in  which  the  feveral  arts  and  fciences  are  digerted  into  diftinct  trea- 
tifes  or  fyllems,  whilft  the  various  detached  parts  of  knowledge  are  explained  in  the  order 
of  the  alphabet,  feems  indeed  to  have  received  the  befl  form  of  which  fuch  a  work  is 
fufceptible  ;  and  may  certainly  be  made  to  anfwer  one  end,  which  more  philofophical 
;irrangcments  never  can  acconiplilli.  Under  the  various  letters  of  the  alphabet,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  whole  circle  of  the  fciences  may  be  completely  exhaufted  ;  and  that 
every  difcovery,    ancient  or  recent,    may  be  referred  to  the  particular  fyftem  which  it 

Vol.  I.  Part  I.  b  tends 

Such  is  that  great  and  general  analyfis  of  know  ledge,  which  has  by  fome  of  our  correfpondents  been  recom- 
mended to  us  in  terms  of  the  highellpraife,  and  to  which  elegance  and  accuracy  cannot  perhaps  be  refufed.  Its 
utility,  however,  as  piefixedto  a  diiSionary  of  arts  and  fciences,  is  not  very  apparent,  l-'rom  each  word,  which 
in  this  table  is  printed  in  capitals,  many  branches  are  made  to  fpring,  whicli  in  tiie  dictionary  are  all  treated  as 
fcparatc  articles.  Thus  from  Metiorology  wcarc  referred,  in  a  fubordinate  analyfis,  to  Air  and  the  At- 
mosphere: including,  ill,  The  liillory  of  its  contents,  VF-vmer,  Fire,  Vapour,  E.v halation,  S:c.  2d,  Me- 
teors formed  theiein;  as  Cloud,  Rain,  Shower,  Drop,  Snow,  Hail,  Dew,  Damp,  &c.  Rainbow, 
Parhelisn,  Halo,  Thunder,  Waterspout,  &c.  Winds,  Monsoon,  Hurricane,  and  the  like.  As  every 
word  printed  in  capitals,  as  well  in  this  fubordinate  divifion  as  in  llie  general  table,  is  the  title  of  an  article 
treated  feparatejy  in  the  Cyclopidia,  we  mull  turn  backwards  and  forwards  through  more  than  24  references 
before  we  come  at  the  detached  topics,  wliich  we  are  directed  to  unite  into  a  fyfleni  of  MrTtoROLOc  y.  The 
number  of  articles  which  muft  be  united  in  the  fime  manner  to  conftitutethe  Compiler's  fyftem  of  Metaphv- 
sics  is  upwardi  of  48  ;  and  thofe  which  arc  referred  to  Theology  above  300  ! 


VIU 


P       R       E       F       A       C       E. 

fcnJs  to  confute  or  to  confirm,  without  havinp;  rccourle  to  the  awkward  expedient  of 
cmp!o)inL;  icveral  alpliabets,  or  the  ftill  more  inconvenient  arrangement  by  whicli  the 
lyllems  thcmlelves  are  broken  into  fragments. 

JiuT  on  this  topic  it  is  needlefs  to  expatiate.  The  very  favourable  reception  with 
which  the  two  former  editions  of  the  EncyclopxJia  Britannica  were  honoured  by  the 
I'ubhc  ;  the  Hill  greater  encouragement  which  has  been  given  to  the  prefent  ;  and  the 
adoption  of  the  plan  by  the  editors  of  other  repofitories  of  arts  and  fciences — l->ear  ample 
teftimony  to  the  excellence  of  the  arrangement.  On  this  fubjefl  we  exprcfs  ourfclves 
w  ith  the  greater  cafe  and  the  greater  confidence,  that  we  cannot  be  accufed  of  flattering 
our  own  vanity,  or  publifliing  our  own  j^raifes ;  for  the  merit  of  forming  the  arrange- 
ment, as  well  as  of  introducing  into  the  work  various  branches  of  knowledge,  from 
w  hich,  as  they  are  not  generally  to  be  found  in  dictionaries,  it  derives  a  jull  claim  to 
the  favour  of  the  Public,  belongs  not  to  the  Compilers  of  tlic  prefent  Edition. 

After  furveying  any  particular  art  or  fclence,  our  curiofity  is  excited  to  acquire  fome 
knowledge  of  the  private  hillory  of  thofe  eminent  perfons  by  whom  it  was  invented, 
or  has  been  cultivated  and  improved.  To  gratify  this  curiofity,  tliofe  \\ho  formed 
the  plan  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  refolved  to  enrich  it  with  a  department  not 
to  be  found  in  any  prior  collection  of  the  fame  kind  except  the  French  Encyclopedic. 

Of  all  the  various  fpecies  of  narrative-writing,  it  is  acknou'ledged  that  none  is  more 
worthy  of  cultivation  than  biography  ;  fince  none  can  be  more  delightful  or  more 
ufeful,  rone  can  more  certainly  enchain  the  heart  by  irrefiflible  intereft,  or  more 
widely  dilVufe  inRruftion  to  every  divcrfity  of  condition.  Its  tendency  to  illullrate 
particular  paffages  in  general  hiftory,  and  to  diflufe  new  liglit  through  fuch  arts  and 
fciences  as  were  cultivated  by  the  perfons  whofe  lives  are  related,  are  fafts  too  obvious 
to  require  proof.  It  exhibits  likewife  the  human  characfter  in  every  poflible  form  and 
fituation.  It  not  only  attends  the  hero  through  all  the  biiftle  of  public  life,  but  pur- 
fues  him  to  his  moil  fequeftered  retirements.  It  ihows  how  diftingiiilhed  characters 
have  been  involved  in  misfortunes  and  ditlicukics;  by  what  means  they  were  extricat- 
ed J  or  with  what  degree  of  fortitude  and  dignity  they  difcharged  the  various  func- 
tions, or  fullained  the  viciflitudes,  fomctiraes  profperous  and  fometimes  adverfe,  of  a 
checqucred  and  a  flu(ftuating  life.  In  fuch  narratives  men  of  all  ranks  mufl  frel  tliem- 
fclvcs  iiitercfled  ;  for  the  high  and  the  low,  as  they  have  the  fame  faculties  and  the 
fame  fenfes,  have  no  lefs  fimilitude  in  their  pains  and  pleafures  ;  and  thereJbre  in  the 
page  of  honeft  biography,  thofe  whom  fortune  or  nature  has  placed  at  the  grcatefl  dif- 
tance,  may  mutually  afford  inflruftion  to  each  other.  For  thefe  reafons  it  is,  that  every 
man  of  learning  and  talk  has  efteemed  tlie  biographical  labours  of  Plutarch  among  the 
mofl  valuable  and  interelting  remains  of  antiquity. 

'1"h£  lives  and  cliarafters,  therefore,  of  iuch  perfons  as  have  excelled  in  the  arts 
cither  of  war  or  of  peace,  of  fuch  as  have  diftinguilhed  themfclves  either  on  the  theatre 
of  aftion  or  in  the  recefs  of  contemplation,  will  be  found  in  the  Encyclopa-dia  Bri- 
tannica alphabetically  difpofed  under  their  proper  names.  Many  indeed  are  omitted, 
for  whom  the  reader  will  naturally  look  ;  fome  becaufe,  in  the  order  of  the  alphabet, 
we  had  paffed  the  initial  letters  of  their  names  before  we  had  intelligence  of  their 
deaths  ;  others,  through  the  inadvertency,  whether  excufable  or  not,  of  the  Editors  j 
fevcral,  for  a  reafon  which  fhall  be  afterwards  afligned  for  omifilons  of  a  different 
kind,  and  perhaps  of  greater  importance  ;  and  a  very  few  from  the  contemptuous  re- 
fufal  of  their  friends  to  anfwer  the  Editor's  letters  rcfpeftfully  rcquefling  the  neceffary 
information  (b). 

But 


(b)  Of  this  treatmsnt  we  have  not  inJeed  often  had  occafion  to  complain.  While  mea  of  the  firft  eminence 
in  church  and  ft.*ie  have  readily  anfwcred  the  letters  lliat  were  adJrcffed  to  them,  and  either  communicated  the 

ior- 


PREFACE.  ,  It 

But  while  one  part  of  our  readers  will  regret  that  we  have  given  no  account  of  their 
favourite  philofophcr,  hero,  or  rtatcfman,  others  may  be  difpofed  to  remark,  that  wc 
have  dragged  from  obfcurity  the  names  of  many  pcrfons  who  v/erc  no  proper  objcfts 
of  fuch  public  regard.  To  thefe  we  can  only  reply,  that,  with  the  grcatcll:  biographer 
of  modern  times,  wc  have  long  thought  that  there  has  rarely  pafTed  a  life  of  which  a 
faithful  narrative  would  not  be  ufeful  ;  and  that  in  the  lives  of  the  moil:  obfcurc  per- 
fons,  of  whom  we  have  given  any  account,  we  faw  fomcthing  either  conncfted  v;ith 
recent  difcoveries  and  public  afiairs,  or  v/hich  we  thought  capable  of  affording  a  leflbn 
to  great  multitudes  in  fimilar  circumitances. 

Between  eminent  atchievements  and  the  fcenes  where  they  were  performed,  there 
is  a  natural  and  neccflary  connexion.  The  charafter  of  the  warrior  is  connected  with 
the  fields  of  his  battles  ;  that  of  the  legiflator,  with  the  countries  which  he  civilized  ; 
and  that  of  the  traveller  and  navigator,  with  the  regions  which  they  explored.  Even 
when  we  read  of  the  perfons  by  whom,  and  the  occafions  on  which,  any  particular 
branch  of  knowledge  has  been  improved,  we  naturally,  wifli  to  know  fomcthing  of, 
the  places  where  fuch  improvements  were  made.  lliis  curiofity,  fo  natural  and  fo 
laudable,  has  been  frequently  felt  by  ourfelves  during  Ihe  compilation  of  this  Work  ; 
and  to  gratify  it  in  others,  we  have  fubjoined  to  the  name  of  every  confiderable  place 
an  account  of  its  fituation,  its  climate,  its  foil,  its  peculiarities,  its  inhabitants,  with 
their  manners,  cufloms,  and  arts ;  its  revolutions,  laws,  and  government,  with  what- 
ever elfe  appeared  necelTary  for  the  readers  information,  and  at  the  fame  time  admif- 
lible  fnto  a  work  of  fuch  variety  and  extent.  It  is  indeed  probable,  that  by  many  of 
our  readers  we  (hall  be  thought  to  have  done  too  much  rather  than  too  little  in  this 
department  ;  and  to  have  filled  our  pages  with  accounts  of  towns  and  villages  not  of 
fuSicicnt  importance  to  demand  general  attention.  But  were  it  known  how  many  of 
fuch  places  we  have  excluded  from  our  Work,  though  recommended  to  us  by  fome  of 
our  mod  obliging  correfpondents,  thofc  who  refleft  upon  the  different  tafles  of  man- 
kind, and  confider  that  we  wrote  for  the  Public  at  large,  would  forgive  us  for  having 
occalionally  employed  a  few  fentences  in  the  defcription  of  others,  which,  whatever  be 
their  real  importance,  could  not  have  been  omitted  without  difappointing  a  very  nu- 
merous clafs  of  readers. 

The  knowledge  of  hifliory  is  fo  important,  not  only  to  the  flatefman  and  the  legifla- 
tor, to  whom  indeed  it  is  abfolutely  necefTary,  but  likewife  to  every  man  who  moves 
in  a  fphere  above  that  of  the  loweit  vulgar,  that  a  Work  profeffing  to  be  a  general  re- 
pofitory  of  arts,  fciences,  and  literature,  would  be  exceedingly  defective,  if  it  did  not 
contain  fome  information  of  the  tranfaftions  of  thofe  who  have  been  in  pofl'cfTion  of  the 
world  before  us  ;  of  the  varbus  revolutions  of  flates  and  empires ;  and  of  all  the  other 
means  which  have  contributed  to  bring  every  thing  into  the  flate  in  which  we  behold 
it.  Fully  aware  of  this,  the  compilers  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  befides  giving 
a  general  view  of  univcrfal  Iiillory  and  chronology,  have  enriched  this  Cklition  with  a 
fliort,  though  they  hope  luminous,  detail  of  the  progrefs  of  each  particular  nation, 
which  from  the  remotefl  period  to  the  prefent  time  has  afted  a  confpicuous  part  on 
the  theatre  of  the  world.  The  reader  therefore  will  here  find  a  very  comprehenfive 
view  of  Civil  History,  ancient  and  modern,  in  all  its  branches.  Nor  have  the  hiflo- 
ries  of  Nature  and  Religion  been  neglefted.  Of  the  former,  it  is  not  perhaps  too 
much  to  fay,  that  in  all  the  fubdivifions  of  its  three  great  kingdoms,  it  will  be  found  more 
tully,  more  accurately,  and  mure  fcicntifically,  detailed  in  this  Work  than  in  any  other 
di(ftionary  which  has  yet  been  publifhed.  Of  the  latter,  a  brief  view  is  given  under 
the  general  article  History  ;  the  unavoidable  dcfeifts  of  which  are  in  a  great  mcafure 

b  2  Aipplicd 

information  which  was  requefted,  or  politely  ailignsd  reafons  for  wilhing  the  lives  of  iheir  friends  not  to  be 
publilTied  in  the  Encyclopidia  Britannica,  the  Editor  rccolkfts  but  two  men,  who  maintained  a  fulWn 
lilence  ;  and  ihefs  he  canuot  confider  as  movins  in  a  fphere  much  hijjhsr  than  his  own. 


PREFACE. 

fuppIIeJ  by  the  accounts  that  will  be  found,  under  their  proper  denominations,  of  all 
the  coufklerable  feifts  and  opinions  which  have  prevailed  in  the  religious  world  from  tlic 
earlicll  periods  to  the  prefent  day. 

Such  was  the  plan  of  the  fecond  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica ;  to  which, 
as  it  fcems  hardly  capable  of  improvement,  the  Compilers  of  the  third  have,  with  a 
few  flight  variations,  ftrit^lly  adhered.  Still,  however,  there  was  ample  room  for  the 
efforts  of  all  their  indullry  and  all  their  learning ;  for  the  rapid  progrefs  of  the  phyfi- 
cal  fciences  had  rendered  the  labours  of  their  predeceflbrs  in  many  departments  ufelefs. 
Befides  the  introduction  of  fome  thoufands  of  new  articles,  there  are  not  many  of  great 
importance,  thofc  in  biography  and  geography  alone  excepted,  which  Ihuid  in  this 
Edition  as  they  flood  in  the  laif.  Such  recent  difcoveries  as  could  be  introduced,  have 
been  mentioned  with  reference  to  their  proper  authors ;  and,  vhile  the  feveral  fciences 
have  been  treated  more  fully  and  fyllemalically,  greater  care  has  been  employed  to 
trace  the  hirtory  of  each  from  its  firll  invention,  and  to  apply  them  all  to  the  arts  of  life. 

To  accomplilh  a  talk  fo  arduous  and  fo  important,  neither  labour  nor  expence  has 
been  fparcd.  Literary  journals ;  the  memoirs  and  tranfa(ftions  of  philofophic  focicties  ; 
and  all  the  moft  valuable  diftionaries  of  arts  and  fciences,  both  in  our  own  and  in 
other  languages,  have  been  conllantly  confulted.  The  works  of  the  moft  eminent  au- 
thors, as  well  ancient  as  modern,  who  have  written  on  any  particular  art  or  fcicnce, 
have  been  collefted  and  compared.  Such  of  them  as  treat  of  topics,  about  which  there 
is  no  room  for  controverfy,  and  are  at  the  fame  time  fufceptible  of  abridgment,  have 
been  abridged  with  the  greatefl  care  ;  whilfl  others,  more  concife  and  tenacious  of  their 
fubjefts,  have  been  more  clofely  purfucd  and  more  faithfully  retained.  Upon  thofe 
branches  of  fcience  on  which  the  works  of  other  authors  furniflied  nothing  fit  for  the 
purpofe  of  the  Editors,  original  cffajs  and  treatifes  are  inferted,  which  were  compofed 
either  by  themlclves,  or  by  fuch  of  their  friends  as  they  knew  to  be  intimately  ac- 
quainted with  the  fubjeft.  On  difputed  points,  whether  in  the  phyfical  or  moral 
fciences,  arguments  and  objections  have  been  difplayed  in  their  full  force  ;  and  of  each 
of  the  various  fefts  into  which  the  Chriftian  church  is  divided,  the  account  is  generally 
given  by  the  moft  eminent  clergyman  of  that  feft  to  whom  the  Editors  could  find  ac- 
cefs. 

After  the  utmoft  exertions,  however,  of  our  attention  and  induftry,  we  are  fcnfibic, 
perhaps  more  fenfiblc  than  any  of  our  readers,  tliat  the  Work  paffes  from  our  hands  in 
a  ftate  far  from  perfection  ;  and  that  the  man  who  fliall  not  difcover  in  the  Encyclo- 
paxha  Britannica  miftakes,  needlefs  repetitions,  and  even  culpable  omiffions,  will  bring 
to  the  examination  of  it  no  great  ftock  of  general  knowledge.  But  for  thefe  ollences  the 
Editors  perhaps  need  no  other  apology  than  what  will  be  furniflied  by  the  nature  of 
the  Work  and  the  hiftory  of  its  publication. 

In  a  collection  fo  extenfive  and  multifarious,  a  few  miftakes,  repetitions,  and  omif- 
fions, might  furely  be  paflcd  over  without  feverity  of  cenfure,  although  the  publicatioa 
had  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  been  fuperintended  by  the  fame  man ;  but  they 
•will  be  allowed  to  have  been  almoft  unavoidable,  when  it  is  known  that,  after  the 
AVork  was  far  advanced,  it  was  committed  to  the  care  of  a  new  Editor,  who,  though 
he  was  in  a  great  degree  a  ftranger  to  the  contents  of  the  printed  volumes,  found  no 
clue  of  his  predeceflbr's  which  could  guide  him  accurately  through  thofe  to  be  com- 
piled. 

We  beg  it  to  be  underftood,  that  this  obfervation  is  not  made  with  a  view  to  re- 
move any  ihare  of  blame  from  the  fecond  to  the  firft  Editor ;  for  Mr  Colin  Macfar- 
qulrar,  who  conducted  the  publication  beyond  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  volume, 
was  a  man  whom  few  who  knew  him  will  be  difpofed  to  blame,  and  on  whofe  indu- 
ftrious  integrity  thofe  who  knew  him  beft  muft  admit  that  it  would  be  difficult  to 
beftow  too  much  praife.  Born  in  Edinburgh  of  parents  refpeftable,  though  not  afllu- 
cat,  he  was,  at  an  early  period  of  life,  bound  an  apprentice  to  a  printer.  This  pro- 
feffion  gave  him  a  tafte  for  fcicnce  and  literature,  or  rather  furniflied  him  w-jth  oppor- 

luiiitics. 


P       R       E       F       A       C:       E. 

tunities  of  cultivating  the  tafte  which  he  derived  from  nature :  and  he  foon  became 
well  acquainted  with  the  mod  popular  writers  in  natural  hiflory  and  in  natural  and 
moral  philofophy.  When  he  opened  a  printing-houfe  of  his  own,  rectitude  of  conduct 
quickly  recommended  him  to  friends  and  to  employment ;  and  the  unremitted  profe- 
cution  of  his  ftudies  eminently  qualified  him  for  fupcrintcnding  the  publication  of  a  new 
diftionary  of  arts,  fcicnces,  and  literature  ;  of  which,  under  the  title  of  ENCYCi.op.tDiA 
Britannica,  the  idea  had  been  conceived  by  him  and  his  friend  Mr  Andrew  Bell  en- 
graver. By  whom  thefe  gentlemen  were  affifted  in  digcfting  the  plan  which  attracted 
to  that  Work  fo  much  of  the  public  attention,  or  whether  they  had  any  aflillance,  are 
queftions  in  which  our  readers  cannot  be  interefled.  Suffice  it  to  fay,  that  Mr  Mac- 
farquhar  had  the  fole  care  of  compiling  the  prcfent  Edition  ;  and  that,  with  the  aid 
of  a  very  few  literary  friends,  he  brought  it  down  to  the  article  Mysteries,  in  the 
twelfth  volume,  when  he  was  cut  olT  in  the  4.8 ih  year  of  his  age  by  a  death  which, 
though  not  fudden,  was  perhaps  unexpected.  His  career  was  indeed  fliort ;  but  of  him 
it  may  be  faid  with  as  much  propriety  as  of  moft  men,  Nemo  parum  diii  vixit,  qui 
virtutis  perfe^a  pcrfcclo  functus  cfl  inuncrc. 

Among  his  literary  correfpondents  was  the  Reverend  Dr  Gleig  of  Stirling,  who  had 
written  for  him  various  articles,  of  which  fome  were  publiflaed  during  his  lifetime 
and  others  in  their  order  after  his  death.  Thefe  fliall  be  afterwards  enumerated  with 
thofe  furniihed  by  other  occafional  contributors ;  but  they  are  mentioned  at  prefent, 
becaufe  they  account  for  that  partial  regard  of  Mr  Macfarquhar  for  their  author,  which, 
on  the  death  of  the  former,  induced  the  truftees  for  his  children,  together  with  Mr  Bell 
the  furviving  partner,  to  requeft  the  latter  to  undertake  the  ta/k  Mhich  their  dcceafed 
friend  had  hitherto  difcharged  with  fo  much  credit  to  himfelf.  In  this  propofal,  after 
fome  hefitation  on  account  of  his  dillance  from  Edinburgh,  Dr  Gleig  acquiefced  ;  but 
wdien  he  entered  on  his  new  office,  he  found  matters  in  a  flate  of  no  little  confufion. 
Mr  Macfarquhar,  though  his  death  had  not  been  long  expefted,  had  laboured  long 
under  a  complication  of  difeafes;  the  confequence  of  which  was,  that  the  materials 
which  he  had  prepared  for  the  prefs  were  almoft  exhaufled  ;  and  of  thofe  vliich  were 
firfl:  called  for,  fome  had  not  pafl'ed  through  his  correfting  hand. 

This  circumftance  may  perhaps  account  for  fome  defefts  and  inaccuracies  in  that 
part  of  the  Work,  to  which  the  fecond  Editor  looks  back  with  the  leaft  fatisfaftion:  but 
that  which  mud  be  his  apology  for  feveral  repetitions  and  omilfions,  was  the  neglcft  of 
his  predecelTor  during  his  laft  illnefs  to  make  an  intelligible  index  to  his  own  labours. 
From  the  want  of  fuch  a  necefTary  guide,  Dr  Gleig  was  perpetually  liable,  notwith- 
ftanding  his  utmoft  circumfpeftion,  to  give  under  one  title  an  explanation  of  fubjcfts 
which  had  been  before  explained  under  another ;  and  to  omit  articles  altogether,  from 
a  perfuafion  that  they  had  been  difculled  in  fome  preceding  volume  under  the  general 
fyitem  to  which  they  belong. 

Neither  his  repetitions  nor  omilllons,  however,  are  fo  many  as  fome  have  ftippo- 
fed  them  ;  for  what  has  been  hallily  cenfured  as  a  repetition,  is  frequently  nothing 
more  than  the  neceflary  relumption  of  fome  important  fubjeft.  Availing  himfelf 
of  the  excellence  of  the  plan  upon  which  the  Encycloprodia  Britannica  is  conilruft- 
ed,  he  took  the  opportunity,  when  he  found  any  fyltem  fuperiicially  treated,  to  fupply 
its  defefts  under  fome  of  the  detached  articles  belonging  to  it.  Of  this  he  (hall  men- 
tion as  one  inilance  Hydrostatics  ;  which,  confidered  as  a  fyilem,  muft  be  con- 
fefl'ed  to  be  defeftive  ;  but  he  trulls  that  its  defers  are  in  a  great  meafure  fupplied  un- 
der the  feparate  articles  Resistance  o/"/''/K/i/i,  River,  Specific  GravitVj  and  IVjhr- 
Works. 

That  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  no  account  is  given  of  fome  things  which 
fliould  have  a  place  in  a  .general  repofitory  of  arts,  fciences,  and  mifcellaneous  litera- 
ture, muft  be  acknowledged  ;  but  it  mull  likewifc  be  acknowledged  that  fuch  omiiEons 
are  neither  numerous  nor  very  important ;  for  many  fubjefts,  which  have  been  fup- 
pofed   to  be  omitted,    arc  trcatal  under   titles  different  from  tliofe  under  which  they 

have 


Nil  PREFACE. 

hnve  been  looked  for.  Thus  the  method  of  calculating  compound  interefls,  which  one 
of  our  correfpondents  cannot  find  in  our  Work,  'a  taught  in  the  article  Algebra  ; 
that  of  coaling  mirrors,  of  which  another  complains  that  no  account  is  given,  will  be 
found  under  the  term  Foliating  ;  and  though  it  may  be  true,  according  to  the 
peevifli  remark  of  a  third,  that  the  reader  is  nowhere  dircftly  in(hni(?>cd  how  to  grind 
optical  giafles,  yet  if  he  read  the  article  Gi.Ass-Gr/W//?^,  and  undcrlland  the  doclrine 
of  lenfes  as  laid  down  in  the  article  Optics,  he  will  cafily,  if  an  artift,  difcover  a 
method  of  perlorraing  that  operation  for  himfelf. 

Omissions,  however,  there  are  towards  the  end  of  the  Work  j  not  the  confequence 
of  carcleilhefs,  but  the  offspring  of  neccility. 

In  an  addrcfs  to  the  Purchafcrs  of  the  Encyclopa-dia  Britannica,  fubjoincd  to  the 
ninth  volume,  the  proprietors  gave  a  rafli  promifc  to  comprehend  the  whole  of  their 
undertaking  within  the  limits  of  eighteen  ;  and  if  intervening  difcovcrics  fhould  make 
it  ncceflary,  to  enlarge  the  iafl  volumes  in  quantity  without  any  additional  charge  to 
Suhfcribers. 

That  the  promife  was  rafli,  a  moment's  reflection  fliould  have  taught  them  ;  for  in 
the  prefcnt  rapid  progrefs  of  phyficrd  fcience,  when  new  difcoveries  are  daily  made,  it 
was  obvioufly  nnpoiFible,  at  fo  early  a  period,  to  afcertain  with  prccifion  how  many  vo- 
lumes would  be  neceffary  to  bring  a  Work  of  fuch  comprehenfive  variety  to  the  utmofl 
perfection  of  which  it  is  capable.  This  was  indeed  foou  difcovered  ;  but  the  proprie- 
tors fhrunk  not  from  their  engagement,  which  they  determined  to  fulfil  to  the  utmoft 
extent  of  its  meaning,  till  the  additional  tax,  which  in  1795  vi'as  laid  upon  paper,  in- 
volved them  in  diflicuities  which  they  had  not  forefeen.  By  the  a<ft  of  parliament  they 
were  indeed  authorifed  to  reimburfe  thcmfclves  by  raifing  the  fubfcription-price  of 
their  volumes  ;  but  they  chofe  rather  to  fubmit  to  a  diminution  of  profit,  than  to  take 
even  a  legal  advantage  of  that  Public  by  which  they  had  hitherto  been  fo  generoufly 
lupported. 

To  complete  their  plan,  however,  in  its  original  extent,  was  now  impofllblc,  with- 
out a  violatiou  of  the  facred  duties  which  they  owe  to  themfelvcs  and  to  their  families. 
In  this  dilemma  the  Editor  propofed  that  they  ihould  ftate  the  cafe  to  their  Suhfcri- 
bers, of  whom  he  is  confident  that  nine-tenths  would  have  releafcd  them  from  the  obliga- 
tion of  their  promife:  but  after  long  deliberation,  they  judged  that  it  would  be  more 
acceptable  to  the  public  at  large  to  comprehend  the  Work  in  the  propofed  number  of 
volumes,  though  they  fliould  exclude  from  the  Iafl  fuch  articles  as  might  be  omitted 
without  injury  to  fcience  or  the  arts  of  life.  If  by  any  of  their  readers  they  fliall  be 
thought  to  have  erred  in  this  judgment,  let  them  not,  however,  be  too  feverely  bla- 
med ;  for  they  have  done  much  to  adhere  to  the  fpirit  of  their  promife  ;  and,  in  the  large 
addition  made  to  the  bulk  of  the  lall  volume,  have  fliewn  that  they  prefer  their  honour 
to  their  intercfl.  Several  things  have  indeed  been  excluded ;  but  except  fuch  recent  dif- 
coveries as  could  not  be  noticed  under  the  Iafl:  letters  of  the  alphabet,  it  is  believed  that 
very  little  has  been  omitted  which  can  be  confidered  as  of  great  or  general  importance. 
At  any  rate,  the  Editor  flatters  himfelf,  that  the  Iafl  fix  volumes  of  the  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica  do  not  difgrace  thofe  by  which  they  are  preceded,  and  that  the  whole  will 
bear  to  be  comi)ared  with  any  other  'Work  of  the  fame  kind  extant.  Imperfeft  it  cer- 
tainly is :  "  but  if  much  has  been  omitted,  let  it  be  remembered  that  much  has  like- 
wife  been  performed;"  that  perfeftion  is  not  to  be  looked  for  in  the  works  of  man; 
and  that  evcrv  compilation  of  fuch  variety  and  extent  fliould  be  examined  with  the 
fpirit  which  actuated  one  of  the  greatefl:  critics  of  antiquity  when  peruCng  the  works 
of  his  brother  poets  : 

Vcrum  iibiplura  ni'cnt  in  carmine,  non  ego  paucis 

Offender  ni^eulis,  quas  atit  incuriafudtt, 

atlut  humana parum  cavit  naiura. HoR.  DE  art.  poet. 

W,F 


P      R      i:      F      A      C      E. 

We  mentioned  our  obligations  to  occafional  contributors  ;  and  many  of  our  corrc- 
fpondents  have  exprcfled  an  earncfl:  defire  to  know  who  thcfe  contributors  have  been. 
As  there  can  be  no  impropriety  in  gratifying  fuch  a  defire,  v/e  fliall  conclude  this  Pre- 
face, by  afligning  the  various  articles,  not  compiled  by  the  Editors  tliemfclves,  to  their 
refpeftlve  authors  :  but  as  many  of  the  v.riters  for  the  lirlt  twelve  volumes  were  known 
to  IVIr.  Macfarquhar  alone,  they  will  not  attribute  the  omilHon  of  their  names  to  cul- 
pable defign,  but  to  irremediable  ignorance. 

For  whatever  inftruction  may  be  conveyed  in  the  articles  Anatomy  and  Surgery 
the  Public  is  indebted  to  Andrew  Bell,  F.  S.  S.  A.  one  of  the  proprietors,  and  the  in- 
genious MrFyfe.  IVom  the  former  of  thefe  gentlemen  the  world  will  foon  receive 
one  of  the  moil  fplendid  anatomical  works  whicii  it  has  yet  fceu  ;  and  as  the  latter  has 
long  officiated  under  Dr  Monro  as  difTettor  in  the  anatomical  fchool  of  the  univerfity 
of  Edinburgh,  it  is  needlefs  for  us  to  fay  how  well  he  mull  be  acquainted  with  the 
fubjefts  on  which  wc  employed  him  to  write.  Aerology,  Aerostation,  Chemi- 
stry, Electricity,  Gunnery,  Hydrostatics,  Mechanics,  Meteorology,  with 
mofl:  of  the  feparatc  articles  in  the  various  branches  of  natural  hiftory,  we  have  reafon 
to  believe  were  compiled  by  Mr  James  Tytler  chemifl ;  a  man  who,  though  his  con- 
duct has  been  marked  by  almoft  perpetual  imprudence,  poffcfTes  no  common  fliare  of 
fcience  and  genius.  The  article  Blind  was  furnilhed  by  Dr  Blacklock  and  Ur  Moyes, 
both  blind  themfelves,  and  both  men  of  fuperior  attainments  ;  the  former  in  elegant 
literature,  and  that  latter  in  the  phyfical  fciences.  We  believe  that  the  article  Edu- 
cation was  compofed  by  Mr  Robert  Heron,  author  of  a  liiftory  of  Scotland  now  pu- 
blifliing,  who  likewife  furniflied  the  greater  part  of  what  we  have  publiihed  under  the 
titlesRELiGiON  and  Society.  The  lives  of  Johnson  and  Maky  ^een  of  Scots,  with 
the  articles  Instinct,  Love,  Metaphysics,  Miracle,  the  hillory  Ethics  under 
Moral  Philosophy,  Oath,  Passion,  Plastic  Naturf,  Polytheism,  Prayer, 
Slavery,  and  Supper  of  tbe  Lord,  were  contributed  by  Dr  Gleig,  Editor  of  the  lad 
fix  volumes;  Grammar  (c)  and  Theology  by.  Dr  Gleig  and  the  Reverend  James 
Bruce,  A.  B.  late  of  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge  ;  and  Motion  by  Dr  Gleig  and 
Mr  Tytler.  The  fyftem  of  Medicine,  which  was  publiihed  in  the  former  edition, 
was  reviled  and  improved  for  the  prefent  by  Andrew  Duncan,  M.  D.  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  Profeflbr  of  the  Inftitutes  of  Piivfic  in  the  Univerfi- 
ty. The  notes  to  the  article  Music  were  contributed  by  Dr  Blacklock,  and  the  hi- 
llory of  the  art  by  AVilliam  Maxwell  I\Iorifon.  Eiq  ;  advocate,  who  likewife  favoured 
us  with  what  we  have  publiflicd  on  the  fcience  of  Physiognomy.  The  articles  My- 
steries, Mythology,  and  Philology,  we  owe  to  the  erudition  of  David  Dolg, 
L.  L.  D.  F.  S.  S.  A.  mafler  of  the  grammar-fchool  of  Stirling,  and  author  of  two  very 
ingenious  Letters  on  the  Sav  ge  State,  addrefled  to  the  late  I.ord  Karnes.  Naviga- 
tion, Parallax,  Pendulum,  Projection  cftbe  Sphere,  Ship-Building,  and  Naval 
Tactics,  were  furnilhed  by  Andrew  Mackay,  L.  L.  D.  F.  R.  S.  E.  of  Aberdeen,  and 
known  to  the  Public  as  author  of  a  treatife  on  the  Theory  and  Praclicc  of  finding  the 

Longitude 

(c)  Mr  Bruce,  who  communicated  ilie  rnofl  valuable  parts  of  the  article  Grammar,  and  who  was  for ' 
many  years  a  fludent  in  the  univerfity  of  St  Andrew'^,  wilhes,  from  gr  ititr.de  to  his  old  mailer,  to  declare, 
in  this  public  manner,  that,  to  the  inllruflions  of  Dr  Hunter,  profelibr  of  humanity  in  that  univerfity,  hs 
is  indebted  for  much  of  what  philological  knciwledjjc  he  may  poilcfs.  We  believe  indeed  that  Dr  Hunttr 
may  claim  as  his  own  the  theory  which  we  have  given  of  the  cafes  of  nouns,  the  doiflrine  concernin':^  the 
inverfe  acceptation  of  the  adjective,  and  the  refoluiioii  of  the  relative  pionoun  by  means  of  the  prepofiiion 
of  inllead  of  the  conjun(5Hon  and.  Tliere  is  noth.ing  clfe  in  cur  article  which  the  attentive  reader  inav  nit 
find  in  the  grammatical  writings  of  Vnjfius,  ScsUger,  San^ius,  Perizcnius,  iruHis,  RudJiman,  Harris,  Horm- 
Tcok;  and  Dr  Gregory  of  Edinburgh.  Difcoveries  in  grammar  are  not  indeed  to  be  looked  for.  They 
are  nearly  allied  to  tliofe  in  metaphyfics  ;  of  which,  it  has  been  well  obfervcd  byone  of  theacuteft  writers 
of  the  age,  that  ths  very  appearance  lliould  be  rcjeilcd  as  an  error,  if  not  as  an  impoCiion,  upon  ma.ikinJ. 


xm 


xiv  PREFACE. 

Longitude  nt  Sea  or  Land.  John  Robifon,  M.  A.  fecrctary  to  the  Royal  Society  of 
Edinburgh,  and  profcflbr  of  natunil  philofophy  in  tlie  Univertity,  did  the  Editor  the 
honour  of  contributing  to  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  the  valuable  articles  Physics, 
i*NEUMATics,  Precession  of  the  Equinoses,  Projectiles,  Pumps,  Resistance  of 
Fluids,  River,  Roof,  WovE-Making,  Rotation,  Seamanship,  Signals,  Sound,  Spe- 
cific Gravity,  Statics,  Steam  and  Steam  Engine,  Strength  of  Materials,  Tele- 
scope, Tide,  Jrticu/aiing '1'v.vMVEr,  Variation  c///j^  Cowy^^,  and  W^/cr- Works. 
Philosophy  is  the  joint  production  of  ProfeiTor  Robifon  and  Ur  Gleig.  Physiology 
was  furnilhed  by  John  Barclay,  RI.  D.  of  Edinburgh,  whofe  merits,  if  the  Editor  be 
not  partial  to  his  friend,  it  will  raife  high  in  the  elUmation  of  nun  of  fciencc.  The 
fflays  on  Predestination  and  Providence  were  contributed  by  Robert  Forfyth,  Efq. 
advocate  ;  the  account  of  the  French  Revolution  by  Mr.  Forfyth  and  Dr  Gleig  ;  and 
Oxygen  and  Phlogiston  by  John  Rotheram,  M.  D.  profeflbr  of  natural  philofophy 
in  the  Univerfity  of  St  Andrew's. 

The  other  contributors  to  the  firfl  part  of  the  Work  we  cannot  enumerate  ;  but  we 
know  that  much  ufcful  information  was  occafionally  communicated  by  Dr  Latham  of 
Dartford  in  Kent,  the  celebrated  ornlthologiH;  ;  by  Dr  William  Wright  Phyfician- 
general  to  the  forces  in  the  Well  Indies  under  the  command  of  Sir  Ralph  Abcrcrom- 
l)ie  ;  by  the  Reverend  J.  Hawkins,  vicar  of  Halfted  in  EfTex  ;  by  the  late  Mr  Adams, 
mathematical  inllrument-maker  to  his  Majefly  ;  and  by  Mr  William  Jones,  optician 
in  Holborn,  London.  There  is,  however,  no  man  to  whom  the  Proprietors  of  the  En- 
cyclopa'dia  Britannica  feel  theinfelves  under  greater  obligations  than  to  Dr  Black, 
for  the  very  handfome  offer  which  he  inade  to  the  perfon  who  was  at  firft  entrulled 
with  the  chemical  department  of  the  Work.  And  while  they  exprefs  thus  publicly 
their  gratitude  to  him,  may  not  the  Editor  declare  how  much  he  is  indebted  to  his 
two  afiiliants,  the  Reverend  James  Walker,  M.  A.  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
and  Mr  James  'I'homfon  of  CrieiT,  preacher  in  the  church  of  Scotland  i*  Of  thefe  gen- 
tlemen, who  fucceffively  had  the  care  of  the  Work  when  he  was  neceffarily  abfent,  he 
could  always  fay,  £^dbus  in  rebus  ipfi  interejfc  non  fojfumus,  in  his,  operas  mfira  vicaria 
fides  amicor  umfupponitur. 


TO  the  above  preface  of  the  European  Editors  the  publiflicr  of  the  American  Edi- 
tion begs  leave  to  add,  that  neither  care  nor  expenfe  have  been  fpared  to  render  the 
work  worthy  of  the  Public  attention.  Some  articles  have  been  written  anew,  feveral  of 
original  matter  have  been  inferted,  and  many  have  been  revifed  and  important  improve- 
ments made  in  them,  indeed,  through  every  volume  ufeful  though  minute  improve- 
ments have  been  introduced  which  contributed  to  the  excellence  of  the  work.  The 
engravings,  the  paper,  and  the  general  execution  of  the  work  mufl:  fpeak  for  them- 
felves,  on  this  fcore  the  publiiher  thinks  he  has  not  much  cenfure  to  fear;  for  typo- 
graphical inaccuracies,  which  are  comparatively  few,  he  has  no  apology  to  offer,  but  flat- 
ters himfelf  that  in  a  work  of  fuch  variety  and  extent  the  candid  reader  will  view  them 
with  indulgence. 

From  the  nature  of  the  work  many  things  muft  be  expefted  to  be  imperfeft,  and 
fome  through  inadvertence  omitted,  thefe,  with  a  variety  of  original  materials  are  pro- 
poled  to  be  taken  up  in  a  fupplementary  volume. 

ENCYCLOPiEDIA. 


Encyclopaedia. 


THE  firfl  letter  of  tlie  alphabet,   in    all 


A.         A 

abbreviat.  Xl)   known  languages  of  the  World,  that  ot  Ethiopia 

^  '  cxcepteil,  ill  which  it  is  the  13th.  It  has  defervcdiy 
the  firR  place  in  the  alphabet  on  account  of  itsfimplici- 
ty,  very  little  more  being  necelfary  to  its  pronunciation 
than  opening  the  mouth. 

In  the  EngliQi  language  A  is  the  mark  of  three  dif- 
ferent founds,  termed,  by  our  grammarians  the  broad, 
ibe  op:n,  and  \\\t  Jltiidcr  A.  The  firit  refembles  that 
of  the  German  A,  is  found  in  fevcral  monofyllablcs, 
as  -wall,  fait,  &c.  and  is  pronounced  as  au  in  caufi.  It 
is  probable  that  the  Saxons  exprclled  only  this  broad 
found  of  the  letter,  as  it  is  ftill  commonly  retained  in 
the  northern  dillrids  of  England,  and  univerfally 
tliroughout  Scotland  ;  as  tank  for  talk,  -wank  for  walk 
■or  -make.  The  open  A  refembles  that  of  the  Italians 
in  adagia,  and  is  the  fame  with  tJut  ui  a  in  father,  ra- 
ther, &c.  The  (lender  found  is  peculiar  to  the  Englilh 
language,  and  refcmblts  the  found  of  the  French  diph- 
tJiong  ai  \npais,  or  their  a  mafculine,  or  perhaps  it  is 
a  middle  found  between  them  :  it  is  exempliticdin/'/<icif, 
•wajlc,  &c.  alfo  in  toleration,  jujlificathn,  and  all  other 
words  ending  with  ation. 

A  is  fometimes  added  afterwords  in  burlefque  poetry  ; 
in  which  cafe  it  only  makes  an  additional  fyllable  with- 
out any  alteration  of  the  fenfe,  as  the  interjeiftion  O 
very  often  does  in  our  ballads.  It  is  alfo  fometimes 
redundant,  as  in  the  words  arife,  aivak:,  &c.  which 
arc  not  different  in  fignification  from  ri/e,  wake. 
Sec. 

It  is  fometimes  a  word,  either  noun  or  interjedlion  ; 
in  which  lafl  cafe  it  iscommonly  an  exprellion  of  grief, 
and  joined  with  the  afpirate,  a.sahf  Wiien  a  noun,  it  is 
only  with  rcfpefttu  itfelf ;  is  great  A,  little  a,  &c. 

A  is  very  frequently  ufedas  an  article;  in  which  cafe 
it  has  no  pUual  fignitication,  and  is  ufcd  10  denote  the 
nuBiber  one,  as  a  houfe,  a  field,  &c.  When  placed  as 
an  article  before  any  of  the  vowels,  }  and  ~^n  only  ex- 
cepted, it  is  joined  with  the  letter  «  ,-  as,  a/i  illand,  an 
orator,  &c.  In  the  three  following  cafes  it  is  a  prcpo- 
fition.  I.  When  it  goes  before  a  participle,  or  noun 
derived  from  a  participle  ;  as,  I  am  a  doing  this  or 
that.  2.  When  ufcd  before  local  furnaincs,  as  Corne- 
lius a  Lapide,  Thomas  a  Kempis,  Sec.  ^.  When  it  is 
iifed  in  compofition  ;  as,  a  foot,  a  llecp,  S;c.  In  fome 
inftances  it  denotes  the  proportion  of  one  ihing  to  ano- 
tlicr  ;  as  fo  much  a  week,  a  man,  ahead,  Sec. 

A,  among  the  ancients,  was  a  i;umcral  l»ttcr,  and 
Vol.  I. 


A. 

the    lignilied  joo ;  and  when  a  dafh  was  added  on  the  top, 


A,  jooo. 

A,  in  the  Julian  calendar,  is  the  firft  of  the  feven 
DOMINICAL  letters.  It  had  been  in  ufe  amongft  the 
Romans  long  before  the  eflablifliment  of  Chriftianity, 
as  the  firIt  of  the  eight  nundinates  literce  ;  in  imita- 
tion whereof  it  was  that  the  dominical  letters  were  firft 
introduced. 

A  is  alio  an  abbreviation  ufcd  with  different  inten- 
tions.    Hence, 

A,  among  logicians,  is  nfed  to  denote  an  univerfal 
affirmative  proportion;  according  to  the  verfe, 

/^fferit  A,  negat  E,  veru7ii  gencraliter  ambit. 
Thus,  in  the  firft 'figure,  a  fyllogifm  confiRing  of  iht^ee 
univerfal  affirmative  propolitions,  is  faid  to  be  in  Bar- 
ba-r3;  the  ^thrice  repeated,  denoting  fo  many  of  the 
propofitions  to  be  univerfal,  &c.     See  Barbara. 

A,  among  the  Romans,  was  ufed  in  the  giving  of 
votes  or  fuftrages.  When  a  new  law  was  propofcd, 
each  voter  liad  two  wooden  ballots  put  in  his  hand  : 
the  one  marked  with  a  capital  A.  fignifying  aniiquo, 
q.  d.  antiquavi  volo  ;  and  the  other  with  V.  R.  for  uti 
rogas.  Such  as  were  againft  the  law,  caft  the  firft  into 
the  urn  ;  as  who  Ihould  fay,  I  refufe  it,  I  antiquate  it  ; 
or,  I  like  the  ancient  law,  and  dtfire  no  innovation. 

A,  in  the  trials  of  criminal  caufes,  alfo  denoted  ab- 
folution ;  whence  Cicero,  pro  Milone,  calls  A,  Utera 
falutaris,  a  faving  letter.  Three  ballots  were  diftri- 
buted  to  each  judge,  marked  with  the  letters,  A  (ot 
ahfolvo,  I  acquit;  C  for  cendcmno,  I  condemn;  and 
N.  L.  for  /ion  liquet.  It  is  not  clear.  From  the  number 
of  each  caft  into  the  urn,  the  prxior  pronounced  the 
prifoncr's  fate.  If  they  were  equal  in  number,  he  was 
abfolved. 

A,  in  the  ancient  infcriptions  of  marbles,  &c.  occa- 
fionally  Hands  for  Auguflus,  ager,  aiur.t,  &c.  When 
double  it  'denotes  Augujli ;  when  triple,  auruvi,  ar- 
gentuvi,  rf-j;  and  fbnietimes  its  meaning  can  only  be 
known  by  the  reft  of  the  infcription.  Ifidorc  adds,  that 
when  it  occurs  ai'ierthe  word  milei  (foldier),  it  denotes 
him  young.  On  the  rcverfe  of  ancient  medals,  it  de- 
notes them  flruck  by  the  city  of  Argos,  fometimes  by 
that  of  Athens  ;  but  on  coins  of  modern  date,  it  is  the 
mark  of  Paris. 

A,  as  an  abbreviation,  is  alfo  often  found  in  modern 
writers:  as,  A.  D.  iw  aiir.o  Doviini:  A.  M.  «irO//M» 
V!ag}j\er,  mafter  of  arts,  &c. 

A,  the  letter  a,  with  a  line  above  it  thus,  i,   is  ufed 
A  in 


A  A  R 


[     2     ] 


A  A  R 


in  medical  prcfcriptions  for  aim,  of  each  ;  fomciiinesic 
is  written  thus,  aa :  e.  g.  ^^  Mel.  Sacchar.  &  Mann,  a, 
vel  aa,  5J.  i.  c.  Take  ot  honey,  fugar,  and  inauna,  of 
each  one  ounce. 

A,  put  to  bills  of  exchange,  is  in  England  an  abbre- 
viation for  accepted,  and  in  France  for  acccpti.  It  is 
likewifc  iifiial  among  merchants  to  mark  their  fctsof 
books  with  the  letters  A,  B,  C,  S:c.  inftcadof  the  mim- 
bers  I,  2,  3,  &c. 

A.  A.  A.  The  chemical  abbreviation  for  Amalgama, 
or  Amalgamation, 

A  A,  the  name  of  fcveral  rivers  in  Germany  and  Swif- 
fcrland. 

AACH,  a  little  town  in  Germany,  in  the  circle  of 
Suabia,  near  the  fourcc  of  the  river  Aach,  and  almoll 
equally  dillant  from  the  Danube  and  the  lake  Con- 
fiance.  It  belongs  to  the  houfc  of  Auflria.  E.  Long. 
9.  o.  Lat.  47.  55. 

AAHUS,  a  little  town  in  Germany,  in  the  circle  of 
Weftphalia,  and  bilhopric  of  Munftrr.  It  is  the  capital 
of  Aahus,  a  fmall  dirtriil;^  ;  has  a  good  callle  ;  and  lies 
north-eaft  of  Coesfcldt.  E.  Long.  7.  I.  Lat.  52.  10. 

A.\M,  or  Ha  AM,  a  liquid  meafure  in  common  ufc 
among  the  Dutch,  and  containing  12S  meafurcs  called 
mingles,  each  wcii'hing  nearly  ?6  ounces  avoirdupoife  ; 
whence  the  Auni  contains  218  Engliih,  and  148;  pints 
Paris  meafure. 

AAR,  the  name  of  tsvo  rivers,  one  in  SwiiTcrhnd, 
and  another  in  Wellpalia  in  Germany.  It  is  alfo  the 
name  of  a  fmall  ilhnd  in  the  Baltic. 

AARASUS  (anc.  gcog.),  a  town  of  Pilidia,  in 
the  Hither  Alia,  thoug'u  to  be  the  Anailis  of  Pto- 
lemy. 

AARON,  high-pricfl  of  tlie  Jews,  and  brother  to 
Mofes,  was  by  the  father's  fide  great  grandfon,  and  by 
the  mother's  gr.mdfon,  of  Levi.  By  God's  command 
he  met  Mofes  at  the  foot  of  mount  Horcb,  and  they 
went  together  into  Egypt  to  deliver  the  children  of  If- 
rael  :  he  had  a  great  Ihare  in  all  that  Mofes  did  for 
their  deliverance  ;  the  fcriptiires  call  him  the  prophet  of 
Mofes,  and  he  ai5led  in  that  capacity  after  the  Ifraelites 
had  palFcd  over  the  Red  Sea.  He  afcendcd  mount  Si- 
nai with  two  of  his  fons,  Nadab  and  Abihu,  and  fe- 
veniy  elders  of  the  people;  but  neither  he  nor  they 
went  higher  than  halfway,  from  whence  they  faw  the 
glory  of  God  ;  only  Mofes  and  J.ilhua  went  to  the  top, 
where  they  ftaid  forty  days.  During  their  abfence, 
Aaron,  overcome  by  the  people's  eager  entreaties,  fet 
up  the  golden  calf,  which  the  Ifraelites  worfliipped  by 
his  confcnt.  This  calf  has  given  rife  to  various  cnn- 
jedures.  Some  rabbles  maintain  that  iie  did  not  make 
the  golden  calf;  but  only  threw  the  gold  into  the  tire, 
to  get  rid  of  the  imjiortunitics  of  the  people  ;  and  that 
certain  magicians,  wlio  mingled  with  the  Ifraelites 
at  their  dcparinrc  from  Eygpt,  cart  this  gold  into 
thefijurc  of  a  calf.  According  to  fome  authors, 
the  fear  of  a  falling  a  facrificc  to  the  refentment  of 
the  people  by  giving  a  refufal,  made  Aaron  comply 
with  their  defire;  and  they  alledge  alfo,  that  he  hoped 
to  elude  their  requeft,  by  demanding  of  the  women  to 
contribute  their  ear-rings,  imagining  they  would  rather 
choofe  to  remain  wiiho^it  a  vilible  deity,  than  be  de- 
prived of  their  perfonal  ornaments.  This  aft^ir  of  the 
golden  calf  happened  in  the  third  month  after  the  If- 
raelites came  out  of  Egypt.    lu  the  firA  mouth  of  the 


following  year,  Aaron  was  appointed  by  God  high-     Aaion, 
pricft;  which  olTicc  he  executed  during  the  time  that   Aarfcoi. 
the  children  of  Ifrael  continued  in  the  wildernefs.     He  '       ^      ' 
died  in  the   fortieth  year  after  their  departure  from 
Egypt,  upon  mount  Hor,  being  then  123  years  old; 
A.  M.  2  J22,  of  the  Julian  period  3262,  before  tlie  Chrif- 
Aian  sera  14J2.     With  regard  to  the  attempts  oi  the 
Egyptian   magicians  to  imitate  the  miracles  performed 
by  his  rod.  Ice  fome  remarks  under    tlie  article   Ma- 

CICIAN. 

Aaros  and  Julius  (Saints)  fuffcred  martyrdom 
together,  during  the  perfecuiion  under  the  emperor 
Dioclefian,  in  the  year  303,  about  the  fame  time  with 
St  Alban,  the  proiomariyr  of  Britain.  We  are  no 
where  told  what  their  Britilh  names  were,  it  being  ufual 
with  the  Cliriftian  Britons,  at  the  time  of  bapiifm,  to 
take  new  names  from  the  Greek,  Latin,  or  Hebrew. 
Nor  have  we  any  certainty  as  to  the  particulars  o(  their 
death;  only  that  they  futfered  the  moll  cruel  torments. 
They  had  each  a  church  created  to  his  memory  ;  and 
their  fcflival  is  placed,  in  the  Roman  martyrology,  on 
the  firll  of  July. 

Aaron,  or  Hanin,  At  Rafckid,  a  celebrated  khalif, 
or  Mahometan  fovereign  of  the  Saracen  empire  ;  v\  hofc 
hifteiry  is  given  under  the  article  of  Bagdad. 

Aaros  Harifchon,  a  learned  rabbi  and  caraite 
in  the  1  5th  century,  wrote  an  Hebrew  grammar,  print- 
ed at  Conftantiuople  in  15S1  ;  probably  the  fame  with 
Aaron  the  caraite,  who  wrote  a  commentary  on  the 
five  books  of  Mofes,  which  is  in  MS.  in  the  French 
king's  library. 

AARSENS  (Francis),  Lord  of  Someldyck  and 
Spyck,  was  one  of  the  greatell  minillcrs  for  negocia- 
tion  the  United  Provinces  eould  ever  boaft  of.  His 
father,  Cornelius  Aarfeiis,  was  Regifler  10  the  States  ; 
and  being  acquainted  with  Mr  Plelfis  Mornay,  at  the 
Court  of  William  Prince  of  Orange,  he  prevailed 
upon  him  to  take  his  fon  under  hiin,  with  whom  he 
continued  fome  years.  John  Olden  Barntvelt,  who 
prcfided  over  the  affairs  of  Holland  and  all  the  United 
Provinces,  fcnt  hiin  afterwards  agent  into  France, 
where  he  learned  to  ncgociate  under  thofe  profound 
politicians  Henry  IV.  Villeroy,  Silleri,  Roflie,  Jaon- 
nin,  &c.  and  he  acquitted  himfelf  in  fuch  a  manner  as 
to  obtain  their  approbation.  Soon  after,  he  was  in- 
vefled  with  the  chara;Ser  of  ambalfador,  being  the  hrll 
who  was  reeognifcd  as  fuch  by  the  French  court  ;  ac 
which  lime  Henry  IV.  declared,  that  he  Ihoiild  take 
precedence  next  to  the  Venetian  miniik-r.  He  refidcd 
in  France  15  years;  during  which  time  fee  received 
great  marks  of  cflcem  frotn  the  king,  who  creatcil  him 
a  knight  and  baron ;  and  for  this  reaf<m  lie  was  re- 
ceived amongft  the  nobles  of  the  province  of  ITo'.land. 
However,  he  became  at  length  fo  odious  to  the  French 
court,  that  they  dclired  to  have  him  recalled.  He 
was  afterwards  deputed  to  Venice,  and  to  feveral  Ger- 
man and  Italian  princes,  upon  occalion  of  the  troubles 
in  Bohemia.  He  was  the  hrlt  of  three  extraordinary 
ambalfadors  fent  into  England  in  1620,  and  the  fccond 
in  1641  ;  in  which  latter  enibalfy  he  was  accompanied 
by  the  Lord  of  Brederode  as  Hr/l  ambaflador,  and 
Hecmfvliet  as  third,  to  treat  about  the  marri;ige  ot' 
Prince  William,  fon  to  the  Prince  of  Orange.  He 
was  likewife  ambaffador-exiraordinary  to  the  Frencli 
court  in  1624,  and  the  Cardinal  de  Richlicu  having 


ABA 


[     3     ] 


ABA 


Aurfeni  juft  taken  tlie  adminiflration  of  affairs  into  his  hands, 
and  knowing  he  was  an  able  man,  marie  ufc  of  him  to 
fervc  his  own  purpofcs.  He  died  in  a  very  advanced 
ajje;  and  his  fon  who  furvivcd  him,  was  reputed  the 
wealihieft  man  in  Holland. 

Aarsens  (Pcier),  a  painter,  called  in  Italy  Pietro 
Longo,  becaufc  of  his  ftatiire,  was  born  at  Amitcrdam 
1519.  He  was  eminent  for  all  kinds  of  fubjccls;  but 
was  particularly  famous  for  ahar-pieccs,  and  for  rcpre- 
fcnting  a  kitchen  with  its  furniture:  he  had  the  pain 
to  fee  1  tine  altar-piece  of  his  deftroyed  by  the  rabble 
in  the  infurreftion  1566,  though  a  lady  of  Alcmaer 
offered  200  crowns  for  its  redemption. 

AARTGEN,  or  Aertgen,  a  painter  of  merir, 
was  the  fon  of  a  woolcomber,  and  born  at  Leyden  in 
1498.  He  worked  at  his  father's  trade  until  he  had 
attained  the  age  of  eighteen;  and  then  having  difco- 
vered  a  genius  for  defigning,  he  was  placed  with  Cor- 
nelius Engelheihtz,  under  whom  he  made  a  confider- 
•blc  progrefs  in  painting.  He  became  fo  diftinguifh- 
ed,  that  the  celebrated  Francis  Floris  went  to  Ley- 
den out  of  mere  curiofity  to  fee  him.  He  found  him 
inhabiting  a  poor  half-ruined  hut,  and  in  a  very  mean 
ftylc  of  living:  He  folicited  him  to  go  te  Antwerp, 
piomiling  him  wealth  and  rank  fuitable  to  his  merit; 
but  Aartgen  refufed,  declaring  that  he  found  more 
fweets  in  his  poverty  than  others  did  in  their  riches. 
It  was  a  cultom  with  this  painter  never  to  work  on 
Mondays,  but  to  devote  that  day,  with  his  difciplcs, 
to  the  bottle.  He  ufed  to  ftroll  about  the  ftrcets  in 
the  night,  playing  on  the  German  flute,  and  in  one  of 
thefe  frolics  was  drowned  in  1564. 

AASAR  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  Paleftine,  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  fituate  between  Azotus  and  Afcalon.  In 
Jerome's  time  it  was  an  hamlet. 

AB,  the  eleventh  montli  of  the  civil  year  of  the  He- 
brews, and  the  fifth  of  their  ecclefiaftical  year,  which 
begins  with  the  month  Nifan.  It  anfwers  to  the  moon 
of  July  ;  that  is,  to  part  of  our  month  of  the  fame 
name,  and  to  the  beginning  of  Auguft  :  it  confiils  of 
thirty  days.  The  Jews  fait  on  the  firft  of  tliis  month, 
in  memory  of  Aaron's  death  ;  and  on  the  ninth,  becaufc 
on  that  day  both  the  temple  of  Solomon,  and  that 
erciflcd  after  the  captivity,  were  burnt  ;  the  former  by 
the  Chaldeans,  and  the  latter  by  the  Romans.  The 
fame  day  is  alfo  remarkable  among  that  people  for  the 
publication  of  Adrian's  edi6t,  wherein  they  were  for- 
bid to  continue  in  Judea,  or  even  to  look  back  when  at 
a.  diflance  from  Jerufaleni,  in  order  to  lament  the  defo- 
lation  of  that  city.  The  eighteenth  of  the  fame  month 
is  alfo  a  fafl  among  the  Jews;  bccaufe  the  lamp  in  the 
fanduary  was  that  night  cxtinguillicd,  in  the  time  of 
Ahaz. 

Ag,  in  the  Syriac  calendar,  is  the  name  of  the  lad 
fummer-month.  The  firft  day  of  iliis  month  they  call- 
ed Suiim  Miriam,  the  fart  of  the  virgin,  becaulV  the 
eaftern  Chriftians  faflcd  from  that  day  to  the  fitttenth, 
\khich  was  therefore  called /j/Zr-iW/r/tfOT,  the  celfa- 
tion  of  the  fart  of  the  virgin. 

ABA  (or  rather  Abau)  Hani*  ah  or  Hakfah,  fir- 
named  Al-Nooma,  was  the  fon  of  Thabet,  and  born 
at  Coufali  in  the  80th  year  of  the  Hegira.  This  is  the 
moft  celebrated  doctor  of  the  orthodo.x  MuiFiilmans, 
and  his  feci  holds  the  principal  eftcem  among  the  four 
u-hich  they  it^iU-Tcrently  follow.    Notwithftanding  diis, 


he  was  not  very  well  cfteemed  during  his  life,  iufomnch 
that  the  khalif  Almanfor  caufed  him  to  be  imprifoiied 
at  Bagdad,  for  having  refufed  to  fubfcribe  to  the  opi-  ^ 
nion  of  abfolute  prcdeltination,  which  the  Miiiliilinans 
call  Cadha.  But  afterwards  Abou  Joftph,  who  was 
the  fovcreign  judge  or  chancellor  of  the  enipire  under 
the  klialif  Hadi,  brought  iiis  dov?lrine  into  fuch  credit, 
that  it  became  a  prevailing  opinion,  That  to  he  a  good 
Muil'ulman  was  to  be  a  Hanifite.  He  died  in  the 
I5cth  year  of  the  Hegira,  in  the  prifon  of  Bagdad 
sforefaid  :  and  it  was  not  till  53  j  years  after  his  death, 
that  iMelick  Schah,  a  fultan  of  the  Selgiucidan  race, 
built  for  him  a  magnificent  monument  in  the  fame  city, 
whereto  he  adjoined  a  college  peculiarly  appropriated 
to  fuch  as  made  a  profelfion  of  this  fcdl.  This  was 
in  the  485th  year  of  the  Hegira,  and  AnnoChtilli 
1092.  The  moll  eminent  fuccellorsof  this  doiftor  were 
Ahmed  Benali,  Al  Gialfas,  and  Al  Razi  who  was  the 
mafter  of  Nalfari ;  and  there  is  a  mofqne  particularly 
appropriated  to  them  in  the  temple  of  Mecca. 

Aba,  y^bai,  j^bcs,  or  ^hts,  (anc.  geog.),  tlie 
name  of  a  mountain  of  Greater  Armenia,  fiiuated  be- 
tween the  mountains  Niphatos  and  Nibonis.  Accord- 
ing to  Strabo,  the  Euphrates  and  Araxes  rofe  from  this 
mountain  ;  the  former  running  eaftward,  and  the  lat- 
ter weftward. 
Aba.     See  Ab«. 

ABACjtNA  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  Media,  and 
another  of  Cana  in  the  Hither  Afia. 

ABAC^NUM  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  Sicily, 
whofe  ruins  are  f  ippofed  to  be  ihofe  lying  near  Trippi, 
a  citadel  on  an  high  and  fteep  Mountain  not  far  from 
Medina.     The  inhabitants  were  called  Abacittiiiii. 

ABACATUAIA,  in  iclnhology,  a  barbarous  name 
of  the  zeus  vomer.     See  Zeus. 

ABACH,  a  market  town  of  Germany,  in  Lower 
Bavaria,  feated  on  the  Danube.  It  is  remarkable  for 
Roman  antiquities,  and  for  fprings  of  mineral  waters, 
which  are  faid  to  be  good  for  various  diftempers.  E. 
Long.  II.  56.  N.  Lai.  48.  jcj. 

ABACINARE,  or  Abbacinare,  in  writers  of  the 
middle  age,  a  fpccies  of  puniihment,  confifting  in  the 
blinding  of  the  criminal,  by  holding  a  hot  bafon  or  bowl 
of  metal  before  his  eyes. 

ABACK  (a  fca-'erm),  the  fituation  of  the  fails  when 
their  furfaces  are  flatted  againft  the  mafts  by  the  force 
of  the  wind.  The  fails  are  faid  to  be  taken  aback  when 
tlicy  arc  brought  into  this  fituation,  cither  by  a  fudden 
change  of  the  wind,  or  by  an  alteration  in  the  (hip's 
courfe.  They  are  laid  aback,  to  effcel  an  immediate  re- 
treat, without  turning  to  the  right  or  left ;  or,  in  the  fea 
phrafe,  to  give  the  Ihip  ftirti-'jiay,  in  order  to  avoid 
fomc  danger  difcovercd  before  her  in  a  narrow  channel, 
or  when  ihe  hasadvanccd  beyond  her  ftation  in  the  line 
of  battle,  or  otherwife.  The  fails  are  placed  in  this 
pofition  by  (lackening  the  lee-braces,  and  hauling  in 
the  weather  ones;  fo  that  the  whole  efTort  of  the  wind 
is  exerted  on  the  forepart  of  the  furface,  w  hich  readily 
pulhes  the  fliip  aftern,  unlefs  flie  is  reflrained  by  fomc 
countcrafling  force.  It  is  alfo  ufual  to  fpread  fome 
fail  aback  near  the  ftern,  as  the  mizzcn  top-fail,  when 
a  fliip  ridts  with  a  finglc  anchor  in  .t  road,  in  order  to 
prevent  her  from  approaching  it  fo  as  to  entangle  the 
flukes  of  it  with  her  ilackened  calde,  and  thereby  loofcn 
it  from  the  ground. 

A  2  ABACOT, 


Aba 

I 

Aba^k. 


A  B  A 


C     4     ] 


ABA 


ABACOT,  the  inme  of  an  ancient  cap  of  llaic 
worn  by  tlic  kings  of  Kngland,  the  upper  part  where- 
of was  in  the  form  of  a  double  crown. 

ABACTORS,  or  Abactores,  a  name  given  to 
thole  who  drive  away,  or  rather  Ileal,  cattle  by  herds, 
or  great  numbers  at  once  ;  and  are  therefore  very  pro- 
perly dillinguilhcd  from  j'irti,  or  thieves. 

ABACUS,  among  the  ancients,  was  a  kind  of  cup- 
board or  buffet.  Livy,  dclcribing  the  luxury  into 
which  the  Romans  degenerated  after  the  conqucft  of 
Ada,  fays.  They  had  their  abaci,  beds,  ire.  plated 
over  with  gold. 

Abacus,  among  the  ancient  mathematicians,  figni- 
fitd  a  table  covered  with  dull, on  which  they  drew  their 
diagrams  ;  the  word  in  this  feiifc  being  derived  from 
the  Phoenician  akak,  diifl. 

Abacus,  in  architecture,  fignifics  thcfuperior  part  or 
member  of  the  capital  of  a  column,  and  I'crvcs  as  a  kind 
of  crowning  to  both.  Vitruvias  tells  us  the  abacus  was 
originally  intended  to  reprcfent  a  fquare  tile  laid  over 
an  urn,  or  rather  over  a  balkct.  Sec  Architec- 
ture, no"  I  J.  The  form  of  the  abacus  is  not  the 
lame  in  all  orders  :  in  the  Tufcan,  Doric,  and  Io- 
nic, it  is  generally  fquare  ;  but  ia  the  Corinthian  and 
Compofitc,  its  four  fides  are  arched  inwards,  and  em- 
bellinied  in  the  middle  with  forae  ornament,  as  a  rofc 
or  other  flower.  Scammozzi  ufcs  abacus  for  a  con- 
cave moulding  on  the  capital  of  the  Tufcan  pedeftal  ; 
and  Palladio  calls  the  plinth  above  the  echinus,  or  boul- 
lin,  in  the  Tufcan  and  Doric  orders,  by  the  fame 
iiumc. 

Abacus  is  alfo  the  name  of  an  ancient  inftrument  for 
facilitating  operations  in  arithmetic.  It  is  varioufly 
contrived.  That  chiefly  ufcd  in  Europe  is  made  by 
drawing  any  number  of  parallel  lines  at  the  diflance  of 
two  diameters  of  one  of  the  counters  ufed  in  the  calcu- 
lation. A  counter  placed  on  the  lowefl  line,  figni- 
lies  I ;  on  the  ad,  lo  ;  on  the  jd,  ico  ;  on  the  4th, 
1000,  &c.  In  the  intermediate  fpaces,  the  fame 
counters  are  eftimatcd  at  one  half  of  the  value  of  the 
line  immediately  fuperior,  viz.  between  the  ill  and  2d, 
?  ;  between  the  2d  and  3d,  50  ;  &c.  See  the  figure  on 
Plate  1.  where  the  fame  number,  1788  for  example,  is 
reprcfented  under  both  divifions  by  different  difpoliti- 
ons  of  the  counters. 

Abacus  is  alfo  ufed  by  modern  writers  for  a  table  of 
numbers  ready  cafl  up,  to  expedite  the  operations  of 
arithmetic.  In  this  fenfe  we  have  Abaci  of  addition,  of 
multiplication,  of  divilion. 

Chinef;  Abacus.     See  SwanFan. 

Abacus  Pythagoriciis,  the  common  multiplication- 
table,  lb  called  from  its  being  invented  by  Pythagoras. 

Abacus  L'jgijiicus,  is  a  rcdlangled  triangle,  whofe 
fides,  forming  the  right  angle,  contain  the  numbers 
from  I  to  60  ;  and  its  area,  the  fadta  of  each  two  of  the 
numbers  perpendicularly  oppolite.  This  is  al.'b  called 
.1  canon  af  fexagefnnali. 

Abacus  ir  Palmiil<r,  in  the  ancient  niufic,  denote 
the  machinery,  whereby  the  firings  of  Polypledlra,  or 
jnllruraents  of  many  flrings,  were  ftruck  with  a  plec- 
trum made  of  quills. 

Ab-icvs  Harnio):icus,  is  ufed  by  Kircher  for  the 
finifture  and  difpofition  of  the  keys  of  a  mufical  in- 
Urument,  whether  to  be  touched  with  the  hands  or  the 
feet. 


AiiAcus  Major,  in  inetallurgic  operations,  the  r.ame 
of  a  trough  ufed  inihe  mines,  wherein  iheore  is  walhed. 

Al>.'\L)DON,  is  the  name  which  St  John  in  the 
Revelation  gives  to  the  king  of  the  loculls,  tlie  angrl 
of  the  bottomlcfs  pit.  The  infpired  writer  fays,  this 
word  is  Hebrew,  and  in  Greek  lignifles  'A-T«>,>iaT,  /.  e. 
a  dcjiroycr.  That  angtl-king  is  thought  to  be  Satan  or 
the  devil :  but  Mr  le  Clers  thinks,  with  Dr.  Hammond, 
that  by  the  locufls  which  came  out  of  the  abyfs,  in.iy 
be  undcrllood  the  zealots  and  robbers,  who  miferabljT 
afllifted  tiie  land  of  Judca,  and  laid  it  in  a  manner  w3(le 
before  Jerufalcm  was  taken  by  the  Romans  ;  and  that 
Abaddon,  the  king  of  the  locufls,  may  be  John  of  Gif- 
rhala,  who  having  trcacheroully  left  that  town  a  little 
before  it  was  furrendf red  to  Titus,  came  to  Jerufalcm, 
where  be  foon  beaded  part  of  the  /e.ilois,  who  acknow- 
ledged him  as  their  king,  wliilfl  the  relt  would  not 
fubmit  to  him.  This  fubdivilion  of  the  zealot  pany 
brought  a  thoufand  calamities  on  die  Jews. 

ABADIR,  a  title  which  the  Carthaginians  gave 
to  gods  of  the  firft  order.  In  the  Roman  mythology, 
it  is  the  name  of  a  Hone  which  Saturn  fwallowed,  by 
the  contrivance  of  his  wife  Ops,  believing  it  to  be  his 
new-born  4bn  Jupiter  :  hence  it  ridiculoufly  became 
the  objed  of  religious  worfliip. 

AB.'E,  or  Aba  (anc.  geog.)  a  town  of  Phocis  in 
Greece,  near  Helicon ;  famous  for  an  oracle  of  A- 
pollo  older  than  that  at  Delphi,  and  for  a  rich  temple 
plundered  and  burnt  by  the  Perfians. 

ABAFT,  a  fea-tcrm,  fignifying  the  hinder  part  of 
a  fliip,  or  all  tliofc  parts  both  within  and  without  which 
lie  towards  the  flern,  in  oppofuion  to  afore  ;  which 
fee.  Abaft,  is  alio  ufed  as  a  prcpofiiion,  and  lignifies 
further  aft,  or  nearer  the  Jlerr: ;  as  the  barricade  ftands 
abaft  ihe  main-mafl,  /.  c  behind  it,  or  nearerthe  flcrn. 

ABAISStD,  Abaijfe,  in  heraldry,  an  epithet  ap- 
plied to  the  wings  of  eagles,  3cc.  when  the  tip  looks- 
downwards  to  the  point  of  the  (liield,  or  when  the 
wings  are  Ihut,  the  natural  way  of  bearing  them  be- 
ing extended. 

ABAKA  KHAN,  the  i8ih  emperor  of  tlie  Mo- 
guls, a  wife  and  clement  prince.  He  rtigned  i  7  years, 
and  is  by  fome  authors  faid  to  have  been  a  ChriAian. 
It  may  be  admiued,  indeed,  that  he  joined  with  the 
Chrifiiansin  keeping  the  feaft  of  EaAer,  in  the  ciiy 
Hanadau,  fome  fliort  time  before  his  death.  But  this 
is  no  proof  of  his  Chrillianity  ;  it  being  common,  in 
limes  of  brotherly  love,  for  Chrifliansand  Mahometans 
to  join  in  keeping  the  fame  feafts,  when  each  would 
compliment  the  other  with  doing  honour  to  his  folem- 
nity. 

ABALAK,  a  town  of  Siberia,  two  miles  from  To- 
bolfk.     E.  Long.  64.  10.  N.  Lat.  J7. 1. 

ABALIENATION,  in  law,  the  aft  of  transfer- 
ring one  man's  property  to  another. 

ABALLABA,  the  ancient  name  of  Appleet,  a 
town  in  Weflmoreland,  remarkable  only  for  its  anii- 
qiiiiy,  having  been  a  Roman  Aation.  W.  Long.  i.  4, 
N.  Lat.  55-  38. 

ABALUS,  (anc.  geog.),  fuppofed  by  the  anci- 
ents to  be  an  illand  in  the  German  ocean,  called  by 
TimaEus  Bafitta,  and  by  Xenophon  Lampfacenns  Bal- 
tia  ;  now  the  peninfula  of  Scandinavia,  litre,  accord- 
ing to  Pliny,  fome  imagined  that  amber  dropped  from 
ihe  trees. 

ABANA, 


ABA 


[     5     ] 


ABA 


ABAN'A,  or  Amama  (anc.  geog.),  a  river  of  Phoe- 
nicia, wliich,  riling  from  Mount  Hermon,  waihcd  the 
foiith  and  weft  fides  of  Daniafcus,  and  falls  into  the 
Phceaician  fea  to  the  north  of  Tripolis,  called  CArji- 
forrhtai  by  the  Greeks. 

ABANGA.     SccAdy. 

ABANO,  a  town  ot  the  Padnano,  in  the  republic  of 
Venice,  famous  among  the  ancients  for  its  hot  baths. 

ABANTES,  a  people  who  caine  originally  from 
Thrace,  and  fettled  in  Phoccca,  a  country  of  Greece, 
where  they  built  a  town  which  ihry  called  Aba,  after 
the  name  of  Abas  their  leader;  and,  if  we  may  credit 
foinc  ancient  authors,  the  Abantcs  went  afterwards  into 
the  illand  Euboea,  now  called  Negropont :  others  fay 
the  Abantes  of  Euboea  came  from  Athens.  The  Aban- 
tcs were  a  very  warlike  people,  dofing  with  their  ene- 
mies, and  fighting  hand  to  hand. 

ABANTIAS,  or  Abantis  (anc.  geog.),  a  name 
of  the  illand  Euboea  in  the  Egean  fca,  extending  a- 
long  the  coaft  of  Greece,  from  the  promontory  Su- 
nium  of  Attica  to  ThelTaly,  and  feparaicd  from  Bceo- 
tia  by  a  narrow  ftrait  called  Euripus.  From  its  length 
the  illand  was  formerly  called  Macris  ;  afterwards  yi^- 
tant'ias,  or  Abantis,  from  the  Abantcs,  a  )>eop!e  origi- 
nally of  Thrace,  called  by  Homer  otis-ShKiucihtsc,  from 
wearing  their  hair  long  behind,  having  in  a  battle  ex- 
perienced the  inconvenience  of  wearing  long  hair  be- 
fore. From  cutting  iheir  hair  before,  they  were  call- 
ed Curetes. 

ABAPTISTON,  in  furgery,  the  perforating  part 
of  the  inftruracnt  called  a  trepan. 

ABARA,  a  town  in  the  Greater  Armenia,  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Turks:  it  is  often  the  refidcnce 
of  the  archbifhop  of  Nakfivan.  E.  Long.  46.  aj.  N. 
Lat.  59.  4J- 

ABARANER,  a  town  of  Afia,  in  Grand  Armenia, 
belonging  to  the  Turks  :  it  is  fcated  on  the  river  Alin- 
gena.     E.  Long.  46.  50    N.  Lat.  39.  yo. 

ABARCA,  an  ancient  kind  of  flioe  ufed  in  Spain 
for  palling  the  mountains  with.  It  was  made  of  raw 
hides,  and  bound  with  cords,  which  fecured  the  feet 
of  travellers  againft  the  fnow. 

AB.^RIM,  high  mountains  of  fteep  afcent,  fcparat- 
ing  the  country  of  the  Ammonites  and  Moabites  from 
the  land  of  Canaan,  where  Mofes  died.  According  to 
Jofephus,  they  flood  oppofite  to  the  territory  cf  Jeri- 
cho, and  were  the  lall  ftaiion  but  one  of  the  Ifraelites 
coming  from  Egypt.  Nebah  and  Pifgah  were  pans  of 
ihefe  mountains. 

ABARIS,  the   Hyperborean;  a  celebrated  fage  of 

antii]uity,  whofe  hiitory  and  travels  have  been  the  fub- 

jciJl  of  much  learned  difcuffion.     Such  a  number  of  fa- 

*  JiBiblichi  bilious  ftories*  were  told  of  him,  that  Herodotus  him- 

yitcPjthag  felf  feems  to  fcruple  to  relate  ihem.    He  tells  us  only,-)- 

t  ^'•>-  "•  that   this  Barbarian  was  faid  to  have  travelled  with  an 

c»p.  36.       arrow,  and  to  have  taken  no  fuftenance:  but  this  docs 

not  acquaint  us  with  tiie  marvellous  properties  which 

were  attributed   to  that  arrov/ ;  nor  that  it  had  been 

given  him  by  the  Hyperborean  Apollo.     M'iih  regard 

to  the  occafion  of  his  leaving  his  native  country,  Har- 

}  Under      pocration|  tells  ns,  that  the  whole  ear:h  being  infclled 

the  word    with  a  deadly  plague,  Apollo,  upon  being  conftdicd, 

AC<fi(.      gave  no  other  aniwer,  than  that  the  Athenians  fliould 

offer  up  prayers  in  behalf  of  all  other  nations :  upon 

which  ft  vera!  comitries  deputed  ambp-iTadors  to  Athens, 


th<  word 


Acconnt 


among  whom  was  .^baris  the  Hypcrl»or«an.     In  this    AlirJi. 
journey  he  renewed  the  alliance  between  his  country-  "*      ^'— "* 
men  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  ifland  of  Deios.     It 
appears  that  he  alio  went  to  Lactdaemon  ;  fmce,  ac- 
cording to  fomc  writers*,  he  there  built  a  temple,  con-  JPjufaria* 
fecratcd  to  Proferpine  the  Salutary.     It  is  affertcd,  that  Lb.iii.p.^4. 
he  was  capable  of  foretelling  earthquakes,  driving  away 
plagues,  laying  flormsj,   &c.    He  wrote  fe\eral  books,  }  Porphyry 
as  S'.iidas  f  informs  us,   vit.  Apollo's   arrival  into  the  in  VittPj- 
country  of  the  Hyperboreans ;  The  nuptials  of  the  river  '^^'f'- 
Hebrus;  ©it^tj/a,  or  the  Generation  of  the  Gods;  A      t  ^''"'"' 
collection  of  oracles;  &c.     Himerius  the  fophill  ap- 
plauds him  for  fpeaking  pure  Greek;  which   attain- 
ment will  be  no  matttr  of  wonder  to  fuch  as  confider 
the  ancient  intercourfc  there  was  between  the  Greeks 
and   Hyperboreans.      If    the   Hebrides,  or  Wellern 
Ifland  of  Scotland  (fays  Mr  Tolland*),  were  the  Hy-  ' 
perboreans  of  Diodorusf,  then  the  celebrated  Abaris  ff '*!«  Dru- 
was  of  that  country  ;  and  likewife  a  druid,  having  been  '^''  '"  *"* 
the  priefl  of  Apollo.     Suidas,  who  knew  not  the  dif-  |^,/"^J^i 
tinclion  of  the  infular  Hyperboreans,  makes  him  i;,p.j(,i,  ' 
Scythian;  as  do  fomc  others,  milled  by  the  fame  vul-  -fUiod.Sic. 
gar  error  ;  though  Diodoras  has  truly  fixed  his  country  lib.  ii.iii. 
in  an  ifland,  and  not  on  the  continent.     Indeed,  the 
fiftions  and  miflakes  concerning  our  Abaris  are  infi- 
nite :  however,  it  is  by  all  agreed  that  he  travelled  quite 
over  Greece,  and  from  thence  into  Italy,  where  heeon- 
verfcd  familiarly  with  Pythagoras,  who  favoured  him 
beyond  all  his  difciples,  by  inftrufting  him  in  his  doc- 
trines (efpecially  his  thoughts  of  nature),  in  a  plainer 
and  more  compendious  method  than  he  did  any  other. 
This  dillinftion  could  not  but  he  very  advantageous  to 
Abaris.     The  Hyperborean,  in  return,  prefeiited  the 
Samian,  as  though   he  equalled  Apollo  hinifclf  in  wif- 
dom,  with  the  facred  arrow,  on  which  the  Greeks 
have  fabuloully  related  $  that  he  fat  aftride,  and  flew  IJambHcfci 
upon  it,  through  the  air,  over  rivers  and  lakes,  forells  ''''"  ''.'**"• 
and  mountains;  in  like  manner  as  the  vulgar  ftill  be- P- "^' 
lieve,  particularly  thole  of  the  Hebrides,  that  wizards 
and  witches  fly  whiihcrfoevtr  they  pleafe  on  their  broom 
Aicks.    The  orator  Himerius  abovementioncd,  though 
one  of  thofe  who,  from  the  equivocal  fenfe  of  the  word 
Hyperborean,  fccms  to  have  miflaken  Abaris  for  a  Scy- 
thian, yet  defcribes  his  perfon  accurately,  and  gives 
him  a  very  noble  character.     "  They  relate  (fays  he) 
"  that  Abaris  the  fage  was  by  nation  a  Hyperborean, 
"  appeared  a  Grecian  in  fpecch,  and  refembled  a  Scy- 
"  thian  in   his  habit  and  appearance.      He  cane  to 
"  Athens,  I'.olding  a  bow  in  his  hand,  having  a  quiver 
"  hanging  on   his  Ihouldcrs,  his  body  wrapt  up  in  a 
"plaid,  girt  about  the  loins  with   a  gilded   belt,  and 
"  wearing  trowfers reaching  from  his  waift downward." 
By  this  it  is  evident  (continues  MrToland)  that  i:c 
was  not  haViited  like  the  Scythians,  who  were  always 
covered  with  (kins;  but  appeared  in  the  native  j^arb 
of  an  aboriginal  Scot.     As  to  what  relates  to  his  abi- 
lities, Himerius  informs  us,  tliat  "  he  was  afiable  and 
"  pleafant  in  converfation,  in  difpatching  great  sliairs 
"  fecrct  and  indullrious,  quick-lighted  in  pirfent  exi- 
"  gencics,  in  preventing  future  dangers  cireumfpe<?t, 
"  a  fearcher  after  wildom,  defirous  of  fricndlliip,  tnilt- 
"  ing  little  to  fortune,  and  having  every  thir.fj  truflcd 
"  to  him  for  his  prudence."     Neither  the  Academy 
nor  the  Lycxum  could  have  furniflied  a  man  with  fit- 
ter qualities  to  travel  fo  far  abroad,  and  10  fuch  wife 

nations. 


ABA 


t     6     ] 


ABA 


II.. 

Abalcia. 


AUartitu-  nations,  about  affairs  no  lefs  arduous  than  imponant. 
latioii.  And  if  we  furtlier  atccniivcly  conlidcr  liis  moderation 
in  eating,  drinlcing,  and  tlic  ufc  of  all  tliofe  tilings 
,  which  our  natm-al  appetites  incelllintly  crave  j  joining 
the  candour  and  fimplicity  of  his  manners  wiih  the  fo- 
lidiiy  and  wifdom  of  his  anfwers,  all  which  wc  find 
iiirticiently  attcllcd  :  it  mull  be  owned,  that  the  world 
at  that  time  had  few  to  compare  with  Abaris. 

ABARTICULATION,  in  anatomy,  a  fpecics  of 
articulation  admitting  of  a  manifcft  motion  ;  called  al- 
io Dianhrofis,  and  Ucaniculatio,  to  diilinguilli  it  from 
that  fort  of  articulation  wliich  admits  of  a  very  obfciirc 
motion,  and  is  called  Synarthrofis. 

ABAS,  a  weight  ufed  in  Perfia  for  weighing  pearls. 
It  is  one-eighth  Icfs  than  the  European  carat. 

Abas,  in  the  heathen  mythology,  was  the  fon  of 
Hypoihoon  and  Meganira,  who  entertained  Ceres,  and 
otiirred  a  facrificc  to  that  goddefs;  but  Abas  ridiculing 
the  ceremony,  and  giving  her  opprobrious  language, 
fliefprinkled  him  with  a  certain  mixture  Ihe  held  in  her 
cup,  on  which  he  became  a  newt  or  water  lizard. 

Abas  (Schah)  the  Great,  was  third  fon  of  Coda- 
bendi,  yth  king  of  Pcrfia,  of  the  race  of  the  Sophis. 
Succeeding  to  his  father  at  i8,  in  ijSj,  he  found  the 
affairs  of  Perfia  at  a  low  ebb,  occalioned  by  ilie  con- 
quefts  of  the  Turks  and  Tartars.  He  regained  Icvcral 
of  the  provinces  they  had  feized  ;  but  death  put  a  flop 
to  his  vidories  in  1629,  after  a  reign  of  44  years.  He 
was  the  greatcrt  prince  that  had  reigned  in  Perlia  for 
many  ages;  and  it  was  he  who  made  Ifpahan  the 
metropolis  of  Perfia  :  his  memory  is  held  in  the  highelt 
veneration  among  the  Pcrlians. 

Abas  (Schah)  his  grandfon,  9th  kin<j  of 'Perfia,  of 
the  race  of  the  Sophis,  fuccccdcd  his  fatlier  Sefi  at  13 
years  of  age:  he  was  but  18  when  he  made  himfelf  ma- 
fter  of  the  city  Candahar,  which  had  furrendcred  in  his 
father's  reign  to  the  Great  Mogul,  and  all  the  province 
about  it ;  and  he  preferved  it  afterwards  againfl  this 
Indian  emperor,  though  he  beliegcd  it  more  than  once 
with  an  army  of  500,000  men.  He  was  a  very  merci- 
ful prince,  and  openly  protected  the  Chriflians;  he  had 
formed  a  dcfignof  extending  the  limits  of  his  kingdom 
towards  the  north,  and  had  for  that  effeftlcvied  a  pow- 
erful army  ;  but  death  put  a  flop  to  all  his  great  defigns 
at  37  years  of  age,  in  1666. 

ABASCIA,  or  Abcas,  a  country  in  Afia,  tributa- 
ry to  the  Turks,  fituated  on  the  coaft  of  the  Black 
Sea.  The  people  are  poor,  thievifli,  and  treacherous, 
infomuch  that  there  is  no  trading  with  them  without 
the  utmofl  caution.  Their  commodities  are  furs,  buck 
and  tygcr  fkins,  linen  yarn,  boxwood,  and  bees-wax: 
but  their  grcatell  traffic  is  in  felling  tlieir  own  children, 
and  even  one  another,  to  the  Turks;  infomuch  that  they 
live  in  perpetual  diflnift.  They  arc  defliiutc  of  many 
nectlTarics  of  life,  and  have  nothing  among  them  that 
can  be  called  a  town;  though  we  find  Anacopia,  Dun- 
dar,  and  Czekovni,  mentioned  in  the  m.ipb.  They  have 
the  name  of  Chriflians;  but  having  nothing  left  but  the 
name,  any  more  than  the  Mingrelians  their  northern 
neighbours.  The  men  are  robnil  and  aiJlive,  and  the 
the  women  are  fair  and  beautiful ;  on  which  account  the 
Turks  have  a  great  value  for  the  female  flavrs  which 
they  piHchafe  from  among  them.  Their  ciifloms  are 
much  the  fame  as  thofc  of  the  Mingrelians  ;  which 
fee.     E.  Long,  from  39  to  43.   N.  Lat.  from  45  to  45. 


ABASCUS,  a  river    of    Aliatic  Sarmaiia,  which,  Abafcui 
rifing  from  Mount  Caucafus,  falls  into  the  Kuxii.e,  be-        II 
tween  Pityus  to  thceaft,  and  Nofis  to  the  wc(t.  Abatoi. 

ABASITIS    (anc.  gcog.),  a   tradl  of  Afiaiic  Riylla,  "       " 
in  which  was  lituatcd  the  city  of  Ancyra. 

AB.ASSI,  or  Absasis,  a  lilver  coin  current  in  Per- 
fia, equivalent  in  value  to  a  French  livrc,  or  tenjicncc 
halfpenny  Sterling.  It  took  its  name  from  Schah 
Abbas  II.  king  of  Perfia,  under  whom  it  was  ftrutk. 

ABASSUS  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  the  Greater 
Phrygia,  on  the  confines  of  the  Toliftobagii,  a  people 
of  Galatia  in  Afia. 

ABATAMENTUM,  in  law,  is  an  entry  to  lands 
by  inttrpolition,  i.  i.  when  a  perfon  dies  feized,  and 
another  who  has  no  right  enters  before  the  heir. 

To  ABATE,  (from  the  French  «^ia/rf,  topuU  down, 
overthrow,  dcniolith,  batter  down,  or  deflroy),  a  term 
ufed  by  the  writers  of  the  Englilh  common-law,  botli 
in  the  adive  and  neutral  fenfe  ;  as,  To  abate  a  cafUe,  is 
to  beat  it  down.  To  abate  a  writ,  is,  by  fome  excep- 
tion, to  defeat  or  overthrow  it.  A  fhangcr  abateth  ; 
that  is,  cntereth  upon  a  houfe  or  land  void  by  the  death 
of  him  that  lafl  poffeircd  it,  before  the  heir  takes  pof- 
fcflion,  and  fo  kecpcth  him  out :  wherefore,  as  he  that 
puttcth  out  him  in  polfeflion  is  faid  to  dill'cize,  fo  he 
that  flcppeth  in  between  the  former  polfeiibr  and  hi* 
heir  is  fuid  to  abate.  In  the  neuter  fignification  thus  : 
The  writ  of  the  demandant  fhall  abate  ;  that  is,  Hiall  be 
difabled,  fruflrated  or  overthrown.  The  appeal  abanth 
by  covin  ;   that  is,  the  accufaiion  is  defeated  by  deceit. 

Aba  te,  in  the  manege,  implies  the  performing  any 
downward  motion  properly.  Thus  a  horfe  is  laid  to 
abate  to  take  down  his  curvets,  when  he  puts  both  his 
hind  legs  to  the  ground  at  once,  and  obferves  the  fame 
exaflncfs  in  all  the  times. 

ABATELEMENT,  in  commerce,  a  term  ufed  fur 
a  prohibition  of  trade  to  all  French  merchants  in  the 
ports  of  the  Levant  who  will  not  fland  to  their  bar- 
gains, or  refufc  to  pay  their  debts.  It  is  a  feiitencc 
of  the  French  conful,  which  muff  be  taken  off  before 
they  can  fuc  any  perfbn  for  the  payment  ot  their  debts. 

ABATEMENT,  in  heraldry,  an  accidental  figure 
fuppofcd  to  have  been  added  to  coats  of  arms,  in  order 
to  denote  fome  diflionourable  demeanour  or  (lain, 
whereby  the  dignity  of  coat-armour  was  rendered  of 
lefscflecm.     See  Heraldry. 

Abatement,  inlaw.     See  To  Abate. 

Abatement,  in  the  cufloms,  an  allowance  made  up- 
on the  duty  of  goods,  when  the  quantum  damaged  is 
determined  by  the  judgment  of  two  merchants  upon 
oath,  and  afceriained  by  a  certificate  from  the  furveyor 
and  land-waiter. 

ABATIS,  an  ancient  term  for  an  officer  of  ilieflables. 

ABATON,  an  ereftion  at  Rhodes,  as  a  fence  to 
the  trophy  of  Ancmilla,  queen  of  Halicarnailus,  Coos, 
&c.  railed  in  memory  of  her  viflory  over  the  Rhodians; 
or  rather  as  a  fcreen  to  conceal  the  dilgracc  of  the 
Rhodians  from  the  eyes  of  the  world,  the  tfiacirgor 
deftroying  the  trophy  being  with  them  a  point  of  re- 
ligion. 

ABATOR,  in  law,  a  term  applied  to  a  pcrfon 
who  enters  to  a  houfe  or  lands  void  by  the  death  of 
the  lafl  poflelTor,  before  the  true  heir. 

ABATOS  (anc.  gcog.),  an  illand  in  tbclake  Mocris, 

formerly 


ABB 


[     7     ] 


ABB 


formerly  famous  for  its  papyrus.  It  was  the  burial- 
place  of  Ofiris. 

AIJAVO,  in  botany  a  fynonirae  of  the  Adansokia. 

A3U,  a  term;  among  clothiers,  applied  to  the  yarn 
of  a  weaver's  warp.  They  fay  alio  Al)b--^o<il  in  the 
fame  fcnfe. 

AIJBA  (anc.  geog.)  a  town  of  Afric  Popria,  near 
Canhaj^e. 

ADL5A,  in  the  Syriac  and  Chaldee  languages,  liie- 
raliy  li^iiitics  a  father  ;  and,  figuratively,  a  Uiperior, 
reputed  as  a  father  in  refpect  of  age,  dignity,  or  af- 
fedion.  It  is  more  particularly  ul'cd  in  the  Syriac, 
Coptic,  and  Ethiopic  churches,  as  a  title  given  to  the 
bifliops.  The  bilhops  themfelves  bellow  the  title  /Ibba 
more  eminently  on  the  bilhop  of  Alexandria  ;  which 
occafioned  the  people  to  give  him  the  title  of  Baba, 
or  Papa,  that  is,  Crandj other  ;  a  title  which  he  bore 
before  the  bilhop  of  Piome.  It  is  a  Jewilh  title  of 
honour  given  to  certain  rabbins  called  Taiuiites  ;  and 
it  is  alfo particularly  ufcd,  by  (bme  writers  of  the  middle 
age,  for  ihc  fuperior  of  a  monaftery,  ufually  called 

ABBOT. 

ABBADIE  (James),  an  eminent  Proteftant  divine, 
born  at  Nay  in  Bern  in  1654;  firft  educated  there  un- 
der tlie  famo  IS  John  la  Placcite,  and  afterward  at  the 
univerfity  of  Sedan.  From  thence  he  went  into  Holland 
and  Germany,  and  was  miniiler  in  the  French  church  of 
Berlin.  He  left  that  place  in  1690 ;  came  into  England  ; 
was  fonieiimcminirter  in  the  French  church  in  the  Sa- 
voy, London  ;and  was  made  deanofKillalow  in  Ireland. 
He  died  at  St  Mjry  le  Bonne  near  London,  in  1727, 
aged  73.  He  was  lirongly  attached  to  the  caufe  of  king 
William,  as  appears  in  his  elaborate  dclcnce  of  the  re- 
voKition,  and  his  hi(li>ry  of  the  aflalliuation-plot.  He 
had  great  natural  abilities,  which  he  improved  by  true 
and  ufeful  learning.  He  was  a  niofl  zealous  defender 
of  the  primitive  do,5lrinc  of  the  Protcftants,  as  appears 
by  his  writings  ;  and  that  llrong  nervous  eloquence,  for 
which  he  was  fo  remarkable,  enabling  him  to  enforce  the 
doiflrines  of  his  profeifion,  from  the  pulpit  with  great  fpi- 
rit  and  energy.  He  publiflied  fcveral  works  in  French 
that  were  much  eftcemed  ;  the  principal  of  which  are,  A 
Trcaiife  on  the  Truth  of  the  Chriftian  Religion  ;  The 
art  of  Knowing  one's  Self;  A  Defence  of  the  BritiOi 
Nation  ;  The  Deityof  Jcfus  Chrift  eflential  to  theChri- 
flian  Religion  ;  The  Hiftory  of  the  laft  confpiracy  in 
England,  written  by  order  of  king  William  III. ;  and 
The  Triumph  of  Providence  and  Religion,  or  the  open- 
ing the  Seven  Seals  by  the  Son  of  God. 

ABBAS,  foil  of  Abdalmothleb,  and  Mahomet's  nn- 
cle,  oppofed  his  nephew  with  all  his  power,  cfteeming 
hiin  an  impoftor  and  infidel  ;  but  in  the  fecond  year  of 
the  Hrgira,  being  overcome  and  made  a  prifoner  at 
the  battle  of  Bendir  in  623,  a  great  ranfom  being  de- 
manded for  him,  he  reprefented  to  Mahomet,  that  his 
paying  it  would  reduce  him  to  poverty,  which  would 
redound  to  the  didionour  of  the  family.  But  Mahomet 
having  been  informed  of  Abbas's  having  fecretcd  large 
fums  of  money,  alked  him  after  the  purfes  of  gold  lie 
had  left  in  his  mother's  cuflody  at  Mecca.  Abbas,  up- 
on this,  conceiving  hiin  to  be  really  a  prophet,  cm- 
braced  his  new  religion  ;  became  one  of  his  principal 
captains; and  Caved  his  life  when  in  eminent  dangerat 
the  battle  of  Hcnain,  againll  the  Thakefitcs,  foon  after 
the  rcduiJlion  of  Mecca.    But  bclidcs  being  a  great 


commander.  Abbas  was  a  famous  doJlor  of  the  Muf- 
fuliuan  law,  infomuch  that  he  read  lectures  upon  every 
chapter  of  the  Koran,  as  his  nephew  pretended  to  re- 
ceive them  one  by  one  from  heaven.  He  died  in  652, 
and  his  memory  is  held  in  the  highcfl  veneration  among 
the  Miiliiilmans  to  this  day. 

/4bul  Ahhas,  furnamcd  Sajfah,  was  proclaimed  kha- 
lif ;  and  in  him  began  the  IJynafty  of  the 

ABBAbSlDKS,  who  poirellcd  the  khalifate  for  524 
yeari  ;  and  there  were  37  khalifs  of  this  race  who  fuc- 
cecded  one  another  without  interruption. 

ABBE,  in  a  monaftic  fenfe,  the  fame  with  Abbot. 
Abbe,  in  a  modern  fcnfe,  is  the  name  of  a  curious 
popular  character  in  France,  very  much  mentioned, 
but  very  little  known,  in  Britain.  The  term  is  not  to 
be  rendered  in  our  language,  as  the  exillence  of  the 
being  which  it  denominates  is  pofterior  to  the  reforma- 
tion, and  no  fuch  character  was  known  among  the  Ro- 
manills  till  about  a  century  and  a  half  ago. 

Abbes,  according  to  the  Itrit^eft  definition,  are  pcr- 
fons  who  have  not  yet  obtained  any  precife  or  fixed 
fettlement  in  church  or  flaie,  but  molt  heartily  with  for 
and  would  accept  of  either,  juft  as  it  may  happen. 
In  the  mean  while,  their  privileges  are  many.  They 
are  admilFible  in  all  companies,  and  no  degradation  to 
the  belt,  nctwithltanding  they  are  fomctimes  found  in 
the  worft.  Their  drefs  is  rather  that  of  an  academic, 
orofa  proftlTed  fcholar,  thanof  anecclefiaflic  ;  and, ne- 
ver varying  in  colour,  is  no  incumbrance  on  the  pocket. 
Thcfe  abbes  are  very  numerous,  and  no  lefs  ufeful. 
They  are,  in  colleges,  the  inftrudors  of  youth  ;  in  pri- 
vate families,  the  tutors  of  young  gentlemen  ;  and  many 
procure  a  decent  livelihood  by  their  literary  and  witty 
compofiiions  of  all  kinds,  from  the  profoundeA  philo- 
fophy  to  the  moil  airy  romances.  They  are,  in  Ihorr, 
a  body  of  men  who  polfefs  a  fund  of  universal  talents 
and  learning,  and  are  incellantly  employed  in  the  culti- 
vation of  every  various  branch  of  literature  and  inge- 
nuity. No  fubjeft  whatever  efcapcs  them  ;  ferious  or 
gay,  folid  or  ludicrous,  facred  or  profane,  all  pay  tri- 
bute to  their  refearches;  and  as  they  are  converfant  in 
the  lowell  as  well  as  the  highelt  topics,  their  fame  is 
equally  great  in  the  learned  and  in  the  fcribbling  world. 
A  didinguifhing  part  of  their  character,  too,  though 
we  Ihall  but  (lightly  touch  it,  is  their  devotion  to  the 
fair  fex  :  whofe  favourites,  in  return,  they  have  the  ho- 
nour of  being  in  the  molt  enviable  degree  ;  the  wit  and 
fmartnefs  for  which  they  are  ufually  remarkable,  being 
ju(t  the  very  things  that  fuit  the  French  ladies. — In  fine, 
thefe  abbes  are  fought  after  by  inoft  people,  on  various 
accounts  ;  as  they  are  equally  men  of  bufinefs  and  plea- 
furc,  not  lefs  expert  in  the  moll  ferious  tranfaiftions,  than 
fond  of  enjoying  their  (hare  in  whatever  occupies  the  gay 
world.  Hence  they  diligently  frequent  ail  public  fpec- 
tacles,  which  are  thought  incomplete  w  iihout  them  ;  as 
they  compofe  the  moll  intelligent  part  of  the  company, 
and  are  the  nio.t  weighty  approvers  or  condemners  of 
what  palFes  in  almolt  all  places. 

ABBESS,  the  fuperior  of  an  abbey  or  convent  of 
nuns.  The  abbcfs  has  the  fame  rights  and  authority 
over  her  nuns  that  tlie  abbots  regular  have  over  their 
monks.  The  fex  indeed  does  not  allow  her  to  perform 
thefpiritual  funi5lion<; annexed  to  the  pritfthood,  where- 
with the  abbots  isufually  inverted  ;  but  there  are  inftarces 
of  fomc  abbclTcs  who  have  a  right  or  rather  a  privilege, 

t« 


ABB 


[     8     ] 


ABB 


Abbfvnie,  to  eommiffion  a  pricft  to  ncl  for  them.   They  have  even 
Abbey,    a  kind  of  epifcopal  jurifdidion,  as  well  as  fonie  abbots 

* '  who  are  exempted  from  the  vifitation  of  their  dioccfans. 

Mincne,  in  his  trcatifc  on  ilic  rights  of  the  Church, 
obfc-rves,  that  fome  abbelTes  have  fortnerly  conf«lTcd 
their  nuns.  But  he  adds,  that  their  cxceflivc  curiofiiy 
cariicJ  them  fuch  lengths,  ih.it  there  arofe  a  necelhty 
of  checking  it.  However,  St  Balil,  in  his  Rule,  allows 
ti;e  abbefs  to  be  prcfciit  with  the  prieft  at  the  confcflioii 
ot  her  mins. 

ABBEVILLE,  a  confiderable  city  of  France  in 
Picardy,  and  the  C3pi'.:il  ot  Ponihicu;  the  river  Somiiic 
runs  through  the  middle  of  it,  and  divides  it  into  two 
psrts.  It  has  a  collegiate  church  and  twelve  pariih- 
chiirches;  the  moltconfiderablcof  which  are  St  George's 
and  St  Giles's,  befides  a  great  number  of  raonaltcrics 
and  nunneries,  a  bailiwic,  and  a  prcfulial  court.  It  isa 
fortified  town;  the  walls  are  f.ankcd  with  hallions,  and 
fiirroundcd  by  large  ditches  ;  and  was  never  yet  taken  ; 
from  which  circiimftance  it  is  Ibmetimes  called  the 
Mj:.!i!i  Tc-vtv;.  The  coiintry  about  it  is  low,  marthy, 
end  dirty.  It  is  pretty  well  peopled,  and  is  famous  lor 
its  woollen  manufadory.  The  cloths  and  lliifTs  made 
there  are  faid  to  be  mnv  little  inferior  to  thole  of  Eng- 
land and  Holland.  The  work,  however,  is  alfifted  by 
the  clandeftinc  importation  of  Englilli  and  Irilh  wool, 
and  workmen  from  Great  Britain.  It  is  about  fifteen 
sillies  cart  of  the  Briiilli  channel,  and  Ihips  n'.iy  come 
Irom  thtncc  by  the  river  Somme  to  the  middle  of  the 
town.     E.  Long.  2.  6.  Lat.  50.  7. 

ABBEY,  a  monaftery,  or  religious  houfe,  governed 
by  a  faperior  under  the  title  ai  al-bot  or  ahbejs. 

y^^it^/ differ  from  priorhs,  in  that  the  former  are  un- 
der the  diredion  of  an  abbot,  and  the  others  of  a  prior : 
but  abbot  and  prior  (we  mean  a  prior  conventual)  are 
much  the  fame  thing,  differing  in  little  but  the  name. 
Fauchetobfcrvesjthatin  the  early  days  of  the  French 
monarchy,  dukes  and  counts  were  called  abbas,  and 
duchies  and  counties  abbess.  Even  fome  of  their  kings 
.ire  mentioned  in  hillory  under  the  title  of  abbots,  Phi- 
lip I.  Louis  VI.  and  afterwards  the  dukes  of  Orleans, 
arc  called  abbots  of  thi  vtonaflcyy  of  St  Aigitan.  The 
dukes  of  Av]uitain  were  called  abbots  of  thevionaflery  of 
5/  Hilary,  at  PoiP.Urs  ;  and  the  earls  of  Anjou,  of  i/ 
Aubin,  &c. 

Monafteries  were  at  firft  nothing  more  than  religious 
linufes,  whither  prrfons  retired  from  the  buflle  of  the 
world  to  fpend  their  time  in  folitudc  and  devotion.  But 
ihcy  foon  degenerated  from  their  original  inflitution, 
and  procured  large  privileges,  exemptions,  and  riches. 
They  prevailed  greatly  in  Britain  before  the  reforma- 
tion ;  particiLirly  in  England  :  and  as  they  increafed 
in  riches,  fo  the  Aate  became  poor  ;  for  the  lands, 
which  thefc  regulars  poffeffed  were  in  viortua  manu, 
i.  f.  could  never  revert  to  the  lords  who  gave  them. 
This  inconvenience  gave  rife  to  the  llatutes  againft  gifts 
in  mortmain!,  which  prohibited  donations  to  thefc  re- 
liffious  honfes  :  and  Lord  Coke  tells  us,  that  feveral 
lords,  at  their  creation,  had  a  claufc  in  their  gi'ant, 
that  the  donor  might  give  or  fell  his  land  to  whom  he 
would  {^ixaptis  viris  religiofis  &  Jtii/ais)  excepting 
monks  and  jews. 

The  places  wrre  wholly  abolilhcd  in  England  at 
the  lime  of  the  Reformatioti  ;  Henry  VIII.  having 
firft  appointed  vifitors  to  infpeft  into  the  lives  of  the 


monks  and  nuns,  which  were  found  in  fome  places  very    Abbey, 
difordtrly  :  upon  which,  the  abbots,  perceiving  their    Abbej- 
dilfolution  unavoidable,  were  induced  to  refign  their.   t"'y''- 
houfesio  the  king,  who  by  that  means  became  invelled         " 
with  the  abbey-lands:  thefc  svcre  afterwards  granted  to 
different  perfons,  whofc  defcendents  enjoy  them  at  this 
day  :  they  were  then  valued  at  2,853,000/.  per  annum, 
an  immenfe  fum  in  ihofe  days. 

Though  the  fuppreffion  of  religious  houfes,  even  con- 
fidcred  in  a  political  light  only,  was  of  a  very  great  na- 
tional benefit,  it  mufl  be  owned,  that,  at  the  time  they 
flourillied,  they  were  not  entirely  ufclcfs.  Abbeys  ormo- 
nafteries  were  then  thercpoiitories,  as  well  as  the  femi- 
naries,  of  learning  ;    many  valuable  books  and  national 
records,  as  well  as  private  evidences,  have  been  preftrv- 
edin  their  lioraries  ;  the  only  places  wherein  they  coulJ 
have  been  fafcly  lodged  in  ihofc  turbulent  limes.  Many 
of  thofe,  which  had  efcapcd  the  ravages  01  the  Danes, 
were  deflroyed  with  more  than  Gothic  barbarity  at  the 
diiToliition  of  the  abbeys.   Thefc  ravages  are  pathetical- 
ly lamented  by  John  Bale,  in  his  Declaration  upon  Lc- 
land's  Journal  1549.  "  Covetoufncfs,"  fays  he,  "  was  at 
that  time  fo  bufy  about  private  commodity,  iliat  public 
wealth,  in  that  mod  ncceffary  and  of  rcfpe^,  was  not 
any  where  regarded.     A  number  of  tliem  which  pur- 
chafed  thefe  fuperftitious  manfions,  referved  of  the  li- 
brary-books, fome  to  ferve  their  jacks,  fome  to  fcour 
the  candlelticks,  and  fome  to  rub  their  boots  ;  fome 
they  fold  to  the  grocer  and  foap-feller  ;  and  fome  they 
fcnt  over  fea  to  the  book-bindtrs,  not  in  fmall  numbers, 
but  in  whole  Ihips  full  ;  yea,  the  univerfiiics  of  this 
realm  are  not  clear  of  fo  delegable  a  faft.     1  know  a 
merchant  that  bought  the  contents  of  two  noble  libra- 
ries for  40s.  price  ;  a  ihame  it  is  to  be  fpoken  !  This 
ftuffhath   he  occupied  inllead  of  gray   paper,  by  the 
fpace  of  more  than  thefc  ten  years,  and  yet  ht  hath 
ftorc  enough  for  as  many  years  to  come.     1  (hall  judge 
this  to  be  true,  and  utter  it  with  hcavinefs,  that  neither 
the  Britons  under  the  Romans  and  Saxons,  nor  ytt  th.e 
Englifli  people  under  the  Danes  and  Normans,  had  ever 
fuch  damage  of  their  learned  monuments  as  we  hayc 
fecn  in  our  time." 

In  thefc  days  every  abbey  had  at  Icaft  one  perfon 
whofc  oiEce  it  was  to  inflruft  youth  ;  and  the  hiftori- 
aiis  of  this  country  are  chicfiy  beholden  to  the  monks 
for  the  knowledge  they  have  of  former  national  events. 
In  thefe  houfes  alfo  the  arts  of  painting,  architeflure, 
and  printing,  were  cultivated.  The  religious  houfes 
alfo  were  hofpitals  for  the  fick  and  poor  ;  affording 
likewife  entertainment  to  travellers  at  a  time  when  there 
were  no  inns.  In  them  the  nobility  and  gentry  who 
were  heirs  to  their  founders  could  provide  for  a  certain 
number  of  ancient  and  faithful  fervants,  by  procuring 
them  corodies,  orflated  allowances  of  meal,  drink,  and 
clothes.  They  were  liktwife  an  afylum  for  aged  and 
indigent  perfons  ot  good  family.  The  neighbouring 
places  were  alfo  grea:ly  benefited  by  the  fairs  procured 
for  them,  and  by  their  exemption  from  foreft-laws  ; 
add  to  which,  th  it  the  monaflic  eftates  were  generally 
let  at  very  eafy  rents,  the  fines  given  at  renewals  in- 
cluded. 

ABBEYBOYLE,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  the  coun- 
ty of  Rofcommon,  and  province  of  Connaught.  W. 
Long.  8.  52.  N.  Lat.  56.  44.  It  is  remarkable  for  an 
old  abbey. 

ABBEY- 


ABB 


[    9     J 


ABB 


Abbey- 

holm, 

Abliot. 


ABBEYHOLM,  a  town  in  Cumberland,  fo  called 
from  an  abbey  built  there  by  David  king  of  Scots.     It 

ftaiiJs  on  an  arm  of  the  lea.        W.  Long.    2.  38. 

Lat.  54.  45. 

ABBOT,  or  Absat,  the  fupcrior  of  a  monaftcry 
of  monks  crcdeJ  into  an  abbey  or  prelacy. 

The  nunc  Wiist  is  originally  lUbriw,  where  it  fig- 
r.ifics  father.  Thcjcw  scaliy^j/Zv;-,  in  ilieirlangiiage, 
yfo  ;  whence  the  Chaldeans  andSyrians  formed  WiO^ , 
thence  the  Greeks  ACCot,  which  the  Latins  retained, 
Al/iaj  J  and  hence  our  Abbni,  the  French  Abbi,  &c. 
—St  Mark  and  St  Paul  ufc  the  Syriac  Abba  in  their 
Greek,  by  rcafon  it  was  then  commonly  k.iown  in  the 
fynagogiics  and  the  primitive  aiicmblics  of  the  Chri- 
itians:  adding  to  it,  by  way  of  interpretation,  the  word 
father,  AC^a  « -r«Tiif,"Abba,  father  ;"y.  </.  Abba,  that 
is  to  fay,  Father. — But  the  name  Ab,  or  Abba, 
which  was  at  iirft  a  term  of  tendernefs  and  affeflion  in 
the  Hebrew  and  Chaidee,  became  at  length  a  title  of 
dignity  and  honour  :  The  Jewilh  doflors  afi"c(5ttd  it ; 
and  one  of  their  mofl  ancient  books,  containing  the 
fayings  or  apophthegms  of  divers  of  them,  is  intitled 
Pirkcy^Wo//',  or  Avoth  ;  ;.c.  Chapters  of  the  Fathers. 
It  was  in  aHulion  to  i'.is  affectation,  that  Jefus  Chrill 
forbad  his  difciplcs  to  call  any  man  their  father  on 
earth  ;  which  word  St  Jerome  turns  ag.iinff  the  fupe- 
riorsof  the  monafleries  of  his  time,  for  affaming  the 
title  of  Abb'As,  or  Fathers. 

The  name  Abbit,  then,  appears  as  old  as  the  infti- 
tiition  of  monks  itfelf The  governors  of  the  primi- 
tive monaftcries  alfumed  indifferently  the  titles  Abbots, 
•  Sec  Mcnl  and  Archimandrites* .     Thcy  were  really  diftingiiilhcd 
and  Arcbi-   j^om  the  clergy  ;  though  frequently  confounded  with 
them,  liecaufe  a  degree  above  l.iymen. 

In  thofc  early  days,  the  abbots  were  fubjcA  to  the 
bifliopsand  the  ordinary  paftors.  Their  monafteries 
being  remote  from  cities,  built  in  the  fanhell  folitudes, 
they  had  no  Ihare  in  ecclcliaAical  affairs.  They  went 
on  Sundays  to  the  parifli-church  with  the  reft  of  the 
people  ;  or,  if  they  were  too  remote,  a  pricfl  was  fent 
them  toadminiflcr  the  facraments  ;  till  at  length  they 
Were  allowed  to  have  priclls  of  their  own  body.  The 
abbot  or  archimandrite  himfelfwas  ufually  thepriefl : 
but  his  funftion  extended  no  farther  than  to  the  fpiritual 
adiftancc  of  his  monaAcry  ;  and  he  remained  ftill  in 
obedience  to  the  bilhop.  There  being  among  the  ab- 
bots feveral  perfons  of  learning,  they  made  a  vigorous 
oppolition  to  the  riling  herefies  of  thofc  times  ;  which 
(irfl  occafioned  the  bilnopstocall  them  out  oftheirde- 
farts,  and  fix  them  about  the  fuburbs  of  cities,  and  at 
length  in  the  cities  dienifclves  :  from  which  sera  their 
degeneracy  is  to  be  dated.  The  abbots,  now,  foon 
Wore  ofFtheirformer  plainncfs  and  fimplicity,  and  be- 
gan to  be  looked  on  as  a  fort  of  little  prelates.  They  af- 
pired  at  bein^indepcn  dent  of  the  bilhops  ;  and  became  fo 
infupportabIc,that  fomc  fcvcre  laws  were  madeagainll 
them  at  the  council  of  Chalcedon  ;  this  notwithftand- 
ing,  in  time  many  of  ihcm  carried  the  point  of  inde- 
pendency, and  got  the  appellation  of /or,/,  with  other 
badges  of  the  epifcopatc,  particularly  the  mitre. 

Hence  arofe  new  fpccics  of  dillindions  between  the 
abbots.  Thofc  were  termed  mitred  abliots,  who  were 
privileged  to  wcarthemitrc,  and  excrcifccpifcopal  au- 
thority within  their  refpciflive  precindils,  bcingcxcmp- 
ted  from  the  jui;ifdidion  of  the  bilhop.  Others  were 
Vol.  I. 


vumdritem 


called  crcfterfi  Aj^iAi,  from  their  bearing  the  crolicr     Abbot, 
or  paftoral llaff .'  Others  v.'cre  iiyViTctnhcnicnloxwvA-  ^~~ 
vtrlal  abbots,  in  imitation  of  the  patriacli  of  Conllan- 
tinoplc:  wliileothcrs  were  termed  cardinal z\i\oi%,  from 

their  fuperiority  overall  other  abbots In  Britain,  the 

mitred  abbots  were  lords  of  parliament  ;  and  calieJ 
al;bots-fovereign,  and  abbots-general,  to  diflingi'ifh 
them  from  the  other  abbots.  And  as  there  were  lords 
abbots,  fo  there  were  alio  lords  priors  who  hadcxcn.pt 
jurifdiJlion,  and  were  likcwifc  lords  of  Parliar.cnt. 
Some  reckon  26  of  thcfc  lords  abb-its  and  prior  that 
fat  in  parliament.  Sir  Ldward  Coke  fays,  iha.  there 
w  ere  27  parliamentary  abbots  and  two  priors.  In  the 
parliament  20  Piich.  IL  there  were  but  25;ibbots  end 
two  priors  :  but  in  the  fummons  to  parliament  fl/.v.5 
4Ed.  in.  more  arc  named. 

At  prcfcnt,  in  the  Roman-Catholic  countries,  tiic 
principal  diftinftions  oLfcrved  between  the  abbots  arc 
thofc  oiregulari.ni\  recomiiniidatrjry.  The  former  take 
the  vow  and  wear  the  habit  of  their  order  -,  whereas  the 
latter  are  fectilars,  though  they  arc  obliged  by  their 
bulls  to  take  orders  whesi  of  proper  age. 

Anciently  the  ceremony  of  creating  an  abbot  con  fift- 
cd  in  clothing  him  with  the  habit  calleda/t«/«j,  or  cowl; 
putting  the  pafloral  ilafFinto  his  hand,  and  the  fboes 
called  pcdales  on  his  feet ;  but  at  prcfcnt,  it  is  only 
a  limple  benediction,  improperly  called,  by  fomc,  coa- 
fecration. 

Abbot  isalfoatitlc  given  toothers  befide  the  fupc- 
riors  of  monafteries :  thus  bilhops,  whofe  fees  were 
formerly  abbeys,  arc  called  abbots  ;  as  are  the  fupe- 
riors  of  fome  congregations  of  regular  canons,  parti- 
cularly that  of  St  Genevieve  at  Paris  :  and  among  the 
Genoefc,  thechicfinagiftratc  of  their  republic  former- 
ly bore  the  title  of  Abbot  of  the  people.  It  was  like- 
wife  ufual,  about  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  for  feveral 
lords  to  afliime  the  title  of  autit-abbots,  abba  cotnites ; 
and  that  for  no  other  reafon,  but  becaufe  the  fuper- 
intendcncy  of  certain  abbeys  was  commited  to  them. 

ABBOT  (George),  archbid'.op  of  Canterbury,  was 
born  Oct.  29.  1362,  at  Guildford  in  Surrey.  He 
went  through  his  iludics  at  Oxford,  and  in  1597  was 
chofen  principal  of  Univcrfity  College.  In  1^99,  he 
was  inilalled  dean  of  Winehefter  :  the  year  following, 
he  was  chofcn  vice-chanccllorof  the  univcrlity  ofOx- 
ford,  and  a  fecond  time  in  160;;.  In  i6c4,  that  tranf- 
lation  of  the  bible  now  in  ufe  was  begun  by  the  direc- 
tion of  king  James  ;  and  Dr.  Abbot  was  the  fecond  of 
eight  divines  of  Oxford,  10  whom  the  care  of  tranlla- 
ting  the  whole  NewTellanicnt(excepting  the  cpiftles) 
was  committed.  The  year  following,  he  was  a  third 
time  vice-chancellor.  In  i6o9,  he  went  to  Scotland 
with  George  Hume  Earl  of  Dunbar,  to  alii  It  in  elta- 
blifhingan  union  betwixt  the  kirk  ofScotltnd  and  the 
church  of  England  ;  and  in  thisaffairlu  Hrhavcd'with  'Htylin'* 
fomuch  addrcfsand  moderation,  that  it  1  ,id  thcfouni^a-  bid.  of 
tionof  all  hisfuiurc  preferment.  For  king  James  ever  Hnftiytcn- 
aftcrpaidgreat  deference  to  hisadviccandcounfel.  and  *"*'?•  *'■'' 
upon  the  death  of  Dr.  Overton  bilhopofLitchfiel  land 
Coventry,  he  named  Dr.  Abbot  for  his  fuccclTor,  who 
was  accordingly  co:.(tituted  bifliopof  tliofe  t\<o  united 
fees  in  December  1609.  About  a  month  afterwards 
he  wasiranllatcd  to  the  fee  of  Loncinn.and  on  the  fe- 
cond of  November  thereafter  was  raifcd  to  ihcarchie- 
pifcopal  fee. 

B  It 


ABB 


[     io     ] 


ABB 


AM:ot.  It  is  not  however  improbable,  that  his  extravagaiii 
■■  -•  '  aJulaiioii  ot  iiis  royal  mailer,  in  wtiicii  he  wciii  a^  lar 
as  any  other  court  chaj>iain  cuulJ  do,  coiurio^iicJ  no: 
a  little  to  the  acctleratioii  ot  his  preferment.  In  the 
preface  to  a  piniplilct  he  publiihcd,  the  I'ollowiiij;  fpc- 
ciiiun  of  riJiculoiis  riattery  occurs  :  Speaking  oi  the 
king,  he  fays,  "  wliofc  lilc  haih  been  io  immaculate 
atuluiifpoticd,  Stc.  thatcvt  n  nulice  iifclt,  whi-h  leaves 
rothi.i^  iinfrarcheJ,  could  never  iui>l  true  ijUmilh  in 
it,  nor  call  probable  af^Mrfion  on  it. — Zcaloui  as  iJa- 
vid  i  learned  and  wife,  the  Stiowoi:  of  onr  a^je  ;  rcli- 
j;ious  as  Jolias  ;  cartful  of  fpreading  Chrill's  faith  as 
C'onilantine  the  Great  ;  jnltas  Mofcs  ,  undcidedin  all 
Jiiswaysasa  Jehofaphat  uiidHc^iekias  ;  full  of  clemen- 
cy as  another  Theodoiius." — If  Mr  Walp^Ic  had  fecn 
this  pafliige,  he  certainly  would  not  have  faid,  that 
"  hoiicll  Abbot  could  not  rtatttr." 

His  great  zeal  for  the  I'rotellant  Religion  made  him 
a  Hrenuous  promoter  oi  tlie  match  between  the  elector 
Palatine  and  the  Princefs  JLlizabeth  ;  which  was  accor- 
dingly concluded  and  folemni/cd  the  1 4'''  of  February 
161:,  the  archbilhop  performing  the  ceremony  on  a 
fla^c  erected  in  the  royal  chapel.     In  the  following 
year  happened  the  famous  cafe  of  divorce  betwixt  the 
lady  Francis  Howard,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Suffolk, 
and  Robert  earl  of  Kllcx:  an  attair  which  has  been  by 
many  confidercd  as  one  of  the  greatell  blcmilhes  iu 
king  James's  reign  ;  but  the  part  therein  acted  by  the 
archbilliop  added  much     tothe  reputation  he  had  al- 
ready acf^uired  for  incorruptible  integrity.   I  he  matter 
was  by  the  king  referred  to  a  court  of  delegates.   The 
nrchbilhop  law  plainly,  that  his  Majcrty  was  very  de- 
firous  the  lady  Ihould  be  divorced  :  but  he  was,  in  his 
own  judgment,  dircflly  aguinil  the  divorce.     He  la- 
boured all  he  could  to  extricate  himfelf  from  thisdiiR- 
culty,  by  having  an  end   put  to  the  caufc  by  fomc  o- 
thcr  way  than  by  fcntence  :  but  it  was  ta  no  purpofe  : 
for  thofc  who  drove  on  this  affair,  had  got  too  great 
power  to  be  retrained  from  bringing  it  to  the  conclu- 
f.on  the   king  defired.      The  archbilhop  prepared  a 
fpccch,  which  he  intended  to  have  fpoken  againd  the 
nullity  of  the  marriage,  in  the  court  at  Lambeth  ;  but 
he  did  not  make  ufe  of  it,  becaufe  the  king  ordered 
the  opinions  to  be  given  in  few  woras.     He  continued, 
however,  inflexible  in  his  opinion  againflthe  divorce  ; 
and  drew  up  his  reafons,  which  the  king  thought  fit 
to  anfwer  himfelf.     It  need  fcarce  be  added,  that  fen- 
icnce  was  given  in  the  lady's  favour.     In  161 1,  the 
king  publiihcd  a  declaration,  which  he  ordered  to  be 
read  in  alhhe  churches,  permittingfports  and pallimes 
on  the  Lord's  day  :   this  gave  great  uneafinefs  to  the 
archbifhop ,  who,  happening  to  be  at  Croydon  when  it 
came  hither,  had  the  courage  to  forbid  its  being  read. 
Being  now  in  a  declining  flate  of  health,  the  arch- 
bilhop ufed  in  the  fummer  to  go  to  Hamplhire  for 
the   fjke  of  recrcaiion  ;    and  being  invited  by  lord 
Zouch  to  hunt  in  hii  park  at  Bram/.ill,  he  met  there 
with  the   grcateft  misfortune   that    ever  bcfel  him  ; 
for  he  accidentally  killed  the   game   keeper  by    an 
arrow  from  a  crofs-bow  which  he  (hot  at  one  of  the 
deer      This  accident  threw  him  into  a  deep  melan- 
choly ;  and  he  ever  afterwards  kept  a  moiitiily  falton 
•F  11-  •«     Tuefday,  the  day  on  which  this  fatal  raifchance  hap- 
chiircS-Kiil.P''""^'^'  ^'-^  "^  fettled  an  annuity  of  20  .  on  the  wi- 
tc-iit  xviii,  dow.     There  were  feveral  perfons  who  took  an  ad- 
p.  87-  2 


vantage  of  this  misfortune,  to  IcflTen  him  in  the  king's     Abbot 

favnir  ;   bit  his  Majtlty  laid,  "Aw  angtl  might  have — 

mifcariiea  in  tliis  lo.  t."  His  cneiaits  alledging  that 
he  had  incurred  an  irregularity,  and  was  thereby  inca- 
pacitated lor  performing  the  oihce  of  a  primate  j  the 
king  directed  a  commiiiioa  to  ten  peifons  lo  inquire 
iuiuihis  matter. 

1  he  refult,  however,  was  not  fatisfaclory  to  his 
Graces'  enemies;  it  being  declared,  that  as  the  mur- 
der was  involu.itary,  he  had  not  lorteited  his  archic- 
pifcopalcharatter.  The  archbiuiop  thenceforward  fel- 
dom  aililled  at  the  council,  being  chielly  hindered  by 
hib  inhrmities  ;  but  in  the  king's  hit  illniTs  he  was 
lent  tor,  and  attended  wi'.h  great  conllancy  tiil  liis 
Majclly  expired  on  the  27''' of  March  162;.  He 
penormed  the  ceremony  of  the  coroa.lion  of  king 
Chailts  I.  thotigh  very  intirm  and  much  troubled  with 
the  gout.  He  was  never  greatly  in  this  kMg'cfavour  ; 
and  the  duke  of  Buckingham  being  his  declared  cut  my, 
watched  an  opportunity  of  making  him  feel  the  wiighc 
of  his  difpleaf  ire.  1  his  he  at  lait  accomplilhed,  upon 
thearchbilhop's  rcfuiing  to  licence  afcrmon,  prcached 
by  Dr  Si  jthorpc  to  jultify  a  loan  w  hich  the  kiig  had 
demanded,  and  pregnant  vvith  principles  which  tended 
to  overthrow  t.hc  conllitution.  'I'he  archbilhop  was 
imnicdiately  after  ful'pended  from  all  his  functions  as 
primate  ;  and  i  hey  were  excrcifed  by  certain  biihopscom- 
miilioned  by  the  kii:g,  of  whom  Laud,  the  archLilhop's 
enesiy,  ana  afterwards  his  fuc-.elibr,  was  one  :  while 
the  only  caufe  alligned  for  this  procedure  was.  That 
the  archbilhop  could  not  at  that  time  perfonally  attend 
thofd  fervices  whicli  were  oiherwife  proper  for  his 
cognifancc  and  direction.  He  did  not,  however,  re- 
main long  in  this  lituation  ;  for  a  parliament  being  ab- 
foUitely  necelfary,  liis  Grace  w  as  fent  for,  and  reltore  J 
to  his  authority  and  juriluiction.  But  not  proving 
friendly  to  certain  rigorous  meafures  adopted  by  the 
prevailing  church-party,  headed  by  Laud,  whole  power 
and  interefl  at  court  w  ere  now  very  couliderable,  his 
prefence  became  unwel  ome  there  ;  fo  that  upon  the 
birth  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  afterwards  Charles  II. 
Laud  had  the  honour  to  baptize  him,  as  dean  of  the 
chapel.  The  archbilhop  being  worn  out  with  cares 
and  intinnities,  died  at  Croydo'i,  the  jth  of  Augufl 
163:,  aged  71  years  ;  and  was  buried  at  Guilford,  the 
place  of  his  nativity,  and  where  he  had  endowed  an 
holpital  with  lands  to  the  amount  of  500-.  per  annum. 
A  llatcly  monument  was  erected  over  the  grave,  with 
the  efiigy  of  the  archbilhop  in  his  robes. 

He  thewedhimfelf,  in  moll  circum  fiances  of  Lis  life, 
a  man  of  great  moderation  to  all  parties  ;  and  was  de- 
li roust  iiat  the  clergy  (hould  attract  the  ellcem  of  the  lai- 
ty by  the  fandiry  ol  their  manners,  rather  than  claim  it 
as  due  to  their  lanction.  His  notions  and  principles, 
however,  not  fuiting  the  humour  of  fome  writers,  have 
drawn  upon  him  many  fcvere  retieclions  ;  particularly, 
which  is  to  be  regretted,  from  the  earl  of  Clirendoii. 
But  Dr  Welwood  has  done  more  ju:;ice  to  his  merit 
and  abilities*.  He  wrote  feveral  tracts  upon  various 
fnbjecls;  and,  as  already  mentioned,  tranllated  part  of 
the  New  Teflameni,  with  the  reft  of  the  Oxford  di- 
vines,  161 1. 

It  is  proper  to  obferve  here,  that  there  was  another 
writer  of  both  his  names,  who  fiourilhcd  fomevvhat 
later.      This  George  Abbot  wrote  y/  l'ar,ii'hr,!p  on 


'Memoirs, 
8vo.  1 70c, 
p.  38. 


ABB 


[     II     ] 


A  B  D 


uj  thi  f.ibb.itk,  and  .4  purafhriip 


AbSot  y?^,  /I  viuiicatioit 
I'  611  //•-■  I  Julius. 
Abboiaury  AUBO  1"  ^Robert),  elder  brother  to  the  former,  and 
'  born  at  GuilJi'ord  in  1560,  went  through  hisfludica  in 
Baliol  college,  Oxford.  In  is^a*  he  look  his  degree 
of  mailer  ol  arts,  and  loon  became  a  celebrated  preach- 
er; and  to  this  talent  hecliicHy  owed  his  j-reftrnicnt. 
Upon  his  tirft  fermon  at  Worccfter,  he  was  chofcn  lec- 
turer in  that  city,  and  icon  after  redor  of  AU-faiuts  in 
the  fame  place.  John  Stanhope,  £fq  ;  happening  to  hear 
him  preach  at  I'aiirs-crofs,  was  fo  plcafcd  uith  him, 
that  he  immediately  prcfcntcd  him  to  the  rich  living  of 
Biagham  in  Nottinghimfliiro.  In  1597,  he  took  his 
degree  of  doctor  in  divinity  :  and,  in  the  beginning  of 
king  James's  rtign,\vas  appointed  chaplain  in  ordinary 
to  his  Majclly  ;  who  had  fuch  an  opinion  of  him  as  a 
writer,  that  he  ordered  the  doifter's  book Di  AiA'ichrifio 
to  be  printed  with  his  own  conimcnt:.ry  upon  part  of 
the  Apocalypfe.  In  1609,  he  was  elcJlcd  mailer  of 
Baliol  College;  wlrich  triift  he  difcharged  with  the  ut- 
inoft  care  and  aliiduity,  by  his  frequent  IcChires  to  the 
fcholarSjby  his  continual  prefence  at  public  exercilcs, 
and  by  promoting  temperance  in  the  fociety.  In  No- 
vember 1610,  he  was  made  prebendary  of  Normanton 
in  the  church  of  Southwell ;  and,  in  1612,  his  Majclly 
appointed  him  regius  profcifor  of  divinity  at  Oxford. 
The  fame  of  his  lectures  became  very  great ;  and  ihofe 
which  he  gave  upon  the  fupreme  power  of  kings  againft 
Bellarmine  and  Suarez,  fo  much  plcafcd  his  Nlajclly, 
that,  when  the  fee  of  Salilbury  became  vacant,  he  na- 
med him  to  that  bilhopric,  and  he  was  confccratcd 
by  his  own  brother  at  Lambeth,  December  3,  1615. 
When  he  came  to  Salifb.iry,  he  found  the  cathedral 
running  to  decay,  through  the  negligence  and  covct- 
oufntfs  of  the  clergy  belonging  to  it:  however,he  found 
means  to  draw  live  hundred  pounds  from  the  prebenda- 
ries, which  he  applied  to  the  reparation  of  this  church. 
He  then  gave  hinifelf  up  to  the  duties  of  his  function 
with  great  diligence  and  afiiduity,  vililing  his  whole 
dioccfc  in  perfoa,  and  preaching  every  Sunday  whilll 
health  would  permit.  But  this  w^s  not  long:  for  his  fc- 
dentary  life,  and  clofc  application  to  fludy,  brought 
upon  him  the  gravel  and  ilonc ;  of  which  he  died  on  the 
ad  of  March  161S,  in  the  tifty-cighth  year  of  his  age  ; 
hiving  not  filled  the  fee  quite  two  years  and  three 
months,  and  being  one  of  the  five  bilhops  which  Salif- 
bury  had  in  fix  years.  He  was  buried  oppofite  to  the 
•  IVorthitj  bifhop's  feat  in  the  cathedral.  Or  Fuller,*  fpeakingof 
of  England  the  two  brothers,  fays,  "  that  George  was  the  more 
in  Strrij.  II  plaufible  preacher,  Roben  the  grcateft  fcholar  ; 
"  George  the  abler  llatefman,  Robert  the  deepeft  di- 
"  vine  :  gravity  did  frown  in  George,  and  (juile  in 
"  Robert."  He  publilhcd  fcvcral  pieces  ;  he  alfo 
left  behind  iiim  fundry  manufcripts,  which  Dr  Corbet 
made  a  prcfent  of  to  the  Bodleian  library. 

ABBOrSBROMLKY,  a  town  in  St.iffordlhirc, 
^vith  a  market  on  Tuefday.  After  the  dilToluiioii  of 
the  monalleries,  it  was  given  to  the  Lord  Paget  ;  and 
has  fince  been  called  FuJit's  BrijinUy,  and  is  fo  deno- 
minated in  the  county  map.  But  it  retains  its  old 
name  in  the  king's  books,  and  is  a  difcharged  vicarage 
of  ;ol.  clear  yearly  value.  It  likewifc  retains  its  old 
name  with  regard  to  the  fairs.  W.  Long.  i.  2.  Lat. 
52  45- 
.(^.BBOTSBURY,afmalliowninDorftiaiirc,v\uh 


lek. 


amarkctonThurfday.    W.  Long.  i.  17.  Lit.  ;c.  40.  ALbreviate 
'Ihe  abbey  near  this  town  v.as  founded  by  a  Norman  I 

lady,  about  the  year  1026  ;  and  tdv^ard  the  Confclfor  ••^^'^f-!'^*- 
and  William  the  Conqueror  were  coafidciablc  bene-  ^ 
f..(5tors  to  it. 

ABBREVIATE  ft/  Adjudications,  in  Scots  law, 
anabitrsclorabridgeme.il  of  a  decreet  of  adjudication, 
vvhich  is  recorded  in  a  regiflcr  kept  for  that  purpofc. 

AliBREVIA  HON,  or  Abbrevi;(tcr.^.,  a  con- 
traction of  a  word  or  p.iiragc  ;.  made  by  dropping  fome 
of  the  letters,  or  by  fubllituting  certain  marks  or  cha- 
raclcrs  in  their  place — Lawyers,  phylicians,  &c.  ufc 
abundance  of  abbrc\  iitions,  partly  for  the  fake  of  ex- 
pedition, and  partly  for  that  of  myllcry;  but  of  all 
people  the  Rabbins  are  the  mod  remarkable  for  this 
practice,  fo  that  their  writings  arc  unintelligible  \\  iih- 
out  the  Hebrew  abbreviatures.  The  Jcwilli  authors 
and  copy  ills  do  not  content  themfelves  with  abbrevia- 
ting words  like  the  Greeks  and  Latins,  by  retrenching 
fome  of  the  letters  or  fyllabks  ;  they  frequently  take 
away  all  but  the  initinl  letters.  They  even  frequently 
take  the  initials  of  fevcral  fucceeding  words,  join  them 
together,  and,  adding  vowels  to  them,  make  a  fort  of 
barbraous word,  reprefentativeof all  iliofewhich  they 
have  thus  abridged.  Thus,  Rabbi  Mofes  ben  Mai- 
mon,  in  their  abbreviature  is  Ratnbavi,  &c. 

ABBRtVl.A  lOR,  inageneral  fenfc,apcrfon  who 
abri.lges  any  large  book  into  a  narrower  compafs. 

ABiiREvnTORS,acollegeof  72  perfons  in  the  chan- 
cery of  Rome,  who  draw  up  the  pope's  brieves,  and  re- 
duce petitions,  when  granted  by  him,  into  proper  form 
<or  being  converted  in  bulls. 

ABBL'T.ALS,  llgnify  the  buttings  or  boundings 
of  lands  towards  any  point.  Limits  were  anciently 
diflinguithed  by  artificial  hillocks,  which  were  called 
b-jtiwi::es  ;  and  hence  butting.  In  a  defcription  of  the 
lite  of  land,  the  lides  on  the  breadth  are  more  proper- 
ly ^^^.jccn.'j,  and  thefe  terminating  the  length  zre  ab- 
butaiJij  i  which,  in  old  furveys,  were  fomtrimcsex- 
prefled  hy  ca/iitare,  to  head,  whence  abbuiais  arc  now 
called  hiad-lar.ds. 

ABCEDARY,  or  Abcedarian,  an  epithet  given 
to  compolitions,  the  parts  of  which  are  difpofcd  in  the 
orderofthe  letters  of  the  alphabet:  thus  we  fay,  Ab- 
cedarian pfilnis,  lamentations,  hymns,  &c. 

ABCOURT,  a  town  ncarStGcrmains,  four  leagues 
from  Paris.  Here  is  a  brilk chalybeate  water,  impreg- 
nated witli  tixci  air  and  the  folFil  alkali ;  and  refem- 
bling  the  waters  of  Spa  and  Ihningron. 

ABDALLA,  the  fonof  .'VbJalmothlcb,  was  the  fa- 
therof  the  prophet  Mahomet.  Several  other  Arabians 
of  eminence  bore  the  fame  name. 

ABDALMALEK,  the  fon  of  .Mirvan,  and  the  s'" 
khalifof  the  race  of  theOmmiades,  f.irnanied  Rjllhal 
Hc~:.i!iat,  i.  e.  the  Ikinner  of  a  (lone,  becaufc  of  his 
extreme  avarice  ;  as  alfo  Aoaulzekab.  becaufe  his 
brea;h  was  faid  fi  be  lo  poifonous  as  to  kill  all  the  flics 
which  rcfted  on  his  face.  Yet  he  furpalfed  all  his  prt- 
decellbrs  in  power  and  doniinion  ;  for  in  his  reign  the 
Indies  were  conquered  in  the  call,  and  hisarmics  pene- 
trated Spain  in  the  well :  he  likew  ife  extended  his  em- 
pire toward  the  fouth.  by  making  himfelf  maficr  of 
Medina  and  Mecca.  He  began  his  reign  in  the  65"" 
of  the  hcgira,  A.  D.  648  ;  reigned  1 5 years  ;  and  four 
of  his  fo.is  enjoyed  the  khaliiate  one  at'tcr  another. 
B  3  Abdalmelf.e, 


A  B  D 


r   12  ] 


A  B  D 


/\ni>A  I  .:  fc  I  y.  K  (l)cn  Zoliai),  an  ciiiiiiciit  pliyfitiaii, 
coiniuonly  called   by  the  Eurojitaus  Avutzoar.     Sec 

h\  i  NZOAK. 

ABDALMOIIILEU,  or  Ahdal  Mateleb,  the 
fon  of  Haflicni,  the  father  of  AbJalla,  and  grandfather 
of  Mahomet  tlic  prophet  of  the  Miiifiilmaiis,  was,  it  is 
faij,  of  filch  woiultriulconicliiulsand  beauty,  thataJl 
women  who  faw  him  became  enaiiuuired  :  w  hich  may 
have  given  occalion  to  that  proplutic  liglii,  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  Arabians,  flionc  on  the  foreheads  of  l:im, 
l\is  anceflors,  and  defccndents  ;  it  being  certain  that 
they  were  very  handfome  and  graceful  men.  He  cjied 
when  Malioniet,  of  whom  he  had  taken  peculiar  care, 
was  only  8  or  9  years  old  ;  aged,  according  to  fome, 
no,  and  according  to  other  writers  120. 

ABDALONYIviUS,  or  Abdoi.onymus,  (in  cladlc 
hiltory),  of  the  royal  family  of  Sidon,  and  dcfcended 
from  king  Cinyras,  was  contented  to  live  in  obfcurity, 
and  get  his  lubiillence  by  cultivating  a  garden,  while 
Strato  was  in  poircflion  of  the  crown  of  Sidon.  Alexan- 
dertheGreat  having depofcd  Strato, inquired  whetlicr 
anyofilie  raceofCinyras  was  living,  that  he  might  fct 
him  on  the  throne.  It  was  generally  tlioiiglu  that  the 
whole  race  was  extincb :  but  at  l.ill  AbJalonymus  was 
thought  of,  and  mentioned  to  Alexander  ;  who  imme- 
diately ordered  fome  of  his  foldiers  to  fetch  him.  They 
found  the  good  man  at  work,  happy  in  his  poverty, 
and  entirely  a  flraiiger  to  the  noifcof  arms,  with  which 
all  Afia  was  at  that  time  diilurbed  ;  and  they  could 
fcarcely  pcrfuade  him  that  they  wCre  in  carnell.  Alex- 
ander was  convinced  of  his  high  dcfcent  by  tlie  dig- 
nity that  appeared  in  his  perfon  ;  bat  was  defirous  of 
learning  from  liim  in  v/hat  manner  he  bore  his  poverty. 
"  I  Willi"  faid  AbJalonymus,  "  1  may  bear  my  new 
condition  as  well :  Thel'e  hands  have  iupplied  my  ne- 
celiities:  I  have  had  nothing,  and  I  have  wanted  no- 
thing." This  anfwer  pleafed  Alexander  fo  much,  that, 
belides  giving  him  all  that  was  Strato's,  he  augment- 
ed his  dominions,  and  gave  him  a  large  prcfcnt  out  of 
the  Pcrlian  fpoils. 

ABDALS,  inthe  Eaftern  countries,  akind  of  faints 
f'.ippofcd  to  be  infpircd  to  a  degree  of  madnef>.  Tiic 
word  comes,  perhaps,  from  tiic  Arabic,  ylbdallah,  the 
fervant  of  God.  The  Per/ians  call  them  dcvaneh  kho- 
da,  fimilar  to  the  Latins  way  of  fpeaking  of  their  pro- 
phets and  (ibyts,  q.  d.  Jtire/ites  deo,  raging  with  the 
god.  They  arc  often  carried  by  excels  of  zeal,  efpc- 
cially  in  the  Indies,  to  run  about  the  ilreets  and  kill 
all  iliey  meet  of  a  different  religion  ;  of  which  travel- 
lers furnilh  many  inilanccs.  The  Knglilh  call  this, 
fuunin^  a  muk,  from  the  name  of  the  inftrument,  a 
fort  of  poniard,  which  they  employ  on  thcfc  defpcratc 
occafions.  If  they  are  killed,  as  it  commonly  happens, 
before  they  have  done  much  mifcliicf,  they  reckon  it 
highly  meritorious  ;  and  arc  eflcemed,  by  the  vulgar, 
martyrs  for  their  faith. 

ABDARA,  or  Apdera,  (anc.  geog.)  a  town  of 
BcEotia  in  Spain,  a  Phoenician  colony  ;  wow  Adra,  to 
the  weft  of  Alme ira  in  the  kingdom  of  Granada. 

ABDERA, (anc.  geog.)  amaritime  town  of  Thrace, 
not  far  from  the  moutli  of  the  river  Ncflus,  on  the 
eafl  fide.  The  foundation,  according  to  Herodotus, 
was  attempted  to  be  laid  by  Timefms  the  Clazome- 
nian  ;  but  he  was  forced  by  the  Thracians  to  quit  the 
defign.    The  Tcians  undertook  it,  and  fuccecded  ;  fet- 


tling there,  in  order  toavoid  theinfultsof  tlie  Pcrlians.     .-VUItr* 
— Several  lingularitiesarc  toldofAbdcra.*  The grafs         II 
of  the  eoiuury  round  it  was  fo  Itrong,  that  fiich  horfcs  -'Abdication 
as  cat  of  it  ran  mad.     In  the  reign  of  Callander  king  of  •  piinii, 
Maccdon,  this  city  was  fopeflcred  with  frogs  and  rats,  lib.  xxv.  e. 
thai  the  inhabitants  were  forceil  to  quit  it  for  a  time.  8.  Juft.  lib. 
— The  Abdcritcs,  or  Abdcritani,  were  very  much  dc-  ^^'-  '•  *• 
riJcd  for  tluir  wai;:  of  wit  and  judgment:  yet  their 
city  has  given  birth  to  fcvcral  eminent  perfons;  as, 
i'rotagoras,  Democritus,  Anaxarchus,   Hecat*ns  the 
hilh)rian,  Niceiuvtus  the  poet,  and  many  others,  who 
were  mciuioncd  among  the  illullrious  men. — In  the 
reign  of  Lylimachus,  Abdcra  was  atiiifled  for  fome 
months  w  ith  a  inoll  extraordinary  diftafc  f  :  this  was  f  Luciaiiuj 
a  burning  fever,  wliolecrilis  uasahvays  on  the  feventh  i/utimoJo 
day,  and  then  it  left  them  ;   but  it  fo  diUrac-led  their  MiJI./ii  nif 
imaginaiiop.s,  that  they  fancied   themfelves  players./"'.         '' 
After  this,  they  were  ever  repeating  vcriVs  from  fome  "" 
tragedy,  and  particularly  out  Of  the  Andromeda  of  Eu- 
ripides, as  if  they  had  b.en  upon  the  ilage  ;   fo  tliat 
many  Of  thefc  p.'de,  meagre  actors,  were  pouring  forth 
theirtragiccxelamaiionsin  every  ilreet.  Thisdclirinni 
eo)itinucd  till  tiic  winter  following  ;  which  was  a  very 
cold  one,  and  therefore  fitter  to  remove  it.     Lucian, 
who  has  defcribed  this  difcafe,  endeavours  to  account 
for  it  in  this  manner  :  AreJiclaus,  an  excellent  player, 
ac^ed  the  Andromeda  of  EuHpidis  before  the  Abdc- 
ritcs, in  the  height  of  a  very  hot  fumnier.  Several  had 
a  fever  at  their  coming  out  of  the  theatre;  and  as  their 
imaginations  were  full  of  the  tragedy,  the  delirium 
which  the  fever  raifcd  reprefentcd  perpetually  Andro- 
meda, Perfeus,  Medufa,  &c.  and  the  feveral  dramatic 
incidents,  and  called  wp  the  ideasof  thofc  objcfts,  and 
the pleafureof  the rcprefentaiion.foftrongly,  that  they 
could  not  forbear  imitating  Arclielaus's  atlion  and  de- 
clamation :  And  from  ihefc  the  fever  fpread  to  others 
by  in  feci  ion. 

ABDERAHMA,  a  Saracen  viceroy  in  Spain,  who 
revolted,  and  formed  an  inticpendent  principality  at 
Cordova.  He  had  feveral  fuccellbrs  of  the  fame  name. 

ABDEST,  a  Perfiaa  word,  properly  fignifying  the 
w.".ter  placed  in  a  bafon  for  walhing  the  hands  ;  but  is 
iifed  to  imply  the  legal  purifications  pradifed  by  the 
Mahometans  before  they  enter  on  their  religious  ce- 
remonies. 

ABDIAS  Of  Babylon,  one  of  the  boideft  legend- 
writers,  whoboafled  he  had  fecn  our  Saviour,tha  the  was 
one  of  the  72  difcipks,  had  been  eye-witncfs  of  the  ac- 
tions and  prayers  at  the  deaths  of  feveral  of  the  apolUes, 
and  had  followed  into  Periia  St  Simon  and  St  Jude, 
who,  he  faid,  made  him  the  firll  bilhop  of  Babylon. 
Hisbook  intitled  HiftoriacsrtamiiiisapoJIolici,  was  pub- 
lifhcd  by  Wolfgang  Lazius,  at  Bazil,  15  Ji  ;  and  it  has 
lince  borne  feveral  impreflions  in  different  places. 

ABDICATION,  the  action  whereby  a  magi/Irate, 
or  perfon  in  ofiice,  renounces  and  gives  up  the  fame 
before  the  term  of  fervice  is  expired. 

This  word  is  frequentlyconiounded  with  refignatton ; 
I  ut  di.'iers  from  it,  in  that  abdication  is  done  purely 
and  limply,  w'lercas  rcfignation  is  in  favour  of  fome 
third  perfon.  It  is  faid  to  be  a  renunciation,  quitting, 
and  relinquilliing,  fo  as  to  have  nothing  further  to  A(j 
with  a  thing  ;  or  the  doing  of  fuch  aflions  as  are  in- 
confiflent  with  the  holding  of  it.  On  king  James'slca- 
ving  the  kingdom,  and  abdicating  the  goverament,  t-he 

lords 


A  13  E 


[ 


Al.cl. 


AWomeii  lords  woulJ  have  ]iad  the  word  dcf:it'i',n  made  iilc  of  ; 
but  the  conur.ons  thought  it  was  not  comprchcndvc 
enough,  lor  that  the  king  might  then  have  liberty  of 
rctiiniing. — Among  the  Roman  writers  it  is  more  par- 
ticularly ufcd  for  the  act  whereby  afaihcrdifcardedor 
difclaimcd  his  fjii,  and  expelled  him  the  family.  It  is 
diflingiiillicd  ixo\y\.exh.iradatKjox  dijinheniing,  in  that 
the  former  was  done  in  the  father's  lifetime  j  the  latter, 
by  will  at  iiis  death  :  fo  that  whoever  was  abdicated, 
was  alfo  difinhtritcd  ;  Lul  not  via  vcrfa. 

ABDOl^IE^J,  in  anatomy,  is  that  part  of  the  trunk 
of  the  body  which  lies  between  the  thorax  and  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pelvis.     See   Anatomy. 

ABDOMINALES,  or  Abdominal  Fishes,  con- 
ftitute  the  IV"' Order  of  the  Fourih  C/a/j  of  Animals, 
in  the  Linna;an  fyftcm.     Sec  Zoology. 

ABDUCTION,  in  logic,  a  kind  of  argumentation, 
by  the  Greeks  called  apagog;  wherein  the  greater 
extreme  is  evidently  contained  in  the  medium,  but  the 
medium  not  fo  evidently  in  the  lelicr  extreme  as  not  to 
require  fome  farther  medium  or  proof  to  make  it  ap- 
pear. It  is  called  abdufHon,  becaiifc,  from  the  con- 
clufion,  it  draws  us  on  to  prove  the  proportion  alfumed. 
Thus  in  the  fyllogifm,  "  All  whom  God  abfolves  arc 
free  from  fui  ;  but  God  abfolves  all  who  are  in  Chrill ; 
therefore  all  whoareinChrift  are  free  from  fin," — the 
major  is  evident  ;  but  thcminor,  or  airumption,isnot  fo 
evident  without  fome  other  propofition  to  prove  it,  as, 
"  God  received  full  fatisfadion  for  lin  by  the  fuffer- 
ings  of  Jefus  Chrifl." 

Ab  Dv  c  r  I  o  N  ,in  fiirgery,a  fpceies  of  fracture,  where- 
in the  broken  parts  of  the  bone  recede  from  each  other. 
ABDUCTOR,  or  Abdi; CENT,  in  anatomy,  a  name 
given  to  fcvcral  of  the  inufcles,  on  account  of  their 
ferviiig  to  withdraw,  open,  or  pull  back  the  parts  to 
which  they  belong. 

ABKL,  fecond  fon  of  Adam  and  Eve,  was  a  (liep- 
herd.  He  oilcred  to  God  fome  of  the  firlUings  of  his 
flock,  at  the  fame  time  that  his  brother  Cain  offered 
the  fruits  of  the  earth.  God  was  pleafcd  with  Abel's 
oblation,  butdifpleafed  with  Cain's  ;  which  fo  cxafpe- 
rated  the  latter,  that  he  rofe  up  againft  his  brother 
and  killed  him.  Thefe  arc  the  only  circumflances 
Moles  relates  of  him  ;  though,  were  we  to  take  notice 
of  the  fcvcral  particulars  to  which  curiolity  has  given 
birth  on  this  occafion,  they  would  run  to  a  very  great 
length.  But  this  will  not  be  expected.  It  is  remark- 
able, that  the  Greek  churches,  who  celebrate  thefealls 
of  every  other  patriarch  and  prophet,  have  not  done 
the  fame  honour  to  Abel.  His  name  is  not  to  be 
found  in  any  catalogue  of  faints  or  mirtyrs  till  the 
lo"' century  ;  nor  even  in  the  new  Roman  martyrolo- 
gy.  However  he  is  prayed  to,  with  fome  other  faints, 
in  fcvcral  Roman  litanies  faid  for  pcrfons  who  lie  at 
the  point  of  death. 

y/sAX  Kcrav!i!!},  or  Vincarumy  beyond  Jordan,  in 
the  country  of  the  Ammonites,  where  Jephthah  de- 
feated them,  fevcn  miles  diflant  t'rom  Philadelphia, 
abounding  in  vines,  and  hence  the  name.  It  was  alfo 
called  Ahcla. 

ABF.L-Mihilii,  the  country  of  the  prophet  Eliflia, 
fituatc  on  this  fide  Jordan,  between  the  valley  of  Jez- 
rcel  and  the  village  Bethmaela  in  the  plains  of  Jordan, 
where  the  Midianites  were  defeated  by  Gideon.  Judges, 
vii.  3  2. 


13     ]  ABE 

.^JuKL-M-zi ui„  ,  called  alfo  the  th:clhi;!g-no('r  ui' 
Atad  i  fignifying  the  lamentation  of  the  Egyptiins  ; 
in  allulioii  to  the  mourning  (cr  Jacob,  Gcu.  1.  3,  ic, 
II.     Suppofed  to  be  near  Hebron. 

JuEL-M'jfch,  or  Abchnrifik,  \\\  botany,  the  trivial 
name  of  a  fpecics  of  the  Hibiscus. 

AHEL-Saitim,  or  Saiim,  a  town  in  the  plains  of 
Moab,  to  the  N.  E.  of  the  Dead  Sea,  not  far  from 
Jordan,  where  the  Ifraclites  committed  fornicatio.n 
with  the  daughters  of  Moab:  So  called,  probably, 
from  the  great  number  of  Sittim-trces  there. 

ABELARD  (Peter),  one  of  the  mod  famous  doc- 
tors of  the  twelfth  century,  was  born  at  Pcliis  near 
Kantz,  in  Britany  :  he  was  well  learned  in  divini  y, 
philofophy,  and  the  languages  ;  but  was  particularly 
diftinguilhcd  by  his  Ikill  in  logic,  and  his  fondnefs  for 
difputations,  which  led  him  to  tiavel  into  feveral  pro- 
vinces in  order  to  give  public  proof  of  his  acutcncfs 
in  that  fciencc. 

After  having  baffled   many  antajonifls,    he  read 
lectures  in  divinity  with  great  applaufe   at    Paris  ; 
where  he  boarded  with  a  canon  whofe  name  was  Ful- 
bcrt,  and  who  had  a  very  beautiful  niece  named  He- 
loife.     Tlie  canon  ardently  wilhed  to  fee  this  young 
lady  make  a  figure  among  the  learned,  and  Abelard 
was  made  her  preceptor  :  bat  inftcad  of  inllruding  her 
in  tiie  fcienccs,  he  taught  her  to  love.     Abelard  now 
performed  his  public  functions  very  coldly,  and  wrote 
nothing  but  amorous  verfes.  Heloife  proving  with  child, 
Abelard  fent  her  toa  lifter  of  his  in  Britany,  where  Ihc 
was  delivered  of  a  for..  Tofoftcn  ilie  canon's  anger,  he 
offered  to  marry  Heloife  privafly  ;  and  tluoldman  was 
better  picafed  with  tIiepropofahli;in  the  nicee.who.from 
alingularexcefsofpa!iion,chofc  to  be  Abelard 'smillrefs 
rather  than  his  wife;  She  married,  however,  but  ufed  of- 
ten to  protell  upon  oath  that  fhcwas  fingle,which  provo- 
ked the  canon  to  ufe  her  ill.     Upon  this,  Abelard  fent 
her  to  the  monaftery  of  Argcnteuil;  where  flic  put  on  .1 
religious  habit,  but  did  not  take  the  veil.   Heloifc's  re- 
lations confidcring  thisas  a  fecond  treachery,  hired  ruf- 
lianS,  who,  forcing  into  his  chamber  in  the  dead  of  the 
night,  emafeulated  him.  This  infamous  treatment  made 
him  fly  to  the  gloom  of  a  eloifter.     He  allumed  the  mo- 
naftic  habit  in  the  abbey  of  St  Dennis  ;  but  the  difor- 
dcrs  of  that  houfe  foon  drove  him  from  thence.     He 
was-aTtcrwards  charged  with  hcrcfy  ;  but  after  fcvcral 
perfecutionsforhis  religious  fentiments,  he  fettled  in  a 
folitudein  the  dioccfc  ofTroies,  where  he  built  an  ora- 
tory, to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  the  Paraclct.     He 
was  afterwards  chofcn  fuperiorof  the  abbey  of  Ruis  in 
the  dioeefeof  Vannes  :  when  the  nuns  being  expelled 
from  the  nunnery  in  which  Heloife  had  been  placed, 
he  gave  her  his  oratory  ;  where  llie  fettled  with  fome 
of  her  lifter  nuns,  and  became  their  priorefs. 

Abelard  mixed  the  philofophy  of  Ariltotlc  with  his 
divinity,  and  in  11 40  was  condemned  by  the  council  of 
Rhcims  and  Sens.  Pope  Innocent  II.  ordered  him  to  be 
imprilbncd,  his  books  to  be  burnt,  and  forbid  him  ever 
leach  in',  again.  However,  he  was  foon  after  pardoned, 
at  the  folicitationof  Peter  the  Venerable,  who  received 
him  into  his  abbey  of  Clugni,  where  he  led  an  exem- 
plary life.  He  died  in  the  priory  of  Marcellus  at  Cha- 
lons, April  2\,  1142,  aged  lixty-tliree.  His  corpic 
was  fent  to  Heloife,  who  buried  it  in  the  Paracler. 
He  left  fcvcral  works :  the  moft  celebrated  of  which 

arc 


,  I 


ABE  I     14     J 

Abil-trec  crc  thofc  teiiiicr  Icltcrs  that  pilFcc!  bf  twecn  liirn  and 


ABE 


I 


Ikluilc,  \\  iih  the  accouiu  ot  thtir  uiibloi  t'.'.ncs  prciix- 
td  J  which  lidvc  been  iraiilUicti  into  Lngliili,anJ  i.ii- 
juoriaUi'cii  by  the  luniioiiy  ot  Mr  I'opi'b  iiuiubcis. 

ABtL-TKEE,  or  Ahele-tree,  an  obfolctc  nuiac 
for  a  fjiccics  ol'ihe  popbr.     Sec  Populus. 

ABLLIANS,  Aheolites,  or  Abelonians,  in 
ciuirch-liillory,  a  ltd  onicrcilcs  mentioned  by  bt  Aii- 
llin,  which  arofc  in  the  dioccie  of  Kippo  in  Ahici, 
a:'.d  is  fuppofcd  to  have  beg  :n  in  the  reign  of  Arcadiiis, 
and  ended  in  thr.t  of  '1  hcodofms.  Indeed  it  \va^  not 
calculated  for  being  of  any  long  coniiiiuauce.  ThoCc 
of  this  fc«5l  regulated  marriage  after  the  example  of 
Abel  J  who,  they  pretended,  was  married,  but  died 
withoutever  havin;;  known  his  wife.  They  tlicrcfore 
cll'jwcd  each  man  to  marry  one  woman,  but  enjoined 
them  to  live  in  continence  :  and,  to  keep  up  the  IcJ, 
when  a  man  and  v.  oman  entered  into  this  focicty,  they 
adopted  a  boy  and  a  girl,  who  were  to  inherit  their 
goods,  and  to  marry  upon  the  fame  terms  of  not  be- 
getting children,  but  of  adopting  two  of  diftcrent 
fexcs. 

ABELLA,  anciently  a  town  of  Campania,  near 
the  river  Clanius.  The  inhabitants  were  called  Abel- 
lani,  and  f.iid  to  have  been  a  colony  of  Chakidians. 
The  mix  Avcllana,  called  alfoPrcenellina,  or  the  ha- 
zelnut, takes  its  name  from  this  town,  according  to 
•jVlacrobius.     Now  Avelia. 

ABELLINUM,  anciently  a  town  of  the  Kirpi'.ii, 
apeopleof  Apjlia  ;  dillant  abouta  mile  from  the  rivu- 
IctSabbato,  between  Bencventum  and  Salcrnuni.  Pliny 
calls  the  inhabitants  Abellinatcs,  with  tlie  epithet  pro- 
topi,  to  diflinguilh  them  from  the  AbcUinates  Marli. 
Now  Avellino.      E.  Long.  I  J.  20.  Lat.  21. 

ABKN  EZRA  (Abraham),  a  celebrated  rabbi,  born 
at  Toledo  in  Spain,  calledby  the  Jews,  Thcwife, great, 
and  admirable  Doctor,  was  a  very  able  interpreter  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures  ;  and  was  well  fkilledin  grammar, 
poetry,  philofophy,  aftronomy,  and  medicine.  V.c 
was  alfo  a  perfed  mafterof  the  Arabic.  His  principal 
work  is,  Comip.cntarics  on  the  Old  Teftamcnt,  w  hich 
is  much  eflcemed  :  thefe  are  printed  in  Bombcrg's  and 
Eiixtorf's  Hebrew  Bibles,  ilis  (lile  is  clear,  elegant, 
cjiicifc,  and  much  like  that  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  : 
lie  almoll  always  adheres  to  the  literal  fenfe,  and  every 
v.here  gives  proofs  of  his  genius  and  good  fenfe  :  he, 
however,  advances  fome  erroneous  feiuiments.  The 
fcarcellof  all  his  books  is intilled,Jcfud  Mora  ;  which 
is  a  theological  work,  intended  as  an  exhortation  to  the 
lludy  of  tlie  Talmud.     He  died  in  11  74,  aged  75. 

y-lBEx  Metier,  a  learned  rabbin,  who  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Old  Tellament  in  Hebrew,  intitled 
The  Perfection  of  beauty.  This  rabbin  generally 
follows  the  grammatical  fenfe  and  the  opinions  of 
Kimehi.     The  btct  edition  is  that  of  Holland. 

ABENAS,  a  town  in  France,  in  Languedoc  and  in 
the  lower  Vivarais,  feared  on  the  river  Ardefch,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Ccvennes.  E.  Long.  4.  43.  Lat.  44.  40. 
ABENEL  Gauey,  a  fixed  liar  of  the  fecond  or 
third  magnitude,  on  the  fouth  fcale  of  the  conftella- 
tion  Libra. 

TVBENSPERG,  a  fmall  town  of  Germany,  in  the 
circle  and  dutchy  of  Bavaria,  and  in  the  governiv.eni  of 
Munich.  It  isfeatcd  on  tlie  river  Abentz,  near  the  Da- 
nube.    E.  Lon^g.  II.  jS.  Lat.  4S.  45. 


AIji:RAVON,  a  borough  town  of  Glaraorganfliirc  Abcravon, 
in  Wales,  go\  crntd  by  a  portreeve.     It  had  a  market,   Abt-rliro- 

w  hich  is  now  dilcomiiuicd  :  the  vicarage  isdifcharged,     ''"'^*^- ^ 

and  is  worth  45I.  clear  yearly  value.     It  is  feated  on         ^~ 
the  mouth  of  the  river  -Avon,  104  miles  well  of  Lon- 
don.    W.  Long,  3.  21.  Lat.  51.  40. 

ABEllBUOrHH.K,  or  Akbroatii,  one  of  the 
royal  boroughs  of  Scoiland,  Jituatc'd  in  the  county  of 
Angus,  about  forty  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Edinburgh  j  its 
\\  .  Long,  being  2.  29.  and  N.  Lat.  56.  36.  It  is  feat- 
ed on  the  difcharge  of  the  little  river  Brothic  into  tlic 
fea,  as  the  name  imports,  Abcr  in  the  Britilh  implying 
f.ich  a  lituation.  it  is  a  fmall  but  fiouril!;ing  place, 
well  built,  and  fliU  iucreafing.  The  town  has  been 
in  an  improving  ftate  for  the  forty  laft  years,  and  the 
number  of  inhabitants  greatly  augmented  ;  which 
is  owing  to  the  imroduclion  of  raanufadurcs.  The 
number,  at  this  time,  is  faid  to  be  about  four  thou- 
fand  :  tliefc  principally  conliit  of  weavers  of  coarfe 
brown  linens,  and  fomc  fail-cloih  ;  others  are  employ- 
ed in  making  white  and  coloured  threads:  the  remain- 
der arc  either  engaged  in  the  fliippiug  of  the  place,  or 
in  the  ncccflary  and  common  mechanic  trades.  The 
brown  linens,crOfnaburghs,were  manufactured  here 
before  any  encoiiragcnieiit  w  as  given  by  Government, 
or  the  linen  company  ereited  at  Edinburgh.  It  ap- 
pears from  the  books  of  the  flamp-oiiice  in  this  tov.n, 
that  fcve;!  or  eight  hundred  tlioufaiid  yards  arc  annu- 
ally made  in  the  jdace.  and  a  fmall  difli  ith.^ound.  Bc- 
fiJes  this  export  and  that  of  thread,  much  barley  and 
fome  wheat  is  fent  abroad.  -The  foreign  imports  arc 
flax,  flax-feed,  and  tin.bcr,  from  the  Baltic.  The 
coafting  trade  conlills  of  coals  from  Borrowftounnefs, 

and  lime  from  Lord  Elgin's  kilns  in  Fife At  this 

place,  in  default  of  a  natural  harbour,  a  tolerable  arti- 
ficial one  of  piers  has  been  formed,  where,  at  fpriiig- 
tides,  which  rife  here  til  teen  feet,  fliips  of  two  hun- 
dred tons  can  come,  and  of  eighty  at  neap-tides  ;  but 
they  mull  lie  dry  at  low  water.  This  port  is  of  great 
antiquity  :  there  is  an  agreement  yet  extant  between 
the  abbot  and  the  burghers  of  Aberbrothick,  1111194, 
concerning  tiiemakingof  the  harbour.  Both  parties 
were  bound  to  contribute  their  proportions  ;  but  the 
largcll  fell  to  the  (liare  of  the  former,  for  which  he 
was  to  receive  an  annual  tax  payable  out  of  every  rood 
of  land  lying  within  the  borough. — The  glory  of  this 
place  V.  as  the  abbey,  whofc  very  ruins  give  fome  idea 
of  its  former  magnilicence.  It  was  founded  by  AVil- 
liam  the  Lion  in  11 78,  and  dedicated  to  the  celebra- 
ted primate  Thomas  a  Becket.  The  founder  was  b.i- 
ried  here  ;  but  there  are  no  remains  of  his  tomb,  or 
of  any  other,  excepting  that  of  a  monk  of  the  name 
of  Alexander  Nicol.  The  monks  were  of  the  Tyro- 
ncfian  order  -,  and  were  firft  brought  from  Kelfo, 
Vihofe  abbot  declared  thofe  of  this  place,  on  the  Hrfl 
inflituiion,  to  be  free  from  his  jurifdiciiou.  The  laft 
abbot  was  the  famous  Cardinal  Beaton,  at  the  fame 
timearchbiihopofSt  Andrew's, and, before  his  death. 
as  great  and  abfolutc  here  as  V/olfey  was  in  England. 
King  John,  th<  Englilli  monarch,  granted  this  mona- 
fteryinoft  uncommon  privileges  ;  for,  by  charter  under 
his  great  fcal,  he  exempted  it  a  teloniis  et  confuctiK^ine 
in  every  part  of  J'ngland,  except  London.  At  Aber- 
brothii.k  is  a  chalybeate  water,  finiilar  to  thofc  of  Pe- 
terhead and  Clcndy. 

ABERCONWAY, 


A  D  E 


I     IS     ] 


ABE 


Abcrton-        ABERCONWAY,  or  Conway,  CainarvoaQ.irc, 
way,      Nortli-W  ales  ;  fo  called  iroiuits  litualioiii:  the  mouth 
Aberdeen,  of  the  river  Conway.     It  ii  a  haudfunie  town,  pica- 
^         fantly  lituatci  on  the  liJe  of  a  hill,  ami  h;s  nuv.y  con- 
venience's for  trade  ;  uotAitlittaiiding  which  it  is  the 
poorclt  town  in  the  county.   It  was  built  by  lidward  I. 
and  had  noto  .ly  walls,  biit  a  llrong  calilc  which  is  now 
ill  ruins.     Kcrc  is  an  inlcrip:ioii  o.i  the  tomb  of  one 
Nicholas  Kooks,  imporiiag  thjt  he  was  the  oiic-and- 
fortieih  child  of  his  father,  and  had   twcnty-fcven 
children  himfclf.     It  is  229  miles  from  Lonuoa,  \V. 
Long.  3.  47-  N.  Lac.  53.  jo. 

ABtllDliEN,  the  name  of  two  cities  in  Scot- 
land, called  the  OiiJ  and  A'c'o)  Towns,  lituated  on 
the  German  ocean,  in  W.  Lon^.  i.  40.  ana  N. 
Lat.  57.  19. 

Aberdeen  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity.  According 
to  tradition,  it  was  of  note  in  the  reign  of  Gregory, 
who  conferred  ou  it  fomc  privileges  about  the  year 
893.  In  X004,  Mal.olm  II.  founded  a  bilhopric  at 
a  place  called  Mortlich  in  Bantlihire,  in  memory  of 
alignal  victory  wbicn  he  there  gained  over  the  Danes  : 
which  bilhopric  was  tranilatcd  to  Old  Aberdeen  by 
David  1.  ;  and  in  1165,  the  then  bifliop  of  Aberdeen 
obtained  a  new  charter  from  Malcolm  iV.  There  is 
extant  a  charter  of  Alexander  II.  hy  which,  in  I2t7, 
the  King  grants  to  Aucrdeen  the  fame  privileges  he 
had  granted  to  his  town  of  Perth. 

The  Old  Town  lies  about  a  mile  to  the  north  of  the 
new,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Don,  over  which  is  a 
fine  Gothic  bri.'ge,  of  alinglc  arch,  greatly  admired, 
which  rclls  at  both  lidcs  on  two  rocks.  1  his  arch, 
faid  to  have  been  built  by  a  bilhop  of  Aberdeen  about 
the  year  1290,1567  fectwideatthcb  >ttoni,a!id  34",  feet 
high  above  the  lurfaceof  the  river,  which  at  ebb-tide  is 
here  19  feet  deep.  The  old  town  was  formerly  the  feat 
of  the  bilhop,  and  had  alarge  cathedral  commonly  cal- 
led 5/  Alac/iLr's.  1  wo  very  .intique  fpires,andoneai!lc, 
■which  is  u  led  as  a  church,  are  now  the  only  remains  of 
it.  The  bilhopric  was  founded  in  the  time  of  uavidl.as 
abovcmentioncd.  1  he  cathedral  had  anciently  tworows 
of  fione  pillars  acrofs  the  church,  and  three  turrets; 
the  ftecfle, which  w  as  the  largeft  of  ihefe  turrets,  reli- 
ed upon  an  arch,  fupported  by  four  pillars.  In  this  ca- 
thedral there  was  a  line  library  ;  but,  about  the  year 
I  j6o,  it  was  almoll  totally  dcllroyed.  But  the  capital 
building  is  the  king's-college,  on  the  fouth  lide  of  the 
town, which  isalarge  and  flatcly  iabric-  Itis  builtround 
a  fquare,  with  cloiltcrson  the  fouth  lide.  The  chapel  is 
very  ruinouswiihin;  but  there  llill  remaiasfome  wood- 
work of  exquiliteworkmanihip.  This  was preferved  by 
the  fpirit  of  the  principal  at  the  lime  ot  the  reformati- 
on, who  armed  his  people  and  checked  the  bliiid  zeal 
of  the  baroris  of  the  Mearns  ;  who,  after  Itrip,  iug  the 
cathedral  of  its  roof,  and  robbing  it  of  the  bells,  were 
goi  ig  to  violate  tliis  feat  of  learning.  They  ihipped 
their  facrilegious  booty,  w  ith  an  intention  of  cxpoling 
it  to  fale  in  Holland  :  but  the  vellel  had  llarcely  gone 
out  of  port,  when  ir  pcrilhcdina  liormwitli  ail  its  ill- 
gained  lading.  The  lleeple  is  vaulted  wiili  a  double 
crofsarch  ;  above  which  is  an  imperial  crown, fupport- 
ed by  eight  ftoiu-pilUrs,  and  clofed  w  ith  a  globe  and 
two  gilded  erodes.  In  the  year  i6;i  this  lleeple  was 
thrown  down  by  a  florm,  but  was  fc.on  after  rebuilt 
ia  a  more  Aately  form.    This  college  was  foandcd  ia 


1494,  by  William  Eli>liinflo:i  bilhop  of  this  place,  Abfrdeen. 

Lord  Chancellor  of  Scotland  in  the  reign  of  james  III.   v— - 

and  Lord  Privy  Seal  in  that  of  James  IV.  Hut 
Jan;cs  IV.  claimed  the  patronage  ot  it,  and  it  has 
liiice  been  Colled  the  A'./j^'/  CuisgL-.  Thiicolltgc,  and 
the  Maiifehal-coUegc  in  tlie  New  Town,  form  one 
univeniiy,  called  the  \Jiuu<.rj.ty  cj  KiirgLbarlct.  1  Ue 
lijrary  is  large,  but  not  remarkable  for  many  curiofi- 
tics.  Hector  Liocthius  was  the  tirlt  principal  of  the 
college  ;  and  feiit  for  from  Paris  tor  that  purpole,  on 
an  annual  falary  of  forty  marks  Scots,  at  thirteen  pence 
each.  The  Iquare  tower  on  the  hde  of  the  college 
was  buiit  by  contribution  Ironi  General  monk  and 
the  oliiccrsunderhi.a  then  quartered  at  Aberdeen,  fcr 
the  reception  of  lludcnts  ;  of  which  tiicrc  are  about 
a  hundred  belonging  to  the  college  who  lie  in  it. 

The  New  Town  i»  the  capital  of  the  ihire  of  Aber- 
deen, t'orlargciicls,  trade, ana  beauty,  it  greatly  ex- 
ceeds any  town  in  the  north  01  Scotia. id.  It  is 
built  OH  a  hill  or  riling  ground,  and  lies  on  a  fmall 
bay  formed  by  the  Dee,  deep  enough  for  a  lliip  of 
2CO  tons,  and  above  two  miles  in  circumference  — 
The  buildings  (which  are  of  granite  from  the  neigh- 
bouring quaries)  are  generally  four  llories  high  ;  anj 
have,  liJi  the  molt  part,  gardens  behind  them,  which 
gives  it  a  beautiful  appearance.  On  the  high-llrect  is 
a  large  church,  which  formerly  belonged  to  the  Iran- 
cifcans.  This  church  was  begun  by  iJiil.op  \V  illiani 
Llphinlton  ;  and  tinill.ed  by  Ga\inus  Dunbar,  bilhop  of 
Aljcrdeen,  abjut  the  year  t  5&0.  Bilhop  Dunbar  is  faij 
liivewife  to  have  built  the  bridge  over  the  Dee,  which 
coalillsof  feven  arches.  In  ihe  niidiileof  Calue-Ilreec 
is  an  octagon  building,  with  neat  bas-relievos  of  the 
kings  of  Scotland  from  James  1.  to  James  VII.  The 
town-houfc  makes  a  good  figure,  and  has  a  handlome 
fpirc  in  the  centre.  The  grammar-lchoolisa  low  but 
neat  building.  Gordon's  hofpiial  is  handlome  ;  in  front 
is  agood  liatue  of  the  founder  :  it  maniains  forty  boys, 
whoarc  apprenticed  at  proper  ages.  The  infirmary  is 
a  large  pbiin  building,  and  fends  out  between  eight 
and  nine  hundred  cured  patients  annually,  but  the 
chief  public  uuilding  ii:  thenewtown  isthe  .Marifchal- 
coUcge,  founded  by  George  Kicth  carl  of  Marifchal, 
in  the  year  1593  ;  but  lince  greatly  augmented  with 
additional  b.iilUings.  There  arc  about  1 43  ftudents 
btlongi.ig  to  it.  In  both  tiie  Mariichal  and  King's 
college  the  languages,  mathematics,  natural  philolb- 
phy,  divinity,  ice.  are  taught  by  very  able  profellbrs. 
The  convents  in  .-iberdeen  were  :  Oneof  Mathurines, 
orof  the  order  of  the  Trinity,  founded  by  William  the 
Lion,  whouied  in  1314  ;  another  of  Dominicans,  by 
Alexander  II.  ;  a  third  of  Obfcrvantir.es,  a  building 
of  great  length  in  the  middle  of  the  cily,  founded  by 
the  citi/.er.s  and  Mr  Richard  Vans,&c.  ;  and  a  fourth 
of  Carmelites,  or  White  Kriars,  founded  by  Philip  de 
Atbuthniit  in  1  350. 

Aberdeen,  including  the  Old  Town,  is  fnppofej 
to  co;uain  25,000  people.  Its  trade  is  conllderablc, 
but  might  be  greatly  extended  by  an  atte/ition  to  the 
white  lilheries. 

The  harbour  was  long  a  great  detriment  to  its  trade, 
and  ocealioncd  the  lofs  of  many  lives  and  much  pro- 
perty. A  Hrangcr  could'r.ever  depend  upon  t^ndin;;  it 
as  he  left  it ;  while  vcilels  lay  at  anchor  in  the  read  till 
the  tidcflioulUiuakc,  they  have  often  been  wrecked  by 

dorms 


A  »  E 


I     16     ] 


A  li  E 


•\hcrJcen.  Aorms  which  f.uliicnly  arofc.    It  v./is  \  cry  narrow  at 

■      " ihc  moiiili,  having  ilic  calUrly  rocky  point  of  the 

Graiiipian  niountaius  on  the  foutli,  anJ  a  tlat  Lljwiiig 
f;iiulon  the  north,  txtcndiiig  along  the  co.ilt  formally 
miles.  By  the  ealkrly  and  north-  call  llorms  the  faud 
was  driven  in  a  long  ridge  acrol's  tlic  harbour'smouth, 
aid  lornicd  what  was  called  the  I'ur.  Upon  this  bar 
thcdepihof  watcrat  lowtiJe  wasfomciinics  not  above 
ihrce  feet.  Clearing  away  the  faud,  though  but  a  par- 
tial and  temporary  remedy,  was  a  matter  of  great  ex- 
pence  to  the  comnumily  :  If  it  was  cleared  one  week 
lb  as  to  have  live  or  lix  feet  of  water  at  ebb,  a  frelli 
florin  the  next  week  undid  all  that  had  been  done.  The 
town  at  lall  came  to  a  refohition  of  creeling  a  llrong 
pier  on  the  north  fide  of  the  harbour.  This  pier  is 
I  200  feet  in  length,  and  gradually  iacrealcs  in  tliick- 
nefs  and  height  as  it  approaches  the  fea,  where  the 
head  or  rounding  is  60  feet  diameter  at  the  bafc,  and 
the  perpendicular  elevation  is  3S  feet.  The  whole  is 
built  of  granite,  the  mofl  durable  flonc  known  :  many 
of  the  outlide  Hones  arc  about  three  tons  weight,  with 
hewn  beds.  It  was  built  under  the  direction  of  Mr 
Smcatoii ;  and  the  expcncc,  anioiinting  to  above 
17, cool,  is  defrayed  by  doubling  the  harbour-dues, 
whicli  are  ehieHy  paid  by  the  inhabitants. 

A  little  to  the  foutli  of  the  bar,  they  have  now  a 
depth  of  7  fathoms  at  low  water ;  and  at  the  har- 
bour mouth,  from  eight  to  nine  fithoras,  where  they 
had  formerly  but  a  few  feet. 

Aberdeen  once  enjoyed  a  good  lliareoftlie  tobacco 
trade.  At  prefcnt,  its  importsare  from  the  Ualtic,  and 
a  few  merchants  trade  to  the  Weft  Indies  and  North 
America.  Its  exports  arc  ilockings,  thread,  falmon, 
and  oatmeal.  The  firft  is  a  mofl  important  article,  as 
appears  by  the  fallowing  ftatc  of  it.  For  this  manu- 
failure,  20,8co  pounds  worth  of  wool  is  annually 
imported,  and  1600  pounds  worth  of  oil.  Of  this 
wool  arc  annually  made  69,333  dozen  pairs  of  Jlock- 
iiigs  ;  worth,  atanavarage,  il.  ios./>ct dozen.  Thefe 
are  thcworkof  the  country-people  in  almoflall  partsof 
this  great  couiity,  who  get  4s.  />;/•  dozen  for  fpinning, 
'  and  14s.  /><:r  dozen  for  knitting  ;  fo  that  there  is  an- 
nually paid  them  62,5291.  14.  There  is,  befidcs  a- 
bout  2000I.  value  of  Hockings  manufaiflured  from  the 
wool  of  the  county.  The  thread  manufat'lure  is  ano- 
ther conliderablc  article,  though  trifling incomparifon 
■of  the  woollen.  The  falmon  filherics  on  the  Dee  and 
the  Don  arc  a  good  branch  of  trade.  About  46  boats,  . 
and  130  men,  are  employed  on  the  firfl  ;  and,  in  fome 
years,  167,000  lb-  of  filh  have  been  fent  pickled  to 
Loudon,  and  about  930  barrels  of  faltcd  fifli  exported 
to  France,  Italy,  See. — The  fiOiery  on  the  Don  is  far 
lefseonlideraMc.  The  fifli  of  this  river  are  taken  iu 
cruives  above  the  bridge;  a  pra<;Hce  contrary  to  the 
ancient  laws  of  the  kingdom,  irnlefs  v/here  the  nature 
of  the  water  rendered  the  nct-tilliciy  impracticable. 
The  inhabitants  likewifc  exjrart  conlidcra'olc  quanti- 
ties of  pickled  pork,  which  they  fell  to  the  Dutch  for 
victualling  their  Eafl  India  (liips  and  men  of  war  ; 
the  Aberdeen  pork  having  the  reputation  of  being  the 
beil  curcJ  of  "any  in  Europe  for  keeping  on  long 
voyages. 

"  It  is  however  remarkable, (Mr  Kr.ox  obfcrves), 
that  there  is  not  a  tingle  decked  vcfftl  fitted  out  from 
Aberdeen  forthe  herring  or  white  iiflicrics:  here  is  now 

3 


an  excellent  iiarbonr  ;  an  aclivc  people,  couverfant  in  Abcrdctui- 
tradc,  and  pollclled  of  capital  ,  fealcd  within  (ix  hours  1'ir<; 
failing  of  Long  Fortys,  and  two  days  failing  of  the 
Shetland  Illcs.  This  inattention  is  the  more  extraor- 
dinary, as  the  exports  of  Aberdeen,  thougii  very  con- 
fiderable,  do  not  balance  the  imports  in  value.  'Ihc 
herring  and  wliile  iiiheries,  tlierefore,  ifprofecutcd 
with  vigour,  cured  and  dried  with  judgment,  wouldiiot 
only  extend  the  fcale  ot  exports,  but  alfo  furnilh  the 
outward  bound  vellcls  with  Ireights,  and  better  alliirt- 
-mentsforihe  foreign  markets.  The  falnionof  the  Dec 
and  Don  are  taken  in  great  abundance,  cured  in  the 
higliell  perfctlion,  and  greatly  valued  at  the  Kuropean 
markets.  If  the  merchants,  in  addition  to  tlufc,  ihould 
alfo  export  the  cargoes  of  50  or  60  veliels  conftaiuly 
employed  in  tiie  herring  and  white  filhenes,  the  port 
of  Aberdeen  would  in  a  few  years  become  the  nioft  ce- 
lebrated mart  of  lidi  now  exifling." 

From  a  round  hill  at  the  weft  end  of  the  city,  flow 
two  fprings,  one  of  pure  water  and  the  other  of  a 
quali:y  relcmbling  the  German  Spa.  Aberdeen,  with 
Aberbroihick,  Brechin,  Moniroie,  and  Inverbervie, 
returns  one  member  to  Parliament. 

ABLRDEENSHIRE,  comprehends  the  diftrifts 
of  Mar,  Garioch,  Strathbogie,  and  the  greater  part 
of  Buchan  ;  and  fends  one  member  to  Parliament. 
It  is  walhed  on  the  eaft  and  north  by  the  ocean  ;  and 
abounds  in  fea-ports,  from  whence  there  is  a  fafe  and 
ready  paffage  to  the  Orkneys  and  Shetland  Illcs,  the 
Greenland  Rlheries,  Norway,  and  the  regions  round 
the  Baltic,  the  German  coaft,  Holland,  Flanders, 
France.  It  is  watered  by  numerous  ftreams,  all  of 
them  the  refort  of  falmon,  and  whofc  banks  difplay  the 
nioft  extenlive  plantations  as  well  as  natural  wooids  in 
Britain. 

ABERDCUR,  a  fmall  town  in  Fifediire,  Scot- 
land, on  the  frith  of  Forth,  about  ten  miles  N.  W.  of 
Edinburgh.  In  old  times  it  belonged  to  the  Viponts  ; 
in  T 1 26  it  was  transferred  to  the  IVIortimersby  marri- 
age, and  afterwards  to  the  Douglafcs.  William,  lord  of 
LiddefJale,  furnamcd  the  Flcwcr  of  chivalry,  in  the 
reign  of  David  II.  by  charter  conveyed  it  to  James 
Douglas,  aneeftorof  the  prefcnt  noble  owner  the  Earl 
of  Morton.  The  monks  of  Inchcolm  had  a  grant 
for  a  bun-ial-place  here  from  Allan  de  Mortimer,  in  the 
reign  of  Alexander  III.  The  nuns,  ufually  Ayled  the 
poor  Clares,  had  a  convent  at  this  place. 

ABERFORD,  a  market-town  in  the  weft  riding 
of  Yorklhire,  Hands  in  a  bottom  ;  and  is  about  a  mile 
long,  and  inditfereiitly  well  built.  It  is  near  a  Ro- 
man road,  which  is  raifcd  very  high,  and  not  far 
from  the  river  Cock  ;  between  which  and  the  town 
there  is  the  foundation  of  an  old  caftle  ftill  viliblc. 
It  is  181  miles  north-by-weft  from  London.  W. 
Long.  2.  45.  Lat.  jj.  52. 

ABERGAVENNY,  a  large,  populous,  and  floa- 
riHiing  town  iu  Moninouthlhire,  featcd  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  ri\crs  U(k  and  CJavenny.  It  lias  a  fine 
bridge  over  the  U(k,  conliftingof  fifteen  arches  ;  and 
beinga  great  thoroughfare  from  the  weft  part  of  Wales 
to  Bath,  Briftol,  Glouccfter,  and  other  places,  is  well 
furnillicd  with  accommodations  for  travellers.  It  is 
furroundcd  with  a  wall,  and  had  once  a  caftle.  It  car- 
ries on  a  eonfiderable  trade  in  flannels,  which  are 
brought  hither  for  fale  from  the   other  parts  of  the 

county. 


ABE  [ 

It  is  142  miles  diiiant  from  Loiulon. 


M 


/Sliernctliy,  couiuy 

Aberration.  Long.  2.  45.  Lat.  51.  50.     Abergavenny  a^'i'cars  to 
"  liavc  been  tlie  Cil'l>a/iiu),j  of  Amunhms,  and  die  town 

of  Ul!:  his  Buniui/i. 

ABERNtTHY  (Joliu),  an  eminent  cliireniitKr  nii- 
nillcr,  was  the  fon  ot  Mr  John  Abtriicihy  a  (.Uilcr.ring 
Hiinidcr  in  Colraine,  and  was  born  on  tiic  19'''  of  Oc- 
tober 1680.  When  aboat  nine  years  of  age,  he  was 
feparaicJ  from  his  parents,  liis  father  being  obliged  to 
attend  fume  public  affairs  in  London  ;  and  his  mother, 
to  dialler  hcrfclf  from  the  mad  fury  of  the  Irilh  rebels, 
retiring  to  Dcrry,  a  relation  who  had  liim  under  his 
care,  having  no  opportunity  of  conveying  hiiu  to  her, 
took  Jiim  with  liim  to  Scotland;  by  which  means  he 
cfcaped  the  hardllripshe  inuftliavcfifFcrcd  at  llic  ficgc 
of  Ucrry,  where  Mrs  Abcrnclhy  loft  all  her  other 
children.  He  afterwards  ftiidied  at  the  univcriity  of 
Cyjafgow,  till  he  took  the  degree  of  mafterofans;  and, 
in  1708,  he  was  chofcn  niinillcr  of  a  dilfcniing  con- 
gregation at  Antrim,  where  he  continued  above  twenty 
years.  About  (he  time  of  the  Bangorian  contrtjvcrfy 
(for  which,fec  Ho  a  d ley), a  dillenlion  arofe  among  his 
brethren  in  the  miiiidry  at  Bclfaft,  on  the  fubjed  of 
fubfcripiion  to  the  Wcftminfter  confeilion  ;  in  which 
he  became  a  leader  on  the  negative  fide,  and  incurred 
the  ccnfurc  of  a  general  fyiiod.  Being  in  confequence 
dcferted  by  the  greateft  part  of  his  congregation,  he 
accepted  an  invitation  to  fettle  ip.  Dublin,  where  his 
preacliing  was  much  admired.  He  was  dillinguilhcd  by 
his  candid,  free,  and  generous  fentiments  j  and  died  of 
the  gout  in  Dec.  1740,  in  the  fixtieth  year  of  his  age. 
He  publifhed  a  volume  of  fermons  on  the  Divine  At- 
tributes ;  after  his  death  a  fccond  volume  was  publilh- 
ed  by  liis  friends  ;  and  thefc  were  fucceedcd  by  four 
other  volumes  on  dittcrent  fubjects  :  all  of  which  have 
been  greatly  admired. 

Abernethy,  a  town  in  Strathcrn,  a  diftricl  of 
I'erthlhire  in  Scotlaini.  It  is  feated  on  the  river  Tay, 
s  little  above  the  moutli  of  tlic  Erne.  It  is  faid  to  have 
been  the  feat  of  the  Pictilh  kings  ;  and  vvfus  afterwards 
the  fee  of  an  archbiihop,  fincc  transferred  to  St  An- 
drews.    It  is  now  greatly  decayed. 

ABERRATION,  in  aftronoiny,  a  fmall  apparent 
motion  of  the  fixed  ftars  difcovered  by  the  late  Dr 
Bradley.    Tlic  difcovcry  was  made  by  accident  in  the 
year  1 72  j,  when  Mr  Molyncux  and  Dr  Bradley  began 
to  obferve  the  bright  ftar  in  the  head  of  Draco,  mark- 
ed >  by  Bayer,  as  it  paifed  near  the  zenith,  with  an 
inflrument  made  by  MJ  Graham, in  order  to  difcovcr  the 
parallaxof  the  earth's  annual  orbit ;  and,  after  repeated 
obfervations,  tliey  found  this  liar,  about  the  beginning 
of  March  I7J6,  to  be  20"  more  foutherly  than  at  the 
time  of  the  firft  obfervation.  It  now  indeed  iecnie d  to 
1\ave  arrived  at  its  utmoft  limit  fouthward  ;  bccaufc,  in 
fevcral  trials  madeabout  this  time,  no  fen  fible  difference 
vasobfcrved  in  its  lituatiou.     By  the  middle  of  April, 
it  appeared  to  be  returning  back  again  toward  the 
north  i   and,  about  tlic  beginning  of  lunc,  it  palled  at 
the  fame  diftancc  from  the  zenith  as  it  had  done  in  De- 
cember, wlien  it  was  firflobfcrved  :  in  September  fol- 
lowing, it  appeared  ;9"  more  northerly  than  it  w  as  in 
March,  juft  the  contrary  way  to  what  it  ought  to 
appear  by  the  annual  parallax  of  the  ftars.    Tliis  un- 
expcifled  phmoracnon  perplexed  tlic  obfervers  very 
much ;  and  MrMolyneuxdied  before  the  true  caufc  of  it 
Vol.  I. 


Abcx. 


17     ]  ABE 

was  difcovered.  After  iliis,  Dr  Bradley,  wiih  another  Alerrition 
inftrumcnt  more  exai.'t  and  accurately  adapted  to  this 
parpofcjobfervcd  the  fame  appearaaces  not  only  in  tiiat 
but  many  other  ftars  :  and,  by  the  great  regularity 
that  appeared  in  a  ferics  of  obfervations  made  in  all 
parts  of  tlic  year,  the  Dodtor  was  fully  faiiilied  with  re- 
gard to  the  general  laws  of  the  phenomena;  and  there- 
fore endeavoured  to  lind  out  the  caafe  of  them.  He 
was  already  convinced,  that  the  apparent  motion  of  tlic 
ftars  was  not  owing  to  a  nutation  of  the  earth's  axis. 
The  next  thing  that  offered  itfelf,  was  an  alteration  in 
the  dircilion  of  the  plumb  line,  witli  which  the  ia- 
ftrumciit  was  eonftantly  rcftified  ;  but  this,  upon  trial, 
proved  infuliicient.  Then  he  had  recourfe  to  what  rc- 
fraftion  might  do  ;  but  here  alfo  nothing  fatisfaclorjr 
occurred.  At  laft  this  acute  aftronomcr  found,  that  the 
phenomena  in  queftion  proceeded  from  the  progreffivc 
motion  of  light,  and  the  earth's  annual  n.otioii  in  its 
orbit :  for  he  perceived,  that  if  light  was  propagated 
in  time,  the  apparent  place  of  a  fixed  objeit  would  not 
be  the  fame  w'hcn  the  eye  is  at  reft,  as  when  it  is  mo- 
ving in  any  other  direftion  than  that  of  the  line  paf- 
fing  through  the  eye  and  object ;  and  that,  when  the 
eye  is  moving  in  ditferent  directions,  the  apparent 
place  of  the  object  would  be  different. 

Aberration, in  optics,  isufed  to  denote  that  error 
or  deviation  of  the  rays  of  light,  when  inflected  by  a 
lens  or  fpcculum,  whereby  they  are  hindered  from 
meeting  or  .uniting  in  tlic  fame  point.  There  are  two 
fpecies  of  the  aberrations  of  rays,  diftinguilhed  by 
their  different  caufcs ;  one  arifing  from  the  figure  of 
the  glafs  or  fpcculum,  the  other  from  the  unequal  re- 
frangibility  of  the  rays  of  light.  This  laft  fpecies  is 
fometimes  called  the  Newtonian,  from  the  name  of 
its  difcoverer.     See  Optics,  n"  17.  136.  173. 

ABERYSWITH,  a  market-town  of  Cardigan- 
ftiire,in  Wales,  feated  on  the  Ridal,  near  its  conflu- 
ence with  the  Iftwith,  where  it  falls  into  the  fea.  It 
is  a  populous,  rich  town,  and  has  a  great  trade  in 
lead,  and  a  conliderable  filhcryof  whiting,  cod,  and 
herrings.  It  was  formerly  furrounded  with  walls,  and 
fortified  with  a  caltlc  ;  but  both  are  now  in  ruins.  Its 
diftance  from  London  is  199  miles  weft-fouih-wcft. 
W.  Long.  4.  I  J.  Lat.  52.  3c. 

ABKSTA,  the  name  of  one  of  the  lacrod  books  of 
the  Pcrfian  jiiagi,  which  they  afcribc  to  their  great 
founder  Zoroafter.  The  abefta  is  a  commentary  on  two 
others  of  their  religious  books  called  Z^'w./and  Fa'tnri; 
the  three  together  including  the  whole  fyftein  of  the 
IgnicoUl,  or  worfltippers  of  fire. 

ABETTOR,  a  law-term,  implying  oncwlio  en- 
courages another  to  the  performance  of  fome  criminal 
artion,  or  who  is  art  and  part  in  the  performance  it- 
felf. Treafon  is  the  only  crime  in  which  abettors  are 
excluded  by  kw,  every  individual  concerned  being 
confidered  as  a  principal.  It  is  the  fame  with  .4ti- 
and-p.trt  in  the  Scots  law. 

ABEX,  a  country  in  High  Ethiopia,  in  Africa, 
bordering  on  the  Red  Sea,  by  which  it  is  bounded  on 
the  eaft.  It  his  Nubia  or  Scnnar  on  the  north  ;  Sennar 
and  Abvffmiaon  the  v.'cft  ;  and  Abyiiiniaoa  the  fouth. 
Its  principal  towRs  are  Snaqucm  and  .Arkcko.  It  is 
fubjeft  to  the  Turks,  and  has  the  name  of  the  Brgler- 
bcg  of  Habcleth.  It  is  a.Wivx  five  hundred  miles  in 
length  and  one  hundred  in  breadth,  and  is  a  wretclied 
C  country ; 


A  B  G 


[     18     ] 


A  B  I 


A'  eyancc  country ;  for  the  hcatlicrc  is  almofl  infiipportablc,  and 

I  the  air  is  lb  unhealthy,   tliat  an  European  cannot  Hay 

Ahgillus.   ]q„^.  ;,,  jj  without  the  utniolt  hazard  of  his  life.     It  is 

very  mountainous,  infonuich  tliat  there  are  many  more 

wildbeafts  than  men.  There  are  forells,  inwhichgrow 

a  great  number  of  ebony  trees. 

ABKYANCE,  in  law,  the  expectancy  of  an  cftate. 
Thus  if  lands  be  leafed  to  one  perfon  for  life,  with 
revcrfion  tootle  another  for  years,  the  remainder  for 
years  is  an  abeyance  till  the  death  of  the  Iclfce. 

ABGAR,  or  Arc  Aitis,  a  name  given  to  feveral 
ofthekinj;s  of  Edellh  inSyria.  'I'he  moll  celebrated  of 
them  is  one  who,  it  is  laid,  was  cotemporary  with 
Jefus  Chrid;  and  who  having  adidcmperin  his  feet, 
and  hearing  of  Jcfiis's  miraculous  cures,  reijuellcdhini, 
* Ec:l  Hifl.  by  letter,  to  come  and  cure  him.  Eufebius*,  who  bc- 
lil).  i.  c.  13.  licved  that  his  letter  was  genuine,  and  alio  an  aiifwer 
our  Saviour  is  faid  to  Iiavc  returned  to  it,  has  iranf- 
lated  them  both  from  the  Syrvac,  and  alferts  that  they 
were  taken  out  of  the  archives  of  the  city  of  Edelia. 
The  firi't  is  as  follows  :  "  Abgarus,  prince  of  Edclla,  to 
"  Jefub  the  holy  Saviour,  who  hatiiappcared  in  the  Helh 
"  in  tlie  contincsofjcrufaleni, greeting.  Ihaveheard 
"  of  thee,  and  of  the  cures  thou  hall  wrought  without 
''  medicines  or  herbs.  For  it  is  reported  thou  makell 
"  the  blind  to  fee,  the  lame  to  walk,  lepers  to  be  clean, 
"  devils  and  unclean  fpirits  to  be  expelled,  fucli  as 
*'  have  been  long  difcafed  to  be  healed,  and  the  dead 
"  to  be  raifed  ;  all  which  when  I  heard  concerning 
"  thee,  1  concluded  with  myfelf.  That  cither  thou 
"  waft  a  God  come  down  from  heaven,  or  the  Son  of 
"  God  fcnt  to  do  thefe  things.  I  have  therefore  writ- 
"  ten  to  thee,  befeeching  thee  to  vouehfafc  to  come 
"  unto  me,  and  cHre  my  difeafc.  For  I  have  alfo  heard 
"  that  the  Jewsufe  thee  ill,  and  lay  fnares  to  deftroy 
"  thee.  I  have  here  a  little  city,  pleafantly  filuated, 
"  and  fuflicient  for  us  both.  Abgarus."  To  this 
letter,  Jcfus,  itisfaid,  returned  an  anfwerby  Ananias, 
Abgarus's  courier  ;  which  was  as  follows  :  "  BlelFed 
"  art  thou,  O  Abgarus  !  who  haft  believed  in  me 
"  vvhom  thou  haft  not  feen  ;  for  the  fcriptures  fay  of 
"  me.  They  who  have  feen  nic  have  not  believed  in 
•'  me,  that  they  who  have  not  feen,  may,  by  believing, 
"  have  life.  But  whereas  thou  writcft  to  have  me 
"  come  to  thee,  it  is  ofncceility  that  I  fulfil  all  things 
"  here  for  whicli  lamfeni;  and  having  iiniihed  them, 
"  to  return  to  him  that  fent  me  :  but  when  I  am  rc- 
"  turned  to  him,  I  will  then  tend  one  of  my  difciplcs 
"  to  thee,  who  Ihall  cure  thy  fwalady,  and  give  life  to 
"  thee  and  thine.  Jesus."  After  Jefus's  afcenfion, 
Judas,  who  is  alfo  named  Thomas,  fcnt  Thaddeus,oric 
of  the  feventy,  to  Abgarus ;  who  preached  the  gofjiel  to 
him  and  his  people,  cured  him  of  his  difordcr,  and 
■Wrought  many  other  miracles  :  which  was  done,  fays 
Eufcbius,  A.  D.  43. — Though  the  above  letters  are 
acknowledged  to  be  fpurious  by  the  candid  writers  of 
the  church  of  Rome  ;  feveral  Proteftant  authors,  as  Dr 
Parker,  Dr  Cave,  and  Dr  Grabe,  have  maintained  that 
they  arc  gen\iine,  and  ought  not  to  be  rejeded. 

ABGILLUS  (John),  furnamed  Prefter  John,  was 
fon  to  a  king  of  the  Frifcii ;  and,  from  the  aufterity  of 
his  life,  obtained  the  name  oi  Preftcr,  or  Pricft.  .  He 
attended  Charlemagne  in  his  expedition  to  the  Holy 
Land  ;  but  inftead  of  returning  with  that  monarch  to 
Europe,  it  is  pretended  that  he  gained  mighty  con- 


quells,  and  founded  the  cmjiire  of  the  AbylTines,  call- 
ed, from  his  name,  the  empire  of  Prefter  John.  He  is 
faid  to  have  written  the  hiftory  of  Charlemagne's  jour- 
ney into  the  Holy  Land,  and  of  his  own  into  the  In- 
dies ;  but  they  are  more  probably  trifling  romances, 
written  in  the  ages  of  ignorance. 

ABIANS,  anciently  a  people  of  Thrace,  or  (accord- 
ing to  fonicauthors)  of  Scythia.  Tiiey  had  no  fixed  ha- 
bitations; they  led  a  wandering  life.  Their  houfes  were 
waggons,  which  carried  ail  their  poifellions.  They 
lived  on  the  llefli  of  their  herds  and  flocks,  on  milk, 
and  cheefe,  chiefly  on  that  of  mare's  milk.  They  were 
unacquainted  with  commerce.  They  only  exchanged 
conur.oditics  with  their  neighbours.  They  poll'elled 
lands,  but  they  did  not  cultivate  them.  Thcyaflign- 
ed  their  agriculture  to  any  w'ho  Mould  undertake  it,  re- 
ferving  only  to  themfclves  a  tribute  ;  which  they  ex- 
afted,  not  w  ith  a  view  to  live  in  aiRuence,  but  merely 
to  enjoy  the  ncccffariesof  lif'e.  They  never  took  arms 
but  to  oblige  thofc  to  nuike  good  a  promifc  10  them  by 
wiiom  it  had  been  broken.  They  paid  tribute  to  none 
of  the  neighbouring  ftatcs.  They  deemed  themftlves 
exempt  from  fuch  an  inipolition  ;  for  they  relied  on 
their  ftrength  and  courage,  and  coiifequently  thought 
themfelves  able  to  repel  any  invafion.  The  Abians, 
we  are  told,  were  a  peojde  ofgreat  integrity.  Tliis  ho- 
nourable eulogium  isgiven  them  by  Homer.  (Strabo. ) 
ABIATHAR,  high-prieft  of  the  Jews,  fon  to  Abi- 
melcch,  who  had  borne  the  fame  ofliee,  and  received 
David  into  his  hotife.  This  fo  enraged  Saul,  who  ha- 
ted David,  that  he  put  Abimelecli  to  death,  and  8r 
pricfts  ;  Abiathar  alone  efcaped  tlic  maffacre.  He  af- 
terwards was  high-prieft  ;  and  often  gave  king  David 
teft  imonies  of  his  fidelity, particularly  during  Ablalom's 
confpiracy,  at  which  time  Abiathar  followed  David, 
and  bore  away  theark.  But  after  this,  confpiring  with 
Adonijali,  in  order  to  raifc  him  to  the  throne  of  king 
David  his  father  ;  this  focxafperated  Solomon  againft 
him,  that  he  divefted  him  of  the  pricfthood,  and  ba- 
niflied  liim,  A.  M.  3021,  before  Chrift  1014. 

ABIB,  fignifying  an  ear  of  corn,  a  name  given  by 
the  Jews  to  the  firft  nionthof  their  eccleliallieal  year, 
afterwards  called  N'ftin.  It  commenced  at  the  vernal 
equinox  ;  and  according  to  the  courie  of  the  moon,  by 
which  their  months  were  regulated,  anfwered  to  the 
latter  part  of  our  March  and  beginning  of  April. 

ABIDING  h  Writings,  in  Scots  law  :  When  a 
perfon  founds  upon  a  writing  alleged  to  be  falfc,   he 
may  be  obliged  to  declare  judicially,  whether  he  will 
ftand  or  abide  by  it  as  a  true  deed. 
ABIES,  the  KIR-TREE.     See  Pinus. 
ABIGEAT,  an  old  law-term,  denoting  the  crime 
of  ftealing  cattle  by  droves  or  herds.    This  crime  was 
fcvcrly  punilhed  ;  the  delinquent  being  often  condem- 
ned to  the  mines,  banilhment,  and  fometimes  capitally. 
ABIHU,    brother  to  Nadab,    and  Son  of  Aaron. 
The  two  former  had  thehappinefs  to  afcend  mount  Si- 
nai with  their  father,  and  there  to  behold  thcglory  of 
God:  but  afterward  putting  ftrangc  fire  into  their  cen- 
fers,  inftead  of  the  facred  fire  commanded  by  God,  fire 
rufliing  upon  them  killed  them.    Though  all  the  peo- 
ple bewailed  this  terrible  cataftrophe,   Mofes  forbad 
Aaron  and  his  two  fons  Eleazar  and  Ithamar  to  join 
in  the  lamentation. 

ABII  ScYi  h;e,   taken  by  Strabo  to  denote  the  Eu- 
ropean 


Abians 

1 
Ahii. 


A  n  1 


[    19   ] 


A  13  J 


Abimilcth  ropcan  Sarniatx,  boi-dcriiig  on  die  Tlixaciaiis  and  Ba- 
il        ilanue  :   They  were  commended  by  Cunius  for  their 
Abipoiii-   love  of  juflice,  and  by  Ammitfus  for  their  contempt 
^    ana.       pf  earthly  things. 

ABIMKLKCH,  king  of  Gcrar,  a  country  of  the 
PhililUncs,\vas  cotcniporary  with  Abraham.  This  pa- 
triarch ana  his  family  being  there,  his  %vife  Sarah, 
thongh  90  years  of  age,  was  not  fafe  in  it ;  for  Abi- 
mclech  carried  lierott,  and  was  fo  enamoured  of  her, 
that  he  refolved  to  marry  her.  Abraham  did  not  de- 
clare himfelf  Sarah's  hulband  ;  but  gave  out  Ihe  was 
his  fiflcr.  But  the  king  being  warned  in  a  dream,  that 
flic  was  married  to  a  i)rophet,  and  that  he  Ihould  die  if 
he  did  not  relhore  iier  to  Abraham,  the  king  obeyed  ; 
at  the  fame  time  reproving  Abraham  for  hib  dilinge- 
nuity  ;  who  thereupon,  among  other  cxcufes,  faid  Ihc 
was  really  hisliltcr,  being  born  of  the  fame  father,  tho' 
of  adifferent  mother.  Abimelech  afterwards  gave  con- 
fiderablc  prefcnts  to  Abraham  ;  and  a  covenant,  that  of 

Bcerfheba,  was  entered  into  between  them .After  the 

death  of  Abraham,  there  being  a  famine  in  the  neigh- 
bouring countries,  Ifaac  his  fon  alfo  withdrew  intoGe- 
rar,  which  was  then  likewife  governed  by  a  king  called 
Abimilech,  probably  the  fucccll'ur  of  tlie  former. 
Here  Rcbekah's  beauty  forced  her  huiband  to  employ 
Abraham's  artifice.  Abimelech  difcovering  that  they 
were  nearly  related,  chid  Ifaac  for  calling  his  wife  his 
fiflcr  J  and  at  the  (ame  time  forbid  all  his  fiilijefts, 
upon  pain  of  death,  to  do  the  leall;  injury  to  Ifaac 
or  Rebekah — Ifaac's  profperity  loll  him  the  king's 
friendlhip,  and  he  was  delired  to  go  from  among  them. 
He  obeyed  ;  but  Abimelech  afterwards  entered  into  a 
covenant  with  him. 

Abimelech,  the  natural  Ion  of  Gideon,  by  Druma 
his  concubine.  His  violent  ai!ls  and  death  arc  record- 
ed in  Judges,  chap.  ix. 

ABINGDON,  a  market-town  in  Berklhirc,  feated 
on  a  branch  of  the  Thames,  received  its  name  from  an 
abbey  anciently  built  there.  The  flreets,  which  are 
well  paved,  centre  in  a  fpacious  area,  in  which  tlie 
market  is  held  ;  and  in  the  centre  of  this  area  is  the 
market-houfe,  which  is  fupported  on  lofty  pillars,  with 
a  large  hall  of  free-done  above,  in  w  hich  the  fummer- 
alhzes  for  the  county  arc  held,  and  other  public  buli- 
ncfs  done,  the  Lent  aflizes  being  held  at  Reading.  It 
has  two  churches  ;  one  dedicated  to  St  Nicholas,  and 
the  other  to  St  Helena  :  the  latter  is  adorned  with 
a  fpire,  and  both  are  faid  to  have  been  erected  by  the 
abbots  of  Abingdon.  Here  arc  alfo  two  hofpitals, 
one  for  fix,  and  the  other  for  thirteen  poor  men,  and 
as  many  poor  women  ;  a  free  fchool  ;  and  a  charity- 
fchool.  The  town  was  incorporated  by  (^uecn  Mary. 
It  fends  two  members  to  parliament,  who  are  choftn 
by  the  inhabitants  at  large  not  receiving  alms.  Its 
great  manufadure  is  malt, large  quantities  ofvvhichare 
fent  by  water  to  London.  It  is  fix  miles  and  a  half 
foiith  of  Oxford,  47  eaft  of  Glouceiler,  and  55  weft 
of  London.  This  town  is  fuppofed  by  Bilhop  Gibfoii 
to  be  the  place  called,  in  the  Saxon  annals,  Clo-jcjhoo, 
where  two  fynods  are  faid  to  have  been  held,  one  in 
742,  and  the  other  in  822.     Long.  1.  20.  Lat.  ji. 

ABINTESTATE,  in  the  civil  law,  is  .ipplied  to  a 
pcrfon  who  inherits  the  right  of  one  who  died  intcflate 
or  without  making  a  will.     See  Intestate. 

ABIPONIANS,  a  tribe  of  American  Indians,  who 


formerly  inhabited  the  diftrict  oi  Chak>  in  Paraguay;  Alilphnm- 
but  the  hoiliiities  of  the  Spaniards  have  now  obliocd        »u» 
them  to  remove  fouthward  intothe  territory  lying  be-         ll  . 
tween  Santa  Fc  and  St  Jago.     The  only  account  we  ^''J"^*"""- 
have  of  them  is  that  publilhed  by  M.  DobrizhofFcr  in 
1785.  Thisgentleman,  wholived  feven  years  in  their 
country,  informs  us  that  they  arc  not  numerous,  the 
whole  nation  not  much  exceeding  5000 ;  for  which  he 
aliigns  as  a  reafon  an  unnatural  cullom  among  their 
women  of  fometimes  dcllroying  their  own  children 
from  motivesofjealoufy, left  their  hulhandsfliould  take 
otlier  mates  during  the  long  time  they  give  fuck,  which 
is  not  Icfs  than  two  years.    They  are  naturally  white, 
but,  by  cxpofurc  to  the  air  and  fmokc,  become  of  a 
brown  colour.     They  arc  a  ftrongand  hardy  race  of 
people  ;  which  our  auiiior  attributes  to  their  marrying 
io  late,  an  Abi|)onian  fcldom  or  never  thinking  of  mar- 
riage till  30  years  of  age.  They  are  greatly  celebrated 
on  account  of  their  chaltity  and  other  virtues;  though, 
according  to  our  author,  they  have  no  knowledge  of  a 
Deity.   They  make  frequent  incurfions  into  the  terri- 
tories of  the  Spaniards,  mounted  on  the  horfes  which 
run  wild  in  thofe  parts.   They  have  a  kind  of  order  of 
chivalry  for  their  warriors  ;  and  are  fo  formidable,  that 
]  00  of  their  enemies  will  riy  before  ten  of  thefc  horfe- 
mcn.  The  hatred  which  thefc  favages,  whofe  manners, 
though  xnAc  and  uncultivated,  arc   in  many  refpccl» 
pure  and  virtuous,  bear  to  the  Spaniards,  is  invincible. 
"  Thefc  pretended  Chriftians,"  fays  our  author,"  who 
are  the  fcura  of  the  Spanifli  nation,  practice  every  kind 
of  fraud  and  villainy  among  thefc  poor  barbarians  ;  and 
their  corrupt  and  vicious  morals  arc  fo  adapted  to  pre- 
judice the  Abiponians  againft  the  Chriftian  religion, 
that  the  Jefuit  milHonaries  have,  by  a  feverc  law,  pro- 
hibited any  Spaniard  from  coming,  without  a  formal 
pennillion,  into  any  of  their  colonies." — From  his  ac- 
count of  the  fuccels  of  thejefuits  in  converting  them 
to  Chriftianity,  however,  it  does  not  appear  that  they 
have  been  able  to  do  more  than  bribe  them  to  a  com- 
pliance with  the  ceremonicsof  the  Popilh  fupcrftitions; 
fo  that  in  general  they  are  quite  ignorant  and  uncivil- 
ized :  a  moll  ilriking  inftance  of  which  is,  that  in 
counting  they  can  go  no  farther  than  three;  and  all 
the  art  of  the  Jefuits  to  teach  them  the  fimpleft  nfc 
and  cxpreflion  of  numbers  has  proved  unfuccefsful. 

ABIRAM,  a  feditious  Lcvite,  who,  in  concert 
with  Korah  and  Dathan,  rebelled  againft  Mofes  and 
Aaron,  in  order  to  fliare  with  them  in  the  government 
of  tiie  people  ;  when  Mofes  ordering  them  to  come 
V.  ith  their  ccnfers  bcl'ore  the  altar  of  the  Lord,  the 
earth  fuddcnly  opened  under  tlieir  feet,  and  fwallowcd 
up  them  and  their  tents  ;  and  at  the  fame  inftant  fire 
came  from  heaven,  and  confumed  250  of  their  follow- 
ers.     ^^llmb.  xvi. 

ABISHAI,  fon  of  Zcruiah,  and  brother  to  Joab, 
was  one  of  the  celebrated  warriors  who  tlourilhcd  in 
the  reign  of  David  :  he  killed  with  his  own  hand  300 
men,  with  no  other  weapon  but  his  lance  ;  and  llew  a 
Philiftinc  giant,  the  iron  of  whole  fpear  weighed  300 
ihekels.      i  Sam.  xxvi.   2  Sam.  xxiii. 

ABJURATION,  in  ancient  cuftoms,  implied  an 
oath,  taken  by  a  perfon  guilty  of  felony,  and  who  had 
ried  to  a  place  of  fanfluary,  whereby  he  folemnly  en- 
gaged to  leave  the  kingdom  for  ever. 

Abjuration,  is  uowufed  in  Britain  to  fignify  the 
C  1  rciiouii- 


Able. 


A  13  L  [     20     ] 

Abjuration  renouncing,  liifclaimiiig,  and  denying  npon  oath,  the     Arts  on  the 
I         PrctcnJcr  to  have  any  kind  of  ri;;ht  to  the  crown. 

AHfVii  ,Ti(js  (if  liercfy,  the  I'ulcmu  recantation  of 
any  doctrine  as  fjlfe  and  wicked. 

ABLACTATION,  or  weaning  a  child  from  the 
brca/h     Sic  Wean- IMG. 

Abi-ac  rATioN,  amonji;  the  ancient  gardeners,  the 
fame  with  what  is  called  CuAiTisc,  by  aptnoach. 

ABl.AI,  a  country  of  Circat  Tartary,  tlie  inhabi- 
■tanisof  which,  cillea  Buct,iri  or  Buchaies,  art  lubjecl 
to  Rulfia,  but  that  only  for  proteftion.  It  lies  eall- 
vard  of  the  river  Irtis,  and  extends  five  hundred 
leagues  along  the  foiuhcrn  frontiers  of  Siberia. 

ABLAtHJEACTlON,  an  old  term  in  gardcnin;j, 
•fignilics  the  operations  of  removing  the  earth  and  ba- 
ring the  roots  of  trees  in  winter,  to  expole  them  more 
frtclv  to  the  air,  rains,  fnows,  &c. 

ABLANCOURT.  See  Perrot. 
.  ABLATIVE,  in  grammar,  the  fixth  cafe  of  Latin 
nouns.  The  word  is  formed  from  a?{/i.'r;-ir,  "  to  take 
away."  Prifciaa  aUb  calU  it  the  eijmparative  cafe  ;  as 
fervin|T,  among  the  Latins,  for  comparing,  as  well  as 
taking  away. 

T!ie  ABLATIVE  isoppolite  to  the  DATIVE  ;  thefirll 
cxpreinng  the  aciion  of  taking  away,  and  the  latter 
that  of  giving. 

In  Englilh,  French,  &c.  there  is  no  precifc  mark 
xsliereby  to  dillingnith  the  ablative  from  other  cafes; 
and  we  only  ule   the  term  in  analogy  to  the  Latin. 
Thus,  in  the  two  p]irafcs,M.'  viagnitudt  of  the  city,  and 
he /poke  Much  of  the  city  ;   we  fay,  that  of  the  city  in  the 
Jirlb  \%  genitive,   and  in  the  \^\.\.tx  abiativ:  ;   becaufc  it 
would  be  fo,  if  the  two  phrafcs  were  exprc  lied  in  Latin. 
Tiiequellion  concerning  the  Greek  ablative  has  been 
the  fubjec^  of  a  famous  literary  war  between  two  great 
grasnmarians,  Prifchlin  and  Crufms  ;   the  former  of 
whom  maintained,  and  the  latter  oppofcd  the  reality 
of  it.    The  difpute  ftill  fnbfifts  among  their  refpedive 
followers.  The  chief  rcafon  alledged  by  the  former  is, 
that  the  Roman  writers  often  joinedGrcck  words  with 
the  Latin  prepofuions,  which  govern  ablative  cafes,  as 
well  as  with  nouns  of  the  fame  cafe.     To  w  hich  their 
opponents  anfwer,  that  the  Latins  anciently  had  no 
ablative thenifclvcs  ;  butinflcad  thereof,  made ufe, like 
the  Greeks,  of  the  dative  cafe  ;   till  at  length  they  for- 
med an  ablative,  governed  by  prepofuions,  which  were 
not  put  before  the  dative  :  that,  at  firft,  the  two  cafes 
had  always  the  fame  termination,  as  they  flill  have  in 
many  inrtances  :  but  that  this  was  afterwards  changed 
in  certain  words.  It  is  no  wonder  then,  that  the  La- 
tins fometimcsjoin  prepofuions  which  govern  an  abla- 
tive cafe,  or  nouns  in  the  ablative  cafe,  with  Greek  da- 
lives,  fincethey  were  originally  the  fame  ;  and  that  the 
Greek  dative  has  the  fame  efFeft  as  the  Latin  ablative. 
ABLE,  or  abel  (Thomas),  chaplain  to  queen  Ca- 
tharine confort  to  Henry  the  eighth, diftinguilhed  him- 
felfby  hi:  zeal  in  oppofingthe  proceedingsagainft  that 
unfortunate  princcfs  for  a  divorce.     For  this  purpofe 
he  wrote  a  piece  intitled  "  TraUaftfs  de  uon  diffoh:>ido 
Hei:r!ci ct Catherine  matrimonio,   i.  e.  A  Treatifc  pro- 
ving that  the  marriage  of  king  Henry  and  queen  Ca- 
therine ought  not  to  be  diilblvcd."      But  the  title  of 
the  book,  according  to  billiop  Tanner,  was  Inviila  Ve- 
ritas. He  took  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  at  Ox- 
ford on  Lhc  4:h«f  July  151 3,  and  that  of  Matter  of 


A  B  N 


7th  of  July  I  516.  In  I J  ?4  he  fell  under 
a  profecation  for  being  concerned  in  tlie  affair  of  E- 
lizubctli  Barton,  called  the //^o/)'  Mai  I  '.f  K:!:t.  This 
was  an  infamous  iinpollor,  fuborned  by  the  monks  to 
ufe  fomellrange  gelticulations,  and  to  pretend  to  infpi- 
ration  by  the  fpirit  of  prophecy  ;  and  fo  well  did  file 
act  her  part,  th<it  fjme  people  of  confeijiience  gave  cre- 
dit to  her  :  but  being  at  h(l  dete«."led,  ihe  was  condemn- 
ed and  executed,  after  difcovcring  the  names  of  her 
principal  accomplices  and  inlligators.  On  heraccounc 
Able  wasaccnfed  of  mifprilion  of  ireafon,  by  ftat.  25. 
Hen.  Vlll.  ;  and  being  alfo  one  of  thofc  who  denied 
the  king's  fuprcmacy  over  the  church,  he  was  apprc- 
hcnJcd  and  imprifoned  ;  during  which  time  hiscon- 
hnemcnt  was  fo  rigorous,  that  the  keeper  of  Ncwgarc 
was  committed  to  Marlhalfea  prifon  for  fufFering  him 
to  go  out  npon  bail.  He  was  afterwards  hanged, 
drawn,  and  quartered,  at  Smithlield  in  1540.  Eouchicr 
gives  him  the  character  of  a  very  learned  man  ;  and 
tells  us,  that  he  ufcd  to  teach  the  qneen  niufic  and  the 
learned  languages. 

ABLECl'l,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  fclecl  boily  of 
folditrs  chofcn  from  among  thofe  called  Extraordi- 

NARII. 

ABLEGMINA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  thofe  choice 
parts  of  the  entrails  of  victims  which  were  offered  in 
facritice  to  the  gods.  They  were  fprinklcd  with  tl<atr, 
and  burnt  upon  the  altar ;  the  pricfts  pouring  fom« 
wine  on  them. 

ABLUENTS,  in  medicine,  the  fame  with  diluters 
or  Di:.L'ENTs. 

ABLUTION,  in  a  general  fenie,  figniiies  the  wafli- 
ingor  purifying  fomtthing  with  water. 

Ablution,  in  a  religious  ftnfe,  a  ceremony  in  ufe  a- 
mong  theancients,  andlliUpraclifcd  in  feveral  parts  of 
the  world  :  it  confided  in  wadiing  the  body,  which  was 
always  done  before  facrificing,  or  even  entering  their 
houfcs. — Ablutions  appear  to  be  as  old  as  any  ctrcmo- 
nief ,  and  external  worfhipitfeU'.  Mofes  enjoined  them ; 
the  heathens  adopted  th'ein  ;  and  Maiiomet  and  his  fol- 
lowers have  continued  them  :  thus  they  have  got  foot- 
ing among  mofl  nations,  and  make  a  confiderable  pare 
of  mofl  ellablilhcd  religions.  The  Egyptian  priells 
had  thcirdiiirnal  and  nocturnal  ablutions  ;  the  Grecians 
their  fprinklings  ;  the  Romans  their  luftrations  and  la- 
vations  ;  the  jews  their  wafliingof  hands  and  feet,  bc- 
fidc  their  baptifms.TheancientChriftians  had  their  ab- 
lutions before  communion  ;  which  the  Roniilh  church 
flill  retain  before  their  mafs,  fomeiimes  after  :  the  Sy- 
rians, Cophts,  Sec.  have  theirfolemn  wa filings  on  Good- 
F'riday  :  the  Turks  their  greater  and  lelfer  ablutions  ; 
their  Ghafl  and  M'odou,  their  Aman,  Taharat,  S:c. 

ABNER,  the  fon  of  Ner,  fatlier-in-law  to  Saul, 
and  general  "fall  his  forces,  who  ferved  him  on  all  oc- 
calionswith  fidelity  and  courage.  After  the  death  of 
that  prince,  Abner  fet  Iflibofheth,  Saul's  fon,  on  the 
throne.  A  war  breaking  out  between  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
dah  who  had  eleftcd  David  king,  and  Ifrael,  Abner 
marched  againil  that  prince  with  the  flower  of  his 
troops,  but  was  defeated.  Abner  afterward,  being 
difguifed,  went  over  to  David,  and  difpofcd  the  chiefs 
of  the  army  and  the  elders  of  Ifrael  to  declare  for 
him  ;  and  was  received  liy  David  with  fuch  tcflimo- 
nies  of  atFeftiou,  as  gave  umbrage  to  Joab,  who  killed 
him  traitcrourty. 

AB- 


ABO  [2 

ABNOBA,  no'.vABENow,  a  loii;^  range  of  moun- 
tai.is  in  Germany,  takiiigilittcrenl  names accordin;^ to 
theditfcrtTit  countries  they  run  throiigli.  As  about  tiic 
river  Maine,  aUtidtlit  OJ^u  or  Oiuniva/ J ;  bctwecii 
HcUe  and  Kraaconii,  the  S/>ijfurt ;  and  about  the  duchy 
of\\'irteii;bcrg,v.  here  the  Danube  takes  its  rife,  called 
the  Baar. 

ABO,  a  maritime  town  in  Sweden  :  it  is  the  capi- 
tal or  the  province  of  Finland,  and  lies  ui'on  the  point 
tvhere  the  gulphi  of  Bothnia  and  Finland  unite.  Jt 
is  a  good  port  ;  and  is  the  fee  of  a  bilhop,  futfraganof 
Upfal.  It  has  anunivcrlity,  founded  by  queen  Chri- 
ftina  in  1640,  and  endowed  with  the  fame  privileges 
as  thct  of  Upfal.  There  is  alfo  a  fchool  here,  which 
was  toundcdby  Guflavas  AJolphus,  for  joofcholars. 
The  town  is  tolerably  well  built,  and  contains  fcvcral 
brick  buildings  ;  but  the  generality  are  of  wood  paint- 
ed red.  The  inhabitants  export  linen,  corn,  and 
planks.  It  lies  120  miles  north-call  from  Stockholm. 
E.Long.   21.28.  Lat.  60.  jo. 

ABOARD,  the  infide  of  a  Ihip.  Hence  any  perfon 
who  enters  a  Ihip  is  fciid  to^s  aboard :  but  when  an 
enemy  enters  in  the  time  of  battle,  he  is  faid  to  board ; 
a  phrafe  which  always  implies  holUlity. — To  jail  a- 
board  of,  istollrike  onncvunter  another  fliip  when  one 
or  Iwjth  arc  in  motion,  or  to  be  driven  upon  a  (hip  by 
die  force  of  the  wind  and  current. — Ab'.ari-ma.n-tack, 
the  order  to  draw  the  n:ain-tack,  /.  e.  thelowcrcorner 
of  the  main-fail,  down  to  the  Ch  ess-tree. 

ABOLITION,  implies  the  aft  of  annulling,  de- 
flroying,  making  void,  or  reducing  to  nothing.  In 
law,  it  (ignifies  the  repealing  any  law  orftatute. 

ABOLLA,  a  warm  kind  of  garment,  lined  or  dou- 
bled, worn  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  chicriy  out  ot 
the  city,  in  toUowing  the  ramp. — Critics  and  aniii]ua- 
ries  are  greatly  divided  as  to  the  form,  ufe,  kinds,  &c. 
of  this  garment.  Papiasmakcsit  a  fpcciesof  the  toga, 
•r  gown  ;  but  Nonius,  and  the  generality,  a  fpcciesof 
the  pallium,  or  cloak.  The  alolla  fteius  rather  to  have 
flood  oppofed  to  the  toga,  which  was  a  garment  of 
peace,  as  the  aholla  was  of  war  ;  at  Icafl  V'arro  and 
Martial  place  them  in  this  oppolite  light.  There  fccm 
lo  have  bccndifferent  kinds  ot'Abollas,  fiited  to  ditter- 
cnt  occafions.  Even  kings  appear  to  have  ufed  the 
abolla  :  Caligula  was  affi  onicd  at  king  Ptolemy  for  ap- 
pearing at  the  (hews  in  a  purple  abolla,  and  by  the  eclat 
thereof  turning  the  eyes  of  the  fpeclators  from  the 
emperor  upon  himfclf. 

ABOMASUS,  Abomasum,  or  Abomasius,  names 
of  the  fourth  (lomsch  of  ruminating  animals.  It  is  in 
the  abomafus  of  calves  and  lambs  th.it  the  runnet  or 
earning  is  formed  wherewith  milk  is  curdled.  See 
Comparative  Auatovty. 

ABOMINATION,  a  term  ufed  in  fcripture  with 
regard  to  the  Hebrews,  who,  being  fliepherds,  arc  faid 
to  have  been  an  abomination  to  the  Eg;,'ptians,  becaufc 
they  facriticcd  the  facrcd  animals  of  that  people,  as 
oxen,  goats,  (heep,  Sec.  which  the  Egyptians  edeemcd 
as  abominations,  or  things  nnlawt'ul.  The  term  is  alfo 
applied  in  the  facred  writings  to  idoUtry  and  idols,  be- 
caufc the  wor'.hip  of  idols  is  in  itfelf  an  abominable 
thing,  and  at  the  fame  time  ceremonies  obfrrvcd  by 
idolaters  were  alwaysattcndfdwith  licentioiifncfsand 
other  odious  andabominableaflions.  The  abonii/tJl/cn 
*f  dcfolatioii  foretold  to  the  prophet  Daniel,  is  luppo- 


r     ] 


ABO 


fed  to  imply  the  (latue  of  Jupiter  Olympius,  which      AUn, 
Aniiochus  tpiphanescaufcd  to  beplace  din  the  temple  Aborigines, 
of  Jerufalcm.  And  l\\c aI>(,Kii:ati.u  oj  d:J'olatt'iU,  mci:-  ""^        ' 
tioucd  by  the  Lvangclifls,  lignifics  the  enfigns  of  the 
Romans,  during  the  laft  ficgc  of  Jerufalcm  by  Titus, 
on  which  the  figures  of  their  gods  and  eirperors  were 
embroidered,  a:id  placed  upon  the  temple  after  it  was 
taken. 

ABON,  Abo.na,  otAbonis  (aac.  geog.),  a  town 
and  river  of  Albion.  Thetov.n,  accoriiing  to  Caraden, 
is  Abingdon  ;  and  the  river  Abhon  or  Avon.  But  by 
Antoninc's  Itinerary,  the  cillance  is  nine  miles  from 
the  VcntaSilurum,  orCacr-Went :  others,  therefore, 
take  the  town  to  be  PorOuit,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Avon,  overagainfl  Briftol.  AbhoaorAvon,  in  the 
Celtic  language,  denotes  a  river. 

ABORIGINES,  (Di.myfiusofHaricarnairjs,Livy, 
Virgil)  ;  originally  a  proper  name,  {;ivcn  to  a  certain 
people  in  Italy,  who  inhabited  the  ancient  Laiiuni, 
or  country  now  called  Campagtia  tit  Roiua.  In  this 
fenfe  the  Aborigines  are  diAinguiQied  from  the  Jaiii- 
gcnse,  who,  according  to  the  filfe  Berofus,  inhabited 
the  country  before  iJiem  ;  from  the  Siculi,  whom 
they  expelled  ;  from  the  Grecians,  from  whom  tiicy 
defcended  ;  J'rom  the  Laiir.s,  whofe  name  they  af- 
fumed  after  their  union  w  iih  itneas  and  the  Trojans  ; 
lallly,  from  the  Aufonii,  Volfci,  Ocnotrii,  &c.  neigh- 
bouring nations  inothcr  parts  of  the  country.  %\htncc 
this  people  came  by  the  appellation,  is  much  difputed. 
St  Jerom  fays,  they  were  fo  called,  as  being,  abfqiu 
engine,  die  primitive  planters  of  the  country  after  the 
flood  :  Dion,  of  HalicarnalFus  accounts  for  the  name, 
asdenotingthem  the  foundersof  thcraccofinhabitants 
of  that  country  :  others  think  ihem  fo  called,  as  bcin^; 
originally  Arcadians,  who  claimed  to  be  earth-born, 
and  not  defcended  from  any  people.  Aurelius  Vi.lor 
fuggefls  another  opinion,  viz.  that  they  were  called 
Aborigines,  q.  d.  Abirrigii:es,  from  ab  "  from,"  and  er- 
rare  "  towandcr  ;"  as  having  been  beforeawandering 
pcop'e.  Paufanias  rather  thinks  they  were  thus  call- 
ed «T«  ofiti,  from  "  mountains  ;"  which  opinion  feems 
confirmed  by  Virgil,  \\  ho,  fpeaking  of  Saturn,  tbelc- 
gillator  of  this  people,  fays, 

Isgiiius  iiidociii  ac  di/pirfum  marJibui  altis 

Confofuit,  Ugtfqut  dfdit 

The  Aborigines  were  either  theoriginalinhabitantsof 
the  country,  fettled  there  by  Janus,  as  fome  imagine  ; 
or  by  Saturn,  or  Cham,  as  others  :  not  long  after  the 
difpcrlion,  or  even,  as  fome  think,  before  it :  Or  they 
were  a  colony  fcnt  from  fome  other  nation  ;  who  cx- 
pcllingthcancient  inhabitants  thcSiculi,fetded  in  their 
place. — About  this  mother-nation  there  is  great  dif- 
pute.  Some  maintain  it  to  be  the  Arcadians,  parties  of 
whom  were  brought  into  Italy  at  different  times  ;  the 
firrt  under  the  conduft  of  Oenotrius,  fon  of  Lycaon, 
45oyears  before  the  Trojan  war  ;  afccondfrom  Thcf- 
f.ily  ;  a  tliird  under  Evandcr,  60  years  before  the 
Trojan  war  :  belides  another  under  Hercules  ;  and 
another  of  Lacedx'mouians,  who  .ied  from  the  fcverc 
difcipline  of  Lycurgus  :  all  ihefe  uniting,  arc  faid  to 
have  formed  the  nation  or  kingdom  of  the  Aborigines. 
Other?  will  have  them  of  barbarous  rathe-  than  Gre- 
cian origin,  and  to  have  come  from  Scythia  ;  others 
from  Gaul.  Lallly,  others  will  have  them  to  be  Ca- 
naauites,  expelled  by  Jolhua. 

Tkc 


ABO 


[      22       ] 


A  B   R 


Abortion 

I  . 

Aboukir. 


The  term  //i^£/;/j;;«.-/,  though  fo famous  in  antiquity, 
is  ufej  in  modern  gcogiajihy  only  occalioiially  as  an 
appellative.  It  is  given  to  the  primitive  inhabitants 
of  a  country,  in  coutraJidinction  to  colonics,  or  new 
races  of  people. 

ABORTION,  in  midwifery,  the  exclufion  of  a  foe- 
tus before  it  has  acquired  a  fufficient  degree  ot  perfec- 
tion to  enable  it  to  perform  refpiration  and  the  other 
vital  functions.     See  Midwikerv. 

The  pradice  of  procuring  abortions  was  prohibited 
by  the  ancient  Greek  legillators  Solon  and  Lycurgus. 
Whether  or  not  it  was  permitted  among  the  Romans, 
has  been  much  difputed.  It  is  certain  the  pradtice, 
which  was  by  them  called  vifcenhns  vim  iiiferre,  wa,s 
frequent  enough  :  but  whether  there  was  any  penalty 
on  it,  before  the  emperors  Scverns  and  Antonine,  is 
thequcftion.  Noodt  maintains  the  negative  ;  and  fur- 
ther, that  thofe  princes  only  made  it  criminal  in  one 
particular  cafe,  viz.  of  a  married  woman's  pradillng 
it  out  of  rcfentment  againll  her  hufband,  in  order  to 
defraud  him  of  the  comfort  of  children  :  this  was  or- 
dered to  be  punillied  by  a  temporary  exile.  The  foun- 
dation on  whicii  the  praftice  is  faid  to  have  been  al- 
lowed, was,  that  the  fuctus,  while  in  utcro,  was  repu- 
ted as  a  part  of  the  mother,  ranked  as  one  of  her  own 
vifcera,  over  which  Ihc  had  the  fame  poweras  over  the 
refl  :  befidcs,  that  it  was  not  reputed  as  a  man,  howo  ,- 
nor  to  be  alive,  otherwife  than  as  a  vegetable  ;  confe- 
quently,  that  the  crime  amounted  to  little  more  than 
that  of  plucking  unripe  fruit  from  thetrce.  Seneca  rc- 
prcfents  it  as  a  peculiar  glory  of  Htlvia,  that  Ihe  had 
never,  like  other  women,  whofe  chief  iludy  is  their 
beauty  and  ihape,  dcllroyed  the  foetus  in  her  womb. 
The  primitive  fathers,  Athenagoras,  TertulHan,  Mi- 
nutius  Ftlix,  AugulUn,  &c.  declaimed  loudly  againfl 
the  pra^ice  as  virtual  murder.  Several  councils  liavc 
condemr.id  it.  Yet  we  are  told  that  the  modern  Ro- 
niifh  •ertleliallical  laws  allow  of  difpefations  for  it. 
Egane  mentions  the  rales  at  which  a  difpenfaiion  for 
it  may  be  had. 

The  praclice  of  artificial  abortion  is  chiefly  in  the 
hands  of  women  and  nurfes,  rarely  in  that  of  phyfi- 
cians  ;  who,  in  fome  countries,  are  not  admitted  to  the 
prrfeHiou  without  abjuring  it.  Hippocrates,  in  the 
oath  he  would  have  enjoined  on  all  phyiicians,  includes 
their  not  giving  the  pcffm  aborirous  ;  though  elfe- 
wherc  he  gives  the  formal  procefs  v.hereby  he  him- 
felf  procured  in  a  young  woman  a  mifcarriagc.  It 
may,  however,  be  obfervcd,  that  often  all  the  powers 
of  art  prove  inefFeftual,  and  no  Icfs  often  do  the  at- 
tempts prove  the  means  of  punilhment  by  the  fatal 
confequences  which  they  produce. 

A  BO  RT  ION,  among  gardeners,  fignifiesfuch  fruits  as 
are  produced  too  early,  and  neverarriyc  at  maturity. 

abortive;  IS,  in  general,  applied  to  whatever 
comes  before  its  legitimate  time,  or  to  any  defign 
which  niifcarries. 

yy«6K7/K/'.C'5;«,adi(lemperofcornmentiojiedby1M. 
Gille:,  and  fufpecled  to  be  occafioned  by  iufccls.  It  ap- 
pears long  before  harvefl,  andmay  be  known  by  a  de- 
formity of  the  ftalk,  the  leaves,  the  ear,  and  even  the 
grain. 

AsoRttvE  Vellum  is  made  of  the  Ikin  of  an  abortive 
calf. 

ABOUKIR,  a  fmall  town  of  Egypt,  fituate  in  the 
defart  between  Alexandria  and  Rolctta.  It  is  the  an- 


cient Cannpus,  and  is  (ituatcd,  according  to  Mr  Sava- 
ry,  lix  leagues  from  Pharos.  Pliny  fays,  from  the  te- 
llimonics  of  antiquity,  that  it  was  formerly  an  illand: 
and  its  local  appearance  makes  this  credible  ;  for  the 
grounds  around  it  are  fo  low,  that  the  fca  (till  covered 
a  part  of  them  in  the  days  of  Strabo.  The  town  is 
built  upon  a  rock,  which  forms  a  handfome  road  for 
ihipping,  and  is  out  of  tlic  reach  of  inundations. 
See  Canotus. 

ABOUT,  the  fituation  of  a  fliip  immediately  after 
flie  \\zitack.:d,  or  changed  her  courfe  by  going  about 
and  ftauding  on  the  other  lack. — /houtjlup  .'  the  or- 
der to  the  fliip'sercw  to  prepare  for  tacking. 

ABOUTIGE,  a  town  in  Upper  Egypt,  in  Africa, 
near  the  Nile  where  they  make  the  bell  opium  in  all 
the  Levant.  It  was  formerly  a  large,  but  now  is  a 
mean  place.     N.  Lat.  26.  50. 

ABPiA,  a  filver  coin  ftruck  in  Poland,  and  worth 
about  one  Ihilling  Sterling.  It  is  current  in  feveral 
pans  of  Germany,  Conrtantinople,  Allracan,  Smyrna, 
and  Grand  Cairo. 

ABRABANEL,  Abarbanel,  or  Avravan'el, 
(Ifaac),acelcbratcdrabbi,  defeendcdfrom  king  David, 
and  born  at  Lilbon  A.  D.  14^7.  He  became  eoun- 
fellor  to  Alphonfo  V.  king  of  Portugal,  and  afterwards 
to  Ferdinand  the  Catholic ;  but  in  1492  was  obliged 
toleave  Spain  with  the  other  Jews.  In  Ihort,  after  re- 
fiding  at  Naples,  Corfu,  and  feveral  other  cities,  he 
died  at  Venice  in  i  Jo3,  aged  71.  Abrabanel  palfed 
for  one  of  the  moll  learned  of  the  rabbis;  and  the  Jews 
gave  him  the  na]nes  of  the  Sage,  the  Prince,  and  the 
Great  Politician.  We  have  a  commentary  of  his  on 
all  the  Old  Teftament, which  ispretty  fcarce:  he  tlierc 
principally  adheres  to  the  literal  fenfe  ;  andhisflile  is 
clear,  but  a  little  ditFufe.  His  other  works  are,  A  Trca- 
tifeon  the  Creation  of  the  World;  in  which  he  refutes 
Arillotlc,  who  imagined  that  the  world  was  eternal  ; 
A  Trcatife  on  the  explication  of  the  prophecies  relating 
to  the  Meffiah,  againlf  the  Chrillian  :  A  book  con- 
cerning articles  ef  Kaith  ;  and  fome  others  Icfs  fought 
after.  Though  Abrabanel  difcovers  his  implacable  a- 
vcriion  to  Chrillianity  in  all  hiswriiings,  yet  he  treat- 
ed Chriftians  with  politenefs  and  good-manners  in  the 
common  affairs  of  life. 

ABRACADABRA,  a  magical  word,  recommended 
by  Serenus  Samonicus  as  an  antidote  againft  agues  and 
feveralothcr  difcafes.  It  was  tobe  writtenuponapiecc 
of  paper  as  many  times  as  the  word  contains  letters, 
omitting  the  lall  letter  of  the  former  every  time,  as  in 
the  margin  \,  andrepeatcd  in  the  fameorder;  and  then 
fufpended  about  the  neck  by  a  linen  thread.  Abracada- 
bra w  as  the  name  of  a  god  worlliiped  by  the  Syriaus  ; 
fo  wearinghis  name  was  afortofinvocationof  his  aid  : 
a  praclice  which,  though  notmoreufeful,yet  was  lefs  ir- 
rational, thanis  the  equally  hc.itheniflipraiflice among 
thofewhocall  themIclvesChrillians,of  wearing  various 
things,  in  expei5iation  of  their  operating  by  a  fympa- 
thy,  v.hofc  parents  were  Ignoranceand  Superflition. 

ABRAHAM,  the  father  and  Hock  whence  the 
faithful  fprung,  was  the  fon  of  Terah.  Kc  was  de- 
fccnded  from  Noah  by  Shem,  from  whom  he  was  nine 
degrees  removed.  Some  lix  his  birth  in  the  i  w'""  year 
of  Terah's  age,  but  others  place  it  in  his  fathers  70"' 
year.  It  is  highly  probable  he  was  born  in  the  city  of 
Ur,inChaldca,  which  he  and  his  father  left  when  they 

went 


abracadabra 

abracadabr 

abracadab 

abracadi 

abracad 

abraca 

abr?.c 

abra 

abr 

ab 


yY  B  R 


[     23     ] 


A  B  R 


Abraham,  went  to  Canaan,  where  they  remained  till  the  death  of 

''      V Ttrali ;  after  which,  Abrals.uii  nfumcd  his  find  dtlign 

of  going  to  Palelline.  The  Scrii)turcs  mention  the  fc- 
veral  places  he  Hopped  at  in  Canaan  ;  hie  journey  into 
Egypt,  where  his  wife  was  carried  oti  from  him  ;  his 
going  into  Gcrar,  where  Sarah  was  again  taken  from 
him,  but  rcftorcd  as  before  ;  the  victory  he  obtained 
over  the  four  kings  who  had  plundered  Sodom  ;  his 
compliance  with  liis  wife,  who  iiUiltcd  that  he  Ihould 
make  ufc  of  their  maid  I  fagar  in  order  to  raifc  up  chil- 
dren ;  the  covenant  God  made  with  him,  fealcd  with 
the  ceremony  of  circumcifion  ;  his  obedience  to  the 
command  of  God,  who  ordered  him  to  offer  up  his 
only  fon  as  a  facrifice,  and  how  that  bloody  aft  was 
prevented;  his  marriage  with  Keturah  ;  his  death  at 
the  age  of  175  years:  and  his  interment  at  the  cave 
*  of  Macpclah,  near  the  body  of  Sarah  liis  firft  wife. 
It  would  be  of  little  ufc  to  dwell  long  upon  thefc  par- 
ticulars, fmcc  they  arc  fo  well  known.  But  tradition 
has  fupplied  numbcrlcfs  others,  the  mention  of  one  or 
two  of  which  may  not  be  unacceptable. 

^lany  extraordinary  particulars  have  been  told  rela- 
ting to  his  convcriioii  from  idolatry.  It  is  a  pretty 
general  opinion,  that  he  fucked  in  the  poifon  with  his 
milk  ;  that-  iiis  failicr  made  ftatues,  and  taught  that 
they  were  to  be  worfiuppcd  as  gods*.  Some  Jewilh 
authors  relatcf ,  that  Abra'iam  followed  the  fame  trade 
withTcrah  foraconliderable  lime.  Mainionaidcsjfays, 
that  he  was  bred  up  in  the  religion  of  tiie  Saba;ans,  who 
acknowledged  no  deity  but  the  flars ;  that  his  reflec- 
tions on  the  nature  of  the  planets,  his  a.imiration  of 
their  motions,  beauty,  and  order,  made  him  conclude 
there  mull  be  a  being  fuperior  to  the  machine  ot  the 
univerfe,  a  being  who  created  and  governed  it :  how- 
ever, according  to  an  old  tradition,  he  did  not  renounce 
paganifm  till  the  5o"'yearof hisage.  It  isrclated\\, 
that  his  father  being  gone  a  journey,  left  him  to  fell 
the  flatucs  in  his  abfence  ;  and  that  a  man,  who  pre- 
tended to  be  a  pnrchal'er,  alked  him  how  old  he  was, 
Abraliam  anfwered,  "Fifty." — "Wretch  that  thou 
art,  (fjid  the  other),  for  adoring  at  fuch  an  age,  a  be- 
ing which  is  but  a  (lay  old  .'"  Thefc  words  greatly 
confounded  Abraham.  Some  time  afterwards,  a  wo- 
man brought  him  fome  flour,  that  he  might  give  it  as 
an  otFering  to  the  idols;  but  Abraham,  inrtead  of  do- 
ing fo,  took  up  a  hatchet  and  broke  them  all  to  pieces, 
excepting  the  largell,  into  the  hand  of  which  he  put 
the  weapon.  Terah,  at  his  return,  aftced  whence 
eamc  all  this  havock  ?  .Abraham  made  anfwcr  that  the 
ftataes  had  had  a  great  contcfl  which  (hould  eat  riril  of 
the  oblation  ;  "  Upon  which  (faid  he),  the  god  yon 
fee  there,  being  the  ftouteli,  hev.cd  theoihers  to  pieces 
with  thai  hatchet."  Terah  told  him  this  was  bintcr- 
iug  ;  for  thole  idols  had  not  the  fenfc  to  aA  in  this 
manner.  Abraham  retorted  thefe  words  upon  his  fa- 
ther againft  the  worlhipping  of  fuch  gods.  Terah, 
ftung  with  his  raillery,  delivered  up  his  fon  to  the 
cognifancc  of  Nimrod,  the  fovereign  of  the  country  : 
who  exhorted  Abraham  to  worlhip  the  lire  ;  and,  upon 
his  refufal,  commanded  him  to  be  thrown  into  the 
midll  of  the  Hanies  :  "Now  let  your  God  (laid  he) 
come  and  deliver  you  :"  But  (adds  the  tradition), Abra- 
_  ,.  ham  came  fafe  and  found  out  of  the  flames. — This 
Helirilcla  f^'^itio"  is  not  of  modern  date,  lince  it  is  told  by  St 
(•ciicHu.     Jerome^ ;  who  fccnis  to  credit  it  in  general,  but  dilbe- 


*  Suidas,  in 

bee  Jorti. 
xxiv.  2 
t  Aiiuil  Oe- 
ncbraiid.  in 
Chron. 
JMore  Nc- 
voch.  C.  2y, 


§  Hci.lcgg. 

Hirt- 

Patriarch, 
torn.  iii. 


lieves  that  part  of  it  which  makes  Terah  fo  cruel  as  to 

be  tile  informer  againfl  his  own  fon.  Perhaps  the  am- 
biguity of  the  word  Ur"  might  have  given  rife  to  the 
iiction  altogether.  Such  as  lay  Ilrefs  on  the  following 
words  which  God  fays  to  Abraham  (Gen.  xv.  7.),  / 
aw  the  Lord  that  broi^ht  thee  out  oj  Vr  oj  tht  Chatdeei, 
imagine  that  he  faved  him  from  a  great  perfccution, 
fincc  he  employed  the  very  fame  words  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  decalogue  to  denote  the  deliverance  from 
Egypt. 

Abraham  is  faid  to  have  been  well  (killed  in  many 
feienees,  and  to  have  wrote  feveral  books.  Jofcphus-j- 
tells  us  that  he  taught  the  Egyptians  arithmetic  and 
geometry  ;  and,  according  to  Eupolcmus  and  Ariapan, 
he  inllruoled  the  Pha'nicians,  asw'ellas  the  Egyptians, 
in  adronomy.  A  work  which  treats  of  the  creation 
has  been  long  aferibed  to  him  ;  it  is  mentioned  in  the 
Talnuid:]:,  and  the  Rabbis  Chanina,  and  Hofchia  ufed 
to  read  it  on  the  eve  before  the  fabbath.  Ih  the  firft 
ages  of  Chriflimity,  according  to  St  Epiphanius  \,  a 
heretical  feci, called  Sclhinians,difpcrfed  a  pieccwhich 
had  the  iwXtoi ylbraham' i  Rtvciation.  Origcn  mentions 
alio  a  treatifc  fuppofed  to  be  wrote  by  this  patriarch. 
All  the  feveral  works  which  Abraham  compofcd  in  the 
plains  of  Mamre,are  faid  to  be  contained  in  the  library 
of  the  monaflcry  of  the  Holy  Crofs  on  Mount  Anu- 
ria, of  Ethiopia  *{ .  The  book  on  the  creation  was 
printed  at  Paris  1552,  and  tranllated  into  Latin  by 
Poilcl  :  Riltangel,  a  converted  Jew,  and  profelfor  at 
Konigfberg,  gave  alfo  a  Latin  irandation  of  it,  with 
remarks,  in  1642. 

Abraham  Usq^uE,  a  Portugcfe  Jew%  who  tranfla- 
ted  the  Bible  outof  Hebrew  intoSpanilli.  It  was  print- 
ed at  Ferrara  in  155;?,  and  reprinted  in  Holland  in 
1630.  This  Bible,  eipecially  the  firft  edition,  which  is 
nioft  valuable,  is  marked  with  flars  at  certain  words,. 
which  are  deiigned  to  (how  that  the  words  are  difli- 
cult  to  be  underftood  in  the  Hebrew,  and  that  they 
may  be  ufed  in  a  ditrcrenl  fenfe. 

Abraham  (Nicholas),  a  learned  Jcfuit  born  in  the 
dioccfe  of  Toul,  in  Lorrain,  in  1589.  He  obtained  the 
rank  of  divinity  profelfor  in  the  univcrfity  of  Pont-a- 
Moufon,  which  he  enjoyed  i  7  years,  and  died  Septem- 
ber 7,  1 6  J  J.  He  wrote  Notes  on  Virgil  and  on  Non- 
nius ;  a  Coianientary  on  fome  of  Cicero's  Orations,  in 
2  vols  folio  :  an  excellent  coIlc(itioii  of  theological 
pieces,  in  folio,  intitledf/'<i;7/j  rcterh  TcJIavxnti ;  and 
fome  other  works. 

ABKAHA.'VIITES,  aw  order  of  monks  extermina- 
ted for  idolatry  by  Theo;  hilns  in  the  ninth  century.. 
Alfo  the  name  of  another  fed  of  heretics  wlio  had  a- 
dopted  the  errors  of  Paulus.     Sec  PAULfci.ANs. 

ABR.ANTES,.'  town  of  Portugal,  in  Ellremadura,. 
feated  on  the  river  T.ajo,  belongs  to  a  marquis  of  the 
fame  name.  ltflandshigh,isfi>rroiHided  with  gardens 
and  olive-trees,  andeontainstliirry-five  thoufand  inha- 
bitants. It  has  four  convents,  an  alnis-houfc,  and  aiv 
hol'pital.     W.  Long.  7.  18.  Lat.  ^9,  15. 

ABRASAX,  or  Abraxas,  the  fuprtme  god  of  the 
Bafilidian  heretics.  It  is  a  niyflical  word,  compofcd  of 
the  Greek  niunerals  <t,  ^,  c,  a,  f,  «,  c,  which  together 
make  up  the  number  CCCLXV.  For  Bafilidestaught 
that  there  were  56  j  heavens  between  the  earth  and  the 
empyrean  :  each  of  which  heavens  had  its  angel  or  in- 
telligence, which  created  it  j  cacho/ which  angels  likc- 

\kilie 


.^b'absm 

li 
Abrafax. 

•  It  is 
the  projjcr 
names  uf  a 
city,  and  ic 
alfo  figiiifi- 
iAfire.  I'he 
Lat  vcrfioil 
Elilras  ii, 
has  it  thus: 

cum  de  i(nt 
Chatjforum^ 
t  -Antiq. 
lib.  i.cap.7. 
8. 

\  HeidfgfT. 
Hilt.  I'^.tri- 
arch.tom.ii. 

p.  '43- 
§  Advtrf- 
Hscr  p.2i!& 


^Klrchem'-, 
treatifc  of 
librjricf^ 
p.  142. 


A  13  ri 


[    24   ] 


A  B  R 


Abrafion 

II 
Alircaft. 


wife  \v;i^  crcuifilby  t)u-  angel  ncxi  alovc  it  ;  iV.iss  a(- 
cciidin;^  by  a  i'c.le  to  the  I'lprciiic  Being,  or  firll  crea- 
tor. 'J'Ijc  Baliliilians  iilcil  ihc  woYdyj'i'ruxai  by  way  of 
cliMrm  or  anuilLt. 

ABRASION,  is  foniciinics  ufcil  amorg  mttUtinal 
writers,  tor  the  ettcct  ol  lliarp  corrollve  mtilicincs,  or 
humours  in  wearing  away  the  natural  mucus  \v  liitli  co- 
vers the  ir.enibrancs,  and  particularly  thole  oltht  llo- 
niaeh  and  intefliiics.  I'hc  word  is  compofed  of  the 
Latin  ai  and  rai/o  la  fliavi:  o\  [crape  off. 

ABRAVANNUS  (anc.  gcog.)  the  name  of  a  p.-o- 
inontory  and  river  of  Galloway,  in  Scotland,  fo  called 
from  the  CcUic  terms  Ebcr,  lignify  ing  either  the  mouth 
of  a  river,  or  the  coniluence  of  two  rivers,  and  yJi'Oii, 
a  river. 

ABRAUM,  in  natural  hiflory,  a  name  given  by 
fomc  writers  to  a  fpecies  of  red  clay  ufed  in  hnglaud 
by  the  cabinet  makers,  £>:c.  to  give  a  red  colour  to 
new  mahogany  wood.  We  have  it  from  the  ille  of 
Wight  ;  but  it  is  alfo  found  in  Germany  and  Italy. 

ABRAXAS,  an  antique  Hone  with  the  word  abraxas 
engraven  on  it.  They  are  of  various  fizes,  and  moll 
of  them  as  old  asthc  third  century.  They  arc  frequent 
in  the  cabinets  of  the  curious  ;  and  a  colledionofthcm, 
as  complete  as  poUible,  has  been  defired  by  ieveral. 
There  is  a  lineone  in  theabbcy  of  St  Genevieve,  which 
lias  occalioncd  much  Ipeculation.  Moll  of  them  fecm 
to  have  come  from  Egypt  ;  whence  they  are  of  fome 
ufe  for  explaining  the  antiquities  of  that  country. 
Sometimes  they  have  no  other  infcription  befidcs  the 
word  :  but  others  have  the  names  of  i'aints,  angels,  or 
Jehovah  himfelf  annexed  ;  though  moH  ufually  the 
name  of  the  Bililidian  god.  Sometimes  there  is  are- 
prcfcntation  of  Ills  littingon  a  lobes,  or  apis,  furround- 
cd  with  ttars  i  fomctinies  monflrous  comiiofnions  of 
animals,  obfcene.  images.  Phalli  and  Ithyfalli.  The 
graving  is  rarely  good,  but  the  word  on  the  revcrfe  is 
ibmetiincs  faid  to  be  in  3  more  modern  taflc  than  the 
other.  The  chiraCccrs  are  ufually  Greek,  Hebrew, 
Coptic,  or  Hetnerian,  and  fometimes  of  a  mongrel 
kind,  invented,  asit  would  fceni,  to  render  their  mean- 
ing the  more  infcrutable.  It  is  difpuled  whether  tlie 
Veronica  of  M(>nt;euil,  or  the  graniie  obcliik  men- 
tioned by  Gori,  be  Abraxaja. 

ABREAST  (  a  fca-term),  (ide  by  lide,  or  oppofite 
to  ;  a  fituation  in  which  two  or  more  fliips  lie,  with 
their  flies  parallel  to  each  other,  and  their  heads  equal- 
ly advanced.  This  term  more  particularly  regards  the 
line  of  battle  at  fea,  where,  on  different  occafions 
of  attack,  retreat,  or  purfuit,  the  fever.1l  fquadrons  or 
divilions  of  a  fleet  are  obliged  to  vary  their  difpofiiions, 
and  yetmaintain  aproper  regularity  by  failing  in  right 
or  curved  lines.  When  the  line  is  'i  .-.-mt  A  abrt  a j\  ,x.\\t 
whole  Iquadron  advances  uniformly,  the  fliips  being 
equally  diltant  from  and  parallel  to  each  other,  fo  that 
the  length  of  each  fiiip  forms  a  right  angle  with  ihc 
extent  of  the  fquadron or  line  abreaft.  The  commander 
in  chief  is  always  ftationed  in  the  centre,  and  the  fe- 
cond  and  third  in  command  in  the  centre  of  their  re- 
fpective  fquadrons. — .i'.^ri-.-iiy?,  within  the  (liip,  implies 
on  a  line  with  the  beam,  or  by  the  lidc  of  any  object 
aboard  ;  as,  the  frigate  fprung  a  leak,  alrcajl  of  the 
niain-hatch-way,  /.  c.  on  the  fame  line  with  the  main 
hatch- way,  crolUngihe  fiiip's  length  at  riglit  angles,  in 
oppofition  to  AioRK  or  abaft  the  hatch-way. — We 

2 


difcovcred  a  fleet  alrcoj}  of  b'cachy-hcaJ  ;  ;.  ».  oiV,  or  Alir.ttene, 
ciirctlly  uppolitc  to  it.  Alirulge- 

AhKK'i  TtNE,or  Aebf.ttinf  (anc.geog.),  adi-  ■'"^^'■'- 
ftiii-l  of  ^ryfla,  in  Afia.  Ilcnct  the  epithet  .'Jbrittc-  '~  "  ' 
III'!  given  to  Jupiter  (Strabo);  whofe  pricfl  was  Ckon, 
fornurly  at  the  head  of  a  gang  of  robbers,  and  who 
received  many  and  great  favoursat  the  hand  of  Antony, 
but  afterwards  went  over  to  Auguflus.  The  people 
V,  ere  called  ALrcttcni ;  inhabiting  the  c()uniry  between 
Ancyra  of  I'hrygia,  and  the  river  Rhyr.dacus. 

ABRIDGEMENT,  in  liieratkire,  a  term  lignify- 
ing  the  rcduclion  of  a  book  into  a  fmallcr  cor.ipafs. 

The  art  of  conveying  much  feniinicnt  in  few  words, 
is  the  happiefl;  talent  an  author  can  be  pofleired  of. 
'J'liis  talent  is  peculiarly  ncceliary  in  the  prcfent  flatc 
of  literature  ;  I'or  many  writers  have  acquired  the  dex- 
terity of  fprcading  a  few  triiical  thoughts  over  Ieveral 
hundred  pages.  M'hcn  an  author  hits  upon  a  thought 
that  plcafcs  him,  he  is  apt  to  dwell  upon  it,  to  view  it 
in  diti'erent  lights,  to  force  it  in  improperly,  or  upon 
the  llightcfl  relations.  Thougli  this  may  be  pleafant 
to  the  writers,  it  tires  and  vexes  tlic  reader.  'Ihcre  is 
another  great  fourcc  of  difluiion  in  compolition.  It  is 
a  capital  objcft  with  an  author,  whatever  be  the  fub- 
jert,  to  give  vent  to  all  his  bcfl  thoughts.  When  he 
finds  a  proper  place  for  any  of  them,  he  is  peculiarly 
happy.  But,  rather  than  facrifice  a  thought  he  is  fond 
of,  he  forces  it  in  by  way  of  digreffion,  or  fuperfluous 
illuflration.  If  none  of  thefe  expedients  anfwer  his 
purpofe,  he  has  recourfe  to  the  margin,  a  very  conve- 
nient apartment  for  all  manner  of  pedantry  and  imper- 
tinence. There  is  not  an  author,  however  correft, 
but  is  more  or  lefs  faulty  in  this  refpei^.  An  abridger, 
however,  is  not  fubject  to  ihcfe  temptations.  The 
thoughts  are  not  his  own  ;  he  views  them  in  a  cooler 
and  lefs  atledionaie  manner  ;  he  difcovcrs  an  impro- 
priety in  fome,  a  vanity  in  others,  and  a  want  of  utili- 
ty in  many.  His  butlnefs,  therefore,  is  to  retrench  fu- 
perfiuitics,  digreffions,  quotations,  pedantry,  &c.  and 
to  lay  before  the  public  only  what  is  really  ufcful. 
This  is  by  no  means  an  eafy  employment :  To  abridge 
fome  books,  requires  talerits  equal,  if  not  fuperior,  to 
tliofe  of  the  author.  The  facts,  manner,  fpiiit,  and 
reafoning,  muflbcprcferved  ;  nothing efleniial,  either 
in  argument  or  illuflration  ought  to  be  omitted.  The 
dilHculty  of  the  tafk  is  the  principal  reafon  why  we 
have  fo  few  good  abridgements  :  Wynne's  abridgment 
of  Locke's  Ellay  onthcKumauUndcrflanding,  is,  per- 
haps, the  only  unexceptionable  one  in  our  language. 

Thefe  obfervaiions  relate  folely  to  fuch  abridge- 
ments as  are  dellgncd  for  the  public.     But, 

When  a  perfon  wants  to  fet  down  the  fubflanceof 
any  book,  a  (liortcr  and  lefs  laborious  method  may  be 
followed.  It  would  be  foreign  to  our  plan  to  give  ex- 
amples of  abridgements  for  the  public  :  But  as  it  may 
be  ufeful,  efpccially  to  young  people,  to  know  how  to 
abridge  books  for  their  own  ufe  after  giving  a  few  di- 
reolions,  we  Ihall  exhibit  an  example  or  two,  or  fliow 
with  what  cafe  it  may  be  done. 

Read  the  book  carefully  ;  endeavour  to  learn  tlie 
principal  view  of  the  author,  attend  to  the  arguments 
employed  :  When  you  have  done  fo,  you  will  general- 
ly find,  that  what  the  author  ufes  as  new  or  additional 
arguments,  are  in  reality  only  collateral  ones,  or  cx- 
tenfions  of  the  principal  argument.     Take  a  piece  of 

paper 


A  B  R 


[     25     ] 


A  B  K 


Abridge-  paper  or  a  common-place  book,  put  down  what  the 
nunt.     author  wants  to  prove,  fiibjoin  the  argument  or  argu- 
^~"^'       meiits,  and  you  have  the  lubftance  ot"  the  book  in  a 
few  lines,     tor  example, 

In  the  EU'ay  on  Aiiracles,  Mr  Hume's  defign  is  to 
prove.  That  miracles  which  have  not  been  the  imme- 
diate objects  of  our  fcnfes,  cannot  reafonably  be  be- 
lieved upon  the  tcdimony  of  others. 

Now,  his  argument  (for  there  happens  to  be  but 
one)  is, 

"  That  experience,  which  in  fomc  things  is  variable, 
"  in  others  uniforn\,  is  our  uidy  guide  in  reafoning 
"  concerning  matters  of  li.t\.  A  variable  experience 
"  gives  rife  to  probability  only  ;  an  uniform  cxpcri- 
*'  ence  amounts  to  a  proof.  Our  belief  of  any  fac't 
"  from  the  tellimony  of  cye-witnell'cs  is  derived  from  . 
"  no  other  principle  than  our  experience  in  the  vcra- 
*'  city  of  human  teftimony.  If  the  faifl  attcfled  be 
"  miraculous,  here  arifes  a  conteil  of  two  oppofite  cx- 
"  periences,  or  proof  againft  proof.  Now,  a  miracle 
"  is  a  violation  of  the  laws  of  nature  ;  and  as  a  firm  and 
"  unalterable  experience  lias  eftablilhcd  thefe  laws, the 
*'  proof  againll  a  miracle,  from  the  very  nature  of  the 
"  faft,  is  as  complete  as  any  argument  from  experi- 
"  ence  can  poflibly  be  imagined  ;  and  if  fo,  it  is  an  un- 
"  deniable  tonfcqucnce,thatit  cannot  be  furmountedby 
"  any  proof  whatever  derived  from  human  teilimony." 

In  Dr  Campbell's  DilTertation  on  Miracles,  the  au- 
thor's principal  aim  is  toflicw  thefallacy  of  Mr  Hume's 
argument ;  which  he  has  done  mofl  fuccefsfuUy  by 
another  fingle  argument,  as  follows: 

"  The  evidence  arifingfrom  human  teRimony  ;/7;o/ 
"  foltly  derived  from  experience  :  on  the  contrary,  te- 
«'  flimony  hath  a  natural  influence  on  belief  antcce- 
"  dent  to  experience.  The  early  and  unlimited  alfent 
•'  given  to  teftiniony  by  children  gradually  contrads 
"  as  they  advance  in  life  :  it  is,  therefore,  more  ron- 
"  fonant  to  truth,  to  fay,  that  our  diffidcnc:  in  tertimo- 
"  ny  is  the  refult  of  experience,  than  that  aar  fuith  in 
"  it  has  this  foundation.  Bcfides,  the  uniformity  of 
"  experience,  in  favour  of  any  faft,  is  not  a  proof  a- 
"  gainft  its  being  reverfcd  in  a  particular  inllance. 
"  The  evidence  arifing  from  the  linglc  tcflimony  of  a 
"  man  of  known  veracity  will  go  farther  to  cllablilh  a 
"  belief  in  its  being  ailiially  rcverfed  :  If  his  tellimo- 
"  ny  be  contirmed  by  a  few  others  of  the  fame  charac- 
"  tcr,  we  cannot  with-hold  our  alfent  to  the  truth  of  it. 
"  Now,  though  the  operations  of  nature  are  governed 
"  by  uniform  laws,  and  though  we  have  not  the  tcfti- 
"  mony  of  our  fenfcs  in  favour  of  any  violation  of 
"  them  ;  ftill,  if  in  particular  inflances  wc  have  the 
"  tcflimony  oi  thou  fundi  of  our  fellow-creatures,  and 
"  thofe  too,  men  of  ftri  t  integrity,  fwaye d  by  no  mo- 
"  tivcs  of  ambition  or  intireft,  and  governed  by  the 
"  principles  of  comnion-fcnfe,  That  they  wereaiftu- 
"  ally  eye  witnelfes  of  thefe  violations,  the  conflitu- 
"  tion  of  our  nature  obliges  us  to  believe  them." 

Thefe  two  examples  contain  the  fuijftance  of  about 

400  pages. Making  private  abridgements  of  this 

kind  has  many  advantages  ;  it  engages  us  to  read  with 
.■jccuracy  and  attention  ;  it  fixes  the  fubjeit  in  our 
minds  ;  and,  if  wc  ihould  happen  to  forget,  inflead  of 
reading  the  book  r._';ain  by  glancing  a  few  lines  wc 
are  not  only  in  poirelRouof  the  chief  arguments,  but  rc- 
calin  a  good  mcafurc  tUc  author's  method  aad  mauner. 
Vol.  I. 


Abiuzza. 


Abridging  is  peculiarly  ufeful  in  taking  the  fub-  Abrintau- 
flance  of  what  is  delivered  by  ProfeflTors,  &c.  It  is  >■>"" 
impoUible,  even  with  the  allirtance  of  (hort-hand,  10 
take  dov.  n,  verhalini,  what  is  faid  by  a  public  fpeakcr. 
Befides,  although  it  were  pradlicable,  fuch  a  talent 
would  be  of  little  ufe.  Every  public  fpeakcr  has  cir- 
cumlocutions, redundancies,- lumber,  which  defcrvc 
not  to  be  copied.  All  that  is  really  ufeful  may  be 
comprehended  in  a  Ihort  compafs.  If  the  plan  of  the 
difcourfe,  and  arguments  employed  in  fupport  of  the 
different  branches,  betaken  down, you  have  the  whole. 
Thefe  you  may  afterwards  extend  in  the  form  of  a  dif- 
courfe drelfed  in  your  own  language.  This  would  not 
only  be  a  more  rational  employment,  but  would  like- 
wife  be  an  excellent  method  of  improving  youirg  men 
in  compolition  ;  an  object  too  little  attended  to  in  all 
fcminarics  of  learning. 

ABRINCATARUM  oppidum  (anc.  geog.),  tlir 
town  of  the  Abrincatx  or  Abrincatui,  now  Avranchti, 
in  France,  fituatcd  on  an  eminence  in  the  fouth-wcft 
of  Normandy  near  the  borders  of  Brittany  on  the  Er.c- 
lilh  channel.     W.  Long,  i.  10.  N.  Lat.  4S.  40I 

ABROGATION,  the  acl  of  abolilhing  a  law,  by 
authority  of  the  maker  ;  in  which  fenfc  the  word  is 
fynonymous  with  abolition,  repealing,  and  revocation. 
Abrogation  ftands  oppofcd  to  rogation  :  it  is  dillin- 
guilhed  from  dirr0gation,wh'\ch  impliesthetakingaway 
only  fomc  part  of  a  law  ;  t'rom  fulrogation ,  <vhieh  de- 
notes the  adding  a  claufe  to  it ;  from  obrogation,  which 
impliesthe  limitingorrellrainingit ;  iromdifpenfation, 
which  only  fets  it  afide  in  a  particular  inftance  ;  and 
from  antiquati'jn,  which  is  the  refuiing  to  pafs  a  law. 
ABROKANI,  or  Mallemolli,  a  kind  of  mullin, 
or  clear  white  line  cotton  cloth,  brought  from  the  Ealt 
Indies,  particularly  from  Bengal  ;  being  in  length  16 
French  ells  and  3  quarters,  and  in  breadth  J  eighths. 
ABROLKOS,  the  nameof  certain  flielveSjOr  banks 
of  fand,  about  20  leagues  from  the  coall  of  Brazil. 

ABROTANUM,  in  botany.  See  Arte.misia 
and  Santolina. 

ABROTONUM  (anc.  gcog.),  a  town  and  harbour 
on  the  Mediterranean,  in  the  diilrict  of  Syrtis  Parva, 
in  Africa,  one  of  the  three  cities  that  went  to  form 
Tripoly. 

A  BRUS,inbotany,the  trivial  nameof  theGL Yd  NE. 
ABRUZZO,  a  province  in  Naples.  The  river  Pef- 
cara  divides  it  into  two  parts  ;  one  of  which  is  called 
Ulterior,  whereof  Aquila  is  the  capital ;  and  the  other 
Citerior,  whofe  capital  is  Soromona.  Belides  the  Ap- 
peni)ics,  there  are  two  confiderable  mountains,  the  one 
called  Monte  Cavallo,  and  the  other  Monte  Maicllo; 
the  topof  which  laft  is  always  covered  with  fnow.  A- 
bruzzoisa  cold  country  ;  but  the  rigour  of  the  climate 
is  not  fo  great  as  to  prevent  the  country  from  proilu- 
cini;  in  abundance  every  thing  rrqnifitc  for  the  fupport 
of  life.  Vegetables,  fruits,  animals,  and  numberlefs 
other  articles  of  fuftenancc,  not  only  furniih  ample 
provifion  for  the  ufe  of  the  natives,  but  alfo  allow  of 
exportation.  There  is  fo  large  a  quantity  of  wheat 
reaped,  that  many  thoufands  of  quarters  are  annually 
Ihipped  off.  Much  Turkey  wheat  is  feni  out,  and  the 
province  of  Teramo  fells  a  greit  deal  of  rice  little  in- 
ferior in  goodncfs  to  that  of  Lomba-dy.  Oil  i<  a  plen- 
tiful comir.odily,  and  wines  arc  made  for  exportatim 
on  many  parts  ofihc  coall ;  but  wool  has  always  been, 
D  and 


A  B  R 


[     26     ] 


A  B  S 


Alriiz'zo.  and  ftiUis,  thtir  flaplc  coniiiiodity :  the  flocks,  after 

^~~'^' }';iliirg  ihc  whole  i'ammcr  iu  the  fine  palhircs  ol'  the 

iiioiuctiiius,  are  driven  for  the  winter  into  the  warm 
plains  of  Puglia,  and  a  few  (pots  ntarjhcir  own  coall, 
where  the  faow  docs  not  lie;  there  arc  no  inanufacliires 
of  woollens  in  the  province,  except  two  fmall  ones 
of  coarfe  cloth,  and  the  greatcft  part  of  the  wool  is 
fcnt  out  iiHwronght.  No  fi!k  is  made  here,  though 
niulUcrry-trecs  would  grow  well  in  the  low  grounds. 

Formerly  the  territory  of  Aquila  furuilhed  Italy  al- 
moltexelulivclywiliifaftron;biitiincc  the  culture ot  that 
plant  has  been  fo  much  followed  in  Lombardy,  it  has 
fallen  tonothingin  Ahiuz/.o.  in  the  nuiritiine  iraeksof 
the  country  the  cultivation  of  liquorice  has  be  t  u  iucrca- 
fed  of  late  years, but  foreigners  export  the  roots  in  their 
natural  Hate  :  iu  the  province  of  Teramo  there  is  a  ma- 
nufactory of  pottery-ware,  for  which  there  is  a  great 
demand  in  Germany,  by  the  way  of  Trielle,  as  it  is 
remarkably  hard  and  tine;  but  even  this  is  going  to 
decay,  by  being  abandoned  entirely  to  the  ignorance 
of  common  workmen.  It  is  not  to  be  expccled  that 
any  improvements  will  be  made  in  arts  and  manufac- 
tures, where  the  encouragement  and  attention  of  fu- 
pcriors  is  wanting,  and  no  pains  taken  to  render  the 
commodily  more  marketable,  or  to  oyen  better  chan- 
nels of  fale  for  it.  The  only  advantages  thefc  provin- 
ces enjoy,  are  the  gift  of  benevolent  nature  ;  but  llie 
has  ftill  greater  prefents  in  Itore  for  them,  and  waits 
only  for  the  helping  hand  of  government  to  produce 
thetn.  This  whole  coaft,  one  hundred  miles  in  length, 
is  utterly  dellitute  of  lea-ports  ;  and  the  only  fpots 
where  the  produce  can  be  embarked  arc  dangerous  in- 
convenient roads,  at  the  inoutlis  of  rivers,  and  along  a 
lec-Hiorc  :  the  ditliciilty  of  procuring  lliipping,  and  of 
loading  the  goods,  frequently  caufes  great  quantities 
pf  them  to  rot  on  hand:  which  danipsindullry,  and  pre- 
vents all  improvements  in  agriculture.  The  hufband- 
man  is  a  poor  difpirited  wretch,  and  w  retclicdnefs  pro- 
daces  emigration  :  the  uneven  furface  of  the  country 
occalions  it  to  be  inhabited  by  retail,  if  the  expreffion 
may  be  ufed,  rather  than  in  large  malFes  ;  for  there  is 
not  a  ciiy  that  contains  ten  thoufand  people,  and  the 
moft  of  them  would  find  it  difficult  to  muller  three 
thoufand.  Villages,  caflles,  and  feudatory  eftates,  are 
to  be  met  witli  in  abundance  ;  but  the  numbers  of 
their  inhabitants  are  to  be  reckoned  by  hundreds,  not 
thoufands  :  in  a  word,  the  political  and  focial  fyltem 
iif  the  province  fliows  no  figns  of  the  vigour  which  na- 
ture fo  remarkably  difplays  here  in  all  her  operations. 

The  antiquary  and  tlie  naturalill  may  travel  here 
with  exquilile  plcafure  and  profit ;  the  former  will  find 
treafurcs  of  infcriptions,  and  inedited  monuments  ap- 
pertaining to  the  warlike  nations  that  once  covered  the 
face  of  the  country  ;  the  natural  pliilofopherwiU  have 
a  noble  field  for  obfervation  in  the  liupendous  monu- 
Hients  that  arifc  on  all  lides.  Monte-corno  and  Majella 
arc  among  the  nu)fl  interefting  ;  the  firfl  islike  an  aged 
monument  of  nature,  bald,  and  horribly  broken  on 
every  afpefl :  from  various  appearances,  it  is  evident 
that  its  bowels  contain  many  valuable  veins  of  metallic 
ore  ;  but  the  great  difliculty  of  accefs  renders  the  fearch 
of  them  almoll  impraflicable.  Majella  has  other  me- 
rits, and  of  a  gayer  kind  : — nature  has  clothed  its  de- 
clivities and  elevated  fields  with  an  infinite  variety  of 
Lermoft  precious  plants;  vulnerary  herbs  grow  there 


in  as  great  perfection  as  on  the  Alps  of  SwifTcrland, 
and  are  applied  by  the  natives  to  wounds  with  equal 
fucccis. 

The  charaderofthe  inhabitants  varies  alittlc among 
themfelves,  according  to  fituation  and  climate,  but  el- 
fentially  from  the  difpolition  of  the  natives  of  the  more 
fouthcrn  provinces.  This  proceeds  from  a  dilf'crcncc 
of  origin:  for  the  Lombards,  who  were  barbarians, 
but  not  cruel;  poor,  but  hofpitable  ;  endowed  with 
plain  honert  fenfc,  tliongh  polfelled  of  little  acutenefs 
or  fubtlcty  ;  remained  peaceable  proprietors  of  thefe 
mountianous  regions,  till  tiicNormans,  who  were  ac- 
cullomed  to  a  limilar  climate,  came,  and  difpoirellcd 
them.  The  Greeks,  who  retained  almoft  every  other 
part  of  tlie  kingdom  under  their  dominion,  never  had 
any  fway  here.  For  this  reafon  tiie  Abruzzeli  ftill 
bear  a  great  refemblance  to  their  northern  progenitors 
or  maltcrs  :  to  tliis  day,  one  may  trace  in  them  the 
fame  goodnefs  of  heart,  but  great  indolence,  and  re- 
pugnance to  lively  exertions  ;  a  fault  that  proceeds  ra- 
ther from  a  want  of  aclive  virtue,  than  a  difpolition  to 
wickcdnefs.  Hence  it  comes  that  in  thefe  provinces, 
w  here  tlie  proximity  of  the  frontier  almofl  infures  im- 
punity, fewer  atrocious  and  inhuman  deeds  are  heard 
of  than  in  otiier  parts  of  ihe  realm.  Remnants  of 
ancient  northern  cufloms  exiJled  here  fo  late  as  the  be- 
ginningof  this  century,  and,  among  ilie  mountaineers, 
very  evident  traces  of  the  Frank  and  Teutonic  lan- 
guages may  be  difcovered. 

ABSALOM,  the  fcm  of  David  by  Maacah,  was  bro- 
ther to  Thamar,  David 'sdaugh  ter,  who  was  raviflied  by 
Amnon  their  eldell  brother  by  another  mother.  Abfa- 
lom  waited  twoycars  for  an  opportunity  of  revenging 
the  injury  done  to  his  (ifter  ;  and  at  laft  procured  the 
afl'aflination  of  Amnon  at  a  feaft  which  he  had  prepared 
for  the  kiKg's  fons.  He  took  refuge  with  Talmai  king 
of  Gefher  ;  and  was  no  fooner  reflored  to  favour,  but 
he  engaged  the  Ifraelites  to  revolt  from  his  father. 
Abfalom  was  defeated  in  the  wood  of  Ephraim  :  as  he 
w'as  flying,  his  hair  caught  hold  of  an  oak,  where  he 
hung  till  Joab  came  and  thurft  him  through  with 
three  darts  :  David  had  exprefsly  ordered  his  life  t» 
be  fpared,  and  extremely  lamented  him. 

ABSCESS,  in  furgery  ;  from  ahfado,  to  depart. 
A  cavity  containing  pus  ;  or,  a  gathering  of  matter  in 
a  part :  So  called,  becaufe  the  parts  which  were  joined 
are  now  fcparated  ;  one  part  recedes  from  another,  to 
make  way  for  the  colledted  matter.     See  Surgery. 

ABSCISSE,  in  conies,  a  part  of  the  diameter  or 
tranfverfe  axis  of  a  conic  feclion  intercepted  between 
the  vertex  or  fome  other  fixed  point  and  a  femiordi- 
nate.     See  Cosic  Scdiom. 

ABSCONSA,  a  dark  lanthern  ufed  by  the  monks 
at  the  ceremony  of  burying  thci;  dead. 

ABSENCE,  in  Scots  law  :  When  a  perfon  cited 
before  a  court  docs  not  appear,  and  judgment  is  pro- 
nounced, that  judgment  is  laid  to  be  hi  abfeiice.  No 
perfon  can  be  tried  criminally  in  abfence. 

ABSINTHIATED,  any  thing  tinged  or  impreg- 
nated with  abfinthium  or  wormwood.  Bartholin  men- 
tions a  woman  whofe  milk  was  become  abfinthiated, 
and  rendered  as  bitter  as  gall,  by  the  too  liberal  ufe  of 
wormwood. 

Vhium  abfinthites,  or  foculum ahfinthiaium,  "  worm- 
wood wine,"  is  much  fpoke  of  among  the  ancients  as  a 

whole- 


A  B  S 


r  27  J 


A  B  S 


wholefome  drink,  and  c  vcnan  aiuidote  againfl  drunkcn- 
ncfs,  though  fomc  have  charged  it  witli  being  off'cii- 
five  tothe  head,  and  liable  tocaufc  fevers,  cephalalgias, 
_  vomitings,  uterine  liiixcs,  &c.  Ray  allb  makes  it  a 
preventative  of  venery.  According  to  the  common 
opinion,  it  is  made  by  infixing  the  leaves  of  the  plant 
in  wine  ;  but,  according  to  Kchr,  it  ought  to  be  pre- 
pared by  fermentation,  in  order  to  corrctt  the  crudi- 
ties, and  call  forth  a  volatile  fait  ;  which  lall,  how- 
ever, does  not  exill  in  wormwood.  Some  prefer  the 
diilillcd  water  ;  but  whatever  virtues  wormwood  pof- 
fcfles  relide  entirely  in  its  elTential  oil. 

ABSINTHIUM,  in  botany,  the  trivial  name  of 
the  common  wormwood.  Sec  the  article  Artemi- 
sia. 

ABSIS,  in  aftronomy,  the  fame  with  apfis.  See 
Arsis. 

ABSOLUTE,  in  a  general  fenfe,  fomething  that 
ftands  free  or  independent. 

Absolute  is  more  particularly  underflood  of  a  bcin  g 
or  thing  which  does  not  proceed  from  any  caufe,  or 
does  not  fubfift  by  virtue  of  any  other  being,  confi- 
dered  as  its  caufe  ;  in  which  fenfe,  God  alone  is  abfo- 
lut!.  Abfotute,  in  this  fenfe,  is  fynonymous  with /«;/<:- 
pendent,  and  Ilands  oppofed  to  dependent. 

Absolute  alfo  denotes  a  thing's  being  free  from 
conditions  or  limitations  ;  in  which  fenfe,  the  word  is 
fynonymous  with  unconditional.  We  fay,  an  abfolute 
6ccrtt,abfolute  promife,  abfolute  obedience. 

Absolute  Covemmint,  that  wherein  the  prince  is 
left  folcly  to  his  own  will,  being  not  limited  to  the  ob- 
fcrvancc  of  any  laws  except  thofc  of  his  own  difcre- 
lion. 

Absolute  Equation,  in  aftronomy,  is  the  aggregate 
of  the  optic  and  eccentric  equations.  The  apparent 
inequality  of  a  planet's  motion  ariling  from  its  not  be- 
ing equally  diflant  from  the  earth  at  all  times,  is  call- 
ed its  optic  equation,  and  would  fublill  even  if  the  pla- 
net's real  motion  were  uniform.  The  eccentric  ine- 
quality is  caufed  by  the  planet's  motion  being  uniform. 
"To  illuftratc  which,  conceive  ths  fun  to  move,  or  to 
appear  to  move,  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  in 
whofe  centre  the  earth  is  placed.  It  is  manifcll,  that 
if  the  fun  moves  uniformly  in  this  circle,  itmufl  appear 
to  move  uniformly  to  a  fpectator  on  the  earth,  and  in 
this  cafe  there  will  be  no  optic  nor  eccentric  equation  : 
but  fuppofe  the  earth  to  be  placed  out  of  the  centre  of 
the  circle,  and  then,  though  the  fun's  motion  ihould 
be  really  uniform,  it  would  not  appear  to  be  fo,  being 
fetn  from  the  earth  ;  and  inthis  cafe  there  would  be  an 
optic  equation,  without  an  eccentric  one.  Imagine 
farther,  the  fun's  orbit  to  be  not  circular,  but  elliptic, 
and  the  earth  in  its  focus;  it  will  be  as  evident  that 
the  fun  cannot  appear  to  have  an  uniform  motion  in 
fuch  ellipfe  :  fo  that  liis  motion  will  then  be  fubjed  to 
two  equations,  the  optic  and  the  eccentric. 

Absolute  Number,  in  algebra,  is  any  pure  number 
ftanding  in  any  equation  without  the  conjumflion  of  li- 
teral charafters ;  as  2.v-|-36=48  ;  where  :;6  and  48 
are  abfolute  numbers,  but  2  is  not,  as  being  joined 
with  the  letter  .v. 

ABSOLUT  ION,  in  civil  law,  is  a  fentcncc  whereby 
the  party  accufed  is  declared  innocent  of  the  crime  laid 
to  his  charge — Anion;;  thcRomans,  the  ordinary  me- 
thod of  pronouncing  judgment  was  this :  after  the  cauie 


had  been  pleaded  on  both  fides,  the  prseco  uftd  the  Abfo'ution 
word  dixerunt,  q.  d.  they  have  faid  what  they  had  to  I 

fa/  ;  then  three  ballots  were  diflribiited  to  each  judge,     At'^T- 
marked  as  mentioned  under  the  article  A  ;  and  as  the      ""°'     . 
majority  fell  of  cither  mark,  the  accufed  was  abfohed 
or  condemned,  &c.     If  he  were  abfolvcd,  the  prastor 
difmidtd  him  with  videtur  noiifecijfe,  or  jure  videtur 

Absolution,  in  the  canon  law,  is  ajuridical  aft, 
whereby  the  pricft  declares  the  lins  of  fuch  as  are  pe- 
nitent remitted. — The  Romanifts  hold  abfolution  1 
partofthefacrament  of  penance:  thecouncilof  Trent, 
fcir.  xiv.  cap.  iii.  and  that  of  Florence,  in  thedccreea^ 
Armenos,  declare  the  form  or  clTence  of  thcfacrameni 
to  lie  in  the  words  a{ abjolutioii,  I  abfolvc  thee  of  t!iy 
lins.  Theyirw.v/a  of  abfolution,  in  the  Romilli  church, 
is  abfolute  :  in  the  Greek  church  it  is  deprecatory  ; 
and  in  the  churches  of  the  reformed,  declarative. 

Absolution  is  chicrty  ufed  among  protcllants  for 
a  fentence  whereby  a  perfon  who  Itands  excommuni- 
cated is  releafcd  or  freed  from  that  punilhmcnt. 

ABSORBENT,  in  general,  any  thing  poflefllng 
the  ijia\\ly  oi abforbing ,  or  fwallowing  up  another. 

Ausokbest  Medicine  J ,  teftaceous  powders,  as  chalk, 
crab-eyes,  &c.  whicli  are  taken  inwardly  for  drying  up 
orabforbingany  acidor  redundant  humours  in  the  (lo- 
mach  or  intellincs.  They  are  likewifc  applied  out- 
wardly to  ulcers  or  fores  with  the  fame  intention. 

Absorhent  l\-[fcls,  a  name  given  promifeuoully  to 
the  lafteal  vefTels,  lymphatics,  and  inhalent  arteries. 
See  Anatomy. 

Naturalifts  fpeak  of  the  like  abforbents  in  plants, 
tlie  fibrous  or  hairy  roots  of  which  are  as  a  kind  of  va- 
fa  abforbentia,  which  attrart  and  imbibe  the  nutritious 
juices  from  the  earth.     See  Plants. 

ABSORBING,  the  fwallowing  up,  fucking  up,  or 
imbibing  any  thing  :  thus  black  bodies  are  faid  to  ab- 
forb  the  rays  of  light ;  luxuriant  branches,  to  abforb 
or  wafte  the  nutricious  juices  which  fliould  feed  the 
fruit  of  trees,  &c. 

ABSORPTION,  in  the  animal  ceconomy,  is  the 
power  whereby  the  abforbent  vctfels  imbibe  the  juices, 
&c. 

Absorptions  of  the  Earth,  a  term  ufed  by  K  ire  her 
and  others  for  the  finking  in  of  Urge  tracts  of  land  by 
means  of  fubterrancous  commotions,  and  many  other 
accidents. 

Pliny  tells  us,  that  in  his  time  the  mountain  Cym- 
botus,  with  the  town  of  Eurites,  which  llood  on  its 
fide,  were  wholly  abforbed  into  the  earth,  fo  that  not 
the  leaft  trace  of  either  remained  ;  and  he  records  the 
like  fate  of  the  city  Tantalis  in  Magnefia,  and  after  it 
of  the  mountain  Sypelus,  both  thus  abforbed  bv  .1  vi- 
olent opening  of  the  earth.  Galanis  and  Garmtus, 
towns  once  famous  in  Phoenicia,  are  recorded  to 
have  met  the  fame  fate  ;  and  the  vaft  promoniory,  cal- 
led P/'/ci;///;//,  in  Ethiopia,  after  a  violent  carthqaakc 
in  the  night-time,  was  not  to  be  feen  in  the  morning, 
the  whole  having  difappeared,  and  the  earth  clofed  o- 
vcr  it.  Thefe  and  many  other  hidorics,  attcfled  by 
the  authors  of  greatcll  credit  among  the  ancients,  a- 
bundantly  prove  the  fart  in  the  earlier  ages  ;  and  there 
have  not  been  wanting  too  many  inllanccs  of  more  mo- 
dern date.  Kircher's  Mnnd.  Subtcr.  p.  77.  Sec 
Earth  and  Earthq_uake. 

D  3  ABSOR- 


A  B  S 


[     28     ] 


A  B  S 


Aliform        ABSORUS,  Apsokus,  Absyrtis,  Absyrtidf.s, 

II         Apsvktides,  ApsYRTis,  aiul  Absv  RTiUM,  (btralio, 

Abftiiience  ^1^^,  Ptolemy  ;)  illaiuls  iu  tl\e  Adriatic,  in  the  gulph 

*"         of  Carnero  ;  I'o  called  iVom  Ablyriis,  Medea's  brother, 

tliere  llaiii.     'J'hey  arc  either  one  illaiul,  or  two,  I'c- 

paratcd  hy  a  narrow  channel,  and  joined  by  a  bridge  j 

and  are  now  called  Ch^rfo  and  Ojcro. 

ABSTEMII,  in  church  hiflory,  a  name  given  to 
fuch  perfons  as  could  not  partake  of  the  cup  of  the 
cucharilt  on  account  of  their  natural  avcrlion  to  wine. 
Calvinills  allow  thcfe  to  communicate  in  the  Ipcciesot 
bread  only,  touching  the  cup  with  their  lip  ;  which, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  by  the  Lutherans  deemed  a  pro- 
fanation. 

ABSTEMIOUS,  is  properly  undcrftood  of  a  per- 
fon  who  refrains  abfolutcly  from  all  ufe  of  wine. 

The  hillory  of  Mr  Wood,  in  the  Medic.  Tranf. 
vol.  ii.  p.  261.  art.  iS.  is  a  very  remarkable  exeinpli- 
lication  of  the  very  beneficial  alterations  which  may 
be  effcded  on  the  human  body  by  a  Uriel;  courfe  ot 
abftemioufnefs. 

The  Roman  ladies,  in  tlie  tirll  ages  of  the  republic, 
were  all  cnjoiued  to  be  ablltmious  ;  and  that  it  might 
appear,  by  their  breath,  whether  or  no  they  kept  up 
to  the  iniunction,  it  was  one  of  the  laws  of  the  Ro- 
man civility,  that  they  Ihould  kifs  their  friends  and 
relations  whenever  they  accolled  them. 

ABSTEMIUS  (Laurcntias),  a  native  of  Macerata, 
profelVor  of  belles  lettres  in  Urbino,  and  librarian  of 
dukeGuido  Ubaldo,  under  the  pontificate  of  Alexan- 
der VI.  He  wrote,  i.  Notes  on  mofl  difficult  palfages 
of  ancient  authors.  2.  Hecatomythium,  /'.  e.  A  col- 
ledion  of  an  100  fables,  &c.  which  have  been  often 
printed  with  thofc  of  yEfop,  Phaedrus,  Gabrias,  Avi- 
enus,  &c. 

ABSTERGENT  medicines,  thofe  employed  for 
refolving  obftruilions,  concretions,  &c.  fuch  as  foap, 
&c. 

ABSTINENCE,  in  a  general  fcnfe,  the  art  or  ha- 
bit of  refraining  from  fomcthing  which  we  have  a  pro- 
penlion  to  or  find  pleafure  in. — Among  the  Jews,  va- 
rious kinds  of  abllincnce  were  ordained  by  their  law. 
Among  the  primitive  ChrilHaiis,  fume  denied  them- 
felves  the  ufe  of  fuch  meats  as  were  prohibited  by  that 
law,other3  looked  uponthisabftinencc  with  contempt  ; 
as  to  which,  St  Paul  gives  his  opinion,  Rom.  xiv.  I  —  3. 
The  council  of  Jrrufalcm,  which  was  held  by  tlie  Apu- 
llles,  enjoined  the  Chrillian  converts  to  abllain  from 
meats  llrangled,  from  blood,  from  fornication,  and 
from  idolatry.  Abllincnce,  as  prclcribed  by  the  gof- 
pel,  is  intended  to  mortify  and  rcflrain  the  palllons,  to 
humble  our  vicious  -natures,  and  by  that  means  raife 
our  minds  to  a  due  fenfe  of  devotion.  But  there  is 
another  fort  of  abftinence,  which  may  be  called  ritual, 
and  confifts  in  abllaining  from  particular  meats  at  cer- 
tain times  and  feafons.  It  was  the  fpiritual  monarchy 
of  the  weflern  world  which  firfl  introduced  this  ritual 
abflinencc  ;  the  rules  of  which  were  called  rogations ; 
but  grofsly  abufcd  from  the  true  nature  and  defign  of 
fafting. — In  England,  abftinence  from  flelh  has  been 
enjoined  by  flatutceven  fincethe  reformation,  particu- 
larly on  Fridays  and  Saturdays,  on  vigils,  and  on  all 
commonly  called/y^-i/^j'j.  The  like  injunctions  were 
renewed  under  Q^.  Elizabeth  :  but  at  the  fame  time  it 
was  declared,  that  this  was  done  not  out  of  motives  of 
religion;  as  if  tJiere  were  any  difference  in  meats ;  hue 


in  favour  of  the  confimiption  of  filli,  and  to  multiply  the  Abllincnce 
iiumber  of  Hlhcrmen  and  mariners,  as  well  as  fpare  the         "      ' 
tiock  of  fltecp.    1  be  great  faft,  fays  St  AuguAin,  is  to 
abftain  from  (in. 

Abstinence  is  more  particularly  uftd  for  a  fpare 
diet,  or  a  (lender  parlimonious  ufe  of  food,  below  the 
ordinary  ftandard  of  nature.     The  pliyficians  relate 
wonders  of  the  cffcfts  of  abftinence  in  the  cure  of 
many  diforders,  and  protracting  the  term  of  life.  The 
noble  Venetian,  Cornaro,  after  all  imaginable  means 
had  proved  vain,  fo  that  his  life  was  dcfpaired  of  at 
40,  recovered,  and  lived  to  near  ico,  by  mere  dint 
of  abftinence  ;  as  he  hiinfelf  gives  the  account.     It  is 
indeed  furprifing  to  what  a  great  age  the  primitive 
Chriftians  of  the  eaft,  who  retired  from  the  ptrlecu- 
tions  into  the   dcfarts  of  Arabia  and   Egypt,    lived, 
lualthful  and  cheerful,  on  a  very  little  food.     Caflian 
alfurcs  us,  that  the  common  rate  for  24  hours  was  12 
ounces  of  bread,  and  mere  water  :   with  this  St  An- 
thony lived  loj  years  ;  James  the  Hermit  104  ;  Ar- 
feuius,  tutor  of  the  Emperor  Arcadius,  120;  S.  Epi- 
phanius,  115;  Simeon  the  Stylite,  112;  and  Romauld, 
120.    Buchanan  writes,  that  in  Scotland  one  Laurence 
prefervcd  himfelf  to  140  by  force  of  temperance  and- 
labour  ;   and  Spotfwood  mentions  one  Kcntigern,  af- 
terwards called  S.   Mongah  or  Mungo,  who  lived  to 
i8j  by  the  fame  means.     Other  inftances  fee  under 
the  article  Longevity. 

Abftinence,  however,  is  to  be  recommended  only  as 
i  t  means  a  jiroper  regimen  ;  for  in  general  it  nuift  have 
bad  confequences  when  obfcrved  without  a  due  regard 
to  conftitution,  age,  ftrcngth,  ire  According  to  Dr 
Chcyne,  moft  ofthe  chronical  difeafes,  the  infirmities 
of  old  age, and  the  ihort  lives  of  Englifhmen,  are  owing 
to  repletion  ;  and  may  be  either  cured,  prevented,  or 
remedied  by  abftinence  :  but  then  the  kinds  of  abfti- 
nence which  ought  to  obtain,  cither  in  ficknefs  or 
health,  are  to  be  deduced  from  the  laws  of  diet  and  re- 
gimen. 

Among  the  brute  creation,  we  fee  extraordinary  in- 
ftancesof  long  abftinence.  The  ferpcnt-kind,  in  parti- 
cular, bcarabftiuence  to.-;  wonderful  degree.  We  have 
fcen  rattle-fnakes  that  had  fubfifte d  many  months  w  ilh- 
oul  any  food,  yet  ftill  retained  their  vigour  and  fierce- 
nefs.  Dr  Shaw  fpcaksof  a  couple  of  ceraftes,  (a  fort  of 
Egyptian  ferpents),  which  had  been  kept  five  years  in 
a  bottle  clofc  corked,  without  any  fort  of  food,unlcfs  a 
fmall  quantity  of  fand  wherein  they  coiled  ihcmfclves 
up  in  the  bottom  of  the  velfcl  may  be  reckoned  as 
fuch  :  yet  when  he  faw  them,  they  had  newly  caft  their 
(kins,  and  were  as  brifkandlively  as  if  juft  taken.  But 
it  is  even  natural  for  divers  fpecies  to  pafs  four,  five,  or 
fix  months  every  year,  without  either  eating  or  drink- 
ing. Accordingly,  the  tortoife,  bear,  dormoufe,  fer- 
pent,  &c.  are  obfervcd  regularly  to  retire,  at  thofc 
feafons,  to  tlicir  refpcclive  cells,  and  hide  ihcmfelves, 
fome  in  the  caverns  of  rocks  or  ruins  ;  othersdig  holes 
under  ground  ;  others  get  into  woods,  and  lay  them- 
felves  up  in  the  clefts  of  trees  ;  others  bury  themfelves 
under  water,  ire.  And  thefe  animals  are  found  as  fat 
and  tlefliy  after  fome  months  abftinence  as  before. — 
Sir  G.  Ent*  weighed  his  tortoife  feveral  years  fucccf-  ,  ^^^.^ 
fively,  at  its  going  to  earth  in  Oftobcr,  and  coming  j-ra,,/. 
out  again  in  March  ;  and  found,  that,  of  four  pounds,  n  194. 
four  ounces,  it  only  ufed  to  lofe  about  one  ounce. 
— Indeed,  we  have  inftances  of  men  palfiug  feveral 

mouths. 


A  B  S  [     ; 

Abflinenec  months  as  ftriflly  abflincnt  as  other  crcatiircs.  In  par- 
II  ticiilar,  tlic  records  of  the  Tower  of  London  mention  a 
Abftraift,  Scotchmaji  imprifuned  for  felony,  and  ilriitlywatclicd 
in  that  fortrefs  for  lix  weeks  :  in  all  which  time  he 
took  not  the  leaflfuflenancc:  for  which  he  had  his  par- 
don. Numbcrlcfs  inftancesof  extroardinary  abAinence, 
particularly  from  morbid  caufcs,  are  to  be  found  in  the 
different  periodical  Memoirs,  Tranfadions,  Epheme- 

rldcs.  See It  is  to  be  added,  that,  in  moft  inflances  of 

cxtroardinary  human  ablUncnce  related  by  naturalifts, 
there  were  laid  to  have  been  apparent  marks  of  a  tex- 
ture of  blood  and  h'umours,  much  like  that  of  the  alii- 
mals  aoovementioncd.  Though  it  is  no  improbable  o- 
pinion,  that  the  air  itfclf  may  furnilh  fomcthing  for  nu- 
trition. It  is  certain,  there  are  fubftanccs  of  all  kinds, 
animal,  vegetable,  &c.  floating  in  the  atniofpliere, 
which  muft  be  continually  taken  in  byrcfpiration.  And 
that  an  animal  body  may  be  nourilhcd  thereby,  is  evi- 
dent in  the  inftance  of  vipers  ;  which  if  taken  when 
firft  brought  forth,  and  kept  from  every  thing  but  air, 
will  yet  grow  very  coniidcrably  in  a  few  days.  So  the 
eggs  of  lizards  arcobferved  to  increafe  in  bulk,  after 
they  are  produced  though  there  be  nothing  to  furnilh 
the  increment  but  air  alone;  in  like  manner  as  the  eggs 
orfpawn  of  tilhcs  grow  and  arenourilhed  with  the  wa- 
ter. And  hence,  fay  fome,  it  is  that  cooks,  turnfpit- 
dogs,  &c.  though  they  eat  but  little,  yet  are  ufually 
fat.     See  Fasting. 

ABSTINKN TS,  or  Apstiken'tes,  a  fet  of  here- 
tics that  appeared  in  France  and  Spain  about  the  end 
of  the  third  century.  They  are  fuppofed  to  have  bor- 
rowed part  of  their  opinions  from  the  Gnollics  and 
Manicheans,  becaufe  they  oppofed  marriage,  condemn- 
ed the  ufe  of  llclh  meat,  and  placed  the  Holy  Ghoflin 
the  clafs  of  created  beings.  We  have,  however,  no 
certain  account  of  their  peculiar  tenets. 

ABSTRACT,  in  a  general  fenfe,  any  thing  fcpa- 
rated  from  fomething  elfe, 

/fBSTRAcr  Idea,  in  metaphylics,  is  a  partial  idea  of  a 
complex  object,  limited  to  one  or  more  of  the  compo- 
nent parts  or  properties,  laying  alidc  or  abftrafting 
from  the  reft.  Thus,  in  viewing  an  object  with  the 
eye,  or  recollecting  it  in  the  mind,  we  can  calily  ab- 
ftraft  from  fome  of  its  parts  or  properties,  and  attach 
ourfelves  to  others  :  we  can  attend  to  the  rednefs  of  a 
cherry,  without  regard  to  its  figure,  talle,  or  confift- 
encc.     See  Abstraction. 

j^R^.TRAcr  Turns,  words  that  are  ufed  to  exprcfs 
abftraft ideas.  Thusbeauty,uglinefs,whitcnefs,  round- 
nefs,  life,  death,  are  abllrait  terms. 

Abstract  Niivibers,  are  alFemblagcs  of  units,  con- 
fidcred  in  thcmfelvcs  without  denoting  any  particular 
and  determined  particulars.  Thus  6  is  an  abflract 
number,  when  not  applied  to  anything;  but,  if  we 
fay  6  feet,  6  becomes  a  concrete  number.  See  the  ar- 
ticle Number. 

Abstract  Mathematics,  othcrwife  called  Pure  Ma- 
thtviat'ics,  is  that  which  treats  of  magnitude  or  quan- 
tity, abfolutely  and  generally  conlidered,  witliout  re- 
flriiition  to  any  fpecies  of  particular  magnitude  ;  fuch 
arc  Arithmetic  and  Geometry.  In  this  fenfe,  abftradt 
mathematics  is  jppofed  tomixcd  mathematics;  wherein 
iimple  and  abltraft  properties,  and  the  relations  of 
quantities  primitively  con(idercd  in  pure  mathematics, 
ue  applied  to  fenliblcobjcfts,  and  by  that  means  bc- 

3 


I 

AbfurJ. 


19]  A  B  S 

come  intermixed  with  phyfical  conliaeraiions  ;  fach  Abftnft 
arc  Hydroltatics,  Optics,  Navigation,  3ic. 

Abstract,  in  literature,  a  compendious  view  of 
any  large  work  ;  ihorter  and  more  fupcrticial  than  an 
abridgment. 

ABSTRACTION,  in  general,  the  aftof  abftradt- 
iug,  or  the  Hate  of  being  abttraftcd. 

Abstr  ACT  I  o.s',  in  metaphylics,  the  operation  of  the 
mind  when  occupied  by  abftract  ideas.  A  large  oak 
fixes  our  attention,  and  abflracls  us  from  the  ihrubs 
that  furround  it.  In  the  fame  manner,  a  beautirul 
woman  in  a  crowd,  abllraclsour  thoughts,  and  cngrof- 
fesour  attention  folcly  tohcrftlf.  Thefcare  examples 
of  real  abftraetion  :  when  thefc,  or  any  others  of  a  fi- 
milar  kind,  arc  recalled  to  the  mind  after  the  objcds 
themfclvcs  are  removed  from  our  light,  they  form  what 
are  called  abjlraci  ideas,  or  the  mind  is  faid  to  be  em- 
ployed in  abflract  ideas.  But  the  power  of  abllraclioa 
is  not  confined  to  objects  that  arc  fcparable  in  reality 
as  well  as  mentally  :  the  fize,  the  figure,  the  colour  of 
a  tree  are  infeparably  connedlcd,  and  cannot  cxift  in- 
dependent of  each  other  ;  andyctwecanmentally con- 
fine our  obfcrvaiions  to  any  one  of  thefe  properties, 
neglecting  or  abflrading  from  the  rert. 

Abllrattion  is  chiefly  employed  thefe  three  ways. 
Firft,  When  the  mind  confiders  any  one  part  of  a 
thing,  in  fome  rcfpect  diftinft  from  the  whole  ;  as  a 
man's  arm,  without  the  conlideration  of  the  reltof  the 
body.  Secondly,  When  we  confidcr  the  wod't'of  any 
fubltance,  omitting  the  fubftance  itfclf ;  or  when  we 
fcparately  conlider fcvcral  modes  which  fubfift  together 
in  one  fubjcCt.  This  abllradion  the  geometricians 
make  nfe  of  when  tlity  confider  the  length  of  a  t>ody 
fcparately,  which  they  call  a  tine,  omitting  the  conli- 
deration of  its  breadth  and  thicknefs.  Thirdly,  It  is 
by  abftraction  that  the  mind  forms  general  or  univcrfal 
ideas  ;  omitting  the  modes  and  relations  of  the  parti- 
cular objcits  whence  they  arc  formed.  Thus,  when 
we  Ihould  underAand  a  thinking  being  in  general,  wc 
gather  from  ourfclf-confcioufnefs  what  it  is  to  think  ; 
and,  omitting  thofe  things  which  have  a  particular  re- 
lation to  our  own  minds,  or  to  the  human  mind,  we 
conceive  a  thinking  being  in  general. 

Ideas  formed  in  this  manner,  which  are  what  we 
properly  aWakjirad  ideai,  become  general  reprefen- 
tatives  of  all  objects  of  the  fane  kind  ;  and  their  names 
applicable  to  whatever  exifts  conformable  to  fuch 
ideas.  Thus  the  idea  of  colour  that  wc  receive  from 
chalk,  fnow,  milk,  &c.  is  a  rcprefentativeofall  of  that 
kind;  and  has  a  name  given  it,  'd)l;ilen:/s,  \\hich 
fignifies  the  fame  quality  wherever  fuujid  or  imagi- 
ned. 

ABSTRUSE,  fomething  deep,  hidden,  concealed, 
or  far  removed  from  common  apprehculions,  and  there- 
fore not  eafily  underftood  ;  in  oppofiiion  to  what  is 
obvious  and  palpable.  Thas  metaphyfics  is  an  ab- 
flrufc  fcicncc  ;  and  the  doiflrine  effluxions,  and  the 
method  flV  maximis  et  muiiniis,  arc  abftrufc  points  of 
knowledge. 

ABSURD,  an  epithet  applied  to  any  thing  that 
oppofcs  the  human  apprchention  and  contradicts  a 
manifclt  truth.  Thus,  it  would  be  abfurd  'o  fay 
that  6  and  6  make  only  10,  or  to  deny  that  twice  6 
make  12.  Whenthc  terra  <ii5/«r«'isapplicd  to  actions, 
it  has  the  fame  import  as  ridiculous. 

ABSYN- 


ABU 


[     30     ] 


A  B  Y 


AHSYNTHIUM.     Sec  Absinth  ium. 

ABSYKTUS,  ill  the  licatlicii  myiliolngy,  the  fon 
of  ^taaiul  Hypica,  and  tlic  broihciot"  Medea.  The 
latter  nuiniugaway  with  Jafon,  after  her  having  aflift- 
cd  him  in  carrying  off  the  golden  Hcece,  was  piirfued 
by  her  father  ;  when,  to  Hop  his  progrefs,  (he  lore 
Abfyrtiis  in  pieces,  and  fcaitercd  his  limbs  in  his  way. 

ABTHANES,  a  title  of  honour  ufed  by  the  an- 
cient inhabitants  ot  Scotland,  who  called  tlieir  nobles 
/^<j/;tM,  which  in  the  old  Saxon  lignifies^;/;^'j  «//«/// tfr'j; 
and  of  thcfe  the  higher  rank  were  ^yXiAabihaiia,  and 
thofe  of  the  lower  uitdcrthaiies. 

ABUCCO,  Abocco,  or  Abocchi,  a  weight  ufed 
in  the  kingdom  of  Pegu.  One  abucco  contains  12',  lec- 
calis  ;  two  abuccos  make  a. giro  or  agire  ;  twogiri,  halt 
z  hiza ;  and  a /'/ca  weighs  an  hundred  tcccalis  J  that 
is,  two  pounds  five  ounces  the  heavy  weight,  or  three 
pounds  nine  ounces  the  light  weight  of  Venice. 

ABUKESO,  in  commerce,  the  lame  with  Asi.an. 

ABULFARAGIUS  (Gregory),  fon  to  Aaron  a 
phyfician,  born  in  1226,  in  the  city  of  Malalia,  near 
the  fourcc  of  the  Euphrates  in  Armenia.  He  followed 
the  profelllon  of  his  father  ;  and  pradlifcd  w  ith  great 
fuccefs,  numbers  of  people  coming  from  the  moll  re- 
mote parts  to  alk  his  advice.  However,  he  would  hardly 
have  been  known  at  this  time,  had  his  knowledge  been 
confined  tophyfic  :  but  he  applied  himfclf  to  the  lUidy 
of  the  Greek,  Syriac,  and  Arabic  languages,  as  well 
as  philofopliy  and  divinity  ;  and  he  wrote  a  hillory 
which  docs  honour  to  his  memory.  It  is  written  in 
Arabic,  and  divided  into  dynafties.  It  confifts  of  ten 
parts,  being  an  epitome  of  univcrfal  hillory  from  the 
creation  of  the  world  to  his  own  time.  Dr  Pocock  pu- 
blillied  it  with  a  Latin tranllation  in  1663  ;  and  added, 
by  way  of  fupplement,  a  fliort  continuation  relating 
to  the  hillory  of  the  eallern  princes. 

ABUNA,  the  title  given  to  the  arehbifhop  or  me- 
tropolitan of  Abyirinia.     Sec  Abyssinia. 

ABUNDANT  number,  in  arithmetic,  is  a  num- 
ber, the  fum  of  whole  aliquot  parts  is  greater  than  the 
number  itfelf.  Thus  the  aliquot  parts  of  12,  being  i, 
2,  3,  4,' and  6,  they  make,  when  added  together,  16. 
An  abundant  number  is  oppofed  to  a  deficient  number, 
or  that  which  is  greater  than  all  its  aliquot  parts  taken 
together  ;  as  14,  whofe  aliquot  parts  are  i,  2,  and  7, 
whicli  make  no  more  than  ten  :  and  to  a  pcrjiB  num- 
ber, or  one  to  which  its  aliquot  parts  are  equal,  as  6, 
whofe  aliquot  parts  are  i,  2,  and  3. 

ABUNDANTIA,  a  heathen  divinity,  reprefcnted 
in  ancient  monuments  under  the  figure  of  a  woman 
with  a  pleafingafpeiil,  crowned  with  garlands  of  flow- 
ers, pouring  all  forts  of  fiuit  out  of  a  horn  which  flic 
holds  in  her  right  hand,  and  fcattcring  grain  with  her 
left,  taken  promifcuoully  from  aflieafofcorn.  Onamc- 
dalof  Trajan,  Iheis  reprefcnted  with  two  cornucopiae. 

ABU  SAID,  (Ebn  Aljaptu),  fultan  of  the  Moguls, 
fucceeded  his  father  anno  717  of  the  hcgira.  He  was 
the  lafl  monarch  of  the  race  of  Jcnghizkhan  ;  and  af- 
terhis  death,  wiiich  happened  the  fame  year  that  Ta- 
merlane was  l)orn,  the  empire  was  made  a  fcene  of 
blood  and  defolation. 

ABUS,  (anc.geog.%  a  rivcrof  Britain,  formed  by 
the  co:iiiucncc  of  the  Ure,  the  Dcrwent,  Trent,  Sec. 
falling  into  the  German  fca,  between  Yorkrtiire  and 
Lincolnflure,  and  forming  the  mouth  of  the  Huinbcr. 


ABUSE,  an  Irregular  ufe  of  a  thing,  or  the  intro- 
ducing foraething  contrary  to  the  true  intention  there- 
of. In  grammar,  to  apply  a  word  a^.v//f  £■/)■,  or  in  an 
abufivc  fciifc,  is  to  mifapply  or  pervert  its  meaning. — 
A  permutation  of  benefices,  without  tlieconlcntof  th« 
bilhop,  is  termed  </^////ff,  and  confequently  null. 

ABUTILON,  in  botany,  the  trivial  name  of  fcvc- 
ral  fpecics  of  the  fida.     Sec  Si  da. 

ABYDOS,  (ane.geog.),  anciently  a  town  built  by 
the  Milelians  in  Aiia,  on  the  Hellelpont,  where  it  is 
fcarcea  mile  over,  oppofite  to  Sellos  on  the  Euro- 
pean fide.  Now  both  called  the  Dardautiles.  Abydos 
lay  midway  between  Lam pfacus  and  Ilium,  famous  for 
Xerxes's  bridge,  (Herodotus,  Virgil);  and  for  the 
loves  of  Leander  and  Hero.  (MufiEus,  Ovid);  celebra- 
tcdaKoforits  oyflers,  (Ennius,  Virgil).  'Iheinhabi- 
tants  were  afoft,  effeminate  people,  given  much  to  de- 
traction ;  hence  the  proverb,  Ne toii^n /j!'yduw\\\\ei\ 
we  would  caution againll  danger,  (Stephanus). 

Abvdos,  (anc.  geog.),  anciently  an  inland  town  of 
Egypt,  between  Ptolemais  and  Diofpolis  Parva,  to- 
wards Syene  ;  famous  for  the  palace  of  Mcmnon  and 
the  temple  of  Oliris.  A  colony  of  INIilefians  ;  (Ste- 
phanus.) It  was  the  only  one  in  the  country  into 
which  the  fingers  and  dancers  were  forbid  to  enter. 

This  city,  reduced  to  a  village  under  the  empire  of 
Augdus,  now  prefents  to  our  view  only  an  heap  of 
ruins  without  inhabitants;  but  to  the  well  of  thcfe 
ruins  is  Hill  found  the  celebrated  tomb  of  Ifraandes. 
The  entrance  is  under  a  portico  60  feet  high,  and  fup- 
portcd  by  two  rows  of  malfy  columns.  The  immove> 
able  folidity  of  the  edifice,  the  huge  malles  which  com- 
pofe  it,  the  hieroglyphics  it  is  loaded  with,  (lamp  it  a 
work  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Beyond  it  is  a  temple 
300  feet  long  and  14J  wide.  Upon  entering  the  mo- 
nument wc  meet  with  an  immenfe  hall,  the  roof  of 
which  is  fupported  by  28  columns  60  feet  high  and  19 
incircumference  at  the  bafe.  They  are  i2fcetdiHant 
from  each  other.  The  enormous  ilones  that  form  the 
ceiling,  perfectly  joined  and  incruiled,  as  it  were,  one 
in  the  other,  offer  to  the  eye  nothing  but  one  folid  plat- 
form of  marble  1 16  feetlongand  26  wide.  The  walls 
are  covered  with  hieroglyphics.  One  fees  there  a  mul- 
titude of  animals,  birds,  and  human  figures  with  point- 
ed caps  on  their  heads,  and  a  piece  of  fluff  hanging 
down  behind,  drelTcd  in  loofe  robes  that  came  down 
only  to  the  waift.  The  fculpture,  however,  is  elumfy  ; 
the  forms  of  the  body,  the  attitudes  and  proportions  of 
the  members,  illobferved.  Amongfl  thcfe  we  may  di- 
ftinguifli  fome  women  fuckling  their  children, and  men 
prefenting  offerings  to  tliem.  Here  alio  we  meet  with 
the  divinities  of  India.  Monfieur  Chevalier,  formerly 
governor  of  Chandcrnagore,  who  relided  20  years  in 
that  country, carefully  vilitcd  this  monument  on  his  re- 
turn from  Bengal.  He  remarked  here  the  gods  Jag- 
gnnat,  Coiuz,  and  Vcchiiou  or  Wijhion,  fuch  as  they  arc 
reprefcnted  in  the  temples  of  Indoflan. — A  great  gate 
opens  at  the  bottom  of  the  lirll  hall,  wjiich  leads  to  an 
apartment  46  feet  long  by  22  wide.  Six  fquare  pillars 
fupport  theroof  of  it  ;  and  at  the  angles  are  the  doors 
of  lour  other  chambers,  but  fo  clioaked  up  m  ith  rub- 
biili  that  they  cannot  now  be  entered.  The  lafl  hall, 
64  feet  long  by  24  wide,  has  flairs  by  which  one  dc- 
fcends  into  the  fubterrancous  apartments  of  tiiis  grand 
cdiiice.  The  Arabas,in  fearching  after  treafure,  have 

piled 


A  B  Y 


C     3t     ] 


A  li  Y 


Aliydos  piled  up  heaps  of  earth  and  rubbilh.  In  the  part  we- 
ll are  able  to  penetrate,  fciilpture  and  hieroglyphics  arc 
Aliyfs.  difcoverable  as  in  the  upper  llory.  The  natives  lay  liiat 
'^  they  corrcfi-oiid  exactly  with  tiiofc  above  ground,  and 
thai  the  columns  are  as  deep  in  the  earth  as  they  are 
loity  above  ground.  It  would  be  dangerous  to  j>((  tar 
into  thole  vault ;  for  the  air  of  them  is  lb  loaded  with  a 
niephitic  vapour,  that  a  candle  can  fcarcc  be  kept  burn- 
ing in  them.  Six  lions  heads,  placed  on  the  two  lides 
of  the  temple,  fervc  as  fpouis  to  carry  off  the  water. 
You  mount  to  the  top  by  a  flaircafe  of  a  very  lingular 
llruchirc.  It  is  built  with  floues  incrufted  in  the  wall, 
and  projecting  lix  feet  out ;  fo  that  being  fupported  on- 
ly at  one  end,  they  appear  to  be  fufpendeil  in  the  air. 
The  Walls,  the  roof,  and  the  columns  of  this  cditiee, 
have  futi'ered  nothing  from  the  injuries  of  time  ;  and 
(lid  not  the  hieroglyphic:,  by  being  corroded  in  fome 
places,  mark  its  antiquity,  it  would  appear  to  have  been 
newly  built.  The  lolidity  is  fuch,  that  unlcfs  peojde 
make  a  point  of  dcllroying  it,  the  building  niu(t  lall  a 
great  number  of  ages.  Except  the  colollal  ligurco, 
whofehc.idsferve  as  an  ornament  to  the  capitals  of  the 
columns,  and  which- are  fculpturcd /«  relievo,  the  relt 
of  the  hieroglyphics  which  cover  the  inlide  are  carved 
in  Ito.ic.  To  the  left  of  this  great  building  we  meet 
with  another  much  fmaller,  at  the  bottom  of  which  is 
a  fort  of  altar.  This  was  probably  the  fancluary  of 
the  temple  of  Ofiris. 

ABYLA,  (Ptolemy,  Mela)  ;  one  of  Hercules's  pil- 
lars on  the  African  lide,  called  by  the  Spani.irds  Sur- 
ra de  Ins  iMoiias,  over  againll  Calpc  in  Spain,  the  other 
pillar  ;  fuppofcd  to  have  been  formerly  joined,  butfe- 
paratcd  by  Hercules,  and  thus  to  have  given  entrance 
to  the  lea  now  called  the  IMcditerraiiean  :  the  lin)its 
of  the  labours  of  Hercules,  (Pliuy.) 

ABYSS,  in  a  general  fenfe,  denotes  fomcthing  pro- 
found, ant),  as  it  v;ere,  bottomlefs.  The  word  is  ori- 
ginally Greek,  afi-5-3-oc;  compounded  of  the  prinntivc 
a,  and  Ci^ra-n,  q.  d.  without  a  bottom. 

Abyss,  in  a  more  particular  fenfe,  dcnots  a  deep 
mafs  or  fund  of  waters.  In  this  fenfe,  the  word  is 
particularly  ufcd,  in  the  Septuagint,  for  the  water 
which  God  created  at  the  beginning  with  the  earth, 
which  encompatred  it  round,  and  which  our  iranlla- 
tors  render  by  def/>.  Thus  it  is  that  darknefs  isl'aid 
to  be  upon  the  face  of  the  abyfs. 

Abyss  is  alfo  ufed  for  an  immcnfe  cavern  in  the 
earth,  wherein  God  is  fuppofed  to  have  coUefled  all 
thofe  waters  on  the  third  day  ;  which,  in  ourveriion, 
is  rendered  thc/eai,  and  elfewhere  ihc great  deep.  Dr 
Woodward,  in  his  Natural  Hillory  of  the  Karth,  af- 
fcrts,  That  there  is  a  mighty  colledion  of  waters  in- 
ciofcd  in  tlie  bowels  of  the  earth,  conllituting  a  huge 
orb  in  the  interior  or  central  parts  of  it ;  and  over  the 
furfaceof  this  water  he  fuppofes  the  terreftrial  ftrata  to 
be  expanded.  This,  according  to  him,  is  what  Mofes 
csilh  the  great  deep,  and  what  moft  authors  render  the 
great  abyfs.  The  water  of  this  vaft  abyfs,  he  alleges, 
does  communicate  with  that  of  the  ocean,  by  means  of 
certain  hiatufes  or  ehafms  palling  betwixt  it  and  the 
bottom  of  the  ocean  :  and  this  and  the  abyfs  he  fup- 
poies  to  have  one  common  centre,  around  which  the 
water  of  both  is  placed  ;  but  fo,  that  the  ordinary  fur- 
face  of  the  abyfs  is  not  level  with  that  of  the  ocean, 
nor  at  fo  great  a  diltaucc  from  the  centre  as  the  other. 


it  being  for  the  moft  part  rcflraincd  and  deprefled  by 
the  ftrata  of  earth  lying  upon  it  ;  but  whenever  thofe 
ftrata  are  broken,  or  fo  lax  and  porous  that  water  can 
pervade  them,  there  the  water  of  the  abyfs  afccnds  : 
lills  up  all  the  clefts  and  tiifures  into  which  it  can  get 
admittance  ;  and  faturatcs  all  the  intcrflices  and  pores 
of  the  earth,  ftone,  or  other  matter  all  around  the 
globe,  quite  up  to  the  level  of  the  ocean. 

The  exiftcncc  of  an  abyfs  or  receptacle  of  fub- 
terraneous  waters,  is  controverted  by  Camcrarius*; 
and  defended  by  Dr  Woodward  chieriy  by  two  ar- 
guments :  the  tiril  drawn  from  the  vaft  quantity 
of  water  which  covered  the  earth  in  the  time  of 
the  deluge  ;  the  fccoiid,  from  the  conlideraiion  of 
earthquakes,  which  he  endeavours  to  Ihow  are  oc- 
calioncd  by  the  violence  of  the  waters  in  this  a- 
byfs.  A  great  part  of  the  tcrrcllrial  globe  has 
been  frequently  Ihaken  at  the  fame  moment  ;  which 
argues,  according  to  him,  that  the  waters,  which  wcrt 
tile  occalion  thereof,  were  co-extended  with  that  part 
of  the  globe.  There  are  even  inftanccs  of  univcrfal 
earthquakes  ;  which  (fays  he)  ftiow,  that  the  whole 
abyfs  muft  have  been  agitated  :  for  lo  general  an  effect 
mull  have  been  produced  by  as  a  general  caufe,  and 
that  caufe  can  be  nothing  but  the  fubtcrraneous 
abyfsf. 

To  this  abyfs  alfo  has  been  attributed  the  origin 
of  fprings  and  rivers  ;  the  level  maintained  in  the 
furfaceof  different  feas  ;  *nd  their  not  overflowing 
their  banks.  To  the  cffluvias  emitted  from  it,  fome 
even  attribute  all  thcdiverlitiesof  weather  and  change 
«i  our  atmofphercj.  Kay*  ,  and  other  authors,  an- 
cient as  well  as  modern,  fuppofe  a  communication  be- 
tween the  Cafpian  fea  and  tlie  ocean  by  means  of  a 
fubterrancan  abyfs  :  and  to  this  they  attribute  it  that 
the  Cafpian  fta  does  not  overriow,notwithftanding  the 
great  number  of  large  rivers  it  receives,  of  which 
Kempfer  reckons  above  Jo  in  the  compafsof  6omiles; 
tho',  as  to  this,  others  fuppofe  tliat  the  daily  evapo- 
ration may  fufSce  to  keep  the  level. 

The  different  arguments  concerning  thi^  fnbjcft 
may  be  feen  collecHcd  and  amplitied  in  Ccckburu's 
Inquiry  into  the  Truth  and  Cirtai,:ty  cf  the  Ah- 
faic  Delude,  p.  271,  &c.  After  all,'howevcr,  this 
amazing  theory  of  a  central  abyfs  is  far  from  be- 
ing demonftrated  :  it  will  perhaps  in  fevcral  rcfpefls 
appear  inconliftent  with  found  philofophy,  as  well  as 
repugnant  to  the  phenomena  of  nature.  In  particular, 
if  we  believe  any  thing  like  eleflric  attradion  to  have 
prevailed  in  the  formation  of  the  earth,  we  muft  believe 
that  the  fcparatioii  of  the  chaos  proceeded  from  the 
union  of  limilar  particles.  It  is  certain  that  reft  is  fa- 
vourable to  fuch  operations  of  nature.  As,  therefore, 
the  central  parts  of  the  earth  were  more  immediately 
quicfcent  than  thofe  remote  from  the  centre, it  fc unsab- 
furd  to  fuppofe  that  the  heavier  and  dcnfer  bodies  gave 
place  to  the  more  light  and  fluid  ;  that  the  central  part 
ftiould  conlill  of  water  only,  and  the  more  fuperticial 
part  of  a  cruft  or  ihell.  Vid.  IVhitehurji's  Inquiry  i>i- 
ti)  the  original  Formation  oj  the  Strata  &c.  Sec  De- 
luge. 

Abyss  is  alfo  ufcd  to  denote  hell ;  in  which  fenfe 
the  word  is  fynonymous  with  what  is  otherwife  called 
Barathrum,  Erebus, zw^Tartarus  ;  in  the  Englilh bible, 
the  bottomlefs  pit.    The  uuclcau  fpirits  expelled  by 

Chxift, 


Abyfc. 


•OilTcrt. 
Taiir.  .\&.i 
Eru<l.  fupp- 

C(>RI.  Vi. 

p.  =4- 


tHlft.of 
tlie  Earth. 
Jounial  de 
bcavans, 
torn.  Iviii. 

P-  393- 

Mcnupirjof 

l^itcrature,. 

torn.  viii. 

p.  loi,  &c. 

ft-loUoway 

Introcl.  to 

Wojd- 

ward's  hiff. 

orthcKanli 

AiflaErud. 

^  Thy  Ceo 
Ih-ol. 
Difc.ii.c.  1. 
p.  76. 


A  B  Y 


I     32    ] 


A  B  Y 


Aliyfs.     Cliriil,  bcggcJ.  nciiiipcrarel iin  iij alijjf/m ireiit,  accor- 
ASyfiiiia.    iVing  to  tlic  vulgatc  j  nc  afvyrov  according  to  the  Greek. 
'— "•  Luke  viii.  -ii.  Kcv.  ix.  i. 

Abvss  is  more  particularly  ufed,  in  antiquity,  to  de- 
note the  temple  of  Proferpinc.  It  was  thus  called  on 
account  01'  liie  immenle  fund  of  gold  and  riches  depo- 
jited  there  ;   fonic  fay,  hid  under  ground. 

Abyss  isalfo  ufed  in  heraldry  to  denote  the  centre 
of  an  cfcutchcon.  In  which  fcnfe  a  thing  is  faid  to 
be  bore  in  aby  is,  e/i  abyfrne,  when  placed  in  the  middle 
of  the  fliiclJ,  clear  from  any  other  bearing  :  He  bears 
azure,  a  tiower  Je  lis,  in  aliyls. 

ABYSSINIA,  by  fomc  called  Highif  Ethiopia,  and 
by  the  Arabians  Al  Habujh,  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Nubia;  on  the  eall,by  ilie  Arabicgulph  or  Red  Sea, 
and  the  kingdom  of  Adel  ;  on  the  fouth,  by  the  king- 
doms of  Ajan,  Alabo,  and  Gingiro  ;  and  on  the  well, 
by  the  kingdomsof  Goram,  and  par:  of  Gingiro  ;  and 
is  divided  into  a  great  number  of  provinces.  The 
principal  river  is  the  Nile,  which  has  its  fourcein  this 
country  ;  and  the  mofl  confulerablelakc,  that  of  Dam- 
bea,  which  difchar£^cs  itfelf  intothe  Nile,  is  about  700 
miles  in  Icngih,  and  90  in  breadth.  The  air  is  pretty 
temperate  inthe  mountains,  and  therefore  thcirtowns 
and  ftrong  holds  arc  generally  placed  on  them  ;  but  in 
the  valleys  it  is  hot  and  fulFocating.  The  foil  and  face 
of  the  country  is  various.  Jn  fome  places  there  arc 
nothing  but  rocks  and  profound  caverns  :  in  others, 
efpecially  where  thcrcarerivcrs,tlie  lanuiscxceeding. 
ly  fruitful ;  and  the  banks  of  ihefe  ilreams  are  bordered 
with  flowers  of  various  kinds,  many  of  \\'hich  are  un- 
known in  Europe.  The  torrents  in  the  rainy, fcafon 
walh  a  great  deal  of  gold  from  the  mountains.  This 
feafon  begins  in  May,  when  the  fun  is  vertical,  or  di- 
reftly  over  their  heads,  and  ends  in  September. — The 
country  produces  a  great  variety  of  animals,  both  tame 
and  wild.fuch  as  lions,  tigers,  rhinocerofcs,  leopards, 
elephants,  monkeys,  flags,  deer  ;  horfes,  camels,  dro- 
medaries,goats,  cows,  Iliecp  ;  likewife  oltriches,  with 
a  vaft  variety  of  other  birds.  In  the  rivers  are  croco- 
diles and  the  hippopotamuf .  Travellers  mention  alfo 
a  peculiar  kind  of  bees,  fmall,  black,  and  without  a 
iling,  which  hive  in  the  earth,  and  mak'-  honey  and 
wax  that  arc  extremely  white.  The  country  is  great- 
ly infelled  with  loculls,  which  devour  every  thing 
that  is  green  wherever  they  come. 

Theinhabitanisare  Moors,  Pagans,  Jews, and  Chri- 
flians.  The  lafl  was  the  reigning  and  eflablilhed  reli- 
gion wlien  father  Lobo  vifited  this  country  in  1624. 
This  divcrfity  of  people  and  religion  is  the  rcafon  tjiat 
the  kingdom,  in  JifFerent  parts,  is  underdifferentforms 
of  government,  and  that  their  laws  and  cuftoms  arc  ex- 
tremely various.  Some  of  the  people  nrither  fow  their 
lands  norimprove  them  ;  but  live  on  milk  and  tlelh.and 
encamp  like  the  Arabs,  without  any  fettled  habita- 
tion. In  fome  places  they  prac^ife  no  rites  ofworlhip, 
though  they  believe  that  there  dwells  in  the  rcj;ions  a- 
bove  a  Being  who  governs  the  world  :  Ihisdeity  they 
call'5.v/.  Inthefc  parts  where  Cluiftianily  isprofed"ed,it 
isfo  corrupted  with  fupcrflitious  errors,  and  fo mingled 
vith  certtnonics  borrowed  from  the  Jews,  that  little 
befide  the  mine  of  Chrillianity  is  to  be  found  among 
them.  (See  the  next  article.) — They  have  two  har- 
vefts  intheye.tr  ;  one  in  winter.which  begins  in  May, 
aaJ  lafts,  witli  great  rigour,  through  the  mouths  oi 


July,  Augufl,  and  September;  and  the  other  in  fpring.  AbylTmin. 

Every  man  who  has  a  thoufand  cowsfavcsoncea-ycar  ^ ' 

a  day's  milk,  and  makes  a  bath  for  his  friends  ;  fo  that 
to  give  an  idea  of  a  man's  wealth,  their  common  ex- 
prcllion  is,  hi  bathes  fo  many  timei  a-year.  Their  males 
marry  about  ten  years  old,  and  their  females  younger. 
Their  marriage  tie  isfoloofe,  that  they  part  whenever 
they  tind  that  they  cannot  live  agrcealjly  together. 

Belldes  the  lirge  towns,  there  are  a  great  number 
of  villages,  which  in  for.ic  places  arc  fo  thick  fowu, 
that  they  look  like  one  continued  town  :  the  houfes  arc 
very  mean,  being  but  one  flory  high,  and  built  of 
flraw,  earth,  and  lime.  In  mofl  of  the  towns  the 
houfes  are  feparated  by  hedges,  which  are  always 
green,  and  mixed  with  flowers  and  fruit-trees  at  a  cer- 
tain dillance  from  each  other,  whicliaflbrds  an  agree- 
able profpei;t.  Tlic  government  is  monarchical.  The  ^ 
fovcrcign  has  the  title  of  Negus,  and  is  an  abfolutc 
prince.  When  he  is  in  camp,  the  tents  arc  fo  regularly 
difpofcd  as  to  have  the  appearance  of  a  city  ;  and  there 
is  a  captain  over  every  divilion,  to  prevent  diforders, 
and  to  execute  juflice. 

The  Abyliines  in  general  are  of  an  olive  complexion, 
tall,  graceful,  and  well  featured.  Thofe  who  are  nei- 
ther mechanics  nor  tradefmcn  (which  few  of  tliem  are) 
nor  tillers  of  the  ground, are  inured  to  bear  arms,wliich 
are  a  head-piece,  a  buckler,  a  coat  of  mail,  bows  and 
arrows,  darts,  pikes  capped  with  iron  at  both  ends,  a 
fling,  and  a  fvvord  :  they  have  very  few  fire-arms,  anil 
thofe  were  introduced  by  the  Portuguefc.  The  habit 
of  perfonsofquality  is  a  fine  lilken  vert,  or  fine  cotton, 
with  a  kind  of  fcarf.  The  citizens  have  the  fame  ha- 
bit, only  coarfer.  The  common  people  have  nothing 
but  a  pair  of  cotton  drawers,  and  a  fcarf  which  covers 
the  relt  of  their  body.  The  women  are  of  a  healthy 
conflitution,  active,  and  moderately  handfome,  having 
neither  flat  nofes  nor  thick  lips  like  the  negroes  ;  and 
nature  is  fo  friendly,  that  they  Hand  in  little  need  of 
midwivcs,  which  isindecd  thecafe,  of  moft  countriesin 
the  torrid  zone.  They  appear  in  public  as  in  Europe, 
without  being  forbid  the  convcrfation  of  the  men  as 
amongthe  Mahometans.  Princeffes  of  the  royal  blood 
are  not  permitted  to  marry  foreigners  :  and  when  they 
take  the  air,  they  go  in  great  flate,  with  400  or  500 
women  attendants.  Their  language  is  the  Ethiopic, 
which  bears  a  great  affinity  with  the  Arabic  ;  but  par- 
t'cular  provinces  have  a  different  dialtft. 

Manu failures  are  almoft  wholly  wanting  in  this  coun. 
try  ;  and  the  few  trades  which  they  have  amongfl  thein 
are  always  conveyed  from  the  father  to  the  children. 
They  fecm  indeed  by  their  churches, and  other  ruinated 
places,  to  have  had  a  knowledge  of  archite<5ture.  But 
the  workmen  were  fent  for  from  other  countries,  and 
were  forced  to  do  all  thcmfelves  ;  fo  that  xvhen  thefc 
fabrics  v.'cre  reared,  efpecially  the  imperial  palace  built 
by  Peter  Pais,a  Portuguefc  architcfl:,  the  pcopleflock- 
cd  from  all  parts  of  Ethiopia  to  view  it,  and  admired 
it  as  a  nev/ wonder  of  the  world. — Gold, lilvcr,  copper, 
and  iron,  are  the  principal  ores  with  which  their  mines 
abound  in  this  extenfive  part  of  Africa:  but  not  above 
one  third  part  is  made  ufe  of  by  way  of  merchandize, 
or  converted  into  money,  ofwhi'-h  they  have  litt'eor 
no  ufe  in  Abylllnia.  They  cut  their  goM  indeed  into 
fmall  pieces  for  the  pay  of  their  troops,  and  for  expen- 
/es  of  the  court,  which  is  bat  a  modern  cuiloni  among 

them ; 


A  B  Y 


[     33     ] 


A  B  Y 


AHyflinla.  tlicm  ;  ihcking's  gold,  before  the  end  of  ihc  1 7ih  ccii- 
' " '  tury,  being  Ijid  up  in  his  trcafiiry  in  ingois,  with  in- 
tent to  be  never  carried  out,  or  never  iifcd  in  any  thing 
but  velFels  and  trinkets  for  the  fervicc  of  the  palace. 
In  the  lieu  of  fmall  money,  they  make  ufc  of  rock  fait 
as  white  as  fnow  and  as  hard  as  Hone.  This  is  taken 
out  of  the  mountain  of  Lafta,  and  put  into  the  king's 
warehoufes  ;  where  it  is  reduced  into  tablets  of  a  foot 
long,  and  three  inches  broad,  ten  of  which  are  worth 
about  a  French  crown.  When  they  are  circulated  in 
trade,  they  are  reduced  into  ftill  fniallcr  pieces,  as  oc- 
cafion  requires.  This  fait  is  alfo  applied  to  the  fame 
pnrpofe  as  common  fca-falt.  With  this  mineral  fait 
they  purchafe  pepper,  fpices,  and  iilk  fluff's,  which  arc 
brought  to  them  by  the  Indians,  in  their  ports  in  the 
Red  Sea.  Cardaraunis,  ginger,  aloes,  myrrh,  caflia, 
civet,  ebony-wood,  ivory,  wax,  honey,  cotton  and  li- 
nens of  various  forts  and  colours,  arc  merchandizes 
wliich  may  be  had  from  AbylFinia  ;  to  whicii  may  be 
added  fugar,  hemp,  flax,  and  excellent  wines,  if  thcfe 
people  had  the  art  of  preparing  them.  It  is  affirmed 
there  arc  in  this  country  the  fincll  emeralds  that  are 
any  where  to  be  found  ;  and,  though  they  are  found 
but  in  one  place,  they  arc  there  in  great  quantities, 
and  fomc  fo  large  and  fo  perfeft  as  to  be  of  almoft  in- 
I  cflimablc  value.     The  greatefl  part  of  the  nierchan- 

difes  abovemcntioncd,  are  more  for  foreign  than  in- 
land irade.  Their  domellic  commerce  confifts  chiefly 
in  fait,  honey,  buck-wheat,  grey  peafe,  citrons,  oran- 
ges, lemons,  and  other  provifions,  with  fruits  and  her- 
bage neceflary  for  the  fupport  of  life,  Thofe  places 
that  the  Abyflian  merchants  frequent  the  mofl,  who 
dare  venture  to  carry  their  commodities  by  fea  them- 
felves,  are  Arabia  Felix,  and  the  Indies,  particular- 
ly Goa,  Cambaye,  Bengal,  and  Sumatra.  With  regard 
to  their  ports  on  the  Red  Sea,  to  which  foreign  mer- 
chants commonly  refort,  the  moft  conlldcrable  are 
thofe  of  Mette,  Azum,  Zajalla,  Maja,  Dazo,  Patea, 
and  Brava.  The  trade  of  the  Abyflinians  by  land  is 
inconfiderable.  There  are,  however,  bands  of  them 
who  arrive  yearly  at  Egypt,  particularly  at  Cairo,  la- 
den with  gold  dull,  which  they  bring  to  barter  for  the 
merchandifes  of  that  country,  or  of  Europe,  for  which 
they  have  occafion.  Thefe  catilas  or  caravans,  if  we 
may  be  allowed  thus  to  call  a  body  of  40  or  jo  poor 
■wretches  who  unite  together  for  their  mutual  allift- 
ance  in  their  journey,  are  commonly  three  or  four 
months  on  their  route,  travcrfing  forefls  and  monn- 
tainsalmoflimpaflabIe,in  order  to  exchange  their  gold 
for  neceflaries  for  their  families.and  return  immediately 
with  thegreateftpartofthemerchandifcontheirbacks. 
Frequently  the  Jews  or  Egyptians  give  them  large 
credit ;  which  may  feem/urprifing,  as  they  are  beyond 
recourfe  if  they  fliould  fail  of  payment.  But  experience 
has  fliown,  that  they  have  never  abufed  the  confldencc 
rcpofed  in  them  ;  and  even  in  the  event  of  death,  their 
fellow-travellers  take  care  of  the  cffcCls  of  the  deceal- 
ed  for  the  bcnelit  of  their  families,  but  in  the  lirll  place 
for  the  difcharge  of  thofe.debts  contracted  at  Cairo. — 
It  remains  only  to  be  obfervcd,  that  one  of  the  prin- 
cipalbranchcs  of  trade  of  t!ie  Abyllinesis  thatof  llaves; 
who  arc  greatly  cfleenieJ  in  the  Indies  and  Arabia  for 
the  bcft  and  moft  faithful,  of  all  that  the  other  king- 
doms of  Africa  furnilh.  The  Indian  and  Arabian  mer- 
chants frequently  fublUtutc  them  as  their  fadors;  and, 
Vol.  I. 


on  acconnt  of  their  good  fcrviccs  and  integrity,rot  only  AbyJIiuIa. 

often  give  them  their  libcrty,but  liberally  reward  tliem.  "^ 

Into  this  part  of  the  globe  the  admiuoii  of  travel- 
lers has  been  fuppofed  extremely  diflicult,  and  their 
return  from  thence  almoft  impradicable.     A  Scotch 
gentleman,   howe\er,  of  family  and  fortune,   James 
Bruce,  El'q;   of  Kinnaird,  is  known  not  only  to  have 
entered  that  country,  but  to  have  re fidcd  in  it  fcveral 
years,   ar.d   returned  fsfe  home,  bringing  with  him 
many  great  curiofities.     Soon  after  his  return,  the  fol- 
lowing notice  was  given  by  the  Count  dc  Bufion  in  an 
advertifement  prefixed  to  the  ;d  volume  of  Iiis  Hiflo- 
ry  of  Birds  :  "  A  new  aid  which  I  have  received,  and 
which  I  am  anxious  to  announce  to  the  public,  is  the 
free  and  generous  communication  which  1  had  of  the 
drawings   and  obfervations  of  James  Bruce,  El'q;  cf 
Kinnaird,  who  returning  from  Numidia,  and  the  inte- 
rior parts  of  AbyfFinia,  llopt  in  my  houfe.for  fcveral 
days,  and  made  me  a  partaker  of  the  knowledge  which 
he  had  acquired  in  a  tour  no  lefs  fatiguing  than   ha- 
zardous.   It  filled  me  with  the  utmofc  aHonifliment  to 
view  the  numerous  draw  ings  which  he  had  made  and 
coloured  himfclf.   He  polTefl'es  the  mofl  pcrfeft  repre- 
fentations  and  defcriptions  of  the  birds,  filhes,  plants, 
edifices,  monuments,  drefs,  arms,  &c.  of  different  na- 
tions, all  of  them  objcfls  worthy  of  knowledge.     No- 
thing has  efcaped  his  curiofity,  and  his  talents  have 
been  proportioned  to  it.     The    Englilli   government 
will  without  doubt  take  proper  meal^ures  for  the,  pub- 
lication of  his  work.     That  refpeftable  nation,  which 
lias  given  a  lead  to  all  others  in  difcoveries  of  every 
kind,  will  not  fail  to  add  to  its  glory,  by  fpeedily  com- 
municating to  the  world  at  large,  thofe  of  this  excel- 
lent traveller,  who,  not  contented  with  accurate  de- 
fcriptions of  nature,  has  made  many  important  obfer- 
vations on  the  culture  of  different  kinds  of  grains  ;  oa 
the  navigation  of  the  Red  Sea  ;   on  the  courfeofthe 
Nile,  from  its  mouth  to  its  fource,  which  he  has  been 
the  firftto  difcover  ;  and  on  different  particulars  which 
may  be  of  the  highefl  utility  to  commerce  and  agri- 
culture, thofe  great  arts  which  arc  but  little  known 
and  ill  cultivated.   Yet,  on  thefe  alone,  the  fuperiori- 
ty  of  one  nation  over  another  does  depend,   and  for 
ever  will  depend." 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted,  that  after  fo  long  an  in- 
terval, this  gentleman's  difcoveries  have  not  yet  made 
their  appearance.  The  delay  has  given  rife  to  various 
fpcculations.  Doubts  have  even  been  entertained  con- 
cerning the  credibility  of  the  reports  that  have  tran- 
fpircd,  or  been  gathered  from  his  convcrfation.  His 
honour  and  abilities,  however,  are  too  exteufively 
known  tobeatfctfedbyfuch  injuriousiiifinuations.That 
he  hath  great  talents  for  the  information  of  his  read- 
ers, appears  by  his  differt.uion  on  the  Theban  harp*,  •  Sm  tht 
which  Or  Burncy  hath  infcrtcd  in  the  firft  volume  of  article 
his  Iliffory  of  Mulic,  and  in  which  are  alfo  mentioned  Harpid 
fcveral  of  the  Abyliinian  inftrumcnts.  Mr  Bruce  more-  ."  * 
over,  is  faid  to  have  a  great  facility  in  learning  Ian- 
{Tuages,  and  talents  for  drawing  ;  nor  perhaps  was  any 
other  traveller  furnillicd  with  folarge  and  fcientihcan 
apparatus  of  inftruments.  Add  to  all  this,  that  he  is 
poUclTed  of  afpirit  and  entcrprife  not  calily  to  be  e- 
quallcd.  The  fpeedy  production,  therefore,  of  foin- 
tercfting  an  account  as  he  is  capable  of  giving,  of  this 
almoft  unfrequented  part  of  Africa,  cannot  but  ftill  be 
E  earncftly 


A  B  Y 


[     3-1-     ] 


A  B  Y 


Aliyfiliwa.  earneftly  wiihcd  for.  In  the  mean  time,  the  following 

* '■ authentic  anecdotes  n  ill  not,  it  is  prcfunicd,  he  imac- 

ccptable,  nor  apj  ear  foreign  to  the  prel'ent  article. 

Mr  Bruce  was  appointed  confiil  to  Algiers,  where 
hccoiiiinucd  till  1765.  In  Iiiiic  1764,  he  rcqueftcd 
leave  of  at  Icucc  from  the  fccrctary  of  flatc  for  the 
foiithern  dcpartmcm,  in  order  to  make  fomc  drawings 
of  2nlic|iii!its  near  Tunis. 

In  Mr  Uriice's  lart  letter  from  Algiers  to  the  fame 
fecrctary  (dated  December  29.  1764),  he  alludes  to 
another  leave  of  ablcnce,  which  he  had  likewifc  re- 
queftcd,  that  he  might  vilit  parts  of  the  African  con- 
tinent. He  explains  himlelf  no  farther  in  this  letter  ; 
hut  it  is  believed  that  he  proceeded  confiderably  to  the 
fouthward  of  Algiers,  and  made  thofe  very  capital 
drawings  of  remains  of  Roman  architcfture,  which 
many  have  fecn  lincc  his  return  to  Britain.  Before 
he  let  out  for  Algiers,  he  informed  fomeof  his  friends, 
that  the  making  fuch  exciirfions  for  thefe  intercfting 
purpofes  was  his  principal  inducement  for  accepting 
the  confullhip. 

How  long  he  continued  in  Africa,  the  prcfent  writer 
has  not  had  the  opportunity  of  procuring  information  ; 
but  having  intentions  afterwards  of  viliting  Palmyra, 
he  was  fliipwrecked  on  the  coaft  of  Tunis,  and  plun- 
dered of  every  thing  by  the  barbarous  inhabitants. 

The  mofl:  diftrelhng  part  of  the  lofs  was  probably 
that  of  his  inflruments,  fo  nccclfary  toa  fcientific  tra- 
veller ;  and  though  he  afterwards  procured  fomc  of 
thefe,  yet  others  (particularly  a  quadrant)  could  not 
be  recovered.  Mr  Bruce,  however,  determining  to 
repair  this  lofs  as  foon  as  polFiblc  from  France,  fo  much 
Jicarer  to  him  than  England,  was  fo  fortunate  as  to  be 
provided  with  a  time-piece  and  quadrant  from  that 
quarter.  Upon  this  occafion  Lewis  XV. preftntcd  him 
with  an  iron  quadrant  of  four  feet  radius,  as  he  had 
probably  reprefented  to  the  academy  of  fciences  his 
want  of  fuch  an  inllrument  w'hilll  he  (liould  be  in 
Abyflinia  :  Mr  Bruce  brought  back  with  him  to  Eng- 
land this  cumbrous  fellow-traveller,  and,  having  put 
upon  it  an  infcription  to  the  following  purport,  is  faid 
to  have  prefented  it  to  the  univerfity  of  Glafgow  : 
"  With  this  inflrumcnt  given  by  the  king  of  France, 
Lewis  XV.  Mr  Bruce  proceeded  to  the  fources  of  the 
Nile,  it  being  carried  on  foot,  upon  mens  fhoulders, 
over  the  mountains  of  Abyflinia."  This  information 
was  received  from  that  eminent  maker  of  inllruments 
Air  Nairne. 

Where  and  %vhen  Mr  Bruce  received  the  French 
inflruments  is  not  known  ;  but  as  he  was  flill  bent  on 
viliting  Abyflinia,  he  gave  a  comniiinon  to  Mr  W. 
RulTel,  F.  R.  S.  for  a  reflecting  tclefcope,  made  by 
Bird  or  Short ;  a  watch  with  a  hand  to  point  feconds, 
and  the  newefl  and  completeft  Englifli  aflronomical 
tables  ;  all  of  which  were  to  be  fent  to  Mr  Fremaux, 
and  forwarded  to  him  at  Alexandria  before  Auguft. 
On  the  29th  of  March  1 768,  Mr  Bruce  was  at  Sidon 
on  the  coafl  of  Syria,  and  wrote  to  MrRuflel  from 
thence  for  the  following  additional  inflruments,  viz.  a 
twelve-fecl  reflecting  telefcope,  tobe  divided  into  pie- 
ces of  three  feet,  and  joined  with  fcrews.  This  tele- 
fcope was  alfo  accompanied  by  two  thermometers  and 
two  portable  barometers.  Mr  Bruce  moreover  infor- 
ed  Mr  Ruffel,  that  he  was  going  into  a  country  (viz.A- 
byfEnia)  from  which  few  travellers  had  returned ;  and 


wifhed  Mr  RnfTel,  or  his  philofophical  friends,  would  Abyflinis- 

lend  him  their  dclidcrata,  as  he  was  entirely  at  their  ' >- ' 

fVrvicc.  Mr  Bruccaddtd,  that  if  he  could  not  obtain 
adniiliion  into  Abyllinia,  he  ftill  would  do  his  bell  in 
the  caufe  of  fcieiice  on  the  eallern  coafl  of  the  Red 
Sea. 

As  Mr  Bruce  had  direftcd  the  inflruments  to  be 
ready  for  him  at  Alexandria  by  the  beginning  of  Au- 
guft t  768,  it  is  probable  that  he  reached  Cairo  about 
that  time  ;  from  wlience  he  proceeded  to  Abyllinia, 
by  way  of  Jedda,  Mazava,  and  Arquico. 

It  is  fuppoltd  that  Mr  Bruce  did  not  continue  long 
at  Jedda,  as  he  is  faid  to  have  explored  the  coafl  on 
the  eaft  fide  as  low  as  Mocha,  during  which  drawings 
were  taken  of  many  curious  filh  in  the  Red  Sea.  Tvlr 
Bruce  mufl  alfo  have  entered  Abyllinia,  either  at  the 
latter  end  of  1768,  or  the  very  beginning  of  1769, 
as  he  made  an  obfcrvation  in  that  part  of  Africa  on 
the  15th  of  January  of  that  year. 

In  this  perilous  enterprife  he  was  accompanied  by  a 
Greek  fervaut  (named  Micharl),  and  an  Italian  paint- 
er, who  probably  allifled  in  the  numerous  articles  which 
might  deferve  reprefentation,  and  wlio  died  of  a  Hux 
before  MrBruce's  return  to  Cairo  in  1 773.  Mr  Bruce 
mull  at  times  alfo  have  been  airided  by  many  others, 
as  his  inflruments,  apparatus  for  drawings,  and  other 
neccn'arics,  t>om  their  weight  and  bulk  could  not  be 
ealily  tranfported  from  place  toplnce,  and  perhaps  re- 
quired bealls  of  burden.  To  thefe  likew  ife  nuill  be 
added  feveralmedicines  which  enabled  him  topcrform 
cures  on  the  inhabitants,  and  probably  occalioned  the 
good  reception  he  afterwards  met  with. 

Such  otlier  particulars  as  happened  to  Mr  Bruce, 
duringhislong  refulcncc  in  this  unfrequented  country, 
nuill  be  left  to  his  own  fuperior  narrative  ;  and  it  fliall 
fuflice,  therefore,  only  to  ftate,  that  he  made  a  large 
number  of  obfcr\ations  to  lix  the  (Ituatiuns  of  places, 
out  of  which  31  have  been  examined  and  computed 
by  the  aflronomer  royal.  The  firfl  of  thefe  obferva- 
tioiis  was  madeon  the  loth  of  January  1769,  and  the 
lafl  on  the  5th  of  OiSlober  i772i  from  30  to  38  de- 
grees of  eafl  longiiude  from  Greenwich,  and  from  12 
to  28  degrees  of  north  latitude.  It  need  fcarcely  be 
faid  tlicrefore,  that  thefe  obfervations,  which  include 
fo  large  an  extent  of  almofl  unknown  country,  mufl 
prove  a  moll  valuable  addition  to  geography  ;  and  the 
more  fo,  becaufe  the  Portugucfe,  who  firft  vifited  A- 
byfhnia,  give  neither  longitude  nor  latitude  of  any 
place  in  that  empire  ;  and  Poncet  only  two  latitudes, 
viz.  thofe  of  Stnnar  and  Giefum. 

As  Mr  Bruce  made  the  lafl  of  his  obfervations  on 
the  5th  of  October  1772,  it  is  probable  that  he  might 
then  be  on  his  return  to  Cairo,  through  Nubia  and 
Upper  Egypt,  where  he  arrived  on  the  15th  of  Janu- 
ary 1773,  after  an  abfence  of  more  than  four  years  ; 
bringing  back  with  him  his  Greek  fervant,  named 
Michael. 

Mr  Bruce  continued  at  Cairo  four  months,  diiring 
which  time  he  had  daily  intercourfe  with  Mr  Antes  ; 
the  fubflance  of  a  letter  from  whom  will  contain  the 
principal  confutation  of  Baron  Tott,  and  others,  who 
have  been  incredulous  with  regard  to  Mr  Bruce's  ex- 
pelled narrative. 

Mr  Antes  was  born  of  German  parents,  who  were 
poireffed  of  lands  in  the  back  fettlcmcnts  of  Pcnufylva- 

uia; 


A  B  Y 


[ 


Abyninia.  nia  ;  and  having  fhowcd  tai  Jy  abiliiies  as  a  mcclianic, 

■ y, removed  to  Europe,  where  he  dillinguilhed  himlelf  in 

the  art  of  watch-making, which  he  learned  w  ithoiit  ap- 
prenticclhip.  Being  a  membcrtf  the  church  known  by 
the  mmcot  U/iitas  t'ratru/ii,  and  commonly  called  Mo- 
ravian, he  wiflicd  to  be  employed  in  their  millions,  and 
more  efpecially  that  of  the  fame  perfualion  elbiblilhed 
at  Cairo,  who  always  have  defircd  to  procure  oppor- 
tunities of  inflriicling  the  Abyllu'ians. 

Mr  Bruce  had  left  Cairo  tificen  months  before  Mr 
Antes  came  there  ;  and  the  intcrcourfe,  therefore,  be- 
tw-eeii  them  firll  took  place  on  Mr  Brucc's  return  in 
1773. 

Having  given  this  account  of  Mr  Bruce  and  Mr 
Antcs's  being  Hrrt  known  to  each  other,  wc  Ihall  llatc 
the  fubflance  of  fome  information  received  from  the 
latter,  who  is  now  ellabliHied  at  Kulncck  near  Leeds, 
after  having  rcfiJed  eleven  years  at  Cairo. 

"  That  Mr  Bruce  left  Cairo  in  i  768,  and  proceeded 
thence  by  way  of  Jcdda,  M.zkva,  and  Arcjuico,  into 
Abyllinia. 

"  That  in  1771,  a  Greek  came  from  Gondar  (the 
capital)  in  Abylfiuii,  who  had  a  draught  from  Mr 
Bruce  on  a  French  Merchant  at  Cairo  (named  Kofe) 
foi- fome  hundred:  of  German  crowns,  which  were  paid 
immediately.  This  draught  was  accompanied  by  a  let- 
ter from  Mr  Bruce,  and  was  the  tiril  time  that  he  had 
been  heard  of  at  Cairo  fince  his  departure  in  1768. 

"  That  after  Mr  Brucc's  return  to  Cairo  in  1775, 
Mr  Antes  faw  a  young  Armenian  and  his  father  (who 
came  likewife  from  Gondar)  at  Mr  Pint's,  an  Italian 
merchant  of  Cairo,  where  they  and  Mr  Bruce  con- 
verfed  in  the  Abyflinian  language,  and  fectned  glad  to 
meet  him  again. 

"  That  Mr  Bruce  returned  to  Cairo  from  Abyflinia 
by  way  of  Nubia  and  Upper  Egypt  ;  which  can  be 
fully  attcllcd  by  the  Krancifcan  friars  who  are  eftab- 
liflicd  at  Ifne  near  Afyuwan,  which  latter  is  the  high- 
eft  town  of  Upper  Egypt. 

"  That  during  Mr  Bruce's  ftay  at  Cairo,  which  was 
not  lefs  than  four  months,  no  day  palfed  without  their 
feeing  each  other  ;  which  gave  Mr  Antes  frequent  op- 
portunities of  inquiring  with  regard  to  Abyflinia,  con- 
cerning which  he  was  particularly  intercfled  from  a 
reafon  before  ftated. 

"  Than  Mr  Antes  likewife  frequently  converfed 
with  Michael, Mr  Bruce'sGreek  fervant ;  who  is  ftated 
to  have  by  no  means  had  a  lively  imagination,  and  who 


35     ]  A  B  Y 

always  agreed  with  the  circumftances  ir.entioned  by  Ab.ripii. 

his  niaftcr,  and  more  particularly  in  relation  to  their  • ' 

having  viiittd  the  fourccs  of  the  Nile  ;  which  the  Ba- 
ron 'i.  ott  doubts  of,  fruiu  having  had  a  converfatioa 
with  this  fame  Greek  fervant. 

Mr  Antes  adds,  "  That  Baron  Tott  ftaid  but  a  few 
days  at  Cairo;  and,  from  his  fliort  relidencc  in  that 
country,  hath  givenfcvcral  erroneousaccounts relative 
to  Egypt.  Mr  Antes,  on  the  other  hand,  had  almoft 
daily  convcrfations  w  ith  Michael  for  feveral  years,  and 
often  in  relation  to  tlie  fourcesof  the  Nile." 

Lallly,  "  That  after  Mr  Bruce  left  Cairo,  Mr  An- 
tes had  converfed  with  others  who  had  known  Mr 
Bruce  in  Abylhnia,  and  that  he  was  there  called  Maa- 
lim  Jakiib;,  or  Mr  James. 

Alter  this  ftaie  oi  facts,  it  is  conceived  that  no  one 
can  entertain  a  reafonable  doubt  with  regard  to  Mr 
Bruce's  not  only  having  vidtcd,  but  relided  long-  in 
Abyllinia  ;  though  it  is  remarkable  that  the  Jcfuits  ex- 
prelii/d  the  fame  doubts  in  relation  to  Ponccf,  \\  ho  had 
continued  there  nearly  as  long  as  Mr  Bruce.  Poncct 
happened  to  be  a  layman  ;  and  the  Jcfuits,  perhaps, 
would  not  approve  of  any  narrative  that  did  not  come 
from  father  Benevent,  who  accompanied  Poncct  to 
Abylfinia,  but  unfortunately  died  there  (a). 

Driven,  however,  ("rom  this  hold,  the  objectors  will 
poliibly  retain  their  incredulity  as  to  many  particulars 
to  be  related. 

The  firft  of  thcfc  is,  the  having  vifited  the  fources 
of  the  Nile  ;  "which,  from  claflical  education, we  can- 
not ealily  believe,  as  they  were  unknown  to  the  an- 
cients, though  they  had  fo  great  curiolity  with  regard 
to  this  difcovery." 

Many  things,  however,  have  been  accompliilicd  by 
travellers  in  modern  times,  which  the  ancients  ne- 
ver could  atchieve,  and  which  may  be  attributed  to 
their  want  of  cnterprife  (as  travellers  at  leaft),  of  lan- 
guages, and  laftly  the  not  being  able  to  procure  cre- 
dit when  in  a  diftant  country.  Mr  Bruce  could  not 
have  continued  fo  long  as  he  did  in  Abyflinia,  unlefs 
he  had  drawn  from  Gondar  upon  a  merchant  eftablifli- 
ed  at  Cairo. 

The  dilficulty,  however,  with  regard  to  reaching 
the  fourcesof  the  Nile,  arifcs  principally  from  the  un- 
civilized ftate  of  Abyllinia,  unlefs  the  traveller  hath  a 
proper  introdnclion  [h).  When  once  this  is  procured, 
all  difliculties  fecm  to  ceafe,  as  we  find  by  Lobo's  (f) 
account  of  this  fame  difcovery,  and  likewife  by  Pon- 
E   2  cet's 


(a)  It  muft  be  admitted,  however,  that  wc  owe  to  the  zeal  of  tlie  Jefuits  the  bcft  accounts  we  have  both 
of  China  and  Paraguay.  Few  laymen  have  been  actuated  fo  ftrongly  for  the  promotion  of  geography  and  fcicnce 
as  Mr  Bruce;  and  we  muft  therefore  (upon  the  order  of  the  Jcfuits  being  abolilhed)  look  up  chiefly  to  the  mif- 
lionaries  from  the  church  of  the  Umtas  Fratrum,  who,  though  ililiering  fo  totally  in  other  rcfpecis,  fecm  to 
have  an  equal  ardour  with  the  Jefuits  for  inftrucling  the  inhabitantsof  countries  unfrequented  by  Europeans. 
Such  milfions  are  already  eftabliihed  in  W  eft  Greenland,  the  coaft  of  Labrador,  N.  Lat.  56.  the  back  fettlemcnt? 
of  Carolina  and  Penfylvania,  in  India.  Bengal,  and  the  Nicobar  illands.  Thole  eftabliihed  on  the  coaft  of  La- 
brador fend  over  yearly  mcieoroh.gical  journals,  which  arc  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society.  As  for  the 
difpute  between  Poncec  and  MailUt  the  French  tonful  at  Cairo,  See  Mod.  Univ.  Hift.  vol.  ^. 

{b)  The  profeflini!;  the  kno\\  ledge  of  medicine  was  Ponect's  introduction,  and  fccms  to  have  been  that  of 
Mr  Bruce.  Even  in  our  own  civilized  country,  how  arc  quacks  and  momitebanks  reforted  to  ?  And  what 
an  imprelfion  muft  Mr  Bruce,  with  his  magniiiccnt  and  fcientilic  apparatus,  have  made  uj'on  the  i.ihabitant* 
ot  fuch  a  country  as  Abyllinia  ! 

(c)  In  father  Telles's  c  nipilation.  Sec  alfo  LudolfF.who  defcribes  the  fources  from  Grcgory,who  was  a  native 
of  Abyllinia.    Father  Pacz  was  the  lirft  who  vifited  them,  A.  D.  1622.    His  account  of  this  is  faid  to  be  in  the 

archives 


A  13  Y 


[     36     ] 


A  13  Y 


A'i}i3n":a.  cei's  narrative,  whu  wHsjircvciucd  by  illntfsfrom  vi- 

' iiiing  tlic  very  I'liut,  but  htith  given  an  ample  relation 

from  an  Abyflinian  wlio  had  olten  been  there.  Pon- 
eet,  moreover,  had  obtained  leave  from  the  emperor 
to  make  this  journey,  which  he  llates  as  not  being  a 
dillaut  one,  and  that  the  emperor  hath  a  palace  near 
the  very  fourccs. 

If  it  be  doubted  whether  Mr  Bruce  hath  vilitcd  e- 
very  fourcc  of  the  Nile,  it  may  be  anfwercd,  that  per- 
haps no  Ingliflimm  hath  taken  this  trouble  with  rc- 
•i;ard  to  the  fourccs  of  the  Thames,  which,  like  inofb 
other  great  rivers,  is  probably  derived  from  many 
fprings  and  rills  in  different  dire(5lions. 

The  other  objection  which  we  have  often  heard,  is, 
"  That  Mr  Bruce  hath  mentioned  in  eonverfation, 
that  the  Abylliiiians  cut  a  llicc  from  the  living  ox, 
eActming  it  one  of  their  grcatcll  delicacies." 

This  fort  of  dainty,  indeed,  is  not  fo  conlidcrcd  in 
other  parts  of  the  globe  ;  but  every  nation  alniort  hath 
its  peculiarities  in  the  choice  of  their  food.  Do  not 
we  cat  raw  oyllcrs  within  a  fccoud  of  their  being  fepa- 
rated  from  the  ihell  ?  And  do  not  we  roaft  both  them 
andlobllers  whiUl  alive  ;  thebarbarity  of  which  prac- 
tice feems  to  equal  that  of  the  Abyllinians  r  Do  not 
cooks  Ikin  eels  whilft  alive  ?  And  do  not  epicures  crimp 
lilh  for  the  gratificativm  of  their  appetites. 

That  the  Abyllinians  eat  beef  in  a  raw  ftatc,  is  a- 
greed  both  by  Loboand  Poncet ;  and  the  former  fays, 
re^-kiiig  from  the  beafl.  Mr  Antes,  moreover,  was 
told  by  a  Francifcan  monk,  who  went  with  the  cara- 
van from  Abyllinia  to  Cairo  ((/),  that  he  was  witnefs  of 
an  ox  being  killed,  and  immediately  devoured  by  the 
band  of  travellers. 

One  reafon,  perhaps,  for  this  ufagc  may  be,  the 
great  heat  of  the  climate,  which  will  not  permit  meat 
to  bekcpt  afullicient  time  !o  make  it  tender  (as  with 
us)  :  and  it  is  generally  allowed,  that  u  fowl,  drelfed 
immediately  after  it  is  killed,  is  in  better  order  for  eat- 
ing than  if  it  is  kept  four  and  twenty  hours. 

Is  it  therefore  extraordinary,  that  an  Abyffinian 
epicure  may  really  Hnd  (or  perhaps  fancy)  that  apiece 
cut  from  the  bcall  whilrt  alive,  may  be  more  tender, 
or  have  a  better  relilh,  than  if  it  is  prcvioully  killed  by 
the  butcher  ?  To  this  maybe  added,  that  according  to 
the  information  which  has  been  received  on  this  head, 
Mr  Brucc's  account  of  this  pradice  is  much  mifrepre- 
fentcd  by  the  objeftors,  who  ftippofe  that  the  ox  lives 
a  conliderablc  time  after  thcfe  pieces  are  cut  from  it. 
When  thefc  dainty  bits,  however,  have  been  fentio  the 
great  man's  table  (and  which  arc  probably  taken  from 
the  flefliy  parts),  the  beall  foon  afterwards  expires, 
when  the  firfb  artery  is  cut,  in  providing  dices  for  the 
numerous  attendants. 

Upon  the  whole,  the  not  giving  credit  to  a  traveller, 
bccaufe  he  mentions  an  ufage  which  is  very  different 
from  ours  (and  is  undoubtedly  very  barbarous),  feems 
rather  to  argue  ignorance  than  acutcnefs. 

This  brings  to  recollection  the  incredulity  which 


was  (hown  to  another  diftinguiflicd  travel  ler,Dr  Shaw  J  Ahyflinia, 
who  hiving  mentioned,  in  an  Oxford  common  room,  Abvirmisii. 
that  foine  of  the  Algcrines  were  fond  of  lion's  flcfli,  ne-  '  "  ' 
vcr  could  obtain  any  credit  afterwards  from  his  bro- 
ther-fcllowsof  the  fame  college,  though  many  of  them 
were  learned  men.  It  is  well  known,  however,  tho' 
Dr  Shaw  llates  this  fame  circuniftancc  in  the  publica- 
tion of  his  travels,  that  he  is  ciicj  with  the  grcatell 
approbation  in  almoft  every  part  of  Kuropc.  Sir 
William  Temple  fonrcwhere  mentions,  that  a  Dutch 
governor  of  Batavia,  who  lived  much  with  one  of  the 
mofl  confiderable  inhabitants  of  Java,  could  never  ob- 
tain any  credit  from  him  after  having  mentioned,  that 
in  Holland  water  became  a  folid  body.  The  traveller 
who  tirll  faw  a  llying  filh  probably  told  every  one  of 
this  extraordinary  circumftance  as  foon  as  he  fet  his 
foot  on  ihore,  and  was  jirobably  diferedittd  with  re- 
gard to  tlie  other  particulars  of  his  voyage. 

The  natural  caiifc  and  progrefs  of  the  incredulity 
which  a  traveller  generally  experiences,  feems  to  be 
the  following  : 

When  he  returns  from  a  diftant  and  little  frequented 
country,  every  one  is  impatient  to  hear  his  narrative  ; 
from  which,  of  courfc,  he  felcds  the  more  llriking 
parts,  and  particularly  the  ufuges  which  ditfer  moll 
from  our  own.  Some  of  the  audience,  dilbelieving 
what  tlic  traveller  hath  mentioned,  put  quelUons  to 
him  which  fliow  their  dillrufl.  The  traveller  by  this 
treatmentbecomes  irritated, andanfwers  fome  of  them 
peevilhly,othersironically,  of  which  the  interrogators 
afterwards  take  advantage  to  his  prejudice.  Nothing 
is  more  irritating  to  an  ingenuous  perfon  than  to  find 
his  alfertions  are  dilbelieved.  This  is  commonly  ex- 
perienced in  the  crofs  examinations  of  almoft  every 
witnefs.  To  the  diftrclfes  of  the  traveller  on  his  re- 
turn, we  may  add,  the  being  often  tcafed  by  \ery  ig- 
norant queflions. 

ABYSSINIAN,  in  ecclefiaftical  hiftory;  is  ufcd 
as  the  name  of  a  feft,  or  liercfy,  in  the  Chriftian 
church,  eftablillicd  in  the  empire  of  Abyffinia.  The 
Abyllinians  aie  a  branch  of  the  Copis  or  Jacobites  ; 
with  whom  they  agree  in  admitting  but  one  nature  in 
Jefus  Chrill,  and  rejedling  the  council  of  Chalcedon  : 
whence  they  arc  alfo  called  Kutychians,  and  ftand 
oppofed  to  the  Melchitcs.  They  are  only  diftin- 
guiflicd from  the  Copts,  and  other  (eels  of  T.icobites, 
by  fome  peculiar  national  ufages. — The  Abyilinian  feft 
or  church  is  governed  by  a  bilhop  or  metropolitan 
ftylcd  Abuna,  lent  them  by  the  Coptic  patriarch  of 
Alexandria  rclidiiig  at  Cairo,  who  is  the  only  perfon 
that  ordains  pricfts.  The  next  dignity  \i  that  of  Ko- 
mos,  or  Hcgumenas,  who  is  a  kind  of  arch-prcft)ytcr. 
They  have  canons  alfo,  and  monks:  the  former  of 
whom  marry  ;  the  latter,  at  their  admiflion,  vow  celi- 
bacy, but  with  a  refcrvation  :  thefe,  it  is  faid,  make  a 
promife  aloud,  before  their  fuperior,  to  keep  chaftity ; 
but  add,  in  a  low  voice,  asymt  keep  it.  The  emperor 
has  a  kind  of  fuprcmacy  in  ecclefiaftical  matters.    He 

alone 


archives  of  the  college  de  propaganda  fide  at  Rome.  It  is  believed  that  there  are  many  other  curious  particu- 
lars for  the  illuftration  of  geography  to  be  found  in  the  fame  depofitory.  Dr  Sfliaw  mentions,  moreover,  fome 
papers  of  Lippi  (who  accompanied  the  French  cmbalfy  into  Abyllinia,  A.  D.  1704)7  which  are  to  be  found 
in  the  botanical  library  at  Oxford. 

((/)  This  points  out  another  clTanncl  by  which  a  traveller  of  entcrprifc  may  vifit  Abyffinia. 


ABA  [     37     ] 

Abyflinian  alone takcscognifanccof  all  ccclefiaflicakaufcs.cxcepc 
n  fonie  fmaller  ones  rcfcrved  to  the  judges  ;  and  confers 
Acjcalocl.  all  benefices,  except  thatofAbuua — The  Abylfinians 
'^  "  '  have  at  different  times  exprelfed  an  inclination  to  be 
reconciled  to  the  fee  o(  Rome  ;  but  rather  out  of 
intcrcft  of  flaic  than  any  other  motive.  The  emperor 
David,  or  the  queen  regent  on  his  behalf,  wrote  a 
letter  on  this  head  to  pope  Clement  VII.  fall  of  fub- 
milTion,  and  demanding  a  patriarch  from  llomc  to 
be  inftruiicd  by  :  which  being  complied  svilli,  he 
publicly  adjured  the  doctrine  oi  Eutychius  ami  Diof- 
corus  in  1626,  and  allowed  the  fupremacy  of  the  pope. 
Under  the  emperor  Sultan  Seghed  all  was  andone  again; 
the  Rom  ill]  milTionaries  fettled  there  had  their  churches 
taken  from  tliem,  and  their  new  converts  banilhed  or 
put  to  death.  The  congregation  diprofaganda  have 
made  feveral  attempts  to  revive  the  mifllon,  but  to  lit- 
tle purpofe.— The  doftrines  and  ritual  of  this  fcflary 
from  a  llrangc  compound  of  Judaifm,  Chriltianity,aud 
fuperllition.  They  practifccircumcilion  ;  and  arc  faid 
loextend  the  practice  to  the  fenialesas  wcllasmalcs: 
They  obferve  both  Saturday  and  Sunday  fabbaths  : 
they  cat  no  meats  prohibited  by  the  law  of  Moles  : 
women  are  obliged  to  the  legal  puritications  :  and  bro- 
thers marry  their  brothers  wives,  trc.  On  the  other 
Land,  they  celebrate  the  epiphany  with  peculiar  fefli- 
vity,  in  memory  of  Chrifl's  baptifn: ;  when  they  plunge 
and  fport  in  ponds  and  rivers  ;  which  has  occafioned 
fome  to  affirm  that  they  were  baptized  anew  every 
year.  Among  the  faints-days  is  one  coiifecraied  to  Pi- 
late and  his  wife  ;  by  reafon  Pilate  walhed  his  hands 
before  he  pronounced  fentence  on  Chrift,  and  his  wife 
defired  him  to  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  blood  of 
that  juft  perfon.  They  have  four  lents:  the  great  one 
comraeiices  ten  days  earlier  than  ours,  and  isobfcrvcd 
with  much  fcverity,many  abflaining  therein  even  from 
fifh,  becaufe  St  Paul  fays  there  is  one  kind  of  fie(hof 
men,  and  another  of  filhes.  They  allow  of  divorce, 
which  is  eafily  granted  among  them,  and  by  the  civil 
judge  ;  nor  do  their  civil  laws  prohibit  polygamy  it- 
felf.  They  have  at  leallas  many  miracles  and  legends 
of  faints  as  the  Romilh  church  ;  which  proved  no  fmall 
cmbarralfmcnt  to  the  Jefuitmiflionaries,  towhomtiiey 
produced  fo  many  miracles,  wrought  by  their  faints 
in  proof  of  their  religion,  and  thofe  fo  well  circuni- 
ftantiatedand  atteflcd,  that  the  Jefuits  were  obliged  to 
deny  miracles  to  be  any  proof  of  a  true  religion  ;  and 
in  proof  hereof  to  allege  the  fame  arguments  againft 
^  the  Abylfinians,  which  Proteftants  in  Europe  allege  a- 
^  gainft  Papills.  Tlicy  pray  for  the  dead,  and  invoke 
faints  and  angels  ;  have  fo  great  a  veneration  for  the 
virgin,  that  they  charged  the  Jefuits  with  not  render- 
ing her  honour  enough.  Images  in  painting  they  ve- 
nerate ;  but  abhor  ail  thofe  in  relievo,  except  tiic  crofs. 
They  hold  that  the  foul  of  man  is  not  created  ;  be- 
caufe, fay  they,  God  finilhcdallhis  work  on  the  fixth 
day.  They  admit  the  apocryplial  books,  and  the 
canons  of  the  apoflles,  as  well  as  the  apollolical  con- 
ftitutions,  for  genuine.  Their  liturgy  is  given  by  Al- 
varez, and  in  Englilhby  Pagit. 

^Ch,  ACE,  or  ACON,  a  town  of  Phcenicia,  on  the 
Mediterranean;  afterwards  called  f/o/.'Wd/i, now  .■icre. 
ACACALOTL,  the  Brafilian  name  of  a  bird  called 
by  fomc  corvtis  aquatictis,  or  the  water-raven  :  proper- 
ly, the  pclicanuscarbo,  or  corvoraut.  Sec  Pelican  us. 


A  C  A 


ACACIA,  Ecypiia.vThor.v,  orBiKDiHG  BEA\- 
iREE,  in  bjtany,  a  fpecics  of  Mimofa,  according  to 
Linnaeus  ;  tho' other  botanills  makeitadillinw^  genus. 
Sec  Mimosa. 

The  {lowers  of  a  fpecics  of  the  acacia  are  ufcd  by 
the  Chincfe  in  making  that  yellow,  which  wc  fee 
bears  walhing  in  their  lilks  and  ftufFs,  and  appears 
with  fo  much  elegance  in  ilieir  painting  on  paper.  The 
method  is  this  : 

They  gather  the  flowers  before  they  are  fully  open  ; 
thcfe  they  put  into  a  clean  earthen  veiltl  over  a  gentle 
heat,  and  ilir  them  continually  about,  as  they  do  the 
tea-leaves,  till  they  become  dryifh  and  of  a  yellow  co- 
lour ;  then  to  half  a  pound  of  the  tlowcrs  they  add 
three  fpoonfuls  of  fair  water,  and  after  that  a  little 
more,  till  there  is  jull  enough  to  hold  the  flowers  in- 
corporated together  :  they  boil  this  forfonie  time,  and 
the  juice  of  the  dowers  mixing  with  the  water,  it  be- 
comes thick  and  yellow  ;  they  then  take  it  from  the 
fire,  and  flrain  it  through  a  piece  of  coarfc  lilk.  To 
the  liquor  they  add  half  an  ounce  of  common  alum, 
and  an  ounce  of  calcined  oyrter-lhells  reduced  to  a  fine 
powder.  All  is  then  well  mixed  together  ;  and  this  is 
the  fine  lafling  yellow  they  have  fo  long  ul'cd. 

The  dyers  of  large  pieces  ufe  the  flowers  and  feeds 
of  the  acacia  for  dying  three  different  forts  of  yellow. 
They  roait  the  flowers,  as  before  obfcrvcd  ;  and  then 
mix  the  feeds  with  them,  which  muft  be  gathered 
for  this  purpofe  when  full  ripe  :  by  different  admixture 
of  thefe,  they  give  the  different  Ihades  of  colour,  on- 
ly for  tlic  deepeit  of  all  they  give  a  fmall  mixture  of 
Brazil  wood. 

Mr  Geoffroy  attributes  the  origin  of  bezoar  to  the 
feeds  of  this  plant;  which  being  broufcd  by  certain 
animals,  and  vcUicaiing  the  flomach  by  their  great 
fournefs  and  aflringcncy,  caufe  a  condenfation  of  the 
juices,  till  at  length  they  become  coated  over  with  a 
ilony  matter,  which  we  call  bezoar. 

Faife  j^CAcih.     See  RoBiNiA. 

Threc-theriiid ^c^ciA,  ox  Honcy-locufl.     See  Gle- 

DISTI  A. 

Acacia,  in  the  Materia  Medica,  the  iufpiifatcd  juice 
of  the  unripe  fruit  of  the  Mimosa  NiUtica. 

This  juice  is  brought  from  Egypt,  in  roundiih 
malhcs,  wrapt  up  in  thin  bladders.  It  is  outwardly  of 
a  deep  brown  colour,  inc!i:;ing  to  black  ;  inwardly  of 
arcddilh  orycllowilh  brown  ;  of  arirm  confidence,  but 
not  very  dry.  It  foon  foftens  in  the  juouth,  and  dif- 
covcrs  a  rougii,  not  difagrecable  talle,  which  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  fweetilh  rclilh.  This  infpilfated  juice  en- 
tirely diifolves  in  watery  liquors  ;  but  is  fcarcc  fcnlibly 
aded  on  by  redilied  fpirit. 

Acacia  is  a  mild  aflringent  medicine.  The  Egyp- 
tians give  it  in  fpitting  of  blood,  in  the  quantity  of  a 
dram,  diilblvcd  in  any  convenient  liquor  ;  and  repeat 
this  dofc  occalionally  :  iheylikcwilc  employ  it  in  col- 
ly ria  for  ftrcnglhening  the  eyes,  andingargarifms  for 
quinlcys.  Among  us,  it  is  little  othcrsvile  ufed  than 
asan  ingredient  in  niithridatcand  theriaca,  and  is  rare- 
ly met  w-ith  in  the  Ihops.  What  is  ufnally  fold  for  the 
Egyptian  acacia,  is  tlic  infpiifated  juice  of  unripe  lloes : 
this  is  harder,  heavier,  of  a  darker  colour,  and  fome- 
vhat  fliarpcr  talic,  than  the  true  fort.  Sec  the  next 
article. 

Ctriiian  jicACiA,  the  juice  of  unripe  llces  infpifTated 

nearly 


Acacii. 


• 39L115 


A  C  A 


38     ] 


A  C  A 


Ac.i:ii     nearly  todryi'.cfs  over  a  gentle  fire,  care  being  taken 

1         to  prevent  its  burniiig.     It  is  modcrattly  aftringcnt, 

AraOimici.  ('miilar  to  the  Egyptian  acacia,  lor  whith  it  has  been 

"         commonly  fubUitiitcJ   in  the  lliops.     It  is  given  in 

lluxcs,  and  other  dil'ordcrs  where  Ityptic  medicines  are 

indicated,  from  a  Icriiple  to  a  dram. 

AcAci  A,amongantiquaries,fomcthingrefcmblinga 
roll  or  bag,  feen  on  medals,  as  in  the  hands  of  fcveral 
confi'ds  and  emperors.  Some  take  it  to  rcprcfent  a 
handkerchief  rolled  up,  wherewith  they  made  lignals 
at  the  games  ;  others,  a  roll  of  petitions  ornicmorials  ; 
and  fonie,  a  purple  bag  full  of  earth,  to  remind  them 
of  their  mortality. 

ACACIANS,  ill  ecclefiaftical  hiftory,  thcnamcof 
fcveral  feds  of  heretics  ;  fomc  uf  which  maintained, 
that  the  Son  w'as  only  a  limilar,  not  thcfame,  fubllancc 
with  the  Father  ;  and  others,  that  he  was  not  only  a 
diftinci,  but  a  diilimilar,  fubftancc.  Two  of  ihcfe  feds 
had  their  denomination  from  Acacias  bilhopof  Casfa- 
rea,  who  lived  in  the  fourth  century,  and  changed  his 
opinions,  fo  as,  at  dirtcrent  times,  to  be  head  of  both. 
Another  was  named  from  Acacius  patriarch  of  Con- 
llantinople,  who  lived  in  the  clofc  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. 

ACACIUS,  firnamed  Luscus,  becaufe  he  was  blind 
of  one  eye,  was  bilhopof  Csefarca  in  Palcftine,  and  fuc- 
cceded  the  famous  Eufebius  :  he  had  a  great  fliarc  in 
thebaniflimenr  of  Pope  Liberius,and  bringing  Felix  to 
the  fee  of  Rome.  He  gave  name  to  a  fcft,  and  died 
about  the  year  365.  He  wrote  the  life  of  Eufebius, 
and  fcveral  other  works. 

Acacius  (St. ), bilhopof  Amida, in  INIefopotamia,  in 
420,  was  diflinguilhcd  by  his  piety  and  charity.  He 
fold  the  plate  belonging  to  his  church,  to  redeem  fe- 
ven  thoufand  Pcrfian  llaves  who  were  ready  to  die  with 
want  and  mifery  ;  and  giving  each  of  them  fome  mo- 
ney, fent  them  home.  Veranius,  iheirking,  was  foaf- 
fe(5ted  with  this  noble  inftance  of  benevolence,  that  he 
defired  to  fee  the  bilhop  ;  and  this  interview  procured 
a  peace  between  that  prince  and  Theodolius  I. 

There  have  been  fcveral othcremincnt  perfonsofthc 
fame  name  ;  particularly,  A  martyr  under  the  emperor 
Decius  :  A  patriarch  of  Antioch,  who  fuccecdcd  Bafil 
in  458,  and  died  in  459  :  A  bifhop  of  Miletum  in  the 
fifthcentury  :  A  famousrhetorician  in  thereignof  the 
emperor  Julian  :  and,  A  patriarch  of  Conftantinople  in 
the  fifth  century  ;  who  wasambitious  to  drawthe  whole 
power  and  authority  of  Rome  by  degrees  to  Conftan- 
tinsplc,  for  which  he  was  delivered  over  irretrieva- 
bly to  the  devil  by  Pope  FclixIM. 

ACAD,or  AcH  AD,  (anc.  geog.)  the  town  in  which 
Nimrod  reigned,  called  y4rchadhyx.\\c  feventy  ;  fitua- 
ted  in  Babylonia,   to  the  eaftw'.rd  of  the  Tigris. 

ACADEMICI.AN,  or  Academist,  a  member  of 
an  academy.     Sec  Academy  in  a  modern  fenfc. 

ACADEMICS,  or  Academists,  a  denomination 
given  to  the  cultivators  of  a  fpecies  of  philofophy  ori- 
ginally derived  from  Socrates,  and  afterwards  illu- 
flraied  and  enforced  by  Plato,  who  taught  in  a  grove 
near  Athens,eonfccraied  to  the  memory  of  Academus, 
an  Athenian  hero  ;  from  which  circumftance  this  phi- 
lofophy  received  the  name  o( acndoiucjl.  Before  the 
days  of  Plato,  philofophy  had  in  a  great  meafure 
fallen  into  contempt.  Tlte  coniradidlory  fyftems  and 
hypoihcfcs  which  had  fucceffively  been  urged  upon  the 


world  were  become  fo  numerous,  that,  from  .1  view   Aca.1fniic« 

ofthisiiiconllancyand  uncertainty  of  human  opinions,         ( 

many  were  led  to  conclude,  that  truth  lay  beyond  the  Acaileiny.^ 

reach  of  our  comprehenfion.     Abfolute  and  univcrfil  '       "       ' 

fcepticitm  was  the  natural  confequencc  of  this  conclu- 

iion.     In  order  to  remedy  this  abufc   of  philofophy 

and  of  the  human  faculties,  Plato  laid  hold  of  the 

principles  of  the  academical  philofophy  ;  and,  in  his 

Phaedo,  reafons  in  the  following  manner.  "  If  we  arc 

"  unable  to  difcover  truth,  (fays  he),  it  mull  be  owing 

'<  to  two  circumflances :  cither  there  is  no  truth  in 

<'  ihe  nature  of  things  j  or  the  mind,  from  a  defect 

"in  its  powers,  is  not  able  to  apprehend  it.     Upon 

"  the  latter  fuppolition,  all  the  uncertainty  and  tiuc- 

"  tuation  in  the  opinions  and  judgments  of  mankind 

"  admit  of  an  eafy  folution:  Let  us  therefore  be  mo- 

"  dell,  and  afcribc  our  errors  to  the  real  weaknefs 

"of  our  own  minds,  and  not  to  the  nature  of  things 

"  themfelves.     Truth  is  often  difficult  of  accefs;  in 

"  order  to  come  at  it,  vre  mull  proceed  with  caution 

"  and  diffidence,  carefully  examining  every  ftep  j  and 

"after  all  our  labour,we  will  frequently  find  our  grcat- 

"  ell  efforts  difappointcd,  and  be  obliged  to  confefs  our 

"  ignorance  and  weaknefs." 

Labour  and  caution  in  their  refearchcs,   in  oppofi- 
lion  to  rafn  and  hally  decifions,  were  the  dillinguilhing 
charaCleriflics  of  the  difciples  of  the  ancient  academy. 
A  philofophcr,  polieiled  of  thefe  principles,  will  be 
How  in  his  progrcfs  ;  but  will  feldom  fall  into  errors, 
or  have  occafion  to  alter  his  opinion  after  it  is  once 
formed.  Vanity  and  precipitance  arc  the  great  fources 
of  fcepticifm.   Hurricdon  by  thcfeindcad  of  attending 
to  the  cool  and  deliberate  principles  recommended  by 
the   academy,    fcveral    m.odern   philofophers    have 
plunged  themfelves  into  an  abfurd  and  ridiculous  kind 
of  fcepticifm.  They  pretend  to  defcredit  fubjeifls  that 
are  plain,  (imple,  and  eafily  comprehended  ;  but  give 
peremptory  and  decifive  judgments  upon  things  that 
evidently  exceed  the  limits  of  our  capacity.   Of  thefe, 
Berkley  and  Hume  are  the  mod  confidcrable.  Berkley 
denied  rhe  exiflence  of  every  thing, excepting  his  own 
ideas.  Mr  Hume  has  gone  a  Hep  further, and  qucftioncd 
even  the  exiflence  of  ideas  ;  but  at  the  fame  time  has 
not  helitatcdto  give  determined  opinions  w'ith  regard 
to  eternity,  providence,  and  a  future  ftate,  miraculous 
intcrpolitions  of  the  Deity,  &c.  fubjeds  far  above  the   . 
reach  of  our  faculties.     In  his  eflay  on  the  academical 
or  fceptical  philofophy  he  has  confounded  two  very 
oppofite  fpecies  of  philofophy.  After  the  days  of  Plato, 
indeed,  the  principles  of  thetirfl  academy  were  grofsly 
corrupted  by  Arcefilaus,  Carneadcs,  &c.  This  might 
lead  Mr  Hume  into  the  notion  that  the  academica/and 
faptkal  philofophy  were  fynonymous  terms.    But  no 
principles  can  be  of  a  more  oppofite  nature  than  thofe 
which  were  inculcated  by  the  old  academy  of  Socrates 
and  Plato,  and  the  fceptical  notions  which  were  pro- 
pagated by  Arcelilaus,  Carneades,  and  the  other  difci- 
ples of  the  ficcceding  academics. 

ACADEMY,  in  antiquity,  agardcn,  villa,  or  grove, 
fituated  within  a  mile  of  Athens,  where  Plato  and  his 
followers  held  their  philofophial  conferences.  It  took 
its  name  from  one  Academus,  or  Ecademus,  who  was 
the  originalowncrof  it,  and  made  it  a  kiadof  gymna- 
fium  :  he  lived  in  the  time  of  Thcfeus  ;  and,  after  his 
death,  it  retained  his  name,  and  was  coufecrated  to 

his 


A  C  A 


[     39     ] 


A  C  A 


his  memory.  Cimon  cmbcllilhcd  it  with  fountains, 
trees,  and  walks  ;  but  Sylk,  during  thclicgc  of  Athens, 
employed  thclc  very  trees  in  makinji;  battering  engines 
again!!  the  city.  Cicero  too  had  his  villa,  or  place  of 
retirement,  near  Puziuoli,  which  he  alio  named  an 
acadimy,  where  he  compofcd  his  Ai-iidimkaiqueflhns, 
and  his  book  Di  uMitradibnim. 

Academy,  among  the  moderns,  is  mod  commonly 
ufcd  to  fignify  a  society  of  learned  men  eftablilhcd 
for  the  iinprovcment  of  any  art  or  fcieuce,  and  gene- 
rally uhdtr  the  protcdlion  of  a  prince. 

The  tirft;  Academy  wc  read  of,  was  eftablilhed  by 
Charlemagne,  at  the  infligation  of  Alcuin.  It  was 
compol'ed  of  the  chief  wits  of  the  court,  the  emperor 
himfclf  being  a  member.  In  their  academical  con- 
ferences, every  perfon  was  to  give  an  account  of  what 
ancient  authors  he  had  read  ;  and  each  even  alTumed 
the  name  of  fomc  ancient  author  who  plcafed  him  molt, 
or  fome  celebrated  perfon  of  antiquity.  Alcuin,  from 
whofc  letters  we  learn  thefe  particulars,  took  that  of 
Flaccus,  the  fitnamc  of  Horace  ;  a  young  lord,  named 
Augilbert,  took  that  of  Homer  :  Adelard,  bifliop  of 
Corbie,  was  called  Augullin :  Riculfc,  bilhop  of  Mentz, 
was  Dametas  ;  and  the  king  himfclf,  David.  This 
ihows  the  miftake  of  fome  modern  writers,  who  re- 
late, that  it  was  in  conformity  with  the  genius  of  the 
learned  men  of  thofe  times,  who  were  great  admirers 
of  Roman  names,  that  Alcuin  took  the  name  of  Flac- 
cus Albinus. 

Mofl  nations  have  now  their  academies  ;  but  Italy 

has  the  greatell  number The  French  have  many 

flourilhing  academies,  mofl  of  which  were  cftabliflicd 

by  Lewis  XIV There  are  but  few  in  Britain  ;  and 

ihofc  of  chiefell  note  go  by  a  different  name.  See  tiic 
article  Socie  r  v. 

In  giving  an  account  of  the  principal  Academies,  it 
feems  mofl  proper  to  arrange  them  according  to  their 
fubjecls. 

I.  Medical  Aeadsmies,  as  that  of  the  Naturae  Cu- 
rioli  in  Germany  ;  that  founded  at  Palermo  in  164J  : 
another  at  Venice  in  i  701,  which  meets  weekly  in  a 
hall  near  the  grand  hofpital  ;  another  at  Geneva  in 
1715,  in  the  houfe  of  M.  Le  Clerc.  The  colleges  of 
phyficiansat  London  and  Edinburgh  are  alfo,  by  feme, 
ranked  in  the  number  of  Academics. 

The  Academy  o(  Naturx  Curioji,  called  alfo  the 
Lcopoldine  Academy,  was  founded  in  i6j2,  by  Jo. 
Laur.  Baufchius,  a  phyfician  ;  who,  in  imitation  of  the 
Englilh,  publidied  an  invitation  to  all  phyficians  to 
communicate  their  extraordinary  cafes  ;  and,  meeting 
with  fucccfs,  waseledcd  prefident.  Their  works  were 
at firft  publiflied feparately ;  butin  i67oanew  fcheme 
was  laid  for  publiihing  a  volume  of  obfcrvations  every 
year.  Tlie  firll  volume  appeared  in  1684,  under  the 
title  of  Ephemerides,  and  the  work  has  been  continued 
with  fome  interruptions  and  variations  of  the  title,  crc. 
In  16S7,  the  emperor  Leopold  took  the  fociety  under 
his  protection, granting  the  members  feveral  privileges, 
particularly  that  their  prcfidents  Ihould  be  counts  pa- 
latine of  the  holy  Roman  empire.  This  academy  has 
no  fixed  rcfidence,  nor  regular  afi'emblics  ;  infteadof 
thefe,  there  is  a  kind  of  bureau,  or  ofRce,  firfl  cftabliQi- 
cd  at  Brcllau,  and  afterwards  removed  to  Nuremberg, 
where  letters,  obfervations,  b-c.  from  correfpondents 
or  members  arc  taken  in.     The  academy  confiAs  of  a 

3 


prcfiienc,  two  adjuncts  or  fecretaries,snd  colleagues  or  Ai-ademie*- 

members  without  reftriclion.  Thccolleagucs, at  their         >- 

admiluon,obligethenifclvcstotv.-othings:lirll,tochoofc 

fome  objcel  out  of  the  animal,  vegetable,  or  mineral 

kingdom,  to  handle,  provided  it  had  not  been  treated 

of  by  any  colleague  before  :  the  fecond,  to  apply  them- 

felvestofurnifh  materials  for  theannual  Ephemerides. 

Each  member  to  bear  a  fymbol  of  the  academy  ;  ■aiz. 

a  gold  ring  ;  whereon,  inllead  of  a  ftonc,   is  a  book 

open,  and,  on  the  face  thereof,  an  eye;  on  the  other 

fide  the  motto  of  the  academy,  Nunqiiani  iiulfus. 

II.  Chirurgical  Acidcwks  ;  as  that  inftitutcd  fome 
years  ago,  by  public  authority,  at  Paris  :  the  mem- 
bers of  which  were  not  only  to  publilhtheirown  and 
correfpondents  obfervations  and  improvements  ;  but  to 
give  an  account  of  all  that  is  publiiliedon  furgcry,and 
to  compofe  a  complete  hillory  of  the  art,  by  their 
extracts  from  all  the  authors  ancient  and  modern 
who  have  wrote  on  it.  A  quellion  in  furgcry  is  an- 
nually propofed  by  the  academy,  and  a  gold  medal  of 
2C0  livres  value  given  to  him  who  furnifhcs  the  moft 
fatisfaclory  anfwer. 

Academy  of  Surgery  at  Vieniiii,  was  inftituted  fome 
years  ago  by  the  prtfent  emperor,  under  ihcdiredlion 
of  the  celebrated  Brambilla.  In  this  there  were  at 
firfl  only  two  proftifors  ;  and  to  their  charge  the  in- 
llrudion  of  130  young  men  was  committed,  30  of 
wliom  had  formerly  been  furgeons  in  the  army.  But 
of  late  the  number  both  of  the  teachers  and  pupils 
has  been  confidtrably  increafed.  Gabrielli  has  been 
appointed  to  teach  pathology  and  praftice;  Boecking, 
anatomy,  phyliology,  and  pliyfics  :  Streit,  medical  and 
pharmaceutical  furgery  ;  Hunczowlky,  furgical opera- 
tions,midwifery, and  thcchirurgiaforenfis;  and  Plenk, 
chemiftryand  botany.  To  thefe  alfo  has  been  added, 
Bcin*!l,  as  profedor  and  extraordinary  profcflbr  of 
furgery  and  anatomy.  Befides  this,  the  emperor,  with 
his  ufual  liberality,  has  provided  a  large  and  fplenJid 
edifice  in  Vienna,  which  affords Iiabitation  both  for  the 
teachers,  the  lludents,  pregnant  women,  patients  for 
clinical  leftures  and  fcrvants.  He  has  alfo  purchafed 
for  the  ufe  of  this  academy  a  medical  library,  which 
isopeneveryday  :  a  complete  fetof  chirurgical  inftru- 
mcnts;  an  apparatus  for  experiments  in  natural  philo- 
fophy  ;  a  coilcdion  of  natural  hiftory  ;  a  number  01 
anatomical  and  pathological  preparations  ;  a  colleflion 
of  preparations  in  wax  brought  from  Florence;  and  a 
variety  of  other  ufeful  articles.  Adjoining  to  the 
building  alfo  there  is  a  good  botanical  garden. 

Among  other  parts  of  this  inftitution,  three  prizc- 
mcdals,  each  of  the  v.-iluc  of  40  liorins,  are  to  be  an- 
nually bellowed  on  thofe  lludents  who  return  the  bell 
anfwer  toqucllions  propofed  the  year  before.  Thefe 
prizes  are  not  entirely  founded  by  the  emperor,  but 
arc  in  part  owing  to  the  liberality  ot  Brcndellius  the 
protochirurgus  at  Vienna. 

III.  KccLtsiA'^TiCAL  Acadniiits  ;  as  that  of  Bologna 
in  Italy  inftituted  in  ib'^T,  troplnycd  in  the  examina- 
tion of  the  doctrine,  difcipline,  and  hillory,  of  each 
age  of  the  church. 

IV.  Co^yocRAfHicAL  Acad<mus  \  as  that  at  Ve- 
nice, called  the  Argtuauls.  This  was  inftituted  at  the 
foiicitation  of  F.  Corojielli,  for  the  improvement  of 
ftcograpliieal  knowledge.  Its  dtlign  was  to  publifli 
exact  maps,  both  celcilialand  terreftrial,  as  well  par- 
ticular 


A  C  A 


[     40     3 


A  C  A 


A"d:my.  liculir  as  general,  togeiherwithgcograpliical,  hiftori- 

—  ^ cal,  and  allronomical  dclcriptions.     Karhiiicnibtr,  in 

onlcr  to  defray  the  cxpcncc  of  fuch  a  publication,  was 
to  I'ubfcribe  a  proportional  fum,  for  wiiicli  they  were 
to  receive  one  or  more  copies  of  each  piece  publilhcd. 
For  this  end  three  focietits  are  fettled  ;  one  under 
V.  Moro,  provincial  of  the  minorities  inlliuicary;  ano- 
ther under  the  abbot  Laurence  an  Rue  Payenne  au 
JVlaraii ;  the  third  under  K.  Daldigiani,  Jefuit,  profcf- 
for  of  mathematics  in  the  Roman  college.  1"hc  device 
of  this  academy  is  the  terraqueous  globe,  with  the 
motto  I'/ia  ultra  ;  and  at  its  cxpencc  all  the  globes, 
maps,  and  geographical  writings,  of  K.  CoroncUi  haTC 
been  pnblilhed. 

V.  Acadimhs  oj  Sciesces. — Thcfc  comprehend  fuch 
as  arc  crciiled  for  improving  natural  and  mathematical 
knowledge.  They  arc  otherwifc  called  Phitofophi- 
crt/and  f/^r.'^tWacademies. 

The  firflofthefe  was  inllitutcd  at  Naples,  about  the 
year  i  560,  in  ihcxhoufc  of  hapiilla  Porta.  It  was  call- 
ed the  Academy  Si-oeloruM  Niit!ir,e  ;  and  was  fuc- 
ceeded  by  the  Academy  oi  Lyncti,  founded  at  Rome  by 
Prince  Frederic  Cell,  towards  the  end  of  that  century. 
Several  of  the  members  of  this  academy  rendered  it  fa- 
mous by  their  difcovcries  ;  among  thefe  was  the  cele- 
brated Galileo.  .Several  other  academics  were  inftitu- 
tcd  about  that  time,  which  contributed  greatly  to  the 
advancement  of  the  fciences  ;  but  none  of  them  com- 
parable to  that  of  the  Ljiicci. 

Some  years  after  the  death  of  Toricelli,  the  Acadimy 
dil  Cirneiito  made  its  appearance,  under  the  protection 
of  Prince  Leopold,  altcrwards  Cardinal  de  Medicis. 
Iledi  was  one  of  its  chief  members  ;  and  the  lludics 
purfued  by  the  rell  may  be  coUcclcd  from  thofc  curi- 
ous experiments  publilhed  in  1667,  by  their  fecrctary 
Count  Laurence  Maguloiti,  under  the  title  of  5..*^/  di 
Natural!  Efpencuze ;  a  copy  of  which  was  prefented 
to  the  Royal  Society,  tranlla:ed  into  Englilh  by  Mr 
Waller,  and  publiflied  at  London  in  4''. 

The  Academy  dcgl'  hiqukti,  afterwards  incorporated 
into  that  of  Delia  Tracia  in  the  Aime  city,  followed  the 
example  of  tliat  of  Del  Cimcnio.  Sonic  excellent  dif- 
courfcs  on  phyfical  and  mathematical  fubjefts,  by  Ge- 
miniano  Montenari,  one  of  the  chief  members,  were 
publilhcd  in  1667,  under  the  title  of  Pcrfieri  Fifico 
Matcmatlci. 

Tlic  Academy  of  Rojfnno,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
was  originally  an  academy  of  Belles  Letters;  founded 
in  1  540,  and  transformed  into  an  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  1695  at  the  folicitation  of  the  learned  abbot  Don 
Giacinto  Gimma;  who  being  made  prefidcnt,  under 
the  title  of  Promoter  General  thereof,  gave  them  a 
new  fet  of  regulations.  He  divided  the  academics 
into  the  following  clalFcs  :  Grammarians, Rhetoricians, 
Poets,  Hiftorians,  Philofopliers,  Phy licians,  Mathema- 
ticians, Lawyers,  and  Divines,  with  a  clafs  apart  for 
Cardinals  and  perfons  of  quality.  To  be  admitted  a 
member,  a  man  niufb  have  fome  degrees  in  the  faculty. 
The  members  are  not  allowed  to  take  the  title  of  Aca- 
demiOs  in  the  beginning  of  their  books,  without  a 
written  pcrinilfion  from  their  prelident,  which  is  not 
granted  till  the  work  has  been  examined  by  the  cen- 
fors  of  the  academy  ;  and  the  permiliion  is  the  greatell 
honour  the  academy  can  confer,  as  they  thereby  adopt 
the  work,  and  arc  anfwerablc  for  it  againll  all  criti- 

3 


cifms  that  may  be  made  upon  it.     To  this  law  tlic  Acadtmy- 

prelident  or  promoter  himltlf  is  fubjcil ;  and  no  aca-  ' ^^ — ' 

dcmill  is  allow  ed  to  publilh  any  thing  againll  the  wri- 
tings of  another  without  leave  from  the  locicty. 

Several  other  Academics  of  Sciences  have  been 
founded  in  Italy  ;  but,  for  want  of  being  fupported  by 
princes,  did  not  continue  long.  The  lofs  of  them,  how- 
ever, was  abundantly  repaired  by  the  inflitution  of  o- 
thers  ftill  iubfilling  ;  fuch  as,  the  Academy  cj  t'ilarwo- 
T.'ici  at  Verona  ;  of  ;?/f(;:'o/r/ at  Padua,  where  a  learned 
difcourfc  on  the  origin  of  fprings  was  delivered  by 
Sig.  Vallifnieri,  lirll  profelibrof  phy  lie  in  the  univt-r- 
lity  of  that  city,  and  which  was  afterwards  printed. 
To  the  Academy  of  the  Mutt  dc  Reggio,  at  Modena, 
the  fame  Sig.  Vallifnieri  jircfcntcd  an  excellent  dif- 
courfc on  the  fcalc  of  created  beings,  lince  infcrted 
in  his  hiflory  of  the  generation  of  man  and  animals 
printed  at  Venice  in  the  year  I  721. 

F.  Merfennc  is  faid  to  have  given  the  firfl  idea  of  a 
philofophical  academy  in  France,  towards  the  begin- 
ning of  the  17"'  century,  by  the  conferences  of  natu- 
ralilts  and  mathematicians  occalionally  held  at  his 
lodgings  ;  at  which  Gall'endi,  Des  Cartes,  Hobbes, 
Roberval,  Pafcal,  Blondcl,  and  others  athflcd.  F.  Mer- 
fennc propofcd  to  each  certain  problems  to  examine,  or 
certain  experiments  to  be  made.  Thcfc  private  alicm- 
blics  were  fucceeded  by  more  public  ones,  formed  by 
Mr  Montmort,  and  Mr  Thevenot  the  '■clcbrated  tra- 
veller. The  French  example  animated  feveral  Englilh- 
men  of  dillinftion  and  learning  to  erett  a  kind  of 
philofophical  academy  at  Oxford,  towards  the  clofc  of 
Oliver  Cromwell's  adminillration  ;  which,  after  the 
relloration,  was  cretted  into  a  Royal  Society.  See  So- 
ciETV.  TheEnglilh  example,  in  its  turn,  animated  the 
French.  Lewis  XIV.  in  1666,  aliiftcd  by  the  counfcis 
of  Mr  Colbert,  founded  an  academy  of  fciences  at 
Paris,  with  a  fufficicnt  revenue  to  defray  the  charge 
of  experiments,  and  falaries  to  the  members. 

Royal  Academy  of  Sciences.  After  the  peace  of  the 
Pyrenees,  Lewis  XIV.  being  delirous  of  cftablilhing 
the  arts,  fciences,  and  literature,  upon  a  folid  founda- 
tion, diredcd  M.  Colbert  to  form  a  fociety  of  men  of 
knownabilitiesandcxpericncc  in  the  different  branch- 
es, who  Ihould  meet  together  under  the  king's  protc^li- 
on,  and  communicate  their  refpeftivc  difcovcries.  Ac- 
cordingly Mr  Colbert,  having  conferred  with'thofe 
who  were  at  that  time  moft  celebrated  for  their  learn- 
ing, refolved  to  form  a  fociety  of  fuch  perfons  as  were 
converfant  in  natural  philefophy  and  mathematics,  to 
join  to  them  other  perfons  Ikilled  in  hiftory  and  other 
branches  of  erudition,  along  with  thofe  who  were  en- 
tirely engaged  in  what  are  called  the  Belles  Lettres, 
grammar,  eloquence,  and  poetry.  The  geometricians 
andnaturalphilofophers  were  ordered  to  meet  on  Tucf- 
days  and  Saturdays,  in  a  great  hall  of  the  king's  li- 
brary, where  the  books  of  mathematics  and  natural 
philofophy  were  contained  ;  the  learned  in  hiftory  to 
adeniblc  on  Mondays  and  Tuefd.iys,  in  the  hall  where 
the  books  of  hiftory  arc  contained  ;  and  the  clafs  of 
Belles  Letters  to  alfenible  on  Wednefdaysand  Fridays. 
All  the  different  claflcs  were  likcwifc  ordered  to  meet 
together  upon  the  firfl  Tuefday  of  every  month  ;  and, 
by  their  refpcCtive  feeretaries,  make  a  report  of  the 
proceedings  of  the  foregoing  montli. 

In  a  fliort  time,  however,  the  claflcs  of  Hi/lory, 

Belles 


A  C  A 


[     41     J 


A  C  A 


Academies.  BcUcs  Lcrtrcs,  &c.  were  united  to  thcfrfwcAAcauciny, 

" *■ '  which  was  originally  iiilUtuted  for  the  im|irovcmcnr 

and  refining  the  French  language  ;  fo  that  the  royal 
Academy  contained  only  two  claifes,  viz.  that  of  natu- 
ral philofophy  and  mathematics. 

In  the  1696,  the  king,  by  a  proclamation  dated  the 
26th  of  January,  gave  this  Academy  a  new  form,  and 
put  it  upon  a  more  refpedablc  footing. — It  was  now 
to  be  compofed  of  four  kinds  of  jncmbcrSj  viz.  hono- 
rary, />;n/ionarj-,aJfoc/al(j,  and  I'/t-cc-/.  Thtfe  laft  were 
a  kind  ot  pupils,  or  fcholars,  each  of  whom  was  at- 
tached to  one  of  the  pcufionaries.  The  firft  clafs  to 
contain  ten  perfons,and  each  of  the  reil  twenty.  The 
honorary  academilts  to  be  all  inhabitants  of  France  ; 
the  pcnlionaries  all  to  refide  at  Paris  ;  eight  »f  the  af- 
fociates  allowed  to  be  foreigners  ;  and  the  eleves  all 
to  live  at  Paris.  The  oificcrs  to  be,  a  prelidcnt  named 
by  the  king,  out  of  the  clafs  of  honorary  academics  ; 
and  a  fccrctary  and  trcafurcr  to  be  perpetual.  Of  the 
penfionarics,  three  to  be  geometricians,  three  aftrono- 
lacrs,  three  mechanics,  three  anatomiils,  three  che- 
iiiifts,  three  botanifls,  and  the  remaining  two  to  befe- 
cretary  and  treafurer.  Of  the  twelve  allbciatcs,  two 
to  apply  thcmfcives  to  geometry,  two  to  botany,  and 
two  to  chcmiftry.  The  eleves  to  apply  themfelvcs  to 
the  fame  kind  of  fcience  with  the  pcnlionaries  tlicy 
were  attached  to  ;  and  not  to  fpeak  except  when  call- 
ed by  the  prelidcnt.  No  regular  or  religious  to  be  ad- 
mitted, except  into  the  clafs  of  honorary  acadeinirts  ; 
nor  any  perfon  to  be  admitted  either  for  allbciate  or 
penlionary,  unlefs  known  by  fomc  confiderable  printed 
work,  fome  machine,  or  other  difcovcry.  The  aflem- 
blies  were  held  on  Wcdnefdays  and  Saturdays,  unlefs 
cither  of  them  happened  to  be  a  holiday,  and  then  the 
alfembly  was  held  on  the  preceding  day — To  encou- 
rage the  members  to  purfue  their  labours,  the  king 
engaged  not  only  to  pay  the  ordinary  penfions,  but  e- 
ven  to  give  extraordinary  gratifications,  according  to 
the  merit  of  their  refpcc^ivc  performances  ;  furnilhing 
withal  the  expence  of  the  experiments  and  other  in- 
quiries necelfary  to  be  made.  If  any  member  gave  in 
a  bill  of  charges  of  experiments  he  had  made,  or  dcfir- 
ing  the  printing  of  any  book,  and  brought  in  the  char- 
ges of  graving,  the  money  was  immediately  paid  by 
tlie  king,  upon  the  prefident's  allowing  and  fignJng 
the  bill.  So,  if  an  anatomift  required  live  tortoifcs,  for 
inllancc,  for  making  experiments  about  the  heart, &c. 
as  many  as  he  plcaicd  were  brought  him  at  t  lie  king's 
charge.  Their  motto  was,  hwcnil  ct  psrj^-cit. 

In  the  year  i  716,  the  duke  of  Orleans,  then  regent, 
made  an  alteration  in  their  conftitution  ;  augmenting 
the  number  of  honorarics,  and  of  aiR>ciates  capableof 
being  foreigners,  to  12;  admitting  regulars  among 
filch  allbciatcs  ;  and  fupprefling  the  clafs  of  clcvcs,  as 
it  appeared  to  be  attended  with  fomc  inconveniences, 
particularly  that  of  making  too  great  an  inequality  a- 
mong  the  chcmills,  and  being  prodnclive  of  fome  inif- 
ii>ideril,indings  and  aniinofitits  among  the  members. 
At  the  fame  time  he  created  other  two  claifes ;  one  con- 
fiding of  12  adjuncts,  who,  as  well  as  the  aifctiates. 
Were  allowed  a  deliberative  voice  in  matters  relative 
to  fcience  ;  and  the  other  lix  free  aifociatcs,  who 
were  not  attached  to  any  particular  fcience,  nor  obli- 
ged to  purfue  any  particular  work. 

Since  its  rc-ellablirtvnient  in  1696,  this  academy  has 
Vo:..  I. 


been  very  exact  in  publilliing,  every  year,  a  volume  AcmJemiet 
containing  cither  the  works  of  its  own  members,  or  " 
fuch  memoirs  as  have  been  compofed  and  read  to  the 
academy  during  the  courfe  of  that  year.  To  each  vo- 
lume is  prefixed  the  hilloryof  the  academy,  or  an  ex- 
tract of  the  memoirs,  and,  in  general,  of  whatever  has 
been  read  or  faid  in  the  academy  ;  at  the  end  of  the 
hiflory,  are  the  eulogiums  on  fuch  icadeinills  as  have 
died  that  year. — M.  Kojille  de  Meflay,  counfcUor  to 
the  parliament  of  Paris,  founded  two  prizes,  one  of 
2JC0,  and  the  other  of  2CX3o  livres,  which  are  alter- 
nately dillribiited  by  the  parliament  every  year  ;  the 
fubjed  for  the  firft  mull  relate  to  phy ileal  ailronomy, 
and  thofc  for  the  latter  to  navigation  and  commerce. 

Notwithrtanding  the  advantages  which  the  members 
of  this  academy  enjoy  over  others,  in  having  theirex- 
pences  defrayed,  and  even  being  paid  for  their  time 
and  attendance,  they  have  fallen  under  fome  imputa- 
tions, particularly  that  of  plagiarifin,  or  borrowing 
their  neighbour's  inventions ;  but  with  what  jufticc  we 
do  not  fay. 

The  French  have  alfo confiderable  academiesinmofl 
of  their  great  cities  :  as,  at  Montpelicr,  a  royal  aca- 
demy of  fcienccs  on  the  like  footing  as  that  at  Paris, 
being  as  it  were  a  counterpart  thereof;  aiThouloufc, 
an  academy  under  the  denomination  of  Lanternifls  ; 
others  at  Nifmes,  Aries,  Lyons,  Dijon,  Bourdcaux, 
&c. 

The  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin  was  founded 
in  1700,  by  Frederic  11.  kingofPruflla,  on  the  model  of 
that  of  England  ;  excepting  that,  befides  natural  know- 
ledge, it  likewife  comprehends  the  Belles  Lettres.  In 
1710,  it  was  ordained  that  the  prclident  iTiall  be  one 
of  the  counfellors  of  llate,  and  nominated  by  the  king. 
The  members  were  divided  into  four  clalies  ;  thefirll 
for  profecuting  phylics,  medicine,  and  cheraiflry;  the 
fecond  for  mathematics,  aftronomy,  and  mechanics ; 
the  third  for  the  German  language  and  the  hiftory  of 
the  country  ;  the  fourth  for  oriental  learning,  parti- 
cularly as  it  may  concern  the  propagation  of  the  gof- 
pel  among  infidels.  Each  clafs  to  eled  a  diredor  for 
thcmfcives,  who  (liall  hold  his  poll  for  life.  The  mem- 
bers of  any  of  the  claifes  have  free  admillloaintu  the 
alfemblies  of  any  of  the  reft. 

The  great  promoterof  this  inftitution  was  the  cele- 
brated Mr  Leibnitz,  who  accordingly  was  made  the 
firft  diredor.  The  firft  volume  of  their  tranfadions 
was  publiflied  in  1710,  under  the  title  oi  MifcdUmea 
Deroiineiijia  ;  and  though  they  received  but  few  marks 
of  the  royal  favo;ir  for  fome  time,  they  continued  to 
publilh  new  vohiincs  in  172;,  I72j,  17^4,  and  1740. 
At  laft,  however,  Frederic  III.  the  late  king  of  Pruf- 
fia,  gave  new  vigour  to  this  academy,  by  inviting  to 
Berlin  fuch  foreigners  as  were  moft  dillingiiilhed  for 
their  merit  in  literature,  and  encouraged  his  fubjefts 
to  profecute  the  lluJy  and  cultivation  of  the  fcienccs 
by  givingample  rewards  ;  andthinking  that  iheacade- 
my, which  till  that  time  had  had  fome  minillcr  nr  opu- 
lent noblenum  fori;s  prefident,  would  find  an  advan- 
tage in  having  a  man  of  letters  at  its  head,  he  confer- 
red that  honour  on  M.  Maupertuis.  At  the  fame  time, 
he  gave  a  new  regulation  to  the  academy,  and  took 
upon  himltlf  the  title  of  its  protedor. 

The  academifts  hold  two  publicaii'emblies  annually  ; 

one  in  January,  on  the  hte  king's  birth-day  ;  and  the 

F  other 


A  C  A 


I     42     ] 


A   C  A 


Acadcn'.iei.  other  in  >'ay,  on  thed.iy  ol'liisacccflion  to  the  throne. 

■■~~^' —   At  the  latter  ot  thdc  is  j^ivcn,  as  a  I'rizc,   a  gold  nic- 

lial  of   JO  diicais  value  :   the   fiibjeiit   for  tliis  prize  is 

fuccellively,  natural  philolbpliy,  niaihcuiaiiti,  meta- 

phylics,  and  erudition. 

The  Ivipinal  Aiadiviy  of  Sciences  at  Fctcr/hiirgh 
was  projected  by  Czar  I'ttcr  the  Great.  That  great 
monarch  having,  during  his  travels,  obfcrved  the  ad- 
vantage of  public  focitlies  for  the  encouragement  and 
prouii'iion  ot  litrrature,  fornicu  the  deiign  of  founding 
an  academy  of  fcienccs  at  btPcterlLurgh.  l>y  the  ad- 
vice of  Wolf  andLcibnifz,  whom  he  confulted  on  this 
occalicn,  the  fociety  was  regulated,  and  fcvcral learn- 
ed foreigners  were  invited  to  become  members.  Peter 
himfclf  drew  the  plan,  and  llgned  it  on  the  loth  of 
l''eb.  1724  ;  but  was  prevented,  by  the  fuddennefs  of 
his  death,  from  carrying  it  into  execution.  His  dc- 
ccafe,huvvcver,  did  not  prevent  its  completion  :  for  on 
the  2 1  it  of  December  1725,  Catharine  I.  eliablilhed 
it  according  to  Peter's  plan  ;  and  on  the  27th  of  the 
fame  month  the  fociety  was  firfl  alleuibled.  On  the 
iftof  Auguft  1726,  Catharine  honoured  the  meeting 
with  her  prefencc,  when  profellbr  Bultinger,  a  German 
natiiralill  of  great  eminerce  pronounced  an  oration 
upon  the  advances  made  by  the  loadllone  and  needle 
lor  the  difcovcry  of  the  longitude. 

The  emprefs  fettled  a  fund  of  4982I.  per  annum  for 
the  fupport  of  the  academy  ;  and  fifteen  menibtrs,  all 
eminent  for  their  learningand  talents,  were  admitted 
.  and  pcnlioned,  under  the  title  of  Profellors,  in  the  va- 
rious branches  of  literature  and  fcience.  Tlie  mofl 
dillinguiflied  of  thcfc  protellbrs  were  Nicholas  and  Da- 
niel Bernouilli,  the  two  De  Lilies,  Bullingcr,  and 
Wolf. 

During  the  fliort  reign  of  Peter  II.  the  falaries  of 
the  members  were  difcontinued,  and  the  academy  was 
utterly  neglcttcd  by  the  court ;  but  it  was  again  pa- 
tronized by  the  enipreis  Anne,  who  even  added  a  fc- 
minary  for  the  education  of  youth,  under  the  fuperin- 
tendunce  of  the  profellors.  Both  inllitutions  tlourilhed 
for  fomelimc  under  the  direction  of  Baron  Korf ;  but 
upon  his  death,  towards  the  latter  end  of  Anne's  reign, 
an  ignorant  perfon  being  appointed  prefident,  many  of 
the  molt  able  numbers  quitted Ruflia.  At  the  accef- 
fion  of  Elizabeth,  new  life  and  vigour  were  again  rc- 
ftored  to  the  academy  :  the  original  plan  was  enlarged 
and  improved  ;  fome  of  the  moll  learned  foreigners 
were  again  drawn  to  Pctcrlburgh  ;  and,  what  was  con- 
fiJcred  asagood  omen  for  the  li;erature  ofRulfia,  two 
natives,  Lomoaofof  and  Rumovfky,  men  of  gciiiusand 
abilities,  who  had  profecuted  tJicir  fludies  in  foreign 
univerfitics,  were  enrolled  among  its  members.  The 
annual  income  was  incrcafed  to  10,659!.  and  foon  af- 
terwards the  new  inflitution  took  place. 

The  prefcnt  emprefs  Catharine  III.  with  her  ufual 
zeal  for  promoting  the  diffulion  of  knowledge,  has  ta- 
ken this  ufeful  fociety  under  her  more  immediate  pro- 
tection. She  has  altered  the  court  of  dirertors  greatly 
to  the  advantage  of  the  whole  body  ;  (lie  has  corrected 
many  abufes,  and  has  infuftd  a  new  fpirit  into  their 
rcfearehes.  By  her  majefly's  particular  recommenda- 
tion, the  moll  ingenious  profellors  have  vilited  the  va- 
rious provinces  of  her  vafl  dominions  ;  and  as  the  fund 
of  the  academy  was  not  fufiicient  to  fupply  the  whole 
expence  of  thcfe  fevcral  expeditions,  the  emprefs  be- 


ilowed  a  largefs  of  20&cl.   vviiich  Ilic  has  renewed  as  Acadetiiiei. 

occaliou  has  required.  ' •^ ' 

'l"hc  piirpofe  and  intent  of  thefe  travels  will  appear 
from  the  iiillructions  given  by  the  academy  to  the  fe- 
vcral perfons  who  were  engaged  in  them.  They  were 
ordered  to  purfue  their  inquiries  upon  the  different 
forts  of  earths  and  waurs ;  upon  the  bell  methods  of 
cultivating  the  barren  and  delart  fpots  ;  upon  tlie  local 
diforders  incident  to  men  and  animals,  and  the  moll 
cflicacious  means  of  relieving  them;  upon  the  breeding 
of  cattle,  and  particularly  of  Ihcep  ;  on  the  rearing  of 
bees  and  filk-worms  ;  on  the  dilierent  places  and  ob- 
jects for  tilhing  and  hunting  ;  on  minerals  ;  on  the  arts 
and  trades  ;  and  on  forming  a  Klora  Rulfica,  or  eoUcc- 
tionof  indigenous  plants:  they  were  particularly  in- 
ilruiled  to  rectify  the  longitude  and  latitude  of  the 
principal  towns  ;  to  make  allronomical,  geographical, 
and  meteorological  obfervations  ;  to  trace  the  courfc 
of  the  rivers  ;  to  take  the  molt  exav.^t  charts  ;  and  to  be 
very  dillinet  and  accurate  in  remarking  and  defcribing 
the  manners  and  cnltoms  of  the  different  people,  their 
drelfes,  languages,  antiquities,  traditions,  hiltory,  re- 
ligion ;  and,  in  a  word,  to  gain  every  information 
which  might  tend  to  illullralc  the  real  Hale  of  the 
whole  Ruliian  empire. 

In  confequence  of  thefe  expeditions,  perhaps  no 
country  can  boall,  within  the  fpace  of  lb  few  years, 
fuch  a  number  of  excellent  publications  on  its  internal  • 
Hate,  on  its  nalsral  produ(!:tions,  on  its  topography, 
geography,  and  hiltory  ;  on  the  manners,  cuftoms, 
and  languages  of  the  ditterent  people,  as  have  illucd 
from  the  prefs  of  this  academy. 

The  iirft  tranfaftions  of  this  fociety  were  publiflied 
in  1 728,  and  intitled  Commentarii  Acader/iia  Scienti- 
arutn  Imperialii  Pftropclitanit  ad  an.  1726,  with  a 
dedication  to  Peter  II.  The  publication  was  conti- 
nued under  this  form  until  the  year  1747,  when  its 
tranfactions  were  called  Novi  Cfiiiiineiitarii  Acadetnia, 
&c.  In  I  777  the  academy  again  changed  the  title  in- 
to ACla  Acadetnia  Scientiariifn  Ir/iperial'ts  Petropoli' 
tarne,  and  likewife  made  fome  alteration  in  the  ar- 
rangement and  plan  of  the  work.  The  papers,  which 
had  been  hitherto  publiflied  in  the  Latin  tongue,  arc 
now  written  either  in  that  language  or  French;  and  a 
preface  is  added,  ftyled  Partic  Hijiorique,  which  con- 
tains an  account  of  its  proceedings,  meetings,  admil- 
fion  of  new  members,  and  other  remarkable  occur- 
rences. Of  the  Commentaries,  14  volumes  were  pub- 
liflied :  the  firfl  of  the  New  Commentaries  made  its 
appearance  in  1750,  and  the  twentieth  in  1776.  Un- 
der the  new  title  oi  Aiia  Academic,  fevcral  volumes 
have  been  given  to  the  public,  and  two  arc  printed 
every  year.  Thefe  tranfaiitionsabound  with  ingenious 
and  elaborate  difquilitions  upon  various  parts  of  fcience 
and  natural  hillory,  and  which  rctlccT;  the  greatell  ho- 
nour upon  their  authors;  and  it  may  not  be  an  exag- 
geration toalTert,  that  no  fociety  in  Europe  has  more 
diftinguiflied  itfelf  for  the  excellence  of  its  publications, 
and  particularly  in  ihe  more  abflrufe  parts  of  the  pure 
and  mixed  mathemaiics. 

The  academy  is  flill  compofed,  as  at  firft,  of  fifteen 
profeflbrs,  befide  the  prelldent  and  direc'or.  Each  of 
thcfe  profelforshas  a  houfe  and  an  annual  Itipcnd  from 
2Col.  to  600I.  Belide  the  profeflbrs,  there  are  four 
adjuncts,  who  are  peuUoued,  and  who  are  prcfent  at 

the 


A  C  A 


[     43     ] 


A   C   A 


Academies,  the  fittings  of  the  focicty,  and  fuccecd  to  the  firfl  va- 
»— V— — '  cancies. — The  dircftioii  of  the  academy  is  at  prcfent 
configned  to  the  Princefs  DaQiliof. 

The  building  and  apparatus  of  this  academy  are  ex- 
traordinary. There  is  a  fine  library, confiding  of  36000 

curious  books  and  manufcripts Tiicre  isan  extenii  vc 

niufcum,  in  which  the  various  branches  of  natural  hi- 
Aory,  &c.  arc  dirtributed  in  different  apartments  :  it  is 
extremely  rich  in  native  productions,  having  been  con- 
fiderably  augmented  with  a  variety  of  fpccimens  col- 
lected by  Pallas,  Gniclin,  Guldenftaedt,  and  other 
learned  profellbrs,  during  their  late  expeditions  thro' 
the  Ruifian  empire.  The  fluffed  animals  and  birds 
occupy  one  apartment.  The  chamber  of  rarities,  the 
cabinet  of  coins,  &c.  contain  innumerable  articles  of 
the  highell  curiofityand  value.  The  fociety  has  this 
motto,  Paulatim. 

The  Academy  of  Sciir.ca  at  Bologna,  called  the  Injil- 
tute  of  Bologna, wzi  founded  by  count  Marfigli  in  171 2, 
for  the  cultivating  of  phyfics,  mathematics,  medicine, 
chemiflry,and  natural  hiflory.  Its  hilloryis  written 
by  M.  de  Limiers,  from  memoirs  furnilhed  by  the 
founder  himfclf. 

The    Academy    of  Sciences  at  Stockhohn,  or   Royal 
Swedip?  Academy,  owes  its  inflitution  to  fix  perfons  of 
diftinguifhed  learning,  amongfl  whom  was  the  celebra- 
ted Linnaeus:   they  originally  met  on  the  jj  of  June 
1 739,  formed  a  private  fociety,  in  which  fomc  diiFer- 
tations  were  read  ;  and  in  the  latter  end  of  the  fame 
year  their  firfl  publication  made  its  appearance.     As 
the  meeting  continued  and  the  members  increafed, 
the  fociety  attracted  the  notice  of  the  king,  and  was, 
on  the  31ft  of  March  1741,   incorporated  under  the 
•name  of  the  Royal  Swedilh  Academy.    Not  receiving 
any  penlion  from  the  crown,  it  is  only  under  the  pro- 
tedion  of  the  king,  being  dircded,  like  the  Royal 
Society,  by  its  own  members.      It  has  now  a  large 
fund,  which  has  chiefly  arifeu  from  legacies  and  other 
donations  ;  but  a  profcffor  of  experimental  philofophy, 
and  two  fecretaries,  are  flill  the  only  perfons  who  re- 
ceive any  falaries.      Each  of  the  members  rchdent  at 
Stockholm  becomes  prefident  by  rotation,   and  conti- 
nues in  office  during  three  months.     There  arc  two 
fpeciesof  members,  native  and  foreign  :  the  cledionof 
the  former  is  held  in  .'\pril,  and  of  the  l.uter  in  July  : 
no  money  is  paid  at  the  time  of  admiilion.     The  dif- 
fcrtations  read  at  each  meeting  are  collected  and  pub- 
liflied  four  times  in  the  year;  they  are  written  in  the 
Swedilh  language,  and  printed  in  oJlavo,  and  the  an- 
nual  publications   make  a  volume.     Tiie  lirft  40  vo- 
lumes, which  were  finillied  in  1779,  arc  called  the  Old 
Tranfaclions  ;  for  in  the  following  year  the  title  was 
changed  into  thit  of  New  Tranfaclions.     The  king  is 
fometimes  prefentat  the  ordinary  meetings,  and  par- 
ticularly at  the  annual  affembly  in  April  lor  the  elec- 
tion of  members.     Any  pcrfon  who  fends  a   treatife 
which  is  thought  worthy  of  being  printed,  receives  the 
tranfadions  tor  th.tt  quarter  ^r<///;,  and  a  Uiver  medal, 
which  is  not  cfleemcd  for  its  value,  being  worth  only 
three  (hillings,  but  for  its  rarity  and  the  honour  con- 
veyed by  it.     All  the   papers  relating  to   ai^riculturc 
are  put  forth  fcparately  under  the  title  of  0:coiio!ii:ca 
aftj.     Annual  premiums,  in  money  and  gol.i  medals, 
principally  for  the  encouragement  of  agriculture  and 
inland  trade, arc  aUb  dillributcd  by  the  academy.  The 


fund  for  thcfe  prizes  is  fupplied  from  private  dor.a-  Aci.!cra:«. 
tions.  *— V-— ' 

The  Royal  Academy  ofScienasat  Ccpenhagen,  o^-c% 
its  inftitution  to  the  2eal  of  fix  literati,  who.n  Chrif- 
tian  VI.  in  1742,  ordered  to  arrange  his  cabinet  of 
medals.  The  count  of  HoUlei.n  was  the  firil  prefi. 
dent  ;  and  the  fix  perfons  who  rint  formed  the  dclign, 
were  John  Gram,  joacliim  Frederic  Ramus,  Chriltiau 
Louis  Scheid,  Mark  Woldickcy,  Eric  Poiuoj;iJan,  and 
Bernard  Moclman.  Thefc  perfons  occafioiidllyr  meet- 
ing for  that  purpofe,  extended  their  dcfigns  ;  adbciatcd 
witii  them  others  whowcrccmiiientin  fcvcralbranches 
of  fcience  ;  and  forming  a  kind  of  literary  fociety.  em- 
ployed themfelves  in  fcarching  into,  and  explaining 
the  hillory  and  antiquities  ot  their  country.  The 
count  of  liolllcin  warmly  patronised  this  fociety,  and 
recommended  it  fo  llrongly  -to  Chriltiau  VI.  that,  in 
I  743,  iiis  Danilh  Majelly  look  it  under  his  protcdiun, 
called  it  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  endowed  it 
with  a  fund,  and  ordered  the  members  tojoin  to  tlieir 
former  purfuits,  natural  hillory,  phylics,  and  mathe- 
matics. Inconfcquenceof  the  royal  favour,  the  mem- 
bers engaged  with  frelh  zeal  in  their  purfuits  ;  and 
the  academy  has  publiihed  15  volumes  in  tlic  Danilh 
language,  fome  whereof  have  been  tranilated  into 
Latin. 

Afnerkan  Academy  of  Sciences,  was  eftablilhed 
in  17S0  by  the  council  and  houfc  of  reprcfentatives 
in  the  commonwealth  of  MalFachufett's  Bay  for  promo- 
ting thckuowledge  of  the  antiquities  of  America,  and  of 
the  natural  hiltory  of  the  country  ;  for  determining 
the  ufesto  which  its  various  natural  productions  might 
be  applied  ;  for  encouraging  medicinal  difcoveries, 
mathematical difquifitions,  philofophical  inquiries  and 
experiments,  aAronomical,  meteorological,  and  geo- 
graphical obfcrvations,  and  improvements  in  agricul. 
ture,  manufadures,  and  commerce  ;  and  in  Ihort,  for 
cultivating  every  art  and  fcience  which  may  tend  to 
advance  the  interell,  honour,  dignity,  and  h.ippinefs, 
ot  a  free,  independent,  and  viriuojs  pcojlc.  The 
members  of  this  academy  are  never  to  be  more  than 
200,  nor  lefs  than  40. 

VI.  Academies  or  Schools  of  Arts  ;  as  that  at  Pctcrf- 
burgh,  which  was  edablilhed  by  the  cmprtfs  Elizabeth, 
at  the  fiiggeftionof  count  bhuvaLf,  and  annexed  to  the 
academy  of  fciences  :  the  fund  was  L. 4000  per  annum, 
and  the  foundation  for 40  fcIiolars.The  prcfent  cmprefs 
has  tormcd  it  into  a  feparatc  iuftituiioi!,  enlarged  "ihc 
annual  revenue  to  L. 12,000,  and  has  augmented  i!ic 
number  of  fcholarsto  300  ;  Ihe  hasalfocondrudcd,  for 
the  ufe  and  accommodation  of  the  me nibcrs.  a  l.^rgc 
circular  building,  which  fronts  the  Neva.  The  f-ho- 
lars  are  admitted  a  the  age  of  lix,  and  contin-ic  until 
they  have  attained  that  of  18  :  they  arc  clothed,  fed, 
and  lodged,  at  the  cxpcncc  of  the  crown.  They  arc 
all  iullrudcd  in  reading  and  writing,  arithmetic,  the 
French  and  German  languages  and  drawing.  At  the 
age  of  (4  they  arc  at  liberty  to  choofc  any  of  the  fol- 
lowing arts,  divided  into  four  claii'cs.  i.  Pai;Uing  in 
all  its  branches  of  hiflory,  por;raits,  battles  and  land- 
fcapcs  ;  ar(:hitci::lure  :  Mofaic  ;  enamelling;  &c.3.  En- 
gravin;^on  copperplates,  lcal-cutli:i»:,  &c.  ;.  Carving 
in  wood,  ivory  and  amber.  4.  Watch-making,  turn- 
inir,  iallruaicnt-maki'i7,  calling  flaturs  in  bronze  and 
other  metals,  imitating  ^cms  and  medals  in  palle  and 
F  2  other 


A  C  A 


[     '1-4     ] 


A  C  A 


Acidfitiief.  o:!ier  coiiipoiuioiis,  giKling  and  vaniilhing.  Prizes 
^"^ arc  annually  diilribiucd  to  iliolc  who  excel  in  any  par- 
ticular art  J  and  Iron',  thofe  wlio  liavc  obtained  four 
jirizcs,  twelve  arc  feleded,  who  arc  lent  abroad  «tthe 
charge  ol'  the  empreis.  A  certain  funi  is  paid  to  de- 
fray theirtravclling  cxpcnccs  ;  and  when  they  are  fet- 
tled in  any  town,  they  receive  an  annual  falary  of  L.60. 
%\hicli  is  continuediiuring  four  years.  There  is  a  fmall 
aiFortnicnt  of  paintings  for  the  ufe  of  the  fcholars  ; 
and  thofe  who  have  made  great  progrcfs  are  permitted 
to  copy  the  pictures  in  the  er.iprcfs's  colledion.  For 
the  purpofc  of  dtlign,  there  arc  models  in  plallcr  of 
the  bell  antique  ftatiiesin  Italy,  all  done  at  Rome,  of 
the  fame  fize  with  the  originals,  v.'hich  the  artills  of 
tlic  academy  were  employed  to  cafl  in  bronze. 

y^.-  Ro)al  Academy  of  Aits  in  Loiuion,  was  in- 
flituted  for  the  encouragement  oiDifigning,  Painting, 
Sciilftiin,  S:c.  &c.  in  the  year  1768.  This  academy 
is  under  the  immediate  patronage  of  the  king,  and  un- 
der the  dirc<5tion  of  40  artifls  of  the  firft  rank  in  tht  ir 
feveral  profeiiions.  It  fnrniihes,  in  winter,  living  mo- 
dels of  difFercnt  chara.lers  to  draw  after  ;  and,  in  funi- 
mcr,  models  of  the  fame  kind  to  paint  after.  Nine  of 
the  ablclt  academicians  are  annually  elefled  out  of  the 
40,  whofe  bulincfs  is  to  attend  by  rotation,  to  fet  ilic 
figures,  to  examine  tiic  performance  of  the  fludcnts, 
and  to  give  them  ncccilary  indruftions.  There  are 
likewife  four  profeflbrs,  of  Painting, oi  ylrchitedure,  of 
Anatomy,  zwAoi Perfpedive,  who  annually  read  public 
Icftureson  the  fubjcfts  of  their  feveral  departments  ; 
befide  a  prelident,  a  council,  and  other  officers.  The 
admilfion  to  this  academy  is  (rcc  to  all  ftudeiits  pro- 
perly qualified  to  reap  advantage  from  the  Ihidies  cul- 
tivated init ;  and  there  is  an  annual  exhibition  of  paint- 
ings, fculptures,  and  defigns,  open  to  all  artills  of  di- 
llinguiflied  merit. 

The  Acadimy  of  Paintingand  Sculpture  at  Paris.  This 
took  its  rife  from  the  difputcs  that  happened  between 
the  mafter  painters  andfculptors  in  that  capital ;  incon- 
fequence  of  which, M.  Le  Brun,  Sarazin  Corneille,  and 
others  of  the  kinp^'s  painters, formed  a  dcfign  of  in  Hit  u- 
tingaparticularacademy  ;  and  having  prcfentcd  apeti- 
tion  to  the  king,  obtained  an  arret  dated  Jan.  20.  1648. 
In  the  beginning  of  1655,  they  obtained  from  cardi- 
jial  Mazarin  a  brevet,  and  letters  jiatcnt,  which  were 
rcgifteredin  parliament ;  in  gratitude  for  which  favour 
they  chofe  the  cardinal  for  their  prote<Slor,  and  the 
chancellor  for  their  vicc-protcftor.  In  1663,  by  means 
of  M.  Colbert,  they  obtained  a  penlion  of  4000  livres. 
The  academy  conlifts  of  a  protc(ilor  ;  vice-proteclor  ; 
a  diredlor ;  a  chancellor  ;  four  reClors  ;  adjuncts  to  the 
reiflors  ;  a  treafurer  ;  four  profellors,  one  of  which  is 
jirofeffor  of  anatomy,  and  another  of  geometry  ;  fe- 
veral adjnnds  and  counfcllors,  an  hiftoriogrophcr,  a 
fcretary,  and  two  ulhers. 

The  Academy  of  Painting  holds  a  public  afTembly 
every  day  for  two  hours  in  the  afternoon, to  which  the 
painters  refort  either  to  delign  or  to  paint, and  where  the 
feulptors  model  after  a  naked  perfon.  There  arc  12 
profcifors,  each  of  whom  keeps  the  fchool  for  a  month  ; 
and  there  are  12  adjunfts  to  fupply  them  in  cafe  of 
need.  The  profeilbr  upon  duty  places  the  naked  man 
as  he  thinks  proper,  and  fetshim  in  two  different  atti- 
tudes every  week.  This  is  what  they  czWfettingthe 
model.     In  one  week  of  the  month  he  fets  two  models 


togctlicr,  which  is  called/".//'//^  the  group.  The  paint-  Acadcmlei 

ings  and  models  made  after  this  model,  arecallcdafw-  — — ~ 

demici  or  acadin/y -figures.  'I'hey  have  like\>  ife  a  ■«  0- 
mm  who  iUndi  lor  a  model  in  the  public  fchool. 
Every  three  months,  three  prizes  for  delign  arcdidri- 
butcd  among  the  eleoes  or  dildples  ;  two  others  for 
painting,  and  two  for  i"culpture  every  year. 

'1  here  is  alfo  an  Academy  of  Painting,  Sculpture, 
Sec. at  Rome,  cllaUilhcd  by  Lcv.isXl  V.  wlurtin  thof: 
who  have  gained  the  uimual  prize  at  Paris  are  intiilcd 
to  be  three  years  entertained  at  the  king's  cxpence, 
for  their  further  improvement. 

Tk.'  Academy  of  Ar<.kitcc'urc,  eftablithed  by  M. 
Colbert  in  1671,  conlilling  of  a  company  of  Ikiltul 
archiicds,  i:nder  the  dic'iiuii  01  the  fupcrintendant 
of  the  buildings. 

The  Academy  of  Dancing,  crc(5lcd  by  Lewis  XIV. 
wiili  privileges  above  all  the  reft. 

VII.  Academies  cf  Law  -,  as  that  famous  one  at 
13cryta,  and  that  of  tlic  Siticntes  at  Bologna. 

VIII.  Academies  oj HiiTOKt  ;  as  the  Royal  Acaden:y 
tf  Portugnefe  Hi  (lory  at  Li/boi..  This  academy  was 
inftituted  hy  king  John  V.  in  1720.  It  confiils  of  a 
diredlor,  four  ccnlors,  a  fccretary,  and  50  members  ; 
to  each  of '.vhom  isalligncd  fomepirt  of  the  ccclcfiatli- 
cal  or  civil  iiiilory  of  the  nation',  which  he  is  to  treat 
either  in  Latin  or  Portugnefe.  In  the  church-hiftory 
of  each  diocefe,the  prelates, fynods, councils, churches, 
monafteries,  academies,  perfons  illuftrious  for  fanility 
or  learning,  places  famous  for  miracles  or  relics,  muii 
bediftinftly  relatedintwelvechapters.  Tliccivilhillo- 
ry  comprifcs  the  traiifaftions  of  the  kingdom  from  the 
government  of  the  Romans  down  to  the  prtfenttimc. 
The  members  who  refide  in  the  country  arc  obliged  to 
make  collections  and  extrafts  out  of  all  the  rcgifters, 
&c.  where  they  live.  Their  meetings  to  be  once  irt 
I'j  days. 

A  medal  was  Ilruck  by  this  academy  in  honour  of 
their  prince  :  the  front  of  which  was  his  effigy,  with 
the  infcriptionyo/'fl/;«^j  W .Lufitauorutn  /fi.v.and,  on 
the  re verfe, the  fame  prince  is  reprefcn  ted  ftanding,and 
railing  Hiftory  almoft  proflrste before  him,  with  the  le- 
gend Hifloria  Refurges.  Underneath  are  the  follow- 
ing words  in  abbreviature:  REGia  ACADemia  HI- 
Sloria  LUSlTante,  INSTITuta  VI.  Idus  Decem- 
bris  MDCCXX. 

Academy  oj  Suabian  Hijlory  at  Tubingen,  was  lately 
e.1abli(hed  by  fonic  learned  men,  for  publiihing  the 
heft  hiftorical  writings,  the  lives  of  the  chief  hifto- 
rians,  and  compiling  new  memoirs,  on  the  feveral 
points  and  periods  thereof. 

IX.  Academies  (yf  AsTiSi/irlES  ;  as  that  at  Corto. 
na  in  Italy,  and  at  Upfal  in  Sweden.  The  firft  is 
defigncd  for  the  ftudy  of  Hctrurian  antiquities  ;  the 
other  for  illuflrating  the  northern  languages,  and  the 
antiquities  of  Sweden,  in  which  notable  difcovcrics 
have  been  made  by  it.  The  head  of  the  Hctrurian 
academy  is  called  Lucomon,  by  which  the  ancients  go- 
vernorsof  the  country  were  diftinguilhcd.  Oneoftheir 
laws  is  to  give  audience  to  poets  only  one  day  in  the 
year  ;  another  is  to  fix  their  feflions,  and  impofc  a  tax 
of  a  dilfcrtation  on  each  member  in  his  turn. 

The  Academy  of  Medals  and  Infcriptions  at  Paris  was 
fet  on  foot  by  M.  Colbert,  under  the  patronage  of 
Lewis  XIV.  iii  1663,  for  the  ftudy  and  explanation 

of 


A  C  A 


[     45     D 


A  C  A 


AcademicB.  oF  r.ncicnt  monunicnts,  and  perpetuaiiiig  great  and 
■ memorable  cvcjits,  elpecially  tliolc  ot  the  trench  mo- 
narchy, by  coins,  relievos,  infcriptions,  &c.  The 
number  or  members  at  firlt  was  confined  to  four  or 
live,  choicn  out  of  tJiofe  of  the  French  academy  ; 
who  met  in  the  library  of  Mr  Colbert,  from  whom 
they  received  his mijcity's orders.  Thcdaysof  tli^ir 
meciings  were  not  dtitrmined  ;  but  generally  they 
met  on  Wedncl'days,  efpecially  in  the  winter  fcafon  : 
but,  in  1691,  the  king  having  given  the  infpcftion  of 
this  academy  to  M.  dc  Pontchartrain  comptroller  ge- 
neral, &c.  he  lixcd  their  meetings  on  Tuefdays  and 
Saturdays. 

By  a  new  regulation,  dated  the  16"'  of  July  i  701, 
the  academy  was  compofcd  of  ten  t^Onorarji  members  ; 
ten  ajjocialfj,  each  of  whom  had  two  declarative  voices ; 
ten />cn/ion(iii(j  ;  and  ten  elevis,  or  pupils.  They  then 
met  every  Tucfdayand  Wcdncfday,inoneof  the  halls 
of  the  Louvre  ;  and  had  two  public  meetings  yearly, 
one  the  day  alter  Martinmas  and  the  other  the  16''' 
after  Ealler.  The  clafs  of  elevcs  Jias  been  fupprcflcd, 
and  united  to  the  alFociates.  The  king  nominates  their 
prefidcnt  and  vice-pre(ident  yearly ;  but  their  fecrcta- 
ry  and  trcafurcr  arc  perpetual.  The  rcil  are  chofcn 
by  the  members  themfclves,  agreeably  to  the  conlli- 
tutions  on  that  behalf  given  them. 

One  of  thefirfl;  undertakings  of  this  academy,  was 
to  compofe  by  means  of  medals,  a  conncifted  hiftory  of 
the  principal  events  of  Lewis  XI  V's  reign  :  but  in  this 
defign  they  met  with  great  difficulties,  and  of  confe- 
queiicc  it  was  interrupted  for  many  y;ears  ;  but  at  length 
it  was  completed  down  to  the  advancement  of  the  duke 
of  Anjou  to  the  crown  of  Spain. 

In  this  celebrated  work,  the  cflabliflimeni  of  the 
academy  itfclf  was  not  forgot.  The  medal  on  this 
fubjcd  reprefents  Mercury  fitting,  and  writing  with  an 
antique  ftylus  on  a  table  of  brals  ,  he  leans  with  his 
left  hand  upon  an  urn  full  of  medals,  and  at  his  feet  arc 
fcveral  others  placed  upon  a  card  :  the  legend,  Reruvi 
gefl  drum  fides ;  and  on  the  exergue,  /!:jd:tn:ti  reg'u 
hifcriptionum  et  Kumifmatiu/i,  iiijlitiita  M.DC.LXIIL 
fignifying  that  the  Royal  Academy  of  medals  and  Jn- 
fcriptions,  founded  in  166;,  ought  to  give  to  future 
ages  a  faithful  tellimony  of  all  great  adlions.  Befides 
this  work,  wc  have  fcveral  volumes  of  their  memoirs  ; 
and  their  hillory,  wcittcn  and  continued  by  their  fe- 
creiaries. 

X.  Acaiimits  of  B ELLES Lettrf.^ ,  are  thofe  where- 
in eloquence  and  poeiry  are  chictly  cultivated.  Thefe 
arc  very  numerous  in  Italy,  a:id  not  uncommon  in 
France. 

The  Academy  cf  Umidi  at  Fhrcncc  has  contributed 
greatly  to  the  progrefs  of  the  fcicnces  by  the  excel- 
lent Italian  tranilations  given,  by  fome  of  its  members, 
of  the  ancient  Greek  and  Latin  hiftorians.  Their 
chief  attention  is  to  the  Italian  poetry,  at  the  fame 
time  that  they  have  applied  thcmfclvts  to  the  pulilh- 
ing  of  their  language,  which  produced  the  Academy 
del  la  Cri/fca, 

The  Academy  of  Humorifis,  Umori/li,  had  its  origin 
at  Rome  from  the  marriage  of  Lorenzo  Marcini,  a 
Roman  gentleman  ;  at  which  fcveral  ptrfons  of  rank 
were  gucfts  ;  and,  it  being  cam:'  al  time,  to  give  the 
ladies  fomedivcrfion,  they  took  t!:cml'clves  to  the  re- 
citing of  vcrfes,  fonuets,  fpcechcs,  lirAfxr^w/erc,  and 


aficrwards  premeditatcly ;  which  gave  them  the  dcno-  Acadcmici- 

minaiionof  ^t/// //««,j,/7.  After  ionic  experience,  co-  ^ — ' 

ming  more  and  more  into  tlic  lalle  of  iheic  exeicifes, 
they  rcfolved  to  form  an  Academy  cf  Belles  Lcttres  ; 
and  changed  the  title  of  Belli  hnmin  for  that  of  Hii- 
Piorijli :  choofing  for  their  device,  a  cloud,  which,  after 
being  forn.cd  of  exhalations  from  the  fait  waters  of 
the  ocean,  returns  in  a  gentle  fwcet  Ibowcr ;  with  this 
motto  from  Lucretius  kedttagmine  duU't. 

In  1690,   the  Academy  c/Arcadiwzs  eftablilhed  at 
Rome,  for  reviving  the  ftudy  of  Poetry  and  of  ihc 
Belles  Leilres.      Befidcs  molt  of  the  politer  wits  of 
both  fexes  in  Italy,  this  academy  comprehends  many 
princes,  cariiinals,  and  other  ecclcfiaflics  ;  and,  to  a- 
void  difputes  about  pre-eminence,  all  appeal'  malked 
after  the  manner  of  Arcadian  Ihcpherds.  W  ithin  ten 
years  from  its  ^rll  eltabliflimcnt,  the  number  of  Aca- 
dei/iijls  amounted  to  (ix  hundred.     They  hold  aifcm- 
blies  fevcn  times  a-ycar  in  a  mead  or  grove,  or  in  the 
gardens  of  fome  noblemen  of  dillinction.   Six  of  thcfc 
meetings  are  employed  in  the  recitation  of  poems  and 
vcrfes  of  the  Arcadi  rc;iding  at  Rome  ;   who  read 
their  own  compofitions  ;  except  ladies  and  cardinals, 
who  are  allowed  to  employ  others.    The  ftvcnth  meet- 
ing is  fee  apart  for  the  compolitions  of  foreign  or  ab- 
fcnt  members. 

This  academy  is  governed  by  a  Cuflos,  who  repre- 
fents th^  whok  fociety,  and  is  chofen  every  four  years, 
with  a  power  of  electing  12  others  yearly  for  his  af- 
fiftauce.    Under  thefe  arc  two  fub-cullodcs,  one  vicar 
orpro-cuflos,  and  four  deputies  or  fuperintendants,  an- 
nually chofen.     The  laws  of  the  fociety  arc  immuta- 
ble, and  bear  a  near  rcfcmblance  to  the  ancicjii  model. 
There  arc  five  manners  of  clefling  members.  The 
firfl  is  by  acclamation.     This  is  nfcd  when  fovcrciui: 
princes,  cardinals,  and  ambalfadors  of  kings,  defirc  to 
be  admitted  ;  and  the  votes  are  then  gircn  viva  voce. 
The  fccond  is  called  an>iumeratio/i.     This  was  intro- 
duced in  favourofladicsandacadcmicalcolonic5,whcrr 
the  votes  arc  taken  privately.     The  third  reprefenta- 
tion,  was  eltablilhed  in  favour  of  colonies  and  univcr- 
fities,  where  the  young  gentry  arc  bred  ;  who  have 
each  a  privilege  of  recommending  one  or  two  mem- 
bers privately  to  be  balloted  for.     The  fourth,  farro- 
giition  ;   whereby  new  members  arc  f.ibllituted  in  the 
room  of  thofe  dead  or  expelled.  The  lalt,   dejiuiatun 
whereby,  when  there  is  no  vacancy  of  members,  per- 
fons  of  poetical  merit  have  the  title  of  Arcadi  con- 
fcrcd  upon  them  till  fuch  time  as  a  vacancy  (hall  hap- 
pen.    All  the  members  of  this  body,  at  their  admif- 
lion,  alfume  new  p.-iftoral  names,  in  imitation  of  the 
flicphcrds  of  Arcadi.t.      The  academy  has  fcveral  co- 
lonies of  A.  rcadi  in  different  cities  of  Italy,  who  arc 
all  regulated  after  the  fame  manner. 

XI.  Academies  cf  Lascvaghs ;  called,  by  fome, 
Craintiiaihal  Academies  :  35. 

The  Ae^de/ny  del/a  Crnfca  at  Florence,  famous  for 
its  vocabulary  of  the  kalian  tongue.was  formed  in  i  J82, 
but  fcarce  heard  of  before  the  year  1584,  when  it  be- 
came noted  for  a  difpurc  between  Talfo  and  feveralof 
its  members.  Many  authors  confound  this  with  the 
Florentine  academy.  The  difcourfes  which  Toricelli, 
the  celebraied  difciple  of  Galileo,  delivered  in  thcaf- 
lemblies,conccrninglevity,  the  wind, the  power  of  per- 
culfion,  laathematics,  and  military  architefturc,  arc  a 

proof 


A  C  A 


[     46     ] 


A   C  A 


AcaJemi«s.  proof  that    thcfc  acatlcmills   ajiplicJ    themfelvcs    to 

"""^-^ things  as  well  as  words. 

Tha  Acadci.iy  cj  FruiJifcri  had  its  rife  in  161  7,  at 
an  ali'cinbly  of  fevcral  priiiccsand  iiobilityof  the  coun- 
try, who  met  with  a  dtfign  to  refine  and  pcrfe<^t  the 
German  tongue.  It  tlor.riflied  long  under  the  direc- 
tion of  princes  of  the  empire,  w  ho  were  always  chofcn 
prelideuts.  In  166S  the  number  of  members  arofc  to 
upwards  of  900.  It  was  prior  in  lime  to  the  Krench 
academy,  which  only  appeared  in  1629,  and  was  not 
eftablilhed  into  an  academy  before  the  year  1655.  lis 
hillory  is  written  in  the  German  tongue  by  George 
Ncumarck. 

Thi  French  Academy,  which  had  its  rife  from  a  mcct- 
ingof  menoflcttersinthe  huufeof  IM.  Conrart,in  1629. 
In  1635,  it  was  erected  into  an  academy,  by  Cardinal 
Richlieu,  for  rcliniiig  and  afcert.iining  the  French  lan- 
guage and  llile. — 'I  he  number  of  its  members  are  li- 
mited at  40  ;  out  of  whom  a  director,  chancellor,  and 
Iccretary,  are  to  be  chofen  :  the  two  former  hold  their 
port  for  two  months,  the  latter  is  perpetual.  The  mem- 
bers of  this  academy  enjoy  fcveral  privileges  and  im- 
munities, among  which  ib  that  of  not  being  obliged  to 
anfwer  before  any  court  but  that  of  the  king's  houfe- 
hold.  They  meet  three  times  a-wcek  in  the  Louvre  ; 
at  breaking  up,  40  lilver  medals  arc  diftributcd  among 
them,  having  on  one  fide  the  king  of  France's  head, 
and  on  the  rcverfc,  Prtt.cUur  dil'  Acadtmii,  with  lau- 
rel, and  this  motto,  A  /'  Itnmtrtiiitte.     By  this  dillri- 
butiou,  the  attendance  of  the   Acadaailh  is  fecurcd, 
thofe  who  are  prcfcnt  receiving  the  furplus  otherwife 
intended  for  the  abfeut.  To  elect  or  expel  a  member, 
at  Icall  iS  are  required  ;  nor  can  any  be  chofen  unlcfs 
he  petition  for  it:   by   this  expedient,  the  affront  of 
refufals  from  pcrfons  elciilcd  is  avoided.  Religious  are 
not  admitted  ;  nor  can  any  noblemen,  or  perfon  of 
dirtinCtion,  be  admitted  on  another  footing  than  as  a 
man  of  letters.     None  arc  to  be  expelled,  except  for 
bafc  and  diihonclt  pradices ;  and  there  are  but  two 
inftances  of  fuch  expulfions,  the  tirfl  of  M.  Granier 
forrefufing  to  return  adepofit,  the  other  of  the  Abbe 
Furetierefor  plagiarifm. Thcdelignof  this  acade- 
my was  10  give  not  only  rules,  but  examples,  of  good 
writing.     They  began  with  making  fpceches  on  iub- 
jecls  taken  at  pleafurc,  about  20  of  which  were  print- 
ed.    They  met  with  great  oppolition  from  the  parlia- 
ment at  their  tirft  inllitution  ;   it  being  two  years  be- 
fore the  patents  granted  by  the  king  would  be  regifter- 
cd.  l"hey  have  been  fcvercly  fatyrized,  and  their  (tylc 
lias  been  ridiculed  as  encrvatin'>  inftcad  of  rcHningihc 
Frijnch  language.  They  are  alfo  charged  with  having 
furfcited  the  world  by  (lattery,  and  hiving  cxhaulled 
all  the  topics  of  panegyric  in  praifc  of  their  founder  ; 
it  being  a  duty  incumbent  on  every  member,  at  his  ad- 
Tuiihon,  to  make  a  fpecch  in  praife  of  t!ic  king,  the 
cardinakthe  chancellor  Scguier,ai:d  the  perfon  in  vvhofe 
place  heiseledcd.  The  mod  remarkable  work  of  this 
academy  is  a  didionary  of  the  French  tongue  :  which, 
after  jo  years  fp:nt  in  fettling  the  words  and  phralcs 
10  be  ufcd  in  wrilina;,  was  at  lad  publiihcd  in  1694. 

The  foundati'ni  of  an  Acad-viy  fimiUrio  tlie  aiiovc, 
has  been  propofed  at  Pcteriburgh,  by  the  learned  priii- 
cefs  Daflikof:  it  is  to  confilt  of  60  members.  The 
plan  has  been  approved  by  the  emprcfs,  w  ho  has  al- 
ready given  a  fund  for  its  fupport  and  citabliiliment. 


The  Royal Spani/ly  Aiadcmy  at  Madrid  held  its  firft  Academlti 
meeting  in  July  i  71  ?,  in  the  palace  of  its  founder,  the         |1 
duke  d'Efcalona.     It  confillcd  at  firft  of  eight  acadc-     Acxna. 
mifts,  including  the  duke  ;  to  which  number  14  others         "       ' 
Were  afterwards  added,  the  founder  being  chofen  pre- 
lidcnt  or  direftor.     In  i  714,  the  king  granted  them 
life  confirmation  and  protection.  Their  device  is  a  cru- 
cible in  the  middle  of  the  fire,  with  this  motto,  Lim- 
pia,Fya,  y  da  Efplendor  ;  "  it  purities,  fixes,  and  gives 
brightnefs."     The  number  of  members  is  limited  to 
24  ;   the  duke  d'Efcalona  to  be  diredor  for  life,  but 
his  fucceflbrs  chofen  yearly,  and  the  fecrctary  to  be 
perpetual.     Their  objed,  as  marked  out  by  the  royal 
declaration,  was  to  cultivate  and  improve  the  national 
language  :  they  were  to  begin  with  chooling  carefully 
fuch  words  and  phrafes  as  have  been  ufcd  by  the  bell 
Spanifli  writers  ;   noting  the  low,  barbarous,  or  obfo- 
lete  ones  ;  and  compoling  a  dictionary  wherein  thefc 
may  be  diftinguilhcd  from  the  former. 

XII.  Academies  cf  Politics  ;  as  that  at  Paris,  con- 
fifling  of  fix  pcrfons,  w  ho  met  at  the  Louvre,  in  the  , 

chamber  where  the  papers  relating  to  foreign  affairs 
were  lodged.  But  this  academy  proved  of  little  fer- 
vice,  asthekingsof  France  were  unwilling  to  truft  any 
'.ut  theirminifters  with  the  in  fpcction  of  foreign  affairs. 
For  a  further  account  of  iimilar  cftablifliments,  fee 
the  article  Society. 

Academy  is  alfo  a  term  for  fchools  and  other  femi- 
iiaries  of  learning  among  the  Jews,  where  their  rabbins 
and  dodors  inftruded  their  youth  in  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage, and  explained  to  them  the  Talmud  and  the  fe- 
crets  of  the  caballa  :  Thofe  of  Tiberias  and  Babylon 
have  been  the  nioft  noted. 

The  Romans  had  a  kind  of  military  academies,  efta- 
bliihcd  in  all  the  cities  of  Italy,  under  the  name  of 
Canifii  Martis.  Here  the  youth  were  admitted  to  be 
trained  for  war  at  the  public  expence.  The  Greeks, 
befide  academies  of  this  kind,  had  military  profeffors 
called  Tiiclici,  who  taught  all  the  higher  offices  of 
war,  &c.  &c. 

Academy  is  often  ufcd  to  denote  a  kind  of  col- 
legiate feminiry,  where  youth  are  inftruded  in  arts 
and  fciences.  There  is  one  inPorlfmouth  for  teaching 
navigation,  drawing,  &c. ;  another  at  Woolwich,  for 
fortification,  gunnery,  &c. — Bclides  thcic,  there  are 
numerous  academies,  efpecially  in  London,  for  teach- 
ing mathematics,  languages,  writing,  accounts, 
drawing,  and  other  branches  of  learning. 

The  nonconformift  minillcrs,  &c.  arc  bred  up  in 
private  academies;  as  not  approving  the  common  u- 
nivcrlity  education.  The  principal  of  their  academies 
are  tliofe  in  London,   Daventry,  and  Warrington. 

Academy  is  likewife  a  name  given  to  a  riding- 
fchool,  where  young  gentlemen  are  taught  to  ride  the 
great  horic,  &c.  and  the  ground  allotted  is  ufually  cal- 
led the  Manege. 

AciDF-.w  Figure,  a  drawing  of  a  naked  man  or  wo- 
man, taken  from  the  life  ;  which  is  ufually  done  oil 
p.'.per  with  red  or  black  chalk,  and  fomctimcs  wii  h  pa- 
Itilsor  CRAYOi^s.  See  Ac  A  DEMY,  N"  VI.  par.  4. /"/jOri?. 
ACADlii,  or  Acady,  in  geography,  a  name  for- 
merly given  to  Nova  Scotia,  or  New  Scotland.  See 
Nov  1  Stfitin. 

AC/liNA .  in  antiquity,  aCrecian  meafureof length, 
being  a  ten  f:et-rod;    ufed  in  meafuring  their  lands. 

Ac^NA, 


A  C  A 


[     47     ] 


A  c:  A 


AciNA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  iiioiiogynia or- 
der belonging  to  the  tctraiiclria  clafs  ol"  plants  ;  the 
charadcrs  of  which  arc  thcic  :  The  calyx  is  a  pcrian- 
'  thium  conliftingof  four  leaves,  which  ate  ovate,  con- 
cave, equal,  anjpcrlillcnt  ;  there  is  no  corol.a  :  The 
Jlauihia  cM\hl\s  of  tour  equal  niiddlc-lizedHlaments  op- 
polite  to  the  calyx ;  the  anthcrae  arc  quadrangular, 
twin,  erect :  iVcpijIilluin  has  an  inverfcly-ovate  hifped 
gcrnt ;  the  Ilylus  is  fmall,  and  inticftcd  on  one  tide  ; 
and  the  lligniais  a  fniall  thickilh  coloured  membrane, 
divided  into  many  ftgmcnts  :  Tlie  pericai pium  is  an 
inverfcly-ovated  dry  one-ccllcd  berry  covered  with 
prickUs  bent  backwards  :  Theyj-f^^is  linglc.  There 
is  only  one  fpccies,  a  native  of  NIexico. 

ACAJOU, or  Cashew-nut-tkee.  iiec  Akacar- 

D  1  U  M . 

Ac  ALANDRUS,  a  river  falling  into  the  bay  of 
Tarentum,  not  far  from  the  iMetapontuin,  (Pliny,  Sira- 
bo)  ;   now  FiuKii  d;  R'.f(.to. 

AC  A  LEPriC,  in  ancle  ntprofody,  a  complete  vcrfe. 

ACALYPHA,  the  Three-seeded  MERcuav, 
a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  monoetia  mona- 
delphia  clafs.  The  characters  of  this  genus  arc  the 
following. — Male  ji^wirs  crowded  above  the  female 
ones  :  The  ca/j't  is  a  three  or  four-leaved  pcriaiuhiuni, 
the  leaflets  roundilh,  concave, and  equal:  T\\ccoroila\.% 
wanting  :  The  Jlaiiiina  have  from  6  to  rS  lilaments, 
which  arc  lliort,  crowded,  and  connedcd  at  the  bafe  ; 
the  antherse  arc  roundilh — FemaL-fiowen  fewer,  pla- 
ced beneath,  and  received  into  a  large  divided  involu- 
crura  :  The  calyx  is  a  perianthium,  conlifling  of  three 
leaflets,  which  are  concave,  converging,  fmall,  and 
perliflent :  isocorolla.-  The/i//7/////whasaroundilliger- 
men  :  the  flyli  are  three,  branchy,  oftcncr  tripartite, 
andlong;  theAigmataarc  llmple  :  Tlic/ifr;ca/-^;//whas 
a  roundifli  trifulcated  trilocular  capfulc,  the  valvulets 
gaping  two  ways  :  Thc/ei.-ds  arc  folitary,  roundilh,  and 
large. — This  genus  ranks  in  the  58th  natural  order, 
Trtcocc.r.  There  arc  Ave  fpccies,  all  natives  of  Virginia. 

ACAMANTIS  (the  ancient  name  of  the  illand  of 
Cyprus),  taken  from  one  of  its  promontories  fituated 
to  the  wed,  and  called  Acaviai.  Teos  in  Ionia  was 
alfo  called  thus  from  Acamus  the  founder. 

ACAMAS,  AcAMANTis  (anc.  geog.),  the  weft 
promontory  of  the  illand  of  Cyprus,  from  whence  it 
took  its  ancient  name  :  now  Cape  Pifanio  or  Epifanio, 
where  formerly  was  a  town  of  the  fame  name,  now  a 
village  called  Crufocco. 

AcAMAS,  fon  of  Thefcus,  followed  the  rcfl  of  the 
Grecian  princes  to  the  liege  of  Troy  ;  and  was  deputed, 
with  Diomedes,  tothc  Trojans,  in  order  to  get  Helsii 
rcftored.  Laodicc,  Priam's  daughter,  fell  in  love  with 
him,  ftolea  nisht  with  him,  and  had  a  fon  by  him  call- 
ed Munilus.  He  wis  one  of  the  heroes  who  concealed 
thcmfelves  in  tlie  wooden  horfe.  One  of  the  tribes  of 
Athens  was  called  Acamantida  from  him,  by  the  ap- 
pointmcntof  theoracle  ;  and  he  founded  a  city  in  Phry- 
gia  Major,  called  Acatiiantiuvi.  Homer  mentions 
two  other  heroes  of  this  name  ;  one  a  Thracian  prince 
who  came  to  fuccour  Priam,  another  a  fon  of  Ante- 
nor. 

ACANACEOUS  PLANTS,  fuchasare  armed  with 
prickles. 

ACANGIS,  that  is,  Ravagers  or  Aihtnturfrs  ;  a 
name  which  the  Turks  give  their  huflars  or  H.^ht- 


troops,  who  are  generally  lent  out  in  detachments  to    Acantfia 
procure  intelligence,  harafs  the  enemy,  or  ravage  the  | 

country.  Acartlut. 

ACANTHA,  in  botany,  the  prickle  of  any  plant;  *^~^ 

in  zooloi^y,  a  term  for  the  fpinc  or  prickly  tins  of 
liQies. 

ACANTHABOLUS,  in  furgery,  an  inftrumcnt 
for  pulling  thoriis,  or  the  like,  out  of  the  Ikin. 

aCANTHINE,  any  thing  refembling  or  belong- 
ing to  the  herb  acanthus.  Acanthine  garments,  among 
the  ancients,  are  faid  to  be  made  of  the  down  of  thi- 
rties ;  others  think  they  were  garments  embroidcd  iii 
imitation  of  the  acanthus. 

ACANTHOPTKRYGIOUS  fishes,  a  term  ufed 
by  Linnoeus  and  others  for  li.ofe  tilheswhofc  back-tins 
are  hard,  olTeous,  and  pricLly. 

.^CAjNTHOS,  a  town  of  Egypt,  near  Memphis, 
(Pliny)  ;  now  bifaltj.  Alfo  a  mariiime  town  of  Ma- 
cedonia, to  the  weft  of  mount  Athos,  a  colo.iy  of  An- 
drians,(Thucyilides,Ptolemy);uow£'r;j/c.;  near  which 
was  fliown  Xerxcs'sdiich,  ot  feven  ftadia,  in  order  to 
feparate  mount  Athos  from  the  continent,  and  convey 
his  fliips,  without  doubling  Athos,  into  the  Singitic 
Bay.      Acauth'js,  is  alfo  a  town  of  Epirus. 

ACANTHUS,  bear's-dkeech,  or  brank-tirfine, 
in  botany  :  a  genus  of  the  angiofpermia  order,  be- 
longing to  the  didynamia  clafs  of  plants  ;  and  ranking 
in  the  4th  natural  order,  Perfonatx.  The  generic 
eharafters  are  :  The  calyx  is  a  perianthium  with  leaf- 
lets of  three  alternate  pairs  unequal  and  perliflent:  The 
corolla  isone-petal'dand  uncqi:al;  the  tubus  very  Ihort, 
clofcd  with  a  beard;  no  upper-lip,  the  under-one  very 
large,  flat,  ftraight,  very  broad,  thrcc-lohed,  and  ob- 
tuft :  The  fiamiiia  have  four  Tubulated  filaments  Ihor- 
ter  than  the  corolla  ;  the  two  fuperior  rather  longer, 
recurvatc,  and  incurved  at  the  top  ;  the  anthers;  arc 
oblong,  comprtlled,obtufc,lateral,paralkl,and  villous 
before:  ihe  piftillnm  his  a  conic  germcn;  a  filiform 
flylus,  the  length  of  the  ilamina  ;  and  two  acute  la- 
teral ftigmata  :  The  periauthi-jiu  is  an  acutely-ovateJ 
bilocularcapfule,  with  a  lateral  partition  :  Thc/aJt 
one  or  two,  flefliy  and  gibbous. 

Specici.  I .  The  mollis,  or  common  bear's-brecch,  a 
native  of  Italy,  is  the  fort  that  is  ufed  in  medicine,  and 
is  fuppofcd  to  be  the  r/iollis  ,::canthus  of  Virgil ;  and 
the  leaves  are  famous  for  having  given  rife  to  the 
capital  of  the  Corinthian  pillars.  2.  The  fpinofus, 
or  prickly  bear's-brecch  ;  the  leaves  of  which  are 
deeply  jagged  in  very  regular  order,  and  each  feg- 
ment  is  terminated  with  a  Iharp  fpine,  as  are  alio  the 
footftalksofthelcavesandthe  einpalemcntofthe  flow- 
er, whichrenders  it  troublcfome  to  handle  them.  ;.lli- 
cifolius,  or  flirubby  bear's-brecch,  grows  naturally  in 
both  the  Indies.  It  is  an  evergreen  Ihrub,  which  rifes 
about  for  feet  high  ;  and  is  divided  into  many  branch- 
es, garnilhcd  with  leaves  like  thofc  of  the  commoa 
holly,  and  armed  with  fpines  in  the  fame  manner: 
the  flowers  are  white,  and  Ihaped  like  thofe  of  the 
common  acanthus,  but  fniallcr.  4.  The  nigra,  or 
Portugilbear's-breech,wiih  fmooth  linuatcd  leaves  of 
a  livid  green  colour,  was  difcovcrcd  in  Portugal  by 
Dr  Jurfieu  of  the  royal  garden  at  Paris,  j.  The  mid- 
dle bear's-breech,  with  entire  leaves,  havin;;  fpines 
on  their  border,  is  fuppofcd  to  be  tie  acanthus  of 
Diofv.oridcs. 

Culture 


•  4.37,S'3Cl 
Sterling. 


A  C  A  [     48 

Cnltrire,icc.  They  arc  all  perennial  plants.  ThcfirR 
and  fccond  fpcciesmay  be  propagated  citiicrby  feeds, 
or  by  oificts  from  the  roots.  The  beit  way  is  to  raifc 
them  fioin  the  feeds  :  which  (houUI  be  fown  about  the 
end  of  iMarch,  in  a  light  foil.  They  are  bcfl  dropped 
at  dillanccs  into  lliallow  drills,  and  covered  three 
tjiiartersof  an  inch  with  mould.  When  the  plantsare 
come  up,  the  ftrongcft  Ihould  be  marked,  and  the  reft 
fliould  be  pulled  up,  that  tlicy  may  ftand  at  a  yard  di- 
flance  one  from  another.  They  require  no  other  cul- 
ture but  to  keep  them  clear  from  weeds.  The  third, 
fourth,  and  Kfth  forts,  are  propagated  only  by  feeds  ; 
which,  as  they  do  not  ripen  in  Kurope,  mufl  be  ob- 
tained from  the  places  in  which  they  grow  naturally: 
the  plants  arc  fo  tender,  that  they  cannot  be  prefer- 
vedoutof  tlieflove  in  nortliern  countries. — The  firft 
fpecics  is  the  fort  ufcdin  medicine.  All  the  parts  of  it 
havcafoftfweetilh  tafte,  and  abound  with  a  mucilagin- 
ous juice:  its  virtues  do  not  fecni  to  differ  from  thofe 
ofalthca  and  other  mucilaginous  plants. 

Ac.i  VTH  usjinarchitcdure,  an  ornament  reprefent- 
ing  the  leaves  of  the  acanthus,  ufed  in  the  capitals  of 
the  Corinthian  and  Compofue  orders. 

ACAPULCO,  a  con(idcrable  town  and  port  in 
Mexico,  on  the  South  Sea.  It  has  a  fine  harbour,  from 
whence  a  ihip  annually  fails  to  Manila  in  the  Philip- 
pine idands,  near  the  coaft  of  China  in  Alia  ;  and  an- 
other returns  annually  from  thence  with  all  the  trca- 
furesof  the  eaft  Indies,  fuch  as  diamonds,  rubies,  fap- 
phircs,  and  other  precious  Hones  ;  the  rich  carpets  of 
Perfia  ;  the  camphire  of  Borneo;  the  benjamin  and 
ivory  of  Pegu  and  Cambodia,  liie  filks,  muliins,  and 
calicoes,  of  the  Mogul's  country  ;  the  gold-duft,  tea, 
china-ware,  lilk,  and  cabinets,  of  China  and  Japan  ; 
bcfidcs  cinnamon, cloves,  mace,  nutmegs,  and  pepper; 
infomuchthat  this  Tingle  ihip  contains  more  riches  than 
many  whole  fleets.  The  goods  brought  to  Acapuleo 
are  caried  to  the  city  ofMexico  by  mules  and  pack- 
horfes  ;  and  from  thence  to  Vera  Cruz  on  the  North 
Sea,  in  order  to  be  fliipped  for  Europe.  Acapuleo  itfelf 
is  a  fmall  place,  coufifting  about  2  or  300  thatched 
houfes.  Ships  arrive  at  the  port  by  two  inlets,  fepa- 
rated  from  each  other  by  a  fmall  illand  :  the  entrance 
into  them  in  the  day-time  is  by  means  of  a  fea-brceze, 
as  the  failing  out  in  the  night-time  is  cfTetted  by  a 
land-breeze.  A  wretched  fort,  42  pieces  of  cannon, 
and  a  garrifon  of  60  men,  defend  it.  It  is  equally  ex- 
tenfive,  fafe,  and  commodious.  The  hafon  which  con- 
flitutes  this  harbour  is  furrounded  by  lofty  m.ouniains, 
which  are  fo  dry,  that  they  are  cvendeftitute  of  water. 
The  air  here  is  hot,  heavy,  and  unwholefome  ;  to 
which  none  can  habituate  themfelvcs,  except  certain 
negroes  that  arc  born  under  a  (imi'ar  climate,  orfomc 
nv.ilattoes.  This  feeble  and  miferable  colony  is  crow- 
ded with  a  vaft  accedion  to  its  numbers  upon  the  arri- 
val of  the  galleons  ;  traders  flocking  here  from  all  the 
provincesof  Mexico,  who  come  to  exchange  European 
toys,  their  own  cochineal,  a]id' about  ten  millions*  of 
lilver  for  fpices,  muflins,  printed  linens,  lilk,  per- 
fumes, and  the  gold  works  of  Afia.  W.  Long.  102. 
29.  N.  Lat.  17-  30. 

AC.ARAI,  a  town  of  Paraguay  in  South  America, 
built  by  the  Jefuitsin  1624.  Long  116.  40.  S.  lat.,  26'. 

ACARAUNA,  a   fmall  American  fifli,  called  by 
ourfailars  tl'S  old-nv'.fc.     See  Labrus. 
3 


] 


A  C  A 


ACARNANIA,  tlie  firft  country  of  Free  Greece,  Aranmnix 
or  Greece  Proper,  bounded  on  the  well  by  the  Sinus         I 
Ambracius,  and  fcparated  from  /Ktolia  by  the  river  _^"|f" 
Achelous  on  the    eaft,  and  by   the  Sinus  Ambracius         "       ' 
from  Epirus.  The  people  were  called  Acarnaites,  de- 
noting perfons  unlhorn  ;  other  Etolians,  to  the  call  of 
the    Achelous,    being  called  Curctis    (Homer)   from 
being  fliorn.  According  to  Lucian,  they  were  noted 
for  erfeminancy  and  incontinence  ;  hence  the  proverb, 
Porcetliii  Acariianiiis.     This  country  was  famous  for 
anexcellent  breed  of  horfes  ;  fothalAitaf»ixeci»-^©^,  is 
a  proverbial  faying  for  a  thing  excellent  in  its  kind. 
It  is  now  called  la  Cjrn'ne  and  il Defpotato. 

ACARON,or  AccARON,  a  town  of  Paleftine,  call- 
ed £^)(3;/ in  fcripture.  It  was  the  boundary  of  the  Phi- 
liftincs  to  the  north  ;  ftood  at  fome  diftance  from  the 
fca,  near  Bethfllemelli ;  and  was  famous  for  the  idol  of 
Baalzcbub. 

ACAIIUS,  the  Tick  or  Mite,  a  genus  of  infedls 
belonging  to  the  order  of  aptera,  or  fuch  as  have  no 
wings.  The  acarus  has  eight  legs  ;  two  eyes,  one  on 
each  fide  of  the  head  ;  and  two  jointed  tentacula.  The 
female  is  oviparous.  Linnaeus  enumerates  35  fpecies  ; 
of  which  fome  arc  inhabitants  of  the  earth,  ibmc  of 
waters  ;  fome  live  on  trees,  others  among  ftones,  and 
others  on  the  bodies  of  other  animals,  and  even  under 
their  fkin.  The  defcription  of  a  few  of  the  moft  re- 
markable will  here  fufficc. 

I.  The  firo,  or  checfe-mitc,  is  a  very  minute  fpecics. 
To  the  naked  eye,  thefe  mites  appear  like  moving  par- 
ticles of  duft  :  but  the  microfcope  difcovers  them  to 
be  perfed;  animals,  having  as  regular  a  figure,  and  per- 
forming all  the  funtlions  of  life  as  perfeftly,  as  crea- 
tures that  exceed  them  many  times  in  bulk.  The  prin- 
cipal parts  of  them  are  the  head,  the  neck,  and  the 
body.  The  head  is  fmall  in  proportion  to  the  body  ; 
and  has  a  fliarp  fnout,  and  a  mouth  that  opens  and  fliuts 
like  a  mole's.  They  have  two  fmall  eyes,  and  arc  ex- 
tremely quickfighted  ;  and  when  they  have  been  once 
touched  with  a  pin,  you  may  eafily  perceive  how  cun- 
ningly they  avoid  a  fecond  touch.  Their  legs  are  each 
furnilhed  at  the  extremity  with  two  little  claws,  with 
which  the  animal  very  nicely  takes  hold  of  any  thing. 
The  hinder  part  of  the  body  is  plump  and  bulky  ;  and 
ends  in  an  oval  form,  from  which  there  ilfue  out  a  few 
exceeding  long  hairs.  Other  parts  of  the  body  arc 
alfo  befet  with  thin  and  long  hairs.  The  males  and 
females  are  eafily  diftinguiflicd  in  thefe  little  animals. 
The  females  are  oviparous,  as  the  loufe  and  fpider  ; 
and  from  their  eggs  the  young  are  hatched  in  their 
proper  form,  without  having  any  change  to  undergo 
afterwards.  They  are,  however,  when  firft  hatched, 
extremely  minute  ;  and,  in  tlieir  growing  to  their  full 
fize,  they  eaft  their  (kins  feveral  times.  Thefe  little 
creatures  may  be  kept  alive  many  months  between  two 
concave  glarfes,  and  applied  to  the  microfcope  at  plea- 
fure.  They  are  thus  often  feen  tn  coiiti,  conjoined  tail 
to  tail  ;  and  this  is  performed  by  an  incredibly  fwifc 
motion.  Their  eggs,  in  warinwea;hcr,  hatch  in  12 
or  14  days;  bat  in  winter  they  are  much  longer. 
Thefe  eggs  arc  fo  fmall,  that  a  regular  computation 
ftiows,  that  90  millions  of  them  are  not  fo  large  as  a  i 

common  pigeon's  egg  *.  They  are  very  voracious  ani-  •  Bakir's     . 
mals,  and  have  often  been   feen  to  eat  one  another.  iW/Vro/io/*/. 
Their  manner  of  eating  is  by  thrufting  alternately  one  p-  JS?. 

jaw 


A  C  A 


[     49     ] 


A  C  A 


Acar'ji.     j.iw  forward  an  J  the  o;hcr  backward,  mo'  i.i  this  nian- 

^" — •J-'—'  ncr  griiijin^  their  food  ;  and  after  they  h^ive  done 

feeding,  thty  fccm  to  cliew  the  cud. — There  are  fc- 

vcral  varieties  of  this  fpecics  found  in  dili'crent  fub- 

Aaaces  bclidcs  chcefc  ;  as  in  malt-daft,  flour,  oatmeal, 

&c.  Thofe  in  malt  dull  and  oat-meal  are  much  nimbler 

than  the chcefe-mites,  and  liavemore  andlonger  hairs. 

There  are  alfo  a  fort  of  wandering  mites,  which  range 

■wherever  there  is  any  thing  they  can  feed  on  :  They 

are  often  fccn  in  the  form  of  a  white  duft,  and  are  not 

fufpcilet'-  to  be  living  creatures — The  niitc  is  called 

by  authors,  finiply,  Acaini.  It  is  an  animal  very  ten.i- 

cious  of  life,  and  will  live  months  withont  food.    Mr 

t  Arcati.     Lcwenhoek  f  had  one  which  lived  ii   weeks  on  the 

Nai.  tnm.    point  of  a  pin,  on  which  he  had  lixed  it  for  examining 

iv.  i>.  368.    jjy  j^j5  niicrofcope. 

2.  The  fanguifugus.  The  hinder  part  of  the  abdo- 
men is  crenated,  the  fcuttellum  is  oval  and  yellowifli, 
and  the  beak  is  trilid.  It  is  a  native  of  America,  and 
flicks  fo  faft  on  the  legs  of  travellers,  fucking  their 
blood,  that  they  can  hardly  be  extraifled. 

3.  The  telarius  is  of  a  greenilh  yellow  colour.  It 
has  a  fniall  Uing  or  weapon,  with  which  it  wounds  the 
leaves  of  plants,  andoccafions  them  to  fold  backward. 
They  are  very  frequently  to  be  met  with  in  the  autumn, 
inclofed  in  the  folded  leaves  of  the  lime-tree. 

4.  The  exulcerans,  or  itch-acarus,  is  a  very  fmall 
fpecies  :  its  body  is  of  a  rigurc  approaching  Vj  oval, 
and  lobated ;  the  head  is  fniall  and  pointed ;  its  colour  is 
whitilh,  but  it  has  two  duiky  femicircular  lines  on  the 
back.  It  has  long  fetaceous  legs,  but  the  two  hrrt  are 
fliort.  It  is  found  in  the  pu  fillies  of  the  itch  :  authors  in 
general  have  fuppofed  that  it  caufcs  that  difeafc  ;  but 
others  obfcrve,  that  if  this  were  fo,  it  would  be  found 
more  univerfally  in  thofe  puftules.  It  is  more  proba- 
ble that  thefe  only  make  a  proper  nidus  for  it.  Sec, 
however,  the  article  Itch. 

J.  The  batatas  is  of  a  blood-colour,  and  a  little 
rough  ;  the  fore  pair  of  legs  are  as  long  as  the  body. 
It  inhabits  the  potatoes  of  Surinam. 

6.  The  ovinus,  or  Ihecp-tick,  has  a  flat  body,  of  a 
roundifh  figure,  but  fomewhat  approaching  to  oval, 
and  of  a  yellowilh  white  colour,  and  has  a  fingle  large 
round  fpot  on  tlieback:  the  anus  is  vifiblc  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  body  ;  the  thorax  is  fcarce  confpicuous  ; 
the  head  is  very  fmall  and  black  ;  the  mouth  is  bifid  : 
the  antenna:  are  of  a  clavated  figure,  andof  the  length 
of  the  fuout ;  the  legs  are  Ihort  and  black.  It  is  com- 
mon onflieep,and  its  excrements  Itain  the  wool  green  : 
it  will  live  in  the  wool  many  months  after  it  is  ihorn 
from  the  animal. 

7.  Thecoleoptraiorum,  or  ararus  of  infefts,  is  ex- 
tremely minute  :  itsbody  is  round,  reddifli,  aiidcover- 
cd  with  a  firm  and  hardil-cin  ;  the  licad  is  very  fuiall, 
the  neck  f'.arcc  viliblc  ;  the  legs  are  maderately  long, 
the  anterior  pair  longer  than  the  others-,  it  hasawhitt- 
ntfs  about  the  anus.  It  is  frequent  on  the  bodies  of 
many  infeds,  whichit  int'cfis.as  the  loufe  doooihers; 
it  runs  very  fwifily  :  the  humble  bee,  and  many  uthcr 
of  the  larger  infeits,  arc  continually  infcllcd  with  it ; 
but  none  fo  much  as  the  common  black  beetle,  which 

•  has  thence  been  called  the  loufy  beetle. 

8.  The  baccarum,  or  fcarlct  tree-mile,  is  a  fmall 
fpccif  s  :  iisbody  is  roundilh,  and  the  back  not  at  all 
flatted,  as  it  is  in  many  others  ;  the  Ikiu  is  fuiooth. 

Vol.  I. 


Ihinijii^,  and  glofly  ;  and  the  whole  oniintl  fecms  di- 
Jtcnded,  and  ready  to  bunt  ;  the  coloMr  is  a  bright 
red,  but  a  little  dufkier  on  the  fiJti  than  elfcwhtrc  : 
the  head  is  very  fmall,  and  the  legs  fhort  ;  there  is  on 
each  lide  a  fmall  dulky  fpot  near  the  thorax,  and  a  few 
hairs  grow  from  ditfercnt  parts  of  the  body.  It  is  \c- 
ry  common  on  trees,  particularly  on  the  currant,  on 
the  frait  of  which  we  frequently  fee  it  running. 

9.  The  longicornis,  or  red  (louc-acarus,  is  very 
fniall,  and  of  a  bright  red  colour  ;  the  body  is  round, 
and  dillcnded  ;  the  head  is  ver)-  finall  and  pointed  ; 
the  legs  arc  moderately  long,  and  of  a  paler  red  than 
the  body  :  the  antennK  are  much  longer  than  in  any 
other  fpecies.  It  is  frequent  about  old  ftone-walls  and 
on  rocks,  and  runs  very  nimbly.     Sec  Plate  I. 

10.  The  aquaticus  is  a  fmall  fpecies  :  the  body  is  of 
a  figure  approaching  to  an  oval,  and  the  back  appear* 
deprtifed;  it  is  of  a  bright  and  Itrong  fcarlct  colour. 
The  head  is  (mail  ;  the  legs  are  moderately  long  and 
firm,  and  are  of  a  paler  red  than  the  body.  It  is  com- 
mon in  (hallow  waters, w  here  it  runs  very  fwifily  along 
the  bottom.  Its  diminutivcncfs  hinders  the  beauty  of 
its  colours  from  being  perceived,  as  they  are  not  dif- 
ccrnible  without  the  niicrofcope, 

1 1 .  The  holofericeus  is  a  fmall  fpecies  :  its  body  is 
roundilh,  but  a  little  approaching  to  oval  ;  the  back 
fomewhat  deprelfed  :  it  is  of  a  fine  fcarlet  colour,  and 
covered  with  a  velvety  down.  The  head  is  very  (mall; 
the  eyes  are  two,  and  very  fmall ;  tlie  legs  arc  (hurt 
and  of  a  paler  red,  and  there  is  a  fmall  black  fpot  near 
the  infertion  of  the  anterior  ones.  It  is  very  common 
under  the  furface  of  the  earth,  and  fometimes  on  herbs 
and  among  hay.  It  is  fuppofed  to  be  poifonous  if 
(wallowed  ;  but  we  do  not  feem  to  have  any  certain 
account  of  fuch  an  eflect. 

12.  Thelongpipes  is  the  largeftof  the  aearus  kind  : 
its  body  is  roundidi,  of  a  dulky  brown  on  the  back, 
with  a  duflder  fpot  of  a  rhomboidal  figure  near  the 
middle  of  it  ;  the  belly  is  whitilh  ;  the  legs  arc  ex- 
tremely long  and  (lender.  On  the  back  part  of  the 
head  there  (lands  a  little  eminence,  which  has  on  it  a 
kind  of  double  crcll,  formed  as  it  were  of  a  number  of 
minute  fpines  :  the  eyes  are  fmall  and  black',  and  are 
two  in  jiumbcr.  It  is  very  common  in  paftures 
towards  the  end  of  fnmmer.  Ray  and  Liller  call  it 
iiraneiti  cruflatui  tongpifes  ;  MouuCt,  anicm  li.i:g- 
pipti  ;  and,  notwithflanding  its  having  but  two  eyes, 
it  has  been  almofl  univerfally  ranked  among  the  fpi- 
dcrs. 

ACASTUS,  in  clalJic  hiftory,  the  fonof  Pclias  king- 
ofThellaly.  and  one  of  the  moil  famous  huraers  of  his 
time,  married  Kippolyta,  who  falling  defprrately  in 
love  with  Pclcus  her  fon-in-law,andhe  refufing  to  irra- 
tify  her  wilhes,  flic  accufcd  him  to  her  hulb^nd  of  a 
rape  ;  on  which  he  (lew  them  both. 

'AC.ATALLCTIC,  a  term,  ia  the  ancient  poetry, 
for  fuch  vcrfts  as  have  all  their  feet  or  fyllablcs,  in 
com  radi  ft  in  it  ion  to  ilu.fc  that  have  a  fyllable  top  few. 

ACATALLPSV,  lignifies  the  impolTibility  of  com- 
prcliending  fomethiiig — The  dirtingui(hing  tenet  of 
the  Pyrrhonifts  was  their  alTertiiig  an  abfolute  acata- 
lepfy  in  regard  to  every  thing. 

ACATKRY,  or  Accatrv,  anciently  an  ofiiccr  of 
the  king's  houfchold,  de(i;;ncd  forachcck betwixt  the 
clerks  of  the  kitchen  and  the  purveyors. 

G  ACA- 


/icsriu 


Acu- 


A  C  C 


f     5^     J 


A  C  C 


ACA'I'HARISLA,  in  nicJicinc,  an  impurity  of  tlic 
bl'.od  or  i.uinoiirs. 

AC  ATIIISTUS,  the  name  of  a  fokmn  hymn  an- 
ciently I'linfr  in  the  Greek  cluirch  on  tiic  Saiurday  of 
ihc  liltii  wttkof  Lent,  i;i  honour  of  the  \'irgin,  for 
l.aviiig  thrice  delivered  Conftantinopic  from  the  inva- 
lionsof  the  barbarous  nations. 

ACAIIUM,  in  the  ancient  navigation,  a  kind  of 
boat  or  pinnace  ufed  for  military  purpofcs.  The  aca- 
liic/i  was  a  fpccics  of  thofe  vclltls  called  naves  a[ina- 
lia-,  i.  e.  fiich  as  were  wrought  with  oars.  It  was 
f  )metimcs  made  ufc  of  in  battle.  Strabo  dcfcribes 
it  as  a  privateer  or  private  (loop. 

ACAULIS,  in  -feotany,  a  term  applied  to  certain 
plants,  the  (low  crs  of  which  have  no  pcdiculc  or  llalk 
to  f  ipport  them,  but  reft  immediately  on  tlie  ground, 
fuch  as  the  ciirline  ihillle,  &c. 

ACCA  (St),  bilhop  of  Haj^uflalJt,  or  Hexham,  in 
Northumberland,  fuccteded  Wilfridiii  that  ice  in  709. 
l!c  ornamented  his  cathedral  in  a  moll  nuignilicent 
Planner  :  he  furnillicd  it  alio  with  plate  and  holy  vcft- 
ments  ;  and  ereftcd  a  noble  library,  eonlilUng  chicrty 
of  ecclelialliral  learning,  and  a  large  colledion  of  tlic 
Jives  of  the  fjints,  which  he  v,  as  at  great  pains  to  pro- 
cure.—  He  was  accounted  a  very  able  divine,  and  was 
famous  for  his  (kill  ii  church-niulic.  He  wrote  feveral 
pieces  :  particularly,  I'njjiones  SaiiSiortuii,  the  Suffer- 
ings of  the  Saints:  Fro  uluflraiidis  fclptuns,  ad  Be- 
dam;  for  explaining  the  fcriptures,  addrclTcd  to  Bede. 
He  died  in  740,  havingenjoyed  the  Iccof  Hexham  31 
years,  under  Kgbert  king  of  the  Northumbrians. 

ACCALIA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  folcmn  fclHvals 
held  in  honour  of  Acca  Laurentia,  Romulus's  nurfc  : 
they  were  othcrwile  called  Laurf.ntalia. 

ACCAPITARK,  in  law,  the  aft  of  becoming  vaf- 
fal  of  a  lord,  or  of  yielding  him  homage  and  obedience. 
Hence, 

ACCAPITUM,  fignities  the  money  paid  by  a  valTal 
upon  his  adniilfion  to  a  feu. 

AccAPtTi'M,  in  ancient  law,  was  ufcd  alfo  to 
cxprefs  the  relief  due  to  the  chief  lord.  Sec  Rei.iek. 

ACCEDASau  Curiam,  in  the  Engiilh  hw,  a 
writ  lying,  where  a  man  has  received,  or  fears,  fall'e 
judgment  in  an  inferior  court.  It  lies  alfo  for  jufiicc 
delayed,  and  is  a  fpecics  of  the  writ  Rfcordare. 

ACCKLERATION,  ill  mechanics,  the  increafe  of 
velocity  in  a  ir.oving  body.  Accelerated  motion  is  that 
wliich  continually  receives  frclh  acccfllons  of  velocity. 
Acceleration  flands  dirCL-Uy  oppofed  10  rctardat'iot:, 
which  denotes  adiminution  of  velocity. 

Acceleration  is  chieHy  ufcd  in  phyfics,  in  re- 
fpciit  of  falling  bodies,  /.  c.  of  heavy  bodies  tending  to- 
wards the  centre  of  the  earth  by  the  force  of  gravity. 
That  natural  bodies  are  accelerated  in  their  o'efccnt,  is 
evident  from  various  donfulcrations,  both  a  priori  and 
pcjleriori. — Thus,  we  aftually  find,  that  the  greater 
height  a  body  falls  from,  the  greater  impreflion  it 
makes,  and  the  more  vehemently  does  it  flrike  the  fub- 
jeft  plane,  or  other  obftacle. 

Various  were  the  fyflems  and  opinions  which  philo- 
fophers  produced  to  account  for  this  acceleration.  But 
the  immediate  caufe  of  acceleration  is  now  fufHcicntly 
obvious;  the  principle  of  gravitation,  which  deter- 
mines the  body  to  defcend,  deter.-nining  it  to  be  acce- 
lerated by  a  ncccflary  confequence. 


Stippofc  a  uody  let  fall  from  on  high  :  tl;c  prin;ary  Acali-ra- 
laufc  ofits  bcgihiiiugtodcfccnd  isdoubtlefs  ihcpower  •'<">• 
of  gravity  ;  but  when  once  the  dtfcent  iscomuunccd,  "  "' 
that  Hate  becomes  in  fjme  meafure  natural  to  the  bo- 
dy J  fo  that  if  left  to  itftlf,  it  would  perfevere  in  it 
for  ever,  even  though  the  fird  caufe  fiiould  ccafe  :  as 
we  fee  in  3  flone  calt  with  the  hand,  which  continues 
to  move  a('tcr  it  is  left  by  the  caufe  that  gave  it  mo- 
tion. But,  belidc  the  propenlity  to  defcend  imprelTed 
by  the  lird  caufe,  and  v.hich  of  itftlf  were  fiiriicient 
to  continue  the  fame  degree  of  motion,  once  begun, 
;//  infittitum  ;  there  is  a  conltant  accclllon  of  fubfcipicnt 
efforts  of  the  fame  principle,  gravity,  which  continues 
to  aft  on  lilt  body  already  in  motion,  \•^.  the  fame  man- 
ner as  if  it  were  at  rcil.  Here,  then,  being  a  double 
cauic  of  motion  ;  and  both  ailing  in  the  lame  direc- 
tion, viz.  dirtftly  tow  ards  th.e  centre  of  the  earth  ;  the 
motion  they  jointly  produce  mu/l  nccellarily  be  greater 

than  that  of  any  one  of  them And  the  velocity  thus 

incrcafed  having  the  l".ime  caufe  of  increafe  dill  per- 
iilting,  the  dtfcent  mud  nccelfarily  be  continually  ac- 
celerated. 

The  morion  of  a  body  afcending,  or  impelled  up- 
wards, is  diminillied  or  retarded  from  the  fame  prin- 
ciple of  gravity,  acting  in  acontrary  dircftion,  in  the 
fame  manner  asa  falling  body  is  accelerated  :  See  Re- 
tardation. A  body  thus  projefted  upwards,  rifes  till 
it  has  lod  all  its  motion  :  which  it  docs  in  the  fame 
time  that  a  body  falling  would  have  acquired  a  veloci- 
ty equal  to  that  wherewith  the  body  was  thrown  up. 
Hence  the  fame  body  thrown  up,  will  rift  to  the 
fame  height  from  which  fallingit  would  have  acquired 
the  velocity  wherewith  it  was  thrown  up  :  And  hence 
the  heights  which  bodies  thrown  up  with  different 
velocities  do  afcend  to,  are  to  one  another  as  the 
fquares  of  thofe  velocities. 

jIccelf.r  iTios  of  Bodies  of  inclined  Plains.  The  fame 
general  law  obtains  here  as  in  bodies  falling  perpendi- 
cularly :  the  effcftof  the  plane  is  to  make  the  motion 
(lower;  but  the  inclination  being  every  where  equal, 
the  retardation  ariling  therefrom  will  proceed  equally 
in  all  parts,  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  ending  of  the 
motion.     Sec  Mechanics. 

y^ccELERyiT/ox  of  the  Motion  of PendultaKS — Thcmo- 
tion  of  pendulous  bodies  is  accelerated  in  their  dc- 
frent  ;  but  in  a  kfs  ratio  than  that  of  bodies  falling 
perpendicularly.  See  Mechanics  and  Pendulum. 

}}ccF.LERATios'jfthe  Motioii  cf  PrcjeSiiles.  ^cc  Pro- 
ject n.  E . 

Accelerat:o."j  is  alfo  applied  in  the  ancient  aftro- 
r.omy,  in  rcfpeft  of  the  lixcd  liars. — This  acceleration 
was  the  difference  between  the  revolution  of  the /W- 
mtim  mobile  and  the  folar  revolution  ;  which  was  com- 
puted at  three  minutes  and  56  feconds. 

jicczi.tR/mos  oj  the  iMoon,  a  term  ufed  to  cxprcis 
the  increafe  of  the  moon's  mean  motion  from  the  fun, 
compared  with  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth  ;  fo  that 
it  is  now  a  little  fwifter  than  it  was  formerly.  Dr  Hal- 
ley  wasthcfirft  who  made  this  difcovcry  ;  and  he  was 
led  to  it  by  comparing  the  ancient  cclipfcs  obferved  at 
Babylon  with  thofe  obferved  by  Albatennius  in  the 
ninth  century,  and  fomc  of  his  own  time.  He  wai 
not  able  to  afccrtain  the  quantity  of  this  acceleration, 
becaufe  the  longitudes  of  Bagdad,  Alexandria,  and 
Aleppo,  where  the  o'jfervations  were  made,  had  not 

been 


A  C  C 


{     5i     ] 


A  C  C 


Accclera-  bceii  accurately  dctcnni:icJ.  Bal  ih'.cic  his  time,  tlic 
tioii  longitude  of  Alcxiiulria  has  been  afcertaiacd  by  Cha- 
I  zcllcs  ;  and  Babylon,  according  to  Ptolemy's  account, 
Acccndonctjj^.^  ^^.  ^.^^  jYoiu  Alexandria.  From  thde  data,  Mr 
Dimi  liornc  com  pared  fcveril  ancient  and  modern  eclip- 
fcs,wiih  the  calculations  of  them, by  hisown  tables, and 
lurcby  verified  Dr  IloUcy's  opinion  ;  for  he  found  that 
the  fame  tables  rcprcfcut  the  moon's  place  more  back- 
waril  than  her  true  place  in  ancient  etlipfcs,  and  more 
forward  than  her  trueplace  in  later  cclipfcs  ;  and  thence 
jiiflly  inferred,  that  her  motion  in  ancient  times  was 
llowcr  ;  i;i]atcr  times  (jiiicker,  than  the  tables  give  it. 
Cut  he  did  not  content  himfclf  with  merely  afccrtaiii- 
iiigthe  fait  ;  he  proceeded  to  determine  the  quantity 
of  the  acceleration  ;  and  by  means  of  the  moll  ancient 
cclipfc  of  which  any  authentic  acco.int  remains,  ob- 
fcrved  at  Babylon  in  die  year  before  Chrift  721,  he 
concluded,  thatthe  obfcr\ed  beginning  of  this  ecliplc 
was  not  above  an  hour  and  three-quarters  before  the 
beginning  by  the  tables  ;  and  therefore  the  moon's  true 
place  could  precede  her  place  by  computation  but  little 
more  than  50'  of  a  degree  at  that  time.  Admitting 
the  acceleration  to  be  uniform,  and  the  aggregate  of 
it  as  a  fquare  of  the  time,  it  will  be  at  the  rate  of 
about  10' in  100  years. 

Dr.  Long  attributes  the  acceleration  above  dcfcribed 
to  one  or  more  of  thefe  cjufes  :  cither,  t. The  annual 
and  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth  continuing  the  fame, 
tlie  moon  is  really  carried  round  the  earth  with  a  great- 
er velocity  than  heretofore  :  or,  2. The  diurnal  motion 
of  the  earth, and  the  periodical  revolutions  of  the  moon 
continuing  the  fame,  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth 
round  the  fun  is  a  little  retarded  ;  which  makes  the 
fun's  apparent  motion  in  the  ecliptic  a  little  llowcr 
than  formerly,  and  confcqucntly,  the  moon  in  palling 
from  any  coiijundion  with  the  fun,  fpends  lefs  time 
before  Ihe  again  overtakes  the  fun,  and  forms  a  fubfc- 
quent  conjuniflion  :  in  both  thefe  cafes,  the  motion  of 
the  moon  from  the  fun  is  really  accelerated,  and  the 
'fynodical  month  actually  fliortcned.  Or,  5.  Tlic  annual 
motion  of  the  earth,  and  the  periodical  revolution  of 
the  moon  continuintr  the  fame,  the  rotation  of  the 
earth  round  its  axis  is  a  little  retarded  :  in  this  cafe 
days,  hours,  minutes,  feconds,  &Cyby  which  all  periods 
of  time  muli  be  meafurcd,  arc  of'^a  longer  duration  ; 
and  confequently  the  fynodical  m.outli  will  appear  to 
be  ihortcned,  though  it  really  contains  the  fame  quan- 
tity of  abfolute  time  as  it  always  did.  If  the  quantity 
of  matter  in  the  body  of  the  fun  be  lelFcned  by  the 
particles  of  light  continually  dreaming  from  it,  the 
irotionof  the  earth  round  the  fun  may  become  llowcr  : 
if  the  earth  increafes  in  bulk,  the  motion  of  the  moon 
round  the  earth  may  be  quickened  thereby.     See  A- 

STRONOMY. 

ACCELERATOR,  in  anatomy,  the  pamc  of  two 
mufclcsof  the  penii,  which  fervc  for  cjecling  the  urine 
or  fcmcn.     See  .Anatomy,  Tj/-/.-  oJ  ihc  MnJlL-i. 

ACCENDEMTES,  a  lower  order  ofminillcrs  i.i 
the  Romiih  church,  whofc  ofikc  is  to  light  and  trim 
«he  candles. 

ACCEN'DONES.  i.i  Roman  antiquity,  a  kind  of 
gladiators,  whole  olTice  was  to  excite  and  animate  ilic 
com'j.tants  duriii:;  the  en:ra;^emcr:!.  The  orthogra- 
phy of  the  word  is  couteftcd  :  the  lirft  edition  cf  Tcr- 
rullian,  by  Rhenanus,  has  i:  .u:c.h>t:i  ;  an  ancient 


m-i.nni'-.rx^l,  acceiiJo?!.'!.     Aquinas  auiierci  to  the  for-    Ac«.ii( 
mer,  Pitil'cus  to  the  latter.      The  origin  of  the  word,  I 

(iipp'ii'mgh  accfiic/o/iej,  is  fiom  acceiido,  1  kindle  ;  fup-  J^lf^'l 
poling  it  acced'jms,  irovaac^sdo,  I  accede,  am  added  to. 
The  former  places  their  diilinguilhing  character  ii>c to- 
livening  the  combat  by  their  exhortations  and  fugge- 
ftions  ;  the  latter  f-ippofes  ihem  to  be  much  the  f-.iae 
with  what  araoiig  us  are  c'xWcAfi.c'jndi,  among  the  Ita- 
lians,/>.j/r5//;  .•  excepting  that  thefe  laf.cr  rmly  fland  by 
to  fee  the  laws  of  the  fword  duly  obferved,  withoji  in- 
termeddling to  give  advice  or  inllrudi on. 

ACCENSI,  in  the  Roman  armies,  certain  fupernu- 
raerary  fulJiers,  deligned  to  fupply  the  places  of  thofc 
who  Ihoald  be  killed  or  any  wife  difabled.  They  were 
thus  denominated,  quia  acaitfcbaKtur,  or  ad  c:iifina 
adjtciebaKtir.  Vegetius  calls  them  fiipcrrtuvurarit  !c- 
gioiiiitn:  Cato  calls  them  J.-nratjrii,  in  regard  they 
furnilhed  thofe  engaged  in  bittle  with  weapons,  drink, 
&c.  Tliough  Noniiius  fuggefts  another  reafon  of  that 
appellation, viz.  becaufc  they  fought  with  Hones, fling', 
and  weapons  qu^  femntlur,  fuch  as  are  thrown,  not 
carried  in  the  hand.  They  were  fometimes  alfo  called 
ve/itis,  and  velati,  becaafe  they  foughtclothed, but  not 
in  armour ;  fometimes  adfi.ril>Ucii,  and  adrcriftivi  ,- 
fometimcst  rcrarii.  The  accenji,  Livjr  obferves,  were 
placed  ct  the  rear  of  the  army,  becanfe  no  great  mat- 
ter was  expected  from  them  :  they  were  taken  oat  of 
the  fifth  clafs  of  citizens. 

AccENsi,in  antiquity,  denotes  an  inferior  order  ef 
officers,  appointed  to  attend  the  Roman  magillraies, 
fomewhat  in  the  manner  of  uflicrs,  ferjeants,  or  lip- 
flaves  among  us.  They  were  thus  called  from  accirc, 
to  fend  for  ;  one  part  of  their  office  being  to  call  allem- 
blies  of  the  people,  fummon  parties  to  appear  and  an- 
fwer  before  the  judges,  &c. 

AccEN'si,was  alfo  an  appellation  given  to  a  kind  of 
adjutants,  appointed  by  the  tribune  to  affiil  each  cen- 
turion and  deeurion.  In  which  fenfe,  acanfus  is  fyno- 
nynious  with  oftio.  In  an  ancient  infcription,  given 
by  a  Torre,  we  meet  Accf.nsus  Eq_uiTUM  Romano- 
RCM  :  an  office  nowhere  clfe  heard  of.  That  author 
fufpeds  it  for  a  corruption  j  and  infleid  thereof  reads 

A    CCENSIBUS. 

ACCENSION,  the  aftion  of  fetting  a  body  on  fire  : 
thus  the  accenlion  of  tinder  is  effeftcdby  ftrikinir  fire 
with  flint  and  fteel.  ° 

ACCENT,  in  reading  or  fpeaking,  an  inSeclion  of 
the  voice,  which  gives  to  each  fyllablc  of  a  word  it; 
due  pitch  in  refpeit  of  hei:^ht  or  lownefs.  See  rkad- 
l.N'G.  The  Word  is  originally  Latin,  acantu! :  a  com- 
pound oiad,  to  ;  and  cani,  to  lln^.  j^-tiitui,  q:iaff, 
adca>:tus,  or  juxta  caiiuim.  In  this  fenfe,  accent  is  iy- 
nonymons  with  the  Greek  «.».-  ;  the  Latin  ttn^r,  or 

ioiior  •,  and  the  Hebrew  cryc,  g'iftus,  tafte For  the 

do.^rine  of  ./ain-./jin  Co:r.poj:t'r.ii,  fee  Poetry,  Pirt  III. 
N°  103.  114. 

Accent,  among  grammarians,  is  a  certain  mark  or 
charatler  placed  over  a  fyllable,  to  dirc^  the  jlrcfs  of 
its  pronunciation.  We  generally  reckon  three  gram- 
matical accents  in  ordinary  ufe,  all  borrowed  from  t!;r 
Greeks,  viz.  the  acuic  acfut,  ('),  which  ihows  whc:: 
the  tone  of  the  voice  is  to  be  raifcd.  1\\cgr.i:c  o.- 
ci'it  O.whcn  the  note  or  tone  of  the  voice'is  to  be 
deprelTcd.  The  draimfltx  iHcoit  ('  or  "),  iscompofcd 
oflx'th  the  acute  and  the  grave,  and  points  out  a  kind 
G  2 


A  C  C 


[     i2     ] 


A   C  C 


Accent,    of  iinJiilatiou  of  the  voice.  The  Latins  have  made  the 

' ^ fai-ic  ufcof  tlicl'c  three  accents. 

The  Hebrews  have  agrainmatical,  a  rhetorical,  and 
nui Ileal  accent :  though  the  firll  and  lall  feeni,  in  etfed, 
lo^bc  the  fame  ;  both  being  comprifcd  under  the  ge- 
neral n:ime  o( Ionic  (iccc-i/ii ,  becaiife  they  give  the  pro- 
per tone  to  fyllaliles  ;  as  the  rhetorical  accents  are  faiJ 
to  be  euphonic,  bccaufc  they  tend  to  make  the 
pronunciation  more  fweci  and  agreeable.  There  arc 
four  euphonic  accents,  and  25  tonic  ;  of  which  feme 
are  placed  above,  and  ollicis  below  the  fyllablcs  ;  the 
Hebrew  accents  fcrving  not  only  to  regulate  the  rilings 
and  fallings  of  the  voice,  but  alfo  to  dilliiiguilh  the 
fe^KionSjperiods,  and  numbers  ofperiods,ina  difcourfe  ; 
and  to  anfwcr  the  fame  purpofes  with  the  points  in 
other  languages.  Their  accents  are  divided  into  cvj- 
perors,  kings,  dukes,  ire.  each  bearing  a  title  anfwer- 
able  to  the  importance  of  the  dillinction  it  makes.  Their 
emperor  rules  over  a  whole  phrafe,  and  terminates  the 
fcnfe  completely  ;  anfwering  to  our  point.  Their  king 
anfwers  to  our  colon  ;  and  their  duke  to  our  comma. 
The  king,  however,  occafionally  becomes  a  duke,  and 
the  duke  a  king,  as  the  phrafesare  more  or  lefs  fliort. 
It  mull  be  noted,  by  the  way,  that  the  management 
and  combination  of  thefc  accents  differ  in  Hebrew 
poetry  from  what  they  arc  in  profe.  The  ufc  of  the  to- 
nic or  grammatical  accents  has  been  much  controver- 
ted :  fomc  holding  that  they  diftinguilh  the  fenfe  ; 
while  others  maintain  that  they  are  only  intended  to 
regulate  the  niulic,  orlinging  ;  alleging  that  the  Jews 
fmg,  rather  than  read,  the  fcripturcs  in  their  fyna- 
•  Coi'per,  gogucs*.   Bc  this,  liowever,  as  it  will,  it  is  certain  the 

D.im  Mo-  ancient  Hebrews  were  not  acquainted  with  thcfe  ac- 
cents. The  opinion  which  prevails  amonglf  the  learn- 
ed, is  that  they  were  invented  about  thefixth  century, 
bythcjewifh  doilorsof  the  fchool  of  Tiberias,  called 
the  M,ilfor:i;s. 

As  to  i!ic  Greek  accents,  now  fecn  both  in  mann- 
fcripts  and  primed  books,  there  has  been  no  lefs  dif- 
pate  about- their  antiquity  and  ufe  than  about  thofe  of 
the  Hebrews.  Ifaac  Volfius  endeavours  to  prove  them 
ofmoderninvention  ;  ailening,  that  anciently  tlicyhad 
nothing  of  the  kind,  bat  only  a  lew  notes  in  their  po- 
etry, which  were  invented  by  Ariilophancs  the  gram- 
marian, about  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philojiater  ;  and 
that  theic  were  of  mufical, rather  than  grammatical  ufe, 
ferving  as  aids  in  the  finging  of  rheir  poems,  and  very 
different  from  thofe  introduced  afterwards.  He  alfo 
Hiowsfrom  fcvcral  ancient  grammarians,  that  theman- 
nerof  writing  the  Greek  acccntsin  thefc  days  was  quite 
different  from  that  which  appears  in  our  books.  The  au- 
thor of  L'iVl'/ir//i(i</c<7r:'^/.'f, p.  546  ,obferves,t  hat  the  right 
pronunciation  of  the  Greek  language  being  natural  to 
tlie  Creeks,  it  was  needlefs  for  them  to  mark  it  by  ac- 
cents in  their  writings  :  fo  that,  according  to  all  ap- 
pearance, they  only  began  to  make  ufe  of  them  fo  low 
as  the  time  in  which  the  Romans,  being  curious  to 
learn  the  Greek  tongue,  fent  their  children  to  ftudy  at 
Athens,  thinkingthereby  to  fix  the  pronunciation;  and 
to  facilitate  it  to  llrangers;  v.'hicii  happeiied,as  the  fame 
author  obfervcs,a  little  before  Cicero's  time.  Wetflein, 
Greek  profeabr  at  Balil,  in  a  learned  ditl'crt  ition,  en- 
deavours to  prove  the  Greek  accents  of  an  older  land- 
ing. He  owns  that  they  were  not  always  formed  in  the 
f^mc  manner  by  the  ancients  j  but  thinks  that  difference 


faiac 


Cla 


owing  to  the  different  pronunciation  which  obtained  in     Accent 
thediilercnt  pans  of  Greece.  He  brings  feveralrcafons,  I 

aprt'ji-i,  for  the  ui'e  of  accents,  even  in  thccarlieft  days  :  Accepta- 
as  that  they  then  wrote  all  in  capital  letters  cquidifiant  .  "°"' 
from  eachother.without  any  dillinction  either  of  words 
or  phrafes,  which  without  accents  could  fcarce  be  in- 
telligible ;  and  that  accents  werenecclfaryto  dillinguilh 
ambiguous  words,  and  to  point  out  their  proper  mean- 
ing i  which  he  conlirms  (rom  a  difpute  on  a  palfage  in 
Homer,  mentioned  by  Arilfotle  in  his  Fol-Iics,  chap.  v. 
Accordingly,  hcobfervcs,  that  the  Syrians,  who  have 
tonic,  but  no  diftincUve  accents,  have  yet  invented  cer- 
tain points,  placed  either  bclov."  or  above  the  words,  to 
lliow  their  mood,  tcnfe,  perfon,  or  fenfe. 

The  ufe  of  accents,  to  prevent  ambiguities,  is  niofl 
remarkably  perceived  in  fome  eailern  langu.igcs,  par- 
ticularly the  Siamefe  and  Chinefe.  Among  the  peo- 
ple of  China,  every  word,  or  (which  is  the  fame  thing) 
fyllable,admits  of  live  accents,  asfpoken  moreacurately 
or  remifsly  ;  and  thus  ftands  for  many  different  things. 
The  fame  found  r<^,  according  to  the  accent  affixed  to 
it,  lignirtes  Cod,  a  wn//,  excclUiit,  jtupidity,  and  a 
gooj'e.  The  Chinefe  have  but  ;!:?ofpokcn  words  in  their 
language;  but  thcfe  being  multiplied  by  the  different 
.iccents  or  tones,  which  afFcft  tlie  vowels,  furnilh  a 
language  tolerably  copious.  By  means  hereof,  their 
5;!o  limple  founds  come  to  denote  1650  things  ;  but 
this  being  hardly  fufficient,they  are  encreafed  further 
by  afpiraies  added  to  each  word  to  double  the  number. 
The  Chinefe  only  reckon  four  accents:  for  which  the 
miijionarics  ufe  the  following  marks,  aa,  a,  a,  a  ;  to 
Mliich  they  have  added  a  tiftli,  thus,  S.  They  made  a 
kind  of  modulation  ;  wherein,  prolonging  the  duration 
of  the  found  of  the  vowel,  they  vary  the  tone,  railing 
and  finking  it  by  a  certain  pilch  of  voice  :  fo  that  their 
talking  is  a  fort  of  nuillc  or  llnging.  Attempts  have 
been  madetodetermine  thequantityof  the  rifeorfall  in 
each  accent  by  meansof  mnllcal  notes  ;  but  this  is  hard 
to  cffctf,  as  being  dirtereni  in  different  perfons.  Hence 
tlie  great  difKculty  of  tlie  language  to  foreigners  ;  they 
arc  forced  to  ling  mofl  fcrupuloully  :  if  they  deviate 
ever  fo  little  from  the  accent,  they  fay  quite  a  diffe- 
rent thing  from  what  was  intended.  Thus,  meaning 
to  compliment  the  perfon  you  are  talking  to  with  the 
title  Sir,  you  call  him  a  beait  with  the  fame  word, 
only  a  little  varied  in  the  tone.  Magalhon  makes  the 
language  the  caller  to  learn  on  this  account. — The 
Siamefe  are  alfo  obferved  to  ling  rather  than  talk. 
Their  alphabet  begins  with  fix  characters,  all  only 
equivalent  toa  K,  but  differently  accented.  For  tho' 
in  the  pronunciation  the  accents  are  naturally  on  the 
vowels,  yet  they  have  fome  to  divcrfify  fuch  of  their 
conlonants  as  are  in  other  refpcfts  the  fame. 

Accent,  in  mullc,  is  a  certain  enforcement  of  par- 
ticular founds,  whether  by  the  voice  or  inflruments, 
generally  ufed  at  the  beginning  of  bars. 

ACCKPTANCE,in  law,a  perfon'sagreeing  to  offers 
made  in  bargaining, by  which  the  bargain  is  concluded. 

AccErTANCE,  in  the  church  of  Rome,  is  put  for 
receiving  the  pope's  conflitutions. 

Acceptance,  in  cominerec,  is  the  fubfcribing, 
fiuning,  and  making  one's  felf  debtor  for  the  fum  con- 
tained in  a  bill  of  exchange  or  other  obligation. 

ACCEPTATION,  in  grammar,  the  fenfe  or  mean- 
ing v.'hcrein  any  word  is  taken. 

ACCEP- 


A  C  C 


[     53      1 


A  C  C 


ACCEPTER,  or  AcKEPToR,  the  pcrfoii  who  .ic- 
ccpis  a  BILL  of  exchange,  &c. 

ACCKPTILA  1  ION,  among  civilians,  an  acquit- 
tance or  dil'charge  given  by  the  crctliior  to  the  debtor 
without  the  payment  ot'any  value. 

Accessible,  Ibmething  that  may  be  approach- 
ed, or  that  accel's  may  be  had  to.  Thus  we  lay,  Such 
a  ])l.ice  is  accclliblc  on  one  tide,  Sfc. 

ACCESSION,  in  law,  is  a  method  of  acquiring 
property,  by  which,  in  things  that  havcaclofe  connec- 
tion or  dependence  upon  one  another,  the  property  of 
the  principal  thing  draws  after  it  the  property  ol  llie 
accellbry  :  Thus,  the  owner  of  a  cow  becomes  like- 
wife  the  owner  of  the  calf.  It  i'omctinics  iikcu  ifc  lig- 
nities  coufcnt  or  acquiefcence. 

Accession,  among  phyficians,  is  iifed  for  a  pa- 
roxyfm  of  a  difeafc  ;  among  politicians,  it  liguii-es  a 
prince's  fuccceding  to  the  government  upon  ilie  death 
of  his  predecclibr. 

ACCESSORY,  or  Accessary,  fomething  that  ac- 
cedes, oris  added  to  auotlier  more  conlidcnible  tliiug  ; 
in  which  fenfc  the  word  Randsoppofed  to  principa  l. 

ykcEssoRV,  or  Jccslfiiry,  in  common  law,  is  chioiiy 
iifed  for  a  pcrfou  guilty  of  a  felonious  offence,  not  prin- 
cipally, but  by  participation  :  as,  by  advice,  command, 
or  concealment. 

There  are  two  kinds  oi accejfories  :  before  the  faft, 
and  after  it. — Thc/>//  is  he  who  commands,  or  pro- 
cures another  to  commit  felony,  and  is  not  prelent  liim- 
felf;  for  if  he  be  prefent,  he  is  a  principal.  Theyi'- 
fowi/ is  he  who  receives,  alhlls,  or  comforts  any  man 
thath.-.s  done  murder,  or  felony,  whereof  he  has  know- 
ledge. A  man  may  be  alfo  accelTory  to  an  accelFory, 
by  aiding,  receiving,  &c.  an  accellbry  in  felony. 

An  accellbry  in  felony  ihall  have  judgment  of  life 
and  member,  as  well  as  the  principal  who  did  the  fe- 
lony ;  but  not  till  the  principal  be  tirll  attainted,  and 
convict,  or  outlawed  ihercon.  Where  the  principal  is 
pardoned  without  attainder,  the  accellbry  cannot  be 
arraigned  ;  it  being  a  maxim  inlaw,  Ubs  non  eli pr'tn- 
c'lpaiii,  iiOH  potfjl  c[fi:  acccjjaniis :  but  if  the  principal 
be  pardoned,  or  have  his  clergy  afler  attainder,  the  ac- 
cellbry fliall  be  arraigned  ;  4  and  5  \V.  ct  M.  cap.  4. 
And  by  llat.  i  Anne,  cap.  9.  it  is  enacted,  that  where 
the  principal  is  convicted  of  felony,  orftands  mute,  or 
challenges  above  20  of  the  jury,  it  Ihall  be  lawful  to 
proceed  againft  the  accellbry  in  the  fame  manner  as  if 
the  principal  had  been  r.ttainted  ;  and  notwith!landir.g 
fuch  principal  fliall  be  admitted  to  his  clergy, pardoned, 
or  delivered  before  attainder.  In  forae  cafes  only,  if 
tlie  principal  cannot  be  taken,  then  the  accelfory  may 
be  profecuted  for  a  mifdcmeanour,  and  punilhed  by 
fine,  imprifonmcnt,  &c.  In  the  lowefl  and  highcll 
offences  there  are  noacccflbrics,  but  all  are  principals: 
as  in  riots,  routs,  forcible  entries,  and  other  trefpall'es, 
which  arc  the  lowclt  offences.  So  alio  in  the  highcfl 
offence,  which  is,  according  to  the  Englilh  law,  high 
treafon,  there  are  no  acccllbrics. 

Acceflbrics,  in  petty  treafon,  murder,  and  in  felonies 
of  fcvcral  kinds,  arc  not  to  have  their  clergy.  There 
can  be  no  accellory  before  the  fact  in  manllaughtcr  ; 
bccaufe  that  is  fuddcn  and  unprepeiifcd. 

ylcttssoRr  Nerrf ,  in  anatomy,  a  pair  of  nerves, 
v\hich,arilingfrom  thcmcduUa  in  the  vertebra;  of  the 
ucck,  afcendymnJ  cuter  the  Ikull,  and  pafsoucof  it'a- 


gainwith  the  par  vaguni,  wrapped  up  in  the  fame  Acccflory 
common  integument,  and  after  quitting  tlicm,  arc  di-         II 
ftributed  into  the  inufcles  of  the  neck  and  Hiouldcrs.   Accident.^ 
See  An  A  TO. MY. 

Accessory,  among  painters,  an  epithet  given  to 
fuch  parts  of  an  hilkory-piccc  as  fcrve  chietiy  for  or- 
nament, and  might  have  been  wholly  Icit  out  :  fucli 
as  vafes,  armour,  &c. 

ACCl,  (niic.  ge'tg.)  a  town  of  Tarraconcnfis,  for- 
merly called  Altt  ;  fuppofcd  to  be  Gtianix,  to  the  cafl 
of  the  city  of  Granada,  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain,  near 
the  fource  of  the  rivulet  Guadalantin  ;  now  greatly  de- 
cayed. It  is  the  Colonia  Accitania  GemcUa,  and  was 
of  foinc  repute  among  the  Roman  colonics.  The  peo- 
ple were  called  Geniellenfes,  bccaufe  the  colony  con- 
lillcd  of  colonills  from  the  third  and  lixth  legions. 

ACCIAIOLI  (l)onata),  a  man  fanious  for  his  learn- 
ing and  the  honourable  employments  he  polfelicd  in 
Florence  his  native  country,  in  the  15""  century.  He 
wrote,  A  Latin  tranllationoffomeof  Plutarch's  Lives  ; 
Commentaries  011  Ariltoile's  Ethics  and  Politics  ;  and 
the  life  of  Charlemagne.  He  was  fcnt  to  Prance  by 
the  Florentines,  to  lue  for  fuccour  from  Lewis  XI. 
againll  Pope  Scxius  IV.  but  on  his  journey  died  at 
Milan  ;  his  body  was  carried  to  Florence,  and  buried  in 
the  church  ot  the  Cart hulians.Tliefmall  fortune  he  left 
his  children  is  a  proof  of  his  probity  and  diiinierclled- 
nefs.  His  daughters,  like  thole  of  Ariliidcs,  were 
married  at  the  public  expence,  as  an  acknowledgement 
of  his  fcrviccs.  His  funeral  culogium  was  fpokcn  by 
Chridopher  Landini  ;  and  an  elegant  epitaph,  by  Poli- 
tion,  was  infcribed  on  his  tomb. 

ACCIDENT,  in  a  general  fenfe,  denotes  any  ca- 
fual  accident. 

Accident,  among  logicians,  is  ufed  in  a  tlirccfolJ 
fenfe.  i.  \V'hatevtr  does  not  elleniially  belong  to  a 
thing  ;  as  the  clothes  a  man  wears,  or  the  money  in  his 
pocket.  2.  Such  properties  in  any  fubjett  as  are  not 
clfential  to  it  ;  thus  whitenefs  in  paper  is  an  acci- 
dental quality.  3.  In  oppolition  to  fubllance,  all  qua- 
lities whatever  arc  called  accidents  ;  as  fwceincfs,  foft-  * 
nefs,  6-c. 

AcciPEN'T,  in  grammar,  implies  a  property  attach- 
ed to  a  word,  w  ithoHt  entering  into  its  elfcntial  defini- 
tion ;  for  every  word,  notwithitanding  iis  lignitica- 
tion,  will  be  either  primitive,  derivative,  liniple,  or 
compound,  which  are  the  accidents  of  words.  A 
word  is  laid  to  be  priuiiiive,  when  it  is  taken  from  no 
other  word  ia  the  language  in  wliich  it  is  ufed  :  thus 
hcavm,  king,gO'jJ,  are  primitive  words.  It  is  faid  to 
be  derivative,  when  it  is  t.iken  from  fome  other  word  : 
\.\m%  hiavmlv,  kiiigJom, gooJneJ'i,  &c.  are  derivatives. 
A  limplc  word  is  calily  dillinguilhcd  from  a  compound : 
\.\\n&  jujt,  jujiicc,  arc  limple  words  ;  unjuft,  hijujike, 
arc  compound  :  r(s  is  a  limple  word,  as  well  ispnblua  ,- 
hMrcffuhlica  is  a  compound.  Bclidcsthefe  accidents, 
which  arc  common  to  all  forts  of  words,  each  particu- 
lar fpecies  has  its  accidents  :  thus  the  accidents  of  the 
noun  fubllantive  arc  the  gender,  dcclenlion,  and  num- 
ber ;  and  the  adjective  has  another  accident, nanuly.ihe 
coniparifon-  See  the  article  Gr  a  m  m  a  r  and  L  an  g  u  ac  e- 

Acci  D  F.  N  T ,  in  heraldry,  an  additional  point  or  mark 
in  a  coat  of  arms,  which  may  be  either  omitted  or  re- 
tained without  altering  the  elTcnce  of  the  ariuoar  ;  fuch 
as,  abatement,  dilfirrcnce,  and  tincture. 

ACCI- 


A  C  C  Is 

Acci.lcntal,  ACCIDENTAL,  in  a  general  Icnl'c,  iinplies  fome- 
Acciiicnfir.  thing  ili.it  Jiappciis  by  accident,  or  iliat  is  not  cliciuial 
"         to  its  fiibjtcl. 

AcciDF.N-  rAi-,  in  philyfoiiliy,  is  applied  to  tliat  cf- 
fcd  whicli  Hows  from  fonic  caiifc  inicrvcning  by  acci- 
dent, without  being  fubjed,  or  at  Icall  without  any 
appearance  of  its  being  lubjcctjlo  general  laws  or  regu- 
lar returns.  In  this  lenle,  rtai./cv.'/isoppoled  loconjlant 
and  ['liLcifal.  Thus  tlic  fun's  place  is,  \\  itli  rcfpcJt  to 
tlir  earth,  the  conflant  and  principal  caufe  of  the  heat 
in  fummcr,  and  the  cold  in  winter  ;  whereas  winds, 
fiiows,  and  rains,  arc  the  accidental  caufes  which  of- 
ten alter  and  modify  the  adlion  of  the  principal  caufe. 

ylcciDF.STAi.  I  oiiit,  in  ptrfpcftivc,  is  that  point  in 
the  horizontal  line  where  tiie  projcdions  of  two  lines, 
parallel  to  each  other  meet  the  perfpertive  plane. 

AcciDEXTAL  Colours,  arc  ihofc  which  depend  upon 
the  affedions  of  the  eye,  in  contradiflinflion  to  thofc 
which  belong  to  the  light  itfelf.  The  iniprcllions  made 
npon  the  eye  by  looking  Itedfaflly  at  a  particular  co- 
lour,arc  various,according  toihe  fingle  colour  or  com- 
bination of  colours  in  the  object  ;  and  they  continue 
for  fonie  time  after  the  eye  is  withdrawn,  and  give  a 
falfe  colouring  to  oihcr  objcds.  Mr  BufFon  has  en- 
deavoured to  trace  the  connedions  which  thcfe  acci- 
dental colours  have  with  fuch  as  arc  natural,  i)i  a  va- 
riety ofinflances.  The  fubjed  has  alio  been  coniidered 
by  De  la  Hire,  and  M.  Epences ;  and  M.  d'  Arcy  has 
contrived  a  machine  for  determining  the  duration  of 
the  efFeds  of  light,  and  after  fcvtral  trials,  finds  that 
it  continues  about  eiglit  thirds  of  a  minute. 

ACCIPENSER,  in  ichtiiyology,  a  genus  offilhcs 
belonging  to  the  Ampliibia  Nantes  of  Linnscus.  The 
accipenfcr  has  a  fingle  linear  noflril  :  the  mouth  is  in 
the  under  part  of  the  head,  and  contains  no  teeth  ;  the 
cirri  are  below  thcfnout,  and  before  the  mouth.  There 
arc  three  fpeciesof  this  genus,  viz. 

1.  The  rutheiuis  has  4  cirri,  and  i  J  fquamous  pro- 
tuberances.    It  is  a  native  of  RulTia. 

2.  The  hufohas  4  cirri  ;  the  body  is  naked,  /.  e.  has 
no  prickles  or  protuberances.  The  (kin  of  the  hufo 
is  fo  tough  and  flrong,  ihat  it  is  employed  for  ropes 
in  carls  and  other  wheel-carriages  ;  and  the  icjithyo- 
coUa,  or  isingi  ass  of  the  Ihops,  famous  as  an  agglu- 
linant,  and  ufed  alfo  for  the  fining  of  wines,  is  made 
from  its  found  or  fcales.  The  ancients  were  acquaint- 
ed with  the  fifli  tliat  afforded  this  drug.  The  hufo  is 
the  largefl  of  the  genus,  and  grows  to  24  feet  in  length. 
Jt  inliabits  the  Danube  and  the  rivers  of  RufTia. 

3.  Theftario,  or  lhirgeon,with  4  cirri  and  1 1  fquam- 
ous protuberances  on  ihc  back.  This  fifli  annually  af- 
cends  the  rivers  in  Briiian,  but  in  no  great  numbers, 
and  is  taken  by  accident  in  the  falmou-nets.  Itfccmsa 
fpiritlefs  fiili,  inakin";  no  manner  of  relillance  when 
entangled,  but  is  drawn  out  of  the  water  like  alifelefs 
lump.  It  is  fcldom  tsken  far  out  at  fea,  but  frequents 
•fuch  parts  as  are  not  remote  from  the  a;ftuarics  of  great 
livers.  It  is  admired  for  the  delicacy  and  firnuicfiof 
its  flelh,  which  is  white  as  veal,  and  extremely  good 
when  roaO.ed.  1;  is  generally  pickled.  A  conlidcrable 
quantity  are  annually  fcnt  10  Britain  from  America 
and  the  Baltic  rivers.  Great  numbers  nre  taken  during 
f.inimer  in  the  lakes  FrifclreHaff,  anuCurifchhafr  near 
Pil!aii,in  !&rgc  nets  made  of  fmall  cord.  The  adjacent 
ilio'res  arc  formcj  intodiP.rids,  and  (armcJo-.u  to  con:- 


\      ] 


A  C  C 


panics  of  fiflicrmcn,  fome  of  which  aic  rented  for  fix  Acclpittr 
tlioufandguildcrs,near  three  hundred  pounds,/ii;-rtA';7.  I 

They  arc  found  in  va(l  abundance  in  the  American  ri-  Acciu?. 
vers  in  May,  June,  and  July  ;  at  which  lime  ilicy  leap  "  "  ' 
fomeyardsoutoftlic  water,  and,  filling  on  thcir'lides, 
make  a  noife  to  be  heard  in  flill  weather  at  a  great 
diftance.  Caviare  is  made  of  the  roes  of  this,  and  a!fo 
of  all  the  other  forts  of  (lurgeons,  dried,  falted,  and 
pickled  up  elofe.  IchthyocoUa,  or  ilinglafs,  is  likcwifc 
made  of  the  found  of  this  filli,  as  well  as  that  of  the 
others ;  but  in  \cry  fmall  quantity.  The  llurgeoii 
grows  to  a  great  fizc,  to  the  length  of  18  feet,  and  to 
the  weight  of  500  pounds.  In  the  manner  of  breed- 
ing, this  filh  is  an  exception  among  the  cartilaginous 
kind  ;  being,  like  the  bony  fifli,  oviparous,  fpawn- 
iiig  in  water. 

ACCII'lTER,  tlie  name  of  Linnaeus's  firfl  order  of 
Birds.     See  Zoo  log  v. 

Among  the  Romans,  the  term  accipiier  li^nified  a 
hawk,  and  wliich,  from  its  being  very  carnivorous, 
they  arc  conlidered  as  birds  of  bad  omen  ; 

OJimut  accipittem^  quia fcmpcr  tiiv'it  in  armit,  OviD. 

Pliny.,  however,  tells  us,  that  in  fomc  cafes,  parti- 
cularly in  marriage,  it  was  cHeemed  a  bird  of  good 
omen,  becaufe  it  never  eats  the  hearts  of  other  birds  ; 
intimating  thereby,  that  no  differences  in  a  married 
flate  ought  to  reacli  the  heart.  The  accipiter  was 
wordiipped  as  a  divinity  by  the  inhabitants  of  Tcnty- 
ra,  B.n  idand  in  the  Nile,  being  eoniidered  by  them  as 
the  image  of  the  fun  ;  and  hence  we  find  that  lumina- 
ry reprefented,  in  hieroglyphics,  under  the  figure  of 
a  hawk. 

ACCISMUS,  denotes  a  feigned  refufil  of  fome- 
tliing  which  aperfon  earnefliy  defires.  The  word  is 
Laiin  ;  or  rather  Greek,  Axx/»^«c;  fuppofed  to  be  form- 
ed from  y^cio,  the  name  of  a  foolilh  old  woman  noted 
in  antiquity  for  an  affcdation  of  this  kind. 

^ccy'nius  is  fometimes  confidered  as  a  virtue  ;  fomc- 
timcs  as  a  vice,  which  Augullas  and  Tiberius  prac- 
tifed  with  great  fuccefs.  Cromwell's  refufal  of  the 
crown  of  England  may  be  brought  as  an  inflance  of  an 
Accifnuis. 

AcciSM  us  is  more  particularly  ufed,  in  rhetoric,  as 
a  fpccies  of  irony. 

ACCITUM,  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  Hifpania  Ba- 
tica,  now  Fiii'!a>;a,  as  appears  from  an  ancient  inlcrip- 
tion  ;  fitnaic  on  an  eminence  of  the  mountains  Alnu- 
xaras  in  Granada. 

ACCIUS  (Lucius),  a  Latin  tragic  poet,  the  fon  of 
a  frecdman,  and,  according  to  St  Jerome,  born  in  the 
confullhip  of  Hoflilius  Mancinus  and  Attilius  Serra- 
nus,  in  the  year  of  Rome  583  ;  but  there  appears 
fomcwhat  of  confufion  and  perplexity  in  this  chronolo- 
gy. He  made  himfelf  known  before  the  deaih  of  Pa- 
cuvius,  a  dramatic  piece  of  his  being  exhibited  tlic 
fame  year  that  Pacuvius  brought  one  upon  the  ilage, 
the  latter  bciii;!;  then  eighty  years  of  age,  and  Accius 
<  nly  thirty.  NVe  do  not  know  the  name  of  thi;;  piece 
of  Accius's,  but  the  titles  of  fevcral  of  his  tragedies 
are  mentioned  by  various  authors.  He  wrote  on  the 
mofl  celebrated  Itories  which  had  been  reprel'cnted  on 
tlic  Athenian  ftage  ;  as  Andromache,  Andromeda,  A- 
trcus,  Clytcmnclh-J,  Medea,  MeIc3gcr,"Phi!ocleres, 

i5)e 


A  C  C  [     s 

Accius,    the  civil  wars  of  Tlicbcs,  'I'crcus,  tlie  Troades,  &c. 
Acclama-  He  iliJ  not  always,  however,  take  his  fubjeds  from 
''°"        the  Grecian  llory  ;  tor  he  coinpofcd  one  dramatic  piece 
"  wholly  Roman  :  it  was  intitlcJ  Brutus,  and  related  to 

tlic  expliilioii  of  the  Tarquins.  It  is  aflirnicd  by  fume, 
that  he  wrote  alfo  comedies  ;  which  is  not  unlikely,  if 
he  was  the  author  of  two  pieces,  the  Wedding  and 
the  .Merchant,  which  have  been  afcribed  to  him.  He 
did  not  conline  himfclf  to  dramatic  writing  ;  for  lie  left 
other  produL'Hons,  particularly  his  annals,  iu<;iuioncd 
by  Macrobius,  Prifcian,  Keftus,  and  Nonnius  Marcel- 
lus.  He  has  been  ccnfured  for  writing  in  too  harlli  a 
ftylc,  but  in  all  other  refpcc^s  hasbcencllcemeda  very 
great  poet.  He  was  fo  much  efleemed  by  the  public, 
that  a  comedian  was  puniflied  for  only  mentioning  his 
name  on  the  ftagp.  Cicero  fpeaks  with  great  deriiion 
of  one  Accius  who  had  written  a  hiftory  ;  and,  as  our 
author  had  wrote  annals,  fome  inlill  that  he  is  the  per- 
Ibn  cenfured  :  but  as  Cicero  himfclf,  Horace,  (^uinti- 
lian,Ovid,  and  Paterculus,  have  fpokenof  our  author 
with  fo  much  applaufe,  we  cannot  thinkit  is  him  whom 
the  Roman  orator  cenfures  with  fo  much  fevcrity. 

There  was  alfo  in  this  age  a  pretty  good  orator  of 
the  fame  name,  againfl  whom  Cicero  defended  Cluen- 
tius.  He  was  born  in  Pifeurum,  and  perhaps  was  a  re- 
lation of  our  poet. 

ACCIUS,  a  poet  of  the  16"' century,  to  whom  is 
attributed  A  Paraphraf::  of  JEfop'i  FabUs,  on  which 
Julius  Scaliger  bellows  great  encomiums. 

ACCLAMATION,  a  confufed  noife  or  fliout  of 
joy, by  which  the  public  exprcfstheirapplaufe,  crtecm, 
or  approbation. 

Acclamation,  in  a  more  proper  fenfe,  denotes  a 
certain  Ibrni  of  words,  uttered  with  extraordinary  ve- 
liemencc,  and  in  a  peculiar  tone  fomewhat  refem- 
blinga  fong,  frequent  in  the  ancient  afl'emblics.  Ac- 
clamations were  ufually  accompanied  with  applaufcs, 
with  which  they  are  fomctimes  confounded  ;  though 
they  ought  to  be  difliuguifl\ed  ;  as  acclamation  w  as 
given  by  the  voice,  applaufe  by  the  hands  ;  add,  that 
acclamation  was  alfo  bellowed  on  pcrfons  abfent,  ap- 
plaufe only  on  thofe  prcfent.  Acclamation  was  alfo 
gived  by  women,  whereas  applaufe  fccms  to  have  been 
confined  to  men. 

Acclamations  are  of  various  kinds;  ccclefiiiflical, 
military,  nuptial, fcr.alorial,fynodi  a!,  fcholaflic,  thea- 
trical, &e.  We  meet  with  loud  acclamations,  nuihcal, 
and  rythmical  acclamations;  acclamations  of  joy  and 
refpcfl,  and  even  of  reproach  and  contumely.  The 
former,  wherein  words  of  happy  omen  were  iifed, 
were  alfo  called  Laud.itic>iej,  et  bona  vota,  or  good  willi- 
es ;  the  latter,  Exccratiott^s  et  co/ivitia.  Suetonius  fur- 
nifliesaninflanceofthis  lad  kind  in  theR'iman  fcnate, 
on  occalionof  the  decree  for  demolifliing  ihrftatucsof 
Domiiian,  when  the  fathers, as  the  hidorian  reprefcnts 
it,  could  not  refrain  from  contumelious  acclamations  of 
thedeceafed.  The  like  were  fliown  after  the  death  of 
Commodus,  where  the  acclamations  run  in  the  follow- 
ing llrain  :  NoJIi  />utri.r  honoret  dctrahaTitur, piiriiciii<r 
koiiorej  dctiahiiiitur  ;  hoftis  ftiit:ias  uitdiqut,  (iarr'ic':d^r 
jiatuas  undique,  gtadiatoris  jlaluai  r/zid/iju. ■,$:<:. — The 
formula,  in  acclamations,  was  repeated  fometimes  a 
greater,  fomctimes  a  lefler,  number  of  times.  Hence 
we  find  in  Roman  writers  acc/anuili'i'i  rft  tjuiarjuies,  et 
viae:  ,-  five  times,  and  twenty  times  :  fomelinics  alfo 
/ixa^ies  and  even  iClua^Us  ,■  (ixiy  and  eight  limes. 

3 


] 


A  C  C 


Atclamaiioui  ».  ire  not  unknown  on  the  theatres  in 
the  carlieA  ages  of  the  Roman  commonwealth  ;  but 
they  were  artlefb  then,  and  little  other  than  confufed 
Hiouts.  Afterwards  they  became  a  fort  of  regular  con- 
certs. That  mentioned  by  Phxdrus,  l.ttaie  incohimit 
Romafaho lirii.cipi:,  which  was  made  for  Auguflns,  and 
proved  the  occafion  of  a  pleafant  niiflake  of  a  flute- 
player  called  /^////ff/iijniowsthat  mufical  acclamations 
were  in  ufe  in  that  emperor's  reign.  Rcvcrtei.l.-m  ex 
I'lovincui  jijuhilatii  cartiiinibui  frijiqucbuntur,  fays 
.*>uetonius,  who  gives  another  inflance  iu  the  time  of 
Tiberius  :  a  falfe  report  of  Germanicus's  recovery  be- 
ing fprcad  thrftugh  Rome,  the  people  ran  in  crowds  to 
the  capitol  with  torches  and  vidlims,  linging,  Saha 
Ro/»a,  Saha  Patrij,  italvus  ejl  Cerviai.wii. — Ncro, 
jiallionatcly  fond  of  nuuic,  took  fpecial  care  to  improve 
and  perfect  the  muiic  of  acclamations.  Charmed  with 
tiie  harmony  wherewith  the  Alexandrians,  who  came 
to  tlie  games  celebrated  at  Naples,  hadfunghispraifes, 
he  brought  fcveral  over  to  inllrucl  a  number  of  youth, 
chofen  from  among  the  knights  and  people,  in  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  acclamations  praclifed  at  Alexandria. 
Thefe  continued  in  ufe  as  long  as  the  reign  of  Tlico- 
doric.  Hut  the  people  did  not  always  make  a  finglc 
chorus;  fometimes  there  were  two,w ho anfwered each 
other  alternately  :  thus,  when  Nero  played  on  the 
theatre,  Burrhus  and  Seneca,  who  were  on  cither 
hand,  giving  the  fignal  by  cLipping,  50CO  fcldicrs 
called  Augullals,  began  to  chaut  his  praifc,  which  the 
fpedators  were  obliged  to  repeat.  The  whole  was 
conduced  by  a  mufic  mafler  called  Mcfochorus  or  /'</«- 
farius. — The  honour  of  acclamations  was  chiefly  ren- 
dered to  emperors,  their  children,  and  favourites;  and 
to  the  magillrates  who  prefiJcd  at  the  games.  Pcr- 
fons of  dillinguilhed  merit  alfo  fomctimes  received 
them,  of  which  diiiiuilian  gives  us  inilanccs  in  Cato 
and  \  irgil.  The  moll  ufual  forms  were,  Filidter,  Lok- 
giorem  v':tit7ii,  Aititoi  jtlicis.  The  aftors  themfelvcs, 
and  they  who  gained  the  prizes  in  the  games  of  the 
circus,  were  not  excluded  the  honour  of  acclama- 
tio:is. 

To  the:itii:al  acclamations  may  be  .''dJed  thofe  of 
the  foldiery  and  people  in  time  of  ci.imph.  The 
vi^orious  army  accompanied  their  general  to  the  capi- 
tol;  and,3:nongthc  vcrfestliey  fung  in  his praifes,  fre- 
quently repeated,  lo  Triu.mphe,  which  the  people 
anfwered  \\  the  fame  ftrain.  it  was  a'.fo  in  the  way 
of  acclamation,  that  tlu  foldicrsgavc  thcirgeneral  the 
title  of  hn^eraf'r,  after  fome  notable  victory  :  a  title 
which  he  only  kept  till  the  time  of  his  triumph. 

The  acclamaiionsof  the  fcnate  were  fomewhat  more 
fcriousihan  the  popular  ones  ;  but  arofe  from  the  fame 
principle,  :'.-.  a  dclirc  of  plcaling  the  prince  or  his  fa- 
vourites; and  aimed  likewifc  at  the  fame  end,  cither  to 
cxprefs  the  general  approbation  and  zeal  of  the  com- 
pany, or  to  congratulate  him  on  his  viclorics,  or  to 
make  him  new  proteftations  of  fidelity.  Thefe  accla- 
mations were  ufually  given  after  a  report  made  by  fome 
fenator,  to  which  thcrcft  all  cxprclfed  their  eonfent  by 
crying  Omn  fs.Om  NEs  ;  or  clfe,  /I'q^ium  est,  jus- 
TUM  EST.  Sivnctimcj  they  began  with  acclamations, 
and  fomctimes  ended  with  them  without  other  debates. 
It  was  after  this  manner  that  allthe  eleftionsand  pio- 
claniations  of  emperors,  made  by  the  fcnate,  were  con- 
duifled  ;  fomething  of  w^iich  prac'lice  is  ftill  retained 
ati;io.'.ern  c!cdionsofkiugsandcmperors,\vheic  I'wat 


A  C  C 


[     S6     ] 


A  C  C 


AccUma-   JiiX,   Vive  li  Koy,  zwd  Long  live  the  King,   are  cufto- 

tiou.      m;u-y  fonus. 
'      ^'  The  Greeks  borrowed  tlieciifloin  of  receiving  tlicir 

emperors  in  die  public  places  from  the  Romans.  Liiit- 
pranj  relates^  tliat  at  a  proctllion  where  he  was  pre- 
ftiu,  they  I'liug  to  the  emperor  Niccplioriis,  ?To>.>,a  it*  ; 
that  is,  JMany  years:  wliich  Codin  exprelles  thns,  by 
TO  ■J.atxxsiv  TO  7rt,>.\/^ft,tn,t,  or  by  TO  ToXi/^pov^^Kv  J  and  the 
\\  ilh  or  faliitatiou  by  Troxtp^foKs-M^.  And  at  dinner,  the 
Greeks  then  prefent  v\ilhcd  with  a  lond  voice  to  the 
emperor  and  Bradas,  Ut  Deus  aiinos  iimltipiuct ;  as  he 
tranllates  tlie  Greek.  Plutarch  mentions  an  acclaniu- 
tion  fo  loud,  upon  occafion  of  Klaminius^s  relloring  li- 
berty to  Greece,  that  the  very  birds  fell  from  heaven 
wiih  the  lliout.  The  Turks  praOlife  fumething  like 
this  on  the  lij^lu  of  their  emperors  and  grand  viziers 
to  this  day. 

For  the  acclamations  wherewith  authors,  poets,  &c. 
werereceivcd,  who  recited  their  works  in  public  ;  it  is 
lobeobferved,  the  all'embliesfor  this  purpofc  were  held 
with  great  parade  in  the  moll  folcmn  places,  as  the  ca- 
pitol,  temples,  the  Athcnfeuni,  and  the  houfes  of  great 
men.  Invitations  were  lent  every  where,  in  order  to 
get  the  greater  appearance.  The  chief  care  was,  that 
the  acclamations  might  be  given  with  all  the  order  and 
pomp  polliblc.  Men  of  fortune  who  pretended  to  wit, 
kept  able  applauders  in  ihtir  fervicc,  and  lent  them  to 
their  friends.  Others  endeavoured  to  gain  them  by 
prefeiits  and  treats,  philollratus  mentions  a  young 
iiian  named  Vavus,  who  lent  money  to  the  men  of  let- 
ters, and  forgave  the  intereil  to  fuch  as  applauded  his 
excrcifcs.  Thele  acclamations  were  condu6led  much 
after  the  fame  manner  as  thofe  on  tlic  theatre,  both  as 
to  the  niulic  and  the  accompaniments  ;  they  were  to 
be  fuited  both  to  the  i'ubjcc^  and  to  the  perfon.  There 
were  particular  ones  for  the  philofophers,  for  orators, 
for  hilloriaus,  and  for  potts.  ]t  would  be  dillicult  to 
rchcarfe  all  the  forms  of  them  ;  one  of  die  moilufnal 
was  io/iAt'J, which  was  to  be  repeated  three  times.  Mar- 
tial comprehends  feveral  other  ufual  forms  in  (his  verfe: 

Craviter,  ttto,  Nequiter,  Etigc,  Beati. 
Neither  ths  Greeks  nor  Romans  were  barren  on  this 
head.  The  names  of  gods  and  heroes  were  given  thofe 
whom  they  would  extol.  It  was  not  enough  to  do  it 
after  each  head  of  difcourfc,  chieHy  after  the  exordi- 
um ;  but  the  acclamations  were  renewed  at  every  tine 
paliage,  frequently  at  every  period. 

The  acclamations  wherewidi  the  fpei51ators  honour- 
ed the  v;dorics  of  the  athletx,  were  a  natural  confe- 
qucnce  of  the  impetuous  motions  which  atetndcd  tlie 
gyymaftic  games.  The  cries  and  acclamations  of  the 
people,  fomciimcs  cxprefling  their  compaflion  and  joy, 
fomttimcs  their  horror  and  difgnlt,  are  flrongly 
painted  by  difiercnt  poets  and  orators. 

Acclamations  made  alfo  a  part  of  the  ceremony  of 
marriage.  They  w-erc  ulcd  for  the  omen's  fake  ;  be- 
ing the  L.Tta  On4na,  fometimts  fpokcn  of  before 
marriage  in  Roman  writers. 

Acclamations,  at  tirft  praflifed  in  the  theatre,  and 
palling  thence  to  the  fenatc,&c.  was  in  procefsof  time 
received  into  the  acits  of  councils,  and  the  ordinary  af- 
ftmblies  of  the  church.  The  people  cxpre/lcd  their 
approbation  of  the  preacher  varioully ;  the  more  ufual 
forms  were,  C*-7/'a.-/o.v.'  Tkiri  ^.(xiflh,  &c.  Thefc  accla- 
mations being  fometimcs  carried  to  excefs,  and  often 


iTiifpliccd,  were  frequently  proliibited  by  llie  ancient    Accl;im». 
dotlors,  and  at  length  abrogated  ;   though   they  ap-       «'»" 
pear  to  have  been  in  fome  ufe  as  low  as  the    time  of  ' 

St  Bernard. 

ylccLAM ATioK  DLulcili,  auiong  antiquaries,  fuch  as 
reprcfcnt  the  people  e.\prclfing  their  joy  inihcpollurc 
of  acclamation. 

ACCLIVITY,  the  rife  or  afcenc  of  a  hill,  in  oppo- 
fiiion  to  the  declivity  or  defcent  of  it.  Sonic  writers 
in  fonitieation  ufe  it  for  the  talus  of  a  rampart. 

ACCOLA,  among  the  Romans,  figniried  a  perfoii 
who  lived  iieur  fome  place  ;  in  which  fcnfe,  it  differed 
from  ii:c'.4a,  the  inhnbitai.t  of  fuch  a  place. 

ACCOLADE,  a  ceremony  anciently  ufcd  in  the 
coufcrrino-  of  knisrhthood. 

Antiquaries  arc  not  agreed  wherein  tlie  accolade 
properly  conliUtd.  The  generality  fuppoft  it  to  be  the 
embrace,  or  kifs,  which  princes  anciently  gave  the  new 
knight,  as  a  token  of  their  aff'cdion  :  whence  the  word 
accolade;  ij.  d.  a  clafping,  or  taking  round  the  neck. 
Others  will  rather  have  it  to  be  a  blow  on  the  chine  of 
the  neck,  given  on  the  fame  occafion.  The  Accolade 
is  of  fome  antiquity,  in  which  foever  of  the  twofenfes 
it  be  taken.  Greg,  de  Tours  writes,  that  the  kings  of 
Krance,  even  of  the  firll  race,  in  conferring  the  gilt 
Ihoulder-belt,  killed  the  knights  on  the  left  cheek.  For 
the  acclee,  or  blow,  John  of  Salilliury  allures  us,  it  was 
in  ufeamong  the  ancient  Normans  :  bythis  itw-as  that 
William  the  Conqueror  conferred  thehonoiir  of  knight- 
hood on  his  fon  Henry.  At  firft,  it  was  given  with 
the  naked  fift;  but  was  afterwards  changed  into  a  blow 
with  the  flat  of  thefw'ord  on  the  Ihoulderof  the  knight. 
ACCOLEE,  foaittiraes  fynonymous  with  Acco- 
lade, which  fee.  —  It  is  alfo  ufed  in  various  fenfes 
in  heraldry  :  fometimes  it  is  applied  to  two  things 
joined  ;  at  other  times,  toaniinals  with  crowns,  or  col- 
lars about  their  necks,  as  the  lion  in  the  Ogilvy's 
arms  ;  and,  laftly,  to  kcws,  bations,  maces,  fwords, 
&c-  j'laced  faltierwife  behind  the  lliield. 

ACCOLTI  (Bernardo),  fccretiry  to  the  republic 
of  Florence,  was  furnamed  L'Unieo,  or  the  Nonfuch, 
probably  from  the  great  extent  of  his  underftandiuF, 
tlie  variety  of  fciences  he  had  acquired,  and  the  ex- 
cellency oi'his  poetic  vein  ;  which  not  only  gained 
him  a  icat  among  the  academicians  of  the  court  of 
Urbino,  but  matlc  that  great  Mecx-nas,  pope  Leo  X. 
in  I  520,  create  him  prince  of  the  flate  of  Nepi.  He 
wrote  many  pieces;  among  others,  a  colleftiou  of  beau- 
tiful piicms,  primed  in  Venice  in  1519  and  155:?. 

ACCOMFvlODATlON,  the  application  of  one 
thing,  by  analogy,  to  another  ;  or  the  making  two  or 
more  things  agree  with  one  another. 

To  know  a  thing  by  accotiimijdiition,  is  to  know  it 
by  the  idea  of  a  limilar  thing  referred  thereto. 

A  prophecy  of  fcripturc  is  faid  to  be  fulfilled  vari- 
ous ways  ;  properly,  as  when  a  thing  foretold  comes 
to  pafs  :  and  improperly,  or  by  way  of  aec07rimoda- 
tioti,  when  an  event  happens  to  any  place  or  people, 
like  to  what  fell  out  fome  time  before  to  another. — 
Thus,  the  words  of  Ifaiah,  fpoken  totliofe  of  his  own 
time  ;  are  faid  to  be  fultilled  in  thofe  who  lived  in  our 
Saviour's  ;  and  are  accoininodnted  10  them  :  "  Ye  hy- 
pocrites, well  did  Ifaias  prophecy  of  you,"  &c.  which 
fame  words  St  Paul  afterv/ards  accojwmdata  to  the 
Tews  of  his  time. 

The 


o 


A  C  C 


[     57     ] 


A  C  C 


'iScconifi- 
nimvnt 

I 

Acconi- 
plifhnient. 


•  Saurln. 
IMK.  O.  T. 
tuiii.  i. 


f  De  Icglb. 
Htbr.diff.i 

1. 3-  r-  3«- 


The  primitive  church  accommoJtit^t!  mu\i\ludes  of 
Jewilli,  ■■:nd  even  heathen  ceremonies  and  pradices,  to 
Chriftiaii  parpofcs  ;  but  the  Jews  had  before  done  llic 
fame  by  thcGentilcs  :  fome  will  even  jiavc  circumci- 
fioii,  the  tabernacle,  brazen  fcrpeut,  &c.  to  have  been 
originally  of  f^gyptian  ii(e,  and  only  accovimodalcd  by 
Mc-fcs  to  the  purpofcs  of  Judailm*.  Spencer  maintains, 
that  mod  of  the  rites  of  the  ohl  law  were  an  imitation 
of  tliofe  of  the  Gentiles,  and  particularly  of  tJie  Kg/P- 
lians  ;  that  God,  in  order  to  divert  the  chiKlrcn  of  \i- 
racl  from  the  worlhip  they  paid  to  the  falfe  deities, 
confccratcd  the  greatell  part  of  the  ceremonies  per- 
formed by  thofc  idolaters,  and  had  formed  out  of  ilicm 
a  body  of  tlic  ceremonial  law  ;  that  he  had  indeed  made 
fome  alterations  therein,  as  barriers agaiull  idolatry  ; 
and  that  he  thus  accotiiviodated  his  worlhip  to  the  ge- 
nius and  occaiions  of  his  ancient  people.  To  this 
condefcenlion  of  God,  according  to  Spencerf ,  is  ow- 
ing the  origin  of  the  tabernacle,  particularly  that  of 
the  ark.  Thcfc  opinions,  however,  have  been  con- 
troverted by  later  writers. 

ACCOMPANIMENT,  fomething  attending  or 
added  as  a  circumflance  to  another,  either  by  way  of 
ornament,  or  for  the  fake  of  fymmctry. 

Accompaniment, in  nuific, denotes ihcinflruraents 
vhich  accompany  a  voice,  in  order  to  fuftain  it,  as  well 
as  to  make  the  nuUic  more  full.  The  accompaniment  is 
ufcd  in  recitative,  as  well  as  in  fong  ;  on  the  ftagc,  as 
well  as  in  the  choir,  &c.  Tlic  ancients  had  likewife 
their  accompaniments  on  the  theatre  ;  they  had  even 
different  kinds  of  inllruments  toaccompany  the  chorus, 
from  thofc  which  accompanied  the  aftors  in  the  reci- 
tation.— The  accompaniment,  among  the  moderns,  is 
frequently  a  different  parr  or  melody  from  tlic  fong  it 
accompanies.  It  is  diiputcd  whether  it  was  fo  among 
the  ancients.  It  is  generally  alleged,  that  their  ac- 
companiments went  no  farther  than  the  playing  in 
octave,  or  in  antiphony  to  the  voice.  The  Abbe  Kra- 
guier,  from  a  palfage  in  Plato,  pretends  to  prove,  that 
they  had  adual  fymphony,  or  n\ulic  in  parts  :  but  his 
arguments  Icem  far  from  being  conclufive. 

Arco.MrANiMENT,  in  painting,  denotes  fuchobjefls 
as  are  added,  eitherby  wayofornament,  or  probability; 
as  dogs,  guns,  game,  Sic.  in  a  hunting  piece. 

Accompaniment,  in  heraldry,  any  tiling  added  to 
a  fliield  by  way  of  ornament ;  as  the  belt,  mantling, fup- 
porters,  &c.  It  is  alfo  applied  to  fcveral  bearings  about 
a  principal  one  ;  as  a  falticr,  bend,  fefs,  chevron, 
&c. 

ACCOMPLICE,  one  that  has  a  hand  in  a  bufinefs  ; 
or  is  privy  in  the  fame  defigu  or  crime  with  another. 
See  Accessory. 

By  the  law  of  Scotland,  Ihe  acco'itplicc  can  only  be 
prolccutcd  after  the  convidion  of  the  /ir//;ci/ii7/olfend- 
er,  unlefs  the  arcelFion  of  the  accomptia  is  immediate, 
in  i[>fo  aOu,  fo  as  in  ctfc^'l  to  render  them  c'l-pniicipcil. 
l\y  the  general  rule,  the  accomplice  fullers  the  fame 
punilhmcntwith  the/T/«d/><//otFcnder  ;  yet  if  he  be  re- 
markably lefs  guilty,  juftice  will  not  permit  equal  pu- 
iiifhmcnt. 

The  council  of  Sens,  andfcveralothcr  fynodical  lla- 
tates,  cxprcfbly  prohibit  the  revealing  o(  aicomplicj. 

ACCOMPLlSiIMi:NT,  the  entire  execution  or 
fulfilling  of  any  ihiug. 

Accomplish  MENT,  is  principally  nfed  in  fpcaking 
of  events  foretold  by  the  Jcwilh  prophets  in  the  Old 
Vol.  I. 


Teflament,  and  fulfilled  under  the  New.     We  fay  a    Accom- 
literal  accomplilhment,  a  niyllical  or  fpiriiual  accom-   plifomeiit 
plilhmcnt,  a  iinglc  accomplilhment,  a  double  accom-  ' 

plifhment,  a  Jcwilh  accomplilhment,  a  Chriftian,  a  Accouoiaiu 
heathen  accomplillinient.  The  fame  prophecy  is  fomc- 
timcsaccoraplillied  in  all,  or  in  fcveral  of  thole  different 
ways.  Tlius,  of  fome  of  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Te- 
ftamcnt,  the  Jews  find  a  literal  accomplifl'.mcnt  in  their 
own  hillory,  about  the  time  w  hen  the  prophecy  was 
given  :  the  CliriUians  lind  another  in  Chri'.l,  or  the 
earlieftdays  of  the  church;  the  heathens  another,  iu 
fome  of  their  emperors  ;  the  Mahometans  another,  in 
their  legillator,  &e.  Tiifre  are  two  principal  ways  of 
accomplilhing  a  prophecy  ;  diriBly,  and  by  accovwir,- 
datioii.     See  Accommodation,  and  Prophecy. 

Accomplishment,  is  alio  ufed  for  any  mental  or 
perfonal  endowment. 

Accord,  in  painting,  is  the  harmony  that  reigns 
among  the  lights  and  fliades  of  a  pidure. 

Accords  (Stephen  Tabourot,  feignear  des^  advo- 
cate ia  the  parliament  of  Dijon  in  France,  and  king's 
advocate  inthe  bailiwic  and  chancery  of  that  city,  born 
in  the  year  1549.  ^^  ^^^  "^  man  of  genius  and  learn- 
ing ;  but  too  much  addic-led  to  trifles,  as  appears  from 
his  piece,  intitled,"  LesBigarrures,"  printed  at  Paris 
in  1582.  1  his  was  not  his  firft.  production,  for  he 
had  before  printed  fome  fonncts.  His  work,  in- 
titled,  "  Les  Touches,"  was  publiilied  at  Paris  in 
IJ85  ;  which  is  indeed  a  colledion  of  witty  poems, 
but  worked  up  rather  in  too  loofe  a  manner,  according 
to  the  licentious  taflc  of  that  age.  His  Bigarrures  are 
written  in  the  fame  drain.  He  was  cenfured  for  this 
way  of  writing,  which  obliged  him  topublilh  an  apo- 
logy. The  lordlhip  of  Accords  is  an  imaginary  fief  or 
title  from  the  device  of  his  ancellors,  which  was  a 
drum,  with  the  motto,  a  tons  accords,  "  chiming  v,  itii 
all."  He  had  fent  a  fonnet  to  a  daughter  of  Mr  Be- 
gat, the  great  and  learned  prclident  of  Burgundy, 
"who  (fays  he)  did  me  the  honour  to  love  me:  — 
And  inafmuch  (continues  he),  I  had  fubfcribed  my 
fonnet  with  only  my  device,  a  torn  accords,  this  lady 
firfl  nicknamed  me,  in  her  anfwer,  Scig/icur  des  A'c- 
cords  ;  by  which  title  her  father  alfo  called  me  fcveral 
times.  For  this  rcal'on  I  chofe  this  furname,  not  only 
in  all  my  writings  compofed  at  that  time,  but  even  ia 
thefe  books."  He  died  July  24th  1561,  in  the  46th 
year  of  his  age. 

ACCOUNT,  or  Accompt,  in  a  general  fenfc,  a 
computation  or  reckoning  of  any  thing  by  numbers. 
Collcdively,  it  is  ufcd  to  cxprefs  the  books  which 
merchants,  traders,  bankers,  bcc.  ufe  for  recording 
their  tranf.idions  in  bulincfs.  See  B(>ok-kefpixc. 

Chujiibcr  (jf  j^'ccov^T.t,  in  the  French  polity,  ii  a 
fovcreign  court  of  great  antiquity,  whi-h  t.ikcs  cog- 
nifancc  of  and  rcgillers  the  accounts  oi  the  king's  re- 
venue. It  is  nearly  the  fame  with  the  Englifli  Court  of 
Exchiqiicr, 

Account  is  taken  fomctimes,  in  apanicnlar  fenfc, 
for  the  computation  of  time:  tiuis  we  fay.  The  Julian 
Account,  the  Gregorian  Account,  ire.  iu  which  Iciifc 
it  is  equivalent  to  Jtyli. ' 

ACCOUNTANT,  or  Acoomptant,  in  the  mort 
general  fenfc,  is  a  perfon  (killed  in  accounts.  In  a 
more  refti'icled  fenfc,  it  is  applied  to  a  perfon,  or  of- 
ficer, appointed  to  keep  ihi  accounts  of  a  public  com- 
pany or  oflicc  ;    as  the  South-lea. 

H  ACCOUNT- 


A   C  C 


r 

L 


58         1 


A  C  C 


ACCOUNTANli)!!!!',  the  art  of  keeping  and 
buldnciag  accounts.     Sec  BooK-KEtPiNG. 

ACCOUNTAN  T-CENERAi.,  a  new  officer  in  the 
court  of  Chancery  in  GreacBiitiin  appointed  by  act  of 
parliament  to  receive  all  moneys  lodged  in  court  iii- 
Itead  of  the  lUJllcrs,  and  convey  the  lame  to  the  bank 
of  England  for  fecnrity. 

ACCOUTREMENT,  an  old  term,  applied  to  the 
furniture  of  a  foldier,  knight,  or  gentleman. 

ACCRETION,  in  phylics,  the  increafe,  or  growth 
of  an  organical  body,  by  the  accclHon  of  new  parts. 
Sec  NuiKirioN,  Plants,  and  Vegetables. 

Accretion,  among  civilians,  the  property  acquired 
in  avagLte  or  unoccupied  thing,  by  its  adhering  to  or 
following  another  already  occupied  :  thus,  if  a  legacy- 
be  left  to  two  perfons,one  ofwhom  dies  before  the  ttf- 
tator,  the  legacy  devolves  to  the  furvivor  by  right  of 
accretion. 

ACCROCHE,  in  heraldry,  denotes  a  thing's  be- 
ing hooked  with  anotlur. 

ACCUHATION,    a  pollure  of  the  body,  between 
fitting  and  lying.  The  word  comes  from  the  Latin  Jtv/c 
/•are,  compounded  of  «</,  to,  and  c!/!>o,  1  lie  down,    y^c- 
cubatioii,  or  Accubitin,  was   the   table-pofture  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  ;  whence  we  lind  the  words  par- 
ticularly nfe  for  the  ly iiig,  or  rather  (as  wc  call  it)  fit- 
ting down  tomcat.    The  Greeks  introduced  this  pof- 
ture.  The  Romans,  during  the  frugal  ages  of  the  re- 
public, were  llrangcrs  to  it :  but  as  luxury  got  footing, 
this  poflurc  came  to  be  adopted,   at  lead  by  the  men  ; 
for  as  to  women,  it  was  reputed  an  indecency  in  them 
to  lie  down  among  the  men  :  though,  afterwards,  this 
too  was  got  over.    But  children  did  not  lie  down,  nor 
fervants.nor  foldiers,  nor  ptrfons  of  meaner  condition; 
but  took  their  meals  fitting,  as  a  poflurc  lefs  indulgent. 
TheRoman  mannerofdifpofingihemfelves  at  table  was 
this  :  A  low  round  table  was  placed  in  the  ccenaculum, 
or  dining-room  ;  and,  about  this,  ufually  three,  fonie- 
tiraesonly  two,  beds  or  couches  ;  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  which,  it   was   called  bicltuiuvi  or  tiicliiiium. 
Thefe  were  covered  with  afort  of  bed-clothes,  richer 
or  plainer  according  to  the  quality  of  the  perfon,  and 
furnilhed  wi:h  quilts  and  pillows,  that  the  gue lis  might 
lie  the  more  commodioully.  There  were  ufuilly  ihrce 
perfonson  eacli  bed  ;  to  crowd  more,  was  eflecmed  for- 
did. In  eating,  they  lay  down  on  their  leftlides,  with 
their  heads  refting  on  the  ))illows,   or  raiher  on  their 
elbows.      The  firll  lay  at  the  head  of  the  bed,  with 
his  feet  extended  behind  the  back  of  the  fecond  ;   the 
fccond  lay  with  the  back  of  his  head  towards  the  navel 
of  tl.efirft,  only  feparated  by  a  pillow,  his  feet  behind 
the  back  of  the  third;    and  lb  of  the  third,  or  fourth. 
The  middle  place  was  eflecmed  the  moH  honourable. 
Before  they  came  to  table,  they  changed  their  clothes, 
puttingon  what  they  called  (nr/Zij/'z/vd  veJHs,\.\it  dining- 
garment ;  and  pulled  off  their  Ihoes,  to  prevent  fouling 
the  couch. 

ACCUBITOR,  an  ancient  officer  of  the  emperors 
of  Conftantineple,  whofe  bufinefs  was  to  lie  near  the 
emperor.  He  was  the  head  of  the  youth  of  the  bed- 
chamber, and  had  ihe  cuiicu/ariiu  and /'rocuiitur  mi- 
tlcr  him. 

ACCUMULATION,  in  a  general  fenfe,  the  aft  of 
heaping  or  amaffing  things  together.  Among  lawyers, 
it  is  ufcd  in  fpeaking  of  the  concurrence  of  fevcral  titles 


to  the  fame  thing,  or  of  fevcral  circumllances  to  the  AccumuU- 
fanic  proof.  tlon 

yAcvMULyrr/os  ofDegna,  in  an  univcrfity,  is  the         |  . 
taking  fevcralot  them  together,  or  at  fmaller  intervals  ^''"|»^°°; 
than  ufual,  orthan  is  allowed  by  thcrulcs  of  the  uni- 
vcrlity. 

ACCURSED,  fomcihiag  that  lies  under  a  curfc, 
or  fenteuce  of  exconimuuicaii  ^n. 

la  the  Jewilh  idiom,  accurfid  and  crucified  were  fy- 
nonymous.  Among  them,  every  one  was  accounted 
accurfcd  who  died  011  a  tree.  This  fcrves  to  explain  the 
difficult  palfagc  in  Rom.  ix.  3.  where  the  apollle  Paul  . 
wiflicshimftlt  rtav/r/c'i/<//;ir  thi  inaiimr  oj  thriji,i.  e. 
crucified,  if  happily  he  might  by  fuch  a  death  fave  his 
countrymen.  The  propoliiionirri  here  made  ufe  of, 
is  ufcd  in  the  fame  fenfe,  2  Tim.  i.  3.  M'h'ere  it  ob- 
vioufly  iignifies  after  thi  vtanuer  of. 

ACCURSIUS,  a  law-profcllorin  the  13th  century, 
born  in  Florence.  His  authority  was  for  foine  time 
fo  great,  that  he  was  called  the  Idol  of  the  Lawyers. 
— Other  three  lawyers  of  note  had  the  fame  name. 

AccuRsius  (Mariangelus),  a  famous  critic  of  the 
i6th  century,  born  at  Aquilo  in  the  kingdom  of  Na~ 
pics.  His  Diatrcbes,  printed  at  Rome  in  folio,  ia 
1524,  on  Ovid  and  Solinus,  are  a  proof  of  his  abili- 
ties in  that  kind  of  erudition.  In  his  edition  of  Am- 
mianus  Marcellinus  there  arc  five  books  more  than  in 
any  of  the  preceding  ones  ;  and  he  affirms  he  had  cor- 
reded  5000  errors  in  that  hillorian.  His  predomi- 
nant palHon  was  the  fearching  for  and  collefting  of  old 
manufcripts:  yet  he  made  Latin  and  Italian  verfes  ; 
was  complete  maflerof  the  Erench, German,  and  Spa- 
nilh  tongues  ;  and  underilood  optics  and  mufic.  He 
purged  himfelf  by  oath,  bcingchargcd  for  being  a  pla- 
giary with  regard  to  his  Aufonius  ;  it  being  reported, 
that  he  had  appropriated  to  himfelf  the  labours  of  Fa- 
bricio  Varana,  bilhop  of  Camerino. 

ACCUSATION,  the  charging  any  perfon  with  a. 
criminal  action,  either  in  one's  own  name,  or  in  that 
ofthcpubJic.  The  word  is  compounded  of  tfi/,  to; 
and  caufari,  to  plead. 

Writers  on  politics  treat  on  the  benefit  and  the  in- 
conveniences of  public  accufations.  Various  argu- 
ments are  alleged,  both  for  the  encouragement  and. 
difcouragement  of  accufations  againfl  great  men.  No- 
thing, according  to  Michiavel,  tends  more  to  the  pre- 
fervation  of  a  flate,  than  frequent  accufations  of  per- 
fons  irufled  with  the  admiiiiflration  of  public  affairs. 
This,  accordingly,  was  flrictly  obfcrvcd  by  the  Ro- 
mans, in  the  inftancesof  Camillus,  accufcd  of  corrup- 
tion by  ManliusCapitolinus,  Oc.  Accufations,  how- 
ever,in  the  judgment  of  the  fame  author,  are  not  more 
beneficial  than  calumnies  are  pernicious  ;  which  isalfo 
confirmed  by  the  praftice  of  the  Romans.  Manlius 
not  being  able  to  make  good  his  charge  againfl  Ca- 
millus,  was  cafl  into  prifon. 

By  the  Roman  law,  there  was  no  public  accufer  for 
public  crimes;  every  private  perfon,  whether  interefl- 
ed  inthe  crime  or  not, might  accufe,  and  profecute  the 
accufcd  to  punilliment,  or  abfolution.  Caio,  the  mcfl 
innocent  perfon  of  his  age,  had  been  accufed  42  times, 
and  as  often  abfolved.  But  the  a.cc\iid.i\on  oi private 
crimes  was  never  received  but  from  the  mouths  of  thofc 
who  were  immediately  interefled  in  them  :  None  {:•£•) 
but  the  hulband  coiilil  accufe  his  wife  of  adultery. 

The 


ACE 


[     59     1 


ACE 


^cTOfiitivc      Ttie  anticncRomon  liwyers  diftinguirtied  between 
I         foftulatio,  ddcitio,  and  accujutio.    Kor,  tirll,  leave  was 
riccntctum  delircd  to  bring  a  charge  agiiufl  one,  which  was  called 
'       "        pufiitlarc:  then  he  agaiiift  whom  the  charge  was  laid, 
was  brought  before  the  judge  :  which  was  called  Hi- 
fcrrc,  or  noHiinhdilatio  :  laltly,  the  charge  was  drawn 
up  and  prefented,  which  was  properly  the  acaifatio. 
The  accufation    properly  commenced,  according  to 
Paedianus,  when  the  reus  or  party  charged,  being  in- 
terrogated, denied  he  was  guilty  of  the  crime,  and  fub- 
fcribcd  his  name  to  the  dclatio  made  by  his  opponent. 

In  the  French  law,  none  but  the  Procureur  general, 
or  his  deputies,  can  form  an  accufation,  except  for 
high-trcafon  and  coining,  where  accufation  is  open  to 
every  body.  In  other  crimes,  private  pcrfons  can  on- 
ly act  tlie  part  of  denouncers,  and  demand  reparation 
for  the  offence,  with  damages. 

In  Britain,  by  Magna  Charta,  no  man  fliall  be  im- 
prifoned  or  condemned  on  any  accufation, without  trial 
by  his  peers,  or  the  law  ;  none  fiiall  be  vexed  witli  any 
accufation,  tjut  according  to  the  law  of  the  hud  ;  and 
no  man  may  be  molclled  by  petition  to  the  king,  &c. 
nnlcfsit  be  by  indidmentor  prefentmcnt  of  lawful  men 
or  by  proctfs  at  common  law.  Promoters  of  fuggef- 
tions,  are  to  rind  furety  to  purfue  them  ;  and  if  they  do 
not  make  them  good,  Ihall  pay  damages  to  the  party 
accufed,  and  alfo  a  rine  to  the  king.  No  perfon  is 
obliged  to  anfwcr  upon  oatli  to  a  queftion  whereby 
he  may  accufe  himfslf  of  any  crime. 
'  ACCUSATIVE;  in  the  Latin  grammar,  is  the 
fourth  cafe  of  nouns,  and  lignities  the  relation  of  the 
noun  on  which  the  aftion  implied  in  the  verb  termi- 
nates ;  and  hence,  in  fuch  languages  as  have  cafes,  thefe 
nouns  have  a  particular  termination,  called  accufative  : 
as,  Auguflus  vicit  Antonium,  Auguftus  vanquilhed  An- 
tony. Here  Antiiiiitrn  is  tlie  noun,  on  which  the  ac- 
tion implied  in  the  verb  vicit  terminates  ;  and,  there- 
fore, muft  have  the  accufative  termination.  Ovid, 
fpeaking  of  the  palace  of  the  fun,  fays,  Materiem  fu- 
fcrahat  opus.  The  work  furpalfed  the  materials.  Here 
materiem  has  the  accufative  termination  ;  becaufe  it 
determines  the  aftion  of  the  ytrh  fuperabat. — In  the 
Englilh  language  there  arc  no  cafes,  except  the  geni- 
tive ;  the  relation  of  the  noun  being  (hown  by  the  af- 
lirtance  of  prepolitions,  as  o/^  to,  from,  &c. 

ACCUSIORUM  CoLoNiA  (anc.  geog.),  an  in- 
land town  in  the  Cavares,  in  Gallia  Narbonenlis:  now 
Crenoble,  in  Dauphine.     See  GRENobi.E. 

ACE,  among  gamcfters,  a  card  or  die  marked  only 
with  one  point. 

ACELUM,  orAcEMUM  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of 
the  Venetian  territory,  now  called,  Azolo,  iituatcd  to 
the  weft  of  Trevigi,  at  the  fource  of  the  rivulet  Mu- 
fone.     E.  Long.  13",  N.  Lat.  4;°. 

ACENTETUM,  orAcANTETA,  in  natural  hifto- 
ry,  a  nauie  given  by  the  ancients  to  the  purcll  and 
rinefl  kind  of  rock  cryllal :  They  ufed  the  cryftal  in 
many  ways  ;  fometimes  ingraving  on  it,  and  fome- 
times  forming  it  into  vafcs  and  cups,  which  were  held 
next  in  value  to  the  vafa  vittrrhina  of  thefe  times. 
The  cryllal  they  obtaiued  from  the  illand  of  Cyprus 
\v.as  much  efteemed  ;  but  often  faulty  in  particular 
parts,  h.aving  hairs,  cracks,  and  foulneifcs,  which  they 
called /;////,  in  the  middle  of  the  large  pieces.  Pliny 
tells  lis,  that  when  it  was  ufcd  for  engraving  on,  the 


artift  could  conceal  allthcfcblemillics  among  the  rtrokes   Ac-pK»li 
of  hi3  work  J  but  when  it  was  to  be  formed  into  cups         I 
or  precious  vafes,  they  always  chofc  the  accntetam    '^"r'>^- 
which  had  no  Haws  or  blcmilhcs.  , ^ , 

ACEPHALI,  or  AcEPHALiTit,  a  terra  applied  to 
fevcral  feds  who  rcfufed  to  follosv  fomc  noted  Icadt . . 
Thus  the  perfons  who  rcfufed  to  follow  cither  |ohii  ot 
Antioch,  or  St  Cyril,  in  a  difpute  that  happened  in  the 
council  of  Ephcfus,  were  termed  Aeephuii,  without  a 
head  or  leader.  Such  bilhops,  alfo,  as  were  exempt 
from  the  jurifdidion  and  difcipline  of  their  patriarch, 
were  ftylcd  Acephali. 

AcEPHALi,the  levellers  in  the  reign  of  king  Henry 
I.  who  acknowledged  no  head  or  fuperior.  They  were 
reckoned  fo  poor,  that  they  had  not  a  tenement  by 
which  they  might  acknowledge  a  fuperior  lord. 

ACEPILALOUS,  or  AcEPHAtus,  in  a  general 
fenfe  ;  without  a  head. 

The  term  is  more  particularly  ufed  in  fpeakingof 
certain  nations,  or  people,  reprefented  by  ancient  na- 
turalills  and  cofmographers,  as  well  as  by  fonie  mo- 
dern travellers,  as  formed  without  heads  ;  their  eyes, 
mouths,  &c.  being  placed  in  other  parts. 

Such  arp  the  Blemmyes,a  nation  of  Africa  near  the 
head  of  the  Niger,  reprefented  to  be  by  Pliny  and  So- 
linus  ;  Blemviyes  tradunttir  capita  abi^e,  ore  et  oculis 
peiiore  affixis.  Ctelias  and  Solinus  mention  others  in 
India  near  the  Ganges,  Jine  cervice  ocu/es  in  humeris 
habentes  Mela  alfo  fpeaks  of  people,  qtiibvs  capita  et 
■julttisin  peBore  fiu'.t.  And  Suidas,  Stcphanus  Byzan- 
tinus,  Vopifcus,  and  others  after  them,  relate  the  like. 
Some  modern  travellers  ftill  pretend  totind  acephalous 
people  in  America. 

Several  opinions  have  been  framed  as  to  the  origin 
of  the  fable  of  the  Acephali.  The  tirft  is  that  of  Tho- 
mas Bartholin,  who  turns  the  whole  into  a  metaphor  ; 
being  convinced, that  the  name  Acephali  was  anciently 
given  to  fuch  as  had  lefs  brain,  or  conduced  themfelves 
lefsby  the  rules  of  prudence,  than  others.  Olearius 
rather  apprehends,that  the  ancient  voyagers,  viewing 
certain  barbarous  people  from  the  coalts,  had  been  ini- 
pofed  on  by  their  uncouth  drefs  ;  for  that  the  Samo- 
gitians,  being  Ihort  of  ftature,  and  going  in  the  fcve- 
rity  of  winter  with  their  heads  covered  in  hoods,  fecni 
at  adiftance  asif  they  were  hccdlefs.  F.  Lafitau  fays, 
that  by  Acephali  are  only  meant,  people  whole  heads 
are  funk  below  their  Ihouldcrs.  In  ctfed,  Hulfius,  in 
his  epitome  ofSirWalterRaleigh'svoyagc  toGuaiana, 
alfo  fpeaksof  a  people  which  that  traveller  found  in  the 
province  of  Irvipanama,  between  the  lakes  of  Panama 
and  Calfipa,  who  had  no  header  neck  ;  and  Hondius, 
in  his  map,  marks  the  place  with  the  figures  of  thefe 
monfters.  Yet  Dc  Laet*  rejecis  the  ftory  ;  being  in-  'Uefcript. 
formed  by  others,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  banks  -^^mcr.l.ir. 
of  the  Caora,  a  river  that  flows  out  of  ihc  lake  of '•  *-• 
Callipa,  have  their  head  fo  far  funk  between  their 
Ihoulder,  that  many  believed  they  hid  their  eyes  in 
their  Iboulders  and  their  mouths  in  their  brealls. 

But  though  the  exillencc  of  a  nation  of  Ac:/ kali 
be  ill  warranted,  naturalills  furniih  fcveral  inftanccs 
of  individuals  born  without  heads,  by  fomc  lufus  or  a-    t '"  l^r''- 
berration  of  nature.  Wepfer  gives -j-  a  catalogue  of  ^cr.  Jcc^^i. 
fuch  aceph.-ilous  births,  Irom  Schcnckius,  Licetus,  Pa-  *"'  ■'■  "o 

i.r    l.r  »i  •  ~  HQ.PM84. 

raeus,  Wolhus,  Mauriccau,  i^c.  Dec-i  an  o. 

ACEPHALUS,  an  obfoleie    term   for  the  tsenia  or  obfer.  ms! 
H  2  tape-  p  xj8. 


A  C 


[     60     J 


A  C  £. 


A«pha!ns, 

Acer, 

the 

M.i'ile  tree 


tape-worm,  which  was  longfuppofcd  to  be  acephaluus. 
Sec  Tjesia.  The  lirlt  who  gave  njt.  head  was  Tiil- 
piiis  ;  and  after  him,  Kchr  :  1  he  t'urmcr  even  makes 
it  bicefs,o\-i\vo  licadcd. 

AcEPH  ALUi,isalt'oul'ed  to  exprcfs  a  verfe  dcfcclivc 
i-i  the  beginning. 

ACER,  the  Maple  or  Sycamore  Tree  ,  a  genus 
of  themoncecia  order,  bclonjjing  10  thepolygamiu  claCs 
of  plants  ;  and  ranking  under  the  23d  Natural  Order 
Trihilat.c. — The  generic  characters,  both  natural  and 
cffential,  are  :  The  Hermaphrodte  ailyx  is  an  a- 
cute,  coloured,  one-leaved  pcrianthium,  divided  into 
five  iegmcnts,  flat  and  entire  at  tiic  bale,  and  perlilient: 
the  corolla  is  (ivc-petal'd,  ovate,  and  expanding  :  the 
jla/iiina  conliftof  eight  lubulatcd  fliort  hlaments  ;  the 
anthers  limplc,  the  dull  cruciform  :  Thep  JIiIuim  has 
a  coinprelR-d  germen,  imnierfed  in  the  receptacle, 
which  is  convex,  perforated,  and  large  ;  the  Itylus  is 
filiform  :  the  itigmataare  two,  pointed,  (lender,  and 
reflex  :  The  pcr'icarfium  conlills  of  two  or  three  cap- 
ful* uniting  at  the  bafe,  roundilli,  coniprefled,  each 
terminated  with  a  large  membranous  wing  :  Thcjl-ids 
are  folitary  and  roundilh.  The  MALEtay.v,  corolla, 
and  ftaiiiina,  are  the  fame  as  in  the  hermaphrodite  ; 
The  p'iftillum  has  no  germen,  nor  flylus  ;  the  Itignia 
is  betid.  {_Nja,  On  the  firfb  opening  of  the  flower, 
the  jl'igma  alone  appears  ;  a  few  days  after,  \.\\c  Jly/iis. 
— The  hermaphrodite  flowers  on  the  fame  umbel  are 
frequently  of  two  forts:  the  inferior  onc^Jeniiiihu-, 
the  anthcras  of  which  do  not  buril,  but  the  piftillum 
ijuickly  grows  into  fruit  :  the  fuperior  ones  tnafaiime, 
of  wliich  the  antheras  fcatter  their  pollen,  but  the 
pillilla  without  increaling  fall  off.] 

Species,  with  their  ufcs  and  properties. '\  I.  The 
pfeudo-piatanus,  or  fycamore,  is  a  very  large  and 
beautiful  tree,  with  broad  leaves,  divided  into  live 
lobes  ferratcd  in  their  edges  ;  of  a  dark  green  colour 
on  the  upper  fide,  but  paler  and  fomewhat  hoary  un- 
derneath ;  the  flowers  are  very  fmall,  and  of  a  green- 
ilh  white  colour.  The  corolla  of  this  fpecics  is 
fcarcely  diflinguilhable  from  the  calyx,  and  the  fta- 
mina  are  long.  T  he  fruit  is  large,  and  beautifully 
variegated  with  green  and  purple.  This  fpecics  is  a 
native  of  Germany,  but  thrives  very  well  in  Great 
Britain,  where  it  is  frequent  in  plantations.  It  is  very 
proper  for  making  plantations  near  the  fea,  orlhelter- 
ing  Inch  as  are  already  too  near  it  ;  becaufe  the  fyca- 
morc-tree  refills  the  (pray  of  the  ocean  much  better 
[han  moft  other  trees.  But  it  has  this  inconvenience, 
tiiat  its  leaves  are  devoured  by  iiifeds,  foas  to  become 
full  of  holes,  and  very  unfightly  :  which  has  caufed 
the  planting  of  it  to  be  much  neglected  of  late.  It 
has,  howe\er,  long  been  conlidcred  as  a  timber 
tree,  having  been  much  ufed  by  the.  turners  for 
wooden  bowels,  diflies,  trenchers,  &c.  ;  but  lincc 
the  cuflom  of  ufmg  earthen  ware  has  become  fo  pre- 
valent, its  value  for  thofe  purpofes  has  greatly  dccrea- 
fed.  There  are  two  varieties  ;  one  with  broad  leaves 
and  large  keys,  the  other  with  variegated  leaves.  By 
tapping  it  yields  a  liquor  not  unlike  that  of  the  birch 
tree  ;  from  which  the  highlanders  of  Scotland  forac 
times  make  an  agreeable  and  wholefome  wine. 

1.  The  campeltris,  or  common  maple,  is  too  well 
known  to  need  any  particular  dcfcription,  as  it  grows 
very  frequently  in  hedge-rows  in  moft  parts  of  Britain. 


The  timber  of  the  common  maple  is  far  fuperior  to     Acer, 
the  beech   tor  all   the.  ufes  of  the  turner.     When  it       tlic 
abounds  with  knots,  as  it  frequently  docs,  it  is  highly  Mai>k--trcei 
elteemed  by  joiners  for  inlay  inga.   it  isalfo  irequently         * 
employed  tor  making  niulical  inllruments,  on  account 
of  itslightncfs  ;  and  lor  the  i\hitenels  of  its  wood  was 
formerly  cltcemed  for  makiug  tables,  &c.     But  the 
principal  va!ue  of  the  maple  is  for  underwood  ;  it  be- 
ing of  a  quick  growth,  and  affording  good  fuel. 

3.  The  negundo,  or  Virginian  alli-leaved  maple,  ij  . 
avery  llrongiliooting  tree  ;  and  in  Virginia,  whcreit 
is  a  native,  is  one  of  the  largelt  trees  of  this  kind. 
Its  leaves  .ire  of  a  pale  green,  and  well  adapted  to  give 
a  variety  of  tint  :  but  ilanbury  fays,  that  this  trcc- 
ought  not  to  be  planted  in  expofed  fituations,  the 
branches  litingfubject  tobc  fplit  ott'by  the  wind.  Ita 
ufcs  are  limilar  to  thofe  of  the  fycamore. 

4.  The  platanoides,  or  Norway-maple,  grows  na- 
turally iiiNorway,  Sweden,  and othernorthern coun- 
tries of  Europe.  ]t  rifes  to  a  good  height,  and  is  well 
furnilhed  with  branches  with  fmooth  leaves,  of  a  Ihining 
green  colour,  and  beautifully  indented.  Thefc  have  an 
acrid  milkyjuice,  which  prcvtnts  them  from  being 
preyed  upon  by  infefts  as  the  fycamore  is  ;  and  as  this 
fpecies  relift  s  the  fpray  of  the  fea  equally  with  the  firft, 
it  is  preferable  in  plantations  fituaicd  near  the  fea.  In  au- 
tumn the  leaves  dye  to  a  golden  yellow  colour,  which 
caufes  a  delightful  elfec^fc  at  that  feafon  when  the  differ- 
ent tintsofdecayingvegctablesaredifplayed.The  dow- 
ers are  alfo  beautiful  ;  they  come  out  early  in  the  fpring, 
are  of  a  fine  yellow  colour,  and  fliow  themfelves  to  ad- 
vantagebefore  the  leaves  come  out.  They  are  frequent- 
ly fucceededby  keys, which  fonietimcsarriveat  maturi- 
ty in  Britain.  There  is  a  variety  with  llriped  leaves 

5.  Therubrum,  or  Virginia  fcarlet  flowering  maple, 
is  a  native  of  that  country,  and  never  grows  to  a  large 
llze  in  Britain.  It  is,  however,  cultivated  in  gardens 
for  the  beauty  of  its  flowers,  wliich  appear  in  the  be- 
ginning of  April,  in  roundifli  bunches,  at  the  bottom 
of  the  footllalksof  the  leaves.  The  feeds  are  ripe  in 
live  or  (ix  weeks  after  ;  and  ought  to  be  immediately 
fown,  being  othcrwife  very  apt  to  pcrifii.  The  tree 
ought  tobclheltered,efpecially  whilft  young,  from  the 
north-eaft  winds  ;  it  delights  in  a  inoill  light  foil,  where 
it  will  thrive  much  better,  as  well  as  produce  many 
more  flowers  and  much  better  feeds,  than  in  a  dry 
ground.  A  variety  of  this  tree  is  known  in  England 
by  the  name  of  SirCharlci  Wager's  Flowerirg  IMaple, 
from  its  being  firft  fent  from  America  to  Sir  Charles 
Wager.  The  flowers  of  this  kind  come  out  in  larger 
clufters  than  the  other,  and  furround  the  fmall  branch- 
es,fo  that  the  tree  appears  entirely  covered  with  them, 
and  makes  a  much  more  beautiful  appearance  than  the 
former,  which  is  now  not  fo  much  efleemed. 

6.  The  faccharinum,orfugar-maple,isa  large  grow- 
ing tree  :  will  arrive  at  the  height  of  40  feet  ;  and  has 
broad  thin  leaves,  divided  into  five  principal  parts  ; 
which  are  again  indented  or  cut  at  the  edges  intofe- 
veral  acute  fcgmcnts.  Their  furface  is  fmooih,  of  a 
lightgrcen  colour,  whitifli  underneath;  and  they  grow 
on  pretty  long  footllalks.  The  flowers  come  out  in 
the  fpring,  about  the  time  of  the  Norway  maple  ;  and 
they  are  fucceeded  by  long  keys,  which  fometimes  ri- 
pen in  England.  In  America  the  inhabitants  tap  this 
tree  iu.the  fpring,  boil  the  liquor,  and  the  feces  af- 
ford 


ACE 


[     6i      ] 


ACE 


Acer       ford  a  ufcful  fugar.     The  fycamorc,  the  afli-lcavcd, 
the        and  the  Norway  maples,  alfo  abound  with  a  faccharine 
SJaple-trec  jiiioe,  from  which  there  is  no  doubt  but  a  afcful  fugar 
*"~^'         might  be  jncpartd. 

7.  The  Fcufylvanicum,  or  American  mountain-ma- 
ple, very  much  refemblcs  the  fugar-maple,  only  its 
leaves  are  ir.orc  pointed. 

8.  The  opalus,  or  Italian  maple,  is  very  common 
in  moll  parts  of  Italy,  particularly  about  Rome  ;  but 
in  Britain  is  very  rarely  t  j  be  met  with,  though  hardy 
enough  to  bear  the  open  air.  It  is  one  of  the  largcll 
fpecics  of  trees  in  Italy,  ?.nd  atfords  a  great  fliadc  by 
its  numerous  and  large  leaves.  On  this  account  it  is 
planted  on  the  road-lidcs,  and  near  habitations. 

9.  The  monfpefulanum,  or  Montpelier  maple,  is 
common  in  the  fouth  of  France,  and  in  Italy  ;  but  is 
hardly  met  with  in  Britain.  The  leaves  rclcmblc  thofc 
of  the  common  maple  ;  but  are  of  a  much  thicker  fub- 
llance,  a  fliiniug  green  colour,  and  not  fo  large.  They 
continue  in  verdure  very  late  in  the  autumn,  whicli 
renders  the  trees  more  valuable. 

10.  The  creticum,  or  Cretan  maple,  grows  natural- 
ly in  the  Levant  ;  it  fomewhat  refcmbles  the  la(l  fpe- 
cies  ;  but  its  leaves  arc  of  a  much  thicker  texture,  and 
their  footllalks  covered  with  a  foft  hairy  down ;  where- 
as thofe  of  the  other  arc  fmooth  and  loft. 

Propagation  and  ciillure.'\ — I.  By/cei/i.  The  firfl 
four  fpecics  arc  cafily  propagated  in  this  way.  The 
keys,  when  ripe  in  aulumn,  may  be  gathered,  and  in  a 
few  days  after  fown  about  an  inch  and  an  half  deep,  in 
beds  of  common  mould.  In  fpring  the  plants  will  ap- 
pear, and  make  a  flioot  of  about  a  foot  and  an  half 
by  the  autumn  following,  if  the  ground  of  the  femi- 
nary  be  tolerably  good,  and  they  are  kept  free  from 
weeds.  The  fpring  after  they  come  up  they  fliould  be 
planted  in  the  nurfery  in  rows  two  feet  and  an  half 
afunder,  and  their  diftance  in  the  rows  mull  be  one  foot 
and  an  half.  Here  they  may  remain  till  they  are  big 
enough  to  plant  out  finally,  with  no  further  trouble  than 
taking  otf  unlightly  lide-branches,  and  fuch  as  have  a 
tendency  to  make  the  tree  forked,  except  digging  be- 
tween the  rows,  which  mufl  always  be  done  every 

winter. For  the  other  fpecics,  their  feeds,  as  they 

do  not  ripen  in  this  country,  ought  to  be  procured  froui 
the  places  where  they  naturally  grow,  and  managed  in 
the  following  manner  :  A  cool  ihady  part  of  the  femi- 
nary  Ihould  be  appropriated  for  the  purpofc  ;  the  mould 
fliould  be  made  tine  ;  beds  (hould  l)e  marked  out  four 
fcctwide,  and  in  length  propsrtionable  tothecjuantity; 
and  in  thefc  the  feeds  fhould  be  regularly  fown,  fifting 
over  them  about  half  an  inchofthctinefl  mould.  When 
the  plants  come  up, they  mull  be  kept  clean  from  weeds, 
and  frequently  watered  :  and  this  work  inull  be  duly  at- 
tended to  all  fummer.  The  next  fpring,  the  ftrongcft 
may  be  drawn  out,  and  planted  in  the  nurfery,  in  rows 
two  feet  afunder,  and  at  the  dillance  of  a  foot  from  each 
other  in  the  rows  ;  leaving  the  others  in  the  feminary 
to  gain  ftrcjigth.  The  fpring  foilowii;g  they  alio  nuifl 
receive  tlie  lame  culture  ;  and  in  the  nurfery  they  may 
remain  with  no  other  trouble  than  keeping  the  ground 
clian  from  the  weeds  in  fummer,  digging  between  the 
rows  in  the  winter,  and  taking  off  all  flrong  and  irre- 
gular fidc-dioots  till  they  arc  planted  out.  Trees  railed 
from  feedswill  ^row  faflcr, and  arrive  at  greater  height, 
than  thofc  railed  from  layers:  but  they  will  not  pro- 


duce fueh  (juaniiiiesof  riowers  ;  which  makes  the  latter      Acer, 
method  more  eligible  for  thofc  who  want  thefc  plants        the 
for  a  low  Ihrubbery. — Seeds  of  the  variegated  kinds  al-  Maple-tree 
fo,  when  lown,  will  produce  variegated  pLnts  in  re-  """'' 
turu  :  which  renders  the  propagjiion  of  thefc  forts 
very  expeditious  where  plenty  of  feeds  may  be  had. 
Where  thefc  are  not  to  be  obtained,  the  plants  are 
propagated  by  budding,  as  afterwards  directed. 

2.  By/ajerj.  All  the  fpecics  may  be  propagated  b/ 
this  inetiiod  ;  though  it  is  never  pradifedfor  the  com- 
mon maple  and  the  fycamorc.  The  young  Ihoots  may 
be  at  any  time  laid  down  in  the  autumn,  i^  inter,  or 
early  in  the  fpring.  By  the  autumn  following,  they 
will  have  flruckroot,  and  become  good  plants  ;  when 
the  llrongcll  may  be  let  out  in  the  places  where  they 
are  to  remain  ;  whilll  the  weakcft  may  be  planted  in 
the  nurfery,  like  the  fcedlings,  for  a  year  or  two,  to 
acquire  llrength. 

:;.  By  cuttings  :  which  method,  however,  is  chiefly 
praiitifcd  on  the  alli-lcaved  and  Norway  maples,  which 
more  readily  take  root  this  way.  The  cuttings  ihould 
be  the  bottom  parts  of  the  lalt  year's  Ihoots  :  They 
Ihould  be  taken  off  early  in  Odober,  and  planted  in 
rows  in  a  moill  ihady  place.  The  fpring  and  fummer 
following,  they  mult  be  duly  watered  as  often  as  dry 
weather  makes  it  nccelliry,  and  be  kept  clean  from 
weeds.  By  the  autumn  they  will  be  (it  to  remove  into 
the  nurfery  ;  though  if  the  cuttings  are  not  planted 
too  clofe,  they  may  remain  in  their  lituation  for  a  year 
or  two  longer,  and  then  be  fet  out  finally,  without  the 
trouble  of  being  previouliy  planted  in  the  nurfery. 

4.  By  iiidJii.g,  grafting,  and  inarching.  1  hefe 
methods  are  only  praclifed  for  the  variegated  forts  and 
the  large  broad-leaved  kind.  The  latter  is  to  be  conti- 
nued no  otherwife  than  by  budding  it  on  llalks  of  the 
common  fycamorc  ;  for  from  the  feeds,  tho'  fo  large 
themfclves,  only  the  common  fycamorc  is  produced. 

In  order  to  propagate  chefe  varieties  by  budding, 
let  Ibme  plants  of  the  common  fycamorc,  one  year  old, 
be  taken  out  of  the  feminavy,  and  fet  in  the  nurfery  in 
rows  a  yard  afunder,  and  the  plants  about  a  foot  and 
a  half  dirtance  from  each  other  in  the  rows  :  Let  the 
ground  be  kept  clean  from  weeds  all  fummer,  and 
turned  in  in  the  winter  ;  and  the  fumnier  following  the 
ftocks  \\  ill  be  of  a  proper  lize  to  receive  the  buds, 
which  Ihould  be  taken  from  the  moll  bcautifully-ftriped 
branches.  The  bell  lime  for  this  work  is  the  middle  or 
latter  end  of  Auguft.  Having  then  budded  yonr  Hocks 
with  the  eyes  or  buds  fronting  the  north,  early  in  Oc- 
tober takeoff.thc  bafs-matting,  which  before  this  time 
will  have  confined  the  bark  and  pinched  the  bud,  but 
not  fo  as  to  hurt  it  much.  Then  cut  off  the  ilock 
jull  above  the  bud,  and  dig  the  ground  between  the 
rows.  The  fummer  follo\\ing,  keep  the  ground  clean 
from  \s  eeds  ;  cut  off  all  natural  lide-buds  from  the  ilock 
as  they  come  out  ;  and  by  aulumn,  if  the  land  is  good, 
the  buds  will  have  Ihot  forth,  and  formed  thenifclvcs 
into  trees  live  or  fix  feet  high.  They  may  be  then  re- 
moved into  the  places  where  they  are  deiigned  to  re- 
main ;  or  a  few  of  them  only  may  be  drawn  out,  lea- 
ving the  others  to  be  trained  up  I'or  larger  ftandards. 
Tiie  ftriped  Norway  maple  Ihould  be  budded  on  flocks 
of  its  own  kind;  for  on  thefe  they  take  bed,  and  both 
kinds  are  not  very  liable  to  run  .iway  frimi  their  co- 
lours. Variegated  plants  in  general  mull  be  planted  in 

poor,  . 


ACE 


[     62     ] 


A  C  II 


Actrb  ponr,  htingvy,  gravelly,  or  faiijy  foils,  10  feed  iliedif- 
Cafc  whicli  occalions  ilicfc  beautiful  ilripcs,  and  caufc 
it  to  be  more  powerful.  But  thefc  trees  fliow  their 
Ib'ipesin  greater  pcrfcil'liou  in  a  good  foil :  Tlie  plant, 
though  ill  liekuefs,  has  the  appearance  of  health  ;  tlie 
Jhoots  are  vigorous  raid  llroiig  ;  the  leaves  arc  large, 
Jcfs  liable  to  be  hurt  by  infciils  ;  and  the  llripes  appear 
more  perfect,  natural,  and  beautiful,  than  thofc  on 
ftnnted  trees  growing  on  a  poor  foil. 

ACERB,  a  four  rough  ailringciicy  of  taAe,  fuch  as 
that  of  unripe  fruit. 

ACERNO,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  citerior  princi- 
pality of  Naples,  with  a  bilhop's  fee.  E.  Long.  ij. 
4&.  N.  Lat.  40.  50. 

ACERIN  A,  in  Iclithyology,  a  namegivenby  Pliny, 
and  other  of  the  old  naturalills,  10  the  filh  we  at  this 
.time  call  the  ruffe.     See  Perca. 

ACERRA,  in  antiquity,  an  altar  erected,  among 
the  Romans,  near  the  bed  of  a  pcrfon  deceafed,  on 
which  his  friends  daily  offered  incenft  till  his  burial. — 
The  real  intention  probably  was  tooverconieauy  offcn- 
five  fmcU  that  might  arife  from  the  corpfc.  TlieChi- 
ncfe  have  Aill  a  cuflom  like  this  :  they  crefl:  an  altar 
to  the  deceafed  in  a  room  hung  witji  mourning  ;  and 
place  an  image  of  thedcadperfonon  the  altar,  to  which 
everyone  that  approaches"!!  bows  four  times,  and  of- 
fers oblations  and  perfumes. 

The  y/cc-fv-a  alfo  fignitied  a  little  pot  wherein  were 
put  the  inccnfe  and  perfumes  to  be  burnt  on  the  altars 
-of  the  gods  and  before  the  dead.  It  ajipears  to  have 
been  the  fame  with  what  was  otherwife  called  thuri- 
iulum,  and  f'yxis. 

We  find  mention  of  Accrrx  in  the  ancient  church. 
The  Jews  had  alfo  their  Accir.e,  in  our  verfion  render- 
ed cenfcrs ;  and  the  Romanifts  ftill  retain  them  under 
the  name  of  Uiccufi-poti.  In  Roman  writers,  we  fre- 
quently meet  with  pUtia  acerra,  a  full  acerra  :  to  un- 
derftand  which,  it  is  [o  be  obfcrved,  that  people  were 
obliged  to  offer  incenfc  in  proportion  to  their  eflateand 
condition  ;  the  rich  in  larger  quantities,  the  poor  only 
a  few  grains  ;  the  former  poured  out  acerras  full  on 
the  altar,  the  latter  took  out  two  or  three  bits  with 
their  fingers. 

ACERRA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  kmgdom  of 
Naples,  and  in  the  Terra  di  Lavoro  ;  feated  on  the  ri- 
ver Agno.      E.  Long,  i  j.  10.  N.  Lat.  ^o.  J5. 

ACERR/F.  (anc.  geog.),  the  ancient  name  of  a 
townon  the  Clanius,  in  Campania,  not  far  from  Naples, 
now  Acerra. — The  name  alfoof  another  town,  now 
called  la  Cirola  in  the  territory  and  to  the  fouth-cafb 
of  Lodi,  where  the  rivulet  Serio  falls  into  the  Adda, 
to  the  well  of  Cremona  and  north  of  Placentia. 

ACESCENT,  a  word  ufed  to  denote  any  thing 
which  is  turning  four,  or  which  is  (lightly  acid.  It  is 
only  applied  properly  to  the  former  of  thtfe  two  mean- 
ings. The  fecond  may  be  exprell'ed  by  either  of  the 
TWO  words,  acci.Uilmi  ox  fi:b-ac:^1. 

ACETABULUM,  in  antiquity,  a  meafure  ufed  by 

.the  ancients,  equal  to  one-eighth  of  our  pint.     It  feems 

.to  have  acquired  its  name  from  a  veflcl  in  which  ace- 

tmn  or  vinegar  was  brought  to  their  tables,  and  which 

probably  contained  about  this  quantity. 

Acetabulum,  in  anatomy,  a  cavity  in  any  bone  for 
.receiving,  the  protuberant  head  of  another,  and  there- 


by  forming  tliat  fpecics  of  articulation  called  Ewar- 
TUROSI6. 

Ace  I  abulum,  in  botany,  the  trivial  name  of  a  fpe- 
cics of  the  pcziza,  or  cup-pcziza,  a  genus  belonging  to 
the  cryptoj^amia  fungi  of  Linnaeus.  It  has  got  the 
name  of  acetabulum,  from  the  rcfemblancc  its  leaves 
beartoaeup.     SccPeziza. 

ACETARY.  Nehemiah  Grew,  in  his  anatomy  of 
plants,  applies  the  term  to  a  pulpy  fubllancc  in  certain 
fruits,  f.^.  the  pear,  which  is  iuclofed  in  a  congeries 
of  fmall  calculous  bodies  towards  the  bale  of  the  fruit, 
and  is  always  of  an  acid  talle. 

ACETOSA,  Sorrel ;  by  Linn.rus  joined  to  the  ge- 
nus of  Dock,  under  the  u\.\K.ai  Rut/icx.     See  Rum  ex. 

ACETOSELLA,   in  botany,  a  fpecies  of  Oxalis. 

ACETOUS,  an  epithet  applied  to  fuch  fubllances 
as  are  four  or  partake  of  the  nature  of  vinegar. 

ACETUM,  VINEGAR,  the  vegetable  ACID  of  the 
chemifts.     Sec  Vinegar. 

ACHABYTUS  (anc.  geog.),  a  high  mountain  in 
Rhodes,  on  the  top  of  which  iTood  a  temple  of  Jupiter. 

ACH^-EA  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  the  illand  of 
Rhodes,  in  the  diflridl  of  Jalyfus,  and  the  firlt  and 
moft  ancient  of  all,  faid  to  be  built  by  the  Hcliades, 
or  Grandfons  of  the  Sun. 

AcH  «A,  a  hamlet  of  Aliatic  Sarmatia  on  the  Eux- 
ine.  The  inhabitants  were  called  Achai,  a  colony  of 
llie  Orchomenians. 

ACtL'l'ANS,  the  inhabitants  of  Achaia  Propria, 
a  Pcloponnelian  flate.  This  repul)lic  was  not  con- 
fiderable  in  early  times,  for  the  number  of  its  troops, 
norfor  its  wealth,  norfor  the  extent  of  its  territories  ; 
but  it  was  famed  for  its  probity,  itsjuflicc,  and  its 
love  of  liberty.  Its  high  reputation  ior  thcfe  virtues 
was  very  ancient.  The  Crotonians  and  Sybarites,  to 
rc-eflablifli order  in  iheir  towns,  adopted  the  laws  and 
cufloms  of  the  Achaeans.  After  the  famous  battle  of 
Leuftra,  a  difference  arofe  betwixt  the  Lacedemonians 
and  Thebans,  who  held  the  virtue  of  this  people  in 
fuch  veneration,  that  they  terminated  the  difpute  by 
their  decilion.  The  government  of  the  Achxans  was 
tleniocratlcal.  They  prcferved  their  liberty  till  trie 
time  of  Philip  and  Alexander  :  But  in  the  rcrgn  of 
thofe  princes,  and  afterwards,  they  were  eithe!*'(ubjeft 
to  the  Macedonians,  who  had  made  themfelves  maflcrs 
of  Greece,  or  oppreffed  by  cruel  tyrants.  The  Achajan 
commonwealth  confiftedoftwelveinconiiderable  towns 
in  Peloponncfus.  Its  firft  annals  are  not  marked  by  any 
great  adion,  for  they  arc  not  graced  with  one  eminent 
eharafter.  After  the  death  of  Alexander,  this  little 
republic  was  a  prey  to  all  the  evils  which  flow  from  po- 
litical difcord.  A  zeal  for  the  good  of  the  community 
was  now  extinguilhcd:  Each  town  was  only  attentive 
to  its  private  intereft.  There  was  no  longer  any  labi- 
lity in  the  flatc  ;  for  it  changed  its  maflers  with  every 
revolution  in  Macedonia,  Towards  the  124'''  Olym- 
piad, about  the  time  when  Ptolemy  Soter  died,  and 
when  Pyrrhus  invaded  Italy,  the  republic  of  the  A- 
chccans  recovered  its  old  inflitutions  and  unanimity. 
The  inliabitants  of  Pata:  and  Dymse  were  the  tirfl 
jlTcrtcrs  of  ancient  liberty.  The  tyrants  were  baniHi- 
ed,  and  the  towns  again  made  one  commonwealth. 
A  public  council  was  then  held,  in  which  affairs  of 
importance  were  difcullcd  and  determined.   A  regiffer 

was 


A  C  H 


[     63     ] 


A  C  If 


•  l,ib.  viii, 
•ap.  V.  6. 


was  appointed  to  record  the  tranfadlions  of  the  coun- 
cil. This  aiicmbly  had  two  prciidcnts,  who  were  no- 
minated alternately  by  the  diti'erent  towns,  but  in- 
ftcad  of  two  prcfidcnts,  they  fooii  elertcd  but  one.  Ma- 
ny neighbouring  towns  which  admired  the  conftitution 
of  this  republic,  founded  or.  equality,  liberty,  the  love 
of  julHce,  and  of  the  public  good,  were  incorporated 
with  the  Achasans,  and  admitted  to  the  full  enjoyment 
of  their  laws  and  privileges. — The  arms  which  the 
Achasans  chiefly  ufcd  were  (lings.  They  were  trained 
to  the  art  from  their  infancy,  by  Hinging  from  a  great 
diflancc,  at  a  circular  mark  of  a  moderate  circumfe- 
rence. By  long  practice  they  took  fo  nice  an  aim, 
that  they  were  furc,  not  only  to  hit  their  enemies  on 
the  head,  but  on  any  part  of  the  face  they  chofc. 
Their  flings  were  of  a  different  kind  fromthofeof  the 
Balearians,    whom  they  far  iurpall'cd  in  dexterity. 

ACHiEI,  (Achseans)  ;  the  inhabitants  of  Achaia 
Propria.  In  Livy,  the  people  of  Greece  ;  for  the  mofl 
part  called  Achivi,  by  the  Roman  poets.  In  Homer, 
the  general  name  for  Grecians.   SccAchsans. 

ACH^iiORUM  tortus,  (Pliny)  ;  now  Porto 
Buoii,  a  harbour  of  the  Cherfoncfus  Taurica,  on  the 
Euxine.  Another,  near  SigaEum,  into  which  the 
Xanthus,  after  being  joined  by  the  Siraois,  falls. 

ACHj4iMENES,  according  to  Herodotus,  was  fa- 
ther of  Cambyfes,  and  grandfather  of  Cyrus  the  firfl, 
king  of  Perfia.  Mofl  of  the  commentators  of  Horace 
are  of  opinion,  that  the  Achxmenes  whom  that  poet 
mentions,  ode  xii.  of  his  2''  book,  was  one  of  the  Per- 
llan  monarchs:  but,  if  that  were  true,  he  mail  have 
reigned  before  the  Medcs  fubdued  the  Pcrflans  ;  for 
we  do  not  hear  of  any  king  of  that  name  from  the  time 
that  the  Pcrlians  founded  that  great  monarchy,  which 
is  looked  upon  as  the  fccond  univerfal  one.  However 
this  be,  the  t^\i\\ct  y^rclixmaiians  is  frequently  given 
to  the  Perlians,  in  the  old  Latin  poets. 

AcH  jEmenes,  fon  of  Darius  I.  king  of  Perfia,  and 
brother  of  Xerxes,  had  the  government  of  Egypt  bc- 
ftowed  on  him,  after  Xerxes  had  forced  the  Egyptians 
toreturn to theirallegiancc.  Hefomctime  aftcrcom- 
nianded  the  Egyptian  fleet  in  the  celebrated  expedition 
which  proved  fo  fatal  to  all  Greece.  The  Egyptians 
having  again  taken  up  arras  after  the  death  of  Xerxes, 
Achatmenes  was  fent  into  Egypt  to  fuppr&fs  the  rebel- 
lion ;  but  was  vanquifliedbylnarus,  chief  of  thcrebels, 
f  uccoured  by  the  Athenians. 

ACHytUS,  coufiu-gcrman  to  Seleucus  Ceraunus 
and  Antiochus  the  Great,  kings  of  Syria,  became  a 
very  powerful  monarch,  and  enjoyed  the  domitiions 
he  had  ufurpcd  formany  years  ;  but  at  lafl  he  was  pu- 
nifhed  for  his  ufurpations  in  a  dreadful  manner,  in  the 
-I4o"^ycar  of  Rome,  as  related  by  Polybius*. 

ACHAIA,  a  name  taken  for  that  part  of  Greece 
which  Ptolemy  calls //f///jj;  the  younger  Pliny,  Crx- 
cia  ;  now  called  LivaJia  :  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Theflaly ,  the  river  Sperchius,  the  Sinus  Maliacus,  and 
mount  Oeta  ;  on  the  wefl  by  the  river  Aclielous  ;  on 
the  eaff,  turning  a  little  to  the  north,  it  is  wafiied  by 
the  Archipelago,  down  to  the  promontory  of  Sunium  ; 
the  foiith,  joined  to  the  Pcloponnefus,  or  Morca,  by 
the  ifthnius  of  Corinth,  five  miles  broad. 

yfcmn  /';c/ir/rt,  anciently  a  fmall  diflriifl  in  the 
north  of  Pcloponnefus,  running '.vcflward  along  the  bay 
of.  Corinth,  and  bounded  on  the  wcA  by  the  Ionian 


Sea,  on  the  fouth  by  Klis  and  Arcadia,  and  on  the  eafl 
by  Sicyonia:  inhabitants,  the  Achaam,  properly  fo 
called  ;  its  metropolis,  latra.  It  is  now  called  Ro- 
t/iuiiia  /iita,  \\\  the  Morca. 

AqI aia  was  alfo  taken  for  all  thoft  countries  that 
joined  in  the  Achsean  league,  reduced  by  the  R.omans 
to  a  province.     Likcwife  for  Pcloponnefus. 

A(.HAts.  Prejby.tri,  or  the  Prelbyters  of  Achaia, 
were  thofc  who  were  prefcnt  at  the  martyrdom  of  St 
Andrew  the  Apoftle,  A.  D.  59 ;  and  are  faid  to  have  - 
written  an  epilile  in  relation  to  it.  Bellarmin,  and  fe- 
vcral  other  eminent  writers  in  the  church  of  Rome,  - 
allow  it  to  be  genuine ,  while  Du'Pin,  aud  forae  o- 
thcrs,  cxprcfsly  rcjedl  it. 

ACHAIUS,  fon  of  Ethwin,  was  raifed  to  the 
crown  of  Scotland,  A.  D.  788.  The  emperor  Char- 
lemagne fent  aa  cmbafly  to  defire  an  alliance  with  • 
him  againft  the  Englifli,  whofc  parties  fo  infefted  the 
feas,  that  the  merchants  could  not  carry  on  their 
trade.  This  alliance  was  concluded  in  France  upon, 
conditions  fo  advantageous  to  the  Scots,  that  Achaius, 
to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  it,  added  to  the  arms 
of  Scotland  a  double  field,  fowed  with  lilies.  He  died 
in  819. 

ACHALALACTLI,  in  ornithology,  a  fpecies  of 
king's-fifher.     See  Alcedo. 

ACHAN,  the  fon  of  Carmi,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
at  the  taking  of  Jericho  concealed  two  hundred  flickcls 
of  lilver,  a  Babylonilli  garment,  and  a  wedge  of  gold, 
contrary  to  the  cxprefs  command  of  God.  This  fin 
proved  fatal  to  the  Iiraelites,  who  were  repulfed  at  the 
fiege  of  Ai.  In  this  dreadful  exigence,  Jofhua  proffra- 
tcd  himfclf  before  the  Lord,  and  begged  that  he  would 
have  mercy  upon  his  people.  Achan  was  difcovered 
by  calling  liHs,  and  he  and  his  children  were  floned  to 
death.  This  expiation  being  made,  Ai  was  taken  \>j 
ftratagcm.     Joih.  vii.  8.  9. 

ACHANE,  an  ancient  Perfian  corn  mcafure,  con- 
taining 4J  Attic  medimni. 

ACHARACA,  anciently  a  town  of  Lydia,  fituate 
between  TruUesand  Nyfa  ;  in  which  were  the  temple 
of  Pluto,  and  the  cave  Charonium,  where  patients  flept 
in  order  to  obtain  a  cure. 

ACHAT,  in  law,  implies  a  purchafe  or  bargain. 
And  hence  probably  purveyors  were  called  Achators, 
from  tlieir  making  bargains. 

ACHATES,  the  companion  of  Eneas,  and  his  mofl 
faithful  friend,  celebrated  in  Virgil. 

Achates,  in  natural  hillory.     See  Agate. 

Achates  (ar.c.  geog.),  a  river  of  Sicily,  now  the 
Driiio;  which  runs  from  north  to  fouth,  almoft  paral- 
lel with,  and  at  no  great  diflance  from,  the  Gela  ;  and 
rifes  in  the  north  of  the  teriitory  of  Notto.  It  gave 
name  to  the  Achates,  or  Agate,  faid  to  be  firfl  found 
there. 

ACHAZIB,  or  Ach'zib,  (anc.  gcog.),  a  town  of 
Galilee,  in  the  tribe  of  Artier,  nine  miles  from  Ptole- 
mais. — Alfo  a  town  in  the  morefouihern  parts  of  the 
tribe  of  fudah. 

ACHEEN,  Ache',  or  AcHEv,  a  kingdom  of  Su- 
matra in  the  Eafl-Indies,  fuuated  on  the  nonh-wcft- 
cru  part  of  the  ifland. 

The  capital  is  fitaatcdon  a  river  which  empties  it- 
fclf  near  the  north-weft  point,  or  Achten-hcad,  about 
two  miles  from  the  nicuth.     It  lies  iu  a  wide  valley, 

formed  ■ 


A  C  H 


f     64     ] 


A  C  II 


Ache»n.    forme  J  like  an  amphitheatre  by  twoloftyranges  of  li  ills. 

" •> The  river  is  not  large,  ami  by  emptying  ufcltin  Icvtral 

cli.innels  is  rendered  very  ihallow  at  the  bar.  In  the 
d.-y  nionfoon  it  will  not  admit  boats  of  any  bv.rihen, 
much  Icfs  large  vclfels,  which  lie  w  iihoiu,  in  tiic  road 
f<jrnitd  by  the  illanJs  ort  the  point.  Though  no  long- 
er the  ;;reat  mart  of  eaftcrn  commodities,  it  llill  carries 
on  a  conliderable  trade  with  tiie  natives  of  that  j'art  of 
the  coaflof  Indoftan  Q.A\ii\Tel:i:ga,  who  fupply  it  with 
the  cotton  goods  of  their  country,  and  receive  in  re- 
turn, gold-daft,  fapan-wood,  betel-niit,  patch-leaf  (co/- 
fiii  Ifidicus),  a  little  pepper,  fulphnr,  cainphirc,  and 
benzoin.  The  country  is  fupplied  with  Bengal  opi- 
um, and  alfo  with  iron,  and  many  otiier  articles  of 
merchandize,  by  the  European  traders. 

Achcen  is  cfteemed,  comparatively,  healthy,  being 
more  free  from  woods  and  fwamps  than  luoftolher  por- 
tions of  the  illand  ;  and  the  fevers  and  dyfcnteries  to 
which  thcfe  are  fuppofed  to  give  occafion,  arc  there 
faid  to  be  uncommon.  Tlie  foil  is  light  and  fertile  ; 
and  the  products,  bcfidcs  thofe  already  enumerated  as 
articles  of  export  trade,  and  a  variety  of  fine  fruits, are 
chiefly  rice  and  cotton.  There  is  likewife  fome  raw 
lilk  procured  in  the  country,  of  very  inferior  quality. 
Gold  dull  is  colle<5led  in  the  mountains  near  Acheen, 
but  thegreateft  part  is  brought  from  the  fouthern  ports 
of  Nalaboo  and  Soofoo.  The  fulpliur  is  gathered  from 
a  volcano  mountain  in  the  neighljourhood,  which  fup- 
plics  their  own  confumption  for  the  manufacture  of 
gun-powder,  and  admits  of  a  large  exportation. 

lil  their  perfons,  the  Achenefe  differ  I'rom  the  reft  of 
the  Sumatrans,  beino-  taller,  fboutcr,  and  darker  com- 
I'lexioned.  Theyappear  not  to  be  a  oenuine  people;  but 
arc  thought,  with  great  appearance  of  reaibn,  to  be  a 
mixture  <if  Battas,  Malays,  and  Moors  fri"-..!  thcwe/lof 
India.  In  their  difpolitions  they  are  more  adive  and 
indnftrious  than  their  neighbours  ;  they  polFcfs  more 
penetration  and  fagacity  ;  have  more  general  know- 
ledge ;  and  as  merchants,  they  deal  upona  more  exten- 
sive and  liberal  footing.  Their  religion  is  Mahonic- 
tanifni  ;  and,  having  a  great  number  of  niofques  and 
priefts,  its  forms  and  ceremonies  are  ItriiStly  obferved. 

The  appearance  of  the  town,  and  the  nature  of  the 
buildings,  are  much  the  fame  as  are  found  in  the  ge- 
nerality of  Malay  bazars,  excepting  that  the  fuperior 
wealth  of  this  place  has  oeealioned  a  great  number 
of  public  edifices,  but  without  the  fmalleft  pittenfions 
to  magnificence.  The  king's  palace,  if  it  defervcs  the 
appellation,  is  a  very  rude  and  uncouth  piece  of  arclii- 
tedure,  delipnied  to  refift  the  force  of  an  enemy,  and 
furroundcd  for  that  purpofe  by  flrong  walls,  but  with- 
out any  regular  plan,  or  view  to  the  modern  fyftem  of 
military  attack.  Tlie  l-.^)'.!fes  in  common  are  built  of- 
iamboos  and  rough  limber,  and  raifed  fome  feet  from 
the  ground  on  account  of  the  place  being  overflowed 
in  the  rainy  feafon. 

A  eonfidcrable  fabrick  of  a  thick  fpecics  of  cotton 
cloth,  and  of  ftuff  for  the  tliort  drawers  worn  both  by 
Malaysand  Achenefe,  is  eftabli(h:d  here,  and  fupplies 
an  extenfive  demand.  They  weave  alfo  very  handfonie 
filk  pieces,  of  a  particular  form,  for  that  part  of  the 
drcfs  which  is  called  by  the  P*Ialays  cayeti  fanaiig. 

The  Achenefe  are  expert  and  bold  navigators, 
and  employ  a  variety  of  velfels,    according  to   the 


3 


voyages  they  undertake,  and  the  purpofes  for  which    Arhte». 

thty  riefign  tlicm.       The  liveris  covered  with  a  mul-  ' >• — ' 

titudc  of  tilhing  fampans  or  canoes,    which  go  to  fta' 
with  the  morning  breeze,  andrcturn  in  the  afternoon, 
with  the  fca  wind,  full  laden. 

Having  no  convenient  coIhs,  though  moft  fpecies  of 
money  will  be  taken  there  at  a  valuation,  they  com- 
monly make  their  payments  in  gold  dufl,  and  for  that 
purpofe  arc  all  provided  with  fcalcsor  fmall  fteelyards. 
They  carry  their  gold  about  them  wrapped  up  in 
pieces  of  bladder,  and  often  purchafe  to  fo  fmall  an  a- 
mount,  as  to  make  ufe  of  grain  or  feeds  for  weights. 

The  monarchy  is  hereditary  ;  and  the  king  ufually 
maintains  a  gnard  of  100  Seapoys  about  his  palace. 

According  to  Mr  Marfden,  "  the  grand  council 
of  the  nation  confifts  of,  the  King  or  Sultan,  four 
Oelooballangs,  and  tight  of  a  lower  degree,  who 
fit  on  liis  right  hand,  and  fixtcen  Cajoorai/gi,  who 
fit  on  his  left.  At  tlie  king's  feet  fits  a  woman, 
to  whom  he  mal.es  known  his  pleafurc  :  by  her  it 
is  communicated  to  an  eunuch,  who  fits  next  to  her, 
and  by  him  to  an  officer  named  Cajooraiig  Condoiig, 
who  then  proclaims  it  aloud  to  the  alfembly.  There 
arc  alfo  prefent  two  other  officers,  one  of  whom  has 
the  government  of  the  hazar  or  market,  and  the  o- 
therthe  fuperinteiuiing  and  carrying  into  execution 
the  punifliment  of  criminals.  All  matters  relative  to 
commerce  and  the  cuftoms  of  the  port  ceme  under  the 
jurifdiiilion  of  the  Shakmdar,  who  performs  the  cere- 
mony of  giving  the  chap  or  licence  for  trade  ;  which 
is  done  by  lifting  a  golden  handed  creefe  over  the  head 
of  the  merchant  w'ho  arrives,  and  without  which  he 
dares  not  to  land  his  goods.  Prefents,  the  value  of 
vvhicharebecomepretfy  regularly  afcertained,  are  then 
fent  to  the  king  and  his  officers.  If  the  ftranger  be  in 
the  ftyle  of  an  arabalfador,  the  royal  elephants  arc  fent 
down  to  carry  him  and  his  letters  to  the  monarch's 
prefcnce  ;  thcfe  being  firil  delivered  into  the  hands  of 
an  eunuch,  who  places  them  in  a  filver  difh,  covered 
with  rich  lilk,  on  the  back  of  the  largeft  elephant, 
which  is  provided  with  a  machine  (houdcr)  for  that 
purpofe.  Witliin  about  an  hundred  yards  of  an  open 
hall  where  the  king  fits,  the  cavalcade  ftops,  and 
the  ambaifador  difmounts,  and  makes  his  obeifance  by 
bending  his  body,  and  lifting  his  joined  hands  to  his 
head.  When  he  enters  the  palace,  if  an  European,  he 
is  obliged  to  take  off  his  fnoes  ;  and  having  made  afe- 
cond  obeifance,  is  featcd  upon  a  carpet  on  the  floor, 
where  bctil'ii  brought  to  h  im.  The  throne  was  fome 
ycarsagoof  ivory  and  tortoifefhell,  and  when  the  place 
was  governed  by  queens,  a  curtain  of  gauze  was  hung 
before  it,  which  did  not  obflnift  the  audience,  but  pre- 
vented any  perfedlview.  The  flranger,  after  fome  ge- 
neral difcourfe,  is  then  conduced  to  a  feparate  build- 
ing where  he  is  entertained  with  the  delicacies  of  the 
country, by  the  officers  of  flate,  andinthc  evening  re- 
turns in  the  manner  he  came,  furroundcd  by  a  prodi- 
gious number  of  lights.  On  high  days  (ar:-;  ryah)  the 
king  goes  in  great  ftatemounted  on  an  elephant  richly 
caparifoned,  to  the  great  mofque, preceded  by  his  ooloo- 
hallar.gs ;  who  are  armed  nearly  in  the  Europeanman- 
ner." 

The  country  under  the  immediate  jurifdidfion  of 
Acheen,  is  divided  into  three   diftri&s,  named  Duo 

pooloo 


A  C  II 


[     65     ] 


A  C  H 


Achfn,  po'jloo  duo,  Duo  l^coloo  lecmo,  ix\iDu(,  Jooko  anam. 
Aclicl'juj.  Each  dJArid  is  governed  hy  a  Paiiglccnio,  and  under 
^~"~  him  an  Imaum  and  four  Pangccchcs  to  each  mofijuc. 
"  Aclicii  has  ever  been  remarkable  ibr  the  fcvcrity 
with  which  crimes  are  punilhed  by  their  laws  ;  the 
fame  rigour  Hill  fubfills,  and  there  is  no  commutation 
admitted,  as  is  regularly  edabliOicd  in  the  foutlicrn 
countries.  Tlicrcis  great  rcafon, however,  toconcludc 
that  tlic  poor  alone  cxj'erience  the  rod  of  ju/licc  ;  the 
nobles  being  fccurc  from  retribution  in  the  number  of 
their  dependents.  Petty  theft  is  punilhed  by  fufpcnd- 
ing  the  criminal  from  a  tree,  with  a  gun  or  heavy 
weight  tied  to  his  feet ;  or  by  cutting  otf  a  finger,  a 
hand,  or  leg,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  theft. 
Many  of  thefe  mutilated  and  wretched  objeds  are  daily 
to  be  fecn  in  the  Itrccts.  Robbery  on  thehigliway  and 
houfe-breakingare  punilhed  by  drowning,  and  after- 
wards expoling  the  body  on  a  llake  for  a  few  days.  If 
the  robbery  is  coniniittcd  upon  an  imtum  or  pricll,  the 
facrilcgeis  expiated  by  burning  the  criminal  alive.  A 
man  whois  convidcd  of  adultery  is  feldom  attempted 
to  befcrecncd  byhis  friends,  but  is  delivered  up  to  the 
friends  and  relations  of  the  injured  hulband.  Thefe 
take  him  to  feme  large  pbiin,  and  forming  themfelves 
in  a  circle,  place  him  in  the  middle.  A  large  weapon 
called  a  Cadoohoiig,  is  then  delivered  to  him  by  one  of 
his  family  ;  and  if  he  can  force  his  way  through  thofc 
who  furround  him,  and  make  his  cfcape,  he  is  not 
liable  to  further  profecution  ;  but  it  commonly  happens 
that  he  is  infl.-intly  cut  to  pieces.  In  this  cafe  Iiis  re- 
lations bury  him  as  tliey  would  do  a  buffalo,  refufing  to 
admit  the  corpfe  into  their  houfe,  or  to  perform  any 
funeral  rites."  Thefe  difcouragcments  to  vice  might 
fcem  to  bcfpcak  a  moral  and  virtuous  people  :  yet  all 
travellers  agree  in  rcprcfcntiug  the  Achencfeasonc  of 
the  nioll  dilhoned  and  flagitious  nations  of  the  Kaft. 

Achen  was  vilited  by  the  Portuguefe  in  1509,  only 
12  years  after  they  had  difcovercd  the  palfage  to  the 
Eaft-Indies  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  They  made 
various  attemptstoeftablilh  themfelves  in  the  country, 
but  were  expelled  with  difgrace.  Sec  Sitmmatra. 

ACHELOUS,  in  fabulous  hiftory,  wrcllled  with 
Hercules,  for  no  lefs  a  prize  than  Deianira,  daughter 
to  king  Ocnus  :  but  as  Achclous  had  the  power  of  af- 
fumingall  fliapes,  the  contert  was  long  dubious  :  at  lail, 
as  he  took  that  of  a  bull,  Hercules  tore  off  one  of  his 
horns  ;  fo  that  he  was  forced  to  fubmit,  and  to  redeem 
it  by  giving  the  conquerfu-  the  horn  of  Amalthea,  the 
fame  with  the  Cornucopia  or  horn  of  plenty  ;  wiiich 
Hercules  having  iilled  with  a  variety  of  truits,  confc- 
crated  to  Jupiter.  Some  explain  this  fable,  by  faying, 
That  Achelous  is  a  w  inding  river  of  Greece,  whole 
ftream  was  fo  rapid,  that  it  roared  like  a  bull,  and  over- 
flowed its  banks  ;  but  Hercules,  1-y  bringing  it  into  two 
channels,  broke  off  one  of  the  liorui-,  and  fo  reftorcd 
plenty  to  the  country.  Stt  t!i;  next  article-. 

AcHELcis,  a  river  of  Acarnania  ;  which  rifcs  in 
mount  Hindus,  and,  dividing  A'tolia  from  Acarnania, 
falls  from  north  to  finiili  into  the  Sinus  Corinihiacus. 
It  was  formerly  called  T/oai,  from  its  inipetuofny,  and 
king  of  rivers,  (Homcr.)  The  epithet  Achcihus  is 
ufed  for  .Vy«  7/j,  ( Virgil) ;  the  ancients  calling  all  water 
.^cA.^/o.'/.'.cfpccially  inoaths, vows, and  facritices,  accor- 
ding to  Kphorus :  Now  called  .V/^j/oPs/tfw/o.  llivers 
are  by  iheancicnt  poets  called  7ri«r//()r*/«,  cither  from 
\"oi..  I. 


the  bellowing  of  ilicir waters,  or  from  their  ploughing     Achtii 
thccarthiii  theircourfe:  Hcrcule9,rcflriiniugbydykcs  ( 

and  mounds  the  inundati'jns  of  the  A:hilous,  is  faiJ  to  Achlcolom. 
have  broken  oit'onc  of  his  horns,  and  to  have  brought   "     ^ 
back  plenty  to  the  country.   ^;e  tht preceding  artut:. 

ACHERI  (Li;ke  u'),  a  learned  Benedictine  of  the 
congregation  of  St  Maur,  was  born  at  St  Qiiiutin,  in 
Picardy,  in  1609  ;  and  made  himfelf  lamoas  by  printing 
fcveral  works,  which  till  then  were  only  in  maiiufcript: 
particularly.  The  cpilUe  attributed  to  St  Barnabas  ; 
The  works  of  Lanfrank,  archbiihop  of  Canterbury  ; 
A  collcfiion  of  fcarce  and  curious  pieces,  under  the 
title  of  Spicilcgium,  i.e.  Gleanings,  in  thirteen  vo- 
lumes, quarto.  The  prefaces  and  notes,  which  he  an- 
nexed to  many  of  thefe  pieces,  Ihow  him  to  have  been  a 
man  of  genius  and  abilities.  He  had  alio  fonic  iharc  in 
the  pieces  inferted  in  the  lirft  volumes  of  Theafts  of 
the  faints  of  the  order  of  St  Bennct ;  the  title  whereof 
acquaints  us  that  they  were  collcded  and  publilhcd 
by  him  and  father  Mabillon.  After  a  very  retired  life, 
till  the  age  of  73,  he  died  at  Paris  the  29th  of  April, 
1685,  in  the  abbey  of  St  Germain  in  the  helds,  where 
he  had  been  librarian. 

ACHERNER,  or  Acharnee,  a  flar  of  the  firfl 
magnitude  in  the  fouthern  extremity  of  the  fonllel- 
lation  Eridancs. 

ACHERON,  a  river  of  Epirus.  The  poets  feign- 
ed it  to  have  been  the  fon  of  Ceres,  whom  Ihe  hid  in 
hell  for  fear  of  the  Titans,  and  turned  into  a  river,  o- 
ver  which  fouls  departed  were  ferried  in  their  way  to 
Elyfium. 

Acheron,  a  river  of  Thefprotia,  inEpirus;  which, 
after  forming  the  lake  Acherulia,  at  no  great  diftancc 
from,  it  falls  into  the  fea  near  the  promontory  of  Chi- 
merium,  tothc  weltof  the  Sinus  Ambracius,  in  a  courfe 
from  north  to  fouth. 

Acheron,  or  Acheros,  a  river  of  the  Brnttii  in 
Italy,  running  from  eaft  to  well:  Where  Alexander 
king  of  Epirus  was  llain  by  the  Lucani,  being  decei- 
ved by  the  oracle  of  Dodona,  which  bid  him  beware  of 
Acheron. 

ACHERSET,  an  ancient  meafure  of  corn,  conjec- 
tured to  be  the  fame  as  our  quarter,  or  eight  bulhcls. 

ACHERUSIA  PELis,  a  lake  between  Cum*  and 
the  promontory  Mifenum,  now  il Lago  DclUCatlucia, 
(Cluverius.)  Some  confound  it  with  the  Lac;ii  Lucn- 
iiiii,  and  others  with  the  Lacui  Avemi.  But  Strabo 
and  Pliny  dillinguiih  them.  The  former  takes  it  to  be 
an  effulion,  exundation.orwafliesofthefca,  and  there- 
fore called  by  Lycophron,  \y»ftTni  x"-'''- — Alio  a  lake 

of  Epirus,  through  which  tiie  Acheron  r'ins There 

is  alio  an  ^i/'i'/ ////</,  a  peniufula  of  Uithynia  on  the 
Euxine,  near  Heraclca  ;  and  a  cave  thereof  the  fame 
name,  throigh  which  Hercules  is  fabled  to  have  dc- 
fcended  to  hell  to  drag  forth  Cerberus. 

ACHI.AR,  is  a  Malayan  word,  which  lignjfies  all 
forts  of  fruits  and  roots  pickled  with  vinegar  and  fpice. 
The  Dutch  import  from  Batavia  all  Ibrts  of  achiar, 
but  particularly  that  of  Bamboo  (fee  Arvni>o),  a 
kind  of  cane,  extremely  thick,  which  grows  in  the 
Ealt  Indies.  It  is  prcfcrvcd  there,  whilll  li  is  ftill 
green,  with  a  very  llrong  vincsjar  and  fpice  j  and  is 
called  bandio  achuir.  The  name  changes  acrording 
to  the  fruit  with  which  the  achi.ir  is  made. 

ACHICOLUM,  is  ufed  to  cxprefs  the   fornix,  t/>4- 
l  '  lui. 


A   C  II 


[     66     ] 


A  C  H 


AchiUxj.   liij,  oT  Jii<!att.iiiim  oi  tlic  ajicieiic  baths  j   whicli  was  a 

— ^- hot  room  where  ihcy  iifcd  to  fweat.     It  is  alfo  called 

archithcliti. 

ACHlhhJEA,  Yarrow,  Milkoi  r.,  Nose  bleep, 
or  Snf.fzf.wort  ;  agcnusoftlie  ordcrof  tht  polyg.i- 
jnia  fiipcrrtua,  belonging  to  the  fyngcnelia  claCs  ut' 
plants.     The  natural  order  to  which  it  belongs  is  ihc 

49th,  C(in:fCijitx  dlfLtii(f:i. 

The  characters  Are  :  The  common  calyx  is  ovate 
and  imbricattd,  with  ovate,  acute,  converging  fcaUs. 
The  comj-oiintl corolla  is  rayed  ;  the  hermaphrodite  co- 
rollcts  arc  tubular  ii;  the  difc,  llic  I'eminiiic  lingiii- 
torni  and  from  5  to  10  in  the  rays  :  The  proper  corol- 
la of  the  hermaphrodites  is  funnel-lhapcd,  expanded, 
and  di\idcd  into  5  fcgments  ;  that  of  the  females, 
longdc-lhapcd,  inverfcly  cordaied,  expanding,  and  of 
?  fcgments.  The  Jlamiiia  in  the  hermaphrodites  con- 
iift  of  J  very  Ihort  capillary  filaments  ;  the  anthera  is 
cylindricanJ  tubular.  The/*.-///////;//  in  the  hermaphro- 
dites has  a  fmall  germen  ;  the  ftylus  is  filiform  the 
length  of  the  llamina  ;  the  lligma  is  obtufe  and  end- 
notched  :  in  the  females,  the  germen  is  fmall ;  the  fly- 
lus  is  filiform  ;  the  ftigmata  are  2,  obtufe  and  reflcdcd. 
The/>i'/-/car/i///?«  is  wanting  ;  the  calyx  fcarcely  chan- 
ged ;  the  receptacle  filiform,  elongated  at  the  difc  of 
the  feeds,  ovate,  and  twice  as  long  as  the  calyx.  The 
/eetis  are  folitary,  ovate,  and  furnilhcd  with  a  lock  of 
wool  ;  no  pappus.  The  receftaculmn  is  chaffy  and  ele- 
vated. 

Sptcies  and  properties.  There  are  20  fpccies,  of 
which  the  following  are  the  principal  :  i.  The  niil- 
lifolium,  or  common  yarrow,  is  found  naturally  on 
banks,  and  by  the  fides  of  foot-paths,  in  nioft  parts  of 
Kngland.  It  moll  commonly  bears  white  flowers, 
though  a  variety  of  it  is  found  which  bears  purple  ones. 
Thefe,  however,  do  not  long  continue  to  bear  flowers 
of  this  colour,  if  tranfplanted  into  gardens.  It  was 
formerly  ufcdin  medicine  ;  but  though  itmay  fiill  have 
a  place  in  foine  difpenfatorics,  nophyfician  of  any  note 
cxpeds  any  virtue  from  it,  or  ever  prefcribes  it.  It 
creeps  greatly  by  its  roots,  and  aUo  multiplies  by  the 
feeds,  fo  that  it  becomes  a  troubleforae  weed  where  it 
is  once  all>^wed  to  get  a  footing.  The  cultivation  of  it 
is  recommended  by  Mr  Andcrfon,  in  his  Eflays  on  A- 
griculture,  as  a  jiropcr  food  for  cattle.  This  fpccies 
was  the  proper  achillaja  of  the  ancients,  fo  named  from 
Achilles  ;  who,having  been  the  difcipleof  Chiron,  firfl 
brought  it  into  ufe  for  the  cure  of  wounds  and  ulcers. 
2.  The  fant<>lina,or  eallcrn  fueezcwort,  isfometimes 
cultivated  in  gardens;  it  has  large  yellow  flowers,  which 
ftand  upon  pretty  long  footilalks  jilaced  fingly,-  not  in 
bunches  as  in  the  common  kind.  It  has  leaves  like 
lavender-cotton, which, when  rubbed, emitaflrongoily 
odour.  The  flowers  appear  in  Juneajid  July.  ;;.  The 
tomentofa,  or  woolly  varrow,  is  a  native  of  the  fouth  of 
France  and  Spain,  b-it  lives  in  the  open  air  in  England. 
The  flowers  are  of  a  bri;zht  yellow,  and  continue  long 
in  beauty,  growing  in  cluftcrs  at  the  top  of  the  flalks, 
which  feldom  rife  above  a  foot  high.  The  leaves  arc 
finely  cut,  and  very  hoary.  4.  The  abrotanifolia,  or 
tall  eaftern  yarrow,  is  a  native  of  theiflands  in  the  Ar- 
chipelago: it  grows  to  the  height  of  two  feet  and  a 
half,  with  large  umbels  of  yellow  flowers  on  the  top  ; 
the  leaves  refemble  ihofe  of  the  common  wormwood, 
and  arc  cut  into  long  narrow  fegmcnts.     5.  The  cla- 


venna,  or  Alpir.e  umbelliferous  wormwooj,  takes  its  AchilJata. 
name  from  the  mountains  of  which  it  is  a  native.  It  — v'— 
frldom  grows  above  iix  or  feven  inches  in  height ;  it 
fupports  umbels  of  white  flowers,  like  thofe  of  the 
commwn  fneezcwort,  which  appear  in  .April and  May. 
The  leaves  are  lilvery,  and  (hapcd  like  thofe  of  worm- 
wood, which  often  decay  in  the  autumn  and  winter. 
6.  The  tanacctifulia,  or  eaflern  fneezcwort,  with  tan- 
fey  leaves,  is  a  very  humble  plant,  feldom  rtling  above 
fix  inches  in  height.  The  flowers  arc  nearly  as  large 
as  thofe  of  the  common  fneezcwort,  white,  and  grow- 
ing in  flat  umbels.  They  appear  in  June  and  July. 
Tlie  leaves  of  the  plant  have  fome  liktuefs  to  thofe  of 
the  common  wormwood,  are  very  hoary,  grow  clofe 
to  the  ground,  and  decay  in  autumn  fo  as  to  make  little 
appearance  in  winter.  Like  the  lafl  fpccies,  this  is  a 
native  of  the  Alps.  7.  Tiic  agcratum,  or  fwcct  maud- 
lin, was  formerly  much  ulcd  in  medicine  and  forculi- 
nary  purpofcs,  but  has  now  fallen  fo  much  into  neg- 
lect as  to  be  totally  unknown  in  tlie  markets ;  fo  that 
when  it  is  demanded,  the  while  maudlin  is  fubflitutcd 
initsflcad.  The  rcafon  of  this  fiibflitution  \j'as,  that 
the  latter  is  more  hardy  and  eafily  propagated  than  the 
fwcct  maudlin,  which  is  apt  toi'ot  in  wet  winters.  The 
common  maudlin  flov\ersinJunc  and  July,  and  the  feeds 
are  ripe  in  September.  8.  The  Egyptiaca,  or  hoary 
fneezcwort,  is  a  native  of  the  Archipelago.  It  hatli 
very  hoary  leaves,  which  remain  all  the  year  ;  and 
the  plants  growing  clofe  and  low,  make  a  pretty  ap- 
pearance at  all  feafons.  The  flowers  are  yellow,  and 
are  produced  in  umbels  on  the  top  of  the  flalks  ;  they 
appear  in  June,  and  continue  till  the  end  of  Septem- 
ber. 9.  The  ptarmica,  or  common  fneezcwort,  grows 
wild  in  the  woods,  and  other  lliady  places,  in  many 
parts  of  England  ;  fo  is  not  admitted  into  gardens. 
There  is  a  variety,  however,  with  double  flowers, 
which  is  preferved  in  gardens,  and  is  commonly  known 
by  the  na.mc  o{  doril>le  maiiil/in.  This  fpccies  creeps 
greatly  by  the  roots,  fo  as  foon  to  overfpread  a  large 
fpot  of  ground.  If  planted  in  pots,  fo  as  to  confine  its 
roots  from  creeping,  the  flalks  grow  clofe  together, 
and  make  a  tolerable  appearance  when  in  flower  ;  but 
when  at  a  diflancc,  fo  that  the  roots  have  full  liberty 
to  run,  the  flowers  appear  but  indifTerently.  10.  The 
macrophylla,  or  Alpine  fneezcwort,  with  fewer 
leaves,  is  a  native  of  the  Alps.  It  produces  many  flalks 
riling  near  three  feet  high  ;  having  loofe  branching 
umbels  of  white  flowers  on  theirtop,  refembling  thofe 
of  the  common  fneezcwort,  but  larger.  11.  The  na- 
na, or  hoary  Alpine  milfoil,  is  likewife  a  nativeof  the 
Alps;  the  leaves  are  hoary,  and  the  umbels  of  its  flow- 
ers arc  moreconipaifl  than  the  former  ;  the  flalks  do  not 
rife  m.ore  than  a  foot  high.  12.  The  nobilis,  or  fweet 
milfoil,  approaches  to  the  nature  of  the  common  mil- 
foil; but  its  leaves  are  of  a  paler  green,  and  are  nei- 
ther fo  long  nor  fo  mucji  cut  ofFas  thofe  of  the  commoa 
milfoil  are :  they  have  a  flrong  fweet  fcent  when  brui- 
fed.  1 3.  The  alpina,  or  white  maudlin,  bears  fomc  re- 
femblance  to  the  common  fneezcwort;  but  the  leaves 
arc  longer,  of  a  deeper  green  colour,  and  deeply  in- 
dented in  their  edges  ;  the  flowers  are  white,  and  the 
roots  creep  far  under  g'round.  The  plant  will  rife,  in 
good  land,  to  the  height  of  four  feet. 

Cri.'ttne.     All  the  forts  of  yarrow  arc  eafily  propa- 
gated by  feeds,  which  maybe  fown  either  in  the  fpring- 


A  C  H 


[     67     ] 


A  C  II 


AcViiUcii,  or  autumn  upon  ?.  bed  of  common  earth.  When  ilic 
Aciiillc?.   plants  come  up,  and  are  ftrong  enough  lor  traiifplsut- 

* -^~^  i;ig,  they  /lioi.ild  be  planted  in  beds   in  tiie  nurlcry, 

where  they  niaycoiitinuetillautmnii,when  ihcy  Uiould 
be  iraiifplantcd  to  the  places  where  they  arc  to  remain. 
The  Archipelago  kinds,  however,  are  often  deftroycd 
by  fevcre  froll ;  fo  they  ought  to  be  fiicltcrcd  during 
the  winter.  Thefe  kinds  alio  rarely  bring  their  feeds 
to  pcrfedlion  in  Lngland  ;  they  arc  therefore  to  be 
propagated  by  flips,  wliicli  may  be  taken  off  and  plant- 
cil  in  a  Ihady  border  .-iny  time  in  fumnicr,  when  they 
will  take  root  in  about  fix  weeks,  and  then  may  be 
trunfplanted  where  tkcy  are  to  remain. 

ACHILLEID,  AcHii.r.E IS,  a  celebrated  poem  of 
Statins,  in  which  thai  author  propofcd  to  deliver  the 
whole  life  and  exploitsof  Achilles;  bin  being  prevent- 
ed by  death,  he  has  only  treated  of  the  infancy  and  c- 
ducatlon  of  this  hero.     Sec  SrArius. 

ACHILLES,  one  of  the  greatefl  heroes  of  ancient 
Greece,  was  the  fon  of  I'cleus  and  Thetis.  He  W'lS  a 
native  of  Pythia,  in  Thelfaly .  I  lis  mother,  it  is  faid, 
in  order  to  confume  every  mortal  part  of  his  body,  tiled 
to  lay  him  every  night  under  live  coals,  anointing  liim 
w  ith  ambrofia,  which  prcfervf  d  every  part  from  burn- 
ing but  one  of  his  lips,  owing  to  his  liaving  licked  it. 
She  dipped  hiin  alfo  in  the  waters  of  the  river  Styx  ; 
by  which  his  whole  body  became  invulnerable,  except 
that  part  of  his  heel  by  which  llie  held  him.  But  this 
opinion  is  not  univerfal,  nor  is  it  a  part  of  his  charac- 
ter as  drawn  by  Homer;  for  in  the  Iliad  (B.  xxi.  161.) 
he  was  aftually  wounded  in  the  right  arm,  by  the  lance 
of  Afleropaut,  in  the  battle  near  the  river  Scamander. 
Thetis  afterwards  enirulledhim  tothecarc  of  the  een- 
fanr  Cliiron,  w  ho,  to  give  him  the  flrength  necelfary 
for  martial  toil,  fed  him  with  honey  and  the  marrow 
of  lions  and  wild  boars.  To  prevent  his  going  to 
the  (lege  of  Troy,  fhe  difguifed  him  in  female  apparel, 
and  hid  him  among  the  maidens  at  iTie  court  of  king 
Lycomedes  :  but  Lilylles  difcovering  him,  perfuaded 
him  to  follow  thcGreeks.  .Achilles  diftinguilhed  hini- 
felf  by  a  number  of  heroic  aiflions  at  the  liege.  Briiig 
difgufled,  however,  with  Agamemnon  for  the  lofs  of 
Brifeis,  he  retired  from  the  camp.  But  returning  to 
avenge  the  death  of  his  friend  Patroclus,  he  llcw  Hec- 
tor, faftcncd  his  corps  to  his  chariot,  and  dragged  it 
round  the  walls  of  Troy.  At  lall  Paris,  the  brother 
of  Heflor,  wounded  him  in  the  heel  with  an  arrow, 
while  he  was  in  the  temple  treating  about  hiimarriagc 
with  Philoxena,  daughter  to  king  Priam.  Of  this 
wound  he  died,  and  was  interred  on  tlie  promontory  of 
Sigjsniii ;  and  after  Troy  was  taken,  the  Greeks  facri- 
ticed  Pliiloxena  on  his  tomb,  in  obedience  to  his  dc  fire, 
that  lie  might  enjoy  her  company  in  the  Elylian  HtUis. 
It  is  faid  iliat  Alexander,  feeing  his  tomb,  honoured 
it  by  placing  a  crown  upon  it ;  at  the  fame  time  cry- 
ing out,  that  '*■  Achillss  was  happy  in  having,  during 
his  life,  fnch  a  friind  as  Patroclus  ;  and,  after  his 
death,  a  poet  like  Homer."  Achilles  is  fuppofed  to 
have  died  I  iS  j  years  before  the  Chrillian  aera. 

Achilles  Tati  us.     SccTatius. 

Teniia  Acuiius,  in  anatomy,  is  a  llroiig  tendinous 
cord  formed  by  the  tendons  of  feveral  nuifeles,  and  in- 
fcrtrd  into  the  os  calcis.  It  has  its  name  from  the  fa- 
tal wound  Achiilcs  is  faid  to  have  received  in  that  part 
from  Paris  the  fon  of  Priam. 


ACHILLINI  (Alexander),  bom  at  Bologna,  and 
do,.tor  of  philofopliy  in  that  univcrlity.  He  riuuriflied 
in  thcijthand  i6thecnturies,  and  by  way  of  eminence 
was  llylcd  the  Great  Philofophcr.  He  was  a  licdlal'L 
follower  and  accurate  interpreter  of  A  verroes  uponAri- 
llotlc,  but  mofl  admired  for  his  acutenefs  and  flrength 
of  arguing  in  public  and  private  difputations.  He  made 
a  furpriling  quick  progrefs  in  his  lludies,and  was  very 
early  promoted  to  a  prot'ellbrfiiip  in  the  univcrlity  ;  iu 
which  he  acquitted  hiinfelf  «itii  fonr.ichapplaufc  thar 
hisname  became  famous  throughout  all  Italy.  He  con- 
tinned  at  Bologna  till  liie  year  t  jo6  ;  when  the  uni- 
verfity  of  Padua  made  choice  of  him  to  fuccccd  Anto- 
nio Francatiano  in  the  firll  chair  of  philofophy,  and 
liis  fame  brought  vaft  numbers  of  fludents  to  his  lec- 
tures at  Padua  :  but  the  war,  wherein  the  republic  of 
Venicii  was  engaged  againll  the  league  of  Canibray, 
putting  a  flop  to  the  lectures  of  that  uiiiverlity,  he 
withdrew  to  his  native  country;  where  he  was  received 
with  the  fame  marks  of  honour  and  dillinflion  ai  be- 
fore, and  again  appointed  profedbr  of  philofophy  in 
Bologna.  Hc-fpest  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  this- 
city,  where  he  died,  and  was  interred  with  great  pomp 
in  the  church  ofSt  Martin  the  Great,  which  belongs  to 
the  Carmelite  Friars.  Jovius,  who  knew  Achillini,  and 
heard  his  Icclures,  fays,  that  he  was  a  man  of  fuch  ex- 
ceeding limplicity,  and  fo  unacquainted  with  addrcfs 
and  flattery,  that  he  was  a  laughing-ftock  to  the  pert 
and  fancy  young  fcholars,  although  elleemedon  account 
of  his  learning.  He  wrote  feveral  pieces  on  philofo- 
phical  fubje(5ls,  which  he  publilhcd,  and  dedicated  to 
John  Bentivogli. 

Achillini  (Claudius),  grandfon  of  the  former, 
read  Icdlures  at  Bologna,  Ferrara,  and  Parma ;  where 
he  was  reputed  a  great  philofopher,  a  learned  divine, an 
excellent  lawyer,  an  eloquent  orator,  a  good  mathe- 
matician, and  an  elegant  poet.  He  accompanied  Car- 
dinal Ludovino,  who  went  as  legate  into  Piedmont;  but 
being  afterward  negledcd  by  this  cardinal,  when  he 
became  pope  under  the  name  of  Gregory  XV.  he  left 
Rome  indifguft,and  retired  to  Parma  ;  where  the  duke 
appointed  him  profellbrof  law,  with  a  good  falary.  He 
publilhcd  a  volume  of  Latin  Letters,  and  another  of 
Italian  poems,  which  gained  him  great  reputation  :  he 
died  in  1640,  aged  66. 

ACHIOTTE,  orAcHioTt,  a  foreign  drug,  ufed 
in  dying,  and  in  the  preparation  of  chocolate.  It  is 
the  fame  with  the  fibflanee  more  ufually  known  by 
the  name  Arnotto  ;   which  fee 

ACHIROPOETOS,  a  name  given  by  ancient  wri- 
ters to  certain  miraculous  pitlures  of  Chrift  and  the 
Virgin,  fuppofed  to  have  been  made  without  Iiands. — 
The  moll  celebrated  of  thefe  is  a  picture  of  Chrill, 
prefcrved  in  the  church  of  St  John  Lateran  at  Rome  ; 
faid  to  have  been  begun  by  St.  Luke,  but  linidAcd  by 
the  niinillry  of  angels. 

ACHMET,  fonof  Seerim,  has  left  a  book  concern- 
ing the  interpretation  of  dreams  according  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Indians,  Perlians  and  Egyptians,  which 
wastranilated  out  of  the  Greek  into  Latin  by  Leo  Tnf- 
cus  in  1160.     He  lived  In  the  9th  century. 

ACHMRT-GF.DUC,  a  famous  general  under  Ma- 
homet i  I.  and  Bajaztt  II.  in  the  ijth  century,  \\hen 
Mahomet  n.  died,  B.ija/.et  and  Zezan  both  claimed 
the  throne  :  Adimet  iided  with  the  former,  and  by  his 
I  2  bra\crv 


A  C  H 


[    68     ] 


A  C  H 


bravery  and  conduce  fixe  J  the  crown  on  his  head.  But 
Bajazci  took  awjyhislil'c  ;  fiiiaiiig  viiLucbciiig  always 
an  unparjoriat  Ic  crime  in  the  eyes  ot  a  tyrant. 

ACHMKTSCHKT,  a  town  of  the  pcninfiila  of 
the  Crimea,  the  rclidenee  of  the  fultait  Gal^a,  who  is 
ilJcll  foil  of  tlic  Khanuf  Tartary.  Long.  51.  20.  Lat. 
45.0. 

ACHiMIM,  a  large  town  of  Upper  Egypt,  fituatej 
0:1  the  eallcrn  bank  of  the  Nile.  "  One  admires  there 
(f<!ys  Abulfcda,  as  quoted  by  Mr  Savary),  a  temple, 
wliich  is  comparable  to  the  mull  celebrated  monuments 
(ff  antiquity.     It  is  coaitrudcd  with  Itoiicsof  a  fiirpri- 
li rtgfizc, on  which  are  fculptured  innumerable  figures." 
Though  this  town  be  fallen  from  its  ancient  fplcndor, 
it  is  ftill  one  of  the  n.ofl  beautiful  of  Upper  £gypt. 
According  10  Mr  Savary,  an  Arab  prince  commands 
tiicre,  and  the  police  is  well  attended  to.     The  llrects 
are  wide  and  clean,  and  commerce  and  agriculture  llou- 
riili.     It  has  a  manufactory  of  cotton,  Itutfs,  and  pot- 
tery, which  are  conveyed  over  all  i^gypt.     It  is  the 
fame  that  Herodotus  calls  Ghcimuis,  and  Strabo  Pano- 
pol'n,  or  the  city  of  Pan,  who  was  worlhipped  there. 
Herodotus  fiys,  that  Pcrfcus  was  a  native  of  this  city, 
and  that  his  defcendants  had  eltabliflicd  fcllivals  there 
in  his  honour.   Ithas  loft  its  ancient  edifices,  and  n;uch 
of  its  extent  ;   the  ruins  of  the  temple,  delcribcd  by 
Abulfcda,  being  without  its  limits,  to  the  north.     No- 
thing remains  of  it  but  feme  flones,  of  fucli  magnitude 
that  the  Turks  have  not  been  able  to  move  them.  They 
are  covered  with  hieroglyphics.     On  one  of  them  are 
traced  four  concentric  circles,  in  afquarc.   The  inncr- 
mofl  of  thcfc  contains  a  fun.  The  two  fucceedingones, 
divided  into  12  parts,  contain,  one,  12  birds,  the  other, 
12  animals  almofl  effaced,  which  appear  to  be  the 
ligns  of  the  zodiac.     The  fourth  has  no  divilions,  and 
prefents  12  human  figures;  which  Mr  Savary  imagines 
to  reprefcnt  the  12  gods,  the  12  months  of  the  year, 
and  the  12  figns  of  the  zodiac.     The  Egyptians,  fays 
Herodotus,  are  the  firll  who  divided  the  year  into  12 
months,  and  employed  the  namcsof  the  i2gods.  The 
four  feafons  occupy  the  angles  of  the  fquare,  on  the 
fide  of  which  may  be  diflinguilhed  a  L,lobe  with  wings. 
Mr  Savary  thinks  it  probable  that  this  ftone  belonged 
10  a  temple  dedicated  to  tjie  fun,  that  the  whole  of 
thefe  hieroglyphics  mark  his  pallage  into  the  figns  of 
the  zodiac,  and  his  courfe,  whofe  revolution  forms  the 
year.     The  columns  of  this  temple  have  been  partly 
broken  to  make  lime  and  millftones.     Some  of  them 
have  been  tranfported  into  one  of  the  mofques  of  Ach- 
mim,  where  they  are  placed  without  taitc  ;  others  are 
heaped  up  in  the  fquares  of  the  town. 

Mr  Savary  tells  us  of  a  ferpent  which  is  wor- 
fliippcd  here,  and  is  the  wonder  of  the  country. 
"  Upwards  of  a  century  ago  (fays  he),  a  religious 
Turk  called  Schdlk  Haridi  died  here.  He  palTed 
for  a  faint  among  the  Mahometans  ;  who  raifed  a 
monument  to  him,  covered  with  a  cupola,  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountain.  The  people  flocked  from  all 
parts  to  offer  np  their  prayers  to  him.  One  of  their 
priefls,  profiting  by  their  credulity,  perfuadcd  them 
that  God  had  made  the  foul  of  Scheilk  Haridi  pafs  in- 
to the  body  of  a  ferpent.  Many  of  thefe  arc  found 
in  the  Thebais,  which  are  harmlefs  ;  and  lie  had 
taught  one  to  obey  his  voice.  He  appeared  with  his 
ferpent,  dazzled  the  vulgar  by  his  fiirprifing  tricks. 


and  pretended  to  cure  all  diforders.     Some  lucky  in-    Achmim 
itances  of  fuccels,   due  to  nature  alone,  and  fonietimcs  ii 

to  tile  imagination  of  the  patients,  gave  him  great  ce-     ■^''"'"-  , 
lebrity.     He  foon  confined  his  ferpent  Haridi  to  the 
tomb,   producing  him  only  to  oblige  princes  and  pcr- 
fons  capable  of  giving  him  a  handfomc  rccompencc. 
The  fuecelfors  of  this  prielf,  brought  up  in  the  fame 
principles,  found  no  difficulty  in  giving  fandion  to 
lo advantageous  an  error.    Tiiey  added  to  the  general 
perluafion  of  his  virtue  that  of  his  immortality.  They 
had  the  buldncfs  even  to  make  a  public  proof  of  it. 
The  ferpent  was  cut  in  pieces  in  prcfcnce  of  the  Emir, 
and  pLiccd  for  two  hours  under  a  vale.     At  the  inllani: 
of  lifting  up  the  vafe,  the  priclfs,  no  douht,  had  the 
addrcfs  to  fubllitute  one  exactly  refembling  it.  A  mira- 
cle was  proclaimcd,and  the  immortal  Haridi  acquired  a 
frclh  degree  of  confidcr.ition.  This  knavery  procures 
them  great  advantages.  The  people  flock  from  all  quar- 
ters to  pray  at  this  tomb;   and  if  the  ilrpent  crawls 
out  from  under  the  flone,andapproachcs  the  fuppliant, 
it  is  a  lign  that  his  malady  will  be  cured.     It  may  be 
imagined,  that  he  does  not  appear  till  an  offering  has 
been  made  proportioned  to  the  quality   and  riches  of 
the  different  pcrfons.     In  extraordinary  cafes,  where 
the  lick  perfon  cannot  be  cured  without  the  prcfencc 
of  the  ferpent,  a.  pun-  virgin  mull  come  to  folicit  him. 
To  avoid  inconveniences  on  this  head,  they  take  cars 
to  ehoof e  a  a  very  young  girl  i'ldced.  She  is  decked  out 
in  her  bell  clothes,  and  crowned  with  flowers.     She 
puts  herfelf  in  a  praying  attitude  ;   and  as  the  priefts 
are  inclined,   the  ferpent  comes  out,  makes  circles 
round  the  young  fuppliant,  and  goes  and  repofes  on 
her.     The  virgin,  accompanied  by  a  vafl  multitude, 
carries  him  in  triumph  aniidll  the  general  acclama- 
tion.   No  human  reafoning  would  perfuadc  thefe  igno- 
rant and  credulous  Egyptians  tliat  they  are  the  dupes 
of  a  few  impoflors  :   they  believe  in  the  ferpent  Ha- 
ridi as  firmly  as  in  the  prophet." 

ACHONRY,  a  fmall  town  of  Ireland,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Connaught  and  county  of  Sligo,  feated  on  the 
river  Shannon. 

ACHOR,  avalley  of  Jericho,  lying  along  the  river 
Jordan,  not  far  from  Gilgal ;  fo  called  from  Achan, 
the  troubler  of  Ifrael,  being  there  floned  to  death. 
AcHOR,  in  medicine,  a  ipecies  of  Herpes. 
AcHOR,  in  mythology,  the  god  of  flies  ;  to  whom, 
according  to  Pliny,  the  inhabitants  of  Cyrene  facrifi- 
ccd,  in  order  toobtain  deliverance  from  the  infects  and 
the  diforders  occalioned  by  them. 

ACHRADINA  (anc.  geog.),  one  of  the  four  ci- 
ties or  divilions  of  Syracufe,and  the  (lrongefl,largeft, 
andmofh  beautiful  part  of  it ;  fcparatcdby  a  very  itrong 
wall  from  the  outer  town,  TychazwA  Niapolis,  It  was 
adorned  with  a  very  large  forum,  with  beautiful  por- 
ticos, a  moll  elegant  prytaneum,  a  fpacious  fenate- 
houfe,  and  a  fuperb  temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius. 

ACHRAS,  or  Sapota  Plum  :  a  genus  of  the  nio- 
nogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  hexandria  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  ranking  in  the  43d  Natural  Order,  Dii- 
moj'tc. 

The  characters  are  :  The  calyx  is  a  perianthium, 
conlifting  of  fix  ovate  concave  ereft  leaflets,  the  ex- 
terior ones  broader  and  fliorter,  the  interior  ones  co- 
loured. The  corolla  is  compofed  of  one  ovate  petal, 
the  height  of  the  calyx;  the  border  divided  into  fix 

fcgments. 


A  C   H 


[     69 


A  C  I 


fefumciits.  Theftami/ia  have  lix  fhort  fabaUted  fila- 
ments at  the  throat  of  the  corolla  ;  and  the  antherx 
arc  acute.  The  i>i]IUlum  has  a  rouiidilh  dcprellcd  gcr- 
,  men  ;  the  llyliis  is  Tubulated,  and  longer  than  the 
corolla  ;  the  lligraa  is  obtufc.  The  pericarpim/t  is  a 
globular  twelve-celled  pomum,  with  very  foft  fielli. 
The  feeds  trc  folitary,  ovate,  and  gloITy. 

There  arc  four  fpecics,  all  natives  of  the  Weft  In- 
dies. The  principal  are,  I.  Tlie  fapota,  with  oblong 
oval  leaves,  and  fmooth  turbinated  fruit.  2.  The  mam- 
mofa,  with  fpear-lhapcd  leaves,  and  large  oval  fruit. 
The  lirll  is  common  about  Panama,  and  fome  places 
i;i  the  Spanilh  Well  Indies  ;  but  is  not  to  be  found  in 
any  of  the  Britiih  fetilenicnts  in  America.  The  fe- 
co:id  fort  is  very  common  in  Jamaica,  Barbadocs,  and 
moll  of  the  Welt  India  Illands,  where  the  trees  are 
planted  in  the  gardens  for  their  fruit,  ■  •  hich  is  by  many 
perfons  greatly  eflcemed.  They  grow  to  the  heightof 
3  J  or  40  feet,  having  a  ftraight  trunk  covered  with  an 
alh-colourcd  bark.  Tlie  branches  arc  produced  on  c- 
very  tide,  forming  a  regular  head  ;  and  arc  befet  with 
leaves  near  a  foot  long,  and  almoll  three  inches  broad 
in  the  middle.  The  flowers  are  of  a  cream  colour  : 
and  are  fuccceded  by  large  oval  fruit  covered  by  a 
brownilh  Ikin,  Lnclofing  a  thick  pulp  of  a  ruffet  colour, 
very  lufcious,  and  called  natural  marmalade,  from  its 
refemblance  to  that  of  quinces.  The  llones  taken  in 
emullion  are  reckoned  good  againll  the  gravel. — Thefe 
trees  being  natives  of  very  hot  climates,  cannot  be  prc- 
ferved  in  Britain,  except  in  the  warmcll  (loves. 

ACHROMATIC,  an  epithet  cxprefling  want  of  co- 
lour. The  word  is  Greek,  being  compounded  of  «, 
privative,  and  xft^"'  colvur. 

AcHROM/aic  Tchfcopcs,  are  tclefcopcs  contrived  to 
remedy  the  aberrations  in  colours  ;  fee  Abe  kr  at  ion. 
— A  particular  account  of  the  invention  and  conilruc- 
tion  of  thefe  inftruments  will  be  found  under  Orrics. 

ACHTELING,  a  meafurc  for  liquids  ufed  in  Ger- 
many. Thirty-two  achtci'mgs  make  a  keener ;  four 
fciiti?»i  or  fcilt:iu,  make  an  acht cling. 

ACHYR,  a  flrong  town  and  cafllc  of  the  Ukrain, 
Aibjc(5l  to  the  Ruffians  lince  1667.  It  flands  on  the 
river  Uorfklo  near  the  frontiers  of  Ruflia,  127  miles 
W.  of  Kiow,  Long.  ;6.  o.  Lat  49.  32. 

ACHYRANTHES,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  pen- 
tandria  order,  belonging  to  the  monogynia  clafs  of 
plants,  and  aflbciating  with  the  Mifeellanex,  in  the 
54ih  Natural  Order. 

The  characters  are  :  Tlie  calyr  is  a  double  peri- 
antliium  ;  the  exterior  one  conliftiug  of  three  lan- 
ced acute  leaves,  which  are  pcriillent ;  the  iiitcrior  of 
five  leaves,  alfo  perfiflent.  No  corolla :  The  ne Clarinm 
isfive-valvcd  furronnding  thegermen,  bearded  at  the 
top,  concave,  and  falling  oH".  The  /fami'ia  confift  of 
five  filaments  the  length  of  the  corolla,  the  antherx 
arc  ovate  and  incumbent.  The  pijlillum  has  a  top- 
ihaped  germcn  the  flylus  is  filiform,  and  the  length 
of  the  ftamina  ;  the  ftigma  is  villous,  and  divided  into 
two  fegments.  The  ferianthiuvt  is  a  rouHdilh  one- 
celled  capfulc,  not  gaping.  The  feed  is  fingle  and  ob- 
long. 

Of  this  genus  eight  fpecies  are  cnuoicrated  ;  but 

the  character  of  the  genus  docs  not  agree  in  them  all. 

The  fpecies  are  all  natives  of  ihe  Indies.     Only  one 

of  them,  the  amai'anchus,  is  conimouly  cultivated  iu 


botanical  gardens,  and  that  more  for  the  fake  of  va- 
riety than  beauty.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  three 
fett,  with  oblong  pointed  leaves.  The  flowers  come 
out  in  long  fpikc  s  from  the  extremities  of  the  branches, 
and  appear  in  July,  the  feeds  ripening  in  September. 
Plants  of  this  kind  inull  be  reared  in  a  hot-bed,  and 
may  be  tranfplantcd  when  they  have  acquired  fufHci- 
ent  Itrength.  If  kept  in  pots,  and  (helicred  during 
the  winter  in  a  warm  grecn-houfc,  they  will  live  two 
or  three  years. 

ACICANTHER.^,  in  botany,  the  trivial  name  of 
a  fpecics  of  Rhexi  a. 

ACICULit,  the  fmall  pikes  or  prickles  of  the 
hcdgc-hog,  echinus-marinus,  &c. 

ACIDALIUS  (Valcns)  would,  in  all  probability, 
have  been  one  of  the  grcateit  critics  in  thefe  latter  a- 
ges,  had  he  lived  longer  to  perfect  thofe  talents  which 
nature  had  given  him.  He  was  born  at  Witftock,  in 
Brandenburg  ;  and  having  vifitcd  feveral  academics  in 
Germany,  Italy,  and  other  countries,  where  he  was 
greatly  elleemcd,  he  afterwards  lookup  his  refidcncc 
at  Brcilaw,  the  metropolis  of  Silelia.  Here  he  remain- 
ed a  confiderable  lime,  in  expectation  of  fome  employ- 
ment ;  but  notliing  offering,  he  turned  Roman-Catho- 
tic,  and  was  chofen  rector  of  a  fchool  at  NielFa.  It 
is  related,  tliat  about  four  mouths  after,  as  he  was  fol- 
lowing a  proceflion  of  the  hoil,  he  was  feized  with  a 
fudden  phrcnzy,  and  being  carried  home,  expired  in  a 
very  fhort  time.  But  Thuanus  tells  us,  that  his  ex- 
ccliivc  application  to  fludy  was  the  occalion  of  his  un- 
timely death  :  and  that  his  litting  up  a-nights  in  compo- 
fing  ins  conjectures  on  Plautus,  brought  upon  him  a 
diftemper  which  carried  him  off  in  three  days,  on  the 
25""  of  May  159J,  beingjuiliurnedof  28.  He  wrote 
a  Commentary  on  Qiiintus  Curtius  ;  alfo,  Notes  on  Ta- 
citus, on  the  twelve  Panegyrics  ;  belidcs  fpeeches,  let- 
ters, and  poems.  His  poetical  pieces  are  infcrted  in 
the  /)<'//£/>  of  the  German  poets;  and  confiH  of  epic 
verfcs,odcs,  and  epigrams.  A  little  piece, printed  in 
I  59;,  under  the  title  of  Mulisrts  non  efft  homintis, 
"  That  women  were  not  of  tlie  human  fpecies,"  was 
filfcly  afcribed  to  him.  But  the  fact  was,  that  .'\cida- 
lius  happening  to  meet  with  the  manufcript, and  think- 
ing it  very  whimlicjl,  tranfcribed  it,  and  gave  it  to  the 
bookfeller,w  ho  printed  it.  The  peribrm.incc  was  high- 
ly txclairocd  againfl,  infomuch  that  the  bookfeller  be- 
ing feized,  he  difcovered  the  pcifon  who  gave  him  the 
maniifcript,anda  terrible  outcry  wasniadeagainA  Aci- 
dalius.  A  itory  goes,  that  being  one  day  to  dine  at  a 
friend's  houfe,  there  happened  to  be  feveral  ladies 
at  table  ;  who  fuppofing  iiim  to  be  the  author,  were  mo- 
ved with  fo  much  indignation,  that  they  threatened  to 
throw  their  plates  at  his  head,  .^cidalius,  however,  in- 
genioudy  diverted  their  wrath.  In  his  opinion,  he  faid, 
the  nutlior  was  ajudicious  perfon,  the  ladies  being  cer- 
tainly more  of  the  fpecies  oi angeh  than  of  wi/;. — Mr 
Baillet  has  given  him  a  place  among  his  Enfaris  Cele- 
bres  ;  and  fays,  that  he  wrote  a  comment  upon  Plau- 
tus when  he  was  but  17  or  iS  years  old,  and  that  he 
compoftd  feveral  Latin  poems  at  the  fame  age. 

ACIDALUS,  a  fountain  in  Orchomenus,  a  city  of 
Bocotia,  in  which  the  Graces,  who  are  facred  to  Ve- 
nus, bathed.  Hence  the  epithet  Acidalia,  given  to 
Venus,  (V'irgil.) 

ACIDITY,  that  quality  which  renders  bodies  acid. 

ACI- 


A  C  I 


[     70     ] 


A  C  I 


Aci.loton,    '  ACIDOTON,  in  boiany,  the  tihial  lumeofafpc- 

^UliK.       cics  of  A  D  E  L  I  A  . 

'^~^'~~'  ACIDS,  in  clieniiflry,  the  name  by  wliich  one  of 
I  the  gcntral  clalics  of  faltsait  diltingiiiiiitd.  The  cha- 
General  raderilUc  marks  of  them  are,  i.  The  peculiar  tulle 
properties  wliich  \vc  call  lour ;  tliougii  this  dots  not  hold  iin'ivcr- 
of  »cid».  faiiy  :  j„i-  the  acid  of  arfenic,  \\hich  in  other  rcfpc(5ls 
ntanitells  a  ilrongacid  power,  lias  not  this  four  talle  ; 
nor  arc  the  volatile  fulphurcous  acid,  or  thofc  ui  tmig- 
l.en  and  molybJaiia,  lately  dilcovcrcd  by  Mr  Scheelc, 
Very  diflinguilhable  in  this  way.  On  the  other  hand, 
ihe  flrong  acids  of  vitriol,  nitre,  and  even  fea-falt,  arc 
altogether  raullic,  and  cannot  be  tailed  until  they  have 
been  largely  diluted  with  water.  2.  With  water  they 
combine  intoa  fluid,  the  fpeciiic  gravity  of  which  isnot 
a  mcdiiini  betwixt  the  w.uer  and  acid  fcparately  taken. 
This  holds  good  with  the  Ihong  acids,  which  grow  hot 
with  water,  and  Ihriuk  into  lei's  bulk  by  reafon  of  their 
emitting  a  nuaniity  of  the  fire  they  contain:  but  whe- 
ther it  alio  t^kes  place  in  the  weaker  acids,  bus  not  yet 
been  afcertaincd  ;  though  the  probability  is,  that  it  will 
take  place  in  them  alfo.  -i..  VN'ith  fpirit  of  w  iiie,  they 
unite  in  to  a  very  xolatileand  inflammable  fubllance  cal- 
led ethtr.  This  mult  alfo  be  undcrllood  only  of  the 
llrong  mineral  acids,  or  of  the  acetous  when  very  much 
concentrated  ;  for  the  acids  of  tartar,  borax,  arfenic, 
lapis  ponderofus  (tuitgjhn),  and  molybdsena,  do  not 
produce  any.  4.  They  change  the  blue  colour  of  ve- 
getables to  red,  and  heighten  the  colourofthofe  which 
arc  already  red. — This  property  is  moreuniverfal  than 
thofe  we  have  yet  mentioned  ;  but  the  volitile  fiilphu- 
reousaeid,  thofe  of  tungilen  and  niolybdasna,  are  excep- 
tions. 5.  They  unite  with  all  kinds  of  earths  except- 
ing the  filiceous  (though  the  fluor  acid  diilblvcs  this 
alfo),  with  fixed  and  volatile  alkalies,  and  with  metals, 
in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  form  compounds  conliderably 
permanent,  and  whofc  ingredients  cannot  be  fcparated 
without  fomedifliculiy.  This  is  the  moftunivcrfalanJ 
didinguilhing  mark  ;  and  there  is  not  any  acid  but  what 
Ihows  its  attraflion  for  one  or  more  of  thefc  fubllanccs, 
cfpccially  the  alkaline  falts.  Oilband  fats,  indeed,  will 
unite  wiih  alkalies  ;  but  they  may  be  fcparated  by  the 
weakeft  known  acids,  fo  that  there  is  no  danger  of 
confounding  the  two  together.  6.  When  mixed  with 
any  fermentable  liquor,  they  prevent  that  proccfs  from 
taking  place  :  or,  if  it  has  already  begun,  they  w'lll 
pat  a  (lop  to  it.  This  alfo  nuifl  be  undcrllood  only  of 
the  ftronger  acids,  or  at  leafl  will  require  a  conliderable 
«iuantity  of  the  weaker  to  cffeft  it.  7-  They  cannot 
be  frozen  but  in  a  degree  of  cold  below  the  freezing 
point  of  water.  This  property  is  likcwife  not  univer- 
fal,  but  is  remarkable  only  in  the  flronger  acids. 

The  nature  of  acids  has  long  been  a  matter  of  fpe- 
culation,  and  of  late  has  engaged  the  attention  of  phi- 
lofophcrs  very  conliderably.  Some  have  fuppofed  them 
to  be  funple  chemical  elements,  while  others  imagined 
them  to  be  compofed  of  water  and  earth.  Both 
ti-.efeopinions,  however,  arc  inadmifllble  ;  the  former, 
becaufe  we  are  certain  that  mofl  acids  may  be  entirely 
decompofed,  and  refolvcd  into  aerial  vapours  of  diifer- 
ent  kinds,  which  could  not  happen  if  they  were  limple 
and  unchangeable  elements  ;  the  latter,  becaufe  there 
is  not  the  fmalleft  probability  that  two  ingredients, 
feemingly  fo  iniipid  and  inadive  as  water  and  earth 
could  by  their  union  produce  a  compound  endowed 


Of  the  na- 
ture of  a- 
.cids. 


with  fuch  powerf  il  and  even  dcllruclivc  properties 
as  many  of  the  acids  polfefs.— — The  late  difcovc- 
ries  concerning  air  of  different  kinds  have  iuggelkd 
a  new  theory,  lirll  publilhcd  by  M.  Lavoider,  anJ  Ihe- 
iHionlly  maintained  by  the  Kreiifh  chemills,  viz.  That 
the  acid  principle  is  contained  in  the  air  ;  and,  accor- 
ding as  it  con-ibincs  itfelf  with  different  fubllances, 
forms  acids  of  ditfercnt  denominations. 

This  theory  be  conliders  as  cllablilhcd  by  numerous 
indifputalile  experiments.  Thcfc  cannot  here  be  de- 
tailed ;  but  his  conclulions  from  the  whole  are.  That 
"  dephJogiJticated  air  enters  as  a  conllituent  part  into 
the  compoiitioH  of  feveral  acids,  particularly  the  phof- 
phoric,  vitriolic,  and  nitrous  ;  that  this  pure  and  high- 
ly refpirable  air  is  the  conflilutive  principle  of  acidity 
common  to  all  acids  ;  and  that  the  difference  by  which 
they  are  diAing-'.llied  from  each  other  is  produced 
by  the  union  of  one  or  more  principles  bclidcs  this 
air,  fo  as  to  conflitute  the  particular  form  under  which 
each  acid  appears."  To  dephlogillicated  air  in  its 
flate  of  fixity,  therefore,  he  gives  the  title  of  the  aci- 
difying or  oxygenous  principle  ;  and  concludes  farther 
from  his  experiments,  i."  That,  whencombined  with 
the  matter  of  fire,  heat,  and  light,  this  principle  pro- 
duces dephlogillicated  air  ;  though  he  conliders  this 
pofition  as  not  capable  of  abfolute  demonllration.  It 
mail  not,  therefore,  be  confounded  with  the  follow- 
ing ;  which,  he  lays,  are  fupported  by  experiment  and 
politive  proofs.  2.  That  the  fame  acidifying  principle, 
combined  with  phlogillic  fubllanccs  or  charcoal,  forms 
fixed  air.  3.  That  with  fulphur  it  forms  vitriolic  acid. 
4.  That  with  nitrous  air  it  forms  nitrous  acid.  5.  That 
with  Knnckel's  phofphorus,  it  forms  the  phofphoric 
acid.    6.  With  fugar  it  forms  the  acid  of  fugar,"  6cc. 

The  opinion  of  Mr  Lavoificr  concerning  the  com- 
pofition  of  acids  has  in  part  been  adopted  by  Mr  Kir- 
wan  ;  who,  in  his  treatife  on  Phlogillon,  publilhed  in 
J  78  7,  informs  us  that  he  is  now  of  opinion  "  that  de- 
phlogillicated air  becomes  an  elfential  conflituent  part 
ofacids.  All  acids  (he  adds)  confill  of  two  principles  : 
one  peculiar  to  each,  which,  in  the  opinion  of  thcan- 
tiphlogiftians,  has  not  as  yet  been  decompofed,  and 
confequently  mull  be  looked  upon,  relative  to  the  pre- 
fent  liate  of  our  knowledge,  as  a  limple  fubflance  : 
the  other,  pure  air,  in  a  concrete  ftate  ;  that  is,  de- 
prived of  the  greater  part  of  its  fpecific  heat,  and  con- 
denfed  into  a  fmall  volume.  The  firllthey  call  the 
acid  hajis ;  the  lall,  the  oxygenous  principle:  thus  the 
vitriolic  acid,  according  to  them,  conlifts  of  fulphur 
as  its  bafis,  and  pure  air  in  a  concrete  (late  as  its  aci- 
difying or  oxygenous  principle.  This  doctrine  of  the 
compofition  ofacids  has  been  admitted  by  fome  of  the 
ablefl  defenders  of  phlogillon,  and  particularly  by  thai 
dillingnifliedphilofophicchemillM.  de  Morveau,  «  ith 
this  lingle  modification,  that  the  bafes  of  acids  contain 
phlogillon,  which  they  lofe  on  uniting  to  pure  air  : 
yet  it  feems  very  difficult  to  conceive  how  pure  air  can 
unite  to  phlogillon,  a  fubllancc  to  which  it  has  the 
greateft  affinity,  without  forming  a  new  compound  en- 
dowed with  very  different  properties  from  thofe  which 
itpolTeflcd  beforefuch  union.  It  fcems  therefore  more 
reafonable  to  conclude,  either  that  it  forms  water,  as 
Mr  Cavendiih  thinks  ;or  fixed  air,  as  I  lliall  afterwar<ls 
endeavour  to  prove." 

In  his  explanation  of  the  formation  of  acids,  Mr 

Kirwan 


Ac'iii. 


Mr  Lavoi- 
ficr's  li)  p(»- 
thcfis,  that 
air  islhc 
acid  princi- 
ple. 


4 
Bafls  i>f  dc- 
phlogifti- 
catcd  air 
fuppofed  to 
be  the  acid 
principle. 


Mr  Kir- 
wan'sopi- 


A  C  I 


[     V     J 


A  C  I 


Acids,     Kirwari  firftitarcs  die  opinion  of  the  diuij)Iil'jgi(lians, 

— '■ viz.  Thatihc  vitriolic  acid, when  confidcrcdrtbdradcd- 

]y  I'roni  the  water  it  contains,  always  confirts  of  fulphur 
(which  they  coiifidcr  as  afiinplcfubllancc)  united  toa 
large portioaofthcoxygcrnousprinciplc.  "  Inniyopi- 
nion  (fays  he),  it  conliitsof  a  bafis  or  radical  principle, 
Mhich,  when fatnrated  with  phlogillon,  conflitutcs  ful- 
phur ;  when  faturated  with  hxedair,  becomes  common 
fixed  vitriolic  acid;  and,  when  combined  partly  with  the 
one  and  partly  with  tlie  other,  becomes  volatile  vitri- 
olic acid.  That  fulphur,  during  its  converliuii  into  vi- 
triolic acidjUnitcs  to  air  of  fome  i'ort  or  other,  is  evident 
from  the  quantity  of  air  which  it  abrorl)S,  in  whatever 
way  that  converfion  is  brought  about.  1  hus,  Hrfl,  du- 
ring combuflion  in  refpirablc  air,  loo  grains  of  fulphur 
abforb  420  cubic  inches  ofpurc  air,  or  about  143  grains  : 


gillicated  air,  phlogiilicatedair,  and  inflammable  air, 
all  in  their  concrete  ftate. 

"  Red,  yellow,  green,  and  blue  nitrons  acids, 
when  thofe  coloursarc  intcnfe,  owe  their  origin  to  the 
abforption  of  nitrous  air;  and  confequently  the  pro- 
portion of  their  principles  is  variable,  though  all 
have. the  dephlogillicatcd  acid  for  their  ground.  Thus 
Dr  Pricftley, having  expofedllrongpale-ytllownitrous 
acid,  whofc  fpccinc  gravity  could  not  be  lefs  than 
1.400  to  nitrous  air,  found  thit  loo  grains  of  this 
acidabforbcd,  in  two  days,  247  cubic  inchesof  nitrous 
air:  now,  loograinsofthisfpiri:  mull  have  contain- 
ed, by  my  calculation,  about  21  grains  of  dry  acid, 
and  thcfe  21  grains  took  up  9i.:9  grains  of  nitrous 
air.  When  about  20  cubic  inches  of  nitrous  air  were 
abforbed(thatis,  about  fcvcn  grains),  the  acid  became 


..AciJ^ 


but  the  proportion  of  this  pure  air  united  with  a_given     of  an  orange  colour  ;  when  50  cubic  inches  were  ab 


quantity  of  fulphur  is  not  calily  determined,  becaufe 
it  is  vitriolic  air  thatisconllantly  formed  ;  and  this  air 
ellentially  contains  fome  portionof  fulphur  in  folution, 
wliicli  portion  is  variable.  Secondly,  Pyrites,  during 
thcirdecompolition,  abforba  confiderableproportionof 
pure  air,  as  Mr  Lavoifier  has  obftrvco  :  fo  alfo  does 
liver  of  fulphur  expofed  to  the  atmofphere,  for  after 
fome  time  it  is  converted  into  tartar  vitriolate." 
Mr  Kirwan  next  proceeds  to  inquire,  whether  the 
pure  air  all.  air  abforbed  during  the  combuflion  of  fulphur  continues 
forbed  in  to  be  pure  air  ;  or  whether  it  be  converted  into  water 
thcburnin^'  or  iixcd  air  ?  He  inclines  to  the  latter  opinions,  for  va- 
of  fulphur   j.jp|,5  reafons  *  which  he  fpecifies. 

With  regard  to  the  nitrous  acid,  the  experiments  of 
MrCavendini,aswelIasof  the  French  chemifts,  leave 


6 

Whether 


continues 
to  he  fo. 

p.  29. 


forbed  (about  18  grains)  it  became  green  ;  and  when 
nearly  the  whole  was  abforbed,  it  evaporated  in  tlie 
form  of  nitrous  vapour,  carrying  oft"  part  of  the  wa- 
ter with  it.  Hence  we  fee,  that  nitrous  vapour  con- 
firts of  nitrous  acid  united  to  three  or  four  times  its 
weight  of  nitrous  air  and  a  little  water." 

Mr  Kirwan  next  proceed  to  contcfl  Mr  Lavoificr's  Mr  Laroi- 
opinicn,  th  at  nitrous  air  is  a  conflituent  principle  of  the  ficr'stheory 
nitrous  acid.    "  The  following  experiments  (fays  he)  contcfted. 
Ihow  that  nitrous  air  is  not  a  conrtituent  principle  of 
the  nitrous  acid,  but  that  fixed  air  is.  i.  There  is  not  a 
doubt  but  that  pure  nitrous  acid  enters  en  tire, and  with- 
out deconipofition,  into  lixcd  alkalis,  and  forms  nitre. 
Now  if  nitre  be  diftilled  in  a  good  earthen  retort,  it 
will  be  wholly  decompofcd  ;  and  fo  alfo  will  the  acid 


no  room  to  doubt  that  it  is  produced  during  the  defla-     itfelf,  except  a  few  drops  which  pais  in  the  beginning 


Formation 
of  the  ni- 
trous acid. 


gration  of  dephlogifticated  and  inrtammable  air.  Mr 
Cavendifli  has  fliown  that  the  nitrous  acid  may  be 
formed  by  taking  the  electric  fpark  in  a  mixture  of 
three  rncafurcs  of  plilogirticatcd  air  and  fcven  ofdc^ 
phlogilHcated  air,  or,  in  weight,  one  part  of  the  for- 
mer and  about  2.6  of  the  latter.  Mr  Lavoifier,  as 
has  been  already  mentioned,  fuppofcs  the  nitrous  acid 
to  be  compofed  of  nitrous  air  united  to  the  oxygenous 
principle,  or  balisof  pure  air  ;  and  100  grains  of  dry 


of  the  dilliilatioii,  and  nothing  but  dephlogiilicated 
air,  more  or  lefs  pure,  and  confequently  intermixed 
with  phlogiJlicated  air  and  a  (light  proportion  of  tixed 
air,  will  be  found  :  thefe,  there  lore,  are  its  true  confli- 
tuent parts  when  difcngaged  from  fubllancesthat  can- 
not communicate  phlogilton  to  it  in  any  remarkable 
quantity, fuch  as  alkali^;s  and  earths;  butifit  be  fepara- 
tcd  from  fubllancesthat  contain  phlogiilon,  fuch  as  me- 
tals, it  will  then  indeed  be  refolved  into  iiurous  air  and 


I'roportjon 
ni  its  coD- 
Hitucuc 
p^rts. 


nitrous  acid  confill  of  64  grains  of  nitrous  air  united  dcphlogiilicated  air  more  or  lefs  pure,  the  phlogirton 

to  ;6  of  pure  air  deprived  of  its  fpecitic  fire  ;  or,  ac-  of  the  fixed  air  being  detained  by  the  metal.   Mr  Bcr- 

cording  to  Mr  Kirwan's  calculation,  1  73  cubic  inches  thollet,  who  fcems  to  have  made  the  experiment  with 

of  nitrous  air  and  loj  of  pure  air.     But  nitrous  air,  thegreatefl  exa^lncfs, produced  7i4cubic  inchesof  dc- 

as  Mr  Lavoil'ier  himfelf  has  obfervcd,  is  a  compound  ;  phlogifticatcd  air  from  a  troy  ounce  of  nitre.'    This, 

100  giains  of  ir,  according  to  him,  containing  32  cf  however,  was  far  from  being  of  the  purefl  kind  ;  and 

phlogifticated  and  68  of  pure  air;  confequcmly  64  Dr  Prielllcy,  Mr  Berthollct,  and  Mr  Succow,  obferv- 

grains  of  it  contain  20.5    of  phlogirticated   air,  and  ved,  that  the  air  which  tirfl  palles  contains  fixed  air 

4^5   of  pure   air.     Hence,  according   to   him,   100  and  renders  lime-water  turbid.     Here  then  we  have 

grains  of  dry  nitrous  acid  contain  79;  of  pure  air  and  three  of  the  conrtituent  partsof  the  nitrous  acid,  with 

20;  of  phlogifticated  air.     Mr  Kirwati  is  of  opinion  fcarce  any  nitrous  air  ;  which  the  antiphlogiflians  fup. 

that  too  grains  of  pure,  dry,  and  colourlcfs  nitrous  pofe  to  be  one  of  the  conllituent  parts  of  the  acid,  and 

acid  contain  58.1  7  grains  of  hxcd  air  as  its  acidifying  to  make  two  thirds  of  its  bulk  when  exhibited  in  an 

principle,  57.0')  of  nitrous  balls,  and  4.77of  jihlogiflon  aerial  frrm. 

united  to  the  nitrous  bafis.  With  regard  to  the  nitrous  To  obviate  an  obje(flion  that  the  quantity  of  fixed 

bafis  itfelf,   he  fays   that  one  third   of  its   weight  is  air  thus  obtained  is  too  fmall  to  dcfcrve  to  be  ranked 

phlogifticated  and   two   thirds    dephlogifticated  air,  among  the  cotuiiiuent  [lartsofthe  nitrous  acid,  Mr 

both  in  a  concrete  flate.  Kirwan  firft  inquires  in  what  proportion  it  ought  to 

"  Nitrous  bafis  (fays  Mr  Kirwan),  faturated  with  exift  tliere  ;  and  though  this  is  variable,  according  to 

phlogiilon,  conftitutcs  nitrons  air  :  1^0  grai.'s  of  this  the  different  ftates  of  the,  nitrous  acid  with  refpcct  to 

bafis  take  up  nearly  22  of  phlogifton.   Hence  the  con-  phlogiftication,  he  reckons  it  at  one-third  of  the  acid 

/liiucnt  principles  of  nitrousacid  arc  fixed  air,  dephlo-  as  exjfting  in  the  nitre  ;  and,  from  the  dccompofitioii  of 

ihu. 


A  C  I 


[     72     ] 


A  C  I 


AcU\s.     this  lixcilair,  and  the  phlogillon  emitted  by  itof  confc- 

— -^ '  qucnce,heaitribiittstht  phlogidicaiionaiid  rcdnefs  ot 

the  nitrous  acid  wlicn  cxpoicd  to  more  heat.  Asa 
prool"  that  fixed  air  may  be  dccompcfcd  in  this  man- 
ner, he  adduces  two  expcririuiits  or  iJr  PrielUcy.  In 
oncofthefcjdcphlogiflicatcd  air  was  obtained  by  means 
el" acetous  acid  in  that  concentrated  Itatc  in  which  it 
is  called  radicut  liuegar.  Raving  mixed  half  an  ounce 
of  the  acid  with  two  ounces  of  calcined  whiting,  he 
obtained  from  it  350  ounce-r.ieafiires  of  air  ;  of  which 
about  one  third  was  fixed  more  in  the  firll  portion, 
and  Ids  in  the  lall.  The  ftandard  of  the  refiduum  in 
the  firll  portion  was,  1.66,  in  the  fecond,  1.42,  and 
in  the  third,  1.38;  wliich  is  very  near  the  goodnefsof 
common  air.  The  whiting  then  weighed  760 grains. 
On  adding  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  more  of  radical  vine- 
gar, and  repeating  the  operation,  1 20ounce-meafures 
of  air  were  obtained,  and  the  whiting  was  reduced  to 
750  grains.  A  third  operation,  in  which  another  quar- 
tcrof  an  ounce  of  vinegar  was  added,  reduced  the  mat- 
ter to  489grains  :  but  thelafl  portion  of  air  extracted 
had  no  fixed  air,  and  was  confiderably  better  than  that 

of  the   atmofphtre. The  other  experiment    was 

laadc  with  linie-llone  alone  ;  from  four  ounces  of  the 
lahit.- cry  flats,  of  which830ounce-nieafures  ofair  were 
obtained,  the  tint  portion  of  which  had  only  one- 
fourth  of  fixed  air,  and  the  ftandard  of  the  refiduum 
was  never  better  than  1.56,  nor  worfe  than  1.66  ;  fo 
that  it  was  nearly  of  (he  goodncfs  of  common  air. 

Our  author  then  proceeds  to  relate  feveral  other  ex- 
periments in  which  the  nitrous  acid  was  decompofed  ; 
but  a  particular  relation  of  them  would  fwell  this  ar- 
ticle beyond  its  due  bounds.  At  lad,  however,  he 
concludes  in  the  following  manner.  "  If  fpirit  of 
nitre  be  made  to  boil,  and  its  vapour  received  through 
a  red-hot  earthen  tube,  it  will  be  converted  into  de- 
phlogillicated  air,  in  which  a  portion  both  of  phlogi- 
fiicated  and  fixed  air  is  found,  as  Dr  Pricflley  has  dif- 
covered  :  the  water  through  which  this  air  pilfes  will 
alfo  contain  fixed  air.  Here  then  are  feveral  ways  of 
liecompoilng  the  nitrous  acid  ;  and  in  one  only  it  is 
refolved  into  nitrous  and  dephlogiilicated  air  ;  and  in 
this  way  it  may,  at  leall,  be  llrongly  fufpecled  to  re- 
ceive an  addition  of  another  principle.  Why  thenfhould 
thefe  bercgHrucd  as  its  conllitucnt  principles?  And  as 
inthetwolimpleftmethods  of  decompofition,  inwhich 
the  re-aclion  of  no  forciij;n  fubftancc  can  be  (uipeclcd, 
it  appears  in  the  form  of  dephlogiilicated,  phlogiflica- 
ted,  and  fixed  air  (  the  former  always  containing  a  por- 
tion of  the  two  lail),  why  then  fliould  not  thefe  be  ac- 
counted its  true  conflitucnt  parts  ? This  theory 

'■'i  •  is  further  confirmed  by  reflcdiug  on  the  manner  in 
naturally  which  nitrous  acid  is  generated  by  nature.  Mr 
generated.  Thouvencl  found  that  this  acid  is  conllantly  produced 
when  ehalk  is  expofed  to  a  mixture  of  putrid  air  and 
common  air,  or  putrid  and  dcphlopiiticated  air  ;  but  if 
die  putrid  air  be  paflTed  through  lime-water,  it  is  ne- 
ver generated  ;  and  that  it  is  rarely  produced  by  the  cx- 
pofurc  of  quick  lime  or  fixed  alkalis  to  thtfc  airs.  The 
reafon  tha;  alkalis,  though  aerated,  are  not  fo  proper, 
is,  that  they  do  not  comliine  with  phlogiflicated  air 
as  calcareous  ear;hs  do.  Mr  Cavendilh,  indeed,  pro- 
duced nitrous  acid  without  any  apparent  mixture  of 
fixed  air  ;  but  the  atom  of  it  uecciFary  for  the  for- 
mation of  the  fniall  q-ianiity  of  nitrous  acid  he  proJu- 

3 


10 

Fixed  air 
one  of  the 
elements  of 
nitrous 
acid. 

II 
How  ni- 


ced  (about  one-third  of  a  grain),  might  well  be  con-     Aci.li. 

tained  in  iht;  phlogiflicated  air  he  employed,  or  perhaps ' 

formed  in  the  operation." 

Having  thus  far  ftatcd   the  different  opinions  of 

the  mofl  celebrated  French  and  Englilh  philofophcrs 

concerning  the  compofition  of  acids,  it  is  iicccirary        n 

to  take  notice  of  fome  experiments  made  by    Mr  Experi- 

M'att,  in  order  to  determine  whether   the  dcphlo- ments  by 

gillicatcd  air  produced  from  nitre  really  proceeds  from  ^^.  ^'*", 

a  decompofition  of  the  acid,  or  what  ouantity  of  the  T" 

,  •  '  -J  „:  J       '      .      '  feem  cou- 

latter  is  required  to  conftitute  a  determinate  quan- ,^^j.   j^j^j^ 

tity  of  the  former.  To  afcertain  this  *,  240  grains  of  Kirwan't 
mercury  were  put  into  a  glafs  retort  with  480  grains  dodrine. 
of  diluted  dephlogiilicated  nitrous  acid,  which  was  the  '  I'hiloi. 
quantity  necclfary  todilfolve  the  whole  of  the  mercury;  Tranf. 
and  as  loon  as  the  common  air  was  expelled,  a  proper  ^''  "'*' 
vcflel  was  applied  to  receive  the  air  produced  in  the''' 
operation.  Sixteen  ounce-meafures  of  nitrous  air  came 
o\er  during  the  folulion,  and  on  changing  the  recei- 
ver, a  quantity  of  dilute,  but  higlily  phlogiflicated  ni- 
trous acid,  was  obtained.  The  air  receiver  being  again 
applied,  fou rounce-meafures  of  llrong  and  pure  nitrous 
air  wereobtjined,  which,  by  the  dephlogifticated  air 
that  arofe  immediately  after,  were  reduced  to  half  an 
ounce-meafure.  The  production  of  dephlogiflieatcd 
air  continued  very  rapid,  the  mercury  being  all  the 
while  received,  until  the  operation  was  ended  by  the 
dillillation  or  fublimaiion  ofthe  whole  of  the  mercury. 
Two  hundred  and  eighteen  grains  of  the  metal  were 
obtained  in  its  running  form,  and  32  remained  in  the 
form  of  an  orange-coloured  fublimate  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  retort. — -The  16  ounce-meaiurcs  of  nitrous  air, 
firll  obtained,  were  then  converted  into  nitrous  acid  by 
the  gradual  admiffion  of  common  air,  and  then  added 
to  the  water  in  the  bafon  in  which  the  receiver  had 
been  inverted  ;  the  whole  quantity  being  about  two 
quarts,  and  very  acid  to  the  tafle,  fparkling  at  the  fame 
time  with  nitrous  air.  To  determine  the  quantity  of 
acid  thus  recovered,  as  well  as  that  which  remained  in 
the  fublimate  ,  a  folution  of  alkali  of  tartar  was  made  ; 
and  by  experiment  it  was  found,  that  120  grains  of  the 
acid,  originally  employedin  diflblving  the  mercury,  fa- 
turated  5  j2grainsof  this  folution  ;  theorange  colour- 
ed fublimate  and  all  the  acid  liquorrecovered  being  fa- 
turated  by  1595  grains  ofthe  fame.  Hence  it  appears, 
by  the  rule  of  proportion,  that  out  of  480  grains  of 
nitrous  acid  originally  employed,  only  five  were  lofl ; 
"  a  fuialler  quantity  (asMr  Wattjuflly  obferves)  than 
what  might  reafonably  be  fuppofed  to  be  lofl  in  the 
procefs  by  the  extreme  volatility  ofthe  nitrous  acid." 
His  couclulion  therefore  is,  that  "  the  nitrous  acid 
docs  not  enter  into  the  compofition  of  dephlogiilicat- 
ed air  :  it  feems  only  to  ferve  to  abforb  phlogillon  from 
the  watery  part  ofthe  mercurial  nitre." 

This  experiment  was  repeated  with  cubic  nitre,  and 
only  30  ounce-meafures  ofair  diliilled  from  an  ounce 
ofthe  mineralalkali  exadly  faturated  with  nitrous  acid. 
The  water  through  which  the  air  paii'ed  was  acid,  and 
the  reliduum  in  tlie  retort  all^aline  ;  but  on  mixing  the 
two  together,  the  folution  was  found  to  be  exatlly  neu- 
tral by   every  pollible  teft. 

Notfatisticd  with  thefe  experiments,  ?'Ir  Watt  di- 
ftillcd  an  ounce  (4S0  grains)  of  common  nitre,  flop- 
ping the  procefi  when  50  ounee-meafurcs  of  air  had 
been  produced.     This  air  had  a  flrong  fn-.cU  of  the 

nitrous 


A  C  I 


73     1 


/v  c  I 


Aciils.     nitrous  acid,  frcm  wliicli  it  couUl  not  be  iVced  by  \va(l;- 

^""■^' ing  witli  tlie  water  in  tlie  bai'on.  Tlie  rciidiuiin  in  tlic 

retort  was  alkaline  as  before,  and  the  water  (lightly 
acid  ;  iior  was  the  faluration  cojnpletcd  by  mixing  the 
two  together.  Ten  grains  of  weak  nitrous  acid,  105 
grains  of  which  contained  the  acid  of6o  of  nitre,  com- 
pleted the  fatiiration.  Tliefc  ten  grains  contained  the 
acid  of  5  7  grains  of  nitre;  which,  by  Mr  Kirwan's  ex- 
periments, is  equal  to  two  grains  of  real  nitrous  acid. 
"  \S't  have  therefore  (fays  fir  Watt)  3<;gr?ins  weight 
of  dephlogillicated  air  produced,  and  only  two  grains 
of  real  acid  milling  j  and  it  is  not  certain  that  even  this 
quantitywasdeftroyed  bccaufc  fomc  portion  of  thcglafs 
of  the  retort  was  diiiolved  by  the  nitre,  and  fonie  part 
of  the  materials  employed  in  making  the  glafs  being 
alkali,  we  may  conclude,  that  the  alkali  of  ihe  nitre 
would  be  augmented  by  the  alkali  of  that  part  of  the 
glafs  it  had  diflblved  ;  but  as  the  glafs  cracked  into 
fmall  pieces  on  cooling,  and  fome  part  of  tlie  coating 
adhered  firmly  to  it,  (he  quantity  of  the  glafs  that 
j^  was  diilolvcd  could  not  be  afcenair.ed." 
^nrwcrca  To  avoid  the  force  of  objedions  drawn  from  thefc 
jy  MrKir-  experiments,  and  which  fecm  ready  to  overthrow  his 
ivau.  hypothefis,  as  well  as  that  of  Mr  Lavoilicr  entirely,  Mr 
Kirwan  mskcs  the  following  reply "  Wy  inge- 
nious friend  Mr  M'att,  as  well  as  Mr  Cavcndilh,  are 
of  opinion,  that  the  whole  quantity  of  dephlogifticated 
air,  produced  from  ihediftillation  of  nitre,  arilesfrom 
the  dephlogiflicatini  of  the  water  it  contains,  it  being 
decompofed  by  the  nitrous  acid,  which  then  becomes 
phlogillicated.  Thisopinion  is  expofcdto  infurmounc- 
able  dilliculties.  For,  in  the  firft  place,  nitre  affords  de- 
phlogillicatcd  air  at  the  rate  of  146.125  cubic  iriches 
for  every  hundred  grains  of  nitre,  which,  by  the  proper 
allowances  for  phlogiilicattd  air,  fliouKl  weigh  46.77 
grains:  but  then  dephlogiliicatcdairisonly  oncof  the 
conftituent  parts  of  water,  for  it  contains  i^/'^r  cf/it. 
of  inflammable  air,  that  is  to  fay,  87  grains  of  dcphlo- 
gifticatcd  air :  to  form  100  grains  of  v.  ater  requires  an 
addition  of  i  5  grains  of  inrtammable  air  ;  confcquent- 
ly  46.77  grains  of  dephlogiftlcatcd  air  require  nearly 
7of  inflammable  air, and  would  then  form  5?.77grains 
of  water,  which  exceeds  half  thcwtight  of  the  nitre  ; 
a  quantity  of  water,  as  Mr  Watt  owns,  certainly  in- 
adniiiliblc.  Mr  V.'att  found,  that  the  water  over  which 
the  .-"ir  proceediirg  from  the  decompofition  of  </(>o 
grains  of  nitre  had  been  reieived,  contained  only  the 
acid  belonging  to  120  grains  of  nitre  ;  and  even  this 
fmall  qnandiy  he  inferred  onlyfron\  my  cxpcrimctits. 
IJut  r.iy  experiments  arc  totally  inapplicable  in  this 
cafe;  for  I  iifed  only  the  dci>hlogi!iicjttd  nitrous  ,1- 
cid  :  and  alkalis  arc  faiurable  by  a  much  fmallcr  quan- 
tity of  phlogifticated  than  of  dephlogifticated  acids,  as 
is  evident  in  ihc  cafe  of  lhctifp}ci^i/lici>t,;Jmari/ii  a.tid, 
as  Stahl  long  ago  obferved  ;  for  he  fays,  that  the  vo- 
latile acid  of  fulphur  faturates  10  times  :is  nnicli  :ilkali 
as  the  fixed.  Mr  Btrjirian  and  Mr  Scheeleobfcrvcd, 
that  nitlicd  nitre  is  llill  neutral,  though  it  be  phlo- 
gifticatcd  ;  iheitforc  it  is  air,  and  not  water,  which 
it  wants.  Accordingly  Dr  Priclllcy  found  it  to  injure 
coTTiTTion  air  by  attri  ling  its  dephlogiftici-.ted  part : 
but  if  it  be  keja  in  fufion  for  fome  time,  it  lofcs  its  a- 
cid,  and  becomes  alkaline  j  and  the  air  it  receives 
mud  furcly  be  deemed  rather  to  recompofc  the  acid 
than  to  form  water  ;  of  whofc  formation,  in  the 
Vol.  I. 


temperature  of  the  atraofphcrc,  wc  have  no  fort  of 
proof.  On  the  contrary,  the  impoiSbility  of  ac- 
ceuniing  for  the  lofs  of  acid  in  this  cafe  is  an  evident 

proof  of  the  fallacy  of  that  hypothefis By  MrLavoi- 

ficr's  analyfis,  100  grains  of  nitre  contain  5J  of  caj- 
Aic  alkali  ;  by  Mr  Bergman's,  49;  by  Mr  {('ISIizers, 
52  ;  by  Mr  Wicgleb's,  461 ;  by  mine,  63  :  the  mean 
of  all  wliicli  is,  5;',  ;  which  leaves  46.  j  for  acid  an<i 
water,  which  is  very  nearly  the  weight  of  the  air 
expelled.  The  different  quantiiv  of  acid  affigned  by 
different  pcrfons  to  nitre,  is  in  part  owing  to  its  de- 
gree of  phlogirtication  in  nitre.  I  believe  at  prcfent 
that  100  grains  of  nitrecontain  34  of  acid,  and  about 
12  of  water,  including  the  water  i:i  the  acid  and  that 
of  cryltallization." 

Mr  Kirwan  next  proceeds  to  confidcr,  in  a  manner 
firailar  to  liiat  above  rcUted,  the  compofition  of  the 
other  acids — The  marine  acid,  according  tohini,  can- 
iifts  of  a  peculiar  bads  united  to  phlogillon,  and  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  tixed  air  ;  to  both  of  which  the  bills 
fcems  to  have  a  ftrong  affinity.  On  depriving  it  of 
this  phlogifton,  the  affinity  of  the  acid  to  fixed  air  be- 
comes much  flronger,  and  it  faturates  itfelf  fo  largely 
w-ithit,  that  its  altrac'tions  for  other  fubflanccs,  con- 
taining little  or  no  phlogirton,  become  nearly  as  weak 
as  thole  of  fixed  air  itfelf  when  equally  condenfcd  ;  but 
with  refpcct  to  bodies  that  contain  a  conliderable  quan- 
tity of  phlogifton,  its  affinities  arc  much  flrongcr,  r.s 
its  balis  attrafts  the  phlogi.ton,  while  thofc  bodies 
attrad  itsexeefs  of  fixed  air.  la  this  flate  it  does  not 
expel  fixed  air  from  ab'rated  fixed  alkalis  or  earths 
until  it  is  heated  ;  and  then  dephlogifticated  air  fepa- 
rates  from  it,  and  it  becomes,  in  all  refpects,  commou 
marine  acid.  For  as  it  contains  an  exeefs  of  tixed  air, 
ilafts  nearly  as  an  acid  of  the  fame  nature  ;  but  when 
heat  is  applied,  its  balis  dephlon-ifticates  its  own  fixed 
air,  which  then  becomes  defihrogifticated  air,  at  the 
fame  time  that  the  acid  becomes  common  marine  acid, 
and  ads  as  fuch. 

Mr  Lavoilicr,  and  other  philofophcrs,  who  deny  the 
exiftencc  of  phlogifton,  are  of  opinion,  that  the  com- 
mon maritic  acid  conlifts  of  a  peculiar  balis  united  to  a 
fmall  proportion  of  pure  air.  or  oxygenous  principle, 
and  the  dcphlogiilicaled  ma,  ine  acid  differs  from  it  only 
by  containing  an  exccfs  of  this  principle Thisopi- 
nion they  arc  chiefly  induced  lu  maintain,  bccanfe  the 
acid  in  its  dcphlogiiUeatcd  ftate  is  procured  by  diftil- 
ling  common  marine  acid  from  mangancfe  ;  and  the 
manganefc,  if  diliillcd  by  itfelf,  before  the  acid  is  Ji- 
ftilled  from  it,  affords  dephlogifticated  air  ;  but  after 
the  a-id  is  diflilied  from  ii.ityicldsnonc.—  "Thisex- 
pcriir.cnt,  however, (fays  Mr  Kirwan),  pi^jves  no  more 
but  that  the  mnnganefc  contains  fome  air  which  is  de- 
phlogiftieatedduringthccalciiiation.  And  that  this  air 
is  fixed  air,  appears  from  the  following  conliJerations  : 
The  black  c^lx  ofmanganefc  slmoft  always  gives  out 
fixed  air  at  lirft,  !  cfore  any  dephlojrjftirated  air  ap- 
pears ;  whence  it  is  natural  to  think,'thar  thedephlo- 
giftiratcdair  procecdsfromtlic  dephlo-^iflicatinnofthc 
fixed.  And  hence,  if  it  bcdiftiiled  witii  tilii:>T^of  iron, 
or  in  a  gun-birrel,  it  fcarrc  gives  out  anv  other  than 
fixed  air  ;  if  at  any  time  it  gives  out  dcphl.i.^ifticatcd 
air,  with  little  or  no  mixture  of  lixed  air,  this  isow  ing 
to  a  very  perf'cd  de.dilo^ifticatioii  of  liic  calx,  and  to 
its  containing  very  little  moifturc.  Thus  Dr  i'rit  lUey, 
K  havinij 


A-ids. 


14 

Qnanctyof 
arid  cou. 
tjiflcd  in 

nitre. 


Prlncipin 
of  the  n:i- 
risc  acid. 


91 
Mr  Lavai- 
ficr's  opini- 
on. 


17 
ContelleJ 
by  Mr  Kir- 
wan. 


A   C  I 


C     74 


1 


A  C  I 


Acids,     having  pafled  the  fleam  of  boiling  water  through  man- 

— ^ ■  ganclelieatedin  an  earthen  tube,  obtained  a  very  large 

quantity  of  fixed  air,  and  fcarce  any  other ;  though  on 
repeating  this  experiment  with  manganefc  well  freed 
from  calcareous  earth,  I  obtained  a  large  portion  of  dc- 
phlogilUcated  air  ;  but  I  believe  mueh  depends  ontlic 
degree  of  heat  to  which  the  tube  is  fubjeflcd.  But 
having  (J  illillcd  manganefc,  which  yielded  of  iifclffome 
fixed  air  with  common  fpirit  of  fait,  I  obtained  de- 
phlogilticated  marine  acid,  and  not  a  particle  of  fixed 
air;  which  fliows  that  this  lall  combined  with  the  de- 
phlogiflicatcd  bafis,  and  formed  the  dcphlogilficated 
acid.  Mr  Hermlladt  having  dilfolved  the  black  calx 
in  common  marine  acid,  and  precipitated  it  with  an  ae- 
rated llxed  alkali,  obtained,  as  ufual,  a  white  preci- 
pitate ;  which,  when  heated,  afforded  a  great  part  of 
the  fixed  air  it  had  abfurbcd  from  the  alkali ;  but  when 
heated  to  fuch  a  degree  as  to  be  of  a  brown  red  colour, 
and  confequcntly  dcphlogifticatcd,  it  converted  com- 
mon fpirit  of  fait  into  a  dcphlogillicaied  acid,  wliich 


With  regard  to  the  acid  of  fugar,  Mr  Kirwaii  ob- 
ferv  cs,  that  fugar  itfelf  is  a  compound  of  fixed  air  witii 
a  much  larger  proportion  of  inflammable  air,  and  fome 
Water,  all  coudenfed  to  a  degree  of  which  wc  are  ig- 
norant, but  retaining,  upon  the  whidc,  much  more 
fpecilic  heat  thancither  oil  or  charcoal ;  tho'  he  feems 
iucliiicd  to  the  hypotheiis  of  Mr  Morveau,  that  this 
fubilance  has  for  its  bafis  a  fine  ethereal  oil,  to  which 
a  large  proportion  of  condeufed  iulianimable  air  is  fu- 
pcradded.  The  acid  of  fugar,  then,  according  to  him, 
confilts  of  this  peculiar  bafis  deprived  of  its  fuperfiuous 
phlogitlon,and  united  to  a  great  quantity  of  fixed  air  in 
a  concrete  ftale.  JJe  is  alfo  of  opinion,  that  it  docs 
not  cxifl  ready  formed  in  tlie  fugar,  but  is  produced  in 
the  operations  that  fubilance  undergoes  :  that  it  de- 
rives mofl  of  its  acid  principle  from  the  nitrous  acid 
employed  ;  the  nitrous  balis  taking  up  the  phlogiflon, 
and  the  fixed  air  of  the  nitrous  acid  combining  with 
the  faccharine  bafis.  He  contefts  flrongly  an  opinion 
of  Mr  Lavoificr,  that  fugar  is  a  fort  of  charcoal,  which. 


Aciift. 


\% 
DeciCve 

experiment 
in  fiis  fa- 
Tour. 


couki  proceed  only  from  fome  fixed  air  yet  unexpcUcd:  uniting  with  the  oxygenous   principle  of  the  nitrous 

Yet  if  fal-ammoniac  be  diftilled  with  the  black  calx  of  acid,  dccompofes  it,    fets  loofe  the  nitrous   air,    and 

manganefe,  it  will  be  expelled  in  a  cauflic  flate  ;  for  forms  the  faccharine  acid  ;  and  that,  towards  the  end 

the  fixed  air  unites  to  the  dephlogifticated  marine ba-  of  the  operation,  the  faccharine  acid  itfelf  is  dccom- 

fis  in  preference  to  the  volatile  alkali."  pofcd  ;  _  the     confequence    of  which  is  the  pruduc- 

Severalotherexperimenis  are  related  byMrKirwan,  tion  of  fixed  air,  which,  according  to  him,  isonlythe 

which  the  limits  of  thisartide  will  not  allow  ns  to  in-  oxygenousprinciplecombined  with  charcoal.     On  this 


fert;  but  the  following,  he  is  of  opinion,  fully  confirms 
his  hypothcfis,  and  fubverts  that  of  the  antiphlogifUans. 
''  Six  cubic  inches  of  inflammable  air  were  mixed  with 
as  much  dephlogilUcated  marine  air  over  lime-water. 
In  about  10  minutes  af'tcr  the  greater  part  of  the  di- 
minution had  taken  place,  a  white  cloud  appeared  on 


Mr  Kirwan  remarks,  i .  "  That,  according  to  this  the- 
ory, the  acid  of  fugar  lliould  be  the  fame  with  fixed 
air,  flnce  both  are  compofcd  of  the  oxygenous  prin- 
ciple united  with  charcoal;  or,  if  Mr  Lavoifier  fliould 
reply,  that  fugar  is  different  f'rom  common  char- 
coal, he  reminds  him,   that,  according  to  his  own  ta- 


the  furface  {a)  of  the  lime-water,  and  by  agitation  it  ble  of  affinities,   the  oxygenous  principle  has  a  much 

became  Ifill  more  turbid.     As  it  was  poliible  that  the  Ifronger  attraction  for  charcoal  than  for  fugar,  and 

manganefe  might  be  mixed  with  calcareous  earth, fome  confcquently   that   the  latter  ought  to  be  decompofcd 

dcphlogilficated  marine  air  was  extrafled  from  another  by  the  former  ;  nay,  that  it  fliould  be  regenerated  by 

portion^of  it,  and  received  on  lime-water  ;    but  it  was  various  metallic  fubftances,  which,  according  to  him. 


19 
Phofphoric 

acid. 


have  a  greater  attraction  for  this  principle.  2.  Accor- 
ding to  this  hypothefis,  the  fiicchariue  acid  ought  to 
weigh  n'ore  than  the  fugar  employed  in  the  operation  ; 
w  hich  is  fo  far  from  being  the  cafe,  tliat  it  is  univcr- 
faliy  agreed  to  be  much  Icfs  ;  Bergman  making  it  only 


wholly  abforbed,  w  ithout  forming  the  leafl  cloud,  tho 
there  was  lime  enough  ;  for,  on  adding  aerated  water, 
a  cloud  appeared." 

The  other  acids  particularly  treated  of  by  Mr  Kir- 
wan are  the  phofphoric  and  facchiirine.  In  his  ireatile 
on  the  former,  he  adopts  the  analyfls  of  Mr  Lavoifier, 
changing  only  his  acid  principle  of  dephlogifficatcd 
for  fixed  air.  From  this  it  appears,  that  the  phofpho- 
ric acid  confiffs  of  a  peculiar  balis  united  to  2.265   of 

its  weight  of  the  acid  principle  ;   or,  in  other  words,     treating  fugar  v.'ith  the  black  calx  of  manganefe,  or 
100  grains  of  dry  phofphoric  acid  contains  about  69  of     with  dcphlogifticatcd  marine  acid  ;  both  of  which,  ac- 


id, Mr  Chaptal  from  ;d  to  iths,  and  Mr  Sage  inhs. 
3.  If  the  faccharine  acid  confifbed  of  fugar,  or  confifl- 
ed  of  that  fubilance  undecompofed,  and  barely  united 
to  the  oxygenous  principle,  it  ought  to  be  formed  by 


fixed  air  and  31  of  its  peculiar  balis  :  100  grains  of 
the  phofphoric  balls  take  up  226.5  of  fixed  air,  or 
32.9of  phlogiflon  when  it  becomes  phofphorous;  and 
100  grains  of  phofpliorus  contain  75.24  of  balis  and 
24.76  of  phlogiflon. — The  bafis  of  this  acid  is  the  only 
one  that  can  be  procured  free,  both  from  the  phlogi- 
flon and  the  acidifying  principle  ;  it  is  called,  though 
improperly,  as  it  is  not  foluble  in  water,  \^\^  glacial 
phofphoric  acid.  Mr  Lavoifier  and  others  are  of  opini- 
on, that  phofphorus  is  a  flmple  fubilance  containing 
no  phlogiflon,  and  that  the  acid  confifls  of  the  oxyge- 
nous principle  united  to  it. 


cording  to  him,  have  lefs  attraction  for  the  oxygenous 
principle  than  fugar.  Laflly,  (fays  Mr  Kirwan),  if  the 
acid  of  fugar  be  diftilled,  it  is  wholly  converted  into 
water,  fixed  inflammable  air,  and  not  a  particle  of  coal 
or  dephlogifticated  air  is  found  in  it.  It  is  not  there- 
fore reafonabletolook  on  either  of  them  asitsconflitu- 
ent  principles  ;  but  as  fixed  air  alone  can  be  extrac- 
ted f^rom  ail  vegetable  acids,  it  feems  to  be  the  true  a- 
cidifiablc  principle. 

Having  given  a  \iew  of  the  prefenc  opinions  re- 
lative to  the  original  formation  of  acids,  it  remains  to 
treat  a  little  more  particularly  of  each  of  the  different 

kinds. 


21 
Fixed  air 
the  acid 
principle, 
according 
to  fVIrJCir- 
wan. 


[a)  On  mixing  thefe,  a  denfe  white  cloud  appears  ;  one  half  the  bulk  of  both  difappears,  and  the  refiduuin. 
explodes  lilie  a  mixture  of  iariammable  and  dephlogifticated  air. 


A  C  I 


[     75     ] 


A  C  1 


Aiidt. 

Acids,  liow 
divulcd. 

23 
Enumcra- 


i4 
Gsneral  ac- 
count of 
their  at- 
tra<f^ions 
for  alka- 
lis, &c. 


kinds.  They  arc  lihidcd  into  three  dlL-crciu  claflis, 
cxpreiiivc  of  iheirorigiii,  r/z.  the  Mineral,  Vegetable, 
and  Aiiinal.  The  mineral  acids  arc  thofc  ct  \itriul, 
nitre,  fea-fah,  borax,  anibtr,  tiuor,  arlciiic,  tunglleu, 
niolybdaena,  &c.  1  he  vegetable  arc,  thofe  of  vine- 
gar, tartar,  fugar,  benzoin,  ajiplcs,  citrons,  lemons, 
tamarinds,  forrel,  eork,  f<e.  The  aninial^cids  arc, 
the  iiiicrofiuic  or  acid  of  urine,  and  thm  of  bones,  both 
of  which  are.  alfo  called  the  [<hofphoric,  though  this 
might  be  accounted  a  vegetable  acid,  as  it  is  procured 
by  dillilling  niullard  and  fonic  other  vegetables  by  a 
violent  fire.  iJclidcs  tliefc,  there  are  the  acids  of  ants, 
wafps,  bees,  fdk-worms,  milk,  &c.  It  has  alfo  been 
difcovercd,  that  the  human  calculus  is_forincd  for  the 
mofl  part  of  a  peculiar  acid,  whicli  has  received  tkc 
name  of  lithiaj.c  acid.  Lallly,  As  an  acid  dillinft 
from  all  theft,  we  may  now  nAilfix^d air,  by  fomc  cal- 
led the  aerial,  and  by  others  the  cretaaoni  acid  j  the 
latter  appclbuion  it  derives  from  crcta,  chalk,  beciufc 
it  is  found  in  that  fabllauce  in  great  quantity.  See 
Aerology. 

The  general  properties  of  acids  have  already  been  e- 
iiumeratcd;  the  moll  remarkable  ofwhich  is  their  attrac- 
tion foralkaline  falts,  earths,  and  metals.  Though  this 
is  common  to  all,  yet  very  conliderablcdifterenccs  are 
obferved  among  them  in  this  rcfpect,and  on  ihofe  differ- 
cnces  depend  almofl  all  the  phenomena  of  tiiat  part  of 
Chemistry  which  treats  of  fults.  As  thcfe  phenomena 
are  particularly  conlidered  under  that  article,  we  Ihall 
here  only  in  general  take  notice,  that  the  three  acids 
named  the  vitricl:c,  nilrous,  and  mar:>:c,  are  the  flrong- 
eft  of  them  all ;  that  is,  if  any  other  acid  be  united  to 
an  alkali,  earth,  or  metal,  the  union  will  be  broken  by 
adding  to  that  compound  any  of  the  three  acids  jull 
mentioned.  Neither  arc  thefe  equal  in  power  among 
themfelvcs  ;  fop  the  vitriolic  is  (Ironger  than  the  ni- 
trous, and  the  nitrous  ftronger  than  the  marine.  The 
rule,  however,  is  liable  to  certain  exceptions  and  vari- 
ations, depending  chiefly  on  the  circumftances  of  heat 
or  cold,  moilfure  or  drynefs,  and  particularly  on  the 
Aatc  of  the  marine  acid  \\ith  regard  to  its  being  in  the 
form  of  an  aqueous  fluid  or  reduced  to  a  dry  vapour. 
In  this  laft  cafe  it  fcems  flronger  than  cither  the  vi- 
triolic or  nitrous  ;  and  even  when  in  an  aqueous  flate, 
both  the  nitrous  ana  marine  acids,  when  added  in  great 
quantity,  feem  to  opprcfs  and  overwhelm  the  ftronger 
vitriolic  acid,  fo  that  they  w  ill  partly  expel  it  from  an 
alkaline  filt.  This  docs  not  depend  on  tlie  mere  quan; 
tity  of  acidity  they  polTefs  :  for  the  acetous  acid  may 
be  concentrated  to  fach  a  degree  as  to  become  flronger 
in  this  refpec^  than  fpirit  of  fait  ;  yet  it  will  always  be  in- 
ferior in  pointofre.il  ftrength,  when  tried  with  anal- 
kali  in  competition  with  the  latter.  The  aerial  acid  is 
the  wcakeft  of  all ;  and  may  be  expelled  not  only  by 
vinegar,  but  by  the  acid  jui  es  of  fruits,  tartar,  and 
the  acids  of  tungften  and  molybda:na. 

Some  acids  have  the  property  of  refilling  the  lire, 
and  melting  into  a  kind  of  glafs,  fuch  as  that  of  borax 
and  phofphorus.  This  circumllance  gives  them  an  ad- 
vantageover  the  ftrongeracids  whichare  volatile;  and 
thus  the  two  juft  mentioned,  as  well  as  thofc  of  arfcnic 
and  tungften,  will,  in  a  very  flrong  heat,  expel  the  a- 
cid  of  vitriol  itfclf,  though  the  latter  will,  in  the  cold, 
expel  any  one  of  them  with  great  cafe. 

Both  the  vitriolic  and  nitrous  acids  have  a  very  ftrong 


attraction  for  phlogiilon  ;  and  unite  with  certain  oily 
and  inriammablc  matter  fo  vehemently  as  to  occafion 
great  heat,  and  fometiincs  even  violent  and  uacxtin- 
guilhablc  flame.  This  is  particularly  the  cafe  with 
the  nitrous  acid,  or  with  a  mixture  of  the  two  ;  and 
indeed  the  nitrous  acid,  though  weaker  than  the  vi- 
triolic, (hows  itfclf  in  every  inllancc  to  be  far  more  ac- 
tive, and  to  perform  all  its  operations  with  vallly  great- 
er rapidity,  than  the  other.  All  thcfe  particulars,  how- 
ever, as  they  properly  fall  under  the  aiiiclc  Chemi- 
stry, arc  there  explained  at  length  :  together  with 
the  origin  and  peculiar  methods  of  preparing  each  of 
the  acids,  and  the  various  ufes  to  which  they  may  be 
applied  in  arts  and  nianufailures.  bee  alfo  their  diffe- 
rent titles  as  they  occur  in  the  order  of  the  alphabet ; 
as.  Nitre,  Vinegar,  Vitrioi,  &c. 

ACIDULOUS  denotes  a  thing  that  is  (lightly  tfi/i/; 
it  is  fynonymous  with  the  wovi  fub-acid. 

ACIDU  hA\.  Miner.-il  waters  that  contain  a  brilk 
fpirit,whcn  unaccompanied  \\  ith  heat,  are  thusnamed; 
but  if  they  arc  hot  alio  they  are  called  Ihermae.  See 
Mineral  Waters. 

ACIDU  LATKD,  a  name  given  to  medicines  that 
have  an  acid  in  their  compofition. 

ACIDU  M  A  tREUM,  the  fime  with  Fixed  Air. 

AciDUM  piiiguc,  an  imaginary  acid,  which  fome 
German  chcmills  fuppofcd  tobe  contained  in  tire,  and 
by  combining  V.  ith  alkalies,  lime,  &c.  to  give  them 
their  cauflic  properties  -,  an  etieot  which  is  found  cer- 
tainly to  depend  on  the  lofs  of  their  fixed  air. 

ACILA,  OciLA,  or  OcELis  (anc.  geog.),  a  ftaplc 
or  mart  town  in  Arabia  Felix,  on  the  Arabic  gulf, 
from  which,  according  to  Pliny,  they  fet  fail  for  In- 
dia.    Now  Zidiii. 

ACILIUS  GLABRIO  (Marcus),  conful  in  the 
year  of  Rome  562,  and  1 1 1  years  before  the  Cbriftian 
oera,  diftinguilhcd  himfclf  by  his  bravery  and  conduct 
in  gaining  a  complete  victory  over  Antiochus  the 
Great,  kingof  Syria,  at  thcftreights  of  Thermopylae 
in  Thcllaly,  and  on  feveral  other  occafions.  He  built 
the  Templeof  piety  at  Rome,  in  confcqucncc  of  a  vow 
he  made  before  the  abovementioned  battle  :  aid  the 
reafon  of  his  giving  it  that  name  is  very  remarkable. 
The  flory  is  mentioned  by  Pliny,  Valerius  Maximus, 
and  others.     See  the  article  Piety. 

ACINIPPO  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  Bsetica  ;  its 
ruins,  called  Konda  la  Vtt^ga,  are  to  be  feen  near  A- 
runda,  in  the  kingdom  of  Granada. 

ACINODKNDRUM,  in  botany,  the  trivial  name 
of  a  fpccics  of  M  E  L  A  S  T  O  M  A . 

ACINOS,  in  botany,  the  trivial  name  of  a  fpecies 
of  Thymus. 

ACINUS,  or  Acini,  the  fmuU  protuberances  of 
mulberries,  flrawbcrries,  &c.  and  by  fome  applied  to 
grapes.  Generally  it  is  ufed  for  thofc  fniall  grains 
growing  in  bunches,  after  the  manner  of  grapes,  as 
LignJIruw,  &c. 

ACIS,  in  fabulous  hiftory,  the  fon  of  Faunas  and 
Simetheis,  was  a  beautiful  Ihcpherd  of  Sicily,  who  be- 
ing beloved  by  GaUica,  Polyphemus  the  giant  was  fo 
enraged,  that  he  dalhed  out  his  brains  againft  a  rock  ; 
after  which  Galatea  turned  him  into  a  river,  which 
was  called  by  his  name. 

Acis,  (Ovid,  Theocritus)  ;  a  river  of  Sicily,  run- 
ning from  a  very  cold  fpring,  in  the  woody  and  ihady 
K   a  foot 


A  C  N 


f     76     ] 


AGO 


Acknow-  foot  of  mount  .^tna,  callward  into,  and  not  much  a- 
Itd-jnicijt   ijove  a  mile  fVom  the  fca,  along  green  and   plcaiunt 
'         banks,  with  the  fpcedof  an  arrow,  irom  which  it  takes 
cocmetg.  jj^  umiic.     Il  is  now  called  /Ici  Icici,  or  CIn/ui,  accor- 
ding to  ihc  difiercnt  Sicilian  dialcifls  :  Antonine  calls 
it  Adui.     Alio  the  name  of  a  hamlet  at  the  mouth  of 
the  X//. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT,  in  a  general  fenfe,  is  a 
jjcrfon's  owning  or  confcfTuig  a  thing;  but,  more 
particularly,  is  the  cxprcinoii  of  gratitude  for  a  fa- 
vour. 

AcKSOivLtDGMEST- Money,  a  certain  fum  paid  by 
tenants,  in  fcvcral  parts  of  England,  on  the  death  of 
their  landlords,  as  an  acknowledgment  of  their  new 
lords. 

ACLTDES,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  kind  of  inilFive 
weapon,  with  a  thong  afii.xed  to  it,  whereby  to  draw  it 
back.  Moll  authors  defcribe  it  as  a  kind  of  dart  or  ja- 
velin ;  but  Scaliger  makes  it  roundilh  or  globular,  and 
full  of  fpikcs,  with  a  ilcndcr  wooden  Item  to  poilc 
it  by. 

ACLOW.A,  in  botany,  a  barbarous  name  of  a  fpc- 
cies  of  CoLUTEA.  It  is  ufcd  by  the  natives  of  Gui- 
nea to  cure  the  itch  :  They  rub  it  on  the  body  as  wc 
do  unguents. 

ACME,  the  top  or  heiglit  of  any  thing.  It  is  u- 
fually  applied  to  the  maturity  of  an  animal  jull  before 
it  begins  to  decline;  and  phylieians  have  nfcd  it  to 
cxprefs  the  Htnioft  violence  or  crilis  of  a  difeafe. 

ACMELLA,  in  botany,  the  trivial  name  of  a  fpe- 

cics  of  SPILANTHUS. 

ACMONIA,  andAcMONiA,  in  Peuiingcr's  maji, 
a  town  of  Phrygia  Major,  now  in  ruins.  The  inhabi- 
tants arc  called  AitnoHinfcs  by  Cicero,  and  the  city  Ci- 
'j'ttai  Acmoitcujh.  Alfo  a  city  of  Dacia  ( Ptolemy ) ,  on 
the  Danube,  near  the  ruins  of  Trajan's  bridge,  built 
by  Severus,  and  called  Severkum ;  dillant  12  German 
miles  from  Temefwar,  to  the  foutheail. 

ACNIDA,  Virginian  Hemt,  in  botany,  a  ge- 
nius of  the  dia-cia  order,  belonging  to  the  pentandri.i 
clafs  of  plants  ;  and,  in  the  Natural  Order,  allocia- 
ting  with  the  Scabnda  (5?).  The  charaders  arc: 
In  the  male,  the  calyx  is  a  perianthium  conlilling  of 
Jive  leaves,  ovate,  concave,  acute,  and  membranous  on 
the  margin.  'Ho  cor 'A! a.  The //<?»///;«  conlill  of  five 
very  (liort  capillary  filaments  ;  the  antheras  are  verfa- 
tile,  two-celled,  and  forked  at  both  ends. — Fa/iale  on 
a  feparatc  plant ;  of  which  the  calyx  conlifls  of  an  in- 
volucrum  many-leaved,  linear,  and  deciduous  ;  and  a 
perianthium  two  leaved,  very  fmall,  and  perfiftent.  Xo 
corolla.  Thefiffillar:!  has  an  ovate  germcn  ;  the  flyli 
are  five,  long,  reflected,  and  downy  ;  the  Itigmata  arc 
■  fimple.  The  pericarp'tu}n  is  an  egg  Ihaped  fruit,  com- 
prelFed,  many-angled,  fukated,  and  covered  with  a 
fucculent  calyx.  The/^fi/  is  folitary,  round,  and  com- 
prclled.  There  is  only  one  fpecies  of  it,  wz.  the  ac- 
nida  cannabida.  It.is  a  native  of  Virginia  ;  but  rarely 
cultivated  in  Europe,  except  for  the  fake  of  variety. 
It  has  little  beauty,  and  at  prefent  is  applied  to  no 
ufeful  purpofe. 

ACNUA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  fignified  a  certain 
meafure  of  land,  near  about  the  Engliih  rood,  or  fourth 
part  of  an  acre. 

ACOEMET^,  or  AcoEMETi,  in  church-hiftory  ; 
or,  Meti  who  lived  without  deep :  A  fet  of  monks  who 


ba. 


chanifd  the  divi;'.c  fervicc  night  and  day  in  their  pla-    Acoluihi 
CCS  of  worlhip.     They  divided  themfclves  into  three    ^       [ 
bodies,  who  alternately  fucceeded  c.icli  other,  fo  that  ■^'""'^ 
their  churches  were  never  filent.    This  praelice  they         ' 
founded  upon  the  precept,  /V.y  without  cctil'tug.    They 
llourilhcd  in  the  caft  about  the  middle  of  the  5"'  cen- 
tury.   There  are  a  kind  of  aeocmeti  flill  fubfiiling  in 
the  Roman  church,  viz.  tlie  religious  of  the  holy  fa- 
cramcnt,  who  keep  up  a  pcrpctu.  1  adoration,  fome  one 
or  other  of  them  praying  before  the  holy  facramcnt 
day  and  night. 

ACOLUTHI,  or  Acoluthists,  in  antiquity,  was 
an  appellation  given  to  thofc  pcrfons  who  were  fleady 
and  immoveable  in  their  refoluiions  :  and  hence  the 
lloics,  bccaufc  tiiey  uouldnot  forfike  their  principles, 
nor  alter  their  rcfolutions,  accpiired  the  title  of  Acolu- 
thi.  The  word  is  Greek,  and  compounded  of  a,  priv. 
and  xoxii-S©.,,  way;  as  never  turning  from  the  origi- 
nal courfe. 

Acoi.  u  riii,  among  the  ancient  Chriflians,  implied 
a  pccidiar  order  of  the  inferior  clergy  in  the  Latin 
church  ;  for  they  were  unknown  to  the  Greeks  for  • 
above  400  years.  They  were  next  to  the  fub-deacon  ; 
and  we  learn  from  the  fourth  council  of  Carthage, 
that  the  archdeacon,  at  tluir  ordination,  put  into  their 
hands  a  candicllick  with  a  taper,  giving  them  there- 
by tounderltand  that  they  were  appointed  to  light  the 
candles  of  the  church  ;  as  alfo  an  empty  pitcher,  to 
imply  that  they  were  to  furnilh  wine  for  tlie  cucha- 
rili.  Some  think  they  had  another  office,  that  of  at- 
tending the  bilhop  wherever  lie  went.  The  word  is 
Greek,  and  compounded  of  a,  priv.  and  x4».i«<),  to  hin- 
der or  ditlurb. 

ACOLYTHIA,  in  ihc  Greek  church,  denotes  the 
office  or  order  of  divine  fervicc  ;  or  the  prayers,  cere- 
monies, hymns,  &c.  whereof  the  Greek  fervicc  is 
corapofed. 

ACOMA,  a  town  of  North  America,  in  New  Mex- 
ico, feated  on  a  hill,  with  a  good  caflle.  To  go  into 
the  town,  you  muft  walk  up  50  Heps  cut  out  of  the 
rock,  it  is  the  capital  of  that  province,  and  was  ta- 
ken by  the  Spaniards  in  1599.  VV.  Long.  104.  15. 
L.  55-  o. 

ACOMAC  or  ACCOM  j\CK,  the  name  of  a  county  in 
Virgini.!.  It  is  on  the  caftern  fide  of  the  Chefapeak 
bay,  on  :>.  (lip  of  land,   called  the  eaflii-ti  JJ?orc. 

ACOMINATUS  (Nicetas),  wasfccretary  to  Alex- 
ius Coinncnus  and  to  Ifaacus  Angelus  fucccflively  :  he 
wrote  an  hillory  from  the  death  of  Alexius  Comnenus 
iifS,  wliere  Zonaras  ended  his,  to  the  year  1203, 
which  has  undergone  many  imprellions,  and  is  much 
applauded  by  the  befl  critics. 

ACONITE.     See  .^coNiTUM. 

Winter  AcoMTE.     Sec  Heleborus. 

ACONCROBA,  in  botany,  the  indigenous  name  of 
a  plant  which  grows  wild  in  Guinea,  and  is  in  great 
efieem  among  ihe  natives  for  ils  virtues  in  the  fmall- 
pox.  Tbcy  give  an  infulion  of  it  in  wine.  The  leaves 
of  this  plant  are  opake,  and  as  fliff  as  thofeof  the  plii- 
lyrea;  they  grow  in  pairs,  and  /land  on  fliort  foot- 
flalks  ;  they  arc  fmall  at  each  end,  and  broad  in  the 
middle  ;  and  the  largcfl  of  thcmare  about  three  inches 
in  length,  and  an  inch  and  quarter  in  breadth  in  the 
middle.  They  arc  of  a  dufky  colour  on  the  upper 
fide,  and  of  a  pale  green  underneath. 

ACONITIi 


A  C  O 


[     77     ] 


AGO 


Acoiiiti,         ACONITI,  in  antiqyity,  an   appellation  given   to 

Aconitum.  fomc  of  the  ATHLF.T;ii,   but  differently  intcrpntcd. 

"       '''~~~'  Mcrciirialis  underftanJs  it  of  thofe  who  only  anointed 

their  bodies  with  oil,  but  did  not  fmcar  themfelvcso- 

ver  with  dull,  as  was  the  ufual  praclice. 

ACON  ITU  M,A(?6  NIT  E, Wo  LKSB  AN  E,or  Monks- 
hood ;  a  genus  of  the  trigynia  order,  belonging  to 
the  polyandria  clafs  of  plants.  In  the  natural  order, 
it  all'ociatcs  with  the  ALiltifil'uju^,  26.  The  cha- 
rafters  are  :  Thereis  no£-d/).Y.  The <rorc/yi7 conlifts  of 
five  unequal  petals  oppofitc  in  pairs  ;  the  highelt  hel- 
nict-tubed,  inverted,  and  obtufe  ;  the  two  lateral  ones, 
broad,  roundilh,  oppofite,  and  converging  ;  the  two 
lowelf,  oblong,  and  looking  downwards  :  The  nc(5laria 
are  two,  piped,  nodding,  and  (itting  on  long  Tubulated 
peduncles, andconccalcdundcrihe  highcdpctal  :  The 
fcalesare  lix,  very  Ihort,  coloured,  and  in  an  orb  with 
the  neJlaria.  The /la>j,ir:a  conlill  of  numerous  fniall 
fubulated  filaments  ;  the  antherae  are  ercft  and  I'mall. 
The p/Jli/i'u>/i  has  three  [five]  oblong  germens,  ending 
in  llyli  the  length  of  the  {lamina  ;  the  Iligmata  are 
fimple  and  reflected.  The  pericarpiiwi  has  three  or 
five  univalve  capfules  gaping  inward.  The  feeds  arc 
numerous,  angular,  and  wrinkled. 

Species.  I.  The  lycodonum,  or  yellow  wolfsbane, 
grows  upwards  of  three  feet  high,  flowers  about  the 
middle  of  June,  and  if  the  feafon  is  not  warm  will  con- 
tinue in  flower  till  Augufl.  2.  The  altilfimum,  or 
greatell  yellow  wolfsbane,  grows  upv/ards  of  four 
feet  high,  and  the  fpikesof  its  llower  are  much  longer 
in  this  fort  than  the  former.  5.  The  variegatum, 
or  Icller  wolfsbane,  feldom  grows  more  than  two  feet 
high,  it  carries  blue  flowers,  and  the  fpikes  of  them 
arc  much  Ihorter  than  either  of  the  two  laft.  4.  The 
anihora,  or  wholefoinc  wolfsbane,  liowers  in  the  middle 
of  Auj^uJl,  and  often  continues  in  beauty  tillthe  middle 
of  September  ;  its  flowers  are  not  large,  but  are  of  a 
beautit'ilfulphur-yellow  colour,  j. The napcllus, bears 
large  blue  flowers,  which  appear  in  Augult,  and  make 
a  pretty  appearance.  There  are  two  or  three  varieties 
of  this  kind  ;  one  with  white,  another  with  rofe-co- 
loured,  and  a  third  with  variegated  fiowers  :  but  thefc 
arc  oiily  varieties  which  often  change.  6. The  Py  ra- 
midalc,  or  common  blue  monkdiood,  bears  a  long  fpike 
of  blue  flowers,  which  appear  foontr  than  any  of  the 
other  forts,  being  fo  early  as  June,  or  fonietinies  even 
May.  The  fpikes  of  liowers  are  upwards  of  two  feet 
long,  fothat  it  makes  a  pretty  appearance  ;  the  feeds 
are  ripe  in  September.  7.  The  alpinum,  or  large- 
flowered  nionklhood,  flowers  in  Augnft,  and  will  grow 
to  the  hci;;ht  of  live  feet  in  good  ground  ;  the  flowers 
are  very  large,  of  a  deep  blue  colour,  but  not  many 
upon  eacjt  fpike.  S.  The  pyreniacum,  or  Pyrcnean 
monkfliood,  flowers  in  July.  It  grows  about  four  feet 
high,  and  carries  a  long  fpike  of  yellow  flowers.  9. The 
cammarum,  grows  about  four  feet  high,  and  flowers 
in  tlie  beginning  of  July.  i:?.  The  oricntale,  oreaft- 
ern  monkfhoou,  grows  fonietimes  more  than  fi.x  feet 
high,  and  bears  a  white  flower. 

Culture.  All  thefe  fpecies,  except  the  lafl,  arc  na- 
tives of  the  Alps,  the  mountains  of  Germany,  Au- 
flria,  and  Tartary  ;  fo  require  a  cool  Ihady  (ituation, 
except  the  wholefome  wolfsbane,  which  mufl:  have  an 
open  expofure.  They  tlirive  better  in  a  moid  than  dry 
foil  :  but  the  ground  mull  not  be  fo  wet  as  to  have  the 


water  flanding  near  their  roots  in  the  winter-time.  Aconitum, 

They  may  all  be  propagated  by  fowing  their  feeds  in  ' "       ' 

autumn,  upon  a  north  boi der,  \\  here  they  are  fcrcencd 
from  the  fun.  The  plants  will  come  up  in  the  fpring, 
when  they  mufl  be  kept  clean  from  weeds  during  the 
fummer-months  :  and  in  very  dry  feafons,  if  they  arc 
frequently  refreflied  with  water,  their  growth  will 
be  greatly  promoted.  'J  he  following  autumn  they 
fnould  be  tranfplantcd  into  Ihady  borders,  in  rows  afoot 
afunder,  and  the  -plants  fix  inches  diflant  from  one 
another.  In  this  fituation  tlity  may  remain  two  years, 
when  they  will  carry  flowers,  and  fo  may  be  tram'-  » 
planted  to  thofe  places  where  they  are  to  remain.  The 
caftcrn  monklhood  is  a  native  of  the  Levant,  from 
whence  the  feeds  of  it  were  firfl  fcnt  by  Dr  Tourne- 
fort  to  the  royal  garden  at  Paris,  from  whence  fonie 
other  gardens  have  been  furnifiied  with  feeds.  It  is 
very  rare  in  Europe  at  prefcnt. 

Q^iahiies.  Since  tlie  time  of  Theophraflus,  mofb  of 
the  fpecies  of  monk  ll'.ood  have  been  reckoned  a  deadly 
poifon  both  to  men  and  brutes.  Diofcorides,  however, 
recommends  the  cxtcrnahpphcation  of  common  monks- 
hood for  pains  of  the  eyes.  The  flowers  of  a  great 
many  fpecies  comminiicate  their  noxious  quality  by 
being  fmcllcd  to  ;  and  thofe  of  the  fpecies  called  /;«- 
pelltts  being  placed  on  the  head,  occafion  a  violent  me- 
grim. Of  the  bad  qualities  of  thefe  plants  wc  fonie- 
times avail  ourfelves  to  get  rid  of  vermin.  A  decoc- 
tion of  the  roots  deflroys  bugs  ;  the  fame  part  being 
powdered,  and  adminillered  in  bread  or  fome  other  pa- 
latable vehicle  to  rats  and  mice,  corrodes  and  inflames 
their  inteftines,  and  foon  proves  mortal.  The  juice  of 
the  plant  is  ufed  to  poifon  fltfli  with,  for  the  deflruc- 
tion  of  wolves,  fo.xcs,  and  other  ravenous  beaffs.  The 
bell  antidote  to  the  poifon  of  the  different  monks- 
hoods is  faid  to  be  the  root  of  the  anthora,  a  fpecies  of 
the  fame  genus,  hence  termed  keaitl-f'ul  or  vjl-o.'efotHi 
nionkjh'jod .  The  fame  plant  is  regarded  as  efTicacious 
againfl  bites  of  ferpents  and  other  venomous  creatures. 
The  roots  have  a  bitter  acrid  tafle  ;  the  leaves  are  only 
bitter  :  the  former  arc  chiefly  ufed  in  medicine  ;  and, 
bclides  the  excellent  quality  jufl  mentioned,  are  flo- 
machic,  Vi\iS.  promote  perfpiraiion.  The  pcafants,  who 
gailier  the  plants  on  the  Alpsand  Pyrenees,  are  faid  to 
ufe  it  with  fucccfs  againA  the  biting  oi  mad  dogs,  and 
to  cure  the  cholic.  It  is  remarkable,  that  the  monks- 
hoods with  blue  flowers  are  much  more  virulent  than 
the  yellow  or  white-flowered  kinds.  Miller  alTcrts 
that  the  hunifmen  of  the  wolves  and  other  wild  beads 
on  the  Alps,  dip  their  arrows  into  the  juice  of  thofe 
plants,  which  renders  the  wounds  made  by  ihem 
deadly. 

That  the  anthora  is  an  antidote  to  the  poifon  of  the 
refl  of  the  fjiecies,  is  not  confidered  as  a  facl  fufficient- 
ly  eflablidied.  Of  the  etFecls  of  the  above,  indeed, 
and  other  vegetable  poifons,  medical  writers  give  but 
.T  confufcd  arcount.  In  general,  thofe  which  .".re  not 
of  thcnarcotic  kind,  nor  e.xcite  violent  vomitings  and 
purgings,  produce  their  pernicious  cfTeclsby  irritating 
the  nervous  coats  of  the  ftoniach  and  intellir.es,  fo  as  to 
occalion  riolent  convullions,  not  only  in  them,  but, 
through  the  whole  body.  The  proper  cure  is  evacua- 
tion by  vomit  :•  but  this  is  not  to  be  obtained  without 
fome  difliculty  ;  bccaufe  there  is  ufually  fuch  a  contrac- 
tion about  the  upper  orifice  of  the  flotnach,  that  no- 
thing: 


ACQ 


[    7«     ] 


AGO 


Acoiuia«  tlii.ig  an  ciclicv  be  fwallowcd  or  tliiown  up.  In  this 
II  cafe,  an  infilion  of  tobacco  has  been  rccommenJcJ, 
^  Acorus.  21,  J  j„jy  prohibly  be  of  fervicc  :  for  being  i:lelt  of  a 
very  liinuilating  nature,  it  may  for  a  m"nicnt  take  off 
the  violent  fpafais  occalioned  by  the  poifon  ;  in  wliich 
cafe,  a  violent  vomiting  will  imiuediately  enfuc — 'i'hc 
l!oniach  biing  thoroughly  emptied,  und  deglutition 
rendered  cafy,  the  cure  may  be  completed  by  oily  and 
jiiucilagiuoius  medicines.  On  account  of  the  poifonous 
ijualitics  of  monklhood,  no  fpecics(jf  itihould  be  plant- 
ed where  children  have  acccfs,  lell  they  Ihould  fulicr 
by  putting  the  leaves  <ir  dowers  in  their  mouths,  or 
nibbing  them  about  their  eyes  ;  for  the  juice  of  the 
leaves  will  occalion  great  dilorderbybeingonly  rubbed 
upon  very  tender  fielli  ;  and  the  farina  of  the  llovvers, 
V  henbl<>«  n  into  the  eyes,  caufestiiem  to  fwell  greatly. 

ACONTIAS,  ii! /.ooh.gy,  an  obfoleie  name  of  tlic 
anguis  jiculis,  or  dart-fnakc,  belonging  to  the  order 
of  amphibia  ferpcnies.     See  Anc.iiis. 

ACO.NrlUM,*«i>vTj«v,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  a  kind 
of  dart  or  javelin,  refcmbling  the  Roman  piluni. 

ACONTIUS  (James),  a  pl-.ilofopher,  civilian,  and 
.divine,  born  at  Trent  in  the  l^""  century  :  he  embra- 
red  the  reformed  religion  ;  and,  coming  into  England 
in  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabctli,  was  much  honoured 
by  her,  v.hich  he  acknowledges  in  a  book  dedicated 
to  that  queen.  This  work  is  liis  celebrated  Collection 
of  the  Stratagems  of  Satan,  which  has  been  fo  often 
.trandated,  and  borne  fo  many  editions. 

ACOSTAN,  a   mountainous  idand  in    the   north 
feas  between  Afia  and  America,  obfcrved  by  captain 
■Cook. 

ACORN,  the  fruit  of  the  oak-tree.  See  Quercus. 

Acorn,  (in  fea-langujge),  a  little  ornamental  piece 
of  wood,  falhioncd  like  a  cone,  and  fixed  on  the  upper- 
mofl  point  of  the  fpindle,  above  the  vane,  on  the  malt- 
head.  It  is  ufed  to  keep  the  vane  from  being  blown 
off  from  the  fpintlle  in  a  whirlwind,  or  when  the  lliip 
leans  much  to  one  fide  under  fxil. 

ACORUS.Ca  i.a  mus  Arom  aticl'sSweet  Flag, 
orSwEF.T  Rush  :  A  genus  of  the  inonogynia  order, 
belonging  to  the  hexandria  clafs  of  plants,  and  ranking 
in  the  (econd  natural  order,  /  ipsiit.r.  The  characters 
are  :  The  calyx  is  a  cj.lindric  iimple  fpadix  covered 
with  florets  ;  there  is  noy/).7//i:j,  nor /i.T/;»«/A/?/7/'^.  The 
corolla  is  compofed  of  fix  obtufe,  concave,  loofc  petals. 
The  flam}  nil  conilflof  lix  thickifli  filaments,  fomewhat 
longerth an  the  corolla;  the  an therK  arc  thickilh  and  di- 
dymous.  The /i./////?/w  has  a  gibbous  oblong  germcn  the 
length  ef  the  ftamina  ;  no  (tylus  -,  the  ftigma  a  promi- 
nent point.  The  pcrscarpiinii  is  a  fliort  triangular, 
obtufe,  three-celled  capfule,  attenuated  at  both  ends. 
Thtfccdi  are  numerous,  and  of -an  oblong  egg-lTiape. 
There  is  but  one<<j')ecics,  the  acorus  calamus.  It 
grows  naturally  in  (liallow  Handing  waters,  and  is 
found  wild  in  fome  pans  of  Britain.  It  grows  plenti- 
fully in  rivulets  and  mariliy  places  about  Norwich  and 
other  parts  of  the  illand,  in  the  canals  of  Holland,  in 
Switzerland,  and  in  other  countries  of  Europe.  The 
fiiops  have  been  ufually  fupplied  from  the  Levant  with 
dried  roots,  w'hich  do  not  appear  to  be  fuperior  to  thofe 
•of  other  parts.  The  leaves  are  f^jmetimes  two  feet 
l.ing,narrow,comprc(red,fmooth,audof  a  bright  green. 


terminating  in  a  point  ;  the  root  is  pretty  long,  of  a 
whitilh,  rcddilh,  and  partly  gretr.ilh  colour.  Among 
the  leaves  there  arifes  a  lingle  one,  thicker  and  more 
robult  than  the  reft,  furrowed  on  the  furtace,  and  of  a 
paler  green.  On  this  grow  frequently  two  fpikes  of 
ilowers,  by  many  writers  called  iuli.  Thefe  arc  of  a 
brown  colour,  having  a  chequered  furface.  The  root 
of  tliis  plant  has  a  very  agrtcable  flavour,  which  is 
greatly  improved  by  drying.  It  is  reckoned  carmina- 
tive and  llomachic,  having  a  warm,  pungent,  bitterilh 
tafle  ;  fois  frequently  ufed  as  an  ingredient  in  bitters. 
It  has  been  complained  of,  however,  as  communicating 
a  naufeous  flavour  to  thofe  bitters  in  which  it  was  in- 
fufed  ;  and  Neumann  obfcrvcs,  that  its  agreeable  fla- 
vour, as  well  as  itsdillinguilhing  talte,  relides  entirely 
in  a  volatile  cll'cntial  oil  ;  the  rcliduum  after  diflillation 
having  a  naufeous  flavour,  not  at  all  refcmbling  that  of 
the  calamus.  It  is  an  ingredient  in  the  mithridate  and 
therjacaof  the  London  pharmacopoeia  ;  and  in  the  aro- 
matic and  llomachic  tinfturcs,  and  compound  arum 
powder,  of  the  Edinburgh.  The  frelhroot  candiedis 
faid  to  be  employed  at  Conftantinopl?  as  a  prcfervative 
againll  epedemic  difeafes.  The  leaves  of  this  plant  have 
a  fweet  fragrant  fmell,  more  agreeable,  though  weaker 
than  that  of  the  roots.  Neither  horfes,  cows,  goats, 
llieep,  nor  fwine,  will  cat  the  herb,  or  its  root. 

Ciiltiin.  The  acorus  bcinga  perennial  plant,  may 
be  tranfplanted  into  a  garden,  where  itwill  thrive  very 
well  if  the  ground  is  moifl  ;  but  never  flowers  unlcfs  it 
grows  in  water.  It  loves  an  open  fituation,  and  will 
not  thrive  well  under  the  fliade  of  trees.  The  flowers 
appear  the  latter  end  of  June,  and  continue  till  Au- 

gurt. 

Acorus,  in  the  materia  medica,  a  name  fometimcs 
given  to  the  great  galangal.     Sec  KE.MPfERiA. 

Acorus,  in  natural  hiftory,  blue  coral.  The  true  fort 
is  very  fcarce  ;  fome,  however,  is  tilhed  on  the  coafls 
of  Africa,  particularly  from  Rio  del  Re  to  the  river  of 
the  Camarones.  This  coral  is  part  of  the  mcrclian- 
dife  which  the  Dutch  trade  for  with  the  Camarones  : 
that  of  the  kingdom  of  Benin  is  alfo  very  much  efleem- 
cd.   It  grows  in  form  of  a  tree  on  a  rocky  bottom. 

ACOUSMATICI,  fonutimes  alfo  called  Acouflki, 
in  Grecian  antiquity,  fuch  of  the  difciplesof  Pythago- 
.ras  as  had  not  completed  their  five  years  probation. 

ACOUSTIC,  in  general,  denotes  any  thing  that  re- 
lates to  the  ear,  the  fcnfe  of  hearing,  or  the  dodrine 
of  founds. 

Acoustic  DuO,  in  anatomy,  the  fame  with  meatus 
auditorius,  or  the  external  paflagc  of  the  ear.  See  A- 
N  A  T  o  M  \ . 

y/cousr/c /^Tyrz/wf/;^, or  auricular  tube.  Sec  Acou- 
stics, n°  26. 

AlOustic  Vajfili,  in  the  ancient  theatres,  were  a 
kind  of  veiTels  made  of  brafs,  lliaped  in  the  bell  fa- 
fiiion,  which  being  of  all  tones  within  the  pitch  of  the 
voice  or  even  ofinllruments,  rendered  the  founds  more 
audible,  fo  that  the  aftors  could  be  heard  through  all 
partsof  theatres, which  were  even  400  feet  in  diameter- 
jIcovhtic  Difciphs,  among  the  ancient  Pythago- 
reans, thofe  more  commonly  called  Acousmatici. 


The  Science  of 


ACOUSTICS 


79 


A 


O      U 


I      C 


Diacoullks 


2 

Citacou- 
ftics. 


Of  the  VC' 
hides  of 
found. 


A  vidcd  by  fome  writers  into  DiacouJIici,  which  ex- 
plains the  properties  of  thofe  founds  that  come  di- 
rcil-tl/  from  the  fonoroiis  body  to  the  car  ;  and  Cata- 
couflici,  which  treats  of  reHei;l:cd  founds  :  but  fiich  di- 
Ilinition  docs  not  appear  to  be  of  any  real  utility. 

Chap.  I.  Different  thsoria  of  Sound. 

Moft  founds,  we  all  know,  are  conveyed  to  us  on 
the  bofoni  of  the  air.  In  whatever  manner  they  either 
float  upon  it,  or  are  propelled  forward  in  it,  certain  it 
is,  that,  without  the  vehicle  of  this  or  fome  other  fluid, 
we  fliould  have  no  founds  at  all.  Let  the  air  be  cx- 
liaufled  from  a  receiver,  and  abcll  Ihall  emit  no  found 
when  rung  in  the  void;  for,  as  the  air  continues  to 
grow  Icfs  denfc,  the  found  dies  away  in  proportion,  fo 
that  at  laft  its  Itrongcfl;  vibrations  are  almofl  totally 
filent. 
Air  not  the  Thus  air  is  a  vehicle  for  found.  However,  we  mufl 
only  one.  not,  with  fome  philofophers,  alfert,  that  it  is  the  only 
vehicle  ;  that,  if  there  were  no  air,  we  Ihould  have  no 
founds  whatfoever  :  for  it  is  found  by  trial,  that  founds 
are  conveyed  through  water  almofl  with  the  fame  faci- 
lity with  which  they  move  through  air.  A  bell  rung  in 
water  returns  a  tone  as  diflinft  as  if  rung  in  air.  This 
was  obfcrved  by  Derham,  who  alfo  remarked  that  the 
tone  came  a  quarter  deeper.  Some  naturalifts  alfure 
us  alfo,  that  filhes  have  a  ftrong  perception  of  founds, 
even  at  the  bottom  of  deep  rivers  (a).  From  hence, 
it  would  feem  to  be  not  very  material  in  the  propaga- 
tion of  founds,  whether  the  fluid  which  conveys  them 
be  claflicor  otherwife.  Water,  which,  of  all  fubllan- 
ces  that  we  know,  has  the  leall  elallicity,  yet  fcrves  to 


carry  them  forward;  and  if  we  make  allowance  for  the 
difference  of  its  denlity,  perhaps  the  founds  move  in 
it  with  a  proportional  rapidity  to  v/hat  they  are  found 
to  do  in  the  claflic  fluid  of  air. 

One  thing  Jiowever  is  certain,  that  whether  the  fluid 
which  conveys  the  note  be  elaflic  or  non-elallic,  wiiat- 
ever  found  we  hear  is  produced  by  a  flrokc,  wiiich  the 
founding  body  makes  againll  the  fluid,  whether  air  or 
water.     The  fluid  being  llruck  upon,  carries  the  im- 
prcflion  forward  to  the  ear,  and  there  produces  its  fen-         , 
faiion.     Philofophers  are  fo  far  agreed,  that  they  all  what 
allow  that  found  is  nothing  more  than  the  imprcflion  f<JU"J  i», 
made  by  an  elallic  body  upon  the  airor  water  (b),  and  ^"'*  ^°^ 
this  impreffion  carried  along  by  either  fluid  to  the  or-  P''°P*8** 
gan  of  hearing.   But  the  manner  in  which  this  convey- 
ance is  made,  is  flill  difputed  :   Whether  the  found  is 
dilfufed  into  the  air,  in  circle  beyond  circle,  like  the 
waves  of  water  when  we  dillurb  the  fmoothncfs  of  its 
furface  by  dropping  in  a  ilone  ;  or  whether  it  travels 
along,  like  rays  ditfufed  from  a  centre,  fomewhat  in 
the  fvvift  manner  that  cledricity  runs  along  a  rod  of 
iron  ;  thcfc  are  the  ijucftions  which  have  divided  the 
learned.  (, 

Newton  was  of  the  firfl  opinion.  He  has  explained  Newtoirf 
the  progrelTion  of  found  by  an  undulatory,  or  rather  a  theory, 
vermicular,  motion  in  the  parts  of  the  air.  If  we  have 
an  cxatt  idea  of  the  crawling  of  fome  infeds,  we  fliall 
have  a  tolerable  notion  of  the  progrcilion  of  found  upon 
this  hypothefis.  Theinfeiit,  forinflance,  in  its  motion, 
iirft  carries  itscontraclions  from  the  hinder  part,  in  or- 
der to  throw  its  fore-part  to  the  proper  dillance;  then 
it  carries  itscontraftions  from  the  fore-part  to  the  hin- 
der to  bring  that  forward.     Something  flmilar  to  this 

is  ■ 


(a)  Dr  Hunter  has  proved  this,  and  dcmonftrated  the  auricular  organ  in  thcfc  animals.  See  Fisu,  and 
Co  M  PA  R  A  T I  V  E  Anatomy. 

(b)  Though  air  and  water  are  both  vehicles  of  found,  yet  neither  of  them  fccms  to  be  fo  by  ilfclf,  but  on- 
ly as  it  contains  an  exceedingly  fabtile  fluid  capable  of  penetrating  the  molt  folid  bodies.  Hence,  by  the  me- 
dium of  that  fluid,  founds  can  be  propagated  through  wood,  or  metals,  even  more  readily  than  through  the  o- 
pen  air.  By  the  fame  means,  deaf  people  may  be  made  Icnfibre  of  founds,  if  they  hold  a  piece  of  metal  in  their 
mouth,  one  end  of  which  is  applied  to  the  founding  body.  As  it  is  certain,  therefore,  that  air  cannot  pene- 
trate metals,  we  mult  acknowledge  tl:c  medium  of  found  to  be  of  a  more  fubtilc  nature  ;  and  thus  the  elciftrical 
fluid  will  naturally  occur  as  the  proper  one.  But  why  then  is  found  no  longer  heard  in  an  exhauftcd  recei- 
ver, if  the  air  is  not  the  fluid  by  which  it  is  conveyed,  feeing  the  eleflrical  matter  cannot  be  excluded  ?  The 
reply  lo  this  is  obvious  :  The  electrical  fluid  is  fo  exceedingly  fubtilc,  and  pervades  folid  bodies  with  fo  much 
cafe,  that  any  motion  of  a  folid  body  in  a  quantity  (>{  elcdric  m'attcr  by  ilfclf,  can  never  excite  a  degree  of  a- 
gitation  in  it  fulFicient  for  producing  a  found  ;  but  if  the  elciJlric  fluid  is  entangled  among  the  particles  of  air, 
water,  wood,  metal,  &c.  whatever  affeds  their  panicles  will  alfo  afiVa  this  fluid,  and  produce  an  audible 
noifc.  In  the  experiment  of  the  air-pump,  however,thcrc  may  be  an  ambiguity,  as  the  gradual  cxhaulling  of 
the  air  creates  an  incrcafing  difference  of  preffure  on  the  outfidc,  and  mayoccalion  in  the  glafs  a  difficulty  of 
vibrating,  fo  as  to  to  render  it  lefs  lit  to  communicate  to  the  air  without  the  vibrations  that  flrike  it  from 
■within.  From  this  caufe  the  diminution  of  found  in  an  cxhanlted  receiver  may  be  fuppofcd  to  proceed,  as 
well  as  from  the  diminution  of  the  air.  But  if  any  internal  a.^iration  of  its  parts  ihould  happen  to  the  elec- 
trical fluid,  exceeding  loud  noifcs  might  be  propagat.-d  thrpugh  it,  as  has  been  the  cafe  when  lirgc  mcirors 
have  kindled  at  a  great  diflance  from  the  earth.  Iiis  alfo  difficult  to  account  for  the  exceeding  great  hviftncfs- 
of  found,  upon  the  fuppofition  that  it  is  propagated  by  means  of  air  alone  ;  for  nothinn;  is  more  certain,  than  that  the 
flroiigell  and  moil  violent  gale  is,  in  its  courfe,  inert  and  ihiggilh,  compared  with  tlie  jisoiiou  of  found . 


So 


A     C     O     U     S 


Sound. 
I'latc  I 


Different  in  the  motion  of  tlic  air  when  Aruck  upon  by  a  founding 
riicoriesof  body.  To  be  a  little  more  prccifc,  fuppolcAHC,  the 
Itriiigof  an  harplicliord  fcrcwed  to  a  proper  pitch,  and 
draw  a  out  of  the  right  line  by  ihc  finger  at  B.  \S'e 
Ihall  have  occaliou  clfcwhere  to  obfervc,  that  fuch  a 
ilring  would,  if  let  go,  vibrate  to  E  ;  and  from  K  to  D, 
and  back  a.;ain  ;  tliat  it  would  continue  thus  to  vibrate 
likcapcndulum  forever,  if  not  externally  rcfiflcd,  and 
like  a  pendulum,  all  its  little  vibrations  would  be  pcr- 
lornicd  in  equal  times,  the  lad  and  the  firfl  being  c- 
cjually  long  in  performing  ;  alfo,  that,  like  a  pendulum, 
its  grcatcll  fwiftnefs  would  always  be  when  it  arrived 
at  K,  tlic  middle  part  of  its  motion.  Now  then,  if  this 
ftring  be  fuppofcd  to  tly  from  the  ringer  at  B,  it  is  ob- 
vious, that  whatever  be  its  own  motion,  fuch  alio  will 
be  the  motion  of  the  jiartsof  air  that  fly  before  it.  Its 
motion,  as  is  obvious,  is  firft  uniformly  accelerated  for- 
ward from  B  to  K,  then  retarded  as  it  goes  from  K  to 
D,  accelerated  back  again  as  it  returns  from  1)  to  E, 
and  retarded  from  Elo  B.  This  motion  being  tliere- 
fore  fent  in  fucccffion  through  a  range  of  elaflic  .lir,  it 
mufl  happen,  that  the  parts  of  one  range  of  n'lv  nnifl 
bcfent  forward  with  accelerated  motion,  and  then  witli 
a  retarded  motion.  This  accelerated  motion  reaching 
thcrcmotert;  end  of  the  firfl  range  will  be  coninuini- 
cated  to  a  fecond  range,  while  the  neare ft  pans  of  the 
iirft  range  being  retarded  in  their  motion,  and  falling 
back  with  the  receinon  of  the  ftring,  retire  firft  with 
an  accelerated,  then  with  a  retarded  motion,  and  the 
rcmoteft  parts  will  foon  follow.  In  the  mean  time, 
while  the  parts  of  the  lirft  range  are  thus  falling  back, 
the  parts  of  the  fecond  range  are  going  forward  with 
an  accelerated  motion.  Thus  there  w  ill  be  an  alter- 
nate condenfation  and  relaxation  of  the  ;iir,  during  the 
tiine  of  one  vibration;  and  as  the  air  going  forward 
ftrikcs  any  opnoling  body  with  greater  force  than  upon 
retiring,  foeach  of  thefe  accelerated  progreinons  have 
been  called  by  Newton  a  pn/fc  of  found. 

Thus  will  the  airbe  driven  forward  in  the  direction 
of  the  ftring.  But  now  we  nuift  obfcrvc,  that  thefe 
pulfes  will  move  every  way  ;  for  all  motion  imprelFed 
upon  fluids  in  any  diredion  whatfoevcr,  operates  all 
around  in  a  fphere  :  fo  that  founds  will  be  driven  iii  all 
directions, backwards,  forwards,  upwards, downwards, 
and  on  every  fide.  They  will  go  on  fuccccding  each 
other,  one  on  the  outfidc  of  the  other,  like  circles  in 
diftnrbcd  water  ;  or  rather,  they  v.-ill  lie  one  without 
the  other,  i.i  concentric  Hulls,  Ihell  above  flicll,  as 
wc  fee  in  the  coats  of  an  onion. 

All  who  have  remarked  the  tone  of  a  bell,  while  its 
founds  arc  decaying  away,  mull  have  an  idea  of  the 
pulfesof  found,  which,  according  to  Newton,  are  form- 
ed by  the  air's  alternate  progrellionand  recelllon.  And 
it  muft  be  obfcrvcd,  that  as  each  of  thefe  pulfes  is 
formed  by  a  lingle  vibration  of  the  ftring,  they  muft 
be  equal  to  each  other  ;  for  the  vibrations  of  the  ftring 
are  known  to  be  lb. 

Again,  as  lothe  vdo-rity  with  which  founds  travel, 
this  Newton  determines,  by  the  moft  diliicult  calcula- 
tion that  cm  I)c  imagined,  to  lie  in  proportion  to  the 
thicknefs  of  the  parts  of  the  air,  and  the  diilancc  of 
thefe  pirts  from  each  other.  From  hence  he  goes  on 
to  prove,  that  e a-h  little  part  moves  backward  and  for- 
ward like  a  pendulum  ;  aiid  from  thence  he  proceeds 
to  demon Itratc,  that  if  the  atmofpherc  wereof  tlic  fame 


TICS.  Chap.  I. 

denfity  every  where  as  at  the  furface  of  the  earth,  in  Different 
fuch  a  cafe,  a  pendulum,  that  reached  from  its  highcft  Theories  of 
fui-face  down  to  the  furface  of  the  earth,  would  by  i:s  ^"""^' 
vibrations  dilcovcr  to  ns  the  proportion  of  its  velocity 
with  which  founds  travel.  The  velocity  with  which 
each  pulfc  would  move,  lie  fliows,  would  be  as  much 
greater  than  the  velocity  of  fuch  a  pendulum  fwinging 
with  one  complete  vibration,  as  thecircnmfcreneeofa 
circle  is  greater  than  the  diameter.  Fnm  hence  he 
calculates,  that  the  motion  of  found  will  be  979  feet 
in  one  fecond.  But  this  not  being  confonant  to  ex- 
perience, he  takes  in  another  conlidcration,  which  de- 
ftroys  entirely  the  vigour  of  his  former  dcmonftration, 
namely,  vapours  in  the  air  ;  and  then  finds  the  motion 
of  found  to  be  1142  feet  in  one  fecond,  or  near  i  5  miles 
in  a  minute  :  a  proportion  which  experience  had  cJta- 
bliHied  nearly  before.  7 

Thus  much  will  ferve  to  give  an  obfcnre  idea  of  a  Trrccdirg 
theory  which  has  met  with  numbers  of  oppofers.  Even  'I'licory  op- 
John  Bernouilli,  New  ton's  grcatefl  difciple,  modeftly  V^'^'^- 
owns  that  he  did  not  pretend    to  underftand  this  part 
of  the   Priuci/'ia.     lie  attempted  therefore  to  give  a 
morepcrfi)icuous  dcmonftration  of  his  own,  that  might 
conrirm  and  ilhiftrate  the  Newtonian  theory.     The 
fubjeft  feented  to  rcje(5l  elucidation  :  his  theory  is  ob- 
vioully  w  rong,  as  D'Alerabcrt  has  proved  in  his  The- 
ory of  Fluids.  g 

Various  have  been  the  objeiflions  that  have  been  The objcc- 
madc  lothe  Newtonian  fyfttm  of  founds.  It  is  urged,  tions. 
that  this  theory  can  only  agree  with  the  motion  of 
found  in  an  elaftic  fluid,  whereas  founds  are  known  to 
move  forward  through  water  that  is  not  elaftic.  To 
explain  their  progrcfs  therefore  through  water,  a  fe- 
cond theory  nuiil  be  formed  :  fo  that  two  theories  muft 
be  made  to  explain  a  limilar  cfTefl ;  which  is  contrary 
to  the  fimplicity  of  true  philofophy,  for  it  is  contrary 
to  the  fimplicity  of  nature.  It  is  farther  urged,  that 
this  flow  vermicular  motion  but  ill  reprefcntsthe  velo- 
city with  which  founds  travel,  as  we  know  by  experi- 
ence that  it  isalmoft  i^  miles  in  a  minute.  In  fhort, 
it  is  urged,  that  fuch  undulations  as  have  been  defcri- 
bcd,  when  coming  from  feveralfonorous  bodies  at  once, 
would  crofs,  obftruft,  and  confound  each  other  ;  fo 
that,  if  they  were  conveyed  to  the  ear  by  this  means, 
we  fhould  hear  nothing  but  a  medley  of  difcord  and 
broken  articulations.  But  this  is  equally  with  the  reft 
contradictory  to  experience,  lince  we  hear  the  fnlleft 
concert,  not  only  without  confniion,butw  ith  the  high- 
cft pleafure.  Thefe  objcftions,  whether  well  founded 
or  not,  have  given  rife  to  another  theory  :  which  we 
ftiall  likcwife  lay  before  the  reader  ;  though  it  too  ap- 
pears liable  to  objedions,  which  fliall  be  afterwards 
mentioned.  „ 

Every  found  may  be  confidcred  as  driven  of!  from  Anotlicr 
the  founding  body  in  ftraigjit  lines,  andimprcfTcd  upon  'I'hcory. 
the  air  in  one  direction  only  :  but  whatever  inipreilion 
is  made  upon  a  fluid  in  one  direftion,  is  diffufed  upon 
its  furface  into  all  directions  ;  fo  that  the  found  firft 
driven  direitly  forward  foon  fills  upa  w  ide  fphere,  and 
is  heard  on  every  fide.  Thus,  as  it  is  imprcffed,  it  in- 
ftantancouHy  travels  forward  with  a  very  fv.ifi  motion, 
refembling  the  velocity  with  which  wc  know  eledri- 
city  flies  from  one  en  i  of  a  line  to  another. 

Now,  as  to  the  pulfes,  or  clifc  Ihakcs,  as  the  niufi- 
cians  cxprcfi  it,  which  a  founding  body  is  know-n  to 

make 


ACOUSTIC 


Chap.  I. 

DifTercnt  make,  each  pulfc  (fay  the  fupportcrs  of  tliis  ihcoiy,) 
Tlicoricsof  IS  itftlf  a  diltiiiLt  aiul  pcrftit  found  and  die  interval 
Sound,      between  every  two  pulics  is  profoundly  lilcnt.      Con- 
^tinuity  of  found  froju  the  fame  body  is  only  a  decep- 
tion of  tlic  hearing  ;  foras  each  dillinit  found  fuccccds 
at  very  fmall  intervals,  the  organ  has  no  time  to  tranf- 
mit  its  images  witii  cijual  fwiftnefsio  the  mind,  and 
the  interval  is  thus  lod  to  fcnfe  ;  jiill  as  in  feeing  a 
flaming  torch,  if  liarcd  round  in  a  circle,  it  appears 
as  a  ring  of  fire.     In  this  manner  a  beaten  drum,  at 
fome  fmall  dillance,  prcfenis  us  with  the  idea  of  con- 
tinuing found.     When  children  run  with  their-llicks 
along  a  rail,  a  continuing  found  is  thus  rcprcfented, 
though  it  need  fcarce  be  obferved  that  the  ftroke  a- 
gainil  each  rail  ispcrfedtly  dillinctand  infulated. 

According  to  this  theory,  therefore,  the  pulfcs  are 
nothing  more  than  dillinct  founds  repeated  by  the  fame 
body,  the  firll  llroke  or  vibration  being  ever  theloud- 
cft,  and  travelling  farther  than  (hole  that  follow;  while 
eachfucceeding  vibration  gives  a  new  found,  but  with 
diniinilhcd  force,  till  atlall  the  pulfcs  decay  away  to- 
tally, as  the  force  decays  that  gives  them  exillenee. 

All  bodies  whatfoevcr  that  arc  flruck  return  more 
orlefs  a  found  :  but  fome,  w-antingelafticity,  give  back 
no  repetition  of  ihe  found  ;  the  noife  is  at  once  begot- 
ten and  dies  :  while  other  bodies,  however,  there  are, 
which  being  more  claAic  and  capable  of  vibration,  give 
back  a  found,  and  repeat  the  fame  feveral  times  fuc- 
ccflively.  Thcfe  lall  are  faid  to  have  a  tone  ;  the 
others  are  not  allowed  to  have  any. 

This  tone  of  the  elaflic  llring,  or  bell,  is  notwith- 
flanding  nothing  more  than  a  fimilar  found  to  what 
the  former  bodies  produced,  but  with  the  diifercnce  of 
being  many  times  repeated  while  tluir  note  is  but 
fmglc.  So  that,  if  we  would  give  the  former  bodies  a 
tone,  it  will  be  neccllary  to  make  ihcm  repeat  their 
found,  by  repeating  our  blows  fwiftly  upon  them.  This 
will  ctfcttually  give  them  a  tone  ;  and  even  an  nnmuli- 
cal  inllramcnt  has  often  had  a  fine  cii'cci  by  its  tone 
in  our  concerts. 

Let  us  now  goon  then  tofuppofe,  that  by  fwift 
and  equably  continued  Itrokes  wc  give  any  non-ela(\ic 
body  its  tone  :  it  is  very  obvious,  that  no  alterations 
will  be  made  in  this  tone  by  the  quicknefs  of  the  llrokes, 
though  repeated  ever  fo  faA.  Thefc  will  only  render 
the  tone  more  equal  and  continuous,  but  make  no  al- 
teration in  the  tone  it  gives.  On  the  contrary,  if  we 
make  an  alteration  in  the  force  of  each  blow,  a  dirte- 
rent  tone  will  (hen  undoubtedly  be  excited.  The  dif- 
ference will  be  fmall,  it  mult  be  confelfed  ;  for  the 
tones  of  thefc  inflcxilile  bodies  are  capable  but  of  fmiU 
variation  ;  however,  there  will  certainly  be  a  diffe- 
rence. The  tabic  on  which  wc  write,  for  inllance, 
will  retnrn  a  dirl'crcnt  found  wlitn  ilruck  with  a  club, 
from  whatit  did  when  (truck  only  with  a  fw  itch.  Thus 
non-dailic  bodies  return  a  ditrcrcncc  of  tone,  not  in 
proportion  to  the  fwiftncfs  with  which  their  found  is 
repeated,  but  in  proportion  to  the  greatncfs  of  the 
blow  which  produced  it  ;  for  in  two  equal  noii-tlallic 
bodies,  the  body  produced  the  deepell  tone  which  was 
Ilruck  by  the  greatcft  blow. 

Wc  now  then  come  to  a    critical  qncftion.  What 

is  it  that  produces  the  diticrenec  of  tone  in  two  elallic 

founding  bells  or  llrings.'  Or  what  makes  one  deep  and 

the  other  (hrilHThisnucftion  has alwaysbcen  hitherto 

Vol..  I. 


ai'.fwcred  by  faying,  that  tlic  depth  or  luigtit  of  the   niffcrcut 
note  proceeded  from  the  flowncfs  or  fwiftncfs  of  the  'I'ix-critt  vt 
tiuics  of  the  vibrations.  The  llowcA  vibrations,  it  has    Sound, 
been  faid,  arcqualifiedforproducingihc  deepefltoncs,  "      "* 

while  the  fwifteil  vibrations  produce  the  Iiighcft  tones. 
In  tliis  cafe,  an  cffccl  has  been  given  for  a  caufc.  It  i» 
in  fait  the  force  with  which  tlie  founding  ftringftrikci 
the  air  when  Ilruck  upon,  that  makes  the  tr.- .-  diflinc- 
tioninthe  tones  of  founds.  It  is  this  force,  withgrcat- 
erorlcfsinipreliions.refemblingthegreater  orlefs  force 
of  the  blows  npon  a  nou-elaftic  body,  which  produce* 
correfpondent  affcflions  of  found.  The  greateft  forces 
produce  the  deepcll  founds  :  the  high  notes  are  the  cf- 
fc6l  of  fmall  efforts.  In  the  fame  manner  a  bell,  wide 
at  the  mouth,  gives  a  grave  found  ;  but  if  it  be  very 
maliy  withal,  that  will  render  it  Hill  graver  ;  but  if 
mally,  wide,  and  long  or  high,  that  will  make  the 
tone  decpcft  of  all. 

Thus,  then,  will  claftic  bodies  give  the  deepcll 
found,  in  proportion  to  the  force  with  which  they 
ftrike  the  air  :  but  if  we  fliould  attempt  to  incrcafc  their 
force  by  giving  them  a  llronger  blow,  this  will  be  in 
vain  ;  they  will  flill  return  the  fame  tone  ;  for  fuch  ii 
their  formation,  that  they  are  fonorous  only  becaufe 
they  are  elaftic,  and  the  force  of  this  clalHciiy  is  not 
increafed  by  our  ftrcngth  as  the  greatncfs  of  a  pendu- 
lum's vibration  will  not  be  increafed  by  falling  from 
a  greater  height. 

Thusfar  of  the  length  of  chords.  Now  as  to  the  fre- 
quency with  which  they  vibrate  the'deepefl  tones,  it 
has  been  found,  from  the  nature  of  elaflic  llrings,  that 
the  longed  Arings  have  the  widcA  vibrations,  and  con- 
fequently  go  backward  and  forward  llowcA;  while,  on 
the  contrary,  the  lliortcll  Arings  vibrate  thequickcA, 
or  come  and  go  in  the  LiorteA  intervals.  Krom  hence 
thofc  whohave  treatcdof  founds,  have  alicrted,  as  was 
faid  before,  that  the  tone  of  the  Aring  depended  npon 
the  length  or  the  Ihortnefs  of  the  viljratioas.  Tliis, 
however,  is  not  the  cafe.  One  and  the  fame  Aring, 
when  Aruck,  muA  always,  like  the  fame  pendulum,  re- 
turn precifcly  fimilar  vibrations  ;  but  it  is  well  known, 
that  one  and  the  fame  Aring,  when  Aruck  upon,  does 
not  always  return  precifcly  the  fame  tone  :  fo  that  in 
this  cafe  the  vibrations  follow  one  rule,  and  the  tone 
another.  The  vibrations  muA  be  invariably  the  fame 
in  the  fame  Aring,  which  does  not  return  the  fame  tone 
invariably, as  is  wcUknown  tomuliciansinE:cner.al.  In 
the  violin,  lor  in  Aancc,  they  can  calily  alter  the  tone  of 
the  Aring  an  oclavc  or  eight  notes  liigher,  by  afoftcr 
method  of  drawing  the  bow ;  and  fome  are  known  thus 
to  bring  out  the  moA  charming  airs  imaginable.  Thefc 
peculiar  tones  arc  by  the  Englillt  fiddlers  cMedfut:- 
liott'i.  Tlic  only  rcafon,  it  has  been  alleged,  that  can 
bealligned  for  the  fame  llring  thus  returning  different 
tones,  mull  certainly  be  the  ditferent  force  of  its  Arokes 
upon  the  air.  In  one  cafe,  it  has  double  the  tone  of 
the  other  ;  becaufe  upon  the  foft  touches  of  the  bow, 
only  half  iss  elaAicity  is  put  into  vibration. 

This  being  under Aood  (continue  the  authors  of 
this  theory),  we  ihall  be  able  clearly  to  account  for 
many  things  relating  to  founds  that  have  hitherto 
been  inexplicable.  Thus,  for  inftance,  if  it  be  alk- 
cd.  When  two  firings  are  llretched  to;;cther  of  equal 
lengths,  tenlions,  and  thicknefs,  how  does  it  happen, 
LJiat  one  of  Uiem  being  Ilruck,  and  made  to  vibrate 
L  throughout. 


8a 


ACOUSTICS. 


Diffcreut 
Theories  of 


lo 
Xolijii 
L.yre   See 
ri.itc  I. 
Cg.  1. 

•  ru,  Kir- 
chcri  Mu- 
furgia.  lib. 
Ix. 


tlirov.j;ho;it,  the  otlicr  fiiall  viUratc  tjiroiigliont  alio? 
thcamwtrisolnioiis:  The  force  that  the  Itring  llruck 
receives  is  comimnucatcd  to  the  air,  and  the  air  com- 
nuinicaics  the  lame  to  the  limilar  Jlriiij; ;  which  there- 
fore receives  all  the  force  ol  the  former  ;  and  the  force 
beinj;  equal,  the  vibrations  mult  be  fo  too.  Again, 
pi't  the  q'jcltion.  If  one  Ihing  be  but  half  tlie  kiijrth 
of  the  other,  and  be  ftriick,  how  will  the  vibrations 
be  .'  The  anfwcris,  The  longell  llringwill  receive  all 
ihc  force  of  the  firing  half  as  long  as  iifilf,  and  there- 
fore it  will  vibrate  in  proportion,  that  is,  ilirongh  half 
its  length.  In  the  fame  manner,  if  the  longell  firing 
were  three  times  as  long  as  the  other,  it  would  only 
vibrate  in  a  third  of  its  length  ;  or  if  four  times,  in  a 
fourth  of  its  length.  In  Ihort,  whatever  force  the 
finallcr  firing  imprellcs  upon  the  air,  the  air  will  im- 
prefs  a  limilar  force  upon  the  longer  llring,  and  par- 
tially excite  it2  vi'urations. 

From  hence  alfo  we  may  account  for  the  caufe  of 
thofe  charming,  melancholy  gradations  oi  found  in  the 
Eolian  lyre  ;  aiiiulhumcnt  (lays Sir  John  Hawkins) 
lately  obtrudeil  upon  the  public  as  a  new  inveuiion, 
though  defcribed  above  a  century  ago  by  Kirchcr  *. 
This  inftrunient  is  ealily  made,  being  nothing  more 
than  a  long  narrow  box  of  thin  dale,  about  :!o  inches 
long,  J  inches  broad,  and  i  J  inches  deep,  with  a  cir- 
cle in  the  middle  of  the  upper  fide  or  belly  about  \\ 
inch  diameter,  pierced  wilhfmall  holes.  On  thiilide  are 
fcven,  ten,  or  (according  to  Kirchcr)  fifteen  or  more 
llringsof  very  tine  gut,  llretched  over  bridges  at  each 
end,  like  the  bridge  ot  a  riddle,  and  fcrewedup  or  re- 
laxed with  fcrew-pins  (b).  The  firings  are  all  tuned 
to  one  and  the  fame  note  ;  and  the  inllrunient  is  placed 
in  fomc  current  of  air,  where  the  windcau  brufh  over 
its  firings  with  freedom.  A  window  with  the  fafh 
j  ufl  railed  to  give  the  air  admiirion.  will  anfwer  this 
purpofc  exa-Hly.  Now  when  the  entering  air  blows 
nponthefe  firings  with  ditFerent  degrees  of  force,  there 
•will  be  excited  different  tones  of  found  ;  fometimes  the 
blafl  brings  out  all  the  tones  in  full  concert ;  fometimes 
it  links  them  te  the  fofteft  murmurs  ;  it  feeis  for  every 
tone,  and  by  its  gradations  of  flrength  folicits  thofe 
gradations  of  found  which  art  has  taken  different  me- 
thods to  produce. 

It  remains,  in  the  lafl  place,  to  conlider  (by  this 
theory)  the  loudncfs  andlowncfs,  or,  as  thcmulicians 
fpeak,  the  flrength  and  foftncfs  of  found.  In  vibra- 
tino-  claflic  firings,  the  loudnefs  of  the  tone  is  in  pro- 
portion to  the  deepnefs  of  the  note  ;  that  is,  in  two 
firings,  all  things  in  other  circumfiances  alike,  the 
dcepeft  tone  will  be  loudefi.  In  mufical  infiruments 
upon  a  different  principle,  as  in  the  violin,  it  is  other- 
wife  ;  the  tones  are  made  in  fuch  infiruments,  by  a 
number  of  fmall  vibrations  crowded  into  one  firokc. 
The  rolined  bow,  for  infiance,  being  drawn  along  a 
firing,  its  ronghnelVes  catch  the  firing  at  very  fmall 
intervals,  and  excite  its  vibrations.  In  this  iiifirument, 
therefore,  tocxcite  loudtones,  the  bowmufi  be  drawn 
quick,  and  this  will  produce  the  greatefi  number  of  vi- 
brations. But  it  muft  be  obfcrved,  that  the  more 
quick  the  bow  pafles  over  the  firing,  the  lefs  apt  will 


Chap.  I. 

the  roughnefs  of  its  furfacc  be  to  touch  the  firing  at  Different 
every  infiaiil  ;  to  remedy  this,  therefore,  thcbow  niufi  'J'^'-oricsof 
be  prell;d  the  hari!er  as  it  is  drawn  (]uickfr,  and  tluis     ■''""'"'• 
itslulle'i  found  will  be  brought  from  tiic  iiifirument.  ^""^ 
Ifthe  fwiftnifsof  ilie  vibrations  in  an  iufirnineiu  thus 
rubbed  upon,  exceed  the  force  of  the  deeper  found  in 
anotlier,    then  the  fwit't  vibrations  will  be  heard  at  a 
greaterdillance.andasmuch  fai  therotFas  the  fwiltnels 
in  ihein  ex-.eeds  ilie  force  in  the  other. 

By  the  fame  theory  (it  is  alleged)  may  all  the  phe-  _,.  " 
nomciia  of  mufical  founds  be  eafily  explained. — The  j^j-  i^iif,.-ii 
fables  of  the  ancients  pretend,  that  mulic  was  firll  Sounds  il- 
found  out  by  the  be;.tiiig  of  different  hammers  upon  the  luflrated 
fmiih's  anvil.  W  ithout  purluing  the  fable,  let  us  en-  according 
deavour  to  explain  the  nature  of  mufical  founds  by  a  to'l^ef*'"* 
limilar  method.  Let  us  fuppofc  an  anvil,  or  Icveral  li-  '""'y- 
niiiar  anvils,  to  be  llruck  upon  by  fcveral  hammers  of 
ditferent  weights  or  forces.  Tlie  hammer,  which  is 
double  that  of'anoilier,  upon  fiviking  the  anvil  will 
produce  a  found  double  that  of  the  other  :  this  double 
foui.d  muficians  have  agreed  to  call  an  Oclave.  The 
ear  can  judgeof  the  difterenceor  refeniblance  of  thcfc 
founds  with  great  eafe,  the  numbers  being  as  one  and 
two,  and  therefore,  very  readily  compared.  Suppofc 
that  an  hammer,  three  limes  lefs  than  the  rirfi,  flrikes 
the  anvil,  the  found  produced  by  this  will  be  three 
times  leis  than  the  firit  :  fo  that  the  ear,  in  judging  tho 
liniilitude  of  thefe  founds,  uill  find  fiimewhat  more 
difliculty  ;  becaufe  it  is  not  fb  eafy  to  tell  how  often 
one  is  contained  in  three,  as. it  is  to  tell  how  often  it 
is  contained  in  two.  Again,  fuppofe  that  an  hammer 
four  times  lefs  than  the  hrft  firikes  the  anvil,  the  ear 
will  find  greater  (lifhculty  fiill  in  judging  prccifcly  the 
difference  of  the  founds;  for  the  ditfcrence of  the  num- 
bers four  and  one  cannot  fo  foon  be  determined  with 
precilion  as  three  and  one.  Ifthe  hammer  be  five 
timcslefs.  the  dilFiculty  of  judging  will  be  fiill  greater. 
If  the  hammer  be  iix  times  lefs,  the  difficulty  fiill  in- 
creafcs,  and  fo  alfo  of  the  fcvcnth,  infomuch  that  tlic 
car  cannot  always  readily  and  at  once  determine  the 
precife  gradation.  Now,  of  all  comparifons,  thofe 
which  the  mind  makes  mofi  ealily,  and  with  leaft  la- 
bour, are  the  mofi  pleafing.  There  is  a  certain  re- 
gularity in  the  human  foul,  by  which  it  finds  happi- 
ncfs  in  exad  and  ftriking,  and  eafily-madc  compari- 
fons As  the  ear  is  but  an  infirument  of  the  mind,  it 
is  therefore  mofi  pleifcd  with  the  combination  of  any 
two  founds,  the  ditFerences  of  which  it  can  mofi  rea- 
dily difiinguilh.  It  is  more  pleafcd  with  the  concord 
of  two  founds  which  are  to  each  other  as  one  and  two, 
than  of  two  founds  which  are  as  one  and  three,  or  one 
and  four,  or  one  and  five,  or  one  and  fix  or  fcven.  Up- 
on this  pleafure,  which  the  mind  takes  in  comparifon, 
all  harmony  depends.  The  variety  of  founds  is  infi- 
nite ;  but  becaufe  the  ear  cannot  compare  two  founds 
fo  as  readily  to  difiinguilh  their  difcrimalions  when 
they  exceed  the  proportion  ofoneand  feven,mulicians 
have  been  content  to  confine  all  harmony  within  that 
compafs,  and  allowed  but  feven  notes  in  mufical  com- 
pofition. 

Let  us  now  then  fuppofc  a  ftringed  infirument  fitted 

up 


(b)  The  figure  reprefents  the  infirument  with  ten  chords  ;  of  which  fome  direft  only  eight  to  be  tuned 
unifons,  and  the  two  outcrmoft  octaves  below  them.     Bu:  this  feema  not  to  be  material. 


Chiip.  I. 


A     C     O     U 


TICS. 


8.? 


Of  Muiiial  up  i:i  tiic  orJcr  nuiui  iit-il  above.     For  ialbuicc  :  Let 
souii.ls.     tlic  (ivll  firing  be  twice  as  loiij;  ab  the  Iccoinl ;  let  the 

" " iliird  Itriug  be  tliree  times  lliorttr  th^ii  llie  lint ;  let 

tlic  fotirtli  be  four  times,  the  lil'th  firing  five  ti;iie.i, 
and  the  lixtb  lix  times  as  Ihort  as  the  lint.  Such  au 
iiiflrumcui  would  picbably  give  us  a  rcprcfentaiion  oC 
the  lyre  as  it  came  rirlt  Irom  the  hand  of  the  invcii- 
tor.  This  inftrumcut  will  give  us  all  tiie  fcvcn  notes 
following  each  other,  in  the  ord^rr  in  whicii  any  two 
of  thcni  will  accord  together  moll  plealingly  ;  but  yet 
it  will  be  a  very  inconvenient  and  a  very  dil'agrecable 
inllrument :  inconvenient,  for  in  a  compafs  of  fcven 
llriiigs  only,  the  ilrft  mull  be  fcven  times  as  long  as 
the  lall ;  and  difagreeablc,  becaufe  this  firft  llring  will 
be  fcvcn  times  as  loud  alfo  ;  fo  that  when  the  tones  arc 
to  be  played  in  a  diifcrent  order,  loud  and  foft  founds 
Would  be  intermixed  with  mofl  difgufling  alternations. 
In  order  to  improve  the  firft  inllrument,  therefore, 
fucceeding  mulicians  very  judicioufly  threw  in  all  the 
otlier  firings  between  the  two  tirfl,  or,  in  other  words, 
between  the  two  O^-laves,  giving  to  each,  liowevcr,  the 
fame  proportion  to  w  hat  it  would  have  had  in  the  firfl 
natural  inflrunicnt.  This  made  the  inllrument  more 
portable,  and  the  founds  more  even  and  plealing.  They 
therefore  difpofcd  the  founds  between  the  Octave  in 
their  natural  order,  and  gave  each  its  own  proportional 
dimcnfions.  Of  thcfe  founds,  where  the  proportion 
between  any  two  of  them  is  mofl  obvious,  theconcord 
between  them  will  be  molt  plealing.  Thus  OJtaves, 
vhich  are  as  two  to  one,  have  amolt  harmonious  effedt ; 
the  fourth  and  fifth  al.o  found  fweetly  together,  and 
they  will  be  found,  upon  calculation,  to  bear  the  fame 
proportion  to  each  other  that  Odavcs  do.  "  Let  it 
"  not  be  fuppofed  (fays  Mr  Savcur),  tliat  the  mnlical 
"  fcaie  is  merely  an  arbitrary  combination  of  founds  ; 
"  it  is  made  up  from  the  confonancc  and  difTerenccs  of 
<'  the  parts  which  corapofc  it.  Thofe  who  have  often 
"  heard  a  fourth  and  tilth  accord  tf  gether,  will  be 
"  naturallylfd  todifcovcr  their  difference  at  once  ;  asd 
"  the  mind  unites  itfclf  to  their  beauties."  Let  us  then 
ccafe  to  aflign  the  coincidences  of  vibrations  as  the 
caufcof  harmony, fincc  thcfe  coincidences  in  two  firings 
vibrating  at  ditiercnt  intervals,  mufl  at  bell  be  but  for- 
tuitous ;  whereas  concord  is  always  plealing.  The  true 
caufc  why  concord  is  plealing,nuifl  aril'e  from  ou  r  power, 
in  fuch  a  cafe,  of  mcafuring  more  calily  the  didcrences 
of  the  tones.  In  proportion  as  the  note  can  be  mea- 
fured  with  its  fundamental  tone  by  large  and  obvious 
diflindions,  then  the  concord  is  moll  plealing  ;  on  the 
contrary, when  the  earmeafurcs  thedifcriminations  of 
tw^o  tones  by  very  fmall  parts,  or  cannot  nicafute  them 
at  all,  it  lofcs  the  beauty  of  their  rcfemblancc  ;  the 
whole  is  tlifcord  and  pain  (c). 

Bu  t  there  is  another  property  in  the  vibration  of  a  mu- 
fical  llring  not  yet  taken  notice  of,  and  which  is  alleged 
to  confirm  the  foregoing  theory.  If  we  ftrikeihc  ft  ring 
of  an  harplichord,  or  any  other  elaftic  founding  chord 
whatever,  it  returns  a  continuing  found.  Thistillof 
late  was  confidcrcdas  one  llmple  uniform  tone  ;  but  all 


mulicians  now  coaftfi,  that  i.ifleid  of  one  tonelt  cc-  Of  VTufi.al 
tuilly  returns  four  tones,  and  that  conflantly,      1  he     Snuii.ls 
noil  s  are,  bclide  the  fun  Jamciital  t'>nc,3n  octave  above,  '       ' 

a  twelfth  above,  and  a  fcvcnlccnth.  Oncof  ihebafs- 
iiotes  of  an  harplichord  has  been  diilectcd  la  this  ma.i- 
ner  by  Rair.cau,  and  the  aftual  txillcncc  of  tliefc  toucs 
proved  bcyoiul  a  poliibility  of  being  coiitrovcrrcd.  In 
fact,  the  experiment  is  ealily  tried  ;  for  if  \vc  fmaril/ 
ftrike  one  of  tlie  lower  ktys  of  an  harplichord,  anj 
then  take  the  finger  brilkly  away,  a  tolerable  ear  will  be 
able  to  difiinguilii,  that,  alter  the  fundamental  tone  ha» 
ceafcd,  three  other  Ihrillcr  tones  will  be  dillinctl/ 
heard  ;  firft  the  odave  above,  then  tne  twelfth,  and 
laflly  the  feventecnth  :  the  octave  above  is  in  general 
alnioll  mixed  with  the  fundamental  tone,  fo  as  not  tj 
be  ealily  perceived,  except  by  an  car  long  habituated 
to  the  minute  difcrimination  of  founds.  So  that  wc 
may  obfcrve,  that  the  fmallcft  tone  isiicard  laft,andthc 
dcepcft  and  largefl  one  firft  :  the  two  others  in  order. 
In  the  whole  theory  of  founds,  nothing  has  given 
greater  room  for  fpcculation,  conjecture,  and  difap- 
pointment,than  this  amazingpropertyin  elaftic  firings. 
The  whole  firing  is  uni  vcrfally  acknowledged  to  be  in 
vibration  in  all  its  parts,  yet  this  linglc  vibration  re- 
turns no  Icfs  than  four  diiierent  founds.  They  who 
account  for  the  tones  of  firings  by  the,nuinber  oftiieir 
vibrations,  arc  here  at  the  grcateft  lofs.  Daniel  IJer- 
nouilli  fuppofcs,  that  a  vibrating  ftring  divides  itfclf 
into  a  number  of  curves,  each  of  which  has  a  peculiar 
vibration  ;  and  though  they  all  fwing  together  in  the 
common  vibration, yet  each  vibrates  w  ithin  itfclf.  This 
opinion,  which  was  fupported,  as  moft  geometrical 
fpeculations  are,  with  the  parade  of  dcmonftration, 
was  only  born  foon  after  to  die.  Others  have  afcribcd 
this  to  an  elaftic  ditlerencc  in  the  parts  of  the  air,  each 
of  which,  at  different  intervals,  thus  received  different 
imprcflions  from  tiie  ftring,  in  proportion  to  their  cla- 
fticity.  This  is  abfurd.  If  wc  allow  the  difference  of 
tone  to  proceed  from  the  force,  and  not  the  frequency, 
of  the  vibrations,  this  difliculiy  will  admit  of  an  cafy 
fohuion.  Thcfe  founds,  though  they  fceni  to  exift  to- 
gether in  the  ftring,  ailually  follow  each  other  in  fiic- 
ceffion  :  w  hile  the  vibration  has  greater  force,  the 
fundamental  tone  is  brought  forward  :  the  force  of  the 
vibration  decaying,  the  oftavc  is  produced,  but  alraofl 
only  inftantancoudy  ;  to  this  fuccecds,  with  diminilhed 
force, the  twelfth;  and,  laftly,ihc  feventecnth  is  heard 
to  vibrate  with  great  diflinftnefs,while  the  thrceother 
tones  are  always  filent.  Thefc  founds,  thus  excited, 
arc  all  of  them  the  harmonic  tones,  whofe  difTcrcncts 
from  the  fundamental  tone  arc,  as  was  faid,  ftrong,  and 
diftini5t.  On  the  other  hand,  the  difcordaut  tones  can- 
not be  heard  Their  differences  being  but  very  fmall, 
they  are  overpowered,  and  in  a  raanncr  drowned  in  the 
tones  offupcrior  difference  :  yet  not  always  neither  ; 
for  Daniel  Hernouilli  has  been  able,  from  the  fame 
ftrokc,  to  make  the  fame  ftring  bring  out  its  harnie- 
nic  and  its  difcordant  tones  alfo  (d.)  So  ih^t  from 
hence  wc  may  juftly  infer,  that  every  note  whatfoeve r 
La  is 


(c  j  It  i-i  cci  tain,  tliat  in  proportion  to  the  llmplicity  of  relations  in  found,  the  car  is  pleated  with  its  combina- 
tions ;  but  this  is  not  to  be  admitted  as  the  caufe  why  mulicians  have  confined  all  harmony  to  an  octave.  Dif- 
criminatcd  founds,whofe  vibrations  either  never  coincide,  or  at  Icall  very  rarely,  do  not  only  ce:'fe  to  pleafe, 
b'lt  violently  grate  the  ear.  Harmony  and  difcord,  therefore,  are  neither  difcriminated  by  the  iudgmcr.:  of 
liearcrs,  nor  the  inftitution  of  mulicians,  but  by  their  own  ellcntial  and  immutable  nature. 
(d)  Vid.  Memoircsdel'  Academic  dc  Berlin,  i753,  r-'JS- 


S4 


of  Muficj! 
Sounds. 

12 
Oujcclions 
to  the  pre- 
ceding thc- 
•ry. 


A     C     O     U     S 

is  only  a  fuccclTioii  of  tones ;  and  that  thofc  arc  mod 
diflincHy  heard,  whole  dillirciicts  are  nioft  eaiily  per- 
ceivable. 

To  this  theory,  however,  tlioiigh  it  hns  a  plaulible 
appearance,  there  are  ftrong  and  indeed  iiilupcrable 
objeiMioiis.  The  very  fundamental  ptintiplc  of  it  is 
falfe.  Nobody  whati-vtr,  whether  clallic  oi'  non-e- 
lafiic,  yields  a  graver  fomid  by  beinj^  (Iruck  wi'.h  a 
larger  inftiiment,  unlcfs  cither  the  founding  body,  or 
that  pnrt  of  it  which  emits  the  found,  is  enlarged.  In 
this  cafe,  the  largclt  bodies  always  reiurn  the  gravtll 
founds. 

In  fpeaking  of  claflic  and  non-elaftic  bodies  in  a  nui- 
fical  fenfr,  we  are  not  to  puih  the  dillincUon  fo  far  as 
when  we  fpcakof  them  philofophically.  A  body  is  w.v- 
fically  elaftic,  all  of  whofe  parts  arc  thrown  into  vibra- 
tions fo  as  to  emit  a  found  wlien  only  part  of  their  fur- 
face  is  flruck.  Of  this  kind  are  bells,  nuilicalilrings, 
and  all  bodies  whatever  that  are  conliderably  hollow. 
— Mulical  non-tlaflics  arc  fuch  bodies  as  cniit  a  found 
only  from  that  particular  place  which  is  llruck  :  thus, 
a  table,  a  plate  of  iron  nailed  on  wood,  a  bell  funk 
in  the  earth,  are  all  of  them  non-elaflics  in  a  mutical 
fenfe,  though  not  philofophically  fo.  When  a  folid  bo- 
dy, fuch  as  a  log  of  wood,  is  llruck  with  a  fwitch,only 
that  part  of  it  emits  a  found  which  comes  in  conta(M 
■with  the  fwitch  ;  the  note  is  acute  and  loud,  but  would 
be  no  lefs  fo  though  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  log  were 
removed.  If,  inftead  of  the  fwitch,  a  heavier  or  lar- 
ger inflrumcnt  is  made  ufe  of,  a  larger  portion  of  its 
furface  then  returns  a  found,  and  the  note  is  confe- 
<)uently  more  grave  ;  but  it  would  not  be  fo,  if  the 
large  inllrument  flruck  with  a  lliarp  edge,  or  a  furface 
only  equal  to  that  of  a  fmall  one. 

In  founds  of  this  kind,  where  there  is  only  a  fingle 
thwack,  without  any  repetition,  the  immediate  caufe  of 
the  gravity  or  acutenefs  feenis  to  be  the  quantity  of  air 
difplaced  by  the  founding  body  ;  a  large  quantity  of 
air  difplaced,  produces  a  grave  found,  and  a  fmallcr 
quantity  a  more  acute  one,  the  force  wherev\ith  the  air 
is  difplaced  fignifying  very  little. — What  we  here  ad- 
•vancc  is  confirnud  by  foine  experiments  made  by  Dr 
Pricdley,  concerning  the  »/;//;c<///o/;f  of  electiical  dii- 
chargcs.  ThepalDge  being  curious,  and  not  very  long, 
we  Ihall  here  tranilribe  it  : 

"  As  tlic  ccurfe  of  my  experiments  has  required  a 
great  variety  of  elcftrical  cxplofions,  I  could  not  help 
obferving  a  great  variety  in  the  mafical  tone  made  by 
chc  reports.  This  excited  my  curiofity  to  attempt  to 
reduce'tiiis  variation  to  (ome  meafure.  According- 
ly, by  the  help  of  a  coople  of  fpinets,  and  two  perfons 
•who  had  good  ears  for  mulic,  I  endeavoured  to  afcer- 
tnin  the  tone  of  fome  ele<ftrical  difcharges  ;  and  ob- 
ferved,  that  every  difcliarge  made  fcvcral firings,  par- 
ticularly thofc  that  were  chords  to  one  another,  to  vi- 
brate :  but  one  note  was  always  predominant,  and 
founded  after  the  rell.  As  every  cxplolion  was  re- 
peated feveral  times,  and  three  of  us  fcparately  took 
the  fame  note,  there  remained  no  doubt  but  that  the 
lone  we  fixed  upon  was  at  Icall  very  near  the  true 
one.  The  refult  was  as  follows  : 

"A  jar  containing  half  a  fquare  foot  of  coated  glafs 
founded  F  (harp,  concert  j'itch.  Another  jar  of  a  dif- 
ferent form,  but  equal  furface,  founded  the  fame. 

"  A  jar  of  three  fquare  feet  founded  C  belov/  F 


TICS.  Chap.  I. 

fliarp.     A  battery  confifting  of   fixty-four  jirs,  each  Of  Mufical 
coni.tining  half  a  fquare  foot,  founded  K  below  the  C.      Sound*. 

"  The  lame  battery,  in  conjunction  with  another  '— — v— ' 
of  thirty -one  jars,  founded  C  lliarp.     So  tliat  a  great- 
er quantity  of  coated  glafs  always  gave  a  deeper  note. 

"  Ditfercncts  in  the  degree  oj  a  charge  in  the  fame 
jar  made  little  or  no  dillcrruce  in  the  tone  of  the  cx- 
plolion :  if  any,  a  higher  charge  gave  rather  a  deeper 
note." 

Thcfc  experiments  fliow  us  howniuch  the  gravity  or 
acuttiicf!;  of  founds  depend  on  the  quantity  of  air  put 
in  agitation  by  the  founding  body.  We  know  that  the 
noife  of  the  eleclric  exploiiou  arifcs  from  the  rcturu 
of  the  air  into  the  vacuum  produced  by  the  eleilric 
rialh.  The  larger  the  vacuum,  the  deeper  was  the 
note  :  for  the  fame  rcafon,  tlic  dilcharge  of  a  niuflcet 
produces  a  more  acute  note  than  thatof  a  cannon  ;  and 
thunder  is  deeper  than  cither. 

iJcrulcs  this,  however,  other  circumllanccs  concur 
to  produce  ditierent  degrees  of  gravity  or  acutenefs  ia 
fouiids.  The  found  ofa  tal)lc  flruck  upon  with  a  piece 
of  w  ood,  will  not  be  the  fame  with  that  produced  from 
a  plate  of  iron  llruck  by  \\.\z  fame  piece  of  v,-ood,  even 
it  the  blows  thould  be  exaflly  equal,  and  the  iron  per- 
fccliy  kept  from  vibrating — Here  thefoundsare gene- 
rally faid  to  differ  in  their  degrees  of  acutenefs,  accord- 
ing to  the  fpecitic  gravities  or  denfitiesof  the  fubflan- 
ces  which  emit  tliem.  Thus  gold,  which  is  the  inoll 
denfe  of  all  met.iK,  returns  a  much  graver  found  than 
fdver ;  and  metalline  wires, which  are  more  dcnfe  than 
therms,  return  a  proponionably  greater  found. — But 
neither  does  this  appear  to  be  a  general  rule  in  which 
we  can  put  cimfidence.  Bell-metal  is  denfer  than  cop- 
per, but  it  by  no  means  appears  to  yield  a  graver  found; 
on  the  contrary,  it  ftems  very  probable,  that  copper 
will  give  a  graver  found  than  bell-metal,  if  both  are 
flruck  upon  in  their  non-claltic  (late  ;  and  we  can  by 
no  means  think  that  a  bell  of  pure  tin,  the  leall  denle 
of  all  the  metals,  will,  give  a  more  acute  found  than 
one  of  bcll-mttal,  which  is  greatly  more  dcnfe. — In 
f  jjne  bodies  iiarducfs  leems  to  have  a  confiderable  cf- 
fccl.  Gl.ifs,  which  is  confiderably  harder  than  any 
r.;etal,  gives  a  more  acute  found  ;  bcll-meial  is  harder 
than  gold,  lead,  or  tin;  and  therefore  founds  much 
more  acutely  ;  though  how  far  this  holds  with  regard 
to  Jifterent  fubilauces,  there  are  not  a  fufiiciem  num- 
ber of  e;-Lpcriments  for  us  to  judge. 

In  bodies  raullcally  ehiftic,  the  whole  fubflance  vi- 
brates witlithe  llighteil  fhroke,  and  therefore  they  al- 
ways give  the  fame  note  whether  they  arc  flruck  with 
a  large  or  with  a  fmall  inllrament ;  fo  that  llriking  a 
part  of  the  furface  of  any  body  mufically  elalli:  is  c- 
qvivalcnt,  in  it,  to  llriking  the  whole  furface  ofa  noa- 
claftic  one.  If  the  whole  furface  ofa  tabic  was  (Iruck 
with  another  table,  the  note  produced  would  be  neither 
more  or  lefs  acute  whatever  force  was  employed  ;  be- 
caufe  the  whole  furface  would  then  yield  a  found,  and 
no  force  could  increafc  the  furface  :  the  found  would 
indeed  be  louder  in  proportion  to  the  force  employed, 
b'.t  the  gravity  would  reir.ain  the  fame.  In  like  man- 
ner, when  a  bell,  ormudcal  firing,  is  llruck,  the  whole 
fubflance  vibratcs,anda  greater  Aroke  cannot  increafc 
the  fubllancc. — Hence  we  lee  the  fallacy  of  v/hat  is 
fdd  concerning  tlie  Pythagorean  anvils.  An  anvil  is 
a  body  niulically  elaftic,  and  no  difference  in  the  tone 

can 


Chap.  I.  A     C     O     U 

Of  Muficitl  can  be  perceived  whether  it  is  itruck  with  a  large,  or 
bouiidi.     wiili  a  fjiiall  hammer ;  becaiifc  cither  of  them  arc  fuf- 

*■  v^^-^  liciciit  to  make  the  whole  fubllaricc  vibrate,  provided 
nothing  but  the  anvil  is  llruck  upon  :  fmiths,  however, 
do  dot  llrikc  their  anvils,  but  red-hod  iron  laid  upon 
their  anvils  ;  anil  thus  the  vibrations  of  the  anvil  arc 
flopped,  fo  that  it  becomes  a  uon-claftic  boJy,  and  tjxc 
differences  ottonc  in  the  Urokes  otditlercni  hanuDcrs 
proceed  only  from  the  furlace  of  the  large  hammers 
covering  tiic  whole  furfacc  of  the  iron,  or  at  leall  a 
greater  part  of  it  than  the  fmall  ones.  If  the  fmall 
hammer  is  fufhcicnt  to  cover  the  whole  fiirface  of  the 
iron  as  well  as  the  large  one,  the  note  produced  wili  be 
die  (amc,  whether  the  large  or  the  fmall  hammer  is  ufcd. 
LaiUy,  The  argumtiit  for  the  preceding  theory, 
grounded  on  the  production  of  what  are  called  j?»/f. 
notes  on  the  violin,  is  built  on  a  falfe  foundation  ;  for 
the  bow  being  lightly  drawn  on  an  open  ftring,  pro- 
duces no  Jiuti-iiotis,  butonly  the  harmonies  of  the  note 
to  which  the  firing  is  tuned.  The  fiute-nous  arc  pro- 
duced by  a  particular  motion  of  the  bow,  quick  and 
near  tlic  bridge,  and  by  fingering  very  gently.  By 
tins  management,  the  fame  founds  are  produced,  tho' 
at  certain  intervals  only,as  if  the  vibrations  were  tranf- 
ferrcd  to  the  fpace  between  the  end  of  the  linger-  board 
and  the  finger,  inftead  of  that  bctu  een  the  finger  and 
the  bridge.  Why  this  fmall  part  of  the  firing  ihouUl 
vibrate  in  fiich  a  cafe,  and  not  that  which  is  under  the 
immediate  at^tion  of  the  bow,  wc  mufl  own  ourfclves 
ignorant :  nor  dare  we  afhrm  that  the  vibrations  real- 
ly are  transferred  in  thismanner,  only  the  fame  founds 
arc  produced  as  if  they  were. 

Though  thcfe  objcdions  fccm  fufricicntly  to  over- 
turn the  foregoing  theory,  with  regard  to  acute  founds 
being  the  cffcds  of  weak  flrokes,  and  grave  ones  of 
flronger  inipulfes,  wc  cannot  admit  that  longer  or 
ihortcr  vibrations  arc  the  occalion  of  gravity  or  a- 
cutcncfs  in  found.  A  tnufical found,  howeverkngth- 
eued,  cither  by  firing  or  bell,  is  only  a  repetition  of  a 
fingle  one,  wliofe  duration  by  itfelf  is  but  for  a  mo- 
raent,  am!  is  therefore  termed  inafpretiable,  like  the 
fmack  of  a  whip,  or  the  explofion  of  an  eleclrical  bat- 
tery. The  continuation  of  the  found  is  nothing  more 
than  a  repetition  of  this  inftantaneous  inappretiable 
noife  after  the  mauuerofan  echo,  and  it  is  only  this 
echo  that  makes  the  found  agreeable.  Korthis  rcafon, 
mufic  is  much  more  agreeable  when  played  in  a  large 
hall  where  the  found  is  reverberated,  than  in  a  fmall 
room  where  there  is  no  fuch  revciberation.  for  the 
fame  realbn,  the  found  of  a  firing  is  more  agreeable 
when  put  on  a  hollow  violin  than  when  fattened  to 
a  plain  board,  &c.  —  In  the  found  of  a  bell,  we  cannot 
avoid  obferving  this  echo  very  diftinicly.  The  found 
appears  to  be  made  upof  diflincl  pulfes,  or  repetitions 
of  the  fame  note  produced  by  the  flroke  of  tlic  hammer. 
It  can  by  no  means  be  allowed,  that  the  note  would  be 
more  acute  thougli  thcfe  pulfes  were  to  fuccccd  one 
another  more  rapidly  ;  the  found  would  indeedbecomc 
more  fimple,  but  would  Hill  prefcrve  the  fame  tone. — 
In  nuificaJilrings  tliC  reverberations  arc  valtly  niorc 
quick  than  in  bells  ;  and  therefore  their  found  is  more 
uniform  or  fimplc,  and  confequently  more  agreeable 

'  Ste  Hur-  'han  that  of  bells.     In  mulical  glalles*,  the  vibrations 

KRics.         mull  be  inconceivably    quicker    than  in  any  bell,  or 
lliinged  iuflrumcni :  aaid  IiciKC  they  are  of  all  others 


85 


S     T     I     C     S. 

the  mofl  fimplc  and  the  moi! agreeable,  though  neither    Propijra 

the  molt  acnte  nor  the   loudefl As    far  as   wc  can     «'on  ^f 

judge,  quicknefs  of  vibration  contributes  to  the  uni-     SounH. 
formity,  or  fimplicity,  but  not  to  the  acutencfs,  nor  to  ^       "       ' 
the  loudiitis  of  a  mulical  note. 

It  may  here  be  objec:cd,  that  each  of  the  different 
pulfes,  of  which  we  obferve  the  found  of  a  bell  to  be 
compoled,  is  of  a  very  perceptible  length,  and  farfrom 
being  injiantancous  ;  fo  that  it  is  not  fair  to  infer  that 
the  foundof  abcUisonly  a  repetition  of  a  fingle  inftan- 
taneous (Irokc,  feeing  it  is  evidently  the  repetition  of 
a  lengthened  note — To  this  it  may  be  replied,  tliai 
the  inappretiable  found  which  is  produced  by  flriking 
a  bell  in  a  non-claflic  ftatc,  is  the  very  fame  which, 
being  lirfl  propagated  round  the  bell,  forms  one  of 
thcfe  lliort  pulfes  tjiat  is  afterwards  re-echoed  as  long 
as  the  vibrations  of  the  metal  continue,  and  it  is  im- 
poflible  that  the  quicknefs  of  repetition  of  any  found 
can  either  iucreafc  or  diminilh  its  gravity. 

Chap.  II.     Ofthepropagat'nnofSound.     Newtaii'i 
DoHiiiie  expjai/tid  U'td  vindicated. 

The  writers  on  found  have  been  betrayed  intothefc    Pr<.pae». 
difficulties  and  obfcurities,  by  rcjefting  the  47th  pro-     tion rf 
polition,  B.  ii.  of  Newton,  as  inconclufivc  reafoniug.     found* 
Of  this  propofition,  however,  the  ingenious  Mr  Young 
of  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  has  lately  given  a  clear, 
explanatory,  and  able  defence.  He  candidly  owns  that 
the  demonltration  is  obfcurcly  Itated,  and  takes  the  li- 
berty of  varying,  in  fome  degree,  from  the  method  of 
Newton. 

"  I.  The  parts  of  all  founding  Ijodies,  (heobferves), 
vibrate  according  to  the  law  of  a  cycloidal  pendulum  : 
for  they  may  be  conlidcred  as  compofcd  of  an  indefi- 
nite number  ofelaftic  fibres;  but  thefe  fibres  vibrate 
according  to  that  law.     Vide  Heijfyam,  p.  270. 

"  2.  Sounding  bodies  propagate  their  motions  on  all 
i'idts  in  diieffun;,  by  fucceffive  condenfations  and  rarc- 
failions,  and  fuccelhvc  goings  forward  and  rcturnings 
backward  of  the  particles,   i  iJc  prop.j^^.B.i.  AcivtoM. 

"  ;.  The  pulfes  arc  thofe  parts  of  the  air  which  vi- 
brate backwards  and  forwards  ;  and  which,  by  going 
forward,  ftrikc  (/>,v.yi/;./)  againilobllacles.  The  lati- 
tude of  pulfe  is  the  rectilineal  fpace  through  which  the 
motion  of  the  air  is  propagated  during  one  vibration. 
of  the  founding  body. 

"  All  pulfes  move  equally  fall.  This  is  proved  by 
experiment  ;  and  it  is  fouad  that  they  dcfcribe  1070 
I'aris  feet,  or  1 142  London  feet  in  a  fccond,  whether 
the  found  b=  loud  or  low,  giave  or  acute. 

"  ?.  Prob.  To  determine  the  latitude  of  a  pulfc. 
Divide  the  fpace  which  the  pulfc  defcribes  in  a  given 
time  (4)  by  the  number  of  vibrations  performed  in  the 
fame  time  by  the  founding  body,  (cor.  1.  prop.  24. 
Simtl's  Hfri/foniij),  the  quotient  is  the  latitude. 

"  M.  Sauveur,  by  fome  experiments  on  organ-pipes, 
found  that  a  body,  which  gives  the  graved  harmonic 
found,  vibrates  12  times  and  a  halt  in  a  fccond,  and 
that  the  Ihrillcft  founding  body  vibrates  51.100  times 
in  a  fccond.  .^t  a  medium,  let  us  take  the  body  which 
gives  what  S.iuveur  calls  \\\%  fixed  found  :  it  performs 
100  vibrations  in  a  fecond,  and  in  the  fame  time  the 
pulfes  dcfonbc  1070  Harifian  feet ;  therefore  the  fpace 
dcfcribed  by  liu  pulfes  whilll  the  bwly  vibrates  once. 


86 


ACOUSTICS 


I'ropara- 
tioii  nf 
Souii  1. 


I'hte  I. 
fig-  7- 


thai  is,  the  l:iLiuiic  oi-  L.ttwal  of  the  jiilfe,  v.lli  Le 
10.7  fcft. 

"  6.  Prob.  To  find  the  l'rojx>rtion  wliiih  the 
grcattll  I'/scc,  through  which  the  particles  of  the  air 
vibrate,  bears  to  tlic  raJius  of  a  circle,  whofc  perime- 
ter is  equal  to  the  latitude  of  the  piilfc. 

"  During  the  firll  half  of  the  progrcfs  of  the  claftic 
fibre,  or  founding  body,  it  is  continually  getting  near- 
er to  the  next  particle  ;  and  during  the  latter  half  of 
its  progrefs,  that  particle  is  getting  farther  from  the 
fbrc,  and  thel'c  portions  of  time  arc  equal  [Hcljhum): 
therefore  we  may  conclude,  that  at  the  end  of  the  pro- 
grefs of  the  fibre,  tlic  firft  particle  of  air  will  be  near- 
ly as  far  dillant  from  the  tibre  as  when  it  began  to 
move  ;  and  in  the  fame  manner  we  may  infer,  that  all 
the  particles  vibrate  through  fpaces  nearly  equal  to 
that  run  over  by  the  fibre. 

"  Now,  M.  Sauveur  { Acad.  Science,  an.  1 700,  />.  1 41 ) 
lias  found  by  experiment,  that  the  middle  point  of  a 
chord  which  produces  h'K  fixed J'otiiiJ,  and  whofc  dia- 
meter is  ^th  of  a  line,  runs  over  in  its  fmallcfl  fcniible 
vibrations  -,',th  of  a  line,  and  in  its  greateft  vibrations 
72  times  that  fpace  ;  that  is  72-1-, '^th  of  a  line,  or  4 
lines,  that  is,   ;d  of  an  inch. 

"The  latitude  of  the  pulfcs  of  this  fixed  found  is 
10.7  feet  (5);  and  llnce  the  circumference  of  a  circle  is 
to  its  radius  as  710  is  to  11  3,  the  greateft  fpace  dcfcri- 
bed  by  the  particles  will  be  to  the  radius  of  a  circle, 
whofe  periphery  is  equal  to  the  latitude  of  the  pnlfe  as 
;d  of  an  inch  is  to  1.7029  feet,  or  20.434S  inches,  that 
is,  as  I  to  61.3044. 

"  If  the  length  of  the  ftringbeincrcafed  or  dimini  Hi- 
ed in  any  proportion,  crteris  paribus,  the  greateft 
fpace  dcfcribed  by  its  middle  point  will  vary  in  the 
fame  proportion.  For  the  iniicfting  force  is  to  the 
lending  force  as  the  diftance  of  the  ftring  from  the 
middle  point  of  vibration  to  half  the  length  of  the 
ftring  [fee  Ihlfham  and  Mar1in\  ;  ai:d  therefore  the 
int!c(5ting  and  tending  forces  being  given,  the  ftring 
will  vibrate  through  fpaces  proportional  to  its  length; 
but  the  latitude  of  the  pulfc  is  inverfely  as  the  number 
of  vibrations  performed  by  the  ftring  in  a  given  time, 
(5)  that  is,  direcHy  as  the  time  of  one  vibration,  or 
ilireiflly  as  the  length  of  the  ftring  {piop.  24.  cor.  7. 
Smith's  Harmonic))  ;  therefore  the  greateft  fpace 
thrcugh  w  hich  the  middle  point  of  the  ftring  vibrates, 
will  vary  in  the  direft  ratio  of  the  latitude  of  the  pulfe, 
or  of  the  radius  of  a  circle  whofe  circumference  is  e- 
qual  to  the  latitude,  that  is,  it  will  be  to  that  radius 
as  I  to  61.3044. 

"  7.  If  the  particles  of  the  aerial  pulfes,  during  any 
part  of  their  vibration,  be  fucceirivcly  agitated  accord- 
ing to  the  law  of  a  cycloidal  pendulum,  the  compara- 
tive elaftic  forces  arifing  from  their  mutual  aiflion,  by 
wb.ich  they  will  afterwards  be  agitated,  will  befuchas 
will  caufc  the  panicles  to  continue  that  motion,  accor- 
ding to  the  fame  law,  to  the  end  of  their  vibration. 

"  Let  AB,  BC,  CD,  &c.  denote  the  equal  dif- 
tanccs  of  the  fuccc'rive  pnlfes  ;  ABC  the  direflion 
of  the  motion  of  the  pulfes  propagated  from  A  to- 
wards B  ;  E,  F,  G,  three  phyfical  points  of  the 
quiefcent  medium,  fituared  in  the  right  line  AC  at  c- 
qual  diftanres  from  each  otlier  ;  Ke,  Yf,  (jg  the  very 
fmall  equal  fpaces  through  whi  h  thcfe  particles  vi- 
b.a:e  ;  •,<?,>  any  intermediate  places  of  thcfe  points. 


Chap.  II. 

Draw  the  right  line  PS  equ.il  to  Ei-,  bifeft  it  in  O,  and    I'roi.sga- 
froni  tjie  centre  O  with  the  radius  O  P  dcferibe  the      tim  of 
circle  SIP/'.     Let  the  whole  time  of  the  vibration  of     Sound, 
a  particle  and  its  parts  be  denoted  by  the  circuinfcr- 
reuce  of  this  circle  and  its  proportional  parts.     And 
fiiice  the  particles  are  fuppofed  to  be  at  lirft  agi;ated 
according  to  the  law  of  a  eycloiJal  pendulum,  if  at  any 
time  PU,  or  PHS/',  the  pcrpcndici.hr  HL  or  /•/,  be  let 
fall  on  PS,  and  if  tf  Le  taken  equal  to  PL  orlV,  the 
particle  E  Ihall  be  found  ini.     Thus  will  tlie  particle 
E  perform  its  vibrations  according  to  the  law  of  a  cy- 
cloidal pendulum.     Prop.  52.  B.  I.  Frincipia. 

"  Let  us  fuppofc  now,  tl.at  the  particles  have  been 
fuccclfi\cly  agitated,  according  to  this  law,  for  a  cer- 
tain time,  by  any  caufc  whatfoever,  and  let  us  examine 
what  will  be  the  comparative  elaftic  forces  arillngfrom 
their  mutual  adion,  by  w  hich  they  will  afterwards  con- 
tinue to  be  agitated. 

"  In  ihe  circumference  PITS/i  take  the  equal  arches 
HI,  IK,  in  the  fame  ratio  to  the  whole  circumference 
which  the  equal  right  lines  tV,  t'G  have  to  BC  the 
whole  interval  of  the  pulfes  ;  and  let  fall  the  per- 
pendiculars HL,  IM,  KN.  Since  the  points  E,  F,  G 
are  fuccefllvely  agitated  in  the  fame  manner,  and  per- 
form their  entire  vibrations  of  progrefs  and  rcgrefs 
while  the  pulfe  is  propagated  from  B  to  C,  if  PH  be 
the  time  fnnn  the  beginning  of  the  motion  of  E,  PI 
will  be  the  time  from  the  beginning  of  the  motion  of 
F,  and  PK  the  time  from  the  beginning  of  the  motion 
of  G  ;  and  therefore  Et,  ¥<f,  Gy  will  be  refpecfivcly 
equal  to  PL,  PM,  PNin  the  progrefs  of  the  particles. 
Whence  (<;>  or  EF-J-P'^ — E,  is  equal  to  EF — LM.  But 
i^  is  the  expanfion  of  KF  in  the  placcfc,  and  therefore 
this  expanlion  is  to  its  mean  expanfion  as  EF — LM  to 
EF.  But  LM  is  to  IH  as  IM  is  to  OP,  and  III  is  to 
EF  as  the  circumference  PIISAis  to  BC  ;  that  is,  as 
OP  is  to  V,  if  V  be  the  radius  of  a  circle  whofe  cir- 
cumference is  BC  ;  therefore,  ex  o'qiio,  LM  is  to 
EF  as  IM  is  to  V ;  and  therefore  the  expanfion  of  EF 
in  the  place  Kf  is  to  its  mean  expanfion  as  V — IM  is 
to  V;  and  the  elaftic  force  exifting  between  the  phy- 
fical points  E  and  F  is  to  the  mean  elaftic  force  as 

is  to  —  (Cotes  Pneum  Led.  g.)   By   the  fame 

V_1M         V  y  ■>      Jt 

arguments,  the  elaftic  force  exifting  between  the  phy- 
fical points  F  and  G  is  to  the  mean  elaftic  force  as 

is  to   — ;  and  the  difference  between  thefe 

V— KN  V 

forces  is  to  the  mean  elaftic  force  as 
IM— KN 

is  to  : 


V— V.IM— V 
IM— KN 


.KN-t-lM.KN 


that   is,  as 


is  to   —  ;  or  as  IM — KN  is  to  V ; 


if  on- 


ly (upon  account  of  the  very  narrow  limits  of  the  vi- 
bration) we  fuppofc  IM  and  KN  to  be  indefinitely  Icfs 
than  V.  Wherefore,  fince  Vis  given,  the  difference 
of  the  forces  is  as  IM—KN,  or  as  HL — IM  (becaufe 
KH  is  bifeded  in  I)  ,  that  is  (becaufe  HL — IM  is 
to  IH  as  OM  is  to  OI  or  OP,  and  IH  and  OP  arc 
given  quantities)  as  OM  ;  that  is,  if  lybe  bifeftcdin. 
n  as  n<?. 

"  In  the  fame  manner  it  may  be  fiiown,  that  if  PHSA 
be  the  rime  from  the  beginning  of  the  motion  of  E, 
PHS/  will  be  the  time  from  the  beginning  of  the  mo- 
tion of  F,  and  PHS^  the  time  from  the  beginning  of 

f  (be 


II. 


ACOUSTICS. 


87 


the  motion  of  G  ;  and  that  the  expan/ion  of  EF  in 
the  j>lacc  t^  is  to  its  mean  cxpanfioii  as  EK+K^ — E<, 
or  as  EV+J>»  is  to  EF,  or  as  \'+/>/  is  to  V  in  its  re- 
grcfs  ;  and  its  elailic  force  to  the  mean  clallic  force  as 

'       i»  to — ;  and  that  the  diltcrence  of  the  eladic 
\+/>t  V 

forces  exifling  between  E  and  F,  and  between  V  and 
G  is  to  the  mean  elaflic  force  as  i/j — /;/i  is  to  V  ;  that 
is,  directly  as  n^. 

"  Uut  this  diifcrcncc  of  the  elaftic  forces, cxifting  be- 
tween L  and  F,  and  between  F  and  G,  ib  the  com- 
parative clalHc  force  by  which  the  phylical  point  »  is 
agitated  :  and  therefore  the  comparative  accelerating 
force,  by  which  every  phylical  point  in  the  medium 
will  continue  to  be  agitated  both  in  progress  and  re- 
grcfs,  will  be  directly  as  its  diflance  from  the  middle 
point  of  its  vibration  ;  and  cunfequcntly,  will  be  fucli 
as  will  caufc  the  particles  to  continue  their  motion,  un- 
diilurbcd,  according  to  the  law  ot  a  cycloidal  pen- 
dulum.    Pro/i.  38.  7.  I.  Ncwtoi. 

"  Newton  rejects  the  quantity  +  Vxl  M+KN-j-IMx 
KN  on  fuppolition  that  IM  and  KN  arc  indefinitely 
lefs  than  V.  Now,  although  this  may  be  a  reafonable 
hypothelis,  yet,  that  this  quantity  m;iy  be  fafely  re- 
jeclcd,  will,  I  think,  appear  in  a  more  farisfac^ory 
manner  from  the  following  conliderations  derived  from 
experiment :  PS,  in  its  greateft  polliblc  iUtc,  is  to  V 
as  I  is  to  61. 3044  (6)  ;  and  therefore  IM  or  KN,  in 
its  greateft  pofllble  flate,  (that  is,  when  the  vibrations 
of  the  body  are  as  great  as  polFible,  and  the  particle  in 
the  middle  point  of  its  vibration)  is  to  V  as  one  is  to 
122.6.  Hence  'V'^'  =  (5030.76, — VxlM+KN=:24J.2 
and  IMxKN^i  ;  therefore  V-  is  to  V— Vxli\t+ 
KN-)-IMxKN  as  15.03076  is  to  14.7S656  ;  that  is, 
as  61  is  to  60  nearly. 

"  Hence  it  appears,  that  the  greateft;  pofTible  error 
in  the  accelerating  force,  in  the  middle  point,  is  the 
^S  ft  part  of  the  whole.  In  other  points  it  is  much 
lefs  ;  and  in  the  extreme  points  the  error  entirely  va- 
nifhes. 

"  We  fliould  alfo  obfcrve,  that  the  ordinary  founds 
we  hear  are  not  produced  by  the  greateft  polfible  vi- 
bration of  which  the  founding  body  is  capable  ;  and 
that  in  general  IM  and  KN  are  nearly  cvancfcent  with 
rcfpeft  to  V.  And  very  probably  the  difagrceable  fen- 
fat  ions  we  feel  in  very  loud  founds,  arife  not  only  from 
IM  or  KN  bearing  a  fenfible  proportion  to  V,  by  which 
means  the  cycloidal  law  of  the  pulfcs  may  be  in  fome 
meafure  diOurbed,  but  alfo  from  the  very  law  of  the 
motion  of  the  founding  body  itfclf  being  difturbcd. 
For,  the  proof  of  this  law's  being  obferved  by  an  e- 
laftic  fibre  is  founded  on  the  hypothelis  that  the  fpace, 
through  which  it  vibrates,  is  indcrliiitcly  little  with 
refptS  to  the  length  of  the  ftring.  See  S/>ulh's  Har- 
monics, p.  21.'!,   H.ijhav:,  f.  270. 

"  8.  If  a  particle  of  the  medium  be  agita'ed,  ac- 
cording to  the  law  of  a  cycloidal  pendulum,  the  com- 
parative elaftir  force,  acting  on  the  iiijaccnt  particle, 
from  the  inftaiit  in  which  it  begins  to  move,  will  be 
fuch  as  will  caufc  it  to  continue  its  motion  according 
to  the  fame  law. 

"  For  let  us  fuppofe,  that  three  particles  of  the  me- 
dium had  continued  to  move  for  times  denoted  by  the 
arches  PK,  PI,  PH,  the  comparative  elaftic  foroc, 

3 


I'fopaga- 
tiou  of 
SouD>j>. 


afting  on  the  fccond  during  the  time  of  Its  motion, 
would  have  been  denoted  by  HL — IM,  that  is,  would 
have  been  directly  at  MO  (7).  And  if  this  time  be 
diminifhed  till  I  becomes  coincident  w  ith  P,  that  is,  if 
you  take  the  panicles  in  that  itatc  when  the  fccond  is 
juft  beginning  to  move,  and  before  the  third  particle 
has  yet  been  fct  in  motion  ;  then  the  point  M  will  fall 
on  P,  and  MO  become  PO  ;  that  is,  the  comparative 
claftic  force  of  the  fecond  particle,  at  the  i.Ulant  in 
which  it  begins  to  move,  will  be  the  force  with 
wliich  it  is  agitated  in  any  other  moment  of  time,  be- 
fore the  fubfequcnt  particle  has  yet  been  fet  in  motion, 
directly  as  its  diftance  from  the  middle  point  of  vibra- 
tion. Now  this  comparative  elaftic  force,  with  which 
the  fccond  particle  is  agitated  in  the  very  moment  in 
which  it  begins  to  move,  arifes  from  the  preceding 
particle's  approaching  it  according  to  the  law  of  apcu- 
duliim  ;  and  therefore,  if  the  preceding  particle  ap- 
proaches it  in  this  manner,  the  force  by  which  it  will 
be  agitated,  in*  the  very  moment  it  begins  to  move, 
will  be  exactly  fuch  as  (honlJ  take  plscc  in  order  to 
move  it  according  to  the  law  of  a  pendulum.  It  there- 
fore fctsout  according  to  that  law,  and  confequently 
the  fubfcqaent  eliftic  forces,  generated  in  every  fuc- 
celFive  moment,  will  alfo  continue  to  be  of  the  juft 
magnitude  which  thould  take  place,  in  order  to  pro- 
duce fuch  a  motion. 

"  9.  The  pulfes  of  the  air  are  propagated  from 
founding  bodies,  according  to  the  law  of  a  cycloidal 
pendulum.  The  point  E  of  any  elaftic  fibre  pro- pi„j  i 
ducing  a  found,  may  be  confidered  as  a  particle  of  fig.  ;. 
air  vibrating  according  to  the  law  of  a  pendulum  (i). 
This  point  £  will  therefore  move  according  to  this 
law  for  a  certain  lime,  denoted  by  the  arch  IH,  before 
the  fecond  particle  begins  to  move  ;  for  found  is  pro- 
pagated in  time  through  the  fucccflive  particles  of  air 
(4).  Now  from  that  inftant,  the  comparative  claftic 
force  which  agitates  F,  is  (8)  directly  as  its  diitancc 
from  the  middle  point  of  vibration.  F  therefore  fcts 
out  with  a  motion  according  to  the  law  of  a  pendulum  : 
and  therefore  the  comparative  elaftic  force  by  which  it 
will  be  agitated  until  G  begins  to  move,  will  continue 
that  law  (8).  Confequently  F  will  approach  G  in  the 
fame  manner  as  E  approached  F,  and  the  comparative 
elailic  force  of  G,  from  the  inllant  in  which  it  begins 
to  move,  will  be  dircdtly  as  its  distance  from  the  middle 
point  of  vibration  ;  and  foon  in  fuccellion:  Therefore 
all  the  particles  of  air  in  the  p'llfes  fuccelFively  fct  out 
from  their  proper  places  according  to  the  law  of  a  pen- 
dulum, and  therefore  (7)  will  finilh  their  entire  vi- 
brations according  to  the  fame  law. 

"  Cor.  I.  The  number  of  p\ilfes  propagated  is  the 
fame  with  the  number  of  vibrations  of  the  tremulous 
body,  nor  is  it  multiplied  in  their  progrefs  :  btcaufe 
the  little  phylical  line  \y,  l^fg.  7I  as  foon  as  it  returns 
to  its  proper  place,  will  there  quiVfcc  ;  for  its  velocity, 
tvhich  is  denoted  by  the  line  IM,  then  vanifhes,  and  its 
denfity  becomes  the  fame  with  that  of  the  ambient  me- 
dium. This  line,  therefore,  will  no  longer  move,  un- 
lefs  it  be  again  driven  forwards  by  the  irapulfc  of  the 
founding  body,  or  of  the  pulfes  propagated  from  it. 

'•  Cor.  2.  In  the  extreme  points  of  the  little  fpace 
through  w'hich  the  particle  vibrates,  the  expanlion  of 
the  air  is  in  its  natural  ftatc  ;  for  the  expanlion  of  the 

phyfical  Line  is  to  its  natural  expanlion  as  V-i-IMis 

10 


88 


A     C     O     U 


T     I     C 


.Sound. 


Propaj^-  to  V  ;  but  IM  is  dien  equal  tonotliing.  In  the  miJiUc 
tionof  point  otthe  progrcis  llie  condcnl'aiion  isgrcatcft  ;  tor 
IM  is  then  greatcft  ;  and  conl'cqiicntly  tiic  cxpanlion 
'  V — IM  IcalL  In  the  middle  of  the  regrcfs,  the  rare- 
fafliim  is  grcatell  ;  for  ir/i,  and  confcqnently  V+im, 
is  then  greatcft. 

"  lo.  To  rind  the  velocity  of  the  pulfes,  the  den- 
sity and  elaftic  force  of  the  medium  being  given. 

"  This  is  the  49th  prop.  B.  2.  Newton,  in  which 
he  Ihows,  that  whilil  a  pendulum,  whole  length  is  equal 
to  the  height  of  the  homogeneous  atmofphere,  vibrates 
once  forward  and  backwards,  the  pulfes  will  defcribe 
a  fpace  equal  to  the  periphery  of  a  circle  defcribed 
with  tliat  altitude  as  its  radius. 

"Cor.  I.  He  thence  fliows,  that  the  velocity  of  the 
pulfes  is  equal  to  that  which  a  heavy  body  would  ac- 
quire in  falling  down  half  the  altitude  of  that  homoge- 
neous atmofphere  ;  and  therefore,  that  all  pulfes  move 
equally  faft,  whatever  be  the  magnitude  of  t^S,  or  the 
time  of  its  being  defcribed  ;  that  is,  whether  the  tone 
be  loud  or  low,  grave  or  acute.     See  Hales  dc  Sonii, 

§  49- 

"Cor.  2.  And  alfo,  that  the  velocity  of  the  pulfes 

is  in  a  ratio  compounded  of  the  dircd  fubduplicate  ra- 
tio of  the  elaftic  force  of  the  medium,  and  the  inverfe 
fubduplicate  of  its  denfity.  Hence  founds  move  fome- 
what  falter  in  fummerthan  in  winter.  SccBa/ij  de 
Sonis,  p.  141. 

"11.  The  ftrength  of  a  tone  is  as  the  moment  of 
the  particles  of  air.  The  moment  of  thcl'c  particles, 
(the  medium  being  given)  is  as  their  velocity  ;  and  the 
velocity  of  thcfc  pvrticles  is  as  the  velocity  of  the  firing 
which  fets  them  in  motion  (9).  The  velocities  of  two 
ditfertnt  firings  are  equal  when  the  fpaccs  whicli  they 
dcfcribc  in  their  vibrations  are  to  each  other  as  the 
timesofthefe  vibrations:  therefore,  two  dilicrent  tones 
are  of  equal  ftrength,  when  thefpaccs,  through  whicli 
the  ftriiigs producing  them  vibrate,  are  directly  as  their 
vibration. 

"  12.  Let  the  ftrength  of  the  tones  of  the  two 
firings  AB,  CD,  which  differ  in  tenfiou  only  (fig.  I, 
2.)  be  equal.  Oiiere  the  ratio  of  the  inflccling  forces 
F  and  /!  From  the  hypothelis  of  the  equality  of  the 
ftrength  of  the  tones,  it  follows  (11),  that  the  fpace 
GE  muft  be  to  the  fpace  HF  as  fi  to  F  i,,  {^Smith's 
Han/i.  Prop.  24.  C'er.  4.)  Now  the  forces  inflecting 
AB,  CD  through  the  equal  fpaccs  GE,  HP  are  to 
eacli  other  as  the  tending  forces,  that  is,  as  F  toyl 
{Malcolms  Trcatir-' 01:  Mufic,  p.  52.)  But  the  force 
inflei^ing  CD  through  HP  is  to  tlie  force  indectingit 
through  HF  as  HPorGEtoKF,  [ib.p.  47.)  that  is, 
by  the  hyp.  as  f'\,  to  F  ;.  Therefore, f.v  aguo,  the  forces 
infleiiing  AB  and  CD,  when  the  tones  are  equally 
ftroug,  are  to  each  other  as  F-f-/i  to  /+F  4 ,  or  as  F  4 
to/  ;.  That  is,  the  forces  neccllary  to  produce  tones 
of  equal  ftrength  in  variousftrings  which  differ  only  in 
tenlion,  are  to  each  other  in  the  fubduplicate  ratio  ot 
the  tending  forces,  that  iSjinverfely  as  the  time  of  one 
vibration,  or  directly  as  the  number  of  vibrations  per- 
formed in  a  given  time.  Thus,  if  CD  be  the  acute 
oftave  to  A  B,  its  tending  force  will  he  quadruple  that 
of  AB,  {Matcolm'i  Trtatife  on  Alr/fic,  p.  J?)  ;  and 
therefore  to  produce  tones  of  equal  jlrength  in  thefe 
firings,  the  force  impelling  CD  muft  be  doable  that 
iinpeillag  AB  :  aud  fo  in  other  cafes. 


Plate  III. 


"  Suppofc,  now,  that  the  firings  AB,  CD,  (fig,  2, 
3.)  ditlcr  in  length  only.  The  force  iiitltciiug  Afa 
through  GE  is  to  the  tending  force,  which  is  given,  as 
GE  to  AG  ;  and  this  tending  force  is  to  the  force 
inflecting  CD  through  the  fpace  HP  equal  to  GE,  as 
HD  to  HP.  Therefore,  ex  <ttjiio,  the  forces  inflefting 
AB  and  CD  through  the  equal  fpaces  GE  and  HP, 
arc  to  each  other  as  HD  to  AG,  or  as  CD  to  AB. 
But  the  force infleiiting  CD  through  IIP  is  to  the  force 
iuflcdiug  it  through  HF,  as  HP  or  GE  to  HF,  that 
is,  becaufe  ihcfe  (paces  arc  as  the  times  (11),  as  AB 
to  CD.  Therefore,  *.v  aqiio,  the  forces  inflecting  AB 
aud  CD,  when  the  tones  are  equally  ftrong,  are  to  each 
other  in  a  ratio  of  equality.  Hence  we  Ihould  fuppofe, 
that  in  this  cafe,  an  equal  number  of  equal  impulfes 
would  generate  equally  powerful  lonesin  thefe  firings. 
But  wc  are  to  obfei  ve,  that  the  longer  the  firing,  the 
greater,  cuterii pmibi/s,  is  the  fpace  through  wliich  a 
given  force  inflects  it  ( Makohii) ;  and  therefore  what- 
ever diminution  is  produced  in  the  fpaces  thro'  which 
the  firings  move  in  their  fuccelfive  vibrations,  arifing 
either  from  the  want  of  perfedl  elafiicity  in  the  firings 
or  from  the  refiftance  of  the  air,  this  diminution  w'ill 
bear  a  greater  proportion  to  the  lefs  fpace,  through 
which  the  fhorter  ftring  vibrates.  And  this  is  confirm- 
ed by  experience  ;  for  we  find  that  the  duration  of  the 
tone  and  motion  of  the  whole  ftring  exceeds  that  of  any 
of  its  fubordinate  parts.  Therefore,  after  a  given  in- 
terval of  time,  agreatcrquantity  of  motion  will  remain 
in  the  longer  firiiig  ;  and  confequently,  after  the  fuc- 
ccllive  equal  impulfes  have  been  made,  a  greater  degree 
of  motion  will  fiill  ftibfifi  in  it.  That  is,  a  given  num 
ber  of  equal  impulfes  being  made  on  various  Itrings  dif- 
fering in  length  only,  aftronger  found  will  be  produced 
in  that  which  is  the  longer." 

Chap.  III.  Of  the  Velocity,  8:c.  of  Sound.     Axiovts. 


Chap.  II. 


tiuD  of 
Sound. 

Plate  III. 


T4 


Experience  has  taught  us, that  found  iravelsat  about  Velocity  of 
the  rate  of  1 142  feet  in  a  fecoud,  or  near  i  %  miles  in  a  found. 
minute  ;  nor  do  any  obftacles  hinder  its  progrefs,  a con- 
tr-iiy  wind  only  a  fmall  matter  diminifliingits  velocity. 
The  method  of  calculating  its  progrcfs  is  ealily  made 
known.     When  a  gun  is  difcharged  at  a  diftance,  wc 
fee  the  fire  long  before  we  hear  the  found.   If  then  we 
know  the  diftance  of  the  place,  and  know  the  time  of        j, 
the  interval  between  our  firft  feeing  the  fire  and  tlien  it»  progreli 
hearing  the  report,  this  will  Ihow  us  exactly  the  time  calculated, 
the  found  has  been  travelling  to  us.     For  inftance,  if 
tiie  gun  is  difcharged  a  mile  off,  the  moment  the  flalh  is 
fcen,youtakeawatch  and  count  the  feconds  tillyou  hear 
the  found  ;  the  number  of  feconds  is  the  time  the  found 
lias  been  travelling  a  mile Again,  by  the  above  ax- 
iom, we  are  cnabKd  to  find  the  diliance  between  ob- 

ieets  that  would  be  otherwife  immeafurable.     For  ex-  ,,.„ 

X       r  f  <-        1       ,1     1      r  •       1         •    1  iJiilancci 

ample,  luppofe  you  lee  the  nalh  ot  a  gun  lu  the  night  at  calculated 

fea,  and  tell  feven  feconds  before  you  hear  the  report,  by  means 

it  follows  therefore,  that  the  diftance  is  feven  times  offouiid. 

1142  feet,  that  is,   24  yards  more  than  a  mile  and  a 

half.     In  like  manner,  if  you  obferve  the  number  of 

feconds  between  the  lightning  and  the  rejfort  of  the 

thunder,  you  know  the  diftance  of  the  cloud  from 

whence  it  proceeds.  j. 

Derham  has  proved  by  experience,  that  all  founds  All  founds 

whatever  travel  at  the  fame  rate.     The  found  of  a  gun,  travclatthe 

and  fame  rate. 


Chap.  IV. 


ACOUSTICS. 


Reverbe- 
rated 
Suuadi. 


i8 


24 
Whifper- 
ing  Galle- 
ry, riatc  I 
fig- 3 


Speaking- 
trumpet, 
lig.4. 


aad  the  ftriklngof  a  hammer, arc  equally  fwifi  in  [heir 
motions  :  tiie  lol'tell  wifpcr  flics  as  fwiitly,  as  far  as  it 
goes,  as  the  loudclt  thunder. 

To  thcfe  axioms  we  may  add  the  following. 

Smooth  and  clear  founds  proceed  from  bodies  that 
are  homogeneous,  and  of  an  uniform  figure  ;  and  hurlh 
or  obtufc  founds,  from  fuch  as  arc  of  a  mixed  matter 
and  irregular  figure. 

The  velocity  of  found  is  to  that  of  a  briflc  wind  as 
•fifty  to  one. 

The  ftrength  of  founds  is  greateft  in  cold  anddenfc 
air,  and  lead  in  that  which  is  warm  and  rarcticd. 

Every  point  agai  nil  which  thcpuH'cs  of  found  Itrikc, 
become  a  centre  from  which  a  new  fcries  of  pulfcs 
are  propagated  in  every  direction. 

Sound  delcribcs  equal  fpaccs  in  equal  limes. 

Chap.  IV.  Of  Reverberated  Sounds. 

Sound,  like  light,  after  it  has  been  rcfleded  from 
feveral  places  may  be  collcdcd  in  one  point,  as  into  a 
focus  ;  and  it  will  be  there  more  audible  titan  in  any 
other  part,  even  than  at  the  place  from  whence  it  pro- 
ceeded. On  this  principle  it  is  that  a  wifpcring  gal- 
lery is  conftruftcd. 

The  form  of  this  gallery  mull  be  that  of  a  concave 
hemifphcre  (e),  as  ABC  ;  and  if  alow  founder  vvhifper 
be  uttered  at  A,  the  vibrations  expanding  thcnifelves 
■  every  way  will  impinge  on  the  points  HDD,  Sec.  and 
from  thence  be  rcrie tted  to  EEE,  and  from  thence  to 
the  points  K  and  G,  till  at  lall  they  ail  meet  in  C, 
where,  as  we  have  faid,  the  (ound  will  be  the  mo/t 
diflindly  heard. 

The  augmentation  of  found  by  means  of  fpeaking- 
trumpets,isufuallyjlliillraicd  in  the  following  nianner: 
Let  ABC  be  the  tube,  IJD  the  axis,  and  h  tlic  mouth- 
piece for  conveying  the  voice  to  the  tube.  Then  it  is 
evident,  when  aperlon  fpeaks  at  B  in  the  irunipct,  the 
whole  forccof  his  voire  is  fpcnt  upon  the  air  contained 
in  the  tube,  which  will  be  agi'.ated  through  the  whole 
length  of  the  tube  ;  and,  by  various  reflexions  from  the 
fide  of  the  tube  to  the  axis,  the  air  along  the  middle 
part  of  the  tube  will  be  greatly  contlenfed,  and  its?;/o- 
ri.  ;7/to;/;proportionably  incrcaicd,  fo  th.U  when  it  cunics 
to  agitate  the  air  at  the  orilice  of  the  tube  AC,  its 
force  will  be  as  much  greater  than  wh:itit  would  have 
becnwithout  the  tube,  as  the  furface  of  aiphcrc,wliofe 
radius  is  equal  totht  length  of  the  tube,  isi!,rcatcr(han 
the  furface  of  the  fcgnicntor  fuch  a  fphcrc  whofebafe 
is  the  orifice  of  tiic  tube.  Kor  a  pcrfon  fpcakiug  at  B, 
without  the  tube,  will  have  the  force  of  his  voice  fpcnt 
in  exciting  concentric  f'lipcrfiticsof  air  all  around  the 
point  B  ;  and  uhcn  ihofc  lupirticies  or  pulfcs  of  airare 
diffuftd  as  far  as  L)  every  way,  it  is  plain  the  force  of 
the  voice  will  there  be  ditTuled  through  the  whole  fu- 
perficicsofafphcre  whole  radinsis  BD;  butin  the  trum- 
pet it  will  be  fi)  confined,  thai  at  its  exit  it  will  be  dif- 
fufed  througii  lb  much  of  that  fpherical  furface  of  air 
as  corrcfpouds  to  ihc  orifice  of  the  tube.  But  fince  the 
force  is  given,  its  inienfity  will  be  always  invorlcly  as 
the  number  of  particles  it  has  to  move  ;  and  therefore 
Vol.  I. 


in  tlie  tube  it  will  be  to  that  without,  as  the  fuperficies 
of  fuchafpherc  tothe  jtraof  the  large  end  of  the  tube 
nearly. 

But  it  is  obvious,  Mr  Young  obferves,  that  the  con- 
finement of  the  voice  can  have  littleeffeiit  in  increaling 
the  ftrength  of  the  found,  as  this  ftrength  dependson 
the  velocity  with  which  the  particles  move.  Were  this 
reafoning  conclulive,  the  voice  fhould  ilfue  through  the 
fmallell  pofTiblc  orihcc  ;  cylindrical  tubes  would  be  pre- 
ferable to  any  that  increafed  in  diameter  ;  and  the  Icfs 
the  diameter,  the  greater  would  be  the  effect  of  the  iu- 
flrumcnt  ;  becaufe  the  plate  or  mafs  of  air  to  be  moved, 
would,  in  that  cafe,  be  Icfs,  and  confcqucntly  tlie  effect 
of  the  voice  the  greater  ;  all  which  is  contradicted 
by  experience. 

Tlie  caufe  of  the  increafe  of  found  in  thefc  tube* 
muft  therefore  be  derived  from  fomc  other  principles  : 
and  amongll  thefc  we  fhall  probably  find,  that  what  the 
ingenious  Kircher has  fuggcflcd  in  his  Phonurgiaisthe 
mofl  deferving  of  our  attention.  He  tells  us,  that  "the 
augmentation  of  the  found  dependson  its  reflexion  from 
thetrcmulous  fidesof  the  tube  ;  whichrefleclions,  con- 
fpiring  in  propagating  the  pulfcsin  tlicfamcdiredion, 
mufl  increafe  its  intenlity."  Newton  alfo  feems  to  have 
confidc^ed  this  as  a  principal  caufe,  in  the  fcholium 
of  prop.  50.  B.  2.  Priucip.  when  he  fays,  "  we  hence 
fee  why  founds  are  lb  much  encrcafcd  in  flentoro- 
phonic  tubes,  for  every  reciprocal  motion  is,  in  each 
return,  increafed  by  the  generating  caufe. 

Farther,  when  we  fpeak  in  the  open  air,  the  effed 
on  the  tympajuimofadillant  auditor  is  produced  mere- 
ly by  a  lingle  pulfe.  But  when  we  ufc  a  tube,  all  the 
pulfcs  propjgated  from  the  mouth, except  thofe  in  the 
diredionof  iJieaxis,llrikeagainll  the  fides  of  the  tube, 
and  every  pointof  jmpulfebccoiuiHgancwcentrc.trom 
wiicnce  the  pullcs  are  propagated  in  all  directions,  » 
pulfe  will  arrive  at  the  ear  from  each  of  thofe  points; 
thus,  by  the  uf'e  of  a  tube,  a  greater  number  of  pulfes 
arc  propagated  to  the  car,  and  confcquentby  the  har.d 
increafed.  The  confinement  too  of  the  voice  may  have 
Ibnie  cfFecT:,  though  not  fuch  as  is  afcribed  to  it  by 
fome  :  forthecondenled  pulfcs  produced  by  the  naked 
voice,  freely  expand  every  way  ;  butin  tubes,  the  late- 
ral expanfion  being  diminilhed,  the  direct  expanfiou 
will  be  increafed, and  confequenily  the  velocity  of  the 
particles,  and  the  intenfity  of  the  found.  ThcfubfUnce 
alfo  of  the  tube  has  its  cttecl  ;  for  it  is  found  by  expe- 
riment, that  the  more  elalHc  the  fubfli^ncc  of  the  tube, 
and  confcqucKtly  the  more  fuf"ct|>tiblc  it  is  of  thefc 
tremulous  iiiotions,  the  Hrongcr  is  the  found. 

If  the  tube  be  laid  on  a;iy  nou-ilafiic  fubftance,  it 
deadens  the  found,  becaufe  it  prevents  the  vibratory 
motion  of  the  pans.  Tlie  found  is  increaffd  in  fpeaking 
trumpets,  if  the  tube  be  fufpended  in  the  air;  bccaufc 
thc  agitations  are  then  carried  "U  without  intcrruj)tion. 
Thefc  tubes  fhould  inert  afc  in  diameter  from  the  mbtitli 
piece, becaufe  the  parts,  vibrating  in  direijllons  pcrpcn- 
diculT  to  the  furficc,  willconfpirc  in  impelling  ('on- 
ward the  particles  of  air,  andconfequeiuiy,  by  increa- 
fing  their  velocity,  will  increafe  the  intenfity  of  the 
found:  and  the  furface  alfo  incrcafing,  the  number  of 
points  of  impiilfc  and  of  new  propagations  will  increafe 
M  pro- 


(t)  A  cylindric  or  elliptic  arch  will  anfwcr  ftill  better  than  one  that  is  eiicular. 


ACOUSTICS. 


R«vcil)c-  projiortionully.  The  fcvtval  caiifcs,  tlicreforc,  of  the 
ratid  incrcalcofthcrotindia  iliclttobeSjMrYounijconclujcs 
.  ^p"'"*^'  to  be,  I.  The  liiiiiiiiiitiou  of  the  lateral,  and  coiifc- 
iiur-iuly  the  incrcafc  of  the  directj  expanfion  and  ve- 
locily  of  tlie  included  air.  2.  The  increafc  of  the 
nuir.bcr  of  pulfcs,  by  iiicreafiug  the  points  of  new  pro- 
pagation. 3.  The  rcrici-Hloiis  of  the  piilfes  from  the 
trcniiiloiis  lides  of  the  tube,  wliich  impel  the  particles 
of  air  forward,  and  thus  increafc  their  velocity. 

26  As  echo  is  arcflcflion  of  found  flrikingagainftfome 

Echoes.  object,  iS  an  image  is  relitcted  in  a  glafs  :  but  it  has 
been  difputed  what  are  the  proper  qualities  in  a  body 
forthus  rcHectingfiunds,  It  is  in  general  known,  that 
caverns,  grottoes,  mountains,  and  ruined  buildings, 
return  this  image  of  found.  Wc  have  heard  of  a  very 
extraordinary  echo,  at  a  ruined  fortrefs  near  Loiivain 
in  Klanders.  If  a  pcrfon  fung,  he  only  heard  his 
own  voice,  without  any  repetition  :  on  the  contrary, 
thofc  whollood  at  fonie  diliance,  iieard  the  echo  but 
not  the  voice  ;  but  then  they  heard  it  with  furpriling 
variations,  fcunetimes  louder,  ibmetimes  fofter,  now 
more  near,  then  more  diltant.  There  is  an  account 
in  the  memoirs  of  the  French  academy,  of  a  limilar 
echo  near  Rouen. 

As  (by  n°  21  and  22)  every  point  againfi  which  the 
pull'es  ot  founds  llrikc  becomes  the  centre  of  a  new  fc- 
ries  of  pulfes,  and  found  defcribes  equal  dillances  in 
equal  times  ;  therefore,  w  hen  any  found  is  propagated 
from  a  centre,  and  its  pulfes  rtrikc  agninft  a  variety  of 
obllacles,  if  the  fum  of  the  right  lines  drawn  from  tliat 
point  to  each  of  the  obftacles,  and  from  each  obliaclc 
to  a  fccond  point,  be  equal,  then  will  tlic  later  be  a 
point  in  whicli  an  echo  will  be  heard.     "  Thus  let  A 
be  the  point  from  which  the  found  is  propagated  in  all 
directions,  and  let  the  pulfes  ftrike  Tigainil  tlic  obfta- 
cles C,  D,  E,  Y,  G,  H,  I,  &c.  each  of  thefc  points 
becomes  a  new  centre  of  pulfes  by  the  firft  principle, 
and  therefore  from  each  of  them  one  feriesof  pulfes  will 
pafs  through  t'.ie  point  B.  Now  if  the  fcvcral  fumsof  the 
ri  gilt  lines. -.t-t-CB,   Ah+DB,    Ak+^B,   AO-i-OB, 
Afl+HB,  rtl-t-lB,  &c.  be  all  equal   to  each  other, 
it  is  obvious  that  the  pulfes  propagated  from  A  to  thcfe 
points,  and  :'gain  from  tliefe  points  to  B,  will  all  ar- 
rive at  B  at  the  fame  inflant,  according  to  the  fccond 
principle  ;  and  therefore,  if  the  hearer  be  in  that  point, 
his  ear  will  at  th»  fame  inftant  be  Itruck  by  all  thefc 
pulfcs.  Now  it  appears  from  experiment  (/!■<.-  Av'lfchc/i- 
Lroek,  V.  \\.  p.  210),  that  the  ear  of  an  exercifcd  mu- 
fician  can  only  dillinguifli  fuch  founds  as  follow  one 
another  at  the  rate  of  9  or  10  in  a  fecond,  or  any  (low- 
er rate  :  and  therefore,  for  a  diftini'l  perception  of  the 
dirert  and  rcfleflcd  found,  there  Ihould  intervene  the 
interval  of  ;th  of  a  fecond  ;    but  in  this  time  found 
defcribes  i-i-!-^  or  127  feet  nearly.     And   therefore, 
unlefs  the  fum  of  the  lines  drawn  from  each  of  the  ob- 
llacles to  the  points  A  and  B  exceeds  the  interval  A  B 
by  127  feet,  no  echo  will  be  heard  at  B.     Since  the 
feveral  fums  of  the  lines  drawn  from  the  obftacles  to 
the  points  A  and  B  are  of  the  fame  magnitude,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  curve  pafTing  through  all  the  points  C, 
D,  E,  ¥,  G,  H,  I,  &c.  will  be   an  ellipfe,  {piof>.  4. 
B.  1.  Ham.  Con.)     Hence  all  the  points  of  the  obfta- 
cles which  produce  an  echo,  muft  lie  in  the  furface  of 


Chap.  IV. 

the  oblong  fplicroid,  generated  by  ihx:  revolution  of  R-vtrbe- 
this  ellipfe  round  iis  major  axis.  ruted 

'<  As  there  may  be  leveral  fphcroids  of  diticrcnt  So""'is. 
magnitudes,  fo  there  may  be  feveral  oiilcreni  t.  hocsof  " 
the  fame  original  found.  And  as  there  may  happen  to 
be  a  greater  number  of  rcdeciing  points  in  the  lurface 
of  an  exterior  I'pheroid  than  in  that  of  an  interior,  a 
fecond  or  a  third  echo  may  be  much  more  powcrtul 
thin  the  tiril,  provided  that  the  fuperior  number  of  re- 
ficctiiig  points,  th  It  is,  the  fuperior  number  ot  rcllce- 
tcd  pulfes  propagated  10  the  car,  be  more  than  fulli- 
cient  to  compeiifate  for  the  decay  of  found  which  a- 
rifesfrom  its  being  propagated  through  a  grcatir  (pace. 
This  islincly  illultratedin  the  celebrated  (chocs  at  the 
lake  of  Killarncy  in  Kerry,' where  tlie  hrll  return  of 
the  found  is  much  inferioi  in  llrength  10  iliofe  wliich 
immediately  fucceed  it. 

"  From  what  has  been  laid  down  it  appears,  that  for 
the  molt  powerful  echo,  the  founding  body  Ihould  i^e  in 
one  fo  usof  the  ellipfe  which  islhc  lection  ot  the  echo- 
ing fplicroid,  and  the  hearer  in  the  other.  However, 
an  echo  may  be  heard  in  other  liiuations,  though  not  lo 
favourably  ,  as  fuch  a  number  of  retlcctecl  pulfcs  may 
arrive  at  the  fame  time  at  the  ear:;s  may  be  fufiicicnt 
to  excite  a  difiiiicl  perception.  Thus  a  pcrfon  often 
hears  the  echo  ol  his  own  voice  ;  but  for  this  purpofc 
he  flinuld  ftand  at  Icall  63  or  64  feet  from  the  refiecl- 
ing  obll  cle,  according  to  what  has  been  (aid  before. 
At  the  common  rate  of  fpeaking,  we  pronouuce  not 
above  three  fyllables  and  an  half,  that  is,  fcvcn  half 
fyllables  in  a  fecond  j  therefore,  that  the  echo  may  re- 
turn juft  asfoon  as  three  lyliables  are  exprclFcd,  twice 
the  diftance  of  the  fpeaker  from  the  reflecting  objeft 
mult  be  equal  to  1000  feet  ;  for,  as  found  defcribes 
1 1(]2  lect  in  a  fccond,  *ths  of  that  fpace,  th^t  is,  1000 
feci  nearly,  will  be  defciibed  while  fix  half  or  three 
whole  fyllables  are  pronounced  :  that  is,  the  fpcaker 
muft  ftand  near  500  feet  from  the  obftacle.  And  in 
general,  the  diftance  of  the  Ipeaker  from  the  echoing 
furfate,  for  any  nunbtr  of  fyllables,  muft  be  equal  to 
the  fcvemh  part  of  the  product  of  11 42  feet  multiplied 
by  that  number. 

"  In  churches  we  never  hear  a  diftinct  echo  of  the 
voice,  but  a  confufed  found  when  the  fpeaker  utters 
his  words  too  rapidly  ;  bccaufc  the grtatcft  difference 
of  diftance  between  the  direft  and  relieded  courfes  of 
fuch  a  number  of  pulfes  as  would  produce  a  diilincl 
found,  is  never  in  any  church  equal  to  127  feet,  the 
limit  of  echoes. 

"  But  though  the  firft  reflefted  pulfes  may  produce 
no  echo,  both  on  account  of  their  being  too  few  in 
number,  and  too  rapid  in  their  return  to  the  ear  ;  yet 
it  is  evident,  that  the  rerie6l.ing  furface  may  be  fo 
formed,  as  that  the  pulfes  which  come  to  the  ear  after 
two  retleilions  or  more  may,  after  having  defcribed 
1 27  feet  or  more, arrive  at  the  ear  in  fufficient  numbers, 
and  alfo  fo  nearly  at  the  fame  inftant,  as  to  produce 
an  echo,  though  tiie  diftance  of  the  refieiting  furface 
from  the  ear  be  lefs  than  the  limit  of  echoes.  This 
is  confirmed  by  a  fingular  echo  in  a  grotto  on  the  banks 
of  the  little  brook  called  the  Dianan,  about  two  miles 
from  Caftlccomber,  in  the  county  of  Kilkenny.  As 
you  enter  the  cave,  and  continue  fpeaking  loud,  no  re- 
turn of  the  voice  is  perceived  :  but  on  your  arriving  at 


Chap.  IV. 


ACOUSTICS. 


£«terta!ii- 
ing  Experi- 
ments, l^i. 


»7 
I.  tl>c  Coii- 
vfrlivc  Sta- 
tue, 
Plate  I. 
H-  5- 


a  ccnaia  point,  which'is  not  above  14  or  ij  fctt  iVom 
■th:;  rciliding  furfatc,  a  very  diltiuiit  echo  is  iicar;!. 
i-.ow  iJiii  cclio  caiiiioi  arilc  from  the  ririt  com ic  ol'  p'.il- 
fcs  that  are  rcriccleJ  to  the  ear,  bccaulc  the  breadth  of 
thecavc  is  fo  fniall,  that  they  would  return  too  quick- 
ly 10  produce  auiltinct  fcnfation  from  that  of  the  ori- 
ginal found  :  it  therefore  is  produced  by  thofe  pulfts, 
which,  after  having  been  reiiceted  fcvcral  tiiuti  from 
one  fide  of  the  grotto  to  the  other,  and  having  run  o- 
vcr  a  greater  fpace  thaH  127  feet,  arrive  at  the  car  in 
confidtrable  numbers,  and  not  more  dillant  from  each 
oihcr,in  point  of  time,  than  the  ninth  part  of  a  fccond." 

This  article  lliall  be  difmiffcd  with  a  few  inventions 
founded  on  fomc  of  the  preceding  principles,  which 
may  aiuufe  a  number  of  our  readers. 

Etitertaiiii?ig  Experlinsnts  and  Contrivances. 

I.  Pi.  ACE  a  concave  mirror  of  about  two  feet  diameter, 
as  AB  (g),  ina  perpendicular  dircftion.  Thefocusof 
this  mirror  may  be  at  15  or  18  inches  diftancc  from 
its  furface.  At  the  dillance  of  about  five  or  fix  feet 
let  there  be  a  partition,  in  which  there  is  an  opening 
E  F,  equal  to  the  fize  of  the  mirror:  againll  this 
opening  mud  be  placed  a  picture,  painted  in  water- 
colours,  on  a  thin  cloth,  that  the  found  may  eafily  pals 
through  it  (  h). 

Behind  the  partition,  at  the  dillance  of  two  or  three 
feet,  place  another  minor  G  H,  of  the  fame  lizc  as  the 
former,  and  let  it  be  diametrically  oppolite  to  it. 

At  the  point  C  let  there  be  placed  the  figure  of  a 
man  fcated  on  a  pedeftal,  and  let  his  car  be  placed  ex- 
»cHy  in  the  focus  of  the  firft  mirror  :  his  lower  jaw 
muft  be  made  to  open  by  a  wire,  and  lliut  by  a  fpriag  ; 
and  there  may  be  another  wire  to  move  the  eyes  :  thcfe 
wires  mull  p  ifs  through  ihe  figure,  go  under  the 
floor,  and  come  up  behind  the  partition. 

Let  a  perfon,  properly  inllrudled,  be  placed  behind 
the  partition  near  the  mirror.  You  then  propofc  to 
any  one  to  fpeak  foftly  to  the  flatuc,  by  putting  his 
mouth  to  the  earof  it,  alluring  him  that  it  will  anfwer 
inflanlly.  You  then  sjive  the  fignal  to  the  perfon  be- 
hind the  partition,  who,  liy  placing  his  ear  to  the  fo- 
cus I,  of  the  mirror  G  H,  will  hear  dillindly  what  the 
other  faid  ;  and,  moving  the  jaw  and  eyes  of  the  ftatuc 
by  the  wires,  will  return  an  anfwer  diredly,  which 
will  in  like  manner  be  diftinclly  heard  by  the  firfl 
fpeakcr. 

This  experiment  appears  to  be  taken  from  the 
Century  of  Inventions  of  the  Marquis  of  Worccf- 
ter  ;  whofc  defigns,  at  the  time  they  were  publiilicd, 
were  treated  with  ridicule  and  nealeil  as  being  im- 
prafticablc,  but  are  now  known  to  be  c;cnerally,  if  not 
univerfally  pradicablc.  The  words  of  the  Marquis  arc 
thefe  :  "  How  to  make  a  bra/.en  or  Hone  head  in  t  .e 
midll  of  a  great  held  or  garden,  fo  artificial  and  natu- 


ral, that  though  a  man  fi'.cak  cvci  fo  W.i\j,  r\X  even  E::t:rtai;i- 
whilptr  into  iliccar  ihtrcot,  it  willprclciitly  open  its  n't '-xpt"- 
nicuth,  and  refolve    the    quciiioii    iu  Ficnch,  Latin. '"" '^'  ^•' 
Welih,  IriQi,  or  Knglilii  in  good  terms,  aticring  it  out 
of  its  mouth,  and  then  Ihut  it  until  the  next  qucltioii 
be  alkcd." — The  two  following,  of  a  fimilar  nature, 
appear  to  havo  been  inveutiuns  of  Kircher,  by  means 
of  which  (as  he  informs  us  *)   he  ufcd  to   "   utter    *  Pl'mur- 
feigned  and  ludicrous  coafuliaiijas,    with  a  view  toi!".^'^''' 
Ihow  the  fallacy  and  impoflurc  of  ancient  oracles."  .vi-d. 

II.  Let  there  be  two  headsofplallcrofl^aris,  placed         18 
on  pedellals,  on  the   oppolite  (ides  of  a  room.  There  Tlie  com- 
muil  be  a  tin  tube  of  an  inch  di.n:netcr,  tiiat  mufl  pafs  m«n"-"ati»c 
front  tlie  ear  of  one-head,  through  the  pcdeflal,  linJcr  **" 

the  floor,  and  go  up  to  the  mouth  of  the  other.  Ob. 
fcrvcjthat  the  end  of  the  tube  whi:h  is  next  the  earof 
the  one  head,  ihoiild  be  conliderably  larger  than  that 
end  which  comes  up  to  the  mouth  of  the  other.  Let 
the  whole  be  fo  difpofcd  that  there  may  not  be  the 
leall  fuipicion  of  a  communicaiion. 

Now,  when  a  perfon  fpeaks,  quite  low,  into  the  ear 
of  one  bull,  the  found  is  reverberated  thro'  the  length 
of  the  tube,  and  will  be  diftinclly  heard  by  any  one 
who  fliall  place  his  ear  to  the  mouth  of  the  other.  It 
is  not  neceilary  that  the  tube  fhould  come   to  the  lips 

cf  the  bull if  there   be  two  tubes,  one  going  to  the 

ear,  and  the  other  to  the  mouth,  of  each  head,  two  pcr- 
fons  may  converfe  together,  by  applying  their  mouth 
and  ear  recriprocally  to  the  mouth  and  earof  the  bufl ; 
and  at  the  fame  time  other  perfons  that  lland  in  the 
middle  of  the  chamber,  between  the  heads,  will  not 
hear  any  part  of  their  convtrfiition.  . 

III.  Place  a  bufl  on  a  pedcflal  in  the  corner  of  a  TheOracu- 
room,  and  let  there  be  two  tubes,  as  in  the  foregoing  br  Head, 
amufement,  one  of  which  mud  go  from  the  mouth  and 

the  other  from  the  ear  of  the  bull,  through  the  pedeftal, 
and  the  fioor,  to  an  under  apartment.  There  may  be 
likewifc  wires  that  go  from  the  under  jawand  the  eyes 
of  the  bull,  by  whicii  they  may  be  ealily  moved. 

A  perfon  being  placed  in  the  under  room,  and  at  a 
fignal  given  applying  his  car  to  one  of  the  tubes,  will 
hear  any  qiiellion  that  is  aflce.d,  and  immediately  re- 
ply ;  moving  at  the  fame  time,  by  meansof  the  wires, 
the  mouth  and  the  eyes  of  the  bufl,  as  if  the  reply 
came  from  it.  ^g 

IV.  In  a  large  cafe,  fuch  asisufed  for  dialsandfpring  A  SolirS<». 
clocks,  the  front  of  which,  or  at  Icafl  the  lower  part  of  "ati. 

it,  nuifl  be  of  glafs,  covered  on  the  iniide  with  gauze, 
let  there  be  placed  abarrel  organ,  which,  when  wound 
up,  is  prevented  from  playing,  by  a  catch  that  takes  a 
toothed  wheel  at  the  end  of  the  barrel.  To  one  end  of 
this  catch  there  muft  be  joined  a  wire,  at  the  end  of 
which  there  is  a  flat  circle  of  cork,  of  the  fame  dinien- 
fion  w  ith  the  iiifide  of  a  glafs  tube,  in  which  it  is  to  rife 
and  fall.  This  tube  mull  communicate  w  ith  a  reUr- 
voir  that  gocsacrol\  the  front  part  of  the  bottom  of  the 
cafe,  which  is  to  be  rilled  with  fpirits,  fuch  as  \%  ufed  in 
M  2  thcr. 


(c)  Both  the  mirrors  here  ufcd  may  be  of  tin  or  gilt  palleboard,  this  experiment  not  rcquirins  fuch  asa^e 
very  accurate.  t         6  - 

(  h)  The  more  effectually  to  conceal  the  cnufe  of  ihisalhifion,  the  mirror  AB  may  be  fixed  in  the  wainfcot, 
and  a  gauze  or  any  other  thin  covering  thrown  over  it,  as  thit  will  not  in  the  leaft  prevent  the  fomid  from 
being  rcHc^ed.  An  experiment  ot  this  kind  may  be  performed  in  a  fieid  or  garden,  between  two  hedtres  in 
cne  ot  which  the  mirror  All  may  be  placed,  and  in  the  other  an  oi^enin^  aritully  contrived 


92 


ACOUSTICS 


Entertaiii- 
ingHipcri- 
menfs,  'Jft. 


31 
Automa- 
mus  Harp- 
fichord. 


theniiunittcrs,  but  not  culourtd,  iliat  ii  may  be  tlic 
belter  concealed  by  the  gauze. 

This  cai'e  being  placed  in  the  fun,  the  fjurits  will  be 
rarefied  by  the  heat ;  and  riling  in  the  tube,  will  lift 
up  ihe  catch  or  trigger,  and  let  the  organ  in  play  : 
rvhicli  it  will  continue  todo  as  long  as  it  is  kept  in  the 
fiin  ;  for  (he  fpirits  cannot  run  out  of  the  tube,  that 
part  of  the  catch  to  which  the  circle  is  tixcd  being 
prevented  from  riling  beyond  a  certai  n  point  by  a  check 
placed  over  it. 

When  the  inachincc  is  placed  againfl  the  fide  of  a 
room  on  which  the  fun  fliines  ftrong,  it  may  conllantly 
remain  in  the  fame  place,  if  you  iiulofc  it  in  a  fecond 
cafe,  made  of  thick  wood,  and  placed  at  a  little  di- 
itanccfrom  the  other.  When  you  want  it  topcrform, 
it  will  be  only  neceiTary  to  throw  open  the  door  of  the 
outer  cafe,  and  expofeit  to  the  fun. 

But  if  the  machine  be  moveable,  it  will  perform  in 
all  feafons  by  being  placed  before  the  hre  ;  and  in  the 
winter  it  will  more  readily  (lop  w'htn  removed  into 
the  cold. 

A  machine  of  this  fort  is  faid  to  have  been  invented 
by  Cornelius  Dreble,  in  the  lad  ceiunry.  W  hat  the 
conrtruftion  of  that  was,  vvcknow  not  ;  it  might  very 
likely  be  more  complex,  but  could  fcarce  anfwer  the 
inicntion  more  readily. 

V.  Under  the  keysofa  common  harpfchord  let 
there  be  fixed  a  barrel,  fomething  like  that  in  a  cham- 
ber organ,  wiili  flops  orpinscorrefpondingto  the  tunes 
you  would  have  it  play.  Tliefe  llopsmnft  be  moveable, 
io  that  the  tunes  may  be  varied  at  pleafurc.  Krom 
each  of  the  keys  let  there  go  a  wire  perpendicular 
down  :  the  ends  of  thefe  wires  mull  be  turned  up  for 
about  one-fourth  of  an  inch.  Behind  thefe  wires  let 
there  be  an  iron  bar,  to  prevent  them  from  going  too 
far  back.  Now,  as  the  barrel  tuins  round,  its  pins 
take  the  ends  of  the  wires,  which  pulldown  the  keys, 
and  play  the  harpfichord.  The  barrel  and  wires  are 
to  be  all  inclofed  in  a  cafe. 

In  the  chimney  of  the  fime  room  where  the  harpfi- 
chord flaiuls,  or  at  leaA  in  one  adjacent,  there  niufl  be 
a  fmoke  jack,  from  whence  comes  down  a  w  ire,  or 
cord,  that,   palling  behind  the  wainfcot  adjoining  the 


Chap.  IV. 


chimney,  goes  under  the  floor,  and  up  one  of  the  legs  Entortain- 
of  the  harjilichord,  iuio  the  cafe,  and  round  a  fuuill  iiigcx|HTi- 
w  heel  fixed  on  ilic  axis  of  that  tirll  mentioned.  There  mcnts,  t5V. 
Ihould  be  pullies  at  different  diltanc-s,   behind   the  "      ' 

waiufcot  and  under  the  floor,  to  facilitate  the  motion 
of  the  chord. 

This  machinery  may  be  applied  to  any  other  keyed 
inflrumcnt  as  v,'ell  as  to  chimes,  and  to  many  otiier 
purpofcs  where  a  regular  continued  motion  is  re- 
quired. 

An  inllrunient  of  this  fort  may  be  confidered  as  a 
perpetual  motion,  according  to  the  vulgar  accepta- 
tion of  the  term  ;  tor  it  will  never  ccafe  going  till  t];c 
fire  be  extinguilhed,  or  fonie  parts  of  the  machinery 
be  worn  out. 

VI.  Ar  the  topofa  fummcr-houfe,orothcrbnilding,  a  Vcntofal 
let  the  wind-wheel  B  (of  wliich  A  is   an  horizontal  Symphony, 
fcction,)  be  on    the  upper  end  of  the  perpendicular  Pl^t« '• 
axis  K  ;  on  the  lower  end  of  which  is  fixed  tiie  pini-  %•  ^' 
on  C  that  takes  the  toothed  wheel  D  on  the  axis  of 
the  great  wheel  E — The  perpendicular  axis  F  goes 
down    very  near   the   wall  of  the  room,  and  may  be 
covered  after  the   fame  manner  as  are   bcU-wircs. 
In    the  great  wheel   there  niufl   be  placed  a  num- 
ber of  if  ops,  correfpouding  to  the  tunes  it  is  to  play. 
Thefe  Hops  are  to  be  moveable,  that  the  tunes  may  be 
altered  at  pleafure.     Again ll  this  wheel  there  mufl 
hang  12  fmall  bells,  anfwering  to  the  notes  of  the  ga- 
mut.     Therefore,  as  tiie  wheel  twrns  round,  the  flops 
flrikingagainll  the  bells, play  'hefevcral  tunes.  There 
ihould  be  a  fly  to  the  great  wheel,   to  regulate  its  mo- 
tion when  the  wind  is  flrong.    The  wheel  E,   and  the 
bells,  arc  to  be  inclofed  in  a  cafe. 

There  may  be  feveral  fets  of  bells,  one  of  which 
may  anfwer  to  the  tenor,  another  to  the  treble,  and  a 
third  to  the  bafs  ;  or  they  may  play  different  tunes,  ac- 
cording to  the  (ize  of  the  wheel.  As  the  bells  are 
fmall,  if  they  arc  of  lilvcr,  their  tone  will  be  the  more 
plealirig. 

Inflcad  of  bells,  gkfTes  may  be  here  ufed,  fo  difpo- 
fcd  as  to  move  freely  at  the  flroke  of  the  flops.  This 
niacliinery  :nay  likewife  be  applied  to  a  barrel-organ  ; 
and  to  many  other  ufes. 


ACQ, 

ACQ_S,  a  town  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenxan  moun- 
tains, in  the  government  of  Kuix  in  France.  It  takesits 
name  from  the  hot  waicrs  in  thefe  parts.  E.  long.  i. 
40.  lat.  43.  o. 

ACQUAPENDENTE,  a  pretty  large  town  of  Ita- 
ly, in  the  territory  of  the  church,  and  patrimony  of 
St  Peter,  with  a  bilhop's  fee  it  is  feated  on  a  moun- 
tain, near  the  river  Paglia,  ten  miles  W.  of  Orvictto, 
and  57  N.  by  W.  of  Rome.  E.  long.  11.  53.  Lat. 
42.  43. 

ACQUARIA,  a  fmall  town  of  Italy,  in  Frigana,  a 
diflrift  of  Modcna,  which  is  remarkable  for  its  medi- 
cinal waters.  It  is  12  miles  fouth  of  the  city  of  M(xlc- 
na.     E.  long.  it.  17.  lat.  44.  24. 

ACQUEST,  or  Acquist,  in  law,  fignifies  goods 
got  by  purchafeor  donation.     See  Conq^uesj'. 

ACQUI,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  duchy  of  Mont- 


Acquit- 
tance. 


ACQ, 

ferrat,  with  a  bifliop's  fee,  and  commodious  baths.    It  Acquifitioa 
was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  174S,  and  retaken  by  | 

the  Piedmontefe  in  i  746  ;  but  after  this,  it  was  taken 
again  and  difmantled  by  the  French,  who  afterwards 
forlbok  it.  It  is  feated  on  the  river  Bornia,  2.5  miles 
N.  W.  of  Genoa,  and  30  S.  of  Cafal.  E.  long.  8  30. 
Lat.  44.  40. 

ACQU ISITION,  in  general,  denotes  the  obtaining 
or  procuring  fomething.  Among  lawyers,  it  is  ufcd 
for  the  right  or  title  to  an  eflate  got  by  purcliafc  or 
donation. 

ACQUITTAL,  a  difcharge,  deliverance,  orfet- 
ting  of  a  pcrfon  free  from  the  guilt  or  fufpicion  of  an 
offence. 

ACQUITTANCE,  a  rtleafe  or  difcharge  in  wri- 
ting for  a  fum  of  money,  witnefhng  that  the  party  has 
paid  the  faid  funi. — No  man  is  obliged  to  pay  a  fum  of 

money 


.■Imnij 


.  Imri  s. 


I'latr  I 


^»*f 


Acoustics 


.^./iir*  /rt/^ 


A  C  R 


C     93     ] 


A  C  R 


Acra 

I 

Acrafis. 


money  if  the  dcinandant  rcfufcs  to  give  an  acquittance, 
which  is  a  lull  dilcharge,  and  bars  all  actions,  &c.  An 
acqiiiti.ince  given  by  a  fcrvant  for  a  fiim  of  money  re- 
'  ceiveJ  for  ilic  iifc  of  his  mailer,  llull  be  a  good  dif- 
chargc  for  that  Ami,  provided  the  fcrvant  ufed  to  re- 
ceive his  mailer's  rents,  debts,  &c. 

ACRA,  a  town  of  Africa,  on  the  coafl  of  Guinea, 
where  the  Englilli,  Dutch,  and  Danes,  have  /Irong 
forts,  and  each  fort  its  particular  village.  W.  Long, 
o.  2.  Lat.  J.  o. 

AcRA  (anc.  geog.),  one  of  the  hills  of  Jerufalem, 
on  which  flood  the  lower  town,  which  was  the  Old  Je- 
rufalem ;  to  which  was  afterwards  added  /ion,  or  the 
city  of  David.  Probably  called  ^cra,  from  the  fort- 
refs  which  Antiochiis  buili  there  in  order  to  annoy  the 
temple,  and  which  Simon  Maccabseus  took  and  razed 
to  the  ground. 

AcRAj^pJ'gi"  (anc.  geog.),  called  Salcntia  by  Pto- 
lemy; now  Lap'i  di  San  Hiaria  di  Leiicti :  A  promon- 
tory in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  to  the  fouth-eall  of  O- 
tranto,  where  formerly  was  a  town,  now  lying  in  ru- 
ins, on  the  Ionian  fea,  over  againll  the  Montes  Acro- 
cerauuii  of  Epirus. 

Acr;e  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  Sicily,  whofc  inhabi- 
tants were  called  Acniifu.  It  Hood  to  t!ie  fouth  of 
Syracufcat  the  diftanceof  24miles,  near  the  place  now 
called  the  monallery  of  Santa  Maria  d' Aiaa,  on  an 
eminence,  as  appears  from  Silius  Italicus.  The  Sy- 
racufans  were  the  founders  of  it,  according  to  Thuci- 
dydes,  70  years  after  the  building  of  Syracufe,  or  66j 
before  Chrift.     Hence  the  epithet  Acr.eus. 

ACRAGAS,  or  Acracas  (anc.  geog.),  fo  called 
by  the  Greeks,  and  fomctimes  by  the  Romans,  but 
more  generally  Agrigcntum  by  the  Litter  ;  a  town  of 
Sicily.  In  Greek  medals  the  inhabitants  are  called 
AiCPrrANTlNor,  and  Agrtge/it'mi  by  Cicero.  The  town 
flood  upon  a  mountain,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Acra- 
gas  and  Hypfa,  near  the  port  called  EuTtp/cv  by  Ptole- 
my, but  Es-irtnv,  or  the  Dock,  by  Strabo  ;  and  in  the 
time  of  the  latter,  fcarce  a  trace  of  all  that  lide  remain- 
ed. In  the  year  before  Chrift  3S4,  the  people  of  Gcla 
built  Acragas,  108  years  after  building  their  own  city. 
It  took  its  name  from  the  river  running  by  it ;  and  be- 
ing but  two  miles  from,  enjoyed  all  the  conveniences 
that  (liuuld  come  by,  the  fea.  It  was  a  place  of  great 
flrcngth,  flanding  on  the  top  of  a  very  fleep  rock,  and 
wadied  on  the  fouth  lide  by  the  river  Acragas,  now 
called  Fiume  di  Cergeiiti,  and  on  the  fouth-vveft  by  the 
Hypfa,  with  a  citadel  to  the  fouth-eaft,  externally  fur- 
rounded  by  a  deep  gulf,  which  made  it  inaccc!!il)lc  but 
on  the  lide  next  the  town.  It  was  famous  for  the  ty- 
rant Phalaris  and  his  brazen  bull.  They  were  a  peo- 
ple luxurious  in  their  tables,  and  magnificent  in  their 
dwellings  ;  of  whom  Empedocles,  in  Diogenes  Laer- 
tius,  fays,  that  they  lived  to-day  as  if  they  were  to  die 
to-morrow-,  and  built  as  if  they  were  to  live  forever. 
The  country  round  the  city  was  laid  out  in  vine  and 
olive  yards,  in  the  produce  of  which  they  carried  on 
a  great  and  profitable  commerce  with  Carthage.  .  E. 
Long.  I?.  ?o.  Lat.  57-  20. 

ACRASIA,  among  phyficians,  implies  the  predo- 
minancy of  one  quality  above  another,  cither  with  re- 
gard to  artificial  mixtures,  or  the  humours  of  the  hu- 
man body.     The  word  is  Greek,  and  compounded  of 


«,  priv.  and  Ktf.nofti,  to  mix  ,-  q.  d.  not  mixed  in  a  jufl    Acrath, 
proportion.  .    ■'^'^'^'- 

ACRATH  (anc.  gfog.),  a  place  in  Mauritania  Tin-  '  ' 
giiana,  now  fuppofcd  to  be  l^f/^z  de  Comara  ;  A  lor- 
tilieJ  town  in  the  kingdom  of  I'ez,  with  a  capital  and 
commodious  harbour  on  the  Mediterranean,  I'carce  a 
mile  dillant  from  Fenon  de  V'clez,  a  Spanilh  fort. 
\V.  Long.  J.  Lat.  34.  4J. 

ACRE,  or  AcRA,  a  fea-port  town  in  Syria.  It  was 
formerly  called  I'loUviais,  and  is  a  bitliop's  fee.  It 
was  very  famous  in  the  time  of  the  eruladocs,  and  un- 
derwent fevcral  lieges  both  by  the  Chriltians  and  Sa- 
racens. It  is  lituated  at  the  north  angle  of  a  bay, 
which  extends  in  a  femicircle  of  three  leagues,  as  tar 
as  the  point  of  Carmcl. 

During  the  Crufades,  the  poUeflion  of  this  town 
was  long  difputed  by  tlie  Chriliians  and  Saracens.  In 
1 192  it  was  taken  from  the  latter  by  Richard  I.  of 
England  and  Philip  of  France,  who  gave  it  to  the 
knights  of  St  John  of  Jerufalem,  who  kept  poirelTioii 
of  it  100  years,  when  it  was  retaken  by  the  Saracens, 
and  almoll  entirely  deftroyed.  This  event  is  rendered 
memorable  by  an  ad  of  lingular  rcfolution  with  which 
it  was  accompanied.  A  number  of  beautiful  young 
nuns,  terrified  at  the  profped  of  being  cxpofed  to  the 
brutal  laft  of  the  infidels,  determined  to  avoid  the  vio- 
lation of  iheir  challity,  by  rendering  themfelves  ob- 
jeds  of  avcrl'ion.  With  this  view  they  cut  off  their 
nofes  and  mangled  their  faces.  The  Saracens,  inria- 
med  with  refentment  at  a  fpcftacle  which  prevented 
the  gratification  of  their  appetites,  immediately  put 
them  all  to  the  fword.  After  the  expullion  of  the 
crufaders,  it  remained  almoll  dcfertcd  ;  but  in  our  time 
h.is  again  revived  by  the  injuilry  of  Dalier  ;  and  the 
works  creded  by  Djczzar,  within  the  lall  ten  years, 
liavc  rendered  it  one  of  the  principal  towns  upon  the 
coafb.  The  mol'que  of  this  Pacha  is  boafled  as  a  ma- 
flerpiece  of  eaftcrn  taftc.  The  bazar,  or  covered  mar- 
ket, is  not  inferior  even  to  thofe  of  .Aleppo  ;  and  its 
public  fountain furpalles  in  elegance  thofcof  Damafcus, 
though  the  water  is  of  a  very  iudifl'erent  quality.  The 
Pacha  has  derived  the  more  honour  from  thcfe  works, 
as  he  was  himfclf  both  the  engineer  and  architcd  : 
he  formed  the  plans,  drew  the  dcligns,  and  fupcrin- 
tcndcd  the  execution. 

The  port  of  Acre  is  one  of  the  beft  fiiuated  on  the 
coaft,  as  it  is  Iheltered  from  the  north  and  north-weft 
winds  by  the  town  itfelf ;  but  it  is  greatly  choaked  up 
fince  the  time  of  Fakr-el-din.  Djczzar  has  contented 
himfelf  with  making  a  landing-place  for  boats.  1  he 
fortifications,  though  more  frequently  repaired  than 
any  other  in  all  Syria,  are  of  no  importance  :  there 
are  only  a  few  wretched  low  towers,  near  the  port,, 
on  which  cannon  arc  mounted  ;  and  ihefc  rufty  iron 
pieces  are  fo  bad,  that  fome  of  them  burft  every  time 
they  are  fired.  Its  defence  on  the  land  lide  is  merely 
a  garden-wall,  without  any  ditch. 

Corn  and  cotton  form  the  bafis  of  the  commerce  of 
Acre,  which  is  becoming  more  tlourilhing  every  day. 
Of  late,  the  Pacha,  by  an  abufe  common  throughout 
all  the  Turkilh  empire,  has  monopolized  all  the  trade 
in  his  own  hands  ;  no  cotton  can  be  fold  but  to  him, 
and  from  him  every  purchafe  inuft  be  made.  In  vain 
have  the  Europc<iu  merchants  claimed  the  privileges 

granted 


A  C  R 


[     94     ] 


A  C  R 


Acre,  graiucil  thcra  by  ihc  Sultan  j  Djczzar  rcplii.  J,  ili.it  lie 
•'——'  was  the  Sultan  in  liis  country,  and  contiuucd  liii  mo- 
nopoly. Tlicfc  mcrchantsin  general  arc  French,  and 
have  lix  iioufcs  at  Acre,  with  a  conful ;  an  Imperial 
agent  tuo  is  lately  fettled  there  ;  alfo  a  rclident  lor 
Rtiflia. 

That  part  of  the  bay  of  Acre,  in  which  Hiips  an- 
chor with  the  grcatcft  fecuriiy  lies  to  the  north  of 
Mount  Carmel,  below  the  villj^c  of  Haifa  (commonly 
called  Caiffa).  The  bottom  is  good  holding  ground, 
and  docs  not  chafe  the  cables  ;  but  the  harbour  is  open 
to  the  north-weft  wind,  which  blows  violently  ah)ng 
all  this  coaft.  Mount  Carmel,  which  commands  it  to 
the  fouth,  is  a  flattened  cone,  and  very  rocky  ;  it  is 
about  2O00  feet  high.  We  flill  tind  among  the 
brambles  wild  vines  and  olive  trees,  which  prove  that 
induftryhas  formerly  been  employed  even  in  this  uii- 
gralelul  foil :  on  the  fummit  is  a  chapel  dedicated  to 
ihe  prophet  Elias,  which  affords  an  extcnlive  profpect 
over  the  fea  and  land.  It  is  20  miles  S.  of  Tyre,  and 
37  N.  of  Jerufalem.     E.  Long.  59.  25.  Lat.  32.  40. 

Acre,  i!i  the  Mogul's  dominions,  the  fame  with 
lack,  and  ligniiies  the  fiim  of  100,000  rupees  ;  the  ru- 
pee is  of  the  value  ofthc  FrencJicrown  of  three  livres, 
of  30  fuls  of  Holland  ;  an  100  lacks  of  rupees  make 
a  couron  in  Indoftan,or  io,ooo,coo rupees  :  the  pound 
Sterling  is  about  eight  rupees  ;  according  to  which 
proportion,  a  lack  of  rupees  amounts  to  1 2,500  pounds 
Sterling. 

Acre,  the  univerfal  nieafure  of  land  in  Britain. 
The  word  (formed  from  the  Saxon  acher,  or  the  Ger- 
man akir,  a  (icld),  did  not  originally  fignify  a  deter- 
mined quaiuity  of  land,  but  any  open  ground,  efpe- 
cially  a  wide  champaign  ;  and  in  this  antique  fcnfe  it 
fecmstobe  prefcrved  in  the  names  of  places,  asCaftle- 
acrc,  Weft-acre,  &c.  An  acre  in  England  contains 
four  fquare  roods,  a  rood  40  perches  or  poles  of  16; 
feet  each  by  ftatutc.  Yet  this  meafure  does  not  pre- 
vail in  all  parts  of  England,  as  the  length  of  the  pole 
varies  in  different  counties,  and  is  called  cujlomaij  mea- 
fure, the  diftcrencc  running  from  the  16;  feet  to  2?. 
The  acre  is  alfo  divided  into  10  fquare  chains,  of  22 
yards  each,  that  is,  4S40  fquare  yards.  An  acre  in 
Scotland  contains  four  fquare  roods;  one  fquare  rood 
is  40  fquare  falls  ;  one  fquare  fall,  ;6  fqu.ire  ells;  one 
fquare  ell,  nine  fquare  feet  and  73  fquare  inches;  one 
fquare  foot,  144  fquare  inches.  The  Scots  acre  is 
alfo  divided  into  10  fquare  chains;  the  meafuring 
chain  fliould  be  24  ells  in  length,  divided  into  100 
links,  each  liuk  8,VA-  inches;  and  fo  one  fquare 
chain  will  contain  10,000  fquare  links.  The  Englifli 
flatute-acre  is  about  three  roods  and  fix  falls  ftandard 
meafure  of  Scotland. 

The  French  acre,  arpent,  contains  i^  Englifli  acre, 
or   J4,450  fquare  Englifli  feet,  whertof  the  Englifli 

acre  contains  only  43,560 The  Strafburgh  acre  is  a 

bout  half  an  Englifli  acre. — The  \\'ellh  acre  contains 

commonly  two  Englifli  ones The  Irifli  acre  is  equal 

to  one  acre  two  roods  and  19  perches  ,V,,  Englifli. 

Dr  Gre  w  attempts  to  afcer  tain  the  number  of  acres  in 
England,  which,  according  to  him,  amounts  to  46 
millions  and  80,000.  The  United  Provinces  are  faid 
to  contain  4,^82,000  acres  :  The  province  of  Holland 
but  one  million  <if  acres.  The  territory  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  according  to  calculations  lately 


Lib.  iii. 
&  xxxix. 


made  by  order  of  Con^rcfs,  contains  589  iniliions  of  Acrc-Fiylit 
acres,  cxcl'Jlivc  of  water,  w'hick  is  computed  at  51  \ 

luillioiis  more.  Achdo- 

^riiK-Fight,  and  old  fort  of  duel  fought  by  Englifli     P'"g''   , 
and  Scotiilh  combatants,  between  the  frouiiers  of  tneir 
kingdoms,  with  fword  and  lance :  it  was  alfo  called 
cavip-fight,  and  the  combatants  c  amfiom,  from  the 
open  held  being  the  Itage  uf  trial. 

Ai.Rt.-Ta\,  a  tax  laid  on  land  at  fo  much  per  acre. 
In  fomc  places  this  is  alfo  called  acic-Jhot.  Impofitions 
ou  lands  in  the  great  level  are  to  be  raifcd  by  a  pro- 
portionable acre-tax,  2oCar.  II.  cap.  8 An  acre-tax 

ot  2s.  6d.  per  acre,  for  draining  Hadcnham-level,  1 3 
Geo.  I.  cap.  18. 

ACRllijilA,  a  term  purely  Greek,  literally  deno- 
ting an  exquiliteor  delicate  accuracy  ;  fometimcs  ufed 
in  our  language,  for  want  of  a  word  of  equal  lignilica- 
tiun. 

ACRID,  a  name  for  any  tiling  that  is  of  a  fliarp  or 
pungent  talk.     Sec  Materia  Medica. 

ACRIUOPHAGI,  in  the  ancient  geography,  an 
Ethiopian  people,  rcprefeiucd  as  inhabiting  near  the 
defcrts,  and  to  have  fed  on  locufts.  This  latter  cir- 
cumftance  their  name  imports  ;  the  word  being  com- 
pounded of  the  Greek  axf/t  loaijl,  and  .ya^w  to  cut.  We 
have  tlic  following  account  of  them  by  Diodorus  Si- 
culus  *.  Their  ftature  was  lower  than  that  of  other 
men  ;  they  were  meagre,  and  extremely  black.  In  the 
fpri.ig,  high  weft  winds  drove  from  the  defert  to  their  Alfo  Stra- 
quarter  locufts  of  an  extraordinary  fize,  and  remarka-  ^°>  '"''■  *^'' 
ble  for  the  fqualid  colour  of  their  wings.  So  great  was 
the  number  of  thefc  infects,  that  they  were  the  only 
fuftcnancc  of  the  barbarians,  who  :00k  them  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  At  the  diftance  of  fomc  ftadia  from 
their  habitations  there  was  a  wide  and  deep  valley. 
They  liUed  this  valley  w  ith  wood  and  wild  herbs,  with 
wiiich  their  country  abounded.  When  the  cloud  of 
locufts  appeared,  which  were  driven  on  by  the  wind, 
they  let  lire  to  the  fuel  which  they  had  collected.  The 
fmokc  which  arofc  from  this  immenfc  fii  e  was  fo  thick, 
that  the  locufts,  in  crofling  the  vallty,  were  fti.led  by 
it,  and  fell  in  heaps  on  the  ground.  The  paiTage  of 
the  locufts  beingthus  intercepted  for  many  days,  they 
made  a  large  proviiion  of  thofe  iiifefts.  As  their  coun- 
try produced  great  quantities  of  lalt,  ihcy  falted  them, 
to  render  them  more  palatable,  and  to  wake  them  keep 
till  the  next  feafon.  This  peculiar  fupply  was  their 
fole  food  :  they  iiad  neither  herds  nor  llocks.  They 
were  unacquainted  with  tifliing;  for  they  lived  at  a  dif- 
tance from  the  fea.  They  were  very  active,  and  ran 
with  great  fwiftnefs.  But  their  life  was  not  of  long 
duration;  it  exceeded  not  forty  years.  The  clofc  of 
their  life  was  extremely  miferablc  ;  for  in  their  old  age, 
winged  lice  of  different,  but  all  of  ugly  forms,  bred  in 
their  bodies.  This  malady,  which  began  in  the  5reaft 
and  belly,  foon  fpread  through  the  whole  frame.  The 
patient  at  tirft  felt  an  itching  ;  and  the  agreeable  fen- 
iatiou  produced  by  his  fcratching  of  hirafelf,  preceded 
a  moil  deplorable  calamity.  For  when  thofe  lice, 
which  had  bred  in  his  body,  forced  their  way  out, 
they  cauftd  efflifions  of  corrupt  blood,  with  cxcrncia- 
ting  pains  in  tlie  ikin.  The  unhappy  man,  with  la- 
mentable cries,  was  induftrious  himfelf  to  make  paf- 
fages  for  them  with  his  nails.  In  fliort,  thefe  lice  if- 
fued  forth  facccflivcly  from  the  wounds  made  by  the 

hands 


A  C  R 


[     95     ] 


A  C  R 


Acrido-  hinds  of  the  patient,  as  from  a  veflcl  full  of  holes,  and 
P*"t''-  in  fiich  niinibtrs  that  it  \vas  impoiiiblc  to  exterminate 
'  '  tliem. — \V  liether  this  extraordinary  and  dreadful  dif- 
tcnipcr  was  occafmncd  b)  the  food  of  the  inhabita.iis 
of  this  country,  o-  by  a  pcilciiiial  quality  oi  tlieir 
climate,  it  is  diincull  tn  dtieriiiinc.  Indeed,  as  to  the 
credibility  ot'  the  whole  account,  we  mull  leave  the 
rsa.lcr  to  judge. 

But  though  the  circumftanccs  of  thcfe  people  (liould 
be  deemed  fabulous,  yet  may  the  acrtdophj^:a  be  true. 
It  is  well  known,  that  to  this  day  the  iuhauiiaiits  of 
Ethiopia,  /\rabii,  &c.  frequently  ufe  locurts  as  lood. 
The  reader  will  not  be  difpleafcti  it  we  lay  before  him 
the  refult  of  Dr  Ilalfelqailt's  inquiries  as  to  this  parti- 
cular,  who  travelled  in  Syria  antt  r.gypt  fo  late  as  the 
year  I  752.     This  ingeiiious  j;entleman,  who  travel- 
Ld  with  a  view  to  improve  nat\ir.il  hiilory,   informs 
us.  that  healked  Kranks,  and  many  other  people  who 
had  lived  long  in  thefe  countries,  whethtr  tlicy  had  c- 
ver  heard  that  the  inhabitants  of  Arabia,  tthiopii,  &c. 
ufed  loculls  as  food.       I  hey  anfwcred  that  they   had. 
He  likcwifc  alked  the  fame  qucftion  of  Armenians, 
Copts,   and  Syrians,   who  lived   in  Aral)ia,  and  had 
travelled  inSyria  and  near  the  Red  Sea  ;  lorae  of  whom 
faid  they  heardoffuch  a  practice,  and  others  that  they 
had  oitenleen  the  people  eat  thcfe  iiifccls.     He  atlall 
obtained  compl  te   faiibfaelion   on  this  head   from  a 
learned  ihcckat  Cairo,  who  had  lived  lix  years  in  ^iec- 
ca.     This  gentleman  told  him,  in  prcfcnce  of  M.  Ic 
Grand  tiie  priutipal  French  interpreter  at  Cairo,  and 
others,  that  a  famine  frequently  rages  at  Mecca  when 
there  is  a  fearcity  of  corn  in  Kgy  pt,  which  obligi  s  the 
inhabitants  to  live  upon  coarfcr  food  than  orninary  : 
That  when  corn  is  fcarce,  the  Arabians  grind  tiic  lo- 
cufts  in  hand-mills,  or  flone-mortars,  and  bake  them 
into  cakes,  and  ufe  thefe   cakes   in  pl.icc  of  bread  : 
That  he  has  frequently  feen  locults  ufed  by  ilie  Ara- 
bians, even  when  there  was  no  fearcity  of  corn  ;    but 
then  they  boil  them,  (lew  them  with  butter,  and  make 
them  into  a  kind  ot  fricalTee  ;  which  he  fays  is  not  dif- 
agreeably  tailed,  for  he  had  fome'.imes  tailed  thcfe  lo- 
cull-fricaiFcesout  of  curiofity. 
•  Vcyart  to      '^  later  traveller,    Dr  Sparrman,    informs   us  *, 
the  Cafe,     "  That  loculls  fomctimcs  atfbrd  a  high  treat  to  the 
vol.l.p.36.  more  unpoliihed  and  remote  hordes  of  the  Hottentots; 
when,  as  fomctimes  happens,    after  an  interval  of  8, 
10,  15,  or  20  years,  they  make  their  appearance  in 
incredible  numbers.     At  thefe  times  they  come  from 
the  north,  migrating  to  the  foiithward,  and  do  not  fuf- 
fer    themfelves  to  be  impeded  by  any   obftacles,   but 
fly  boldly  on,   and  are  drowneo  in  the  fea  whenever 
they  come  to  it.     The  females  of  this  race  of  infects, 
which  are  moll  apt  to  migrate,  and  are  chietly  eaten, 
are  faid  not  to  be  able  to  riy  ;   partly  by   reafon  of  the 
ihortnefs  of  their  wings,  and    partly  on   account  of 
tlieir  beinj  heavy  and  diftended  with  eggs  ;  and  ihort- 
]y  after  they  have  laid  thefe  in  the  land,  they  arc  faid 
to  die.     It  is  pirticuLirly  of  thefe  that  tlie  f  lottentots 
make  a  brown  cotfee-coloured  foup,  which,  at  the  fame 
time,  acquires  from  the  eggs  a  fat  and  greafy  appear- 
ance.    The  Hottentots  are  highly  rejoiced  at  llie  ar- 
rival of  thefe  loculls,  though  ihey  are  fire  to  dedroy 
every  bit  of  verdure  on  the  ground  :  but  the  Hotten- 
tots make  themfelves  ample  amends  for  this  lofs,  by 
falling  foul  on  the  animals  ihcniftlves,  eating  them  in 


fuch  quantities  as  in  the  fpace  of  a  few  days  to  get     AcriCui 
vilibly  fatter  and  in  belter  condition  than  before."  I 

The  Aobi  Poirct,  alio,  in  this  Memoir  on  the  Infecls  Aciobatica 
of  Barbary  and  Numidia,  informs  us,  "  That  the         '^~~' 
Moors  make  loculis  a  part  of  their  food  ;  that  they 
go  to  hunt  them  j  iry  thci.i  in  oil  and  butter  ;  and  fell 
them  publicly  at  i  uiiis,  at  Bonne,"  &c. 

From  thtfe  accounts,  we  may  fee  the  folly  of  that 
difpute  among  divines  about  the  nature  of  St  John"* 
fooo  in  the  wiluernefs  :  fome  maintaining  the  origi.ir.1 
word  to  lignify  the  fruits  of  certain  trees  ;  others,  a 
kind  of  birds,  &c.  :  but  thofe  who  adhered  to  the  li- 
teral meaning  of  the  text  were  at  leaft  the  molt  ortho- 
dox, although  their  arguments  were  perhaps  not  fo 
ilrong  as  they  might  have  been,  had  thiy  hid  an  op- 
portunity of  q  loting  fuch  authors  as  the  above. 

ACRlblLS,  king  of  .Argos  (fab.  hid.),  being  told 
by  the  oracle  tiiat  he  Ihouldbekilledby  hisgrindchild, 
ihut  up  his  only  daughter  Uaiiae  in  a  brazen  tower  : 
but  Jupiter  coming  down  in  a  golden  lliower,  beuot 
Perftus  upon  her  :  afier  Perfeus  had  llain  tlie  Gorgons, 
he  carried  Medufa's  head  to  Argos  ;  which  Acrifms 
feeing,  was  turned  into  a  llatue. 

-ACRITAS  (anc.  geog.),  a  promontory  of  MelTc- 
nia,  running  into  the  lea,  and  forming  ihe  beginning 
of  the  bay  of  Mcllcnc.  Now  called  Cafo  ds  Galto, 
between  Methone  to  the  welt,  and  Coronc  to  the  eaft, 
w  here  the  Sinus  Coroiijeus  begins. 

ACROAMATIC,  or  Acrcatic,  in  general,  de- 
notes a  tiling  f  iblime,  profound,  or  abftrufe. 

ACROAAIATICI,  a  denomination  given  the  dif- 
ciples  or  followers  of  Arillotle,  &c.  who  were  admit- 
ted into  the  fecrcts  of  the  inner  or  acroamatic  philo- 
fophy. 

ACIIOA  riC.  Ariftotles  leaures  to  his  difciples 
were  of  two  kinds,  ixotnU-  and  airoatic.  The  acruatic 
were  thofe  to  which  only  his  own  difciples  and  inti- 
mate friends  were  admitted  ;  whereas  the  exoteric 
were  puLlic,  and  open  to  all.  But  there  are  other  dif- 
ferences. The  acroatic  were  let  apart  for  the  higher 
and  more  ab.lrufc  fubjeds  ;  the  exoteric  were  employ- 
ed in  rhetorical  and  civil  fpeculaiions.  Again,  the 
acroatics  were  more  fubtile  and  exact,  evidence  and 
demonllration  being  here  aimed  at ;  the  exotericschief- 
lyaimedat  the  probable  andplaulible.  The  former  were 
the  fubjecl  of  the  mornings  exercifesin  the  Lyceum, 
the  latter  of  the  evenings.  Add,  that  the  e.xoicrics 
were  pLiblilhed  :  whereas  the  acroatics  were  kept  fe- 
cret  ;  bcingeiihcr  entirely  conce.-iled  ;or,  if  they  were 
publiflied,  it  was  in  fuch  obfcurc  terms,  that  few  but 
his  own  difciples  could  be  the  wiftr  for  them.  Hence, 
when  Alexander  complained  of  his  preceptor  for  pub- 
lilhing  his  acroatics,  and  thus  revealing  what  liiould 
have  been  refervcj  to  his  difciples,  Ariltotleanfwercd 
that  they  were  made  public  and  not  public  ;  for  that 
none  who  had  no:  heard  them  explained  by  the  author 
viv^t  voce,  would  underlland  them. 

ACROATflOUM,  or  Acrothoum  (anc.  geog.), 
a  town  lituated  on  the  top  of  inoant  Athos,  where  the 
inhabitants,  according  to  Mela,  were  longer  lived  by 
half  than  in  any  other  country  :  called  by  the  modern 
Greeks,  Ayior  tftc;  by  the  Italians,  La  Cima  Ji.Mciili 
Santo. 

ACROBATICA,  or  .Acrobaticu.m,  from  ««»«t, 
iigf;  and  ^«t<«,  or  ^<ii«  J  ^0 ;  an  ancient  engine, 

)A  hereby 


A  C  R 


(y6      3 


A  C  R 


Acroce- 

raunia 

il 
Acrspolis. 


wlicrcby  people  were  raifed  aloft,  thnt  tlicy  might  fee 
more  conveniently  about  ihein.  The  ncrobatica  among 
the  Greeks  amounted  to  tlie  fame  witli  what  liicy  call 
fcanfunutii  among  the  Latins.  Authors  are  divided 
as  to  the  office  of  this  engine.  Turuebus  and  Barba- 
rns  take  it  to  have  been  of  the  military  kind,  railed 
by  beliegcrs,  high  enough  to  overlook  the  walls,  and 
difcover  the  (late  of  things  on  the  oilier  iide.  Baldus 
rather  fuppofcs  it  a  kind  of  moveable  fcairbld,  or  cradle, 
contrived  for  railing  painters,  plallcrers,  and  otlicr 
workmen,  to  the  tops  of  houfes,  trees,  &c.  Some 
fufpect  that  it  might  have  been  ufcd  for  both  purpofes; 
which  is  the  opinion  of  Vitruvius  and  Aquinas. 

ACROCERAUNIA,  or  Montes  CERAUNii(anc. 
geog.),  mountains  running  out  into  the  fea  (fo  called 
from  their  being  often  thunderllruck),  fcparating  the 
Ionian  fea  from  the  Adriatic  ;  where  lllyria  ends  and 
Epirus  begins  ;   now  called  Monti  dclla  Chiniira. 

ACROCHERISMUS,  among  the  Greeks,  a  fort 
of  gymnaftic  exercife,  in  which  the  two  combatants 
contended  with  their  hands  and  fingers  only,  without 
clofmg  or  engaging  the  other  parts  of  the  body. 

ACROCORINTHUS  (anc.  geog.),  a  high  and 
flcep  hill,  hanging  over  the  city  of  Coriiuh,  which  was 
taken  within  the  walls,  as  an  acropolis,  or  citadel.  On 
its  top  Hood  a  temple  of  Venus  ;  and  lower  down  if- 
fued  the  fountain  Fyrene. 

ACROMION,  in  anatomy,  the  upper  part  of  the 
fcapulaor  Ihoulder-blade.     Sec  Anatomy. 

ACROMONOGRAMMATICUM,in poetry,  a  kind 
of  poem,  wherein  every  fubfequcnt  verfe  b'-gins  with 
the  letter  wherewith  the  immediately  preceding  one 
terminated. 

ACRON,  a  celebrated  phyliciau  of  Agrigentum, 
who  firfl  though:  of  Ighring  large  fires,  and  purify- 
ing the  air  with  perfumes,  to  put  a  flop  to  the  peili- 
lence  that  ravaged  Athens,  and  which  was  attended 
with  fuccefs.  He  lived  about  473  years  before  the 
Chriftian  xra. 

AcRON,  a  territory  on  the  gold-coaft  of  Guinea,  in 
Africa,  bordering  on  the  Fantynean  country.  The 
Dutch  have  a  fort  here  called  Fort  Patience  ;  and  un- 
der it  is  a  village,  inhabited  only  by  filhcrmen.  The 
other  inhabitants  arc  addicted  to  hufbandry,  and  fell 
their  corn  to  other  countries.  There  is  jdeiuy  of  game, 
which  is  very  commodious  for  the  Dutch  factory.  Tlie 
people  are  very  ignorant,  m\^  j^onaked  like  therell  of 
the  negroes.  1  his  is  called  Little  Acron  ;  lor  Great 
Acron  is  farther  iiita. id,  and  is  a  kind  ef  a  republic. 

ACRONICAL,AcHRONYCH  Ai.,or  Ach  ronical, 
in  aflronomy,  is  a  term  applied  to  the  rifini;  of  a  liar, 
when  the  fun  isfet  in  the  evening  ;  but  has  been  prt>- 
iiiifcuoufly  ufcd  to  exprefs  a  Har's  riling  at  funfct,  or 
fetting  at  fun-rife. 

ACRONIUSlacus,  (Mela)  ;  a  fmall  like  formed 
by  the  Rhine,  foon  after  its  rife  out  of  the  ^Ips,  and 
after  palling  the  greater  lake  at  Coullanee,  called  /  V- 
«;/./,  and  now  the  Boimgec,  or  lake  of  Coullanee. 

ACROPOLIS  (anc.  geog.),  the  citadel,  and  one 
of  the  divilions  of  Athens  ;  c::llcd  Fo//;,  becaufe  eoii- 
flituting  the  firfl;  and  criginal  city  ;  and  the  Upfier  Po- 
lls, to  diiliaguifh  it  from  the  Lower,  which  wasafter- 
wards  built  round  it  in  a  large  open  plsin,  the  Acro- 
polis Handing  on  a  rock  or  eminence  in  the  heart  of 


this  plain  ;  and  hrnce  its  name  :   To  ihe  north  it  had  a  Acropollii 
wall,  built  by  the  I'clafgi,  and  therelorc  called  /  claf-  || 

gk ;  and  to  the  fouth  a  w  all,  by  Cy  mon  the  fou  of  Mil-  Acrofto- 
tiadcs,  out  of  the  Pcrfian  fpoils,  many  ages  after  the  .  ''""'•  . 
building  of  the  north  wall.  It  had  nine  gates,  and 
was  therefore  called  Eiirieapy)oii  ;  yet  but  one  princi- 
pal gate  or  entrance,  iltc  afcent  to  w  hich  was  by  a 
riiglit  of  (leps  of  white  marble,  built  by  Pericles  with 
great  magniiicencc,  (Plutarch). 

ACROPOLITA  (George),  one  of  the  writers  iti 
the  Byzantine  hiilory,  was  born  at  Conllantinople,  in 
the  year  1220,  and  brought  up  at  the  court  of  the  em- 
peror John  Ducas  at  Nice.  He  was  employed  in  the 
moll  important  atiairs  of  the  empire  ;  being  fent  am- 
ball'adof  to  Larill'a,  to  cllablilh  a  peace  with  Michael 
of  Kpirus  ;  and  was  conllitutcd  judge  to  try  Michael 
Conincnus,  fufpefted  of  engaging  in  a  confpiracy. 
Theodorus  Lafcaris,  ihp  fon  of  John,  whom  he  had 
taught  logic,  appointed  him  governor  of  all  the  wcllern 
provinces  in  liis  empire.  IniajJ,  he  was  taken  pri- 
ibncrina  war  with  Michael  Angelas  :  but  gaining  his 
liberty  in  1260,  by  means  of  the  emperor  Palaologus, 
he  was  fent  by  him  ambalfador  to  Conilantine,  prince 
of  Bulgaria;  and  was  employed  infeveral  othernego- 
ciaiions.  He  wrote,  A  Continuation  of  the  Greek  Hi- 
ilory, from  the  taking  of  Conllantinople  by  the  Latins 
till  it  was  recovered  by  Michael  Pal*ologus  in  1261, 
which  makes  part  of  the  Byzantine  hiilory  ;  A  Trea- 
til'e  concerning  Faith,  Virtue,  and  the  Soul  ;  An  Fx- 
polition  of  the  Sermons  of  St  Gregory  Nazianzcn  and 
other  pieces.  Gregory  Cyprian,  patriarch  of  Con- 
flantinople,  in  his  encomium  upon  him,  prefixed  to 
Acropolita's  hiftory,  is  perhaps  foinewhat  extravagant 
in  his  praifc,  when  he  fays  he  was  equal  lo  Ariliotlc 
in  philofophy,  and  toPlatoin  tlie  knowledge  of  divine 
things  and  Attic  eloquence. 

ACROSPIRE,  a  vulgar  term  for  wliat  botaniflscall 
the //f/CTi".     See  the  article  Plants. 

ACROSPIRED,  in  malt-making,  is  the  grain's 
fliooiing  both  at  the  root  and  blade  end. 

ACROSTIC,  in  poeti-y,  a  kind  of  poetical  compo- 
fition,  difpofed  in  fuch  a  manner,  that  theinitiallettcrs 
of  the  verfes  form  the  name  of  fome  perfoii,  kingdom, 
place,  motto,  Sec.  The  word  is  compounded  of  the 
Gj'cek,  sotoQ^i-.v/r.-w//^, and  annx^j-jerft:.  The  acroflic 
is  conlidercdby  the  critics  as  a  fpeciesof  falfe  wit,  and 
is  tlierefore  very  little  regarded  by  the  moderns. 

ACROSTICUM,  RusTVBACK,  Wall  rue,  or 
FoRK-iERN,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  cryptogamiri 
tilices.  The  frudifications  arc  accumulated  on  the 
whole  inferior  furface  of  the  frond,  fo  that  they  every- 
where cover  it.  There  are  upwards  of  ;;o  fpecics ; 
but  only  three  of  them  (according  toothers,  two) 
arc  natives  of  Britain,  viz.  the  fepientrionalc,  or  horn- 
ed fern,  wliich  grows  on  walls  or  clifts  of  rocks  ;  the 
ilvcnfe,  or  hairy  {trn,  growing  in  clifts  of  rocks  ;  and 
the  thclyptris,  or  marlhfern,  in  tufty  bogs. 

ACROSIOLIUM,  in  ancient  naval  architeflurc, 
the  extreme  part  of  the  ornament  ufcd  on  the  prows  of 
their  lliips,  which  was  fomctimes  in  the  Ihapc  of  a 
buckler,  helmet,  animal,  &c. ;  but  more  frequcnily  cir- 
cular, or  fpiral.  It  was  ufual  to  tear  ihcm  from  the 
prows  of  vanquilhed  vclitls,  and  fix  them  to  the  con- 
querors, as  a  lignal  of  victory. 

ACRO- 


ACT 


r  9' 


.\a. 


Acrotclcu-  ^CROTELEUTIC,  anoiig  cccldiallk  wriicrs,  rui 
tic  apjjclliiti  ).i  given  to  aiiy  iliiug  added  to  the  cud  ot  a 
pfalm  ;  as  the  Gloria  I'atri,  or  Dox()!o;ry. 
^  ACKO  I'lCllIA,  ill  arcliitcchirc,  f.-.i;;!!  pcJcujli, 
ofii.iily  witlioiit  bafcs,  anticiitly  placed  at  tlic  n'.ijdls 
or  i\vi>  cxu•cIl.^i  ot'pcdimeius  orlr-ji'-rilpicccs,  fcrviiij; 
to  fupport  the  ibtues,  Sec.  It  alio  ligiiiiies  the  ritriircs 
placed  as  ornamcius  cii  the  tops  otcliurchcs,  and  tlic 
fliarp  pi'iiiaclssthat  ftandin  ranges  about  fiat  buildings 
v.'itli  rails  and  balluftcrs. 

Amon;^  ancient  phyllcians,  it  fignificJ  the  larger  ex- 
tremities of  the  body,  is  ilic  head,  hands,  and  Ret, 
It  has  alio  been  ii led  tor  the  tips  of  the  ticgcrs,  and 
fomctinTes  for  the  eminences  or  procelfcs  ■  £  bones. 

ACROTHYMION,  lVoni««f9^,c;.\7;-?///f,and^i/.u»{, 
thymi-.  A  fort  of  wart  dcferibed  by  Cclfus  as  hard, 
rough,  with  a  narrow  bads  and  brond  toj)  ;  ihc  top  is 
of  the  colour  of  thyme,  it  cafily  fpliis  and  bleeds. 
This  tumour  is  alio  called  thyii.us. 

ACT,  in  genernl,  denotes  the  exertion  of  power  ; 
and  differs  from  power,  as  tlic  etfect  from  the  caufe. 

Act,  in  logic,  is  particularly  undcrilood  of  an  ope- 
ration of  the  iuiman  mind.  Thus  to  difcern  and  ex- 
amine, arc  arts  of  the  uiidcrllanding  ;  to  judge  and  af- 
firm, arc  afts  of  the  will.  There  are  vohuuary  and 
fponttneoiis  ads-,  the  former  are  produced  by  the  o- 
peration  of  the  foul,  the  latter  wiihout  its  privity  or 
participation. 

Act,  ill  the  univcrfuics,  fignificsa  tlielis  maintained 
in  public  by  a  candidate  for  a  degree,  or  to  (how  the 
capacity  iiid  proficiency  of  a  fludcut.  TIic  candidates 
for  a  degree  of  bachelor  and  mailer  of  arts  arc  to  hold 
philofophical  A(5ts  ;  and  thole  for  baclulor  of  divinity, 
theological  Afts,  &c.  At  Oxford,  the  time  when  ma- 
ilers or  doctors  complete  their  degrees  is  alfo  called  the 
ad  ;  which  is  hrld  with  great  folemnity.  At  Cam- 
bridge, they  call  it  ihc'covwictKcment. 

^cr  of  Faith,  /luto  da  Ft,  in  the  Romifli  church,  is 
a  folemn  day  held  by  the  inqiiifiiion,  for  the  punilh- 
inent  of  heretics,  and  theabfoliuionofiheinnoccnt  ac- 
cufed*.  They  nfually  contrive  the  Auto  tofall  on  fome 
great  felliv.  1,  that  the  execution  may  pals  with  the 
more  awe  and  regard  ;  at  Icafl  it  is  ahvay s  on  a  Sunday. 

The  Auto  da  Vc  may  be  called  the  lad  art  of  the 
inqiiilitorial  tragedy;  it  is  a  kind  of  goal-delivery,  ap- 
pointed as  oft  as  a  competent  number  of  prifoners  in 
the  inquifuion  arc  convirted  of  herify,  cither  by  their 
own  vohuuary,  or  extorted  confellion,  or  on  the  evi- 
dence of  certain  witnelFcs.  The  procefs  is  thus:  in  the 
morning  they  arc  brought  into  a  great  hall,  where 
they  have  certaiuhabitsput  on,  which  they  are  to  wear 
in  the  proccflion.  The  procellionis  led  up  by  domini- 
can friars  ;  after  which  come  the  penitents,  fome  with 
fan-bcnitoes,  and  fome  without,  according  to  the  na- 
ture of  their  crimes  ;  being  all  in  black  coats  without 
llceves,  and  bare-footed,  with  a  wax-candle  in  their 
hands.  Thcfc  are  followed  by  the  peaiients  who  have 
narrowly  clcaped  being  burnt,  who  over  their  black 
coats  have  flames  paintcdwith  their  points  turned  down- 
wards, Fiiego  icvilto.  Next  come  the  negative,  and 
relapfed,  who  are  to  be  burnt,  having  flanici  on  their 
habitspointingupwards.  After  thcfc  come  fuch  as  pro- 
fefs  dortrincs  contrary  to  the  faith  of  Rnmc,  who,  bc- 
(idesflamcs  pointing  upwards,  have  thcirpirture  paint- 
ed on  their  brcaih,  with  dogs,  ftrpentSj  and  devils,  all 
Vol.  I. 


7     ]  ACT 

open-mouthed,  about  it.     Each  prifoncr  is  attended       Aft. 

withafjii.iliarof  theinquilitio;i;  and  thofc  to  be  burnt   -^ 

have  alio  a  Jcfuit  on  each  ha:id,   who  arc  continually 
prtaeliiiiginhcm  to  abjure.  After  the  prifoners,  comes 
a  troop  of  tamiliars  on  horfcback  ;  and  after  them  the 
inquilitors,  and  other  othcers  of  the  court,  on  mules  ; 
lali  of  all,  the  inquilitor-general  on  a  white  hvrfe,  led 
by  two  ir.t.i  with  black  hats  and  green  hat  bands.     A 
fcalFoid  is  crertej  in  the  Tcrriero  dc  I  aio,  Ww  cnnnvh 
fortwoov  thrte  ihojfand  peojilc;  atone  cudofwhich 
are  the  prifoners,  at  the  other  the  inquilitors.     After 
a  ftrmauinadeup  of  cncomiu'.nson  thcinquil'.tion,  and 
invectives  ag.iinit  heretics,  a  pricll  afccndsa  dtOcnear 
tlie  niidjlcot  the  fcali'.dJ,  auJ  haviiigtaken  thcahjura- 
lioii  of  the  penitents,  recitcsthc  final  fenti  nc;  of  thofc 
who  arc  to  be  put  to  diath  ;  and  delivers  them  to  t'lc 
Iccular  arm,  earneflly  bcfecchingat  the  fame  ti;nethe 
ftcular  power  not  to  touch  their  blood,    or   put   their 
lives  in  danger.  The  prifoners  being  thus  in  i  lie  hands 
oftheti*ilmagiftra!c,arcpre(enily  ii.aded  with  chains, 
and  carried  iiril  to  tlic  fecuLnr  goal,  and  from  thcn^c  i.i 
an  hour  or  two  brought  bcl'ore  tlie  civil  jiulgc  ;  who, 
alter  alking  in  what  religion  they  intend  to  die,   pro- 
nounces linteuce,  on  fuch  as  declare  they  die  in  t'lC 
communion  of  the  church  of  Rome,  that  they  (hall  be 
firft  ilrangied,  and  then  burnt  to  alhcs  ;  on  fuch  as  die 
in  any  other  faith,  that  they  be  burnt  alive,    lloth  arc 
immediately  carried  to  tlic  Riiitra,  the  place  of  exe- 
cution ;  where  there  are  as  many  Hakes  fci  up  as  there 
areprifoners  to  be  burnt,  with  a  quantity  ofjry  furz  a- 
bout  them.    The  (lakes  of  the  profelfed,  thai  is,  fuch 
as  perlilt  in  their  hercfy,   are  alout  four  yards  high, 
having  a  fiiiall  board  towards  the  top  for  the  priloncr 
to  be  fcatcd  o*!.   The  negative  and  relapfed  being  firft 
ffrangled  md  burnt,  the  profetfed  mount  their  (takes 
by  a  ladder  ;  and  the  Jefuits,  after  feveral  repeated  ex- 
hortations to   be  reconciled  to  the  church,    part  with 
them,  telling  them  they  leave  them  to  the  devil,  who 
is  flanding  at  their  elbow  to  receive  their  fouls,  and 
carry  them  with  him  into  the  tlamcs  of  hell.    On  this 
a  great  iTiout  is  raifed;   and  the  cry  is.  Let  the  dogs 
b.nrdi  bt  viad:  ;  which  is  done  by  thrulling  flaming 
furzes  faftcned  to  long  poles  againfl  their  faces,  tifl 
their  faces  are  burnt  to  a  coal,  which  is  accompanied 
with  the  loudc/l  acclamations  of  joy.   At  lail,  lire  isfet 
to  the  furz  at  the  bottom  of  the  Hake,  over  which  the 
profcfredarc-cliaincd  fo  high,  that  the  topoftherianic 
feldom  reaches  higher  than  the  feat  llicy  (iton  ;  foiliat 
they  rather  feem  rcafted  than  burnt.    There  cannot  be 
a  more  lamentable  fperticle  ;  the  (ufFerers  continually 
C17  out  while  they  are  able,   jMiJl-riordia  for  amor  de 
Dios,  '•  Piiy  for  tlie  love  of  God  '."yet  it  is  beheld  by  all 
fcxes,  and  ages,  with  tranfports  of  joy  and  fatisfartion. 
Act,    in  dramatic  poetry,   ligniiics  a  certain  divi- 
fion,  or  part,  of  a  play,  deligncd  to  give  fome  rcfpitc 
both  to  the  artors  and  Ipcrtaiors.     The  Romans  were 
the  tirfl  who  divided  thtir  theatrical  pieces  into  srts  ; 
fer  no  fuch  divilions  appear  in  the  works  of  the  lirll 
dramatic  poets.  Their  pieces  indeed  eonfilled  of  feve- 
ral parts  or  divilions,  which  they  called  prr^iafu,  epi- 
tafii, ciitiijlalh,  and  iatajlriphe  ;  but  thefedivifions  were 
not  marked  by  any  real  interruptions  on  the  theatre. 
Nor  does  Aridotle  mention  any  thing  of  arts  in  his  Art 
of  Poetry.     But,  in  tli«  time  of  Horace,  all  regular 
and  finidicd  pieces  were  divided  into  five  a.ls. 

N  Ncuvf 


ACT 


[     9^     ] 


A  C  T 


Ni'ivt  minor,   ncii  Jit  ijuinto  jtiodiiHior  «i/.v 
Fabula,  (jiix  pnfci  villi  if  fpetiata   nponi. 
'l"lie  firfl  att,  according  to  fonic  ci-itics,  befidcs  in- 
troducing upon  the  ftagctlic principal charac^crsol'dic 
play,  oiij;ht  to  piopofc  ihc  argununt  or  fuhjccl  of  tlic 
piece  ;  the  fccond,  to  exhibit  tliis  to  the  audience,  by 
carrying  the  fable  into  execution;  the  third,  to  raifcob- 
ftacles  and  difhcultics  :  the  fourtli,  to  remove  thefe,  or 
raifc  new  ones  in  the  attempt ;  and  the  fifth,  to  con- 
clude the  piece,  by  introducing  lomc  accident  tluumay 
unravel  the  whole  affair.     This  divifion,  however,  is 
not  elleniially  neccifary  ;  but  may  be  varied  accoruing 
to  the  hunieur  of  the  author,  or  the  nature  of  the  fub- 
jed.     See  Poetry,  Fart  11.  Seit.  i. 
Act  bf  Grace.     SccGrace. 

Act,  amoaglawyers,  is  an  inftrunient  in  writing  for 
declaringorjuiUfyingthetrutk  of  any  thing.  In  which 
fenfe,  records,  decrees,  fenteuces,  reports,  certiti- 
catcs,  &c.  are  called  a6ls. 

Acts,  alfo  denote  the  deliberations  and  rcfolutions 
of  an  aliembly,  fenate,  or  convention  ;  as  aifls  of  parlia- 
ment, S:c.  Likcwife  matters  of  faft  tranfmittcd  to 
pofterity  in  certain  authentic  books  and  memoirs. 

JcTA  Coiijijiurii,  the  edii.^s  or  declarations  of  tlie 
council  of  ftate  of  the  emperors.  Thefe  edifts  were 
generally  exprelfed  in  fuch  terms  as  thefe  :  "  The  au- 
gull  emperors,  DiocUfian  and  I\Iaximian,  in  council  de- 
clared. That  the  children  of  Decurions  ihould  not  be 
cxpofed  to  wild  bcalls  in  the  amphitheatre." 

The  fenate  and  folditrs  often  fwore,  either  through 
abjeftllatteryor  by  conipulfion,  upon  the  edifis  of  the 
emperor,  as  wc  do  upon  tiie  bdlc.  And  the  name  of 
Jfidiui  Msrula  waserafed  by  Nero  out  of  theregiller 
of  fenators,  becaufe  he  rcfuftd  to  fwcar  upon  the  edicts 
of  the  emperor  Auguflus. 

Acta  Diuma,  was  a  fort  of  Roman  gazette,  con- 
taining an  authorized  narrativcof  the  traulaftions  wor- 
thy of  notice  which  happened  at  Rome.  Petronius  has 
given  us  a  fpccimen  of  the  a[]a  diurna  in  his  account 
of  Trimalehis;  and  as  it  may  not  perhaps  be  unenter- 
taining  to  fee  how  exaftly  a  Roman  newfpaper  runs  in 
the  flyle  of  an  American  one,the  following  is  an  article 
or  two  out  of  it  : 

"  On  the  26th  of  July,  30  boys  and  40  girls  were 
born  at  Trimalchi's  eilate  at  Cuma. 

"  At  the  fame  time  a  (lave  was  put  to  death  for  ut- 
tering difrcfpectful  words  againfl  his  lord. 

"Thefanic  day  a  fire  broke  out  in  Pompey's  gardens, 
which  bcganin  the  night,  in  the  Iteward's  apartment." 
JcTAl'upiili,  among  the  Romans,  were  journals  or 
regifters  of  the  d:tily  occurrences  ;  asafl'cmblics,  triiJs, 
executions,  buildings,  births,  marriages,  deaths,  &c. 
of  illurtrious  perfons,  and  the  like.  Thefe  were  other- 
wife  called  /^il;i  Piiblica,  and  ABaDiuniu,  or  limply 
Ada.  The  Alia  differed  from  Annals,  in  that  only 
the  greater  and  more  important  matters  were  in  tlie 
latter,  and  thofc of  Icfs note  were  in  the  iormer.  Their 
origin  is  attributed  to  Julius  Cxfar,  who  firfl  ordered 
the  keeping  anJ  making  public  theactsof  the  people. 
Some  trace  them  higher,  to  ServiusTullius  ;  who,  to 
difcovcr  the  number  of  perfons  born,  dead,  and  alive, 
ordered  that  the  next  of  kin,  upon  a  birth,  fliould  put 
a  certain  piece  of  money  into  the  treafury  of  Juno  Lu- 
cina  ;  upon  a  death,  into  that  of  Venus  Libitina:  the 
like  was  alfo  to  be  done  upon  alliiniing  the  toga  virilis, 


&c.  Under  Marcus  Antoninus,  this  was  cari-ied  fur- 
ther :  perfons  were  obliged  to  notify  the  births  of  tlu  ir 
children,  with  their  names  and  furnamcs,thc  day,con- 
f.il,  and  whether  legitimate  or  fpurious,  to  tlie  praifciils 
of  the  JErarimii  Suturin,  to  be  entered  in  the  public 
afls  ;  though  before  this  time  the  births  of  perfons  of 
quality  appear  thus  to  have  been  regillered. 

Acta  Senatus,  among  the  Romans,  were  minutes 
of  what  palled  and  was  debated  in  the  fenate-houfc. 
Thefe  were  alfo  called  Conwientarli,  and  by  a  Greek 
name  tj^ufit^ixtTa..  They  had  their  origin  in  the  con- 
fulfiiip  of  Julius  Cacfar,  who  ordered  them  both  to  be 
kept  and  j  sblilhcd.  The  keeping  them  was  continued 
under  Augullus,  but  the  publication  was  abrogated. 
Afterwards  all  writings,  relatingtothedccrces  orfcn- 
tcnccs  of  the  judges,  or  whatpalfed  and  was  done  be- 
fore them,  or  by  their  authority,  in  any  eaule,  were 
alfo  called  by  the  name  Acia :  Jn  which  fenfe  wc  read 
of  civil  adfs,  criminal  afts,  intervcnient  afts  ;  ada  ci- 
vilia,  cri7nii:alia,  iiitcrvciiieiitia,  &c. 

Piil'/ic  Acts.  The  knowledge  of  public  ai51s  forms 
part  of  a  peculiar  fcience,  called  the  Diplomatic, 
of  great  importance  to  an  hilforian,  ilatefman,  chro- 
nologcr,  and  even  critic.  The  prefervation  of  them 
was  the  firft  occafion  of  ereding  libraries.  The  flyle 
of  aifls  is  generally  barbarous  Latin.  Authors  are  di- 
vided as  to  the  rules  of  judging  of  their  genuiiienefs, 
and  even  whether  there  be  any  certain  rule  at  all.  F. 
Germon  will  have  the  greater  part  of  the  ai^s  of  former 
ages  to  be  fpurious.  Fontanini  aflerts,  that  the  num- 
ber of  forged  afts  now  extant  is  very  fm'all.  It  is  cer- 
tain there  were  fcvere  punilliments  inflicf  ed  on  the  for- 
gers and  faUiliers  of  ads. — The  chief  of  the  Englilli- 
a<5ts,  or  public  records,  are  publiflied  by  Rymer,  under 
the  title  of  f^ri/i'r^,  and  continued  by  Saunderfon  ;  an 
extraclwhereof  has  been  givcnin  French  byRapin,and 
tranHatcd  into  Englilh  under  the  title  of  Acta  Regia. 
Great  commendations  have  been  given  this  work  :  alfo 
fome  cxceptionsmade  to  it ;  as  thatthereare  many  fpu- 
rious a'^is,  as  w  ell  as  errors,  in  it ;  fome  have  even  char- 
ged it  with  falfifications. — The  public  afts  of  France 
fell  into  the  hands  cf  the  Englilh  after  the  battle  of 
Poitiers,  and  are  commonly  faid  to  have  been  carried 
by  them  out  of  the  country.  But  the  tradition  is  not 
fupported  by  any  fujHcient  teflimony. 

Acts  'jfih;  Apopies,  one  of  the  facred  books  of  the 
NewTcilament,  containing  the  hiftoryof  the  infant- 
church,  during  the  fjuce  of  29  or  50  years  from  the 
afccnlion  of  our  Lord  to  the  year  of  Chrili;6  5. — It  was 
written  by  St  Luke  ;  and  addreffed  to  Theophilus,  the 
perfon  to  whom  thecvangelill  had  before  dedicated  his 
gofpcl.  Weherefind  theaccomplilhmentoffeveralof 
the  promifesmade  by  our  Saviour;  his  afccnfion  ;  the 
defccntofthe  Holy  Cihofl;  the  firft  preaching  of  the  a- 
po;Hcs,  and  the  miracles  whereby  their  doctrines  were 
confirmed  ;  an  adniirablepidureof  the  manners  of  the 
primitive  Chriftians ;  and,  iii  Ihort,  every  thing  that 
palFedin  the  church  till  the  uifperfion  of  the  apoliles, 
who  fcparuted  themfelvcs  in  order  to  propagate  the 
gofpel  throughout  the  world.  From  the  period  of  that 
feparation,  St  Luke  quits  the  hiftory  of  the  other  apo- 
flles,  who  were  then  at  too  great  a  diftancc  from  him, 
and  confines  himfclf  more  particularly  to  that  of  St 
Paul,  who  had  chofen  him  for  the  companion  of  his 
labours.     Ke  follows  that  apoftlc  in  all  his  niilfions, 

and 


A  C  'i^ 


[     99     ] 


ACT 


AA*. 


*ictAbJiai 


4  Efeub  ii. 
Hijl  EccUu 
lib.ii.cap.2< 
and  ix.  J. 


tCavc«;/f. 
L  iter  jr. 


anJ  even  Roine  itfdf ;  for  it  appears  that  the  Ai'ls 
wcrcpublilhc-di:uhcfccoiiJycaroi  StPauli'srcliJcncc 
in  that  city,  or  the  36"'  year  of  tlic  ChrilHan  xn,  ami 
in  the  9'''  or  lo""  ycarof  Kcro's  reign.  The  llylc  of 
this  work,  which  was  originally  compofcd  in  Greek,  is 
much  purer  than  thatof  tlic  other  canonical  writers  j 
and  it  is  obfcrvable,  that  St  Luke,  who  was  nuich  better 
acquainted  with  the  Greek  than  with  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage, always,  in  his  quotations  from  the  OKI  Tella- 
nient,  makes  ufc  of  the  Scpluagint  verfion.  The  coun- 
cil of  Laodicca  places  the  AiXs  of  the  ApolUes  among 
the  canonical  books,  and  all  the  churches  have  ac- 
knowledged it  as  fuch  without  any  controverfy. 

There  were  fcveral  Spurious  Acts  of  the  Apo- 
stles ;  panicularly,  I.  A{li,  fuppofcd  to  be  written 
by  Abdias*,  the  pretended  biflioji  of  Babylon,  who 
gave  out  that  he  was  ordained  bili;op  by  the  Apofllcs 
thenifclvcs  when  they  were  upon  their  journey  into 
Perlia.  II.  The  Aits  if  St  I'eter  :  tilis  bcKjk  came  o- 
riginally  from  the  fchool  of  the  Ebionites.  III.  The 
Ms  of  St  Patil,  which  is  entirely  loft.  Eufcbius,  who 
had  feen  it,  pronounces  it  of  no  authority.  IV.  Th: 
jids  of  St  John  the  Evaiigelijf  ;  a  book  made  ufe  of  by 
Vac  EncratiteSjManichaeans,  and  Prifcillianifts.  V .The 
Ads  of  Sty4ti(/riiu  ;  received  by  the  Manicheaens,  En- 
cratitcs,  an  Apotaflics.  VT.  Tie  Alh  oj  St  Thoirms  the 
Apojile  ;  received  particularly  by  the  Manichaans. 
VII.  The  Acls  of  St  rhilip.  This  book  the  Gnoftics 
made  ufc  of.  VIII.  The  Alh  of  St  Matthias.  Some 
have  imagined  that  the  Jews  for  a  long  time  had  con- 
cealed thcoriginal  acls  of  the  life  and  deathof  St  Mat- 
tiiias  written  in  Hebrew  j  and  that  a  monk  of  the  ab- 
bey of  St  Matthias  at  Treves,  having  got  them  out  of 
their  hands,  procured  them  to  be  tranllated  into  Latin, 
and  publilhcd  them  ;  but  tlie  critics  will  not  allow  them 
to  be  authentic. 

Acts  oj  Pilate  ;  a  relation  fcnt  by  Pilate  to  the  em- 
perorTiberius,  concerning  Jefus  Chrift,  his  death,  re- 
furrcflion,  afcenfion,  and  the  crimes  of  which  he  was 
convicted  before  himf .  It  was  a  cuftom  among  the 
Romans,  that  the  proconfuls  and  governors  of  provin- 
ces (hould  drawup  ails  or  memoirs,  of  what  happened 
in  the  conrfeof  their  government,  and  fend  them  to  the 
emperor  and  fcnate.  The  genuine  a(ts  of  Pilate  were 
fentby  him  to  Tiberius,  who  reported  tlicm  to  the  fc- 
nate ;  but  they  were  reje(5lcd  by  that  afl'cnibly,  btcaufc 
not  immediately  addrelfed  to  them  :  as  is  tcitificd  by 
Tertullian,  in  his  Apol.  cap.  j.  and  20,  21.  The 
heretics  forged  ads  in  imitation  of  them  :  in  the  reign 
of  the  emperor  Maximin,  the  Gentiles,  to  throw  an 
odium  on  tlie  Chriftian  name,  fprcad  about  fpurious 
Afts  of  Pilate  ;  which  the  emperor,  by  a  folcmn  edict, 
ordered  to  be  fent  into  all  the  provinces  of  the  empire, 
and  enjoined  the  fchool-uiafters  to  teach  and  explain 
them  to  their  fcholars,  and  make  thera  learn  them  by 
heart.  Thefc  a,.1s,  both  the  genuine  and  the  fpurious, 
are  loft.  There  is  indeed  extant,  in  the  Pfeudo-Hcge- 
fippas,  a  letter  from  Pilate  to  the  emperor  Claudius, 
concerning  Jefus  Chrift  J  ;  but  it  difcovers  itfelf  at 
firft  fight  not  to  be  authentic. 

Act  of  Parliament  of  Great  Britan,  is  a  pofitivc 
law,  confifting  of  two  pans,  the  words  of  the  ai5t,  and 
its  true  fcnfe  and  meaning ;  which  being  joined, 
make  the  law.  The  words  of  afts  of  parliament  (Iiould 
be  taken  in  a  lawful  fenfe.  Cafes  of  the  fame  nature  arc 


within  the  intcii'.ion,  tho.igli  without  the  letter,  of 
tlic  act ;  and  funic  atts  extend  by  equity  to  things  not 
mentioned  therein.  Sec  Parliamewt. 

AQTAl,  were  meadows  of  remarkable  verdure  anJ 
luxiiriancy  near  the  fea-lhore,  where  the  Romans  ufcj 
to  indulge  thenifclvcs  to  a  great  degree  in  foftncfsand 
delicacy  of  living.  The  v/ord  is  ufcdiu  this  fenfe  by 
Cictro  and  Virgil  ;  but  Vollius  thinks  it  can  only  be 
ufed  in  fpcaking  of  Sicily,   as  thtfc  two  authors  did. 

ACT/EA,  AcoNiTUM  Racemosum,  Herb  Cris- 
topher,  or  Baxe-berries  ;  a  genus  of  the  inou'jgy- 
nia  order,  belonging  to  the  polyandria  clafs  of  plants. 
The  characters  arc  :  the  caljx  is  a  pcrianthium  con- 
filling  of  four  roundiih,  obtufc,  concave  leaves,  which 
fall  ott".  Tlie  «rs//<7  confi;ls  of  four  petals,  larger 
than  the  calyx,  pointed  at  both  ends,  and  falling  otf. 
'1  be  jlamiua  conlill  of  numerous  capillary  filaments  ; 
the  anihera  are  roundiih,  crcft,  and  didymous.  The 
pifiilium  has  an  ovate  germ.cn  j  no  ftylas  ;  the  fligina 
thickilli  and  obliquely  dcprcdcd.  The  pericarpium  is 
an  oval  fniooth  one-furrow'd  one-ccU'd  berry.  The 
feeds  are  very  numerous,  fcmiorbicular,  and  incumbent 
in  a  double  order. — This  genus  is  alFociattd  with  the 
Muliijitiqtia,  the  26""  natural  order.     There  arc  four 

Species  and  properties.  I.  The  fpicata,  or  common 
hcrb-chriftophcr,is  a  native  in  fcveral  parts  of  Britain. 
It  grows  to  the  height  of  about  two  feet  and  a  half  ; 
the  foot-ftalks  of  the  leaves  arifc  from  the  root  ;  thcfc 
divide  into  three  fniallerfoot-ttalks,  each  of  which  arc 
again  divided  into  three,  and  thefe  have  each  three 
lobes ,  fo  that  each  leaf  is  compofcd  of  27  lobes  or  fmal- 
ler  leaves.  The  flowers  grow  in  ramous  fpikes,  and  arc 
of  a  pure  white:  they  are  borne  upon  a  dcndcr,  jointed, 
and  furrowed  llcm;  appear  inMay;  and  are  fucceedcdby 
black,  fhining,  pulpy  berries,  about  the  li^c  of  peas, 
whicii  ripen  in  the  autumn.  This  plant  is  a  powerful 
repellent, and  the  root  has  been  ufed  internally  in  fomc 
nervous  cafes,  but  muft  be  adminiftercd  with  caution. 
The  berries  arc  highly  poifonous.  It  isfaid  toads  re- 
fort  to  this  plant,  on  account  of  its  fetid  fmell.  Sheep 
and  goats  cat  it  ;  cows,  horfcs,  and  fwinc  refufe  it. 
2. The  alba,  or  Amcricanhcrb-chriftophcr,  isa  native 
of  North  America.  The  leaves  of  this  fpccics  arc  fomc- 
what  like  the  former,  but  not  fo  deeply  indented  in  iho 
edges.  The  flowcrsgrowin  a  morecompael  fpike,  and 
the  berries  arc  very  white  and  tranfparent  when  ripe  ; 
the  roots  arc  compofcd  of  thick  knobs.  This  fpecics 
has  been  ufed  as  an  emetic,  and  fometimes  called  ipe- 
cacoaiiha.  3.  The  raceinofa,  or  American  black  or  wild 
inakcroot,  is  likewife  a  native  of  Nonh-Amtrica.  It 
has  large  compound  Icavcs.riling  immediately  from  the 
root,  and  branched  after  the  fame  manner  as  the  firft 
which  grow  more  than  two  feet  high.  The  flowcr- 
ftcm  rifcs  to  the  height  of  four  or  five  feet;  and  carries 
along  fpike  of  white  ilowers  refiedrled  atthetop.  Thcfc 
appear  in  June  or  the  beginning  of  July,  but  the  feeds 
do  not  come  to  maturity  in  Britain.  The  root  of  this 
plant  is  greatly  ufed  by  phylicians  in  this  country, 
in  many  diforders  ;  and  is  fuppofcd  to  be  an  antidote  a- 
gainft  poifon,  or  the  biting  of  a  raitle-fuakc.  4.  The 
cimicifuga,  is  A  native  of  Siberia  ;  the  leaves  rcfemblc 
thcfc  of  the  feathered  columbine  ;theftalks  ri£e  little 
more  than  a  foot  high,  fupporting  particles  of  white 
flowers,  which  appear  in  ftlay.  This  fpecies  is  rare 
in  Britain. 

N  2  Culture. 


AftT, 


ACT 


[      100      1 


ACT 


Culture.  Tlic  (irfl  fpccics  hath  .1  perennial  root, 
but  the  ihlks  aumially  decay.  It  may  be  propagated 
either  by  feeds,  or  parting  the  roots,  which  flwiiki  be 
traMfplaiUcd  iuu'iiiimn.  1  he  I'ecds  Ihoiild  be  IbwrJooii 
after  tlicy  src  ripe,  or  they  will  lie  a  w  hole  year  in  the 
ground  before  they  vegetate.  They  liiould  befoWii  in 
a  fliady  border  :  and  as  all  the  plants  do  not  come  up  at 
the  fame  time,  the  border  ihoald  not  be  di;-ti;rbcd  till 
the  following  autumn,  when  they  ihould  betranfplant- 
cd  into  a  fhady  border,  where  they  may  be  allo\\ed  to 
remain  and  flower. — The  fecond  ipecies  may  be  pro- 
pogated  in  the  fame  manner  :  only  the  pLiiits  ihould 
be  allowed  three  feet  every  way,  on  account  of  their 
wide-1'preading  leaves.  This  fpecics  delights  in  a 
light  r.ioill  foil,  and  lliady  liiuation — The  third  is 
nfually  propagated  by  feeds  feiii  annually  from  North 
America  :  it  thrives  in  the  fame  kind  of  foil  as  thefor- 
mer  ;  and  is  very  hardy,  requiring  no  other  culture 
than  the  common  tlowering-lhrubs.  'I'he  plants  fliould 
not  be  often  removed  for  that  will  prevent  their  How- 

ering  llrong The  fourth  requires  a  moill;  loamy  foil, 

and  ihady  iltuation.     It  may  be  propagated  in  the  fame 
manner  as  the  others. 

ACTytON,  in  fabulous  hiflory,  the  fon  of  Arifl^tus 
and  Autonoe  ;  a  great  hunter.  He  was  turned  by  Di- 
ana into  a  ftag,  for  looking  on  her  while  bathing  ;  and 
died  by  his  own  dogs. 

ACTAXIA,  an  iiland,  .-iccording  to  Pliny,  in  the 
North  fea.  It  lies  to  the  well  of  Holilein  and  Dit- 
mcrfch,  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the  Eyder  and  Elbe, 
and  is  now  called  Hcytiglatid. 

ACTE.     Sec  Sam  Bi'cus. 

ACTIAN  Games, in  Roman  antiquity,  were  foicmn 
games  inllituted  by  Augultus,  in  memory  of  his  vic- 
tory over  Marc  Anthony  at  Aftium,  held  every  lifih 
year,  and  celebrated  in  honour  of  Apollo,  fuice  called 
Mitus.  Hence  Aciiau  Years,  an  jera  commencing  from 
the  battle  of  Actium,  called  the  JEra  of  Angujtus. 

Virgil  irifinuates  them  to  have  been  inflituted  by  -'E- 
ucas;  from  that  pallage  Kn.  HI.  v.  2S0. 
Aitiaqiic  Jl.acis  Q.hbrajiius  litora  litdis. 

i^LS.  iii.  2S0. 
But  this  he  only  does  by  way  of  compliment  to  Auguf- 
tus  ;  attributing  that  to  the  hcto  from  whom   he  de- 
fcended,  which  was  done  by  the  emperor  himfelf :  as 
is  obfcrvcd  by  Servius. 

.ACTINIA,  in  zoology,  a  genus  belonging  to  tlie 
order  of  vermes  mollufca.  The  body  is  oblong  and 
fmootli,  attaching  itfclf  lirmly  by  its  balls  to  rocks  or 
other  folid  fubrtances,  having  a  dilatable  apex  hooked 
within.  The  mouth  is  furniihed  with  crooked  teeth, 
thcroftrum  cylindrical  and  radiated.  There  are  five 
fpccies,  fomc  of  which  make  a  beautiful  appearance, 
and  arc  called  Annual  Flo'Jj:;rs,  S;a  Aueji.-oniis,  and 
Urti'.a  Miiiiiia.     See  A n  t m  a  i.  Fionvir. 

Progrellive  motion  in  ihefe  creatures  is  fo  How,  that 
it  isditiicult  topcrtf  iveany,as  they  fcarce  advance  the 
1(  ngth  of  one  inch  in  an  hour.  It  would  fecm  they  do 
not  sll  produce,  when  handled,  the  painful  fcnfaiion 
which  had  acquired  them  the  name  oi  fsj-iuttlci — 
They  are  viviparous, feed  on  (hcllnni,  open  their  mouth 
more  or  lefs  according  to  the  lize  of  the  prey  they  have 
to  de-il  with,  and  then  rcjcft  the  fnell  through  the  fame 
aperture.  When  the  mouth  is  open,  all  the  tenticula 
of  the  adinia  may-  be  fcen,  rcfcmbling  in  that  fituatiou 


a  full-blown  flower,  which  has  given  it  the  dcnomi-      Aflio. 
nation  of  \\\epu'AK-rfipK  ' « — 

ACTIO,  in  Roman  antiquities,  an  ai5iion  at  law  in 
a  court  ofjullice.  The  forniirtiiies  ufed  by  the  Ro- 
mans, injudicial  adliuns,  were  thefc  :  If  the  ditference 
tailed  to  be  made  up  by  friends,  the  injured  perfons 
proceeded  //;  jus  rcuvt  vocan,  to  fummon  the  offending 
party  to  the  court,  who  was  obliged  to  go  and  give  bond 
tor  his  appearance. 

The  oitcnding  party  might  be  fumnioned  into  courc 
viviivcce,  by  the  plaintilfhimfclf  meeting  the  defen- 
dant, declaring  his  intention  to  him,  and  commanding 
him  to  go  before  the  magifirate  and  make  his  defence. 
If  he  would  not  go  willingly,  he  might  drag  and  force 
him  along,  unlets  he  gave  fecurity  for  his  appearance 
on  Ibme  appointed  day.  If  he  failed  to  appear  on  the 
day  agreed  on,  then  the  plaintiri',  whcnfoeverhe  met 
him,  might  take  him  along  with  him  by  force,  calling 
any  by-ltandtrs  to  bear  W'itnefs,  by  alkingthem  vi/rii: 
antejlari ;  the  by-flanders  upon  this  turned  ihcir  ear  to- 
wards him  in  token  of  their  coufcnt :  To  this  Horace 
alludes  in  his  Sat.  againil  the  impertinent.  Lib.  I .  Sat. 
9.     See  this  further  explained  under  the  article  An- 

TESTARI. 

Bath  parties  being  met  before  the  pr«tor,  or  other 
fupreme  magifirate  prcfidingin  the  court,  (he  plaintift 
propoft.  d  the  attion  to  the  defendant  ;  in  which  he  de- 
Jigncd  to  profeciite  him.  This  they  termed  cdcre  ac- 
tionem ;  and  was  corrmonly  performed  by  W'riting  it  in 
a  tablet,  andolieringit  to  the  defendant,  that  he  might 
fee  whether  he  had  better  Hand  the  fuit  or  com- 
pound. 

In  the  next  place  came  the  poptihtio  a{lionis ,  or  the 
plantiti's  petition  to  the  prsetor,  for  leave  to  profecutc 
the  defendant  in  fuch  an  adion.  The  petition  was 
granted  by  writing  at  the  bottom  of  it  nfiionem  do,  or 
refufcd  by  writing  in  the  fame  manner  aHi^netu  noii 
do. 

The  petition  being  granted,  the  ^\z.Vi\\?i  vadahattir 
reum,  i.  e.  obliged  him  to  give  fureties  for  his  appear- 
ance on  fuch  a  day  in  the  court  ;  and  this  w-as  all  that 
was  done  in  public,  before  the  day  fixed  upon  for  the 
trial. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  difference  was  often  made  up, 
either  tranfaBioni:,  by  lettingthecaufcfall  as  dubious  ; 
or  paCiiane,  by  conipofition  for  damages  amongll 
friends. 

On  the  day  appointed  for  hearing,  the  prastor  or- 
dered the  feveral  bills  to  be  read,  and  the  parties  fum- 
moned  by  an  accmifiis,  or  beadle.     See  Accensi. 

Upon  the  non-appearance  of  cither  pai.y,  the  de- 
faulter lofl  his  caufe  ; — if  they  both  appeared,  they 
were  faid  fi:  f\ stir's  ;  and  the  the  plaiiuifF proceeded 
liietn  fiv!  alliontiiilntcitdvre,  i.  e.  to  prefer  his  fuit, 
which  was  done  in  a  fet  form  of  words,  varying  accor- 
ding to  the  difference  of  the  aftions.  After  this  the 
plaintiff delired  judgment  oftlie  praetor,  that  is,  robe 
allowed  a  judix  or  arbiter,  or  elfe  the  rccuperaton:!  or 
centumviri.  Thefe  he  requeflcd  for  the  hearing  and 
deciding  the  bufinefs  ;  but  none  of  them  could  be  de- 
fired  but  by  the  confent  of  both  parties. 

The  pr.'sior  having  aHigned  them  their  judges,  de- 
fined and  determined  the  number  of  witnelfes  to  bead- 
milted,  to  hinder  the  protracling  of  the  fuit  ;  and 
then  the  parties  proceeded  to  give  their  caution,  that 

the 


ACT 


[     loi     1 


A  C  1' 


ilicjuJKiiicnr,  whaicvcrkwas,  illo^ll.lftanJan•.ibcpcr- 
'  fi)i-iiicd  onboili  fides,  'riicjadgcs  took  a  t'olrninuach 
to  be  imparlial;  and  the  parties  took  l\\cj:'r.i»u-».'.-iiu 
calumiiia.  Then  the  ti  ial  W-^iw  with  the  afilftancc  of 
witriellcs,  writings,  8:c.  which  was  called  djccftaih 

Action,  in  a  general  ftnfc,  iinplics  nearly  the 
fume  thing  with  Act. — Grammarians,  however,  ob- 
fcrvc  fomc  dillintlion  between  afl/o/zand  ail  ,•  ilic  for- 
mer being  generally  reftrit'ted  to  the  common  or  ordi- 
nary trsnfactions,  whereas  the  latter  is  ufed  tocxprcfs 
thofc  which  are  remarkable.  Thus,  wc  fay  it  is  a  good 
eSlion  to  comfort  the  unhappy  ;  it  is  a  generous  ah  to 
deprive  ourfclves  of  what  is  nccelury  for  tlieir  fake. 
The  wife  man  propofcs  to  hinifelf  an  honcfl  end  in  all 
his  ti{fio)ts ;  a  prince  ought  to  mark  every  day  of  his  life 
with  fomc  a{l  of  greatnefs.  The  a!)b^  Cirard  makes  a 
further  diflindion  between  the  words  action  and  aff. 
The  former,  according  to  him,  has  more  relation  to  the 
power  that  afts  than  the  latter ;  whereas  the  latter  has 
more  relation  to  the  eifeCt  produced  than  the  former  : 
and  hencethe  one  isproperly  theattributeof  the  other. 
Thus  wc  may  properly  fay,  "  Be  Aire  to  prcfervc  a 
prefcnce  of  mind  in  all  your  adlions  ;and  take  care  that 
they  all  be  acts  of  equity." 

Action,  in  mechanics,  implies  cither  the  effort 
which  a  body  or  power  maJ^es  again fl  another  body  or 
power,  or  the  effeifl  itfelf  of  that.etfort. 

Asitisnccelfiry  in  works  of  this  kind  to  have  a  par- 
ticular regard  to  the  common  language  of  mechanics 
and  philofophcrs,  vve  have  given  this  double  detiiiition  : 
but  the  proper  fignification  of  the  term  is  the  motion 
which  a  body  really  produces,  or  tends  to  produce,  in 
another  ;  that  is,  fuch  is  the  motion  it  would  have  pro- 
duced, had  nothing  hindered  its  cffedl. 

All  power  is  nothing  more  than  a  body  actually  in 
motion,  or  which  tends  to  move  itfelf ;  that  is,  a  body 
which  would  move  itfelf  if  nothing  oj'pofcd  it.  The 
adion  therefore  of  a  body  is  rendered  evident  to  us  by 
its  motion  only  ;  and  confequently  we  muft  not  fix  any 
other  idea  to  the  word  adion,  than  that  of  adlual  mo- 
tion, or  a  fiuiple  tendency  to  motion.  The  famous  que- 
lliou  relating  to  -ois  viva,  and  vii  mortua,  owes,  in  all 
probability,  its  e.\iftence  to  an  inadequate  idea  of  the 
word  action  ;  forbad  Leibnitz  and  hisfoUowersobfer- 
ved,  that  the  only  precife  and  diiUniit  idea  we  can  give 
to  the  word  force  or  aition,  reduces  it  to  its  effir .51,  that 
is,  to  the  motion  it  adlually  produces  or  tends  to  pro- 
duce, they  would  never  have  made  that  curious  dif- 
tinclion. 

(lliaiitity  of  Acriox,  a  name  given  by  ]\J.  de  M.ui- 
periuis,  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Pariiian  Acailemy  of 
Sciences  for  i  744,  and  thofc  of  Berlin  for  i  746,  to  the 
product  of  the  mafs  of  a  body  by  the  fpace  w liich  it 
runs  through,  and  by  its  celerity.  He  lays  it  down 
as  a  general  law,  "that,  in  thechsnges  made  in  the 
"rtatcof  ahody,  the  quantity  of  adtion  neceflary  to  pro- 
"  ducc  fuch  a  change,  is  the  lealt  pofTiblc."  This  prin- 
ciple he  applies  10  the  invcfligation  of  ilie  laws  of  rc- 
lrai5lion,of  equilibrium,  &c.  and  even  to  the  ways  of 
aiJifng  employed  by  the  Supreme  Being.  In  tliis  man- 
ner M.  de  Maupertuis  attempts  to  cnnccl  the  meta- 
phylics  of  ilnal  caufcs  with  the  fundamcndal  truths  of 
mechanics,  to  Ihow  the  dependence  of  the  coliiiion  of 
both  ehftic  and  hard  bodies  upon  one  and  the  fame  law, 


which  before  had  always  been  rc/errtil  to  I'rptr.-.tc 
laws  ;  and  10  reduce  the  laws  of  motion,  aiul  thofc  of 
equilibrium,  to  one  and  the  fame  principle. 

AcrxoN,  in  ethics,  dcnotcstheextcrnaliignsorc.K- 
prcflions  of  the  fentiments  of  a  moral  agtut.  See 
AcTlVL  lo-vjsr,  infra. 

Action,  in  poetry,  the  fame  with  fubjeft  or  fable. 
Critics  generally  diJliugui.li  two  ki:'.ds,  the  principal 
.Tnd  tiie  incidental.  The  principal  action  ii  what  is 
generally  called  i\\c  fable  ;  and  the  incidental  an  ept- 
fJc.     See  Poetry,  Part  11. 

Action,  in  oratory,  is  the  outward  deportment  of 
the  orator,  or  the  accommodation  of  his  tountenancc, 
voice,  and  gcflure,  to  the  fubjcitoi  which  he  is  treat- 
ing.    See  Oratory,  Part  IV. 

Action,  in  a  theatrical  fcnfe.  See  Declamati- 
on, Art.  IV. 

Actios  for  thi  Fulpit.    Sec  Declamation,  .\rt.  I. 

Action,  in  painting  and  fculpture,  is  the  attitude 
or  pofition  of  the  feveral  parts  of  the  face,  body,  and 
limbs  of  fuch  figures  as  arc  reprcfcnied,  and  whereby 
they  fccm  to  be  really  aftuated  by  paliions.  Thus  wc 
fay,  the  aftion  of  fuch  a  figure  hncly  exprelTcs  the 
paflions  with  which  it  is  agitated  :  wc  alio  ufc  th« 
fame  cxprcliion  with  regard  to  animals. 

Action,  in  phyliology,  is  applied  to  the  function? 
of  the  body,  whether  vital,  animal,  or  natural. 

The  c/w/ functions,  or  actions,  are  thofc  which  are 
abfo'utely  nccelTary  to  life,  and  without  which  there  is 
no  life,  as  the  aftion  of  the  heart,  lungs,  and  arteries. 
On  the  action  aHd  reaction  of  the  folids  and  iluids  o.i 
each  other,  depend  the  vital  functions.  The  pulfc  and 
rcfpiration  are  the  external  llgnsof  life.  Vital  difeafcJ 
are  all  thofc  which  hinder  the  influx  of  the  venous 
blood  into  the  cavities  of  the  heart,  and  the  expidhon 
of  the  arterial  blood  tVom  the  fame. — The  /w/.vr.j/ func- 
tions are  thofe  which  are  inllrumental  in  repairing  the 
feveral  lolfcs  which  the  body  fuflains  ;  for  lifeisdcf- 
truftive  of  itfelf,  its  very  otRces  occafioning  a  perpe- 
tual wafle.  Thcmanducation  of  food,  the  deglutition 
and  digeftion  thereof,  alio  the  fcparation  and  didribu- 
lion  of  the  chyle  and  exerementitous  parts,  &c.  arc 
under  the  head  of  natural  functions,  as  by  thcfe  oura- 
liment  is  converted  into  our  nature.  They  arc  nccclfa- 
rytothe  continuance  of  our  bodies. — Tlieanir/ia!  func- 
tions arc  thofc  which  we  perform  at  will,  as  mufcular 
motion,  and  all  the  voluntary  actions  of  the  body,  they 
are  thofe  which  conftitutc  the  fenfes  of  touch,  taflc, 
finell,  fight,  hearing  ;  perception,  rcafoaintr,  imagina- 
tion, memory,  judgment,  atFcftionsof  themind.\S'i;h- 
out  any,  or  all  oftheui,  a  man  may  live,  but  not  fa  com- 
fortably as  with  them. 

Action,  in  commerce,  is  a  term  ufed  abroad  for  a 
certain  part  or  lliare  of  a  public  company's  capital 
Aock.  Thus  if  a  conipany  has  400.000  livres  capital 
Hock,  this  may  be  divided  into  4C0  actions,  caeli  con- 
lifting  of  1000  livres.  Hence  a  man  is  f.iid  to  have  two, 
four,  &c.  actions,  according  as  he  has  the  property  of 
two,  four,  cic.  1000  livres  capital  Itock.  The  trans- 
ferring of  actions  abroad  is  performed  much  in  the 
fame  manner  as  ftocks  are  in  England.    See  .Stock?:. 

Action,  in  law,  is  a  demand  made  before  .t  jid^c 
for  obtaining  what  wc  arc  legally  iniiiled  to  demand, 
and  is  more  cn-nmonly  kiiowu  by  the  nime  <>i I'a-^-fnit 
or  fraccf J.     See  Suit. 

ACTIONARY, 


AAin.l. 


ACT 


[     t 


»/i  tic  Ac- 
ti-ve  Pciifrs 
ff  Man, 
P-    IT* 


ACTIONAllY,  or  Actionist,  a  proprietor  of 
ftock  in  a  trading  company. 

ACTIONS,  aiiioiu'  merchants,  fomctimes  fignify 
moveable  ctfeds  ;  and  we  fay  the  merchant's  creditors 
have  feizcd  on  all  his  aflions,  when  we  mean  that  they 
have  taken  poirdllon  of  all  his  active  debts. 

ACTIVE,  denotes  fomething  that  communicates 
aftion  or  motion  to  anotlicr  ;  in  which  acceptation  it 
Hands oppofcd  to  padive. 

Active,  in  grammar,  is  applied  to  fiich  words  as  . 
exprefsaflion;andis  thcrcforeoppofed  topaffivc.  The 
adive  performs  the  adion,  as  the  pallivc  receives  it. 
ThVis  we  fay,  a  verb  ailive,  a  conjugation  nBive,  &c. 
or  an  aOivc  participle. 

j4cTtrE  Verbs,  arcfuch  as  do  not  only  lignify  doing, 
or  ading  ;  but  have  alfo  nouns  following  them,  to  be 
the  fubjcd  of  the  aftion  or  imprellion  :  thus.  To  love, 
to  teach,  arc  verbs  a^livc  ;  becaufe  we  can  fay.  To  love 
it  thing,  to  teach  a  ti.-an.  Neuter  verbs  alfo  denote  an 
adlion,  but  are  diftingnidicd  from  adivc  verbs,  in  that 
ihey  cannot  have  a  noun  following  them  :  fuch  arc 
To  Jlcep,  to  go,  i7c. — Some  grammarians,  however, 
make  three  kiiidsof  active  verbs:  xXxctiaiifdOive  ,\\\\cxc 
the  aftion  pail'cs  into  a  fubjcc^  ditfc-rent  from  the  agent : 
rcficOcd,  where  the  aflion  returns  upon  the  agent ; 
tmA  reciprocal,  where  the  action  turns  mutually  upon 
the  two  agents  who  produced  it. 

AcTivF.  Po-iver,  in  metaphylics,  the  power  of  exe- 
cuting any  work  or  labour  :  in  ccntradiftinciion  to 
fpeciilative  powers*,  or  the  powers  of  feeing,  hearing, 
remembering,  judging  reafoning,  &c 

The  exertion  of  aftivc  power  we  call  acfion  ;  and 
as  every  action  produces  fomc  change,  fo  every  change 
muR  be  caufcd  by  fome  ciieft,  or  by  the  ccllation  of 
fomc  exertion  of  power.  That  which  produces  a 
change  by  the  e;xerlion  of  its  power,  we  call  the  caiife 
of  that  change  ;  and  the  change  produced,  tke  efftfl 
uf  that  caufe.     See  Met.^ph ysics. 

j4ctive  Princifh-s,  in  chemillry,  fuch  as  are  fuppofed 
lo  ad  without  any  alTiHance  from  others  ;  as  mercury, 
fulphur,  &c. 

ACTIVITY,  in  general,  denotes  the  power  of  act- 
ing, or  the  atlive  faculty.     See  Active. 

Sphcn  of  AcTivirr,  the  whole  fpace  in  wliich  the 
virtue,  power,  or  iniiuence,  of  any  olijed,  is  exerted. 

ACTIUM  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  fituated  on  the 
foaft  of  Acarnania,  in  itfelf  inconfiderable,  but  famous 
for  a  temple  of  Apollo,  a  fafe  harbour,  and  an  adjoin- 
ing promontory  of  the  fame  name,  in  the  mouth  of 
the  Sinus  Ambracius,  over  againft  Nicopolis,  on  the 
other  lide  of  the  bay  :  it  afterwards  became  more  fa- 
mous on  account  of  Angnflus's  vidory  over  Anthony 
and  Cleopatra;  and  for  quinquennial  games  inltitutcd 
there,  ciWeti  J^ia  or  Lii.li  AcTiaci.  Hence  the  epi- 
thet ji/i??////,  given  to  Apollo  (Virgil).  Jliiaca  ^ra, 
a  computation  of  time  from  the  battle  of  Adium.  The 
promontory  is  now  called  Capo  di  Figalo. 

ACTIUS,  inmythology,  a  furnair.e  of  Apollo,  from 
Adiuni,  where  he  was  worlhipped. 

ACTON,  a  town  near  London,  where  is  a  well  that 
affords  a  purging  water,  w-hich  is  noted  for  the  pun- 
gency of  its  fait.  This  water  is  whitilh,  to  the  tafte  it 
is  fweetilh,  with  a  mixture  of  the  fame  bitter  which  is 
in  the  Epfom  water.  The  fait  of  this  water  is  not  quite 
fo  (oft  as  that  of  Epfom  ;  and  is  more  calcareous  than 


02     ]  ACT 

it,  being  more  of  the  nature  of  the  fait  of  lime  :  for  a 
quantity  of  the  Adon  water  being  boiled  high,  on  be-  ^ 
ing  mixed  with  a  foluiion  of  fublimatc  in  pure  water, 
threw  down  a  yellow  fcdiment.  The  fait  of  the  Adon 
water  is  more  nitrous  than  that  of  Epfom  ;  it  Itrikcs  a 
deep  red,  or  purple,  with  the  tiiidure  of  logwood  in 
brandy,  as  is  ufual  with  nitrous  falts  ;  it  does  not  pre- 
cipitate lilver  out  of  the  fpirit  of  nitre,  as  common  fait 
docs:  I ;  lb  of  this  water  yields  48  grains  of  fait. 

ACTOR,  in  general,  (ignifies  a  perfon  who  ads  or 
performs  fomething. 

Actor,  among  Civilians,  the  prodor  or  advocate 
in  civil  courts  or  caufcs  :  as,  ^iVrt/r  ecclef^  has  been 
fomelimes  ufed  for  the  advocate  of  the  church  ;  a{hr 
domiiiicus  for  the  lord's  attorney ;  a{lor  villcc,  the  llew- 
ard  or  head  baililFof  a  village. 

Actor,  in  the  drama,  is  a  perfon  who  reprefcnts 
fome  part  or  charadcr  upon  the  theatre.  The  drama 
coniilkd  originally  of  nothing  more  thanafimple  cho- 
rus, who  fung  hymns  in  honour  of  Bacchus  ;  fo  that 
the  primitive  adors  were  only  fingers  and  mulicians. 
Thefpis  was  the  firft  that,  in  order  to  cafe  this  un- 
formed chorus,  introduced  a  declaimer,  who  repeated 
fome  heroic  or  comic  adventure,  ^ii^fcliylus,  finding  a 
linglc  perfon  tirefome,  attempted  to  introduce  a  fe- 
cond,  and  changed  the  ancient  recitals  into  dialogues. 
Mc  alfo  drclled  liis  adors  in  a  more  majcftic  manner, 
and  introduced  the  cothurnus  or  buikm.  Sophoclci 
added  a  third,  inordcrtoreprefentthe  variousincidcnts 
in  a  more  natural  manner:  and  here  the  Greeks  Hopped, 
at  leall  we  do  not  lind  in  any  of  their  tragedies  above 
three  perfons  in  the  fame  fccne.  Perhaps  they  lookcu 
upon  it  as  a  rule  of  the  dramatis  poem,  never  to  admit 
more  tlian  three  fpeakers  at  a  time  on  the  flage  ;  a  rule 
which  Horace  has  exprelfed  in  the  following  verfe  : 

Nee  quarta  loqiii  perfona  lahoret. 
This,  however,  docs  not  prevent  their  increafing  the 
number  of  adors  in  comedy.  Before  the  opening  of  a 
play,  they  named  their  adors  in  full  theatre,  together 
with  the  parts  they  were  to  perform.  The  ancient 
adors  were  mafked,  and  obliged  to  raife  their  voice 
extremely,  in  order  to  make  themfelves  heard  by  the 
innumerable  crowd  of  people  who  filled  the  amphithe- 
atres: thcywere  accompanied  with  a  player  on  thertute, 
who  played  a  prelude,  gave  them  the  tone,  and  play- 
ed while  they  declaimed.  Horace  fpeaks  of  a  kind  of 
fecondary  adors,  in  his  time,  whofe  bulinefs  was  to 
imitate  the  firft  ;  and  IclTcn  themfelves,  to  become  bet- 
ter foils  to  their  principals. 

The  moderns  have  introduced  an  infinite  number  of 
adors  upon  tlie  flage.  This  heightens  the  trouble  and 
diftrefs  that  lliould  reign  there,  and  makes  a  divcrfity, 
in  which  the  fpedator  is  Ak'c  to  be  interefled. 

Adors  were  highly  honoured  at  Alliens.  At  Rome 
they  were  defpifed,  and  not  only  deiiyed  all  rank  among 
the  citizens,  but  even  when  any  citizen  appeared  upon 
the  flage  he  was  expelled  his  tribe  and  deprived  of  the 
right  of  fufFrage  by  cenfors.  Cicero,  indeed,  efteems 
the  talents  of  Rofcius  :  but  he  values  Ivij  virtues  flill 
more  ;  virtues  which  diftinguiflied  him  fo  remarkably 
above  all  others  of  his  profelfion,  that  they  feemed  to 
have  excluded  him  from  the  theatre.  The  French 
have,  in  this  refped,  adopted  the  ideas  of  the  Romans; 
and  the  Englilh  thofe  of  the  Greeks. 

Actor,  the  name  of  fevcral  perfons  in  fabulous  hi- 

Hory 


Aflor. 


ACT  [1 

ftcry.  One  Aclor  among  the  Auriinci  is  dcfcribcJ  by 
V'ir'i-il  as  an  hero  of  the  lirll  rank.  /Ek.  xii. 

ACTORU  MTABULA;,iii  antiquity,  were  tables  in- 
ftituted  by  Scrvius  TuUiiis,  in  which  the  birtlis  of  chil- 
dren were  rcgilUrcd.  They  were  kept  in  the  trcafury 
of  Satiirnus. 

ACTRESS,  in  a  general  feafe,  a  female  who  acis 
or  performs  fomething. 

Actress,  in  the  drama,  a  female  performer.  %\'o- 
men  aCtors  were  unknown  to  the  ancients,  among 
whom  men  always  performed  the  female  charader  ; 
and  hence  one  rea(bn  for  the  ufc  of  malks  among 
them. 

Aetreflesarc  faid  not  to  have  been  introduced  on  the 
Englilh  llage  till  after  the  rcllor.uion  of  king  Charles 
II.  who  has  be-n  charged  with  contributing  to  the 
corruption  of  manners  by  importing  this  ufage 
from  abroad.  But  this  can  be  but  partly  true  :  the 
queen  of  James  I.  afted  a  part  in  a  palloral ;  and 
I'rynn,  in  his  Hillriomaftix,  fpeaks  of  women  aClors 
in  his  time  as  whores  ;  which  was  one  oceafion  of  the 
fcverc  profecution  brought  againll  him  for  that  book. 

Thcreare  fome  very  agreeable  and  beautiful  talents, 
of  which  the  poircflion  commands  a  certain  fort  of  ad- 
miration ;  but  of  which  the  excrcife  for  the  fake  of 
gain  is  confidered,  whether  from  reafon  or  prejudice, 
as  a  fort  of  public  proditution.  The  pecuniary  recom- 
pencc,  therefore,  of  thofe  who  excrcife  them  in  this 
manner,  mull  be  fufRcient,  not  only  to  pay  for  the 
time,  labour,  and  expence  of  acquiring  the  talents, 
but  for  the  difcredit  which  attends  the  employment  of 
them  as  the  means  of  fubfiftence.  The  exorbitant  re- 
wardsof  players, opera-fingers, opera-dancers,  &c.  arc 
founded  upon  thofe  two  principles  ;  the  rarity  and 
beauty  of  the  talents,  and  the  difcredit  of  employing 
them  ill  this  manner.  It  feems  abfurd  at  lirll  light 
that  wc  fliould  defpife  their  perfons,  and  yet  reward 
their  talents  with  the  moll  profufe  liberality.  While 
We  do  the  one,  however,  wc  muft  of  neccihiy  do  the 
otlicr.  Should  the  public  opinion  or  prejudice  ever  al- 
ter with  regard  to  fuch  occupations,  their  pecuniary 
reeompence  would  quickly  diminilh.  More  people 
would  apply  to  them,  and  the  competition  would  quick- 
ly reduce  the  price  of  their  labour.  Such  talents, 
though  far  from  being  common,  are  by  no  means  fo 
rare  as  isimagincd.  Many  people  polfcfs  them  in  great 
perfeftion,  who  difdaiu  to  make  this  ufc  of  them; 
and  many  more  are  capableof  acquiring  them,  i^any 
thing  could  be  made  honourably  by  them. 

ACTUAL,  fomething  that  is  real  and  effedlive,  or 
that  cxills  truly  and  abfolutely.  Thus  philofophcrsufc 
the  terms  aSlual  heat,  adtiat  cold,  &c.  in  oppolltion 
to  virtual  or  potential.  Hence,  among  phylicians,  a 
red-hot  iron,  or  fire,  is  called  an  actual  cautery  ;  in  di- 
ilintlion  from  cauteries,  or  caullics,  that  have  the 
power  of  producing  the  fame  tft'ecl  upon  the  animal 
iblids  as  aflual  fire,  and  are  called  pol.ntiiil  caute- 
ries. Hoiliag  water  is  actually  hot ;  brandy,  pro- 
ducing heat  itfthc  body,  is  potcutially  hot,  though  of 
itfclf  cold. 

y4cTV4L  Si/t,  iliai  which  is  committed  by  the  perfon 
liimfelf,  in  oppolltion  w  origi/taJ  fin,  or  that  which  he 
coiuraflcd  from  beinga  child  of  Adam. 

AC TUARI/E  NAVES,  a  kind  of  ihips  among  the 
Roman*,  chicHy  dcligncd  for  fwif;  filling. 


^3     ] 


A  C  U 


ACTUARIUS,  a  celebrated  Greek  pLylician,  of  Atrtuiriua 
the  I  3""  cCTitury,  and  tlic  lirit  Greckauihor  wfaj  ha'i         il 
treated  of  mild  purgatives,  fuch  as  caCia,  manna,  fc:. a,     •^•ruai,  ^ 
£cc.     His'works  were  printed  in  one  volume  folio,by 
Henry  Stcphcn.s,  in  1567. 

Aci  L,  ARius,  or  AcTARius,  3.  Hotarv  or  officerap- 
pointed  lo  write  the  ads  or  proceedings  of  a  court,  or 
iheli!;c.  In  the  Ealicrn  Lnipire,  the  attuarii  were 
projicrly  officers  who  kept  ilie  military  accounts,  re-  . 
ccivcd  the  corn  from  ihc j'ufc^f  tores  or  llorc-kccpcrs, 
aiul  delivered  it  to  the  foldiers. 

ACTUATE,  to  bring  into  acl,  or  put  a  thing 
in  airtion.  Thus  an  igent  is  faid,  by  the  fchoolmeii, 
to  aduaii  a  power,  when  it  produces  an  act  in  a  fub- 
ject.  And  thus  the  mind  may  be  faid  to  aCluate  the 
body. 

ACTU S,in  ancient  architc(5lure,a  meafurc  in  length 
equal  to  no  Roman  feet.  In  ancient  agriculture,  the 
word  fignilied  the  length  of  one  furrow  or  the  diAancc 
a  plough  goes  before  it  turns. 

jicTUS  Minimus,  was  a  quantity  of  land  120  feet  iit 
length,  and  four  in  breadth. 

Acrvi  Pt'hjir,  or  Actus  Quadratui,  a  piece  of 
ground  in  a  fquarc  form,  whefc  lide  was  equal  to  12a 
feet,  equal  to  half  the  jugcrum. 

Actus  L.tcrvucnalis,  a  fpace  of  ground  four  feet  in 
breadth,  left  between  the  lands  as  a  path  or  way. 

ACUANITES,  in  cecleliaAical  hiftory,  the  fame 
with  thofe  called  more  frequently  Ma  nigh  ees.  They 
took  the  name  from  Acua,  a  difciplc  of  Thomas  one 
of  the  twelve  apolHes. 

ACULEATE, or  AcuLEATi,  a  term  applied  to  any 
plant  or  animal  armed  with  prickles.  • 

ACULEI,  the  prickles  of  animals  or  of  plants. 

ACULER,  in  the  manege,  is  ufed  for  the  motion 
of  a  horfe,  when,  in  working  upon  volts,  he  does  nut 
go  far  enough  forward  at  every  time  or  motion,  fo  that 
his  Ihoulders  embrace  or  take  in  too  little  ground,  and 
his  croupe  comes  too  near  the  centre  of  the  vol:. 
Horfcs  arc  naturally  inclined  to  this  fault  in  makin* 
demi-volts. 

ACUMINA,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  military  omen, 
iBoll  generally  fuppofcd  to  havo  been  taken  from  the 
points  or  edges  of  darts,  fwords,  or  other  weapons. 

ACUNA  (Chrillopher  de),  a  Spanilh  Jefuit,  born 
at  Burgos.  Kc  was  admitted  into  the  fociety  in  1613, 
being  then  but  i  5  years  of  age.  After  having  devoted 
fome  years  to  ftudy,  he  went  to  America,  where  he  af- 
fifted  in  making  converts  in  Chili  and  Peru.  In  1640, 
he  returned  to  Spain,  and  gave  the  king  an  account 
how  far  he  had  fucceedcd  in  the  commilHun  he  had  re- 
ceived to  make  difcoveries  on  the  river  of  the  Amazons; 
and  tlic  year  following  he  publiihed  a  dcfcripiion  of 
this  river,  at  Madrid,  .\cuna  was  lent  to  Rome,  ?s 
procurator  of  his  province.  He  returned  to  Spain 
with  the  title  of  (^ualilicaior  of  the  Inquiiition  ;  bi'.t 
foou  after  embarked  again  for  the  Weft  Indies,  and 
was  at  Lima  in  i67},  when  father  Southwell  publiihed 
at  Roinctlie  Bibliothcque  of  the  Jefuit  writers.  Acu- 
na's  work  is  iniitleJ,  Ninz")  Jtjcubririieiito  dti gran  rn 
de  las  Amaz'ii:as :  i.  e.  "  3  new  difcovcry  of  the  great 
river  of  the  Amazons."  He  was  ten  months  togctlier 
upon  this  river,  having  had  iiillruclioiis  to  inq^jire  i.it* 
every  thing  with  the  greateflexaelnefs,  that  his  IV  '''-•••' 
might  thereby  be  enabled  to  »endcr  the  navi^..    •> 

ill'  ■;  I- 


ADA 


[     134     ] 


A'  D  A 


AcTipnnc-  more  caf/  and  connnouioiis.  ITc  went  aboard  a  lliip 
at  Oiiiio  wiih  PtiCT  Tcxicra,  whohadalrcHdy  btc-n  h> 
iar  uji  the  livcr,  and  v. as  thcvcfurc  tho-.ight  a  proiicr 
pcri'oii  to  accompany  him  in  this  expedition.  They 
(rnibarked  in  February  1619,  but  did  r.ot  arrive  at  Pa- 
ra till  tlie  December  loliovvin;;;.  It  is  thoiiijht  iliat 
the  vcviluiioiis  of  Portngal,  by  wliich  the  Spaniards 
loil  all  Dralil,  and  ihc  colony  of  Para  at  the  month  of 
the  rivtrot"  the  Ania/.ons,  were  the  caiifc  that  the  re- 
lalior.  of  this  Jt  fiiil  was  In  pprelled  ;  for  as  it  could  not 
1-e  of  any  advantage  to  the  Spaniards,  they  w  ere  afraid 
it  might  prove  of  great  fervicc  10  the  Portugucfc. 
Tilt  copies  of  this  work  became  extremely  fcarce,  fo 
that  the  prbliihers  ol  tlic  Krcnch  tranilaiiou  at  Paris 
aliened,  that  there  was  not  one  copy  of  the  original 
extant,  excepting  one  in  the  iioirclfion  of  the  tranlla- 
tor,  an  J?  perhaps,  that  in  the  Vatican  library.  M.  de 
Combervillc  was  the  author  of  this  tr  inflation  :  it  was 
puLliflicd  after  his  death,  with  a  longdilicriion.  An 
account  of  the  original  may  be  fcen  in  the  Paris  Jour- 
nal, in  that  of  Lciplic,  and  in  Chcvcrcau's  liillory  of 
the  world. 

ACUPUNCTUPvE,  the  name  of  .1  furgical  opera- 
lion  among  the  Chincfc  and  Japaucfc,  which  is  per- 
formed bypri.  king  [lie  part  artcttcd  with  a  filvcr  needle. 
They  employ  this  operation  in  headachs,  lethargies, 
convulfions,  colics,  &c. 

ACUS,  in  ichthyology,  the  trivial  name  of  a  fpe- 
cies  of  fyngathus.     Sec  Svnga  1  hus. 

ACUSIO  COLON! A,  now  Ancone,  according  to 
Holftenius,  between  Orange  and  ^^akncc,  near  Mou- 
Lelimart,  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhone. 

ACUTE,  an  epithet  applied  to  Inch  things  as  ter- 
minate in  a  (harp  point  or  edge.  And  in  this  fenfc  it 
ftands  oppofed  to  obtufe. 

^cvTE  -riiigUy  in  geometry,  is  that  which  is  lefs 
than  a  right  angle,  or  which  does  not  fubtend  90  de- 
grees. 

AcvTE-angUd  Triangle,  is  a  triangle  whofc  three 
«ngles  are  all  acute. 

AcvTE-angUd  Co\E  is,  according  to  the  ancients,  a 
right  cone,  whofe  axis  makes  an  acute  angle  with  its 
lide. 

Acute,  in  mufic,  is  applied  to  a  found  or  tone  that 
is  fliarp  or  high,  in  comparifou  of  fome  other  tone. 
Ill  this  fenfe,  acute  ftands  oppofed  to  gruiii. 

Alvte  Accent.     Sec  Accent. 

AcUTu  Difiafes,  fuch  as  come  fuddenly  to  a  crids. 
This  term  is  ufed  for  all  difeafes  which  do  not  fall  un- 
der the  head  of  chronic  difeafes. 

ACUTIATOR,  in  writers  of  the  barbarous  ages, 
denotes  a  pcrfon  that  wl\ets  or  grinds  cutting  inltru- 
Tnents;  called alfo  in  ancient  gloiraries,ac///sr,  ax(n/)iT»{, 
faimarlui,  coharhn,  &c.  In  the  aticient  armies  there 
M'cre  acntiators,  a  kind  of  fmitlis,  retained  for  whet- 
ting or  keeping  the  arms  (harp. 

AD,  a  Latin  prepofuion,  originally  fjgnifying  to, 
and  frequently  ufed  in  compolition  both  vviihaiid  with- 
out the  d,  to  exprcfs  the  relation  of  one  thing  to  ano- 
ther. 

Ad  Bejii^u,  in  antiquity,  is  the  punifliment  of  cri- 
minals condemned  to  be  thrown  to  wild  beads. 

Ao  Homir.an,  in  h'gic,  a  kind  of  argument  drawn 
from  the  principles  or  pi'cjudiccsof  thofe  with  whom 
re  ar^ue. 


An  Ludijs,  in  antiquity,  a  fcntencc  upon  criminals 
among  the  Romans,  \n  hereby  they  were  londcnined  to 
cnteriain  the  people  by  lightingtither  with  wild  beads, 
or  with  one  another,  and  thus  executingjulUce  upon 
tliCnifelvcs. 

Ar>  IMilalln,  in  antiquity,  the  puuiilimeut  of  fuch 
criminals  as  were  condemned  to  the  mines,  among  the 
Romans ;  and  therefore  called  Metuiiici. 

Ad  l/'alori.i'.',  a  term  chielly  uftd  in  (peaking  of  the 
duties  or  cufloms  paid  for  certain  goods  :  '1  he  duties 
0:1  fome  articles  are  i>aid  by  the  nNnibcr,  v^'eight,  mea- 
furc,  tale,  &c. ;  and  others  are  paid  advalonr/i,  that  is, 
according  to  their  value. 

ADAGE,  a  jirovcrb,  or  (liort  fcntencc,  coniaining 
fome  wife  obfervation  or  popular  f 'y  ing.  Erafmus  ha* 
made  a  very  large  and  valuable  collection  of  the  Greek 
and  Piouian  adages  ;  and  Mr  Ray  has  done  the  fame 
with  regard  to  the  K^ngliih.  We  have  alio  Kelly's 
coTlection  of  Scots  Proverbs. 

ADAGIO,  in  mufic.  Adverbially,  it  iignifiesyl^/- 
/)',  h'.'futtiy  ;  and  is  ufed  to  denote  the  (lowed  of  all 
times.  Ufed  fubftantively,  it  iignilies  a  (low  move- 
ment. Sometimes  this  word  is  repeated,  as  adagio, 
adiigto,  to  denote  a  dill  greater  retardation  in  the  time 
of  the  mufic. 

ADALIDES,  in  the  Spanifh  policy,  arc  ofiicers 
of  judicc,  for  matters  touching  the  military  forces. 
In  tile  laws  of  king  Alphonfus,  the  adalides  are  fpo- 
ken  of  as  oilicers  appciuted  to  guide  and  direct  the 
marchiagof  the  forces  in  time  of  war.  Lopez  repre- 
Icnts  them  as  a  fort  of  judges,  who  take  cogniAaite  of 
the  diderencc  arifing  upon  excurtlous,  the  didributioii 
of  phuuler,  &c. 

ADAM,  the  fird  of  the  human  race,  was  formed 
by  the  Almighty  on  the  lixth  day  ofthe  creation.  His 
body  was  made  of  the  dud  ofthe  earth  ;  after  which, 
God  animated  or  gave  it  life,  and  Adam  then  became 
arationalcreaturc. — Hisheavenly  Parent  did  not  leave 
hisoliipringin  adeditutc  date  to  fliift forhimfelf :  but 
planted  a  garden,  in  which  he  caufed  to  grow  not  on- 
ly every  tree  that  was  proper  for  producing  food,  but 
likcwife  fuch  as  were  agreeable  to  the  eye,  or  merely 
ornamental.  In  this  garden  were  alfemblcd  all  the 
brute  creation  ;  and,  by  their  Maker,  caufed  to  pals 
before  Adam,  whogaveallof  them  names,  which  were 
judged  proper  by  the  Deity  himfelf. — In  this  review, 
Adam  found  none  for  a  companion  to  himfelf.  This 
folitary  date  was  feen  by  the  Deity  to  be  attended  with 
fome  degree  of  unhappiuefs  ;  and  therefore  he  threw 
Adam  into  a  deep  llccp,  in  which  condition  he  took  a 
rib  from  his  lide,  aid  healing  up  the  wound  formed  a 
woman  of  the  rib  he  had  taken  out.  On  Adam's  a- 
waking,  the  woman  was  brought  tohim  ;  and  he  im- 
mediately knev^  her  to  be  one  of  his  own  fpecics,  call- 
ed her  his  bone  and  his  tlelTi,  giving  lier  the  name  of 
•w'jmr.ii  becaufe  Ihe  was  taken  out  of  man. 

The  fird  pair  being  tluis  created,  God  gave  them 
authority  over  the  inferior  creation,  commanding  them 
to  fubdue  rffe  earth,  alfo  to  incrcafe  and  multiply  and 
(ill  it.  They  were  informed  of  the  proper  food  for  the 
beads  and  for  them  ;  the  grafs,  or  green  herbs,  being 
appointed  for  beads  ;  and  fruits  or  feeds,  for  man. 
Their  proper  employment  alfo  was  afligiied  them  ; 
namely,  to  drcfs  thi  garden,  and  to  keep  it. 

T  hough  Atiainv.'a'sthushighly  favoured  andindruc- 

tcd 


ADA 


[     I 


AJam.     ted  b/  his  Maker,  there  nas  a  liiiglc  tree,  wliicli  grew 

' •■'-—^  in  the  middle  of  the  garden,  of  the  fruit  of  which  they 

were  not  allowed  to  cat ;  being  told,  that  they  IhoulJ 
furely  die  in  the  day  they  eat  of  it.  This  tree  was 
named,  the  Tree  oj  the  Knowledge  of  CooJ  and  Evil. 
This  prohibition,  however,  they  foon  broke  tlirongh. 
The  woman  having  entered  into  cor.vtrfation  with  the 
Serpent,  was  by  him  ptrfuadcd,  tjiat  by  eating  of  the 
tree  (lie  ihouUl  become  as  wife  as  God  himftlf ;  and  ac- 
cordingly, being  invited  by  thcbcaMty  of  the  fruit,  and 
its  defirable  property  of  imparting  wifdom,  Ihe  plucked 
and  eat  ;  giving  her  hufband  of  it  at  the  fame  time, 
who  did  likewife  eat. 

Before  this  tranfgreflion  of  the  divine  command,  A- 
dam  and  his  wife  had  no  occafion  for  clothes,  neither 
had  they  any  fenfe  of  (hamc  ;  but  immediately  on  eat- 
ing the  forbidden  fruit,  they  were  alhamed  of  being 
naked,  and  made  aprons  of  tig-lcaves  for  thcmftlves. 
On  hearing  the  voice  of  God  in  the  garden,  they  were 
terrified,  and  hid  themfclvcs  :  but  being  qucltioiicd  by 
the  Deity,  they  confelfed  what  they  had  done,  and  re- 
ceived fcntence  accordingly ;  the  man  being  condemn- 
ed to  labour  ;  the  woman  to  fubjcdion  to  her  luif- 
band,  and  to  pain  in  childbearing.  They  were  now 
driven  out  of  the  garden,  and  their  acccfs  to  it  pre- 
vented by  a  terrible  apparition.  They  had  clothes 
given  them  by  the  Deity  made  of  the  Ikins  of  bcalls. 
In  this  Hate  Adam  had  feveral  children  ;  the  names 
of  only  three  of  whom  we  are  acquainted  with,  viz. 
Cain,  Abel,  and  Scth.  He  died  at  the  age  of  9  jo  years. 
Thcfe  are  all  the  particulars  concerning  Adam's  life, 
that  we  havcon  divineauihority :  but  a  vaft  multitude  of 
othersareadded  by  thejews,  Mahometans,  andothers; 
all  of  which  niuft  be  at  befl  conjci.1nral ;  molt  of  them, 
indeed,  appear  downright  falfehoods  or  abfurditics. 
The  curiofity  of  our  readers,  it  is  prefumcd,  will  be  fuf- 
ficiently  gratified  by  the  few  that  are  here  fubjoincd. 

According  to  the  Talmudills,  when  Adam  was  cre- 
ated, his  body  was  of  immcufe  magnitude.  When  he 
fmncd,  his  flature  was  reduced  loan  hundred  ells,  ac- 
cording to  fome;  to  nine  hundred  cubits,  according 
toothers  ;  who  think  this  was  done  at  the  requeft  of 
the  angels,  who  were  afraid  of  fo  gigantic  a  creature. 
In  the  idand  of  Ceylon  is  a  mountain  called  the  Veak 
or  mountain  of  Adam,  from  its  being  according  to  the 
tradition  of  the  country,  the  relidcucc  of  our  firfl  pa- 
rent. Here  the  print  of  his  fooiftcps,  above  two  palms 
in  length,  arc  llill  pointed  out. 

Many  reveries  have  been  formed  concerning  the 
perfonal  beauty  of  Adam.  That  he  was  a  handl'ome 
well-lhapcd  man  is  probable  ;  but  fome  writers,  not 
content  with  this,  affirm,  that  God,  iniendiiig  to  create 
man,  clothed  Himfclf  with  a  pcrfedly  beautiful  human 
body,  making  this  liis  model  in  the  formation  of  the 
body  of  Adam. 

Nor  has  the  imagination  been  If  fs  indulged  con- 
cerning the  formation  of  the  human  Ipecies  male  iiul 
female. — It  would  be  endlefs  to  recount  all  the  vhim- 
fics  that  have  been  wrote  on  this  fubjcifl ;  but  as  Mad. 
Bourignon  has  made  a  confuierable  tigure  in  the  reli- 
ti'ioui,  or  rather  fupcrflitioui  world,  wc  cannot  help  iii- 
ferting  fome  of  her  opinions  concerning  the  firll  mm, 
which  arc  peculiarly  marvellous.  According  to  tlie 
reviLitious  of  this  lady,  Adam  before  his  fall  pollclTcJ 
'in  himfclf  the  principles  of  both  fe.xes,  and  the  vir- 

VOL.    I. 


05       1  A    D    .\ 

tuc  or  power  of  producing  iiii  like,  wiihout  \\.r.  01;-     .\^m\. 
current  aiiiftancc  "f  woinin.     The  diviiion  into  tv.o  ■~~' 

fexcs,  (he  imagined*,  was  a  cor>fcqucnc<  of  man's  !i;i ;  '  I'r;faceto 
and  now,  llic  obfcrves,  mankind  uic  become  fo  many  »t>o»kiii- 
vionflers  ii:  nature,  beino-  much  Icfs  pcrfrct  in  thij  re-  '"•'•■"•  ■^' 
fpectthan  pUntsor  trec:i,  whoarc  capabicof  producing  ,,/j „„,„//, 
their  like  alone, and  without  pain  or  mifcry.  She  even  /„>•»,  .\«it. 
imagined,  that,  being  in  an  ccllacy,  we  law  tlic  figure   679. 
of  Adam  before  he  fell,  with  the  manner  now,  by  liim- 
fclf,  he  was  capablcof  procreating  other  men.   ''God," 
fays  Ihc,  '<  rcprcfentcd  to  my  mind  the  beauty  of  tiie 
lirlt  world,  and  the  manner  ho'.v  he  h.id  drav,  n  it  from 
the  chaos:  every  thing  was  bright,- tranf^-arcnt,  and 
darted  forth  liglit  and  incffjble  glory.     The  body  or 
Adam  was  purer  and  r.iore  tranfparenithancryiUl,  and 
vaRly  Hcet  ;  through  this  body  were  fcen  veilels  and 
rivulets  of  light,  which  penetrated  from  the  Inward  ti> 
the  ounvard  parts,  through  all  his  pares.     In  fome 
velfels  ran  fluids  of  all  kinds  and  colours,  vaftly  bright, 
and  quite  diaphanous.     The  nioft  raviihing  harmoi;/ 
arofc  from  every  motion ;  and  nothingrelilled,or  coulJ 
annoy,  him.     His  flature  was  taller  than  the  prefent 
race  of  men  :  his  hair  was  Ihort,  curled,  and  of  a  colour 
inclining  to  black  ;  his  upper  lip  covered  with  ihort 
hair  :  and  initead  of  the  beftial  parts  which  modefty 
will  not  allow  us  to  name,  he  was  falliioned  as  our  bo- 
dies will  be  in  the  life  eternal,  which  I  know  not  whe- 
ther 1  dare  reveal.     In  that  region  his  nofe  was  form- 
ed af'ter  the  manner  of  i  face,  which  difiufed  the  mofl 
deliciousfra2;rancyandpcrfumes;whencca!fomeu  were 
toillue.all  whole  principles  were  inhercntin  him  ;  there 
being  in  his  belly  a  veliel,  where  little  eggs  were  form- 
ed ;  and  a  fecoud  veliel  rilled  with  a  fluid, «  hich  impreg- 
nated thofc  eggs  :  and  when  nun   heated  himfclf  in 
the  love  of  God,  the  dclire  he  had  that  other  creatures 
Ihould  exifl  belides  himfelf,  to  praife  «nd  love  God, 
caufcd  the  fluid  abovementioned  (by  meansof  the  nrc 
of  the  love  of  God)  to  drop  on  one  or  more  o(  thefc 
eggs,  with  ine.xpreliible  delight ;  which  being  thus  im- 
pregnated, ilfacd,  fome  time  at'ter,  out  of  man,  by  tiiis 
canal  |-,  in  the  fliape  of  an  egg,  whence  a  perfect  man  t  '■  '•  '*>< 
was  hatched  by  infenfible  degrees.   Woman  was  form-  »j/j.'can>l, 
td  by  taking  out  of  Adam's  fide  t!ie  vctfels   that  con-  ^""^"■^" 
taintd  the  eggs  ;  which  fhertillpofreires,asis  difcovcr-  r '"k!j'" 
ed  by  anatomills."^' 

Many  others  have  believed,  that  Adam  at  his  firfl 
creation  was  both  male  and  female  :  otlicrs,  that  he  had 
two  boJiis  joining  to.j;ether  at  the  Ihoiil  'crs,  and  tiicir 
faces  lookingopi'olitc  w.nys  like  thof):  of  Jauus.  Hence, 
fay  the fe,  when  God  created  Eve,  he  had  no  more  to 
do  tlian  to  fcparaie  the  two  bodies  from  one  .iiotlicrj.       }  See 
Of  all  others,  however,  the  opi;iion  of  ParaeeJfusfccins  >*w^i;^»««. 
the  mofl  ridicnlo»s||.  Ne^i'hit ^rimos psrcutcs  ante  lap-  iHaracdlm 
fiivi  hji'ii'lfe partes  "e/ieratiori  homiiiit  nicelfariai  ;  ere-  "t"  ,     ,  ,' 
d. h.it  pojiea  accejplje,  iit  ftn.mjvi  ^ntttir..  /.fHa,c.  ix. 

Extravagant  il)iii'.;s  ire  aliened  concernini;  Adam's  .,.  ^,.' 
knowleiia,e.  ]t  is  very  probable  that  he  was  inllni'flcd 
by  the  Deity  how  to  accompliih  the  work  appointed 
him,  viz.  to  drefs  the  grrden,  and  keep  it  t'rom  being 
dcllroycd  by  the  brute  creatures  ;  and  it  is  .ilfo  proba- 
ble that  he  had  likewife  every  piece  of  knowledge  coni- 
numicaied  to  him  that  was  either  neceinry  or  plcaling: 
but  that  he  was  acquainted  witli  grinnetry,  mathema- 
tics, rhetoric,  poetry,  painting,  fculpture,  ire.  is  too 
ridiculous  to  be  crcvlited  by  any  fobcr  perfon.  Some 
O  rabbles. 


ADA 


[     io6     ] 


ADA 


Adam, 


•  Tf?is  i> 
jufl  tlic  pic- 
ture i)f  the 
Orion  or 
Polyphe- 
mus of  the 
poets.  JE' 
veid,'u\  663 
*64.i.763 


rabbles,  iiulceJ,!iave contented  thcmfchcs  v\ ith  tquul- 
ling  Adam's  knowledge  to  thatof  Moles  and  Solomon  ; 
while  others,  again,  have  maintained  that  lie  excelled 
the  angels  thcmlVlves.  Several  Chriitians  fcem  to  be 
littlebehindthefe  Jews  in  the  degree  ofknoN\  ledge  they 
afcribc  to  Adam  ;  nothing  being  hid  from  him,  ac- 
cording to  them,  except  contingent  events  relating  to 
fiuiirity.  One  writer  indeed  (I'incdo)  excepts  politics  ; 
but  a  Carthiifian  friar,  having  cxhaufled,  in  favour  of 
Arillotle,  every  image  and  comparifon  he  could  think 
of,  at  lall  alfcrts  that  Arillotle's  knowledge  was  as  ex- 
tonlive  as  that  of  Adavi. — In  confequencc  of  this  fiir- 
priling  knowledge  with  which  Adam  was  endued,  he  is 
fiippoicd  to  hive  been  a  confiderable  author-  The  Jews 
pretend  that  he  wrote  a  book  on  the  creation,  and  an- 
other on  the  Deity.  Some  rabbles  afcribe  the  9a''  pfalm 
to  Adam  ;  and  in  fome  manufcripts  the  Chaldee  title  of 
this  pialra  exprcfsly  declares  that  this  is  the  fong  of 
praife  which  tlicfirlt  man  repeated  for  the  fabbath-day. 
Various  conjecftures  have  been  formed  concerning 
the  place  where  man  was  firft  created,  and  where  the 
garden  of  Eden  was  fituuted  :  but  none  of  thefc  have 
any  folid  foundation.  The  Jews  tell  us,  that  Eden  was 
fcparatcd  from  the  refl  of  the  world  by  the  ocean  ;  and 
that  Adam,  being  banifhed  therefrom,  walked  acrofs 
the  fea,  which  he  found  every  way  fordable,  by  rea- 
fonof  his  enormous  ftature*.  The  Arabians  imagined 
■  paradife  to  have  been  in  the  air  ;  and  that  our  firll:  pa- 
rents were  thrown  down  from  it  on  their  tranfgref- 
fion,  as  Vulcan  is  faid  to  have  been  thrown  down 
headlong  from  heaven  by  Jupiter. 

Strangeftoriesarc  told  concerning  Adam'schildren. 
,  That  he  had  none  in  tlie  (late  of  innocence,  is  certain 
.  from  fcriptnre;  but  that  his  marriage  with  Eve  was  not 
confummated  till  after  the  fall,  cannot  be  proved  from 
tiience.  Some  imagine,  that  for  many  years  after  the 
fall,  Adam  denied  himfelf  die  connubial  joys  by  way 
of  penance;  others,  that  he  cohabited  with  ano- 
ther woman,  whofe  name  wasLii.iTH.  The  Ma- 
hometans tell  us,  that  our  firfl  parents  having  been 
thrown  headlong  from  the  celeflial  paradife,  Adam  fell 
upon  the  iiie  of  Serendib,-  or  Ceylon,  in  the  Eafl-In- 
dies;  and  Eve  on  lodda,  a  port  of  the  Red  Sea,  not 
far  from  Mecca.  After  a  feparation  of  upwards  of 
200  years,  they  met  in  Ceylon,  where  they  multiplied  : 
according  to  fome  Eve  had  twenty,  accgrding  to  others 
only  eight,  deliveries  ;  bringing  forth  at  each  time 
twins,  a  male  and  fcm.ile,  who  afterwards  married. 
The  Rabbins  imagine  that  Eve  bruuglu  forth  Cain 
and  Abel  at  a  birth  ;  that  Adam  wept  for  Abel  an  hun- 
dred years  in  the  valley  of  tears  near  Hebron,  dur- 
ing which  time  he  did  not  cohabit  with  his  wife  ;  and 
that  this  feparation  would  probably  have  continued 
longer,  had  it  not  been  forbid  by  the  angel  Gabriel. 
The  inhabitanis  of  Ceylon  affirm,  that  the  fait  lake  on 
the  mountain  of  Colembo  confifls  wholly  of  the  tears 
which  Eve  for  one  hundred  years  together  Ihed  becaufe 
of  Abel's  death. 

Some  of  the  Arabians  tell  ns,  that  Adam  was  buri- 
ed near  Mecca  on  Mount  Abukobcis  :  others,  that  No- 
ah, having  laid  his  body  in  the  ark,  caufed  it  to  be 
carried  after  the  deluge  to  Jerufalem  by  Mclchifcdek 
the  fon  of  Shcm  :  of  this  opinion  are  the  eaftern 
Chriftians  ;  but  the  Perfians  affirm  that  he  was  interred 
iii  the  iHc  of  Serendib,  where  his  corps  was  guarded  by 


lions  at  the  time  tlie  giants, warred  upon  one  another, Adam 

St  Jcroni  imagined  that  Adam  was  buried  at  Hebron  ;  | 

others,  on  Mount  Calvary.     Some  are  of  opinioH  that  Adamitii. 
he  died  on  tlic  very  fpot  where  Jerufaleni  was  after-  ^~^ 

wards  built ;  and  was  buried  on  the  place  where  Chrifl 
fuffered,  that  fo  his  bones  might  be  fprinkled  with  the 
Saviour's  blood  ! ! ! 

Adam  (Mclchior)  lived  in  the  17"'  century.  He 
was  born  in  the  territory  of  Groikaw  in  Silclia,  and 
eilucated  in  the  college  of  Brieg,  where  the  dukes  of 
that  name,  to  the  utmofl  of  their  power,  encouraged 
learning  and  the  reformed  religion  as  profelfed  by  Cal- 
vin. Here  he  became  a  firm  Proiellant  ;  and  was  en- 
abled to  purfue  his  lludiesby  the  liberality  of  a  perfon 
of  quality,  who  had  left  feveral  exhibitions  for  young 
Ihidcnts.  He  was  appointed  rector  of  a  college  at 
Heidelberg,  where  he  publilhed  his  firfl  volume  of  il- 
lullrious  men  in  the  year  1615,  This  volume,  which 
coniillcd  of  philofopliers,  poets,  writers  on  polite  li- 
terature, and  hiflorians,  &c.  was  followed  by  three  o- 
tliers  ;  that  W'hich  treated  of  divines  was  printed  in 
1619  ;  thatof  the  lawyers  came  next ;  and,  finally,  that 
of  the  phylicians  :  the  twolallwere  publilhed  in  1620. 
All  the  learned  men,  whofe  lives  are  contained  in  thefc 
four  volumes,  lived  in  the  16"',  or  beginningof  theiy"" 
century,  and  are  cither  Germans  or  Flemings;  but  he 
publilhed  in  1618  the  lives  of  twenty  divines  of  other 
countries  in  a  feparate  volume.  All  his  divines  are  Pro- 
teflants.  The  Lutherans  were  not  pleafed  with  him> 
for  they  thought  him  partial  ;  nor  will  they  allow  his 
work  to  be  a  proper  ftandard  whereby  to  judge  of  the 
learning  of  Germany.  He  wrote  other  works  befides 
his  lives,  and  died  in  1622. 

Adam' s  Apple, zriimt^vitw  toa  fpeciesofCiTRUS. 

Adam's  Needle.     See  Yucca. 

Adam's  Peak,  a  high  mountain  of  the  Eafl  Indies, 
in  the  illand  of  Ceylon,  on  the  top  of  which  they  be- 
lieve that  the  firfl  man  was  created.     Sec  Adam. 

Adam,  or  A  DOM,  a  town  in  the  Peraea,  or  on  the  o- 
thcr  fide  the  Jordan,  over-againfl  Jericho,  where  the 
Jordan  began  to  be  dried  up  on  the  pafTagc  of  the  If- 
raelites;  (Jofliua.) 

ADAMA,  or  Adma  h,  one  of  the  towns  that  were 
involved  in  the  deftruclion  of  Sodom  ;  (Mofes.) 

ADAMANT,  a  name  fometimcs  given  to  the  dia- 
mond. (See  Diamond.)  It  is  likewife  applied  to 
the  icor'ix  of  gold,  the  magnet,  &c. 

ADAMIC  EARTH,  a  name  given  to  commoM  red 
cl.iy,  alluiUng  to  that  fpecies  of  earth  of  which  thi;  firfl 
man  is  fuppofed  to  have  been  made. 

ADAMI  roMUM,  in  anatomy,  a  protuberance  in 
the  fore-part  of  the  throat,  formed  by  the  os  hyoides. 
It  is  thought  to  be  fo  called  upon  a  fbrange  conceit,  that 
a  piece  of  the  forbidden  apple  which  Adam  eat,  fluck 
by  the  w.iy,  and  occalioncd  it. 

ADAMITES,  in  ecclellaflical  hi/lory,  the  name  of 
a  fec^  of  ancient  heretics,  fuppofed  to  have  been  a 
branch  of  the  Bafilidians  and  Carpocraiians. 

Epiphanius  tells  ns,  that  they  were  called  Adamites 
from  their  pretending  to  be  re-eflabliflied  in  the  ftateof 
innocence,  and  to  be  fuch  as  Adam  was  at  the  moment 
of  his  creation,  whence  they  ought  to  imitate  him  in 
his  nakednefs.  They  detcfled  marriage  ;  maintain- 
ing that  the  conjugal  union  would  never  have  taken 
place  upon  earth  had  fin  been  unknown. 

This 


ADA 


[     »o7     ] 


A  D  A 


Adamui       This  obfcure  and  ridiculous  fcc'l  did  not  at  firfl  laft 
I  long  ;  but  it  was  revived,  with  a4!ditionalal»furdilics,  in 

Adamfnn.  the  twelfth  century,  by  one  Tandainus,(incc  known  by 
'  the  name  of  Tanchelin,  who  propagated  his  errors  at 
Antwerp,  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Henry  V.  He 
maintained,  that  there  ought  to  be  no  diftinctiou  be- 
tween priefts  and  laymen,  and  that  fornication  and  a- 
dultery  were  meritorious  ac'tions.  Tanchtlin  had  a 
great  number  of  followers,  and  was  conltaiuly  attend- 
ed by  3000  of  thele  profligates  in  arms.  His  feft  did 
not,  however,  continue  long  after  his  death  :  but  ano- 
ther appeared  under  the  name  of  Turlupins,  in  Savoy 
and  Dauphiny,  where  they  committed  the  mod  bru- 
tal aflioiis  in  open  day. 

About  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  one 
Picard,  a  native  of  l-'landers,;  fpread  thefe  errors  in 
Germany  and  Bohemia,  particularly  in  the  army  of 
the  famous  Zifca,notwithfiandingthefeveredifcipline 
he  maintained.  Picard  pretended  that  he  was  lent  into 
ihe  world  as  a  new  Adam,  to  re-crtablilh  the  law  of 
nature  ;  and  which,  according  to  him,  confifted  in  ex- 
pofing  every  part  of  the  body,  and  having  all  the  wo- 
men in  common.  This  feft  found  alfo  fome  partizans 
in  Poland,  Holland,  and  England  :  they  afleniblcd  ia 
the  night  ;  and  it  is  afferted,  that  one  of  the  funda- 
mental maxims  of  their  fociety  was  contained  in  the 
following  verfc  : 

Jura,  perjura^ficrttum  prodcre  noli. 

ADAMUS,  the  philofopher's  ftone  is  fo  called  by 
alchemills  ;  they  fay  it  is  an  animal,  and  that  it  has 
carried  its  invifible  Evt  in  its  body,  fmcc  the  moment 
they  were  united  by  the  Creator. 

ADAMSHIDE,  a  diflria  of  the  circle  of  Raflen- 
burg,  belonging  to  the  king  of  Prullia,  which,  with 
Donibroftcen,  was  bought,  in  i  737,  for  42,000  dollars. 

ADAMSON  (Patrick),  a  Scottifli  prelate,  archbi- 
fliop  of  S[  Andrews.  He  was  born  in  the  year  i  J43 
in  the  townof  Perth,  where  he  received  the  rudiments 
of  his  education  ;  and  afterwards  lludied  philofophy, 
and  took  his  degree  of  mailer  of  arts  at  the  univerfity 
of  St  Andrews.  In  the  year  is66,  he  fet  out  for 
Paris,  as  tutor  toayoung  gentleman.  In  the  month  of 
June  of  the  fame  year,  Mary  queen  of  Scots  being 
delivered  of  a  foil,  afterwards  James  VI.  of  Scotland 
and  Kirft  of  England,  Mr  Adamfon  wrotea  Latin  poem 
on  the  occafion.  This  proof  of  his  loyalty  involved 
himinfomediificuhics,  havingbccn  conlined  in  France 
for  (ix  months  ;  nor  would  he  have  eahly  gut  oif,  had 
not  Queen  Mary,  and  I'omc  of  the  principal  nobility, 
intcrcftcd  ihcmfclvcs  in  his  behalf.  As'fooii  as  he  re- 
covered his  liberty,  he  retired  with  his  pupil  to  Bour- 
ges.  He  wasin  this  city  during  the  nialTacre  at  Paris; 
and  tlic  fame  pcrfccuting  f))irit  prevailiutf  amimg 
the  catholics  at  Bourges«a»at  the  metropolis,  he  lived 
concealed  for  fevcn  months  in  a  public  houfe,  the  ma- 
flerof  which,  upwardsof  70  yearsof  age,  was  thrown 
from  the  top  thereof,  and  had  bis  brjins  Jaflud  out, 
for  his  charity  to  heretics.  VVhilll  Mr  Adamfon  lay 
thus  in  hisfepulchrc,  as  he  called  it,  lie  wrote  his  La- 
tin poetical  vcrfion  of  the  Book  of  Job,  and  his  Tra- 
gedy of  Herod  in  the  fame  language.  In  the  year 
I  )7?>  he  returned  to  Scotland  ;  and,  having  entered 
intoholyordcrs,  became  mini  fler  of  I'aillcy.  In  the  year 
r  J7J,  he  was  appointed  one  of^he  commillioners,  by 
the  general  atTcmbly,  to  fettle  the  jurifdiiftion  and  Po- 


licy of  the  church  ;  and  the  following  year  he  was  lu-     AJm. 

nied,  with  Mr.  David  Lindfay,  to  report  their  proceed-  * — 

ings  to  the  earl  of  Mortoun,  then  regent.  About  tliis 
time  the  earl  made  hira  one  of  his  chaplains  ;  and  on 
the  death  of  bifhop  Douglas,  promoted  him  to  the 
archicpifcopal  fee  of  St  Andrew's,  a  dignity  which 
brought  upon  him  great  trouble  and  uncafmcfs  :  for  novr 
the  clamour  of  the  prefbyterian  party  rofe  very  high  a- 
gainilhim,  and  many  inconlillcni  abfurd  ftorics  were 
propagated  concerning  him.  Soon  after  his  promo- 
tion, he  publilhed  his  catechifm  in  Latin  verfe,  a 
work  highly  approved  even  by  his  ecemics  ;  but  nr- 
verthelcis,  they  Hill  continued  topcrfecute  him  with 
great  violence.  In  i)78,  he  fubinitted  hinilelf  to 
the  general  aflembly,  fthich  procured  him  peace  but 
fora  very  little  time  ;  for,  the  year  following,  they 
brought  frelh  accufations  againll  him.  In  the  year 
1 5S2,  being  attacked  with  a  grievous  difeafe,  in  which 
the  phyficians  could  give  him  no  relief,  he  happened 
to  take  a  limple  medicine  from  an  old  woman,  which  ■ 
did  him  fervicc.  The  woman  whofe  name  was  Alif<Hi 
Pearfon,  was  thereupon  charged  with  witchcraft,  ar.d 
committcdtoprifon,but  efcapcdoutof  her  confriiemcnt; 
however,  about  four  years  afterwards,  Ihe  was  again 
found  and  burnt  for  a  witcii.  In  1583,  king  Jamci 
came  to  St  Andrews  ;  and  the  Archbifliop,  being  nmcii. 
recovered,  preached  before  him,  and  difputed  with  Mr 
Andrew  Melvil,inprefcncc  of  his  >iajelty,  with  great 
reputation,  which  drew  upon  hiin  frelh  calumny  and 
perfecution.  The  king,  however,  uaslb  well  pleafcd 
with  him,  that  he  fent  him  ambartader  toQiiecn  Eii- 
fabeth,  at  whofe  court  he  refided  for  fome  years.  His 
conduct,  duringhis  em  bally,  has  been  variouily  report- 
ed by  different  authors.  Two  things  he  principally 
laboured,  nc.  the  recommending  the  king  his  mailer 
to  the  nobility  and  gentry  of  England,  and  the  pro- 
curing fome  fupport  for  the  epifcopal  party  in  Scotland. 
By  his  eloquent  preaching,  lie  drew  after  him  fuch 
crouds  of  people,  and  raifed  in  their  minds  fuch  a  high 
idcaof  theyoungking  hismafter,  that  queen  Elil'abcth 
forbad  him  to  enter  the  pulpit  during  his  ftay  in  her 
dominions.  In  1584,  he  was  recalled,  and  fat  in  the' 
parliament  held  in  Auguft  at  Edinburgh.  ThePrcfcy- 
terian  party  was  flill  very  violent  againfl  the  arclibi- 
fliop.  A  provincial  (j-nod  was  held  at  St  Andrew's 
in  April  1586  ;  the  Archbifliop  was  here  accuftd  and 
excommunicated  :  he  appealed  to  the  king  and  lli« 
flates,  but  this  availed  him  little  :  for  the  mob  being 
excited  againfl  him,  he  durll  fcarce  appear  in  public. 
At  the  next  general  allcmbly,  a  paper  being  pro- 
duced containing  the  archbilhop's  fubiiiilnon,  he  was 
abfclvcd  from  the  cxcomniunicalioti.  In  1588,  frelh 
accufations  were  broticrht  againfl  him.  The  year  fol- 
low ing,  he  publilhed  the  Lamentations  of  the  prophet 
Jeremiah  in  Latin  verfe  ;  whioh  he  dedicated  to 
the  king,  complaining  of  his  hard  ulagc.  In  the  lat- 
ter end  of  the  fame  year,  he  publiihed  a  tranflaiioa  of 
the  Apocalypfe,  in  Latin  i^rrfe  ;  and  a  copy  of  Latin 
vcrfes.  addrclled  alio  to  his  Maitlly,  when  he  was  iu 
great  didrefs.  The  king,  however,  was  lo  far  from 
giving  him  alTillaurc,  tlwt  he  granted  the  rcven'.x  of 
his  fee  to  the  duke  of  Lennox  ;  fo  that  the  remainin<» 
part  of  this  prelate's  life  was  very  wretched, hehaviii'i 
hardly  fubliilcnce  for  his  family.  He  died  in  I  <<;». 
ADANA,  a  town  of  Afu,  in  Natolia,  and  in  ti  <. 
O  :  province 


ADA 


[     io8     ] 


ADA 


Adapfoiiia.  province  of  Caimauia.  It  is  I'catcdon  the  river  Cho- 
^— V— ^  il^iien  ;  on  die  biui;sof  whicli  (lauds  a  f'tronj;  little  calllc 
built  on  a  rock.  It  has  great  number  ot  beautiful 
fojntains  brougiit  from  tiic  river  by  means  of  water- 
works. Over  liicriver  there  isa  flaidy  briJgcof  lif- 
tccn  arches,  which  leads  to  the  waicr-works.  I  he  cli- 
mate is  very  plcafar.t  and  healthy,  and  the  winter  mild 
and  fcrene  :  but  tlie  fuinmer  is  lb  hot  as  to  oblige  the 
prii'.cipal  iiilKibiiants  to  retire  into  the  neighbouring 
mountains,  wlicre  they  fpeud  lix  niunihs  among  Ihady 
trees  and  groitocs,  in  a  molt  dclii.ious  manner.  The 
adjacent  coantry  is  rich  and  fertile,  and  produces  me- 
lons, cucumbers,  pomegranates,  pulfe,  and  herbs  ot 
all  forts,  sU  the  year  round  ;  bciides  corn,  wine,  and 
fruits  in  their  proper  feal'on.  It  is  30  milts  call  of 
Tarfus,  on  the  road  to  Aleppo.  E.  long  5  J.  42.  N. 
lat.  38.  ic. 

AD.ANSONIA,  ETHioriAS  Sour-gourd,  Mon- 
KiES-BREAD,  or  Akrican'  Ca l Aa AS h-tree,  a  genus 
of  the  nionodelphia  order,  belonging  to  the  polyaudria 
clafs  of  plants  ;  the  characters  of  whiehare  :  The  calyx 
is  a  perianthium  one  Icav'd,  iialf  live-cleft,  ciip-lorm, 
(the  divilions  revolutc),  deciduous:  The  corolla  con- 
lillsof  five  pciali,  mundidi  nerved,  rcvolute,  growing 
reciprocally  svitli  the  claws  and  Itamina  :  \.\\c  Jiamiiia 
have  numerous  filaments,  coalefccd  beneath  into  a  tube, 
and  crowning  it,  expanding  horizontally  thcanthera: 
.kidney-form,  incumbent  :  The  piflillum  has  an  egged 
germ ;  the  llylus  very  long,  tubular,  varioufly  intoned; 
the  iligmata  numerous  ( i  o)  prifmatic,  villous,  ray-cx- 
pandcd  :  '^\\.t  pincnrptinn  is  an  oval  capfule,  woody, 
not  gaping,  ren-celled,  with  farinaceous  pulp,  the  par- 
titions membranous  :  'YXvi  feeds  are  numerous.,  kidney- 
ihapcd,  ratherbony,  and  involvedina  friable  pulp. 

There  is  at  prefent  butone  known  fpecicsbelonging 
to  this  genus,  the  Baobab,  which  is  perhaps  the  lar- 
gell  produdion  of  the  whole  vegetable  kingdom.  It 
is  a  native  of  Africa. 

The  trunk  is  not  above  laor  15  feet  high,  but  from 
65  to  78  feet  round.  The  lovvcll  branches  extend  al- 
raoR  horizontally  ;  and  as  they  are  about  60  feet  in 
length,  their  own  weight  bends  their  extremities  to  the 
ground,  and  thus  form  an  hcmifpherical  mafsof  ver- 
«lure  of  abinit  izoor  i3ofect  diameter.  The  roots 
txtcnd  as  far  as  the  branches:  that  in  the  middle  forms 
a  pivot,  which  penetrates  a  great  way  into  the  earth  ; 
tlie  reft  fprcad  near  the  furiace.  The  dowers  are  in 
[iroportion  to  the  fizc  oi'  the  tree  :  and  arc  followed  by 
an  oblong  fruit,  pointed  at  both  ends,  about  10  inches 
loiig,  five  or  fix  broad,  and  covered  with  a  kind  of 
grccniih  down,  under  which  is  a  ligneous  rind,  hard 
and  alinoft  black,  marked  with  rays  which  divide  it 
Icngtliwifc  into  fides.  The  fruit  hangs  to  the  tree  by 
a  pedicle  tw^o  feet  long  and  .in  inch  diameter.  It  con- 
tains a  whiliih  fpongy  juicy  fnbflancc  ;  with  feeds  of  a 
brown  colour,  and  ihaped  like  a  kidney  bean.  The 
bark  of  this  tree  is  nearly  an  inch  thick,  of  an' alh- 
coloured  grey,  greafy  to  the  touch,  bright  and  very 
fniooth  :  the  outfideis  covered  with  a  kindofvarnilli; 
and  the  infide  is  green, fpccklcd  with  red.  The  wood 
is  white,  and  very  foft ;  the  firfl  flioots  of  the  ear  are 
creen  and  downy. 

The  leaves  of  the  young  plants  are  entire,  of  aaob- 
long  form,  about  four  or  five  inches  long,  and  almofl 
three  broad  towards  the  top,  having  fc  veral  veins  run- 


ning from  the  middle  rib  ;  they  arc  of  a  lucid  green  Adanfonai. 

colour.     As  the  plants  advance  in  height,  the  leaves  "— — ^/ ' 

alter,  and  arc  divided  into  three  parts,  and  afterwards 
into  five  lobes,  which  fprcad  out  in  the  ihapc  of  an 
hand.  The  tree  llieds  its  leaves  in  November,  and  new 
ones  begin  to  appear  in  |unc.  Its  ilowcrs  in  July,  and 
the  fruits  ripens  in  Ottobtr  and  iS'ovember.  it  is  very 
common  in  Senegal  and  the  Cape  de  Verd  idands  : 
and  is  found  100  leagues  up  thecountry  at  Gulam,  and 
upon  the  fea-coili  as  far  as  Sicrra-ltona. 

The  age  of  this  tree  is  perhaps  no  lefs  remarkable 
than  iis  enormous  lize.  Mr  Adanfon  relates,  that  in  a 
botanical  cxcurllon  to  the  Aiagdalenc  idands,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Gorce,  hcdifcovercd  fonie  calabalh- 
trecs  from  five  to  lix  feet  diameter,  on  the  bark  of 
which  were  engraved  or  cut  to  a  confiderable  depth 
a  number  of  European  names.  Two  of  thefe  names, 
wiiich  he  was  at  the  trouble  to  repair,  were  dated  one 
the  14th,  the  other  the  15th  century.  The  letters 
were  about  lix  inches  long,  but  in  breadth  they  occu- 
pied a  very  fmallpart  only  of  the  circumference  of  the 
trunk  :  from  whence  he  concluded  they  had  not  bcca 
cut  when  thefe  trees  were  young.  Thefe  infcripiions, 
however, he  thinksfufficient  to  determine  pretty  nearly 
theage  whichthefccalaballi-trcesmay  attain  ;  for  even 
fuppofmg  that  thofe  in  quciUon  were  cut  in  their  early 
years,  and  that  trees  grew  to  the  diameter  of  lix  fecc 
in  tv.o  centuries,  as  the  engraved  letters  evince,  how 
many  centuries  mufl  be  reiiuifitc  to  give  them  a  dia- 
meter of  25  feet  which  perhaps  is  not  the  laft  term  of 
their  growth  !  The  infcribed  trees  mentioned  by  this 
ingenious  Frenchman  had  been  fcen  in  tJ5J,  almolt 
two  centuries  before,  by  Thevet,  who  mentions  them 
in  the  relation  of  his  voyage  to  Terra  Antardica  or 
Auflralis.     Adanfon  favv  them  in  i  749. 

The  virtues  and  uf€s  of  this  tree  and  its  fruit  arc 
various.  The  negroes  of  Senegal  dry  the  bark  and 
leaves  in  the  Ihadcd  air  ;  and  then  reduce  them  to 
powder,'  which  is  of  a  pretty  good  green  colour. 
This  powder  they  preferve  in  bags  of  linen  or  cot- 
ton, and  call  it  idlo.  They  ufe  it  every  day,  putting 
two  or  three  pinches  of  it  into  a  mcfs,  whatever  it 
happens  to  be,  as  we  do  pepper  and  fait  :  but  their 
view  is,  not  to  give  a  rclifli  to  their  food,  but  to  pre- 
ferve a  perpetual  and  plentiful  perfpiration,  and  to  at- 
temper the  too  great  heat  of  the  blood  ;  purpofes 
which  it  certainly  anfwers,  as  feveral  Europeans  have 
proved  by  repeated  experiments, prcfervingthemfelvcs 
from  the  epidemic  fever,  which,  in  that  country,  de- 
flroys  Europeans  like  the  plague,  and  generally  rages 
during  th.e  months  of  September  and  Odtober,  when, 
the  rains  having  fuddenly  ceafed,  the  fun  exhales  the 
water  left  by  them  upon  the  ground,  and  fills  the  air 
with  a  noxious  vapour.  M.  Adanfon,  in  that  critical 
feafon,  made  alight  ptifan  of  the  leaves  of  the  baobab, 
which  lie  had  gathered  in  the  Augull  of  the  preceding 
year,  and  haddriedin  the  iliade  ;  and  drank  conltantly 
about  a  pint  of  it  every  morning,  cither  before  or  af- 
ter breakfafl,  and  the  fame  quantity  of  it  every  even- 
ing after  the  heat  of  the  fun  began  to  abate  ;  he  alfo 
fometimcs  took  the  fame  quantity  in  the  middle  of  the 
day,  but  this  was  only  when  lie  felt  fome  fymptomsof 
an  approaching  fever.  By  this  precaution  he  prefer- 
ved  himfelf,during  the  five  years  he  refided  at  Senegal, 
from  the  diarrhcea  and  fever,  which  are  fo fatal  there 

and, 


ADA 


[     109     ] 


ADA 


(Jaiifonia  and  whicli  are,  however,  the  only  dangerous  difcafcs 
I         of  the  place  ;  and  other  officers  flittered  very  ftvercly, 

Adar.  only  one  excepted,  upon  whom  M.  Adaiifon  pr'^v^ilcd 
"  to  life  this  remedy,  which  for  its  iimplicity  was  dcf]'i- 
fed  by  the  rcil.  This  ptiL--  alone  alfo  prevents  that 
heat  of  urine  which  is  common  in  thefe  parts,  from  the 
month  of  July  to  November,  provided  the  pcrfon  ab- 
ftains  from  wine. 

The  fruit  is  not  lefs  ufefiil  than  the  leaves  and  the 
bark.  The  pulp  that  envelopes  the  feeds  has  an  agree- 
able acid  taflc,  and  is  ea;cn  for  plcafure  :  it  is  alfo 
dried  and  powdered,  and  thus  ufed  medicinally  in  pclli- 
lential  fevers,  the  dyfcntery,  and  bloody  iiux ;  tlic 
dofe  is  a  drachm,  pallid  through  a  tine  lieve,  taken 
either  in  common  water,  or  in  an  infulion  of  the  plan- 
tain. This  powder  is  brought  into  Kurope  under  the 
name  oi terra  ji^il/ata  /.  miiui.  The  woody  bark  of  the 
fruit,  and  the  fruit  itfclf  when  fpoikd,  helps  to  fup- 
ply  the  negroes  with  an  excellent  foap,  which  they 
make  by  drawing  a  ley  fr»m  the  aflics,  and  boiling  it 
with  palm-oil  that  begins  to  be  rancid. 

The  trunksof  fuch  of  thefe  trees  as  are  decayed,  the 
negroes  hollow  out  intoburying  places  for  ihiir  poets, 
nuificians,  buffoons  :  perfons  of  thefe  charafters  they 
ellcem  greatly  while  they  live,  fuppofnig  them  to  de- 
rive their  fupcrior  talents  from  forctry  or  a  commerce 
with  demons  ;  but  they  regard  their  bodies  with  a  kind 
of  horror  when  dead,  and  will  not  give  them  burial  in 
the  ufual  manner,  neither  futfering  them  to  be  put  into 
the  ground,  nor  thrown  into  the  fea  or  any  river,  be- 
caufe  they  imagine  that  the  water  would  not  then  nou- 
rifli  the  fifli,  nor  the  earth  produce  its  fruits.  The  bo- 
dies fliut  up  in  thefe  trunks  become  perfciflly  dry  wiih- 
out  rotting,  and  forming  a  kind  of  mummies  without 
the  help  of  embalment. 

The  baobab  is  very  diflinft  from  the  calabafli-tree  of 
America,  with  which  it  has  been  confounded  by  fa- 
ther Labat.     See  Crescenti A. 

Culture.  This  tree  is  propagated  from  feeds,  which 
are  brought  from  the  countries  where  they  grow  na- 
turally, being  nativesonly  of  hot  climates,  the  plants 
will  not  thrive  in  the  open  air  in  Britrin,  even  in  fum- 
mcr.  The  feeds  are  therefore  to  be  fown  in  pots,-  and 
plunged  into  a  hot-bed,  where  the  plants  will  appear 
in  about  fix  weeks,  and  in  a  (hort  time  after  be  tit  to 
tranfplant.  They  muft  then  be  planted  each  in  a  fe- 
parate  pot,  in  light  fandy  earth,  and  plunged  into  a 
hot-bed,  ihading  them  until  they  have  taken  root :  af- 
ter which  they  Ihould  have  frefli  air  admitted  every  day 
in  warm  weather;  but  mull  be  fparingly  watered,  as 
being  apt  to  rot.  They  grow  quickly  for  two  or  three 
years,  but  afterwards  make  little  progrefs  j  the  losvcr 
part  of  the  Item  then  begins  to  fv/cll,  and  put  out  la- 
teral branches,  inclining  to  a  horizontal  polition,  and 

covered  with  a  light  grey  bark. Some  of  this  kind 

of  plants  were  railed  from  feeds  obtained  from  Grand 
Cairo  by  Dr  William  Sherard,  in  1724,  and  were 
grown  to  the  height  of  iS  feet ;  but  were  all  dellroyed 
by  the  fevere  frofl  in  1740;  after  which  they  were 
unknown  in  Britain  till  the  return  of  Mr  Adanfon  to 
Paris  in  17J4. 

ADAPTERS,  or  Adopters.     See  Chemistry, 
(hiJex). 

ADAR,  the  name  of  a  Hebrew  month,  anfwering 
to  the  end  of  February  and  begitiuing  of  March,  the 


12"' of  tlicir  facred,  and  6'' of  their  civil  year.     On    Adirct 
the  7''"  day  of  it,  the  Jtv.s  ktcpafeaft  for  inedcatiiof         i 
Moles;  on  the  1  ;th,  they  have  the  feall  of  Efthcr  ;  and  '^''<'''^'"''' 
on  the  14"",  they  celeLiaie  the  fcad  of  Purim,  for  the         ~' 

deliverance  from  Haman's  cor.fpiracy As  tl'.c  lansr 

year,  wl.ich  the  Jews  folluwed  in  their  c.':lcuhtions,  is 
Ihortcr  thau  the  folar  by  about  11  days,  which  at  ihc 
end  of  three  years  make  a  month,  they  then  interca- 
late a  1 3"'  month,  wliich  they  call  i' saJar,  or  thc/ir- 
c(jnd  Adar,  ^^ 

ADARCE,  a  kind  of  concreted  falts  found  on  reeds 
and  other  vegetables,  and  applied  by  the  ancients  as  a 
remedy  in  feveral  cutaneous  difeales. 

ADARCON,  in  Jewilh  antiquity,  a  gold  coin  men- 
tioned in  fcripture,  worth  about  15s.  (terliug. 

ADARME,  in  commerce,  a  fniall  weight  in  Spain, 
wliich  is  alio  uftd  at  Kiienos-Z.ires,  and  in  all  Spanifli 
America.  It  is  the  16""  part  of  an  ounce,  which  at 
Paris  is  called  the  damgri,s.  But  the  bpanilh  ounce  is 
feven/>cr  n/;/.  lighter  than  that  of  Paris.  Stephens 
renders  it  in  Englilh  by  a  drain. 

ADATAIS,  Adatu,  or  Adatys,  in  commerce, 
a  niurtin  or  cotton-cloth,  very  fine  and  clear,  ofwl.Uh 
the  piece  is  ten  French  ells  long,  and  three  quartcrj 
broad.  It  conus  from  the  Eafl-Iudies  ;  and  the  lincft 
is  made  at  Bengal. 

ADCORDABILIS  penarii,  in  old  law  books, 
fignity  money  paid  by  the  vaiiiil  to  his  lord,  upon  the 
felling  or  exchanging  of  a  feud. 

ADCFif^SCENTES,  among  the  Romans,  denoted 
a  kind  ofl'oldiery,  entered  in  the  army,  but  not  yet  put 
on  duty  ;  from  thefe  the  Handing  forces  were  recruited. 
See  AccENSl. 

ADDA,  in  geography,  a  river  of  Switzerland  and 
Italy,  wliich  rifcs  in  mount  Braulio,  in  the  country  of 
the  Grifons,  and,  palTing  through  the  Valtclinc,  tra- 
verfesthc  lake  Cou:o  and  the  Milanefe,  and  falls  into 
the  Po,  near  Cremona. 

ADDKPH.AGIA,  in  medicine,  a  term  nfed  by 
fomc  phylicians,  for  gluttony,  or  a  \oraclous  appetite. 

ADDER,  in  zoology,  a  name  for  the  Viter.     Sec 

Coil'BER. 

AaDER-Bolis,<^T  Addtr-fiit.     See  Libeluila. 

Sia-AoDKR,  the  Englilh  name  of  a  fpccies  of  Syn- 
gn  athus. 

IVater-AoDER,  a  name  given  to  the  Colvber  Na- 
trix. 

AuDER-ftung,  is  ufed  in  refpeiJl  of  cattle,  when  flung 
with  any  kind  of  venomous  reptiles,  as  adders,  fcor- 

pions,  &c.  or  bit  by  a  hedge-hog  or  Ihrew For  the 

cure  of  fuch  bites,  fome  ufe  an  ointment  made  of  dra- 
gon's blood,  with  a  little  barley-meal,  and  the  whites 
of  eggs. 

AoaER-JVort,  or  Sf/akfwood.     See  Polygonum. 

ADDEXTRATORES,  in  the  court  of  Rome,  the 
pope's  mitre-bearers,  focalled,  according  to  Ducange, 
becaufe  they  walk  at  ihe  Pope's  right-hand  when  he 
rides  to  vilit  the  churches. 

AD  DICE,  or  Adze,  a  kind  of  crooked  ax  ufed  by 
Hiip-wrights,  carpenters  coopers,  &c. 

ADDICTI,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  Haves,  among 
the  Romans,  adjudged  to  ferve  fomc  creditor  wliom 
tliey  could  not  otherwife  fatisfy,  andwhofe  flaves  thiy 
became  till  they  could  pay  or  work  out  of  the  debt. 

.ADDICTION,  among  the  Romans,  was  the  m.i- 

kinc 


ADD 


[     no     ] 


ADD 


Acliliilio,  king  over  goods  to  another,  titlicr  by  falc,  or  by  legal 
All  hfiiii.    fcnltncc  ;  thf  goods  lb  delivered  were  called  bona  ad- 
"         t//^itt.     Debtors  were  fomctimcs  delivered  over  in  the 
fame  manner;  and  tlicncc  tailed /t^rn/  aildidi. 

ADDICTIO  IN  DIEM,  among  the  Romans,  the  ad- 
judging a  thing  to  a  pcrfon  for  a  certain  price,  unlcfs 
by  liicli  a  day  the  owner,  or  fomc  other,  give  more 
for  it. 

ADDISON  (Lancelot^  fon  of  Lancelot  Addifon 
a  clergyman,  was  born  at  Monldiimealnn  lie,  in  the  pa- 
rilh  of  Croiby  Kavenfworth  in  Wcftmorthiiid,  in  ilic 
year  163J.  He  was  educated  at  Qiiceii's  College, Ox- 
lord  ;aud  at  t  lie  Rclloraiion  of  king  Charles  II.  accept- 
ed of  liic  thaplainlhip  of  the  garrifon  of  Dunkirk  : 
but  that  fortrci's  being  delivered  up  to  the  Frcjicii  in 
1662,  he  returned  to  Kngland,  and  was  foon  after 
made  chaplain  to  the  gairilon  of  Tangier  ;  where  he 
continued  fcven  years,  and  was  greatly  efteemed.  In 
1 670,  he  returned  to  England,  and  was  made  chaplain 
inordinary  to  the  king  ;but  his  chaplainlliip  of  Tangier 
being  taken  from  him  on  account  of  his  abfence,  he 
found  himfelf  ilraitened  in  his  circumilances,  when  he 
fcaibnably  obtained  thcredoryof  Milflonin  Wiltlhire, 
worth  about  I  ioX.per  anitiiin.  He  afterwards  became 
a  prcbtndary  of  Sarum  j-  took  his  degree  of  dodtor  of 
divinity  at  Oxford  ;  and  in  1683  was  made  dean  of 
I.itclificki,  and  the  ncxtyear  archdeacon  of  Coventry. 
His  life  was  cxem'plary  ;  his  convcrfatiouplealing,  and 
greatly  inllrucfive  ;  and  his  behaviour  asagentlenian, 
a  clergyman,  and  a  neighbour,  did  honour  to  the  place 
of  his  relidencc.  He  wrote,  i.  A  lliort  Narrative  of 
the  Revolutions  of  ihe  kingdoms  of  b'tzand  Morocco  : 
3.  The  prefcnt  Hiltory  of  the  jews  :  3.  -A  Difcourfc 
on  Catechifing  :  4.  A  Modcft'Plea  for  the  Clergy  : 
5.  An  Introducfion  to  the  Sacrament  :  6.Therir(t 
State  of  Mahomelifm  :  and  fcveral  other  jiicces.  This 
w^ortliy  divine  died  on  the  io""  of  April  1703  and 
left  three  fons  :  Jofcph,  the  fubjeiJl  of  the  next  article; 
Culflon,  who  died  while  governor  of  Fort  St  George; 
Lancelot,  niaftcr  of  arts,  and  fellow  of  JVIagdalen  Col- 
lege in  Oxford  :  and  one  daughter  firfb  married  to  Dr 
Sartre  prebendary  of  Weftmiullcr,  and  afterwards  to 
Daniel  Combes,  Kfc]. 

Addison  (Joftph),  fon  of  dean  .Addifon  the  fub- 
jett  of  the  lall  article.  He  was  born  at  Wilfton,  near 
.•\mbre(bury,  in  Wjltlhirc,  on  the  11"' of  May  1672  ; 
and  not  bti;ig  thought  likely  to  live  was  baptized  tlie 
fame  day.  He  received  his  tirft  rudiinents  of  liis  edu- 
cation at  the  place  of  his  nativity,  under  the  reverend 
Mr  Nailh  ;  but  was  foon  removed  loSalilbury,  under 
the  care  of  Mr  Taylor  ;  and  from  thence  to  tlic  char- 
ter-houfc.wJiere  he  commenced  his  acquaintance  with 
Sir  Richard  Steele.  About  fifteen,  he  was  entered  at 
Qiiccn's  College,  Oxford,  where  hcapplitd  very  dofc- 
ly  to  the  ftudy  of  tlafllcal  learning,  in  uhich  he  made 
a  furprifing  proficiency. 

In  the  year  16S7,  Dr  Lancaftcr,  dean  of  Magda- 
len College,  having,  by  chance,  feen  a  Latin  poem  &f 
Mr  Addifon's,  was  fo  plcafed  with  it,  thai  he  imme- 
diately i^ot  hiui  elected  into  tha  houfe, where  he  look 
uphis  (legrcesofha'.hclorarni  mallerofarts.  His  Lstin 
pieces  in  the  courfc  of  a  few  years,  were  exceedingly  ad- 
*  mired  in  buib.  iviivei  fitits:  nor  wercthcy  lefs  tftten.ed 

abroad,  particularly  by  the  celebrated  Koileau,  who  is 
reported  to  have  faid,  that  he  would  not  have  written 


againftPerrault.had  he beforcklecnfuch  excellent  pieces    AaJifon. 

by  a  modern  hand.     He  pnblilhed  nothing  in  Engiilh  '' ^~ — 

before  the  twcnty-fecondyear  of  his  age  ;  when  there 
appeared  a  Ibort  copy  of  verfcs  written  by  him,  and  ad- 
dreffed  to  Mr  Dry  den,  \\  >ich  procured  iiim  great  re- 
putation from  the  belt  judges.  This  was  foon  follow- 
ed by  a  tranllation  of  the  Fourth  Gcorgic  of  Virgil, 
(omitting  the  llory  of  Arillaius),  much  commendedby 
Air  Dryden.  He  wrote  alio  the  Elfay  on  the  Gcor- 
gics,  prefixed  to  Mr  Dryden's  tranllation.  There  arc 
feveral  other  pieces  written  by  him  about  this  time  ; 
among  the  refl,  one  d.lled  the  3''  of  April  1694, 
addrelfed  to  H.  S.  that  is,  Dr  Sachevcrel,  who  be- 
came afterwards  fo  famous,  and  with  whom  Mr  Addi- 
fon lived  once  in  the  greatefl  friendlhip ;  but  their  iu- 
limacy  was  fome  time  after  broken  off  by  their  difagrce- 
mcnt  in  political  principles.  In  the  year  169J,  he 
wrote  a  poem  to  king  William  on  one  of  his  cam- 
paigns, addrelfed  to  Sir  John  Somers  lord  keeper  of 
the  great  leal.  This  gentleman  received  it  with  great 
pleafurc,  took  the  author  intothcnumber  of  his  friends, 
and  beflowtd  on  him  many  marks  of  his  favour. 

Mr  Addilbn  had  been  clofely  prcffed,  while  at  the 
univerliiy,  to  enter  into  holy  orders  ;  and  had  once  re. 
folved  upon  it :  but  his  great  moderty,  his  natural  dif- 
fidence, and  an  uncommonly  delicate  fcnfc  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  facred  function,  made  him  afterwards 
alter  his  rcfohition  ;  and  having  exprefled  an  inclina- 
tion to  travel,  Jie  was  encouraged  thereto  by  his  patron 
abovcnuntioned,  who  by  his  intereft  procured  him 
from  the  crown  a  penlion  of  L.300/>£'r  annum  to  fup- 
port  him  in  his  travels.  He  accordingly  made  a  tour 
to  Italy  in  the  year  1699  ;  and,  in  1 701,  he  wrote  a 
poetical  cpiftle  from  Italy  to  the  earl  of  Halifax,  which 
has  been  univcrfally  ellcemedas  a  moft  excellent  per- 
formance. It  was  tranllated  into  Italian  vcrfe  by  the 
abbot  Antonio  Maria  Salvini,  Greek  profelfor  at  Flo- 
rence. In  the  year  i  70J,  he  publiihed  an  account  of 
his  travels,  dedicated  to  lord  Somers  ;  v/hich,  though 
at  firfl  but  inditi'crcntly  received,  yet  in  a  little  time 
met  with  its  dcfcrved  applaufe.. 

In  the  year  1702,  he  was  about  to  return  to  Eng- 
land, when  he  received  advice  of  his  being  appointed 
to  attend  prince  Eugene,  who  then  commanded  for  the 
emperor  in  Italy  :  but  the  death  of  king  William  hap- 
pening foon  after,  put  an  end  to  this  affair  as  well  as  his 
penlion  ;  and  he  remained  for  a  confiderable  time  un- 
cinjiloyed.  But  an  unexpeflcd  incident  at  once  raifed 
him,  and  gave  him  an  opportunity  of  exerting  his  fine 
talents  to  advaiitaj';c  :  for  in  the  year  i  704,  the  lord 
treafurer  Godolphin  happened  to  complain  to  lord  Ha- 
lifax, that  the  duke  of  Marlborough's  vicflory  at  Blen- 
heim had  not  been  celebrated  in  verfe  in  the  manner  it 
deferved  ;  and  intimated,  that  he  would  take  it  kindly, 
if  his  lordfliip,  who  was  the  knownpatron  of  the  poets, 
would  name  a"gentlcman  capable  of  doing  juflice  to  lb 
elevated  a  fubjed.  Lord  Halifax  replied,  fomcwhat 
hallily,  that  he  did  know  fuch  a  perfon,  but  would 
not  mention  him  ;  adding,  that  long  had  he  feen,  with 
indignation,  nien  of  no  merit  n^aiiuained  in  luxury  at 
the  public  expcncc,  whilll  thole  of  real  worth  aud  mo- 
dtlly  were  fuff'ered  to  langtiilh  in  obfcurity.  The 
treafurer  anfwcred  very  coolly  that  he  was  fony  there 
Ihould  be  occafioiii  for  fuch  an  obfcrvation,  but  that  he 
would  do  his  endeavour  to  wipe  off  fuch  reproaches  for 

the 


ADD 


r    II'   ] 


ADD 


t}}e  future  ;  and  he  engaged  his  honour,  that  whoever 
his  lordlhip  named,  as  a  perfou  capable  of  celebraiing 
this  victory,  fliould  meet  with  a  liiitablc  recoinpcncc. 
Lord  Halit'ax  thereupon  named  Mr  Addifon  ;  inlilling, 
however,  that  the  trealurer  liiniftlf  Ihould  fend  to  himj 
whicli  he  promifed.  Accordingly  he  prevailed  on  Mr 
Boyle  (aftcrsvards  lord  Carlton)  then  clianccllor  of 
the  exchequer,  to  make  the  propofal  to  Mr  Addifon  ; 
which  lie  did  in  fo  polite  a  manner,  that  our  author 
readily  undertook  the  talk.  The  lord-treafurer  had  a 
fight  of  the  piece,  when  it  was  carried  no  farther  tlian 
the  celebrated  fnnilie  of  the  angel ;  and  was  fo  plcafcd 
with  it,  that  he  immediately  appointed  Mr  Addifon  a 
coniiniinoner  of  appeals,  vacant  by  the  promotion  of 
Mr  Locke,  chofen  one  of  the  lords  commillioners  for 
trade.  The  Campaign  is  addrelfed  to  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough  ;  it  gives  a  (liort  view  of  the  military 
tranfactions  in  1704,  and  contains  a  noble  dcfcriptiou 
of  the  two  great  actions  at  Schcllemberg  and  Blen- 
heim. In  in  I  705,  he  attended  lord  Ilalfax  to  Hano- 
ver; and  the  year  following  was  appointed  under-fecre- 
tary  toSirCharles  Hedges  fccretary  of  Hate  ;  in  which 
ortice  heacquitted  himfelf  fo  well,  that  the  carl  of  Sun- 
derland, who  fuccceded  Sir  Charles  in  December,  con- 
liiuied  ^lr  Addifon  in  his  employment. 

A  tafle  for  operas  beginning  at  this  time  to  prevail 
in  England,  and  many  perfons  having  felicited  Mr  Ad- 
difon to  write  one,  he  complied  with  their  requefl,  and 
compofed  his  Rofamond.  This,  however,  whether 
from  the  defeft  of  the  mullc,  or  from  the  prejudices 
in  favour  of  the  Italian  tafte,  did  not  fuccecd  upon  the 
ftage ;  but  the  poetry  of  it  has,  and  always  will  be, 
juiUy  admired.  About  this  time.  Sir  Richard  Steele 
compofed  his  comedy  of  the  Tender  Hulband,  to  which 
Mr  Addifon  wrote  a  prologue.  Sir  Richard  fiirprifed 
him  with  a  dedication  of  this  play,  and  acquainted  the 
public,  that  he  was  indebted  to  him  for  fome  ot  the 
mofb  excellent  ftrokes  in  the  performance.  The  mar- 
quis of  Wharton,  being  appointed  lord  lieutenant  of 
Ireland  in  1709,  took  Mr  Addif(m  with  hira  as  his 
fecretary.  Her  majefty  alfo  made  him  keeper  of  the 
records  of  Ireland,  and,  as  a  father  mark  of  her  fa- 
vour, confiderably  augmented  the  falary  annexed  to 
that  place.  Whilil  he  was  in  this  kingdom,  the  Tat- 
ler  Was  firft  publidied  ;  and  he  difcovcred  his  friend 
Sir  Richard  Steele  to  be  the  author,  by  an  obfervation 
on  Virgil,  which  he  had  communicated  to  him.  He 
afterwards  aflifted  conl'iderably  in  carrying  on  this  pa- 
per, which  the  author  acknowledges.  The  Tatler  be- 
ing laid  down,  the  Spectator  was  fet  on  foot,  and  Mr 
Addifon  furniflied  great  part  of  the  moft  admired  pa- 
pers. The  SpciJlator  tnadc  its  firft  appearance  in  March 
I  71 1,  and  was  brought  to  a  conclulionin  September 

I7H- 

His  celebrated  Cato  appeared  in  I7f?.  He  form- 
ed the  delign  of  a  tragedy  upon  his  fubjeifl  when  he 
was  very  young,  and  wrote  it  when  on  his  travels  : 
he  rctouclicd  it  in  England,  without  any  intention  of 
bringing  it  on  the  ftage  ;  but  his  friends  being  per- 
fuadcd  it  would  fcrve  the  caufe  of  liberty,  he  was  pre- 
vailed on  by  their  folicitations,  and  it  was  accordingly 
exhibited  on  the  the.-ttrc,  with  a  prologue  by  Mr  Pope, 
and  an  epilogue  by  Dr  Garth.  It  was  received  with 
the  mod  uncommon  applaufc,  having  run  thirty-five 
nights  without  interruption.     The  Whigs  applauded 


every  line  in  whicli  liberty  was  mentioned,  as  a  faiire  A<lJif<>n, 
on  the  Tories;  and  liic  'I  orics  echoed  every  clap,  to  ^  "  " 
[how  that  the  fatirc  was  iinfelt.  When  it  was  printed, 
notice  wus  given  that  the  Q_aeca  would  be  plcafcd  if 
it  was  dedicated  to  her  ;  "  but  ashe  h.id  dclit;ncd  that 
compliment  cHcwhcre,  he  found  himfelf  obliged, "fays 
TickcU,  "  by  his  daty  on  the  one  hand,  and  his  ho- 
nour on  the  other,  to  fend  it  into  the  world  without 
any  dedication."  It  was  no  lefs  eftccincd  abroad,  ha- 
ving been  tranflated  into  French,  Italian,  and  German  ; 
and  it  was  acted  at  Leghorn,  and  fcvcral  oihcr  places, 
with  vaft  applaufc.  The  Jcfuits  of  Sr  Omers  made  a 
Latin  verfion  of  it,  andthe  ftudentsav'tcdit  withgrsat 
magnificence. 

About  this  time,  another  paper  called  the  Guardian 
was  publilhcd  by  Steele,  to  which  Addii'on  was  a  prin- 
cipal contributor.  It  was  a  continuation  of  the  Spec- 
tator, and  was  diftinguillled  by  the  fame  elegance  and 
the  fame  variety  ;  but,  in  confcquence  of  Steele's  pro- 
pcnfity  to  politics,  was  abruptly  difcontinued  in  order 
to  write  the  Engliflinian. 

The  papers  of  Addifon  are  marked  in  the  Spedator 
by  one  of  the  letters  in  the  nar.ic  of  67/»,  and  in  tiie 
Guardian  by  a  Hand.  Many  of  ihefc  papers  were 
written  with  powers  truly  comic,  witli  nice  difcrimi- 
nation  of  characters,  and  accurate  obfervation  of  na- 
tural or  accidental  deviations  from  propriety  ;  but  it 
was  not  fuppofed  that  lie  had  tried  a  comedy  on  the 
ftage,  till  Steele,  after  liis  death,  declared  him  the  au- 
thor of  "  TJie  Drummer."  This,  however,  he  did 
not  know  to  be  true  by  any  cogent  teftimony  :  for 
when  Addifon  put  the  jday  into  his  hands,  he  only- 
told  him  it  was  the  w->rk  of  a  grnilcinan  in  the  com- 
pany ;  and  when  it  was  received,  as  is  confclicd,  with 
cold  difapprobation,  he  was  probably  lefs  willing  to 
claim  it.  Tickell  omitted  it  in  his  colledion  ;  but  the 
teftimony  of  Steele,  and  the  total  (ilcnce  of  any  other 
claimant,  has  determined  the  public  toaffign  it  to  Ad- 
difon, and  it  is  now  printed  with  his  other  poetry. 
Steele  carried  "The  Drummer"  to  the  playhoufe,  and 
afterwards  to  the  prefs,  and  fold  the  copy  for  50  gui- 
neas. To  Steele's  opinion  may  be  added  the  proof 
fupplied  by  the  play  itfclf,  of  which  the  charadlers  arc 
fii(^  as  Addifon  would  have  delineated,  and  the  ten- 
dency fuch  as  Addifon  would  have  promoted. 

It  is  faid  that  Mr  Addifon  intended  to  have  compo- 
fed an  Englifli  didionary  upon  the  pi. in  of  the  Italian 
(Delia  Crufca)  ;  but,  upon,  the  .leath  of  the  quern 
being  appointed  fecretary  to  the  lords  jullices,  he  had 
notleifure  to  carry  on  fuch  a  work.  When  the  c;irl  i>f 
Sunderland  was  appointed  lord  lieutenant  of  Irel::ud, 
Mr  Addifon  was  again  made  fecretary  for  the  afiaii:s 
of  that  kingdom  ;  anduponthe  earl's  being  removed 
from  the  lieuicnancy,  he  was  chofen  one  of  the  lords 
of  trade. 

Not  long  afterwards  an  attempt  was  made  to  revive 
the  Speftator,  at  a  time  indeed  by  no  means  favour- 
able to  literature,  when  the  fucceliion  of  a  new  family 
to  the  throne  filled  the  nation  with  anxiety,  difcord, 
and  confulion  ;  end  either  the  turbulence  of  the  times 
or  the  faticty  of  the  readers  put  a  ftop  to  the  publica- 
tion, after  an  experiment  of  80  numbers,  which  were 
afterwards  collected  into  an  eighth  volume,  perhaps 
more  valuable  than  any  of  thofc  that  went  before  it  : 
Addifon  produced  more  than  a  fourth  part. 

In 


ADD 


f     n 


AJilifon.       In  171  J>  hi  began  the  Frcdioldor,  a  political  pa- 

' "^ '  per,  which  was  much  admired,    and  proved  ot  great 

ufc  at  that  juiiAiirc.  lie  piiblilhcd  alio,  about  this 
lime,  verfcs  to  Sir  Godfrey  Kiicller  upon  the  king's 
pidiirc,  and  fome  to  the  priuccfs  of  Wales  with  tlie 
tragedy  of  Cato. 

liefore  the  arrival  of  king  George  he  was  made  fe- 
crciary  to  the  regency,  and  was  required  by  his  office 
to  fend  notice  to  Hanover  thit  the  queen  was  dead, 
and  that  the  throne  was  vacant.  To  do  this  would 
iiot  have  been  diiRcuk  to  any  man  but  Addifon,  who 
was  fo  overwhelined  with  the  grcatncfs  of  the  event, 
and  fo  difbracted  by  clioice  of  cxpreliion,  that  thelords, 
who  could  not  wait  for  the  niceties  of  criticifm,  called 
Mr  Southwell,  a  clerk  in  the  houfc,  and  ordered  him 
todifpatch  the  mcllagc.  Southwell  readily  told  what 
was  nccellary,  in  the  common  flylc  of  bufmcfs,  and 
valued  himfelf  upon  having  done  what  was  too  hard 
for  Addifon. 

In  I  716,  he  married  ihc  countefs  dowager  of  War- 
wick, whom  he  had  folicitcd  by  a  very  long  and  anxi- 
ous courtlhij).  He  is  faid  to  liavc  iirll  known  her  by 
becoming  tutor  to  her  fon.  The  marriage,  if  uncoa- 
tradided  report  can  be  credited,  made  no  addition  to 
his  happincfs  ;  it  neither  found  them  nor  made  them 
equal.  She  always  remembered  her  own  rank,  and 
thought  herfclf  intitled  to  treat  with  very  little  cere- 
mony the  tutor  of  her  fon.  It  is  certain  that  Addifon 
has  left  behind  him  no  encouragement  for  ambitious 
love.  The  year  after,  1717,  he  rofc  10  his  highed 
dcvalion,  bci:ig  made  fecrctnry  of  Itate  ;  but  isrepre- 
fcnted  as  having  proved  unequal  to  the  duties  of  his 
place.  In  the  houfc  of  commons  he  could  n«t  fpcak, 
and  thcreliorc  wasufclefsto  the  defcnceof  the  govern- 
ment. In  the  olHce  he  could  not  iliue  an  order  with- 
out loling  his  time  in  quell  of  line  exprellioiis.  At 
lall,  finding  by  experience  his  own  inability  for  public 
buliuefs,  lie  was  forced  to  folicit  his  difmilfion,  with  a 
pcnfioiT  of  ijool.  a-year.  Such  was  the  account  of 
iliolc  who  were  inclined  to  detract  from  liis  abilities  ; 
but  by  others  his  relinquifhnuiu  v.as  attributed  to  de- 
clining hcaltji,  and  the  ncrciruy  of  recefs  and  quiet. 
In  iiis  retirement,  he  applied  bimfclf  to  a  religious 
•Evi.lciices  work  *,  which  he  hid  begun  long  before  ;  part  of 
nftheXiau  which,  fcarce  tinilhcd,  his  been  printed  in  his  works. 
iUligion.  He  intended  alio  to  have  given  an  Englilh  paraphrafe 
of  fome  of  David's  pfalms.  But  his  ailments  incrcafed, 
and  cut  ihort  Uis  deligns.  ITe  had  for  fome  time  been 
oppreCal  by  an  ailhmaiic  diforder,  which  was  now  ag- 
gravaii'd  by  a  dro^ify,  and  he  prepared  to  die  conform- 
ably to  his  precepts  and  profeluons.  He  fent,  as  Pope 
relates,  anicliage  by  the  earlof  Warwick  to  Mr  Gay, 
dcliring  to  fee  him  :  Gay,  who  h-'d  not  vilited  him  for 
fome  time  before,  obeyed  the  fummons,  and  found 
himfelf  received  with  great  kindnefs.  The  purpofel'or 
which  the  interviev,-  had  been  foliciicd  was  then  difto- 
vered  :  Addifon  told  hi;n,  that  he  had  injured  hi  n  ; 
but  that  if  he  recovered,  he  would  recompciife  him. 
Wli.-.t  the  injury  was  he  did  not  explain,  nor  did  Gay 
ever  know  ;  but  I'lppofed  thit  fome  preferment  defiu;n- 
fd  for  him  had  by  Addifon's  intervention  been  with- 
held.— Aiiolherdeath-bfd  i;itcrview,  of  a  morcfolemn 
iiaiurr,!S  recorded:  Lord  Warwick  wasayoungman  of 
very  irregr.'.ar  life, and  perhaps  of  ioofc  opinions.  Addi- 
fon,for  whom  he  did  not  want  rcfpc<.l,had  very  diligent- 


2     ]  ADD 

ly  endeavoured  to  reclaim  him  ;  but  his  argumcntsand  AdUiion. 
cxportulations  hadnocfied:  One  experiment,  how-  *— v— 
ever,  remained  to  be  tried.  When  he  found  his  life 
near  its  end,  he  dircded  the  young  lord  to  be  called  : 
and  when  he  dclired,  with  great  tcndernefs,  to  hear 
Jiis  lafl  injundions,  told  him,  "  I  have  fcnt  for  you  that 
"  you  may  fee  how  a  Chrillian  can  die."  What  ef- 
fect this  awful  fcenehad  on  the  carl's  behaviour  is  not 
known:  he  died  himfelf  in  a  Ihort  time.  Having  gi- 
ven directions  to  Mr  Tickell  for  the  publication  of  his 
works,  and  iledicated  them  on  his  deadi-bed  to  his 
friend  Mr  Craggs,  he  died  June  17.  i  7i9,at  Holland- 
houfe,  leaving  no  child  but  a  daughter  who  is  flill 
living. 

Addifon's  courfc  of  life  before  his  marriage  has  been 
detailed  by  Pope.  He  had  in  the  houfc  with  him 
Rudgell,  and  perhaps  Philips.  His  chief  companions 
were  Steele,  LJudgell,  Philips,  Carey,  Davenant,  and 
Colonel  Brett.  With  one  or  other  of  thcfc  he  al- 
ways brcakfaflcd.  He  ftudied  all  morning  ;  then  din- 
ed at  a  tavern, and  went  afterwards  to  Button's.  From 
the  coffcehoufc  he  went  again  to  the  tavern,  where 
he  often  fat  late,  and  drank  too  much  wine. 

Dr  Johnfon,  in  delineating  the  character  of  Addi- 
fon, obferves  with  Tickell,  that  he  employed  wit  on 
the  fide  of  virtue  and  religion.  He  not  only  made  the 
proper  ufe  of  wit  himfelf,  but  taught  it  to  others ; 
and  from  his  time  it  has  been  generally  fubfcrvient 
to  the  caufe  ofreafon  and  truth.  He  hasdilTipatcd  the 
prejudice  that  had  long  conneded  gaiety  with  vice, 
and  eafinefs  of  manners  with  laxity  of  principles.  He 
has  rellorcd  virtue  to  its  dignity,  and  taught  innocence 
not  to  be  afliamed.  This  is  an  elevation  of  literary 
charadcr,  "  above  all  Greek,  above  all  Roman  fame." 
No  greater  felicity  can  genius  attain  than  that  of  ha- 
ving purified  intelledual  pleafure,fepar3ted  mirth  from 
indecency,  and  wit  from  licentioufnefs  ;  of  having 
taught  a  fuceefiion  of  writers  to  bring  elegance  and 
gaiety  to  the  aid  of  goodiiefs  ;  and,  to  ufe  exprcfTions 
yet  more  awful,  of  having  "  turned  many  to  righte- 
"  oufnefs."  Asadefcriberof  lifcand  manners,  hemuft 
be  allowed  to  (land  perhaps  the  firA  of  the  firft  rank. 
His  humour,  \\  hich,  as  Steele  obferves,  is  peculiar  to 
himfelf,  is  fo  happily  diffufed  as  to  give  the  grace  of 
novelty  to  domellic  fcenes  and  daily  occurrences.  He 
never  "outflcps  the  modelly  of  nature,"  nor  raifes 
merriment  or  wonder  by  the  violation  of  truth.  His 
figures  neither  divert  by  diftoriion,  nor  amaze  by  ag- 
gravation. He  copies  life  with  fo  much  fidelity,  that 
he  can  be  hardly  faid  to  invent ;  yet  his  exhibitions 
have  an  air  fo  much  original,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
fuppofe  them  not  merely  the  produd  of  imagination. 
As  a  teacher  of  wifdom  he  may  be  confidently  follow- 
ed. His  religion  has  nothing  in  it  entluifiaftic  or  fu- 
percilious  ;  he  appears  neither  weakly  credulous  nor 
wantonly  fceptical  ;  Jiis  morality  is  neither  dangerouf- 
ly  lax  nor  impradicably  rigid.  All  the  enchantuient 
of  fancy  and  all  the  cogency  of  argument  are  employ- 
ed to  recommend  to  tlie  reader  his  real  interelt,  the 
care  of  plealing  the  Author  of  his  being.  Truth  is 
fliown  fomciimes  as  the  phantom  of  a  vifion,  fomc- 
times  appears  half-veiled  in  an  allegory  ;  fometimcs 
attrads  regard  in  the  robes  of  fancy,  and  fometimes 
flcps  forth  in  the  confidence  of  reafon.  She  wears  a 
thoufand  drclles,  and  in  all  is  plealing. 

The 


ADD 


I     »i3 


ADD 


/\ddifo!t>       The  Doctor,  Iiov/cvcr,  li.ia  rclitcd  tl)c  following  a- 

^ —  nccJoif,  which  every  admirer  of  Addifon,  every  man 

of  feeling,  nuiii  be  reluctant  to  believe.  "  Steele  ( fays 
ihe  Doitor),  wliofc  imprudence  of  gciicroliiy,  or  va- 
nity of  ^Mofufion,  kept  him  always  incurably  neccfli- 
tous,  upon  fomc  prciiing  exigence,  in  an  evil  lionr, 
borrowed  an  hundred  pounds  of  his  friend,  probably 
without  much  purpofc  of  repayment  ;  but  Addifon, 
who  fecms  lo  have  had  other  notions  of  a  hundred 
pouncis,  j;rcw  impatient  of  dcla)',  and  reclaimed  his 
Joan  by  an  execution.  Steele  felt,  with  great  fcnlibi- 
lity,  tlic  obduracy  of  his  creditor  ;  but  with  emotions 
of  forrow  rather  than  of  anger."  It  is  much  to  be 
wiflied,  fays  Dr  Kippis,  that  Dr  jolinfon  had  produ- 
ced his  authority  fortius  narration.  It  is  very  poliible, 
that  it  may  be  only  2  flory  the  Doctor  had  fcmrwhcre 
heard  in  converfation,  and  which  is  entirely  ground- 
lefs:  "  and  this  I  am  t!ie  rather  inclined  to  believe, 
as  I  have  been  aruircd  by  one  of  the  moft  rcfptftable 
charai.1ers  in  the  kingdom,  that  the  fact  hatii  no  foun- 
dation in  truth."  Mr  Potter,  in  a  late  pnhlitation, 
hath  informed  us,  that  lie  is  told  by  the  bcft  authority, 
.    tiiat  the  Uory  is  an  abfol.itc  falfchood. 

Mr  Tycrs,  in  "  An  hiftorical  ElTay  on  Mr  A.Wi- 
fon,"  printed,  but  not  puMilhcd,  has  mentioned  fomc 
fads  concerning  him,  witli  which  we  were  not  before 
acquainted.  Thefc  are.  That  he  was  laid  out  for  dead 
as  foon  as  he  was  Ixirn  :  that,  when  he  addrcfled  his 
verfcs  on  the  Englifh  poets  to  Henry  Sachcverell,  he 
courted  that  gentleman's  lifter  :  tliat,  whenever  Ja- 
cob Toiifon  came  to  him  for  tlie  Spediator,  Baylc's 
F'rcnch  Hiftorical  and  Critical  DiSionary  lay  always 
open  before  him  :  that,  upon  his  return  to  fengland, 
after  hi-;  travels,  he  difchargcd  feme  old  debts  he  had 
contrat'lcd  at  Oxford,  with  tiie  generofity  of  good 
intcreft  :  that  he  was  put  into  plentiful  circumftanccs 
by  the  death  of  a  brother  in  the  F:ift  Indies:  that, 
having  received  encouragement  from  a  married  lady, 
of  whom  he  had  been  formerly  enamoured,  he  had  the 
integrity  to  refifc  the  temptation  :  that  he  refufcd  a 
gratification  of  a  three  hundred  pounds  ba!.k-note, 
and  afterwards  of  a  diamond  ring  of  the  fame  value, 
from  a  Major  Dunbar,  wliom  he  had  cn<leavourcd  to 
ferve  in  Irclin.'  by  his  intcrcfk  with  lord  Sunderland  : 
and  that  his  daughter  by  lady  Warwi-k  is  ftill  alive 
and  unmarried,  relidingat  Biltonncarllugby,  and  pof- 
fc  (ling  an  income  of  more  than  twelve  liundreda-y  ear. 
The  following  letter,  which  probably  relates  to  the 
cafe  of  Major  Dunbar,  rcflerts  great  honour  on  Mr 
^ddifon's  integrity.  '<  Jvne  26.  1 71  J.  Sir,  I  rind 
tRcre  is  a  very  flrong  oppofition  formed  againft  you  ; 
but  I  fhall  wait  on  my  lord  lieutenant  this  morning, 
and  lay  your  cafe  before  him  as  advantageoully  as  I 
can,  if  lie  is  not  engaged  in  other  company.  I  am 
afr.  id  w  hat  you  fay  of  his  grace  docs  not  portend  you 
any  good.  And  now.  Sir,  believe  me,  when  1  allure 
you  I  never  did,  nor  ever  will,  on  any  prcten'-c  what- 
foevcr,  ta':e  more  than  the  P.atcd  and  eu'lomary  fees 
of  my  office.  I  night  keep  the  contrary  practice 
roncealtd  from  the  world,  were  I  capab'.c  r>f  it,  but 
I  could  not  from  n'yfclf ;  and  I  hope  I  II1.1II  always 
fear  the  reproaches  of  my  own  heart  i:io"e  than 
thofe  of  all  mankind.  In  the  mean  time,  if  I  can 
ferve  a  gentleman  of  i:ierit,  and  fich  a  charaflcr  as 
vou  bear  in  the  world,  i^e  faiisfadion  I  meet  with  on 
Vol.  I.' 


fiich  an  occafion  is  always  a  fufficicnt,  ami  the  only  re- 
ward to,  Sir,  your  moft  obedient,  humble  fervai't, 
I-  Arcisor*." — Theanccdotcwhich  follonswas  tolj 
by  the  late  Dr  Hirch.  Addifon  and  Mr  lemplc  Sian- 
yan  were  very  intimate.  Inihcfamiliarconvcrfations 
which  pafTed  l)etwefn  thcni,  they  were  accuftomcJ 
freely  to  difpi-tc  each  other's  opii,';ons.  CJpon  fjme 
occalion,  Mr  Addifon  lent  Stanyan  five  hundred  pounds. 
After  this,  Mr  Stanyan  behaved  with  a  timid  rtfcrve, 
deference,  and  refpet^  ;  not  convening  with  the  fame 
frccdoin  as  formerly,  or  canvaifing  his  friend's  fcnti- 
ments.  This  gave  grezt  unealincfs  to  Mr  Addifon. 
One  day,  they  happeuc  J  to  fall  upon  a  fubjec'l,  on  whicli 
Mr  Stanyan  had  always  been  ufed  ftrcnuoufly  to  oppofc 
his  opinion.  But,  even  upon  this  occalioa,  he  gave 
way  to  what  his  friend  advanced,  without  interpofnig 
his  own  view  of  the  m.ittcr.  This  hurt  Mr  Addifou 
ft)  much,  that  he  faid  to  Mr  Stanyan,  "  Either  cor.tra- 
diifl:  me,  or  pay  me  the  money." 

In  TickeH's  edition  of  Mr  Addilon's  wor!;3  tkere 
are  fc  vcnil  pieces  hitherto  unmesitioned,  viz.  The  Dii- 
fcrtatian  on  Medah  ;  which,  though  not  publKhed  till 
after  hir.  death,  yet  he  had  collefted  the  materi.ils,  and 
began  to  put  them  in  order,  at  Vienna,  in  1702.  A 
pamphlet,  intitled.  The  prefent  iState  of  the  War, 
and  the  XcceiTity  of  an  Augmentation,  conlidcred. 
The  late  Trial  and  Conviftion  of  Count  Tariff.  The 
Wliig  Examiner  came  out  on  the  14th  of  September 
1 716:  tlierc  were  five  of  thefc  papers  attributed  to 
Mr  Addifon,  and  they  are  the  feverefl  pieces  he  ever 
wrote.  He  is  fiid  aUb  to  have  been  the  author  of  a 
performance  intitled  Difrrt^tio  di  infgnhrihui  R-.i/.a- 
fiorum  Po:lij,  and  of  a  Difcourfe  on  Ancient  and  Mo- 
dern learning. 

ADDITAMENT,  fomeihing  added  to  another. 
"Thus  phyficians  call  the  ingredients  added  to  a  medi- 
cine already  compounded,  aiditamni'i. 

ADDITION,  is  the  joining  together  or  uniting!  we 
or  more  things,  or  augmenting  a  thing  by  the  acccflio:! 
of  others  thereto. 

Aoon  ION-,  in  Arih.metic,  Algebra,  &c.  Sec 
thefc  articles. 

Addition,  inmnfic,  a  dot  marked  on  the  right  lidc 
of  a  note,  fignifying  that  it  is  to  be  founded  or  length- 
ened half  as  much  more  as  it  would  have  been  without 
fuch  mark. 

Additick,  in  law,  is  that  name  or  title  wliich  is 
given  to  a  man  over  and  above  his  proper  name  and 
fnrname,  to  (how  of  what  eftate,  degree,  or  myftery 
he  is  ;  and  of  what  town,  village,  or  country. 

^Dnmo\s  fJ'F.n^t:-,  QixQu(iliiy,vcc,  Yeoman,  Gen- 
tleman, Efquirc,  and  fuch  like. 

.inniTioss  r,f  Degree,  are  thofe  we  call  names  of 
dignity;  :fs  Kuight.^Lord,  Earl,  Marquis,  and  Duke. 

j4dditioxs  of  My  fiery,  are  fuch  as  fcr:vcncr,  paint- 
er, mafon,  and  the  like. 

AoniTioss  'jf  1  lac;,  arc,  of  Thorp,  of  Dale,  of 
Woodftcrk — \Vher-  a  man  hath  houfchold  in  iwo 
places,  he  (liall  be  faid  to  dwell  in  loth  ;  fo  that  his 
addition  ill  either  may  fi.'Hcr.  Knave  was  a!icicntly  a 
regular  adi!i:ioii.  Ily  flat.  1.  Hen.  V.  cap.  j.  it  v.as 
ordained,  that  in  fuch  fuits  or  anions  v.  here  prorefsof 
outlawry  lies,  fuch  addition  lliould  be  made  10  the 
name  of  the  defendant,  to  ihow  his  ellate,  myftery, 
and  place  where  he  dwells:  and  that  the  writs  not  ha- 
P  ving 


cicm 

I. 

Add  tion* 


A  D  E 


[     i'4     ] 


A  D  E 


Adili'.ioin  ving  fiich  aiU'iiions  lliall  abutc  if  the  dcfciulaiii  take 

1)         txccptioii  tlicrttj  ;  but  nut  by  the  office  of"  the  court. 

Adclij.     -yhc  rtaibn  ot  this  oriJiiiaiicc  was,  thai  one  man  niifju 

'       -         not  be  truubUd  by  the  ouiliwry  of  another  ;  but  by 

rcifoii  of  tlic  ceiiaiii addition,  every  perfoii might  bear 

his  own  burden. 

Additions,  in  diftilling,  a  name  given  to  fuch 
things  as  arc  added  to  ihc  walh,  or  lienor,  while  in  a 
ftale  of  fermentHtion  in  order  m  improve  the  viuoliiy 
of  the  fpiilt,  procure  a  largi  r  quantity  of  it,  or  gi\  c 
it  a  particular  Havour.  All  tilings,  of  whatever  kind, 
thus  added  in  the  time  of  fermentation,  are  called  by 
thofc  of  the  bufmefs  who  f,>eak  moll  intelligently,  <r./- 
•  ilitioiis ;  but  many  confound  them  with  things  of  a  ve- 
ry diifcrcnt  nature,  under  the  name  of_/frwf///j.  Sec 
D 1  s  r  I  1.  L  I  N  G  . 

AoDirioNS,  inlicraldry,  fomc  things  added  to  a 
coat  of  arms,  as  marks  of  honour  ;  and  therefore  di- 
rc'.'lly  oppolitc  to  abatements.  Among  additions  we 
reckon  Uordure,  Q^uakter,  Canton,  Gvron, 
Pile,  &c.     See  Thele  articles. 

ADDRESS,  in  a  general  fenfe,  is  ufed  for  ikill  and 
good  management,  and  of  late  has  been  adopted  from 
the  Krench.  It  is  ufed  alfo  in  commerce,  a-*  fynony- 
mous  with  direclion  to  a  perfou  or  place.  The  word 
is  formed  of  the  Krench  verb  adnjfcr,  To  dired  any 
thing  to  a  perfm. 

ACDUCENT  musci.es,  or  Adductors,  in  ana- 
tomy, thofe  nmfcles  which  pull  one  part  of  the  body 
towards  another.  See  Anatomy,  Tuhle  of  the  Mi/fclcs. 
ADKB,  in  commerce,  the  name  of  a  large  Egyp- 
tian weight,  ufed  principally  for  rice,  and  conlifling  of 
210  okes,  each  of  three  rotolos,  a  weight  of  about  two 
drams  lefs  than  the  Englilli  pound.  But  this  is  no  cer- 
tain weight  ;  for  at  Rofetto  the  adeb  is  only  i  jo  okes. 
ADEL,  a  kingdom  on  the  eaftern  coalt  of  Africa, 
which  reaches  as  far  as  the  flraits  of  Babelniandel, 
which  unite  the  Red  Sea  to  the  feaof  Arabia.  This 
country  produces  corn,  and  feeds  a  great  number  of 
cattle.  The  inhabitants  carry  on  a  trade  in  gold,  (li- 
ver, ivory,  oil,  frankincenfe,  a  fort  of  pepper,  and  other 
merchandifes  of  Arabia  and  the  Indies.  The  king  was 
formerly  a  valfal  to  the  grand  negus  of  Abyllinia  :  but 
being  Mahometans,  and  the  Abyliiniansafort  of  Chri- 
llians,  they  could  not  agree  ;  and  in  14^  J  came  to  an 
open  rupture,  when  the  Adelines  threw  off  the  yoke, 
feeking  protedion  from  the  Grand  bignior.  The  prin- 
cipal places  are,  Adcla,  feated  in  the  centre  of  the 
country,  and  is  the  town  where  the  king  relidcs  :  Zei- 
la,  near  the  Arabian  Sea,  is  a  rich  town,  and  has  a 
good  trade  :  Barbora,  near  the  fca-coaft,  is  an  ancient 
trading  town.  It  rains  very  feldom  in  this  country. 
ADELIA,  a  genus  of  the  monodelphia  order,  be- 
longing to  the  dioecia  clafs  of  plants  ;  the  charafters 
of  which  are:  The  male  calyx  is  a  perianthium  one- 
leaved,  three-parted  ;  the  riorcts  fublanced  and  con- 
cave :  Nocoro//a:  The //<j;/;;/.'<J  confift  of  many  capil- 
lary filaments  the  length  of  the  calyx,  conjoined  at 
the  bafe  in  a  cylinder  ;  the  anthcrae  are  roundifli.  The 
/■f:.i//«i£- ca/>x  is  a  five-leaved  perianthium  ;  thelcatlets 
fublanced,  concave,  perfiftent :  No  corolla  :  T\\t pijltl- 
/umhis  a  roundilh  germen  ;  the  (tyli  are  three,  ihort, 
and  divaricated  ;  the  fligmata  lacerated  :  The  periaii- 
/^H/7/; is  a  three-grained,  roundilh, three-celled  capfule: 
Th.e  feeds  arc  folitary  and  roundilh.     In  the  natural 


method,  this  geniu;  belongs  to  the  ;8'''ordcr,Tricecca:.  . 
Of  liiis  genus  there  arc  three  fpecics  ;  the  bciitaidla, 
tiie  I'ic'iiii-lla,  and  actdolou,  for  which  we  have  no  pro- 
per names  in  Englilh.  'i'hey  are  natives  of  Jamaica,  ^ 
and  are  akin  to  ihc  ricinus  or  croton,  and  may  be  pro- 
pagated in  hot-be  Js  from  feeds  procured  from  Jamaica. 
ADELME,  or  Aldhelm,  fon  to  Kcnrcd,  iiephc\r 
to  Ina  king  of  the  Wcll-Saxons  ;  after  having  been 
educated  abroad,  was  abbot  of  Malmlbury  30  years. 
He  was  the  firft  Englilhman  wlio wrote  in  Latin  the 
firfl  who  brought  poetry  into  England,  and  the  tirlt 
bifliop  of  Shcrburn.  He  lived  in  great  eflccm  till  his- 
death,  which  liappened  in  709.  He  was  canonized, 
and  many  miracles  were  told  of  him.  He  is  mention- 
ed with  great  honour  by  Camden  and  Baylc,  and  his- 
life  was  written  by  William  ol  Malmlbury. 

ADELPHIANI,  in  church  hillory,  a  feit  of  an- 
cient licretics,  who  failed  always  on  Sundays. 

ADELSCALC,  in  ancient  culloms,  denotes  a  fer- 
vantof  the  king.  The  word  is  alfo  written  adilfcalche, 
and  adilfcalcus.  It  is  compounded  of  the  German  adi-l, 
or  (del,  "noble,"  anifcalc,  "  fervant."  Among  the 
Bavarians,  adcifcalis  appear  to  have  been  the  fame  with 
royal  thanes  among  the  Saxons,  and  thofe  called  niini- 
fltt  regis  in  ancient  charters. 

ADEMPTION,  in  the  civil  1  iw,  implies  the  re- 
vocation of  a  grant,  donation,  or  the  like. 

ADEN,  formerly  a  rich  and  confiderable  town  of 
Arabia  the  Happy.  It  is  feated  by  the  fea-fidc,  a 
little  eaflward  of  the  flraits  of  Babelmandel. 

ADENANTHERA,  bastard  >  lower-kence,  a 
genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  de- 
candria  clafs  of  plants.  In  the  natural  method,  it 
belongs  to  the  33''  order,  Lotnentacea.  The  clia- 
raiiters  are  :  The  calyx  is  a  periantliium  conlifling 
of  one  very  fmall  five-toothed  leaf.  The  corolla  con- 
fids  of  five  bell-  Ihaped  lanceolate  feflile  petals,  convex 
within  and  concave  under.  The//((w///ahave  ten  ereit 
fubulatcd  filaments  Ihorter  than  the  corolla  ;  the  anthe- 
ra;  arc  roundilh,  incumbent,  bearing  a  globular  gland  on 
the  cxttrior  top.  "Yhc p'lflillinn  lias  a  long  gibbous  ger- 
men ;  the  flylus  fubulated  the  length  of  the  (lamina  ; 
the  fligma  liniple.  The  pericarpium  is  a  long  com- 
preficd  membranous  legumen.  They^t-f/i  are  very  nu- 
merous, roundilh,  and  remote. 

Only  one  fpecies  of  this  plant  is  know-n  in  Britain  : 
but  thtre  is  a  variety,  with  fcarlet  feeds  ;  which,  how- 
ever, is  rare,  and  grows  very  ilowly.  It  is  a  native  of 
India,  and  rifes  toa  confiderable  height.  It  is  as  large 
asthetamarindtree  ;fprcads  its  branches  wide  on  every 
fide,  and  makes  a  fine  Ihade  ;  for  which  rcafon,  it  is 
frequently  planted  by  the  inhabitants  in  their  gardens 
or  near  their  habitations.  Tlie  leaves  of  this  tree  arc 
doubly  winged,  the  flowers  of  a  yellow  colour,  and 
difpofedina  long  bunch.  Thefeare  fucceedcd  by  long; 
twifted  membranaceous  pods,  inelofing  feveral  hard 
compreffed  feeds, of abeautiful  fcarlet, or  (hining black, 
colour.  This  plant  mud  be  raifcd  in  a  hot-bed,  and 
kept  during  the  winter  in  a  ftove. 

ADENBURG,  or  Aldenburg,  a  town  of  Weft- 
phalia,  and  in  the  duchy  of  Burg,  fubjcifl  to  the  Elec- 
tor Palatine.  It  is  12  miles  N.  E.  of  Cologne,  and 
I  7  W.  of  Bonn:  E.  Long.  7.  2  J.  Lat.  jl.  2. 

ADENOGRAPHY,  that  part  of  anatomy  which 
treats  of  the  glandular  parts.     Sec  Anato.mv- 

ADE- 


A  D  H 


[     lis     ] 


A  D  I 


AJenoIdct 

I 

Adliatoda, 


ADENOIDES,  glandulous,  orof  aglandulur  form  ; 
an  cjutlic-i  applied  to  the  prostata:. 

AWENOLOGY,  the  fame  with  Adenography. 
ADENOS,  a  kind  ot' cotton,  othtrwife  called  ma- 
rine collo/i.     It  conies  from  Aleppo  by  liie  way  of  Mar- 
fcillcs,  where  it  ])ays  20 /■£•;•  cent.  duty. 

AliEON  A,  iinnyiliology,  the  name  of  agoddcfsin- 
vokedby  the  Romans  when  they  fct  out  upon  a  journey. 
ADlPHAGIA,  in  mythology,  the  goddefs  of  glut- 
tony, to  whom  the  Sicilians  paid  rciigiinis  vvorlhii). 

AlJEPS,  in  anatomy,  the  fat  found  in  the  abdo- 
men.    It  alfo  llgnifies  animal  fat  of  any  kind. 

AJ^EI'TS,  a  term  among  alchemills  for  thofe  who 
pretended  to  have  found  the  panacea  or  philofopher's- 
Aonc. 

AOERBIJ.'VN,  a  province  of  I'erfia,  bounded  on 
rhe  N.  by  Armenia  Proper,  on  the  S.  by  Irac-Agemi, 
on  the  E.  by  Ghilan,  and  on  the  W.  by  Curdiltan. 
The  principaltownis  Tauris  ;from42.  to  48.  E.  long, 
from  36.  to  59.  lat. 

ADEllN'O,  a  fniall  place  in  the  Val  di  Deniona  in 
the  kingdom  of  Sicily  :  p],  long.  ij.  2J.  lat.  28.  j. 
The  ancient  Adranum. 

ADES,  or  Hades,  denotes  the  invifible  flate.  In 
the  heathen  mythology,  it  comprehends  all  thofe  re- 
gions that  lie  beyond  the  river  Styx,  viz.  Erebus,  Tar- 
tarus, and  ElyUiim.     See  Hei.l. 

ADESSENARIANS,  Adessenarii,  in  chnrch- 
hiflory,  a  fefl  of  Chriltians  who  hold  the  real  prefencc 
of  Chrill's  body  in  the  eucharifl,  though  not  by  way 
of  tranfubftantiation.  They  differ  conliderably  as  to 
this  prefence  ;  fome  holding  that  the  body  of  Chrill  is 
in  the  bread  ;  others  that  it  is  about  the  bread  ;  and 
others  that  is  under  the  bread. 

ADEILIATION,  a  Gothic  cuftom,  whereby  the 
children  of  a  former  marraige  are  put  upon  the  fame 
footing  with  thofe  of  the  fccond.  This  is  alfo  called 
un'io  proliuvi,  and  ftill  retained  in  fonic  parts  of  Ger- 
many. 

AD  FINES  (Antonine),  a  town  of  SwilTerland, 
fuppofed  to  be  the  modern  Vfin,  in  the  north  of  the 
dillricl  of  Turgow,  on  the  rivulet  Thur,  not  far  from 
the  borders  of  Suabia,  about  half-way  between  Con- 
llance  and  Frauenlicld.  So  called,  becaufe  when  Cc- 
cinna,gcneralof  the  emperor  Vitclliiis,  with  the  aux- 
iliary Rhetians,  defeated  the  Helvetii,  the  former 
extended  their  borders  thus  far,  their  territory  end- 
ing here  j  and,  in  time  of  the  Romans,  it  was  the  laft 
town  in  this  quarter,  and  of  fome  repute. 

ADHA.a  fellival  which  the  Mahometans  celebrate 
on  the  ictli  day  of  the  month  Dhoitlliegiat,  which  is 
the  i2th  and  Li'l  of  their  year.  This  month  being 
particularly  deilincd  for  the  ceremonies  which  the  pil- 
grims obferve  at  Mecca,  it  takes  its  name  from  thence, 
for  the  word  llgnifies  //n-  month  ofPtlgrimagt.  Onthat 
day  they  facrifice  with  great  folemnity,  at  Mecca,  and 
no  where  elfe ,  a  fliccp,  which  is  called  by  the  fame 
name  as  thcfedival  itfelf.  The  Turks  commonly  call 
this  fellival  the  Great  Rainivi,  to  dillinguilli  it  from 
the  led'cr,  which  ends  their  fart,  and  which  the  Chri- 
/Uans  of  the  levant  call  the  Eafier  of  the  Turki.  The 
Mahometans  celebrate  this  fellival,  out  of  the  city  of 
Mecca,  in  a  neighbouring  valley  ;  and  fometimcs  they 
facrifice  there  a  camel.     See  Bairam. 

ADHATODA,  in  botany.     See  Jt;sTiciA. 


AHjazro. 


Act  ion  of  ADHERENCE,  in  Scots  law  ;  an  ac-  A5lon  «f 
tion  competent  to  a  hulband  or  wife,  to  compel  either  sdherence 
party  to  adhere,  in  cafe  of  dcferiioii. 

ADHESION,  in  a  general  fenfe,  implies  the  flick- 
ing or  adiiering  of  bodies  together. 

Adhesion,  in  philofophy.     Sec  Cohesion. 

Adhesion,  in  anatomy,  a  term  for  one  part  flick- 
ing toanoijier,  which  in  a  natural  rtatc  arc  fcparatc. 
For  the  moll  part,  if  any  of  thofe  parts  in  the  thoraxor 
belly  lie  in  contact,  and  inflame,  they  grow  together. 
The  lungs  very  frequently  adhere  to  tiie  pleura. 

ADHIL,  in  allronomy,  a  liar  of  the  flxth  magni- 
tude, upon  the  garment  of  Andromeda,  under  the  hit 
liar  in  her  foot. 

ADHOA,  in  ancient  cudoins,  denotes  what  we 
othcrwifc  call  reliej.  In  which  fenfe  we  fometimcs  alio 
find  the  word  written  adoha,  adhoavtiiituvt,axiA  adhoga- 
victitKm. 

ADIANTHUM,  maiden-hair;  a  genus  of  the 
order  offilices,  belonging  to  the  cryptogamia  clafs  of 
plants.  The  fructifications  arc  collected  inoval  fpots 
under  the  refieded  tops  of  the  fronds. 

Species.  Ofthis  genusbotanical  writers  enumerate 
fifteen  fpecies  ;  the  mofl  rcmarkableare  the  following. 
I.  The  capillus  veneris,  or  true  maiden-hair,  is  a  na- 
tive of  the  fouthern  parts  of  France,  from  whence  it 
is  brought  to  Britain  ;  though  it  is  likewife  faid  to 
growpleiuifully  in  Cornwall,  and  the  Trichomanes  has 
been  almoft  univerfally  fubllituted  forit.  2.  Thcpe- 
datum,  or  American  maiden-hair,  is  a  native  of  Ca- 
nada ;  and  grows  in  fiich  quantities,  that  the  French 
fend  it  from  thence  in  package  for  other  goods,  and  the 
apoihtcarics  of  Paris  ufe  it  for  maiden-hair  in  thccom- 
pofiiions  wherein  that  is  ordered.  ;.  The  trapezi- 
forme,  or  black  American  maiden-hair,  is  a  native  of 
Jamaica  ;  and  has  Ihiiiing  black  flalks,  and  leaves  of 
an  odd  (hape,  which  makean  agreeable  variety  among 
other  plants,  fo  is  fbmelimes  cultivated  in  gardens. 

Culture.  The  firA  fpecies  grows  naturally  out  of 
the  joints  of  walls,  and  filTures  of  rocks.  It  ought 
therefore  to  be  planted  in  pots  filled  with  gravel  and 
limc-rubbilh  ;  w  here  it  will  tlirive  much  better  than  in 
good  earth.  It  mull  alfo  be  Iheltcrcd  under  a  frame 
during  the  winter. — The  fecond  is  to  be  treated  in 
the  fame  manner;  but  the  third  will  not  thrive  in  Bri- 
tain, unlcfskcpt  in  a  flove  during  the  winter. 

Properties.  The  true  maiden-hair  has  been  greatly 
celebrated  in  diforders  of  thebreafl  proceeding  from  a 
thinncfs  and  acrimony  of  the  juices;  and  likewife  for 
opening  obllruclions  of  the  vifcera,  and  promoting  the 
expcftoration  of  tough  phlegm.  But  modern  practice 
pays  little  regard  to  it ;  the  alplcnium  trichomanes,  or 
Engliflimaiden-hair,  fupplying  its  place.  See  Asple- 
N  I  u  M  . 

ADIAPHORISTS,  inchurch-hiftory,  a  name  im- 
porting hikewarmnc(^s,  given,  in  the  i6th  century,  to 
the  moderate  Lutherans,  who  embraced  the  opinions 
of  Mclancthon,  whole  difpofition  was  vaftly  more  paci- 
fic than  that  of  Lutlur. 

ADIAPHOROUS,  Adiaphorus,  a  name  given 
by  Mr  Boyle  to  a  kind  of  fpirit  dilliiled  from  tartar 
and  fome  other  vegetable  bodies  ;  and  which  is  neither 
acid,  vinous,  nor  urinous  ;  but  in  many  refpciEls  dif- 
ferent from  any  other  fort  of  fpirit. 

ADJAZZO,ADRAZ7-o,orAjACC!o,ingcography, 
P  2  a 


A  D  J 


L     116    3 


A  D  J 


Ailitflive  a  hanJfoinc  townainl  cilHcot  Corlica  in  the  Mcditcr- 

I         ranca'.i,  with  a  biiliop's  I'cc,   aiut  a  gooj  harbour.     U 

Aiijudicj-  is  |)oj)iiloub,  and  Icriik  in  wine.  It  is  27  miles  S.  W. 

'■°"-      111' Cone.     K.  lo:ig.  41.  54.  Lit.  38.  J. 
'       ^  ADJrX'TlV'i^,  in  gramnifir,  a  l^ind  of  noun  joined 

~  with  a  fiibftantivc,  eiihcrexi're;rtd  or  iinj  lied,  lo!l'.ow 

its  qiiliEics  ur  accidents.     Sec  Gka.':;.ak. 

aDIGI:;,  a  river  in  Italy,  __\vliich  taking  its  rife 
fo.ithof  ilie  lake  Glace  ainunji;  the  Alps,  runs  fouth  by 
Trent,  then  tall  by  Verona  in  the  territory  of  Venice, 
a. id  falls  into  the  gnlph  of  Venice,  north  of  the  uiouih 
of  the  i'o. 

ADJOURNMENT,  the  putting  off  a  court,  or 
other  meeting,  till  anotlicrday.  In  Knj;ldnd  there  is  a 
i^ifFerencc  between  the  adjournment  and  the  proroga- 
tion of  tlie  parlianunt  -,  the  former  being  not  only  for 
a  iliorter  ti:ne,  butalfo  done  by  the  lioulcitfelf;  wbcre- 
a ithc  latter  is  an  atl  of  royal  authority. 

.ADIPOSE,  a  term  iifed  by  anatoinillsforany  cell, 
^  membrane,  &c.  that  is  remarkable  for  its  fatnefs. 

ADUIBEITS.^N,  in  geography,  a  province  of 
Perlia,  in  Alia,  and  part  of  the  ancient  Media.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  province  of  Shirvan,  on  the 
S.  by  Irac-Agtnii  and  Curdilhn,  on  the  E.  by  Gilan 
and  the  Cafpian  fca,  and  on  the  W.  by  Turcomr^'iia. 
ADIT,  in  a  general  fcnfc,thc  palfage  to,  orcntrancc 
of,  any  thing. 

j4dit  of  a  Mine,  the  hole,  or  aperture,  whereby  it 
is  entered  and  dug,  and  by  which  the  water  and  ores 
arc  carried  away.  The  term  amonius  to  the  fume  witli 
funiculus  or  drijt,  and  is  diftinguilhed  from  dir-Jhajt. 
Thc:;dit  is  ufually  made  on  the  lide  of  a  liill,  towards 
the  bottom  thereof,  about  four,  five,  orlix  feet  high, 
and  tight  wide,  in  form  of  an  arch;  fometimcs  cut  in 
the  rock,  and  fi)metimesfupportcdwitli  timber,  focon- 
ducled  as  that  the  fole  or  bottom  of  the  adit  may  an- 
fwer  to  the  bottom  of  the  llial't,  only  fomev.hat lower, 
that  the  water  may  have  a  fulRcicnt  current  to  pafs 
away  without  the  ufe  of  the  pump.  Damps  and  tlic 
impurity  of  the  air  are  tht  great  impediments  againll 
driving  ailits  above  20  or  ;o  fathoms,  by  reafon  of  the 
neceflity,  in  this  cafe,  of  letting  down  air-iliafts  from 
the  day  to  meet  the  adit,  which  are  often  very  expcii- 
five,  both  en  account  of  the  great  depth  of  mines,  and 
the  hardncfs  of  the  mineral  llrata  to  be  cut  through. 
The  bell  remedy  againfl  this  is  that  priftifed  in  the 
coal-mines,  near  Liege,  where  they  work  tiieir  adits 
without  air-fliafts  :  the  manner  of  whicli  is  defcribed 
by  Sir  Robert  Moray.     Vid.  Phil.  Tranf.  ?>J°  j. 

j4i^tT  of  a  Mil!.'  is  fometimes  ufed  for  the  air-fliaft 
itfelf,beinga  hole  driven perper.dicularly  from  thefur- 
faccof  the  earth  intofome  part  of  the  mine,  to  give  en- 
trance to  the  air.  To  draw  of!  the  Handing  water  ia 
winter,  in  deep  mines,  they  drive  up  an  adit,  or  air- 
fliaft,  upon  which  the  air  difcngages  iifelf  from  the 
water,  when  it  begins  to  run  with  fach  violence  as  pro- 
duces a  noife  eijiial  to  the  burflingof  a  cannon,  dafhcs 
every  thing  in  the  way  againfl  the  fides  of  the  mine, 
and  loofens  the  very  rocks  at  a  dillancc.  Ibid.  N°  26. 
ADJUDICATION,  implies  the  afh  of  adjudging, 
or  determining,  a  caufe  in  favour  of  fomc  perfon. 

Adjudication,  in  Scots  law,  the  name  of  that  ac- 
rion  by  which  a  creditor  attaches  tlie  heritable  eflate 
of  his  debtor,  or  his  debtor's  heir,  in  order  to  appro- 
priate it  to  hiiufelf,  either  in  payment  or  fccurity  of  his 


debt  ;  or  that  aetion  by  which  the  holder  of  an  hcri-     Adjunft 
tjl  Ic  right,  labouring  mulcr  any  defect  in  point  of  form,         I 
m-iy  fu|)ply  thjt  deled.  A.llcgation 

ADJUNCT,  among  philofophtrs,  f:gnifics  fonie-         " 
thing  added  to  another,  without  being  any  iieccirary 
part  of  It.  '1  hus  water  Lbfurbcd  by  cloth  or  a  fpongc, 
is  an  adjunct,  but  no  neccll'ary  part  of  either  of  thefc 
fubllanccs. 

Av]vt)Cr,  in  nietaphyfirs,  fome  quality  belonging 
to  cither  the  body  or  niinJ,  v/hethcr  natural  or  acqui- 
red. 1  hus  thinki:;g  is  an  a 'junit  of  the  mind,  and 
growth  an  adjinict  of  the  body. 

Adjunct,  in  muiic,.a  word  whi-h  is  employtd  to 
denominate  the  connection  or  relation  between  the 
principal  mode  and  the  modes  ol  its  two-lifths,  which, 
from  the  intervals  that  conliituie  the  relation  between 
them  and  it,  are  called  its  adjm.ds. 

Adjunct  is  alfo  ufed  to  lignify  a  colleague,  or  fomc 
perfon  atlbr-iatcd  with  another  as  an  al'iltant. 

AD}v.\cr  CoJs,  or  jIdjvsxts  of  ths  Gods,  among 
the  Romans,  were  a  kind  of  inferior  deities,  added  as 
ailillants  to  the  principal  ones,  to  cafe  tliem  in  their 
fundions.  Thus,  to  Mars  was  adjoined  liellona  and 
Nemelis  ;  to  Neptune,  Salacia;  to  Vulcah,  the  Cabi- 
ri  ;  to  the  Good  Genius,  the  Lares  ;  to  the  Evil,  the 
Lcmurcs,  &c. 

Adjuncts,  in  rhetoric  and  grammar,  lignify  cer- 
tain words  or  things  added  to  others,  to  amplify  or 
augment  the  force  of  the  difcourfc. 

Adjuncts,  or  Adjoi  n'ts,  in  the  royal  academy  of 
fciences  at  Paris,  denote  a  clafsof  members,  attached 
to  the  purfuit  of  particular  fciences.  The  clafs  of  AJ- 
j:/ijdi\\is  created  in  1716,  inlieuof  the  Elcves  :  they 
are  twelve  in  number  ;  two  for  geometry,  two  for  me- 
chanics, two  for  allronomy,  two  for  anatomy,  two  for 
ehcmillry,  and  two  for  botany.  Tlie  Ehves  not  ta- 
ken into  this  cftablilhment  were  admitted  on  the  foot 
of  fupcrnumerary  yjdjtmih. 

ADJUTANT,  in  the  military  art,  is  an  ofRcer 
whole  bulinefs  it  is  to  afTill  the  major.  Each  battalion 
of  foot  and  regiment  of  horfc  has  an  adjutant,  who  re- 
ceives the  orders  every  night  from  the  brigade-major  j. 
which,  after  carrying  them  to  the  colonel,  he  delivers 
out  to  the  fcrjeants.  When  detachments  arc  to  be 
made,  he  gives  the  number  to  be  furnillicd  by  eacit 
company  or  troop,  and  aliigns  the  hour  and  place  of 
rendezvous.  He  alfo  places  the  guards  ;  receives,  and 
diflributes  the  am  munition  to  tile  companies,  &:c.  ;  and, 
by  the  major's  orders,  regulates  the  prices  of  bread, 
beer,  and  other  provilions.  The  word  is  fometimes. 
ufed  by  the  French  for  an  aid-dn-  camp. 

/iirjUTASTS-geKcral,  among  the  jcfuits,  a  felefl 
number  of  fathers,  who  reiided  with  the  general  of 
the  order,  each  of  whom  had  a  province  or  conntry  af- 
ligned  him,  as  England,  Holland,  &c.  and  their  buli- 
nefs was  to  inform  the  faiiier-gcncral  of  Hate-occur- 
rences in  fuch  countries.  To  this  end  tlicy  had  their 
eorrcfpondents  delegated,  cmillaries,  viliioi  s,  regents, 
provincials,  if.c. 

ADJUTORIUM,  a  term  ufed  by  phyficians  for 
any  medicine  in  a  prefcription  but  the  capital  one. 

ADLE-ECGS,  fuch  as  liavc  not  received  an  impreg- 
nation from  the  fcmenof  the  cock. 

ADLEGATION,  in  tlie  public  law  of  the  German 
empire,  a  right  cl-iimcd  by  the  ftatcj  of  the  empire  of 

adjoin- 


ADM 


[     117    ] 


ADM 


Admini- 
ftration. 


Adlo:uticn  aJjoiniiig  plcnipienii.irits,in  public  treaties  and  ncgo- 
I  t  iatioas,  to  thole  ot"  the  emperor,  l"or  the  tMiifadting  of 
matters  whicli  relate  to  the  empire  in  general.  In 
wliich  fciifi  adlcgalion  tiilicrs  from  legation,  wliich  is 
the ri^^htof  fending anibalikdors  on  apcrfon's  own  ac- 
count  Several  prin-esanJ  Ilatcsot  the  empire  enjoy 

the  right  ai iegati'jii,  who  have  not  that  of  udi.gaioii, 
and  vuj  virJU,  I'he  bilhops,  for  inilancc,  have  the 
right  oi  aJicgutioii  in  ilic  treaties  which  concern  the 
couimou  intercit,  but  no  right  o(  hgi/tu/i  for  their  own 
private  affairs.  The  like  had  the  duke  of  Mantua. — 
The  emperor  allows  the  princes  of  Cicrniany  the  privi- 
lege oi l-gatiou,  but  dif|Hitis  that  o( aJugnlto/i.  They 
challenge  it  as  belonging  to  \.\\cm  jar:  regui,  which 
they  enjoy  in  common  with  the  emperor  himfclf. 

.'vDLOCUTlON,  Adj.ocutio,  in  antiquity,  is 
chierty  nnderllood  of  fpeechcs  made  by  Roman  gene- 
rals to  their  armies,  to  encourage  them  before  a  battle. 
Wt  frequently  iind  thcfc  adlocutions  exprclled  on  me- 
dals by  the  abbreviature  Adi.ocut.  Con The  ge- 
neral is  fonittiincsreprefented  as  fcated  on  a  tribunal, 
often  on  a  bank  or  mount  of  turf,  with  the  cohorts 
ranged  orderly  round  him,  in  mampuli  and  iu)i„\e. 
The  ufual  formula  in  adlocutions  was,  Fortis  effi-t  ac 
fid;,s. 

ADMANUENSES,  in  ancient  law  books,  denote 
perfons  who  (wore  by  laying  their  hands  on  the  book. 
— In  which  fenfe,  ad,iianncnj\s  amount  to  the  fame 
with  lay  uien  ;  and  lland  oppofed  to  clerks,  who  were 
forbid  to  fwear  on  the  book,  their  word  being  to  be 
reputed  as  their  oath  ;  whence  they  were  alio  deno- 
minated/..'-•  digiii. 

ADMKASLTIEMENT,  Admensuratio,  in  law, 
a  writ  which  lies  for  the  bringing  thofe  to  reafon,  or 
mediocrity,  who  ufurp  more  of  any  thing  than  their 
fliare.     This  vvri-  lies  in  two  cafes;  termed, 

AnMKA^VKKMK\T  of  Doivfr,  AJ'iietifiiratio  d'jfis, 
where  the  widow  of  the  dcceafed  holds  more  from  the 
heir,  or  his  guardian,  on  accouiit  of  her  dower,  than  of 
right  belongs  to  her.     And, 

Aonir.A^VKt'MJ-w  ofPajlure,  AJmenfuratiofa[lura; 
this  lies  between  thofe  who  have  common  of  pallures 
appendant  to  their  freehold,  or  common  by  vicinage, 
in  cafe  any  of  them  furcharge  the  common  with  more 
cattle  than  tiiey  ouglit. 

ADMINICLE,  a  term  nfcd  chiefly  in  old  law- 
books,  to  imply  an  aid,  help,  ain/tance,  or  fupport. 
The  word  is  Latin,  adniintaduni ;  .ind  derived  trom 
adiiihiiciiior,  to  prop  or  fupport. 

Adminicle,  in  Scots  law,  fignifics  any  writing  or 
deed  referred  to  by  a  party,  in  an  adtion  of  law,  for 
proving  his  allegations. 

ADMINICULATOR,  an -ancient  officer  of  the 
church,  v.hofe  bufincfs  it  was  to  attend  to  and  defend 
the  caufeof  the  widows,  orphans,  and  others  delUtutc 
of  htlp. 

ADMINISTRATION,  in  general,  the  govern- 
ment, direction,  or  manai^cment  of  attaivs,  and  parti- 
cularly the  exercife  of  dillributive  jullice  ;  among  cc- 
clcliadics,  it  is  often  nfed  tocxprefs  the  giving  or  dif- 
penfuig  ihe  facranients,  S:c. 

Administration,  is  alio  the  name  given  by  the 
Spaniards  in  Peru  to  the  flaplc  maga'/rine,  or  warchoufe, 
elt.ibli;hed  at  Callao,  a  fmall  town  on  the  S.  Se.i,  which 
i:;  ilic  port  of  Lima,  the  capital  of  that  part  ofvSimth 
Amcjica,  and  particularly  of  Peru.    TJic  foreign  lliips, 


wJiich  hnvc  leave  to  trade  along  that  coaft,  are  obliged 
to  unload  here,  paying  13  fir  cent,  of  the  price  they 
fell  lor,  if  the  cargo  be  entire,  and  even  16  fcr  cci.t. 
if  otherwifc;  befides  which,  they  pay  3  per  1000, 
duty,  for  confuldiip  and  fome  other  fmall  royal  rights 
and  claims. 

ADMINISTRATOR,  in  law,  he  to  v/hom  the  or- 
dinary commits  the  adminiilration  of  the  goods  of  a 
pcrfon  dcceafed,  in  default  of  an  executor. — An  adion 
lies  for,  or  againft  an  adminillrator,  as  for,  oragailift 
an  executor;  and  he  Ihall  be  accountable  to  the  value 
of  the  goods  of  the  dcceafed,  and  no  farther  : — inilefs 
there  be  wafte,  or  other  abufe  chargeable  on  him.  If 
the  adminiftVator  die,  his  executors  arc  not  adminiftra- 
tors  ;  but  the  court  is  to  grant  a  new  adminiilration. 
— If  a  ftraiigei ,  who  is  neither  adminillrator  norexe- 
c'ltor,  takes  ihegoods  of  the  dcceafed,  and  adminiftcr, 
he  lliall  be  charged,  and  fued  as  an  executor,  not  as  an 
adminillrator.  'I'he  origin  of  adminillrators  is  derived 
from  the  civil  law.  'Iheir  eflablilhnicnt  in  England  is 
owing  to  a  flalute  made  in  the  3 ill  year  of  Edw.  III. 
Till  thcH,  no  ofiicc  of  this  kind  was  known  belidcthat 
of  executor  ;  in  cafe  of  a  want  of  wliich,  the  ordinary 
had  the  difpofal  of  goods  of  perfons  intellite,  &c. 

Administrator,  in  Scots  law,  a  pcrfon  legally 
impowered  to  act  for  another  whom  the  law  prefumes 
incapable  of  atting  for  himfclf.  Thus  tutors  or  cu- 
rators are  fometimes  llylcd  ad/ni/ii/l>iil on  hi  /aw  to p<.i- 
pils,  minors,  or  fatuous  perfons.  But  more  generally 
the  term  is  ufed  to  imply  that  power  which  is  conferred 
by  the  law  upon  a  father  over  the  perfons  and  eflatcs 
of  his  children  during  their  minority.  SecLA\v,N°clxi. 

Administrator,  is  fometimes  ufed  for  the  prcli- 
dcnt  of  a  province  ;  for  a  perfon  apj'ointed  to  receive, 
manage,  and  diflribute,  the  revcnuesof  an  hofpital  or 
religious  Iioufe  ;  for  a  prince  who  enjoys  the  rcvciuics 
of  a  fecularized  bilhopric  ;  and  for  the  regent  of  a  king- 
dom during  a  niinoriiy  of  the  prince,  or  a  vacancy  of 
the  throne. 

ADMIRABILIS  sal,  the  fame  with  Glauber's 
fait.     See  Chemistry,  n°  124. 

ADMIRAL,  a  great  officer  or  magiflratc,  who  has 
the  government  of  a  navy,  and  the  hearing  of  all  ma- 
rine caufes. 

Authors  a:e  divided  with  regard  to  the  origin  and 
denominati'^'n  of  this  important  officer,  whom  we  find 
eflabliflied  in  moft  kingdoms  that  border  on  the  fca. 
liut  the  mod  probable  opinion  is  that  of  Sir  Henry 
Spelman,  who  thinks,  that  both  the  n.ime  and  dignity 
were  derived  from  the  Saracens,  and,  by  reafon  of  the 
holy  wars,  brought  into  Europe  ;  for  admiral,  in  the 
Arabian  langnage,  lignifies  a  prince,  or  chief  ruler, 
and  was  the  ordinary  title  of  the  governors  of  cities, 
provinces,  &c.  and  therefore  they  called  the  com- 
mander of  the  navy  by  that  name,  as  a  name  of  dignity 
and  honour.  And  indeed  there  are  no  inflanecs  of 
admirals  in  any  part  of  Europe  bcfoie  the  year  1284, 
when  Philip  of  Krance,  whoha<l  attended  St  Lewis  in 
the  warsagainft  the  Saracens,  created  an  admiral.  Dii 
Cange  allures  us,  that  the  Sirilians  were  the  tirll,  and 
the  (jenoefc  the  next,  who  gav^-  the  denomiiuiion  of 
AUiitrul  to  the  commanders  of  their  naval  armaments ; 
and  tlint  they  took  \i  from  the  Saracen  or  Araoic  ^- 
v:ir,  agi-ueral  name  for  every  commanding  officer,  .^s 
for  the  cxa^'l  lime  when  the  wo  d  wasintrodu  cd  inEng- 
land,  it  is  uncertain  ;  fome  tliiivk  it  was  in  the  reign  of 

Edward  I . 


Admini- 
ilrator 

/ 

Admiral. 


ADM 


r    m8    ] 


ADM 


A<Sniir-l.     Echviid  I.     Sir  I'ciiry  Spdniaii  is>  of  ophiion  tlut   it 

" " '  \x  ,:s  lirftufeJ  in  llic  itigii  of  Hciuy  III.  bccaiife  iici- 

ilurtlic  laws  of  Olcroii  made  in  1266,  nor  liraclon, 
who  w  rote  about  that  liint,  nial;c  any  mention  of  it  ; 
and  thai  the  term  adKiml  was  not  uftd  in  a  eharter  in 
the  eighth  of  Henry  III.  wherein  he  granted  this  of- 
fice to  Richard  de  Laccy,  by  thcfe  words  lMiiriiit,ia?n 
Angh^  ;  but  in  the  56th  year  of  the  fame  reign,  not 
only  the  hiflorians,  but-thc  charters  ihemfclves,  very 
frequeiul)  tifc  the  uord  ad>iiiral. 

Anciently  there  were  generally  three  or  four  admi- 
rals appointed  in  the  Englillifcas,  all  of  them  holding 
x\\ca\^cc  ilnrarti  biiii  pliuito  :  and  each  of  them  iiaving 
yariicnlar  limits  under  their  charge  and  government : 
as  admirals  of  the  tleci  of  lliips,  from  tlie  mouth  of  the 
Thames  northward,  foiuhward  or  weflward.  Befidcs 
thcfe,  there  were  admirals  of  the  Cinque  Ports,  as  in 
the  reign  of  Kdward  III.  when  one  \\  illiain  Latimer 
wzi  ii)\cA  .Tdmiralis  qiihiqtu portin/M  ;  and  we  fomc- 
limes  find  that  one  perfon  has  been  admiral  of  the  llcets 
to  the  fouthward,  northward,  and  welhvard  :  but  the 
title  of  adiniratii  Aiiglite  was  not  frequent  till  th e  reign 
of  Henry  IV.  when  the  king's  brother  had  that  title 
given  him,  which  in  all  conimiirions  aftcrsvards  was 
granted  to  the  facceeding  admirals.  It  may  be  ob- 
fervcd,  that  there  was  a  title  above  that  of  admiral  of 
England,  which  was  locurn-tii:e>is  regis  fhpcr  tiian,  the 
king's  lieutenant  general  of  ihefea  ;  this  title  we  find 

mentioned  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II Before  the  ufe 

of  the  word  Wwz/W  was  known,  the  I'iiie  oi  ciijlos  i/iaris 
was  made  ufe  of. 

I.iid High  AdmiraloJ  England,  in  fome  ancient  re- 
cords called  c<?/i;/<j«//j  marititnarnni,  an  officer  of  great 
antiquity  and  trull,  as  appears  by  ilie  laws  of  Oleron, 
fo  denominated  from  the  place  they  were  made  at  by 
Richard  I.     TIic  (iril  title  of  Admiral  oj  England,  ex- 
prcfsly  conferred  upon  a  fubjei.'f,  was  given  by  patent 
of  Richard  11.  to  Richard  Kif/.-Allen,  jun'.  earl  of  A- 
rundcl  and  Surrey  ;  for  thofe  who  before  enjoyed  this 
office  were  limply  termed  adiuirnb,  though  their  jurif- 
diclion  feems  as  large,  cfpecially  in  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward III.  when  tlie  court  of  admiralty  waslirfl  ereded. 
This  great  officer  has  the  management  of  all  mari- 
time affiiirs,  and  the  government  of  the  royal  navy, with 
power  of  decidon  in  all  maritime  cafes  both  civil  and 
criminal :  he  judges  of  all  things  done  upon  or  beyond 
the  fea,  in  any  part  of  the  world  j  upon  the  fca-coalls, 
in  all  ports  and  havens,  and  upon  all  rivers  below  the 
firft  bridge  from  tlie  fea.   By  him,  vice-admirals;  rear- 
admirals,jaiid  all  fea-eapiains  arc  commiffioned  :  all  de- 
puties for  particular  coafls,  and  coroners  to  view  dead 
bodies  found  on  the  fea-coafts,  or  at  fea  ;  he  alfo  ap- 
points the  judges  for  his  court  of  admiralty,  and  may 
imprifon,  relcafc,&c.     All  ports  andliavens  are  iitjra 
carpus  coinitatiis,  and  the  admiral  hath  no  jurifdii^tion 
of  any  thing  done  i:i  them.     Between  high  and  low 
watermark,   the  coniniou-law  and  the  high-admiral 
have  jurifdi(5lion  by  turns,  one  upon  the  water,  and  the 
other  upon  the  land. 

The  lord-admiral  has  power,  not  only  over  the  fea- 
mcn  ferving  in  liis  (hips  of  war,  but  overall  other  fta- 
nien,  to  arrclt  them  for  the  fervicc  of  the  ftate  :  and 
if  any  of  them  run  away,  without  leave  of  the  admiral, 
he  hath  power  to  make  a  record  thereof,  and  certify 
rhc  fame  to  the  llieriffs,  mayors,  bailiffs,  &c.  wlio 
fiiall  caufe  them  to  be  apprehended  andimprifoned. 


To  the  lard  high-admiral  belong  all  penalties  and    Admlrsl, 
amcieemtnts  of  all  tranlgrelfions   at  fea,  on    the  fea-  Atlmiralty. 

Ihore,  in  ports  an.)  havens,  and  all  rivers  below  the  ' '■' ' 

firll  briilgc  from  the  fea  ;  the  goods  of  pira'.esand  fe- 
lons condemned  or  cnllaved,  fea- wrecks,  goods  float- 
ing on  the  fea,  or  call  on  the  lliore  (not  irranied  to  lords 
of  manors  adjoining  to  the  fea),  and  a  Ihare  of  lawful 
prizes,  alfoallgreat  tithes,  commonly  called  royal fijhcs, 
except  whales  and  llurgeons  :  to  u  hich  add,  a  lalary 
of  7000/.  a  year. 

In  Ihori,  this  is  fo  great  an  office,  in  point  of  trufl, 
honour,  and  profit,  that  it  has  been  uftially  given  to 
princes  of  the  blood,  or  the  moll  eminent  perfuns  a- 
mongtlic  nobility.  There  has  been  no  high  admiral  for 
fomeyears;  theoffice  being  put  in  cumniillion,  or  un- 
der the  adminillration  ol  the  lords  conimiliioncrs  of 
the  admiralty,  who  by  llatute  have  the  fame  power 
and  authority  as  the  lord  high  admiral. 

Lord  High  AnMjRAL'if  Scotland,  one  of  the  great  of- 
ficers of  the  crown,  and  fupreme  judge  in  all  juariiimc 
cafes  within  that  part  of  Britain.  See  Law,  Part  HI. 
1\°  clvii.  15. 

Admiral,  alfo  implies  the  commander  in  chief  of 
any  lingle  tieet  or  fquadrou  ,  or,  in  general,  any  llag- 
offiecr  whatever.  The  commander  of  a  fleet  carries 
liis  flag  at  the  niain-top-mafl  head. 

l'ic{  Admiral,  isthecommander  of  thefccond  fqua- 
dron,  and  carries  his  flag  at  the  forc-top-mafl  head. 

Rear  Admiral,  is  thceommander  of  the  third  fqua- 
dron,  and  carries  his  flag  at  the  miztn-top-mafl  head. 
Vice  Admiral,  is  alfo  an  officer  appointed  by  the 
lords  commiihoners  of  the  admiralty.  There  arefcveral 
of  thcfcofficers  cflablilhedin  diftcrent  parts  of  Great- 
Britain,  with  judges  and  martials  under  them,  for 
executing  jurifdidion  within  their  refpedive  limits. 
Their  decrees,  however,  are  not  fi:ial,  an  appeal  ly- 
ing to  the  court  of  admiralty  in  London. 

Admiral  is  alfo  an  appellation  given  to  the  inofl 
confidcrable  ihipof  a  fleet  of  merchant-men,  or  of  the 
velfels  employed  in  the  cod-fiihery  of  Newfoundlaiid. 
This  lafl  has  the  privilege  of  choofing  what  place  he 
pleafes  on  the  ffiore  todry  his  fi(h;  gives propcrorders, 
and  appoints  the  fiihing  places  to  thofe  who  come  af- 
ter him  ;  and  as  long  as  the  fifhing  feafon  co^ntinucs, 
lie  carries  a  flag  on  his  main-mafl. 

Admiral,  in  zoology,  the  Engliflt  name  of  a  fpe- 
ciesofthc  voluta,  a  ffiell-fiffi  belonging  to  the  order  of 
vermes  teftacca.     See  Voluta. 

ADMIRALTY  properly  fignifics  the  office  of  lord 
high-admiral,  whether  dilchargcd  by  one  iingle  per- 
fon, or  by  joint  commiffioncrs  called  lords  of  the  admi- 
raty. 

Court  of  Admiraltv,  is  a  fovereign  court,  held  by 
the  lord  high -admiral,  or  lords  of  the  admiralty,  where 
cognizance  is  taken  in  all  maritime  affairs,  whether 
civil  or  criminal.  All  crimes  committed  on  the  high- 
leas,  or  on  the  great  rivers  below  the  firfl  bridge  next 
the  fea,  arc  cognizable  in  this  court  only,  and  before 
which  they  m. Ill  be  tried  by  judge  and  jury.  But  in  civil 
caufts  the  mode  is  different,  the  dcrilions  being  all 
made  according  to  the  civil  law.  From  thcfentc  H'  rsof 
the  admiralty-judge  an  appeal  always  lay,  in  c  ruinary 
courfc,  to  the  king  in  chancery,  as  may  be  eolledled 
from  flatute  25  Hen.  VIII.  e.  19.  which  direds  the 
app'-a!  from  the  archb'.!:op's courts  tobc  determined  by 
perfons  Jiamed  in  the  king's  eonimiffion,  "like  as  in 

"cafe 


A  D  N  [     I 

Admiralty  "  cafe  of  appeal  fioni  the  admiral-court."   But  this  is 

I         .ilfo  cxpiclily  dcckrcd  by  flatutc  8  £li/,.  c  5.  which 

Adnata,    t'uads,  that  upon  aii  appeal  made  to  the  chancery,  the 

'       ^         fcniciice  dcliuilive  of  the  delegates  appointed  by  coiu- 

iniiiioa  fliali  be  fir.al. 

Appeals  from  the  vice-admiralty  courts  in  Ameri- 
ca, and  other  plantations  and  fettlemeuts,  may  be 
broujvht  before  tiie  courts  of  admiralty  in  England,  as 
being  a  branch  of  the  admiral's  jurifdiction,  tho'  they 
may  alfo  be  brought  before  the  king  in  council.  But 
in  cafe  of  prize  velfels,  taken  in  time  of  war,  in  any 
part  of  the  world,  and  condemned  in  any  courts  of  ad- 
miialty  or  vice-admiralty  as  lawful  prize,  the  appeal 
lies  to  certain  cr.mmijficiars  of  appeals  confifling  chielly 
of  the  privy  council,  and  not  tojudgcs  delegates.  And 
this  by  virtue  of  divers  treaties  with  foreign  nations, 
by  which  particular  courts  are  cftablilhed  in  all  the 
maritime  countries  of  Europe  for  the  decifion  of  this 
tjueflion,  whether  lawful  prize  or  not  ?  for  this  being 
a  quelHon  between  fiibjec1:s  of  different  Ibitcs,  it  be- 
longs entirely  to  the  law  of  nations,  and  not  to  the 
municipal  laws  of  cither  country,  to  detetermiue 
it. 

Court  of  Admiruti  in  Scotland.     Sec  law,  Part 
III.  N''  clvii.  I  J. 

AoMmALnlflands,  lie  in  about  2°  iS'  S.  Lat.  and 
16"  44'  E.  long.  There  are  between  20  and  30 
iilands  faid  to  be  fcattered  abouthcre,  one  of  which  a- 
lone  would  make  a  large  kingdom.  Captain  Carteret, 
who  firfl  difcovered  them,  was  prevented  touching  at 
f  hem,  although  their  appearance  was  very  inviting,  on 
account  of  the  condition  of  his  fliip,  and  of  his  being 
entirely  unprovided  with  the  articles  of  barter  which 
fuit  an  Indian  trade.  He  dcl'cribes  them  as  clothed 
with  abcautiful  verdure  of  woods,  lofty  and  luxuriant, 
interfperfcdwith  fpots  that  have  been  cleared  for  plan- 
tations, groves  of  cocoa  nut-trees,  and  houfes  of  the 
natives,  who  feem  to  be  very  numerous.  Thelargcftof 
ihefc  iilands  is  18  leagues  long  in  thedireflion  of  eaft 
and  weft.  The  difcoverer  thinks  it  highly  probable 
that  thefe  iflands  produce  fevcral  valuable  articles  of 
trade,  particularly  fpiccs,  as  they  lie  in  the  fame  cli- 
mate and  latitude  as  the  Moluccas. 

ADMONITION,  in  ecclcfiaflical  affairs,  a  part  of 
difcipline  much  ufed  in  the  ancient  church.  It  was  the 
fii  ft  a  J,  or  ftep,  towards  the  punithment  or  cxpulfion 
of  delinquents.  In  cafe  of  private  offences,  it  was  per- 
formed according  to  the  evangelical  rule,  privately : 
in  cafe  of  public  offence,  openly,  before  the  church. 
If  either  of  thofc  fufficed  for  the  recovery  of  ilie  fallen 
perfon,  all  firthcr  proceedings  in  the  way  of  ccnfurc 
ceafcd  :  if  they  did  not,  recourfe  was  had  to  excom- 
munication. 

Admositio  Fuflitim,  among  the  Romans,  a  military 
punilhment,  not  unlike  our  whipping,  only  it  was  per- 
formed with  vine-branches.  ^ 

ADMORTIZATION,  in  the  feudal  cuftoms,  the 
redujHon  of  the  property  of  lands  or  tenements  to 
mortmain.     See  Mortmain. 

ADNATA,  i.i  anatomy,  one  of  the  coats  of  the 
eye,  which  is  alfo  called  ccnjunnira  and  a.'lnigii.ea. 

Adnata,  is  alfo  ufed  for  any  hair,  wool,  or  the  like, 
which  grows  upi,>n  animals  or  vegetables. 

/^  p  N  AT  A,  or  /td'uirc^'>:tia,  among  <rardcners,  denote 
tjiofe off-fets,  which,  by  anew  germination  under  the 
earth,  proceed  irom  the  lily,  narcilTus,  hyacinth,  and, 

3 


19     ]  A  D  N 

other  flowers,  and  afterwards  grow  to  true  roots.  The 
Krencli  call  them  cayeux,  '<  ftalks." 

ADNOUN,  is  ufed  by  fomc  grammarians  to  ex- 
prefs  what  we  more  ufually  call  an  Adjcdive.  The 
word  is  formed  by  way  of  analogy  to  adverb  ;  in  re- 
gard adjecJlives  have  much  the  fame  otHce  and  relation 
to  nouns  that  adverbs  have  to  verbs.  Biihop  W  ilkins 
ufes  the  word  adname  in  another  fenfc,  viz.  for  what 
we  otherwife  call  a  prepolition. 

ADOLESCENCE,  the  ftate  of  growing  youth  ;  or 
that  period  of  a  perfon's  age  commencing  from  his  in- 
fancy, and  terniiiiating  at  his  full  llature  or  manhood. 
The  word  is  formed  of  the  Latin  adot  fare,  to  grow. 
— The  ftate  of  adolefcence  lafts  fo  long  as  the  fibres 
continue  to  grow,  cither  in  magnitude  or  tirmnefs. 
The  fibres  being  arrived  at  the  degree  of  firmncfs  and 
tenllon  fufficicnt  to  fiiftain  the  parts,  no  longer  yield 
or  give  way  to  tlic  efforts  of  the  nutritious  matter  to 
extend  them  ;  fo  that  their  farther  accretion  is  ftop- 
ped,  from  the  very  law  of  their  nutrition.  Adolefcence 
is  commonly  computed  to  be  between  15  and  25,  orc- 
ven  30  years  of  age  ;  though  in  different  conftitutions 

its  terms  are  very  ditrerent. The  Romans  ufually 

reckoned  it  from  12  to  25  i"  boys  ;  and  to  21  in  girls, 
&c.  And  yet,  among  their  writers,  juvcnis  and  ado- 
lefceus  are  frequently  ufed  indifferently  for  any  perfon 
under  (jj  years. 

ADOLLAM,  orOnoLLAM  (anc.  geog.),  a  town 
in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  to  the  eaft  of  Eleutheropolis. 
David  is  faid  to  have  hid  himfelf  in  a  cave  near  this 
town,  (Bible.) 

ADON,  a  populous  village  in  the  province  of  Stuhl- 
Weillemberg,  belonging  to  Hungary.  It  lies  in  a 
fruitful  country,  towards  the  river  Danube.  Long. 
19.  20.  Lat.  47.  30. 

ADONAl,  one  of  the  names  of  the  Supreme  Being 
in  the  fcriptures.  The  proper  meaning  of  the  word  is 
my  lords,  in  the  plural  number  ;  as  Adutl  \%my  hrd,\\\ 
the  lingular.  The  Jews,  who  cither  out  of  refpett,  or 
fuperftition,  do  not  pronounce  the  name  of  J::hovah, 
read  Ad'jiiai  in  the  room  of  it,  as  often  as  they  meet 
with  Jehovah  in  the  Hebrew  text.  But  the  ancient 
Jews  were  not  fofcrupulous;  nor  is  there  any  law  which 
forbids  them  to  pronounce  the  name  of  God.  Calmer. 
ADONIA,  in  antiquity,  folemn  I'eafts  in  honour  of 
Venus,  and  in  memory  of  her  beloved  Adonis.  The 
Adoiiia  were  obferved  with  great  Iblcmnity  by  moft 
nations;  Greeks,  Pha-nicians,  Lycians,  Syri.uis, Egyp- 
tians, &e.  From  Syria,  tliey  arc  fiippofcd  to  have  paf- 
fed  into  India.  The  prophet  Ezekiel*  isuudcrftood  to  •Ch.viii.ia. 
fpeak  of  them.  They  were  ftill  obferved  at  .Alexandria 
in  the  time  of  St  Cyril ;  and  at -Antioch  inthat  of  Julian 
the  .ipoftate,  who  happened  to  enter  that  city  during 
the  folemnity,  which  was  taken  for  an  ill  omen.  The 
Adonia  lailed  two  days:  on  the  tirft  of  which  certain 
images  of  Venus  and  .Adonis  wcrecarricil,  with  all  the 
pompand  ceremonies  practifed  a:  funerals  -,  the  women 
wept,  tore  their  hair,  beat  their  brcafts,  &c. imittiing 
the  cries  and  lamentations  of  Venus  for  the  death  of 
her  paramour.  This  lamentation  they  ciUcd  Aiftanarutc. 
The  Svrians  were  not  conte.ited  with  weeping, but  s^avc 
themfclves  difcipline,  fhaved  their  heads.  &:.  Among 
the  Egy  inkins.the  queen  herlVlfufcdtocarry  the  image 
ofAdonisin  proccinon.  St .  yri!  mentions  an  extraordi- 
nary ceremony  practiledby  t'le  .Alexandaians:  .A  letter 
waswritteiuoiliewomenofBybuluSjtouiform  them  that 

Adonis, 


AD  O 


[       120      ] 


ADO 


AA»ailr«,  Adonis w-ufo'-mda^uiii:  this  ktlcv  \v,;s  ihrowii  into 
Adoiiij.'  tl;c  Tea,  wliicli  (it  was  pretcndeJ)diil  not  fiilpuuttudl- 
' ' \y  to  convey  it  lo  Bybnlasiii  fcvcii  days;  iij-oii  tlic  re- 
ceipt of  w  hich,  the  Jiy  blian  women  etiUc;!  tlicir  niouni- 
iiiu-,  fun  '  his  praifts,  and  made  rtjuicii:gsi^ir  he  were 
ratfed  to'^lifc  again:  Or  rather, accorjin^  to  Mcurlius, 
the  two  o;iLccs  of  mourning  and  rtj.)ii.ing  made  two  di- 
(iintt  fcafts,  which  were  ht  Id  at  different  times  of  the 
year,  the  one  fix  months  after  the  otiicr;  Adonis  being 
l.ippcfcdtopafs  half  ihcyc.-.r  with  I'roferptnc.and  half 
with  Vcnns. — The  Kgypiian  Adonia  arc  faid  to  have 
I'ccn  held  in  memory  oi  the  death  ofOluis;  by  oihtrs, 
of  his  licknefsand  recovery.  Bill^op  l'airi:k  dates  their 
ori;;in  from  the  Ikn^hter  of  the  lirll-born  under  Mofcs. 

ADONIDKS,  in  botany,  a  name  given  to  Lotanills 
who  di  fcribcd  or  made  catalogues  of  plants  cultivated 
in  any  particular  place. 

ADONIS,  fon  to  C  inyras  king  of  Cyprus,  the  dar- 
ling of  tlic  goddefs  Venus :  being  killed  by  a  wild  boar 
ill  the  Idalian  woods,  Jie  was  turned  into  a  riower  ofa 
blood-colour,  fuppofcd  to  be  the  Anemone.  Venus 
was  inconfolible;  and  no  grief  v.-aa  ever  more  celebrated 
than  this,  mofi  nations  having ptrpctuated  the  memory 
•See  yfaV  ot'it  by  a  trainof  anniveriary  ccremoniis*.  Among 
•;j.  Shakcfpeare's  poems,  is  a  long  one  on  the  fubjed  of 

Vcnus's  atfciilion  for  Adonis. 

The  text  of  the  vulgatc  in  Ezckicl,  viii.  14.  fays, 
that  this  prophet  faw  women  lilting  in  the  temple,  and 
weeping  for  Adonis:  but  according  to  the  reading  of 
th-:  Hebrew  text,  they  arc  faid  ta  weep  for  Tammuz, 
or  the  hUd.ti  one.  Among  the  tgyptians,  Adonis  was 
adored  under  the  name  of  Cliris  the  hufoand  of  His. 
13ut  he  w;is  fomeiimcscp.llcd  by  the  name  of  Animuz, 
cr  Tammuz,  //'.'  corc-aleJ,  to  denote  probably  his 
death  or  burial.  Tlic  Hebrews,  in  derilion,  call  him 
fometimes  the  d^nd.  Pfal.  cvi.  2S.  and  Lev.  xix.  2S. 
bccaufc  they  wept  for  him,  and  reprefented  him  as 
one  dead  in  his  coffin  ;  and  at  other  times,  they  c:ill 
him  the  image  of  jcaloufy,  f:zek.  viii.  :?.  5-  bccaufc 
ic  was  the  objeo-1  of  the  god  Mars's  jcaloufy.  The 
Syrians,  Phoenicians,  and  Cyprians  called  him  Ado- 
nis, and  K.  Calmet  is  of  opinion,  that  the  Ammoni:cs 
niyi  Moabiies  gave  him  the  name  of  Baal-pcor.  Sec 
Baal-teor. 

ADOTiis,  W.fo/iiui,  (anc.  geog.)  ;  a  river  of  Phoe- 
nicia, rifing  in  Mount  Lebanon,  and  falling  into 
the  fea,  after  a  north-weft  courfe,  at  BybuUis  ;  fa- 
mous in  fable,  as  a  beautiful  Ihepherd youth, (Virgil  ;) 
fon  of  Cynarasjkingof  the  Cyprians,  loved  by  Venus, 
f.ain  by  a  boar,  and  turned  intoa  river.  Theocritusla- 
mcnts  him  dead  in  an  idyllion,or  railierodc.asuid  the 
women  yearly,  when  in  flood  time,  the  river  rolled 
down  a  red  eanh,  which  tinged  its  waters,  deemed  to 
be  hiswomd  bleeding  afrclh.  In  the  Phoenician  lan- 
guage Adan  fignifics  a  willow,  and  Adon  lord,"  with 
the  fame  radical  letters.  J'cnce  iT«,t<  ;\</'«T,{,Salignus, 
a:id  Ktfi,-,  or  Kipit  A/iiT.c,  for  Ktfiot.  Adonidis  horii. 
arc  gardens  btautif.illy  arranged,  but  more  adapted 
for  pleafure  than  prof.t. 

AroHis,  Bn-ii-iy:-,  ex  rh:ara>its-cye  \  a  genus  of 
the  polyandria  order,  belonging  to  the  polygynia  clafs 
of  plants.  It  is  aiFo'-iatcd  with  the  Multil'tiqua ,  or 
26th  Nat  Order — The  charadcrs  are  :  Thef'i/'.fis 
a  perianthium,  confifting  of  five  nbtufe  concave  leaves, 
fomcwhat    coloured,    and    deciduous.      The  corolla 


has  from  five  to  fifteen  oblong  petals  oltufc  and  glof-    AJjnir.i 
iy.  They/.:</////m  confill  of  very  jiuaitrous,  iliort,  fub-  i 

ulatcd  filaments  j  the  anther*  arc  onlong  and  iulk>i-  Adcption 
ed.  The  pijl-.tium  has  numerous  germina  collected  in  ^~ 
a  head  ;  no  llyli  ;  the  itigmata  acute  and  reilet'leil. 
There  is  no pincurfiuni ;  he  receptacle  is  oblong  and 
fpiked.  'I'ilcyTi'i/j  are  numerous,  irregular,  angular, 
gibbous  at  the  b.:fc,  retlcdcJ  at  the  top,  fo!nev  hat 
prominent,  and  awnlcfs. 

S/>s-ciii.  The  moft  remarkable  fpccics  arc  the  follow- 
ing :  I.  The  annua,  or  common  adonis,  is  a  native  of 
Kent, where  it  isYuund  in  great  plenty  in  the  fields  fown 
with  wheat.  Its  flowers  aic  ofa  beauiii'ul  fcarlet  colour, 
and  appear  in  the  beginning  of  June  ,  the  feeds  ripen- 
ing in  Augult  and  Scpicniber.  Great  quantities  of 
thcfe  flowers  arc  fold  in  London,  under  the  name  of 
Pied  Morocco.  2.  The  a:ltivalis,  or  annual  adonis,  wiih 
yellow  llowers,  jrrows  much  taller  than  the  firft,  has  its 
leaves  thinner  fcr,  and  of  a  lighter  colour.  3.  Jhc 
vernalis,  or  perennial  adonis,  grows  naturally  on  the 
mountains  of  Bohemia,  i'rnliia,  and  other  parts  of 
Germany.  It  flowers  the  latter  end  of  March,  or  be- 
ginning of  April  ;  the  (lalks  rife  about  a  foot  and  a 
half  high  ;  and  when  the  roots  are  large,  and  have  ftood 
unrcmoved  for  fome  years,  they  will  put  out  a  great 
number  of  flalks  from  each  root  ;  on  the  top  of  each  of 
thcfe  grows  one  largeycUow  flower.  4.  The  apennina, 
is  a  native  of  Siberia  and  the  Appcnines. 

Ciiituti:.  The  lirll  two  fpccies,  being  annual,  mull 
be  propagated  from  feeds,  which  ought  to  be  fown  in 
autumn,  foon  al'ter  they  are  ripe,  or  they  will  be  in 
danger  of  not  growing  up  that  year.  They  thrive  beft 
in  a  light  foil.  The  third  and  fourth  fpecies  are  like- 
wife  to  be  propagated  from  feeds,  which  mull  be  fown 
in  auti'.n-.n,  or  they  feldom  fucceed.  \V  hen  the  plants 
come  up,  thi-y  mull  be  carefully  kept  ckarfromwceds  ; 
and  in  very  dry  weather  theirgrowth  will  be  promoted 
by  being  now  and  then  watered.  Th<y  Ihould  remain 
in  the  place  wlicrc  they  arc  fown  till  the  fecond  year  ; 
and  be  tranfplanted  thence  in  autumn,  to  tlie  place 
where  they  are  to  reinain. 

ADONIS  rS,  a  fed  or  party,  among  Divines  and 
Critics,  who  maintain,  that  the  Hebrew  points  ordina- 
rily annexed  to  the  confonants  of  the  word  Jehovah, arc 
not  the  natural  points  belonging  to  that  word,  nor  ex- 
prefs  the  true  pronunciation  of  it  ;  but  are  the  vowel- 
points,  belonging  to  the  words  ^  'c/,<j/and  F.tohivi,  ap- 
plied to  the  confonants  ot  the  incffiblc  name  Jehovah  ; 
to  warn  the  readers,  that  inftead  o!  the  word  Jehovah, 
Vi'hicli  the  Jews  were  forbid  to  pronounce,  and  thetrnc 
pronunciation  of  which  had  been  long  unknown  to 
thcn^,  tlicy  are  always  to  read  Adonai.  1  hey  arc  op- 
pofcd  to  "Jehovilli  :  of  whom  the  principal  are  Drufu:s, 
Capclhif,  Buxrorf,  Alting,  and  Rdand,  who  has  pu- 
blifhcd  a  collctlibn  of  their  writings  on  this  fubjcel. 

ADOPTlANl,  in  church  hillory,  a  fedt^f  ancient 
heretics,  followers  of  Felix  of  Urgel,  and  Llipand  of 
Toledo,  v.'iio,  towards  the  end  of  the  eij^hth  century, 
advanced  the  notion,  that  Jefus  Chrift,  in  Iiis  human  na- 
ture, is  the  fon  of  God,  not  by  nature,  but  by  adoption. 

ADOPTION,  an  acl  by  whicli  any  one  takes  ano- 
ther into  his  facility,  owns  him  for  his  fon,  and  ap- 
points him  for  his  heir. 

The  cudori  of  adoption  was  very  common  ?.mong 
the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  :  yet  it  was  not  prac- 

tifed, 


ADO 


121       ] 


ADO 


ilici!,  b:it  for  ccrt.iiii  caufis  cxprcflcd  in  the  laws,  and 
witli  ccriaiii  formaruici  lil'ual  iu  fuch  calVs.  It  was  a 
fort  of  ir.iiratioii  of  iKitii'.e,  intended  for  the  comfort 
of  ihofc  who  had  no  children  :  wherefore  he  thi:  was 
to  adopt  was  to  have  no  cLildren  of  his  own,  and  to  be 
.  palt  the  age  of  getting  any  ;  nor  were  eunuchs  allow- 
ed to  adopt,  as  being  under  an  a(5tual  inipotcncy  of 
begetting  children ;  neither  was  it  lawful  for  a  yojng 
man  to  adopt  an  elder,  becaufc  that  would  have  been 
contrary  to  the  order  of  nature  ;  nay,  it  was  even  rc- 
tiuircd  that  the  perfon  who  adopted  fliould  be  eighteen 
years  older  than  his  adopted  fon,  that  there  might  at 
lead  appear  a  probability  of  his  being  the  natural  fa- 
ther. 

Among  the  Greeks  it  was  called  uinTtitjfiliathn,  It 
was  allowed  to  fuch  as  had  no  ilfue  of  their  own  ;  ex- 
cepting thofe  who  were  not  K^iinitx-jTui,  th;ir  own  -ina- 
J'.ers,  e.  g.  flaves,  women,  madmen,  infants,  or  pcrfons 
under  twenty  years  of  age  ;  who  being  incapable  of 
making  wills,  or  managing  their  own  cUatcs,  were  not 
allowed  to  adopt  heirs  to  them.  Foreigners  being  in- 
capable of  inheriting  at  Athens,  if  any  fuch  were  a- 
dopted,  it  was  necelfary  firfl  to  make  them  free  of  the 
city.  The  ceremony  of  adoption  being  over,  the  a- 
doptcd  had  his  name  enrolled  in  the  tribe  and  ward  of 
his  new  father  ;  for  which  entry  a  peculiar  time  was 
allotted,  viz.  thefcftival&ac^iixia.  Topreventrafliand 
inconliderate  adoptions,  the  Lacedemonians  had  a  law, 
that  adoptions  lliould  be  tranfacled,  or  atlcafb  confirm- 
ed, in  the  prefence  of  their  kings.  The  children  adopt- 
ed were  inverted  with  all  the  privileges,  and  obliged  to 
perform  all  the  duties,  of  natural  chiViirtn  ;  and  being 
thus  provided  for  in  another  family,  ccafcd  tohavc  any 
claim  of  inheritance,  or  kindred,  in  the  family  which 
ihcy  had  left,  unlefs  they  lirft  renounced  their  adop- 
tion ;  which,  by  the  laws  of  Solon,  they  were  not  al- 
lowed to  do,  unlefs  they  had  firft  begotten  children,  to 
bear  the  name  of  the  perfon  who  had  adopted  them  : 
thus  providing  againft  the  ruin  of  familieSjWhich  would 
otherwife  have  been  extinguilhed  by  the  dcfcrtion  of 
thofe  who  had  been  adopted  toprefervc  them.  If  the 
children  adopted  happened  to  die  without  children,  the 
iuhcritance  could  not  be  alienated  from  the  family  into 
which  they  had  been  adopted,  but  returned  to  the  re- 
lations of  the  adopter.  It  fliould  fccm,  that  by  tJie 
Athenian  law,  a  perfon,  after  having  adopted  another, 
was  not  allowed  to  marry  without  permiliion  from  the 
magiilrate  :  iu  effeft,  there  are  inllanccs  of  pcrfons, 
who  being  ill  ufed  by  their  adoptive  children,  petition- 
ed for  fuch  leave.  However  this  be,  it  is  certain  fume 
men  married  after  they  had  adopted  fons  :  in  which 
cafe,  if  they  begat  legitimate  children,  tlicir  ertates 
were  equally  fliartd  between  the  bcgottcs  and  adopted. 

The  Pi.omans  bad  two  forms  of  adoption  ;  one  be- 
fore the  praetor  ;  the  other  at  an  aflembly  of  the  people, 
in  the  times  of  I'.'c  commonwealth,  and  afterwards  by 
a  rrf<;ript  of  the  emperor.  In  the  former,  the  natural 
father  addrefled  himfclf  to  the  prxtor,  declaring  that 
hr  emancipated  liis  fon,  reiigned  all  his  authority  over 
him,  and  confentedhe  Ihouldbe  tranilatcd  into  the  fa- 
mily of  the  adopter.  The  latter  was  praclifed,  where 
iiie  party  to  be  adopted  was  already  free  ;  and  tliis  was 
called  aJrogalioii.  The  perfon  adopted  changed  all 
his  names;  affuming  tht  prcr.anie,  nair.c,and  fur.iauic 
of  the  perfon  who  adopted  him. 
Vol.  I. 


Bcliacs  the  formalities  prciciibcd  by  ihcR.on;an  'uw,  Adopion 
various  other  methods  have  taken  place  ;  which  have  """v 
given  dcnominaiious  to  dittereiit  O'ccics  of  adoption, 
among  the  Gothic  I'.atior.s,  i:i  dilitrcnt  ages.     A«, 

^uo!  Tios  by  arms,  was  when  a  prince  Kiade  a  pre- 
fent  of  arms  to  a  pcrfo.".,  in  conftdtrarioii  ol  his  merit 
and  valour.  Thus  it  was  that  the  king  of  the  Ileruli 
was  adopted  by  Thcodoric  ;  Athalaric  by  the  cn;pcror 
Ju.liiiian  ;  and  Cofroes,  nephew  of  the  king  of  I'trfia, 
by  the  emperor  JulUn. — '1  he  obligation  here  l.'.id  on 
the  adoptive  fon  was,  to  protect  and  dcfcr.d  the  lather 
from  injiries,  affronts,  &c.  And  hence,  according  to 
Seldrn,  the  ceremony  of  dubbing  knights  took  its  ori- 
gin as  well  as  name. 

AuoiTius  hy  biii'iifm,  is  that  fpiriruLl  affinity  which 
is  contracted  by  god-fathers  and  god-childreii,  in  the 
ceremony  of  baptifm.  This  ki::d  of  adoption  was  in- 
troduced into  the  Greek  church,  and  came  afterwards 
in  afe  among  the  ancient  Tranks,  as  appears  by  the 
Capitulars  of  Charlemagne. 

In  reality,  the  god-father  was  fo  far  conf:dered  as 
adoptive  father,  that  his  god-children  were  fuppofcd 
to  be  intitled  to  a  fhare  in  the  inheritance  of  his  c- 
flate. 

Adoption  by  kair,  was  performed  by  cutting  off" the 
hair  of  a  perfon,  and  giving  it  to  the  adoptive  father. 
It  was  thus  that  pope  John  VIII.  adopted  Bofon  king 
of  .Arlej;  which  perhaps  is  the  only  inftancc  in  hi- 
flory,  of  adoption,  in  thcordcr  of  the  eccleliaftics  ;  a 
law  that  profclfesto  imitate  nature,  not  daring  to  give, 
children  to  thofe  in  whom  it  would  be  thought  a  crime 
to  beget  any. 

Aduption  by  matrimony,  is  the  taking  the  children 
of  a  wife  or  hulband,  by  a  former  marriage,  into  the 
condition  of  proper  or  natural  children  ;  and  admitting 
thein  to  inherit  on  the  fame  footing  with  thofe  of  the 
prefent  marriage.  This  is  a  praflice  peculiar  to  the 
Germans ;  among  whom,  it  is  more  particularly  known 
by  the  name  oi  cwkiudjchuft ;  among  their  writers  in 
Latin,  by  that  o( lu.io  protium,  or  union  ofijj'ucs.  But 
the  more  accurate  writers  obfcrve,  that  this  is  no  adop- 
tion.    See  Adhliation. 

AoijfTios  by  tiflamcKt,  that  performed  by  appointing 
a  perfon  heir  by  will,  on  condition  of  his  aifumingthc 
name,  arms,  &c.  of  the  adopter.  Of  which  kind  wc 
meet  with  fevcral  inflanccs  in  the  Roman  hiftory. 

Among  the  Turks,  the  ceremony  of  adoption  is  per- 
formed by  obliging  the  pcrfim  adopted  to  pafs  through 
th«.  fllirt  of  the  adopter.  Hence,  among  that  people, 
to  adopt,  is  cxprcil'cd  by  the  phr.ife,  to  d'cmi  ar.othei- 
tkro.-igh  ifiy  Jhtrt.  It  is  faid,  that  fomctliing  like  this 
has  alfo  been  obfcrvcd  among  the  Hebrews  ;  wlierc  the 
prophet  Elijah  adopted  Llilhaforhis  fo-i  and  fiictcifor, 
and  comraunicatcd  to  him  the  gift  of  prophecy,  by 
letting  fall  his  cloak  or  mantle  on  him.  But  adaption, 
properly  fo  called  does  not  appear  to  have  been  piac- 
tifcd  among  the  ancient  Jews  :  Mofcs  I'lys  nothin;?  ci 
it  in  his  laws ;  and  j.icob's  adoption  o;  his  two  grand- 
fons,  Ephraini  and  Manalfeh,  is  not  fo  properly  a:i 
adoption,  as  a  kindof  fubfUtution,  whereby  thefe  two 
fonsof  Jofepli  v.erc  allotted  an  equal  portion  in  Ifraci 
with  his  own  funs. 

Adottion  isalfoufcd,  inthcology,  for  a  federal  act 

of  God's  (rcc  grace  ;  whereby  thofe  who  arc  rcgcnc- 

rateJ  by  faith,  are  admitted  into  his  huufchoid,  and 

Q_  iiniilcd 


A  D  O 


[      '22      ] 


ADO 


Adoption  intiilcJ  toa  fliarc  in  the  inheritance  of  the  kingdom  of 

II  heaven. 

Adoration.       ADOPTION  is fomctinicsalfoiifcd,  in  fpcakingofthc 
'       '^       '  ancient  clergy,  wlio  had  a  ciilloni  of  taking  a  maid  or 
ividow  into  their  houfcs,  under  the  denomination  of 
an  aJiiftive,  or  fpniiiial  filhr  or  »iiccf. 

Adoption  is  alfo  uf;d  in  fpeaking  of  the  admilUou 
of  pcrfons  into  certain  hofpiials,  particularly  ih.it  of 
Lyons  ;  the  adiniuillrators  whereof  liave  all  the  power 
and  rights  of  parents  over  the  children  admiiicd. 

Adop  no  n  is  alfo  ufed  for  tlie  reception  of  a  new  a- 
cadeniy  into  the  tody  of  an  old  one Thus 

The  Trench  academy  of  Marftillcs  was  adopted  hy 
that  of  Paj  is  ;  on  which  account  we  (ind  a  volume  of 
fpeeches  extant,  made  by  feveral  members  of  the  aca- 
demy of  Marfcilles,  deputed  to  return  thanks  to  that 
of  Paris  for  the  honour. 

In  a  iimilar  fenfc,  adoption  is  alfo  applied  by  the 
Greeks,  totlieadmittingamonk,orbroihcr,  intoa  mo- 
nailic  community  :  fomciimes  c\V^tAfpinttial adiipthn. 

ADOPTIVK,  denotes  a  perlon  or  thing  adopted  by 
another. 

Adoptive  children,  among  the  Romans,  were  on  the 
fame  footing  with  natural  ones ;  and  accordingly  were 
either  to  be  inllituted  heirs,  or  exprefsly  dilinherited, 
otherwifc  the  teflament  was  null.  The  emperor  A- 
drian  preferred  adoptive  children  to  natural  onei  ;  bc- 
caufe  we  choofe  the  former,  but  arc  obliged  to  take 
the  latter  at  random. 

M.  Men.ige  has  publiflied  a  book  of  eloges,  or  ver- 
fes  addrelFed  to  him  ;  which  he  calls  Liber  /Jdoptivui, 
an  adoptive  book  ;  and  adds  it  to  his  other  works. — 
Hcinfus,  and  Furilemburg  of  Munllcr,  have  likesvil'e 
publilhcd  adoptive  books. 

In  eccleliaftical  writers  we  find  adoptive  women,  or 
fitters,  (adoptive  JTmintc,  ox  fororcs,)  ufed  for  thofe 
handmaids  of  the  ancient  clergy,  otherwife  callcdy;;^- 
iutrodtidit. 

Adoptive  arms  arc  thofe  which  a  perfon  enjoys  by 
the  gift  or  concefiion  of  another,  and  to  which  he  was 
not  otherwife  intitled.  Theyfland  contradillinguilh- 
ed  from  arms  of  alliance. 

Wc  fometimes  meet  with  adoptive  hair,  by  way  of 
oppofition  to  natural  hair;  and  adoptive  gods,  by  way 
of  contradiftinrtion  to  domeftic  ones.  The  Romans, 
notwithflauding  the  number  of  their  domcftic,  had 
tK.iir  adoptive  gods,  taken  chiefly  from  the  Egypriaus  : 
fuch  were  His,  Ofiris,  Anubis,  Apis,  Harpocrates,  and 
Canopus. 

ADORATION,  the  ac^  of  rendering  divine  ho- 
nours ;  or  of  addrclfing  a  being,  as  fuppofing  it  a 
god.  The  word  is  compounded  of  <7i/ "to  ;"  and  c/, 
»ris, "  mouth  ; "  and  literally  fignifies,  to  apply  th  e  hand 
to  the  mouth  :  Manum  ad  os  admavcrc,  cj.  d.  "  to  kifs 
the  hand  ;"  this  being,  in  the  eaftern  countries,  one  of 
the  great  marks  of  rcfpedt  and  fubmillion. — The  Ro- 
mans pradtifed  adoration  at  facrifices,  and  other  fo- 
Icmnities  ;  in  palling  by  temples,  altars,  groves.  Sec.  ; 
at  the  fight  of  llatucs,  images,  or  the  like,  whether 
of  flone  or  wood,  wherein  any  thing  of  divinity  was 
fuppofed  torefide.  Ufually  there  were  images  of  the 
gods  placed  at  the  gates  of  cities,  for  thofe  who  went 
in  or  out,  to  pay  their  .'efpecls  to. — The  ceremony  of 
adoration  among  the  ancient  Romans  was  thus  :  The 
devotee  having  his  head  covered,  applied  his  right  hand 


to  his  lips,  the  forc-fingtr  rcltiug  on  his  thumb,  which    AJuratioii. 

was  erect,  and  thus  bowing  his  head,  turned  himfelf  '"^^■^'"^ 

round  from  left  to  right.     The  kifj  thus  given  was 

called  ofdtluih  labratuti. ;  for  ordinarily  they  were  afraid 

to  touch  the  images  of  their  gods  themft  Ives  with  their 

profane  lips.     Sometimes,  however,  they  would  kifs 

their  feet,  or  even  knees,  it  being  held  an  incivility  to 

touch  their  mouths;  fo  that  the  affair  palled  at  fome 

dillance.  Siiturn,  however,and  Hercules,  were  adored 

with  the  head  bare ;  whence  the  worfliip  of  the  laft 

was  called  injlitiituvi  peregriiium,  and  ritm  Grxcaiii- 

cui,  as  departing  from  the  cuftomary  Roman  method, 

which  was  to  facrificc  and  adore  with  the  face  veiled, 

and  i)ie  cloths  drawn  up  to  the  ears,  to  prevent  any 

interruption  in  the  ceremony  by  the  fight  of  unlucky 

objcds The  Jewilh  manner  of  adoration  was  by 

proO.ration,  bowing,  and  kneeling. — The  Chriflians 
adopted  the  Grecian  rather  than  the  Roman  method, 
and  adored  always  uncovered.  The  ordinary  poflurc 
of  the  ancient  Chriflians  was  kneeling,  but  on  Sundays 
Handing  :  and  they  had  a  peculiar  regard  to  the  Eafl, 
to  w  hicli  point  they  ordinarily  directed  their  prayers. 

Adoration  is  more  particularly  ufed  fortheadlof 
praying,  or  preferring  our  rcquellsor  thankfgivings 
to  Almighty  God. 

Adoration  is  alfo  ufed  for  certain  extraordinary 
civil  honours  or  refpeds  which  refemble  thofe  paid  to 
the  Deity,  yet  are  given  to  men. 

The  Perlian  manner  of  Adoration,  introduced  by 
Cyrus,  was  by  bending  the  knee,  and  falling  on  the 
face  at  the  prince's  feet,  flriking  the  earth  with  the 
forehead,  and  kifling  the  ground.  This  ceremony, 
which  the  Greeks  called  vftmi^iiii.^  Conor,  rcfufed  to 
perform  to  Artaxerxcs,  and  Calillhencs  to  Alexander 
the  Great,  as  reputing  it  impious  and  unlawful. 

The  Adoration  performed  tothc  Roman  and  Grecian 
emperors  confided  in  bowingor  kneeling  at  the  prince's 
feet,  laying  hold  of  his  purple  robe,  and  prefcntly  with- 
drawing the  hand  and  clapping  it  to  the  lips.  Some 
attribute  the  origin  of  this  pradice  toConflantius.  It* 
was  only  pcrfons  of  fome  rank  or  dignity  that  were  in- 
titled  to  the  honour.  Bare  kneeling  before  the  empe- 
ror to  deliver  a  petition,  Wasalfo  called  adoration. 

The  practice  q(  adoration  may  be  laid  to  be  flill  fub- 
fiftingin  England,  in  the  ceremony  of  kilTing  the  king's 
or  qnci-n's  hand,  and  in  ferving  them  at  table,  both  be- 
ing performed  kneeling. 

A  DO  RAT  ion  is  more  particularly  ufed  forkiffingone's 
hand  in  prefenceof  another,  asa  token  of  reverence. — 
The  Jews  adored  by  kiffing  their  hands  and  bowing 
down  their  heads  ;  whence, in  their  language,  kijfing'vi 
properly  ufed  for  adoration. 

Adoration  is  alfo  ufed  among  Roman  writers  for 
a  hifh  fpecies  of  applaufe  given  to  perfons,  who  had 
fpokenor  performed  well  in  public.  (Sec  Accla.ma- 
tion.)  We  meet  with  adoration  paid  to  orators,  ac- 
tors, muficians,  &c.  The  method  of  exprelling  it  was, 
by  riling,  putting  bwh  hands  to  their  mouth,  and  then 
returning  them  towards  the  perfon  intended  to  be  ho- 
noured. 

Adoration  is  alfo  ufed,  in  the  court  of  Rome,  for 
the  ceremony  of  kilTing  the  pope's  feet — The  intro- 
duction of  adoration  among  the  Romans  is  a''cribed  to 
the  low  flattery  of  Vitellius,  who,  upon  the  return  of  C. 
Caefar  from  Syria,  would  not  approach  him  otherwife 

thau. 


ADO 


[     123     ] 


A  D  R 


Aux». 


Aduratloii  than  with  his  head  covered,  turning  himfelf  roHncl,and 
i  then  tailing  on  his  t'acc.  Hdiogabiilus  rcftored  the 
practice,  and  Alexander  Scvcrus  again  prohibited  it. 
Diocklianrcdcinandcdit  ;  and  it  was,  in  Ionic  nicafurc, 
continued  under  thefucctedingprinces,cvcn  after  the 
ellablilhnicntof  Chriftianity,  asCo;iAantinc,Conrtan- 
tius,  &c.  It  is  particularly  faidof  Dioclclian,  that  he 
had  gems  fallened  to  his  ihoes,  that  divine  honours 
might  be  more  willingly  paid  him,  by  kiirmg  his  feet. 
The  like  ufagc  was  afterwards  adopted  by  tiie  popes, 
and  isobfervcd  to  this  day.  1  hcfe  prelates,  liiiding  a 
vehement  difpolition  in  the  people  to  fall  down  before 
them  and  kifs  their  feet,  procured  crucifixes  to  be  fa- 
llencd  on  their  llippcrs  ;  by  which  ftratagem,  the  ado- 
ration intended  for  the  pope's pcrfon  is  fippofcd  lobe 
transferred  to  Chrift.  Divcrsacts  of  this  adoration  we 
find  olfercd  even  by  princes  to  the  pope. 

Adoration  is  alio  ufcd  fora  method  of  cleifling  a 
pope.  The  election  of  popes  is  performed  two  ways  ; 
by  adoration  and  by  fcrutiny.  In  eledion  by  adora- 
tion, tJie  cardinals  rufli  haftily,  as  if  agitated  by  fome 
fpirit,  to  the  adoration  of  fome  one  among  them,  to 
proclaim  him  pope.  When  the  cleiJlion  is  carried  by 
fcrutiny,  they  do  not  adore  the  new  pope  till  he  is  pla- 
ced on  the  altar. 

Barbarous  /iDOR^Tios  is  a  term  ufcd,  in  the  laws  of 
king  Canute,  for  that  performed  after  the  manner  of 
the  heathens  who  adored  idols.  The  Romirti  church  is 
charged  with  tlic  adoration  of  faints,  martyrs,  images, 
crucifixes,  relics,  the  virgin,  and  the  hell;  all  which  by 
Proteftants  are  generally  aggravated  into  idolatry,  on 
a  fuppofition,  that  the  honour  thus  paid  to  them  is  ab- 
folute  and  fuprcme,  called  by  way  of  dillinffion  Latria, 
which  is  due  only  to  God.  Roman-catholics,  on  the 
contrary,  explain  them  as  only  a  relative  or  fubordi- 
nate  worlhip,  called  Diilia  and  Hyperdulia,  which  ter- 
minates ultimately  in  God  alone.  But  may  not  the 
fame  be  faid  of  the  idol-woriliip  of  the  heathens  .' 
The  Phoeciniaiis  adored  the  winds,  on  account  of  the 
terrible  effects  produced  by  them;  the  fame  was  adopt- 
ed by  mod  of  the  other  nations,  Pcrlians,  Greeks, 
Romans,  &c.  The  Perlians  chiefly  paid  their  adora- 
tions to  the  fun  and  fire  ;  fome  fay  alio  to  rivers,  the 
wind,  &c.  The  motive  of  adoring  the  fun  was  the 
benefits  they  received  from  that  glorious  luminary, 
which  of  all  creatures  has  doubtlefs  the  beft  pretcn- 
lions  tofuch  homage. 

ADOREA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  word  ufcd  In 
ditierent  fcnfcs  ;  fonietimcs  for  all  manner  of  grain, 
fomctimcs  for  a  kind  of  cakes  made  of  fine  fiour,  and 
offered  in  facrificc  ;  and  finally  for  a  dole  or  ditfribu- 
tion  of  corn,  as  a  reward  for  fome  fcrvicc  ;  whence  by 
metonymy  it  is  put  for  praife  or  rewards  in  general. 

AUOSCU  LATION,  a  term  ufcd  by  Dr  Grew,  to 
imply  a  kind  of  impregnation,  without  iiitromifliou  ; 
and  in  this  manner  he  fuppofcs  the  impregnation  of 
plants  isatfeftedby  the  falling  of  the  farina  fcEcundans 
on  the  piflil. 

ADOSEK,  in  heraldry,  fignifies  two  figures  er 
bearings  being  j^laced  back  to  back. 

ADOUR,  the  name  of  a  river  in  France,  which  rifcs 
in  the  mountains  of  Bigorre,  and  running  N.by  Tarbes 
through  Gafcony,  afterwards  turns  E,  and,  palling  by 
Dax.  falls  into  the  bay  of  Bifcay,  below  Bayonne. 

ADOXA,  Tuberous  Moschatel,   IIollow- 


( 

Ailr^inun- 


ROOT,  or  Inglorious  j  a  gcnusof  the  tetragyniaor-  M  Punt-'m 
der,  belonging  to  the  oftandria  clafs  of  planis.      Ill  Omnium, 
the  natural  method  it  belongs  to  the    ijih  order,  or 

SuccuUntx The  characters  of  this  genus  are  :  The 

calyx  is  a  pcrianthium  beneath,  divided  into  two  ftg- 
mcnts,  fiat,  perliitent.  1  hec'/ro/Aiis  compofcdof  one 
flat  petal,  divided  into  four  ovate  acute  fcgmcrrts  long- 
er than  the  calyx.  The  jiamina  confill  of  eight  fubu- 
lated  filaments  the  length  of  the  calyx  ;  with  roundilh 
anthcrae.  7  he  fiflUiton  has  a  gcrmcn  beneath  the 
receptacle  of  the  corolla  ;  four  fimple,  erect,  pcrfifl- 
cnt  ffyli,  the  length  of  the  ftamina  ;  and  fimplc  ftig- 
mata,  The pericarpium  is  a  globular  four-celled  berry 
between  thecalyx  and  the  corolla.  IhcfieJi  ire  fo- 
litary  and  comprcflcd. 

There  is  but  one  fpecies,  which  is  a  native  of  ihc 
Woods  in  Britain,  and  fevcral  pans  of  Europe  :  it  is  a 
very  low  plant,  feldom  riling  more  than  four  or  five 
inches  high  ;  the  leaves  rcfemble  thofc  of  bulbous  fu- 
mitory ;  the  ffower-ftalk  arifcs  immediately  from  the 
root,  on  the  top  of  which  grow  four  or  five  finall 
flowers  ofan  herbaceous  white  colour,  which  appear  in 
the  beginning  of  April,  and  the  berries  ripen  in  May, 
feon  after  w  hich,  the  leaves  decay.  The  herb  may  be 
procured  by  iranfplanting  the  roots  any  timeaf'tcr  the 
leaves  decay,  till  w  inter.  They  muft  be  planted  in  the 
fhade,  under  Ihrubs;  for  they  will  not  thrive  if  cxpofed 
to  the  fun.  The  leaves  and  tfowers  fmcU  like  muik, 
from  whence  it  has  by  fome  been  called  mujk-crr,tufcot. 

AD  roNi>i;s  OMNIUM,  amongphylicians, on  abbre- 
viation in  their  prefcriptions,  fignifying  that  the  lafl 
mentioned  ingredient  is  to  weigh  as  much  as  all  the 
reft  together. 

j4d  Quod  Damnu7ti,  in  the  Englifli  law,  a  writ  di- 
refted  to  the  fhcriff,  commanding  him  to  inquire  into 
the  damage  which  may  bcfal  from  granting  certain 
privileges  to  a  place,  as  a  fair,  a  market,  or  the  like. 

ADRACHNE,  in  botany,  a  fpecies  of  the  flraw- 
bcrry-tree.     Sec  Arbutcs. 

ADRA.MELECH,  one  of  the  goJs  of  the  inha- 
bitants of  Scpharvaim,  who  were  fettled  in  the  country 
of  Samaria,  in  the  room  of  thofe  Ifraclites  who  were 
carried  beyond  the  Euphrates.  The  Scpharvaites  made 
their  children  pafs  through  the  fire,  in  honour  of  this 
idol  and  another  called  Anamii^ch.  It  is  fuppofed, 
that  Adrammelech  meant  thefun,and  Anamelcch  the 
moon  :  the  firfl  lignifies  ih;  magnificent  king  ;  the  fc- 
cond  the  gentle  king. 

ADRAMYTTIUM  (ahc.  geog.),  now  Andramiti  ; 
a  town  of  Myfia  Major,  at  the  foot  of  mount  Ida,  an 
Athenian  colony,  with  a  harbour  and  dock  near  the 
Caicus.  Adra7/iyttcnii!  the  epithet  ;  as  Adratnytteuus 
Sinus,  a  part  of  the  Egcan  Sea,  on  the  coaft  of  Afyfia  ; 
yidramyttenuiConvenus,  ftliions  or  allizcs.  The  eighth 
in  order  of  the  nincC»nt'^«f«//  Juridiciof  the  province 
of  Alia. 

ADRAN.^,  a  river  of  Germany, (Polybius):  now 
the  Edcr,  riling  on  the  borders  <-f  the  county  of  Naf- 
fau,  to  the  North-ealf  of,  and  not  farfrom  Dillenburg, 
running  through  the  landgraviate  of  Hclle  the  county 
of  W'aldcck,  by  Kritzlar,  and  then  again  through  tHe 
landgraviate,  and,  together  \\  ith  the  Eulda,  falling  in- 
to the  Wcfer,  to  the  fouth  of,  and  not  far  from  Caird. 

ADRANUM,  or  Hapranum,  (anc.  gcog.),  now 
AdcritQ  ;  a  town  of  Sicily,  built  by  the  elder  Dionylius, 

0,2  » 


A  D  R 


[     1 24     J 


A  D  !<. 


Adr;k{tca  at  ilie  Rot  of  iiiciint  .'Ltiia,  (Diudorus  Siculus),  four     :i,^i:i,  is  011  cuiiij  and  ftoncs  HaJn 


I 

Adriaiium 


hundred  years  before  Chrill.  ito  called  from  thcicin- 
plc  of  Adranas,  or  Hadranus,  a  god  imich  worlhipped 
by  the  Sicilians  ;  with  a  river  of  i  he  fame  name,  (Stc- 
ptianus,)  now  Fiuvte  d' Ada  no.  The  inhabitants, 
ttadrav.ttaii'i,  and  Adrmiil^. 

ADRASTfAjin  antiquity,  an  epithet  given  to  the 
goddcfs  Nemclis,  or  Revenge.  It  was  taken  from  king 
Adraftiis,  who  firlt  erected  a  temple  to  that  deity. 

Adrastia  Cntiimtiia,  in  antiqiiiiy,  a  kind  ot  I'y- 
ihian  games,  inlliiiited  by  .'^dralliis  iiiiig  of  Argos,  in 
the  year  of  the  world  2700,  in  honour  of  Apollo,  at 
bicyou.  Thefc  are  10  be  di/linguilhcd  from  the  Py- 
thian games  celebr.ited  at  Delpiii. 

AUKAbltS,  kiii;^  of  Argos,  fon  of  Talaus  and 
Lyfiar.ilVa,  daughter  of  I'olybius  king  of  bicyon,  ac- 
quired great  honour  iti  the  i'amous  war  of  Thebes,  in 
fuppDrt  of  Polyuiccs  his  fon-in-law,  who  had  been  ex- 
eluded  the  fovereignty  of  Thebes  by  Kteocles  liis  bro- 
ther, notv.'iihllanJing  their  reciprocal  agreement. 
Adrallus,  followed  by  Polynices  and  Tydcus  hisothcr 
fon-in-law,  by  Capaneus  and  Hippomedou  his  filler's 
fons,  by  Amphiaraus  his  broiher-in-law,  and  by  Par- 
thenopneus,  marched  againll  the  city  of  Thebes  ;  and 
this  is  the  expcdiiioii  of  the  Seven  Worthies,  which 
the  poets  have  fo  often  lung.  They  all  loll  their  lives 
in  this  war,  except  AdraHus,  who  was  faved  by  his 
liorfc  called  Aiion.  This  war  was  revived  ten  years 
after  by  the  fons  of  thofe  deceafcd  warriors,  which 
vas  called  the  war  of  the  Epigones,  and  ended  with 
the  taking  of  Thebes.  None  of  them  lofl  their  lives 
except  Aigialeus  fon  of  Adrafl'js  ;  which  aillidlcd  him 
fo  much  that  he  died  of  grief  in  IMegara,  as  he  was 
leading  back  his  viiflorious  army. 

ADRAZZO,  or  Ajaccio.  The  f^me  with  Ad- 
jazz  o . 

ADRIA,  orHADRiA  (anc.  geog.),  the  nameof  two 
tow  ns  in  Italy.  One  in  the  country  of  the  Veneti,  on 
the  river  Tartarus,  between  the  Padusand  the  Athe- 
lis,  called  Airia  by  Pliny  and  Ptolemy,  but  Adrias  by 
Strabo.  Another  on  the  river  Vomanus,  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  Piceni,  (to  which  Antonine's  Itinerary 
from  Rome  is  dircded),  the  country  of  the  ancellors 
of  the  emperor  Adrian.  From  which  of  thcfe  the  Ad- 
riatic fca  is  denominated,  is  matter  of  doubt.  A 
third  opinion  i.s,  that  it  is  fo  called  from  Adrias 
the  fou  of  Joan,  of  Italian  origin;  (Euflathius  in 
Dionylium.) 

ADRIANUM  (or  Atriaticum)  mare  (anc. 
geog.),  now  the  gujf  of  Venice,  alarge  bay  in  the  Me- 
diterranean, between  Dalmaiia,Sclavonia,Greece,and 
Italy.  It  is  called  by  the  Greeks,  A<ff/ac  koxji-cc  ;  and 
Adriahy  the  Romans,  (as  Arbiter  Adri.t  Notus,  Hor.) 
Cicero  calls  it  Hadnanum  Mare ;  Virgil  has  Hadria- 
ticiri  Undiis.  It  is  commonly  called  Mare  Adriaticum , 
without  an  afpiration  ;  but  whether  it  ought  to  have 
one,  is  a  difpute:  if  the  appellation  is  from  Hadria, 
the  town  of  the  Piceni,  it  mull  be  written  HadrUtiaitn, 
bccaufe  the  emperor's  name,  who  thence  derives  his  o- 


bat  if  from     A  l.ian. 


ihc  town  in  the  territory  of  Venice,  as  the  more  an- 
cient, and  of  which  that  ot  the  Piceni  is  a  colony,  this 
will  juiiify  the  common  appellation  Adriatkum. 

AuRIaN,  or  Hadkian,  (I'liblius  Alius),  the 
Roman  emperor.  He  v;as  born  at  Rome  the  24""  of 
January,  in  the  76th  year  of  Chrill.  Hisfathtrlcft  him 
an  orphan,  at  ten  years  of  age,  under  the  guarjian- 
Ihip  ot  I'rajan,  and  Callus  i  atianus  a  Roman  knight . 
He  began  to  fervc  very  early  in  the  armies,  having  been 
tribune  of  alegion  before  the  death  of  Domilian.  He 
was  the  pcrfon  chofen  by  the  army  of  Lower  Mtrlia, 
to  carry  the  news  c)f  Nerva's  death  to  Trajan,  fueeef- 
for  to  the  empire.  He  accompanied  Trajan  in  moll  of 
his  expeditions,  and  particularly  diilinguilhedhinifcU" 
in  the  fecond  uaragainll  the  Daei ;  and  having  before 
been  qu«llor,  as  well  as  tribune  of  the  people,  he  was 
now  fuccelPively  prsetor,  governor  of  Pannonia,  and 
conful.  After  the  liege  of  Atra  in  Arabia  was  railed, 
Trajan,  w'ho  had  already  given  him  the  government  of 
Syria,  left  him  the  command  of  the  army  ;  and  at 
length,  wlien  he  found  death  approaching,  it  is  faid  he 
adopted  him.  Adrian,  who  was  then  in  Antiochia, 
as  foon  as  he  received  the  news  thereof,  and  of  Tra- 
jan's death,  declared  himfilf  emperor,  on  the  i  llh  of 
Aiigud,  117.  No  fooner  had  lie  arrived  at  the  im- 
perial dignity,  then  he  made  peace  with  the  Perlians, 
to  whom  he  yielded  up  a  great  part  of  tiieconquells  of 
his  predecelfurs  ;  and  from  gencroliiy,  or  policy,  he 
remitted  the  debts  of  the  lioman  people,  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  calculation  of  thofe  who  have  reduced 
them  to  modern  money,  amounted  to  22,500,000  gol- 
den crowns  ;  and  he  burnt  all  the  bonds  and  obliga- 
tions relating  to  thofe  debts,  that  the  people  might  be 
under  no  appreheiiiions  of  being  called  to  an  account 
for  them  afterwards.  There  are  medali  in  commemo- 
ration of  this  fact,  in  which  lie  is  reprefentcd  holding 
a  flambeau  in  his  hand,  to  fet  fire  to  all  thofe  bonds 
which  he  had  made  void.  He  went  to  vilit  all  tlie  pro- 
vinces ;  and  did  not  return  to  Rome  till  tiie  year  1 1 8, 
when  the  fenate  decreed  him  a  triumpli,  and  honoured 
him  with  the  title  of  Father  of  his  country  ;  but  he 
refnfed  both,  and  delired  that  Trajan's  image  might 
triumph.  No  prince  travelled  more  than  Adrian  ; 
there  being  hardly  one  province  in  the  empire  which 
he  did  not  vilit.  In  120  he  went  into  Gaul  ;  from 
thence  he  went  over  to  Britain,  in  order  to  fubdue 
the  Caledonians,  who  were  making  continual  inroads 
into  the  provinces.  Upon  his  arrival  they  retired  co- 
wards the  nortli :  he  advanced  however  as  far  as  York, 
where  he  was  diverted  from^his  intended  conquefl  by 
the  defcription  fome  old  foldiers  he  found  there,  who 
had  ferved  under  Agricola,  gave  him  of  the  country. 
In  hopes,  therefore,  of  keeping  them  quiet  by  enlar- 
ging their  bounds,  he  delivered  up  to  the  Caledonians 
all  the  lands  lying  between  the  two  Friths  and  the 
Tyne  ;  and  at  the  fame  time,  to  fecure  the  Roman  pro- 
vinces from  their  future  incurfions,  built  the  famous 
wall  which  ftill  bears  his  nairie  (a).  Having  thus  fet- 
tled 


(a)  This  work,  though  called  by  the  Roman  hiflorians  )}itirus,  which  fignifies  a  \ynll  of  ilonc,  was  only 
compofed  of  earth  covered  with  green  turf.  It  was  carried  on  from  the  Solway  Frith,  a  little  weft  of  the 
village  of  Burgii  on  tlK  Sands,  in  as  dired  a  line  as  poffible,  to  the  river  Tyne  on  the  eaft,  at  the  place  where 

the 


A  D 


!l 


AJriin. 


ikd  matters  in  £ritii!i,  lie  rcturr.fj  to  Koine,  sphere 
he  was  hoioiived  wi.h  the  title  of  Picftoi-cr  of  Britain, 
iis  appears  by  fomc  medals.  He  foon  after  went  imo 
Spain,  to  Mauritania,  and  at  kiigtli  ir.tu  the  Ea/l, 
where  he  quieted  ilit  coiiiniorions  railed  liy  the  Par- 
liiiins.  Alter  having  vilited  all  the  pravin<.e3of  Afia, 
lie  rtiurncd  to  Athens  in  I2J,  where  he  pasFcd  the 
winter,  and  was  initiated  in  the  myftcrics  of  Elcuii- 
nian  Ceres.  He  went  from  thence  to  Sicily,  chieHy  to 
view  nioauc  Atna,  coriteciplatc  its  phenomena,  and 
enjoy  the  beaatifii!  and  extcnlive  prol'pec^  afforded  from 
its  top.  He  returned  to  Home  the  beginning  of  the 
year  129  ;  and,  according  to  fouie,  he  went  again,  the 
fame  year,  to  Africa;  and,  after  his  return  from 
thence,  to  the  Kill.  He  was  in  Ejiypt  in  the  year 
i;!2,  rcvilitcd  Syrii  the  year  following,  returned  to 
Athens  in  r54,  and  10  Rome  in  13 j.  'Ihe  perfecu- 
tion  againil  ilie  Chrillians  was  very  violent  under  lu; 
reign  ;  but  it  was  at  length  fufpcndcd,  in  coufequence 
of  the  remoulf  ranees  of  (hiadrat  bilhop  of  Athens, 
and  Ariflidcs,  two  C.'hriflian  philufophers,  who  pre- 
fenttd  the  emperor  witli  fonie  books  in  favour  of  the 
Chriltian  religion.  He  conquered  the  Jews  ;  and,  by 
way  of  infiilt,  crcdcd  a  tem|ilc  to  Jupiter  on  Calvary, 
and  placed  a  llatue  of  Adonis  in  the  manger  of  Bethle- 
hem ;  he  caufed  aifo  the  images  of  fwine  to  be  engra- 
ven on  the  gates  of  Jerufalem.  At  !a(t  he  was  feized 
with  a  dropfy,  which  vexed  him  to  fuch  a  degree, 
that  he  became  almoll  raving  mad.  A  great  number 
of  phylicians  were  fent  for,  and  to  the  multitude  of 
them  he  afcribed  his  death.  He  died  at  Uaix  in  the 
63d  year  of  his  age,  having  reigned  21  years.  Tiic 
Latin  vcrfes  (b)  ho  addrellcd  to  his  foul  have  been 
much  eriticifed  and  varioufiy  interpreted.  'Iherearc 
fome  fragments  of  his  Latin  poems  e«tant,  and  there 
are  Greek  verfes  of  his  in  the  Anthology.  He  alfo 
wrote  tlie  hillory  of  his  own  life  :  to  which,  however, 
he  did  not  chufe  to  put  his  name  ;  but  tliat  of  Phlegon, 
one  of  his  freed-men,  a  very  learned  perfon,  was  pre- 
•videi/j>-  fixed  to  it*.     He  had  great  wit,  and  an  extenfive  me- 

/(»/;,  iriAJri- 


1     12J     3  ADR 

mory.  He '...idcritood  the  fcicnccspcrftcll/ well;  Luc   Ad-Jan. 

was  very  jealous  of  others  who  excelled  in  thcui.    He  ■^ — 

was  aifo  cruel,  envious,  and  lafciviouj.  Ar.toni.ir.iliij 
fucccilbr  obtained  his  apotheolis ;  and  prevented  the  rc- 
feiifion  of  his  atls^  which  the  fenate  once  intended. 

ADH  lANiV.  (Pope),  the  only  Englilhman  who 
ever  had  the  honour  of  lilting  in  the  papal  chair.  His 
name  was  Nichidas  Brekefperc  ;  and  he  v^as  Lorn  at 
Langlcy,  near  St  Alban's,  in  Htr!f.>rdn'.ire.  His 
father  having  left  liis  family,  and  taken  the  habit  of 
the  nionallcry  of  St  Alban's,  Nicholas  v.as  obliged  to 
fiibmit  to  the  lowelt  oiiices  in  that  houfefor  c!aily  fjp- 
port.  After  fon;c  lime,  he  Jeiired  to  takj  the  hatit  m 
thatmonaltery,  but  wasrejecledby  the  abbot  Iiichard. 
Upon  thisherel'oiveJ  to  tryhistortune  in  another  coun- 
t)-y,  .ind  accordingly  went  to  Paris ;  where,  thougli  in 
very  poor  cireumilauces,  he  applied  hiinfclf  to  Lii 
lUiilies  v\  ith  great  alFiduity,  and  made  a  wonderful  pro- 
ficiency. But  having  (lill  a  ftrong  inclinalidR  to  a  re- 
ligious life,  he  left  Paris,  and  removed  to  Provence, 
where  he  became  a  regular  clerk  in  the  monaftery  of 
St  Kufus.  He  was  uoi  iinn.cdiatcly  allowed  t«  take 
the  habit ;  but  palTcd  fome  time,  by  way  of  trial,  in  re- 
commending iiimfelf  to  the  monks  by  a  Uriel  .-itentic!; 
to  all  their  commands.  Thisbchaviour,  together  with 
the  beauty  of  his  perfon,  and  prudent  cor.vcrfation, 
rendered  him  ^ij  acceptable  to  thofc  religious,  that  af- 
ter fume  li.-.ic  they  intreaied  Jiim  to  take  the  habit  of 
the  canonical  order.  Here  he  difting  liihed  himfclf  fo 
much  by  Iiis  learning  and  ftrift  obfervance  of  the  mo- 
naftic  diicipline,  that,  upon  t!ie  death  of  the  abbot,  he 
was  ehofen  fuperior  of  that  houfc  ;  and  we  are  told 
that  he  rebuilt  tliat  cojivent.  Pope  t'ugcnius  111. 
beinii,  apprifcd  of  the  great  merit  of  N'ich>)las,  and 
thinking  he  might  be  ferviceable  to  the  church  in  a 
liighcr  llalion,  created  him  cardin.il-biilwp  of  Alba 
in  1 1 46.  In  1148,  his  Holinefs  fent  him  legate  to 
Denmark  and  Norway  :  where, by  his  fervent  preach- 
ing and  diligent  inftrue^ions,  he  converted  thofe  bar- 
barous nations  to  the  ChrilUan  faith  ;  and  erefted  Ui>- 

fal 


the  town  of  Ncweaftle  now  (lands  ;  fo  that  it  muft  have  been  above  60  Englifh,  and  near  70  Roman  miles  in 
length.  It  confilled  of  four  parts  :  i.  The  principal  agger,  mound  of  earth,  or  rampart,  on  the  brink  of  the 
ditch.  2.  The  ditch  on  the  north  fide  of  the  rampart.  3.  Another  rampart  on  the  fi^uth  (ide  of  the  principal 
one,  about  five  paces  dillant  from  it.  4.  A  lar^e  rampart  on  the  north  lide  of  the  ditch. — This  lafl  was  pro- 
bably the  military  way  to  the  line  of  forts  on  this  work:  it  was  fo  to  thofc  formerly  built  by  Agricola  ;  and  if 
it  did  not  ferve  the  fime  purpofe  in  this,  there  mull  jiave  been  no  military  way  attending  it The  fouili  ram- 
part might  ferve  for  an  inner  defence  in  cafe  the  enemy  Ihould  beat  them  from  any  part  of  the  principal  ram- 
part, or  it  might  be  deligned  to  protect  the  foldiers  from   any  fudden  attack  of  the   provincial  Britons For 

many  ages,  this  work  hath  been  in  fo  ruinous  a  condition,  that  it  is  impolfible  todifcovcr  its  original  dimen- 
fions  w-ith  certainty.  F'rom  their  appearance,  it  feems  probable  that  the  principal  rampart  was  at  lead  10  or 
12  feet  high,  and  the  fouth  one  not  much  lefs  ;  but  the  north  one  was  confiderably  lower.  From  the  dimen- 
fionsof  the  ditch  taken  as  it  paflTes  through  a  lime-flone  quarry  near  Harlow-hill,  it  appears  to  have  been  9  feet 
deep,  and  11  wide  at  the  top,  but  fomcwhat  narrower  at  the  bottom.  The  north  rampart  was  about  20  feet 
dLftant  from  the  ditch. 


(b)  The  verfes  arc  thefe: 

Animula  vagula,  blandula, 
Hofpes,  comefquc  corporis, 
Quae  nunc,  abibis  in  loca 
Pallidula,  rigida,  nudula, 
Ncc,  ut  foles,  dabis  jocos  ? 


Thus  tranflated  by  Mr  Pope  : 

."Vh  !  fleeting  fj'irit  1  wand'riog  fire, 

That  long  haft  warm'J  my  lernlcr  brcaft, 
Mud  thou  no  more  this  frame  infpirc  ? 

No  more  a  pleating  cheerful  gucft  ? 
Whither,  ah  whither  art  ihou  flying  ? 

T»  what  dark  undifcovcr'd  fliore  ? 
Thou  feen\"ll  all  trembling,  (hiv'ring,  dying. 

And  wit  aiid  hucioui  are  jio  more ! 


ADR  [12 

AdriiB.  fil  iiiioaii  arcliicjnlcopal  fee.  When  l;c  returned  to 
'  "  '  Rome,  he  was  received  by  the  pope  and  cardinals  with 
);reat  mirks  of  honour  :  and  Pope  Anallalins,  wiio 
1  iccceJcd  Eiigenlus,  lupptniiig  to  die  at  this  time, 
Jsicliol.is  was  unaninio'iuiy  chofi-a  to  the  holy  fee,  in 
Kovember  115.],  and  he  luok  the  nOimv  ci'  Mriau. 
W'heli  the  news  of  his  promotion  reached  England, 
Kinj;  Henry  II.  fent  Robert  abbot  of  St  Alban's,  and 
three  bifliops,  to  Rome,  to  congratulate  him  on  his 
eledion  ;  upon  whieh  occalion  Adrian  jrraiited  very 
conlidcrable  privileges  to  the  nionalttryofSt  Alban's, 
particularly  an  exemption  from  all  epii'eojial  jnrifJic- 
tion,  excepting  to  the  fee  of  Rome.  Adrian,  in  the 
beginning  of  l)is  poniilicaie,  boldly  wiihllood  the  at- 
tempts ot  the  Roman  people  to  recover  their  ancicJU 
liberty  under  iheconfuls,  andobliged  ihofe  magillrates 
t  to  abdicate  their  authority,  and  leave  the  government 

of  the  city  19  the  pope.  In  115J,  he  drove  the  he- 
jctic  Arnaud  of  Brclfe,  and  his  followers,  out  of 
Rome.  The  fame  year  lie  excommunicated  William 
king  ofSicilywhoravagcd  the  territories  of  thcchurch, 
and  abfolvcd  that  prince's  fubjc-lls  from  their  allegi- 
.aacc.  About  the  fame  time,  Frederic  king  of  ihcRo- 
jnans,  having  entered  Italy  with  a  powerful  army,  A- 
driau  met  him  near  Sutrium,  and  concluded  a  peace 
with  him.  At  this  interview,  Krederic  confented  to 
hold  the  pope's  flirrup  whilil  he  mounted  on  horfc- 
•back.  After  which,  his  hcJinefs  couduJlcd  that  prince 
.toRemc,  and  iu  St  I'ctcr's  church  placed  the  imperiiul 
crown  on  his  head,  to  the  great  mortification  of  the 
Roman  pcMple,  who  alFemblcd  in  a  tumultuous  man- 
ner, and  killed  fcvcral  ol  the  Impcri  dills.  The  next 
year  a  reconciliation  was  brought  about  between  the 
pope  and  the  Sicilian  king,  that  priiicc  taking  an  oath 
to  do  nothing  farther  to  the  prejudice  of  the  eluirch, 
and  Adrian  granting  hiin  the  title  of  ki/i^  oj'thc  two  Si- 
ci/icj.  He  builiand  fortilied  feveral  caitles,  and  left  the 
papal  dominions  in  a  more  Hourilhing  condition  than  he 
found  them.  B.it  notwithflandiug  all  his  fuccefs,h'e  was 
extremely  fenlibleof  thcdifqiiictudcsattendfiigfoliigh 
a  fbation  ;  and  declared  to  his  countryman  Joint  of  Sa- 
lilbury,  that  all  the  former  harddiips  of  his  life  were 
mere  amufement  to  the  misfortunes  of  the  popedom  : 
that  he  looked  upon  St  Peter's  chair  to  be  the  moft 
uncafy  feat  in  the  world  ;  and  that  his  crown  feemcd 
•  IJaronius  to  be  clapped  burning  on  his  head*.  He  died  Scptem- 
Annal.tum  bcr  I.  !  I  $'),  in  the  fourth  year  and  tenth  month  of  his 
Ki1.an.1154  pontificate  ;  and  was  buried  in  St  Peter's  church,  near 
the  tombof  his  prcdecefFor  Eugcnius.  Tliere  arecx- 
tant  feveral  letters,  and  fome  homilies, written  by  Pope 
Adrian. 

ADRIAN,  cardinal-pried,  of  the  title  of  St  Chry- 
fogonus,  was  a  nativeof  Cornetto  in  Tufcany.  Inno- 
cent VIII.  fent  him  nuncio  into  Scotland  and  into 
France  ;  and  after  he  had  been  clerk  and  treafurcr  of 
the  .npofiolic  chamber,  pope  Alexander  \'I.  whofe  fc- 
cretary  he  had  been,  honoured  him  with  the  cardinal's 
hat.  His  life  was  a  continued  fcene  of  odd  alterations. 
He  narrowly  efcaped  death  theday  Alexander  VI.  poi- 
foned  himfclf  by  miflake.  Afterward  he  drew  upon 
himfelf  the  hatred  of  Julins  II.  fo  iliat  he  was  obliged 
to  go  and  hide  himfelf  in  the  mountains  of  Trent.  Ha- 
ving been  recalkdlvr  Leo  X.  he  was  foungrateful,  that 
lie  engaged  in  a  confpiracy  againft  him.  The  pope  par- 
doned this  fault :  but  the  cardinal^  not  caring  to  truA  to 


6    ] 


ADR 


this,  made  hii  cfeapc,  and  it  coidd  never  be  known    Adrian 
exactly  what  was  become  ot  him.     He  was  one  of  the  il 

Jirlt  that  ctieCtuiUy  reformed  the  Latin  ftyle.  He  flu-  Adriaiiople 
died  Cicero  with  great  fueeefs,  and  made  many  excel-  ^ 
lent  obferv  atious  on  tlie  propriety  of  the  Latin  tongue. 
Thetreatifehe  cumyx^ii'cdDi  /(imonc  Lati/io,  is  a  i>roof 
of  this.  He  had  begun  a  Latin  tranflation  of  the  Old 
Teltanicnt.  HcwroicDi  vti  a  philofophin  :  Thistrea- 
tii'e  was  printed  at  Cologn  154^. 

ADRIAN  VI.  (Pope),  was  born  at  Utrecht  in 
I4J9-  His  father  was  not  able  to  maintain  him  at 
fchool,  but  he  got  a  place  at  Louvain,  in  a  college 
in  w  hich  acertain  number  of  fcholarsweic maintained  . 
grata.  It  is  reported  that  he  ufcd  to  read  in  the  night- 
time by  the  light  of  the  lamps  in  the  churches  or 
llrects.  He  made  a  confiderablc  progrefs  in  all  the 
fcienccs  ;  led  an  exemplary  life  ;  and  there  never  was 
a  man  lefs  intriguing  and  forward  than  he  was.  He 
took  his  degree  of  dodorof  divinity  at  Louvain  ;  was 
loon  after  made  canon  of  St  Peter's,  and  profeffbr  of 
divinity  at  Utrecht,  and  then  dean  of  St  Peters  and 
vice-chancellor  of  the  unirerlity.  He  was  obliged  to 
leave  an  academic  life,  to  be  tutor  to  the  archduke 
Charles.  This  young  prince  made  no  great  progrefs 
under  him  :  however,  never  was  a  tutor  more  conli- 
derably  rewarded  ;  for  it  was  by  Charles  V.'s  credit  he 
was  rai fed  to  the  papal  throne.  LcoX.  had  given  him 
the  cardinal's  hat  in  IJ17.  After  this  pope's  death,  . 
feveral  cabals  in  the  conclave  ended  in  the  eletlion  of 
Adrian,  with  which  tlie  people  of  Rome  were  very 
much  difpleafed.  He  would  not  change  his  name,  i|»t 
and  in  every  thing  he  Ihowed  a  great  dillike  for  all  of- 
tentatioii  and  fcnfual  pleafures,  though  fueh  an  avcrfion 
had  been  long  ago  out  of  date.  He  was  very  partial 
to  Charles  V.  and  did  not  enjoy  much  tranquillity  un- 
der the  triple  crown.  He  lamented  much  the  wicked 
morals  of  the  clergy,  and  wilhcd  to  eflablilh  a  refor- 
mation of  manners  among  them.  He  died  Sept.  14. 
152;. 

AURIANI  (Joanni  Batilla),  was  born  of  a  patrici- 
an family  at  Florence,  in  ijii.  He  wrote  a  Hiflory  of 
his  own  Times  in  Italian  ;  which  is  a  continuation  of 
Guicciardini,  beginning  at  the  year  ij;6  ;  to  which 
Thuanus  ackiiowledges  himfclf  greatly  indebted  :  be- 
fide  which,  he  conipofedlixfuneralorations,onthe  em- 
peror Charles  V.  and  other  noble  pcrfonages  ;  and  is 
thought  to  have  been  the  author  of  a  long  letter  on  an- 
cient painters  and  fculptors,  prefixed  to  the  third  vo- 
lume of  Vafari.     He  died  at  Florence  in  1579. 

ADRIANISTS,  in  cccleliaftical  hillory,  a  feft  of 
heretics  divided  inio-two  branches  ;  the  firA  were  dif- 
ciples  of  Simon  Magus,  and  flourilhed  about  the  year 
34.  Theodorct  is  the  only  perfon  whohas  preferved 
their  name  and  memory  ;  but  he  gives  us  no  account 
of  their  origin.  Probably  this  fec't,  and  the  fix  others 
which  fprung  from  the  Simonians,  took  their  name 
from  the  particular  difciples  of  Simon.  The  fecond 
were  the  fullowersof  Adrian  Hamflcad.the  anabaptiil; 
and  held  fome  particular  errors  concerning  Chri/t. 

ADRIANOPLE,  a  city  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  in 
the  province  of  Romania,  and  the  fee  of  an  archbirtiop 
nndcrthe  patriarch  of  Conflantinople.  It  is  about  fc- 
vcnor  eight  miles  in  circumference,  includingtheold 
city  and  fome  gardens.  The  mofques  and  other  pu- 
blic buildings  arc  built  of  (lone,  and  are  very  elegant : 

but 


A  D  V 


[     '27     ] 


A  D  V 


Adrogation  but  private  houlcs  in  general  are  meanly  built ;  ami  tlic 
I  Arccts  are  cxcceJiiig  dirty.  The  walls  and  towers  are 
Advanced.  j,j  ^  great  meafure  fallen  to  decay.  However,  there  is 
'  abeautitiil  ba*ar,  or  market,  lialfa  mile  long,  called 
All  Balfa.  It  isavart  arched  building,  with  lix  gates, 
and  365  wtll-furniflied  ihops,  kept  by  Turks,  Arnie- 
nians,  and  Jews,  who  pay  five  crowns  a-inonth  for 
each  lliop.  I'lie  number  or  inhabitants  of  all  nations 
and  religions  may  be  about  100,000  :  provilions  are 
plenty,  and  living  cheap.  The  air  ii:  wholcfomc,  and 
rhe  country  very  pleaiant  in  fumnier,  on  account  of 
the  river  and  llreams  that  run  near  and  about  the  city  ; 
the  chief  of  which  is  the  Marina.  Thefe  promote 
and  prcfcrvc  the  verdure  of  the  gardens,  meadows,  and 
fields,  for  aconiidcrablepartof  iheycar.  In  the  win- 
ter there  is  plenty  of  game.  Near  the  principal  hi- 
zar  there  is  another,  about  a  mile  in  length,  covered 
with  boards,  with  holes  on  each  lide  to  let  in  the  light. 
It  is  full  of  good  Iliops,  which  contain  all  kinds  of 
commodities.  Sultan  Selim's  niofque  (lands  on  the 
lide  of  a  hill,  in  the  midll  of  tlie  city  ;  and  hence  this 
magnificent  itrudurc  tnay  be  feen  on  all  lidcs.  Every 
thing  made  of  gold  and  lilver,  jewels,  pillols,  fcime- 
tars,  &c.  are  fold  in  another  part  of  the  city,  called 
by  travellers  the  bizcjhhi,  though  it  diflers  little  from 
a  bazar.  This  contains  about  200  tliops,  and  is  co- 
vered like  the  former  :  but  the  covering  is  fupported 
by  two  rows  of  large  pillars.  '  The  grand  vifier's  pa- 
lace is  tiothing  more  than  a  covcnicnt  houfe,  after  the 
Turkilh  manner  of  building.  The  emperor's  fcraglio 
isa  regular  (Irufture,  in  a  plain  near  the  river  Tungia. 
It  is  two  miles  in  compafs,  and  has  feven  gates,  be- 
fides  thofeof  the  gardens,  w'hich  are  feveral  miles  in 
circumference.  1  he  city  is  governed  by  a  mullah  cadi, 
who  has  an  abfolute  authority  botli  in  civil  and  crimi- 
nal matters.  In  the  time  of  the  plague,  or  war,  the 
grand  figniorhas  fomctimesrelided  here.  The  Turks 
took  this  city  from  the  Greeks  in  1562,  and  made  \i 
the  capital  of  ihe  empire,  till  Mahomet  II.  took  Con- 
flantinoplc  in  1453.     K.  Long.  26.  27.  Lat.  41.  41.. 

ADROGA  riON,  in  Roman  antiquities,  a  fpecies 
of  adoption,  whereby  a  perfon  who  was  capable  of 
chooliiig  for  himfelf  was  admitted  by  another  into  the 
relulionofafon.  The  word  is  compounded  of  W,  "to," 
and  rogiiie,"  to  alk,"on  accoiin:  of  aqucllion  put  in  the 
ceremony  of  it,  whether  the  adopter  would  take  fueh 
a  perfon  for  his  fon  ?  and  another  to  the  adoptive,  whe- 
ther he  confenied  to  become  fuch  a  perf  )u's  fon  f 

ADSIUrXl.A,  in  antiquity,  the  table  at  wliich 
the  tlamcns  fat  during  the  facrifices. 

AUSTRICTION,  among  phyficians,  a  term  ufed 
to  denote  the  rigidity  of  any  part. 

ADUAC/^,  or  Atuaca,  anciently  a  large  and  fa- 
mous city  of  the  Tungri  ;  now  a  I'luall  and  inconlider- 
able  village,  called  Tongiren,  inthe  billiopiic of  Liege, 
to  the  north-wcfl  of  the  city  of  Lic>;e,  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Hafpc'igow,  on  the  rivulet  Jeckcv,  that  foou 
after  falls  into  the  Made.  E.  Long.  5.  52.  Lat.  50.  54. 

ADVANCE,  in  the  mercantile  ftylc,  denotes  mo- 
ney paid  before  goods  are  delivered,  w  ork  done,  or  bu- 
fincfs  performed. 

ADVANCF-^D,  in  a  general  fenfc,  denotes  fomc- 
thiiig  ported  or  lituated  before  another.     Thus, 

yiDVASCKn  Ditch,  in  tortiticaiivin,  is  that  which  fur- 
rounds  the  glacis  or  efplanadc  of  a  place. 


yJiiyASccD  Guard,  or  Vanguard,  in  the  art  of  war.  Advanced 
the  firfl  line  or  Jivilion  of  an  army,  ranged  or  inarch-  I 

ing  in  order  of  battle  ;  or,  it  is  that  part  which  is  next  '^"l''^"'"''': 
the  enemy,  and  marches  firft  towards  them.  .    ^'^^'     . 

j^dvanciJCuard,  is  more  particularly  ufed  for  a 
fmall  party  of  horfc  flationed  before  the  main-guard. 

ADVANCER,  among  fportfmen,  one  of  the  flirts 
or  branches ofa  buck's  attire,  between  theback  antler 
and  the  palm. 

.'\DUAIl,  in  the  Arabian  and  Moorifli  cuftoms,  a 
kind  of  ambulatory  village,  conliflingof  tents,  which 
thefe  people  remove  from  one  place  to  another,  as  fuits 
their  conveniency. 

ADVENT,  in  the  calendar,  properly  fignifies  the 
approach  of  the  I'catl  of  the  nativity.  It  includes  four 
Sundays,  which  beein  on  St  Andrew's  day,  or  on  the 
Sunday  before  or  alter  it.  During  advent,  and  to  the 
end  of  the  oilaves  of  epiphany,  the  folemnizing  of 
marriage  is  forbid  without  a  fpecial  licence.  It  is  ap- 
pointed to  employ  the  thoughts  of  Chriflians  on  the 
firfl  advent  or  coming  of  Chrifl  in  the  Helh,  and  his 
fecond  advent  or  coming  to  judge  the  world.  The  pri- 
mitive Chriflians  praftifed  great  aullerity  during  this 
feafon. 

AD  vENTREM  iNspiciENDiiM,  in  law,  a  writ  by 
which  a  woman  is  to  be  fcarched  whether  (he  be  with 
child  by  a  former  hulband,  on  her  with-holding  of 
lands  from  the  next,  failing  iffue  of  her  own  body. 

ADVENTURE,  inageneral  fenfe,  foine  extraor- 
dinary or  accidental  event.  It  alfodcnoccs  a  hazardous 
or  ditiicult  undertaking. 

Bill  ofyiorFsrvRE,  among  merchants,  a  writing 
figned  by  a  merchant,  teflifing  the  goods  mentioned 
in  it  to  be  ihippcd  on  board  a  certain  velfel  belonging 
to  anotherperfon,  who  is  torun  allhazards  ;  the  mer- 
chant only  obliging  himfelf  to  account  to  him  for  the 
produce. 

j4DVESTVRE-Bay,  in  Van  Diemcn's  land.  There  is 
a  beautiful  fandy  beach*,  about  two  miles  long,  at  the  •  Cook'i 
bottom  of  Adventure  Bay,  formed  to  all  appearance  laft  voyage 
by  the  particles  which  the  fca  walhcs  from  a  tine  white  B.  i.  ch.  6. 
fand-flone.  This  beach  is  very  welladaptcd  for  haul- 
ing a  feine.  liehind  it  is  a  plain,  with  a  brackilh 
lake,  out  of  which  we  caught,  by  angling,  fome  bream 
,  and  trout.  The  parts  adjoining  the  bay  arc  mollly 
hilly,  and  are  an  entire  forcfl  of  tall  trees,  rendered 
almoft  impadablf  by  breaks  of  tern,  thrubs,  &c.  The 
foil  on  the  Hat  laud,  and  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
hills,  is  fandy,  or  confids  of  a  ycllowiih  eartli,  and 
in  fome  parts  of  a  rcddilh  tlay  ;  but  further  up  the 
hills,  it  is  of  a  grey  tough  call.  This  country,  upon 
tife  whole,  bears  many  marks  of  being  very  dry,  anJ 
the  heat  appears  to  be  great.  No  mineral  bodies,  nor 
Aones  of  any  other  kind  but  the  white  fand-ftone, 
were  obfrrved  by  us  ;  uorcoiild  wc  find  any  vegetables 
that  aiforded  fubfidrnec  for  man.  The  forcll-trees 
are  all  ofonc  kind,  and  generally  quite  llraight :  thy 
bcarcluflcvs  of  fr.ialt  wliitc  flowers.  The  principal 
plantsoblcrved,  are  wod-forrel, milk- wort,  cudweed, 
bell  flower,  gladiolus,  famphire,  and  feveral  kinds  of 
fern  :  the  on'y  quadruped,  a  fpecies  of  opotrum,  about 
twi.e  the  fi/.e  of  a  Urge  rat.  The  kangooroo,  found 
further  northward  in  New  Holland,  may  alio  be  fup- 
pofed  to  inhabit  lierc,  as  fome  of  the  inhabitants  had 
pieces  of  the  Ikia  of  that  animal. 

The 


A  D  V 

Alvcnturer       I'i.e  p.-inripjl  lonsof  Uirii; 


[       IZi 


I 


AJv;ifa- 
tivc. 


i:ii,ic  V,  IK  .;s  art  hroua 
Iii\vji.i  or  cajjlcs,  crows,  large  pigeons,  ycllowilh  pa- 
r»qucis,  and  a  fpccics  which  \vc-  callcil  ■■tolJ^i!!^  c.u- 
.  ;.:-.7,  I'rom  llic  bcactiful  azure  colour  ot  its  litad  aiij 
neck.  On  the  lliorc  were  I'everal  i^ul'iy,,  black  oyllcr- 
catchrrSjOr  fca-pics,  and  plovers  ola  (l<>nc-cob.;r. 

TJic  inhabit  Jilts  fecmed  milJandchecrt'al,  with  lit- 
tle of  that  wild  appearance  that  favagcs  in  general 
have.  Tbcy'arc  almoll  totally  devoid  of  pi  rfoiial  ac- 
tivity cr  genins,  and  arc  nearly  upon  a  par  with  the 
wretched  natives  of  Terra  del  Fucgo.  They  difplay, 
however,  fonic  contrivance  in  their  method  of  cutting 
raeir  arms  and  bodies  in  l'):i:s  of  diticrent  direct  ions, 
raifed  above  the  furfacc  of  the  fcin.  Their  indiffer- 
ence for  prefeuts,  their  general  inattention,  and  want 
of  cufiolity,  wffrc  very  remarkable,  and  tcltificd  no 
acntenefs  of  undcrflanui'ig.  Their  complexion  ii  a 
d'.iU  black,  which  they  fouieiimes  heighten  by  fmut- 
ting  their  bodies,  as  was  f.ippofed,  from  tiieir  leaving 
a  mark  behindoii  any  clean  fubllancc.  Their  hair  is 
perfectly  woolly,  and  is  clotted  with  greafe  and  red 
ochre,  like  that  of  the  Hottentots.  Their  nofes  arc 
broa  1  ;uul  full,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  face  projcfts 
confidcrably.  Their  eyes  are  of  a  niodcritc  lize,  and 
though  they  arc  not  very  quick  or  piercing,  they  give 
the  countenance  a  frank,  cheerful,  and  pleafing  caft. 
Their  teeth  are  not  very  white,  nor  well  fet,  and  tlieir 
mouth  s  arc  too  wide  :  they  wear  their  beards  long,  and 
clotted  with  paint.  They  are,  upon  the  whole,  well 
proportioned,  though  their  bellyisratlier  protuberant. 
Their  favourite  attitude  is  to  fland  with  one  lide  fur- 
ward,  and  one  hand  grafpiug,  acrofs  the  back,  the 
oppolite  arm,  which,  on  this  occafion,  hangs  down  by 
the  fide  that  projcds. 

ADVENTURER,  in  a  general  fen Ic,  denotesonc 
who  hazards  fomething.- 

Adventurers,  is  particularly  ufcd  for  an  ancient 
company  of  merchants  and  traders,  erciitcd  for  the  dif- 
covcry  of  lands,  territories,  trades,  &c.  unknown. 
The  focicty  of  adventurers  had  its  rife  in  Burgundy, 
and  its  firll  cflablifliment  from  John  Duke  of  Brabant 
in  m^,  being  known  by  the  namcofT'r^  irotherhood 
of  St  Thanai  a  Btcket.  Jt  was  afterwards  tranflated 
into  England,  and  fucceiTively  confirmed  by  Edward 
111.  and  IV.  Richard  III.  Henry  IV.  V.  VI.  and 
VII.  who  gave  it  the  appellation  of  Merchant  Adveu- 
turen. 

ADVERB,  in  grammar,  a  particle  joined  to  a  verb, 
adjeclive,  or  participle,  to  cxplaiatheir  manner  of  ac- 
ting or  fuffa-ing  ;  or  to  mark  fome  circiimllance  or 
quality  fignificdby  them.  The  word  is  formed  from 
the  pr'tpolition  ad,  "  to,  "and  vtrbunt,  "a  verb  ;"and 
lignirics  literally  a  word  joined  to  a  verb,  to  (how  how, 
when,  or  where,  one  is,  does,  or  fuffcrs  ;  as,  the  boy, 
paints  ;/i^^-/.>,  writes ///;  the  houfcftands  M^rf,  3cc. 
See  Grammar. 

ADVERSARIA,  among  the  ancients,  a  book  of 
accounts,  not  unlike  ourjournals  or  day-books.  It  is 
niiore  particularly  ufcd  for  a  kind  of  comnion-placc- 
book.     See  Com  MON-rLACE-BOOK. 

ADVERSATU'E,  in  grammar,  a  word  cxprc0ing 
fome  difference  between  what  goes  before  and  what 
follows  it.  Thus,  in  the  phrafe,  hi  ii  an  honcj}  man, 
but  a  gnnt  cijl-nfiajl,  the  word  tut  is  an  adverfativc 
conjunction. 


]  A    D  U 

ADVEllS.^TOR,  ill  mtiquity,  a  i'  :;v.\:  v.iio  at- Advcrfjtor 
tended  the  rich  in  returning  from  fupper,  to  give  theiu         I 
notice  of  any  oblhdcsin  the  way,  at  which  thev  luighi  A4v  luri- 
be  apt  loltumblc.  '  ";^"     . 

ADVERl  rSEMENT,  in  a  general  fcnfe,  denotes         " 
any  informaiiongiven  topcrfoiisiiucrcdrd  InauaiTair; 
and  is  iTtore  pariiciilarly  ufcd  for  a  brief  account  of  an 
affair  infertcd  in  the  public  papers,  for  the  information 
of  all  concerned. 

ADUL.^  (anc.gcog.),  a  mountain  hi  Rhaetia,  or  the 
country  of  the  Grifona,  part  of  the  Alps,  in  which  arc 
the  fountains  of  the  Rl.inc  ;  now  i>t  C'.dkards. 

ADULK,  or  Apulis,  (anc.  gcog  )  a  town  of  E- 
gypt  built  by  fugitive  ilavcs,  dillaat  from  its  port  on 
the  Red  Sea  :j  Jladia.  Pliny  calls  the  inhabitants 
A-u'.::a:.  The  epithet  is  cither  .r//«/.'/j';//j ;  as,  Monu- 
iiteittum  Adutitanujii,  on  the  pompous  infcripiiuu  of  tlio 
ftatue  of  Ftolcmy  Eaergctcs,  publillied  by  Leo  Alatius 
at  Rome  in  i5ji,  and  to  be  found  in  Spon  and  Theve- 
not  :  Or,  Adultcus ;  as  Adiilicus  Sinus,  a  part  of  the 
Red  Sea. 

.■\DULT,  an  appellation  given  to  any  thing  that  is 
arrived  at  maturity  :  Thus  we  fay,  an  adult  pcrfon,  an 
adult  plant,  &c.  Among  civilians,  it  denotes  a  youth 
between  14  and  2J  years  of  age. 

ADULTERER,  a  man  who  commits  adultery.  Sec 
Adui.t  fry. 

ADULTERESS,awomanguiltyof  Adultery.  An 
.idiilterefs,  by  the  Englilh  law,  undergoes  no  temporal 
punilhmeni  whatever,  except  the  lofs  of  her  dower  ; 
and  (he  does  not  lofe  even  that,  if  her  hufband  is  weak 
enough  to  be  reconciled  to  her,  and  cohabit  with  her 
after  tlie  offence  committed.     13  Ed.  I.  cap.  34. 

But  it  is  to  be  obferycd,  that  adultcreflcs  arc  fuch 
either  by  the  canon  or  civil  law.  According  to  the 
former,  a  woman  is  an  adultcrefs  who,  cither  being 
herfcl  f  married,  converfcs  carnally  with  another  man ; 
or  being  fmgle  herfclf,  converfes  with  a  man  that  is 
married.  According  to  the  latter,  ike  is  not  an  adul- 
tcrefs, if  (he  be  not  hcrfelf  in  the  married  fiate,  though 
file  converfes  with  a  man  that  is.  The  crime,  in  this 
cafe, was  more  properlycalled  (lupnun  than  adtiiteriuvi. 
Hence,  among  the  Romans,  the  word  adultera  "  a- 
dultcrcfs,"  ditfcred  from  pellex,  which  denoted  a  fin- 
gle  woman  who  cohabited  with  a  married  man,  and 
pil'.ix  differed  from  cowa/Wwi/ which  iignifiedher  who 
had  only  intercourfc  with  an  unm.irried  man.  The 
former  was  reputed  infamous,  ard  the  latter  innocent. 

ADUTERATION,  the  ad  of  dchafiug,  by  an  im- 
proper mi.xture,  fomething  that  was  pure  and  genu- 
ine. 

The  word  is  Latin,  formed  of  the  verb  adulterare, 
"  to  corrupt,"  by  mingling  fomething  foreign  to  any 
fubflance.  There  are  in  England  laws  againfl  the  a- 
dulteration  of  coffee,  tea,  tobacco,  fnufF,  wine,  beer, 
bread,  wax,  hair-powder,  &c. 

AwLTERATios  of  din,  properly  imports  the  mak- 
ing, or  cafling  of  a  wrong  metal,  or  v.ith  too  bafe  or 
too  much  alloy. 

Adulterations  of  coins  arc  cfcfted  divers  ways  ;  as, 
by  forging  another  rtamp  «':  i".fcription  ;  by  mixing 
impure  metals  with  the  gold  or  lilvcr  :  moft  properly, 
by  making  ufe  of  a  wrong  metal,  or  an  undue  alloy, 
or  too  great  an  admixture  oftlic  I).,/ r  metals  with 
gold  or  filvcr.     Counterfeiting  the  flanip,  or  clipping 

and 


A  D  U 


[     129     ] 


A  D  U 


AJuItcrin<;  a»  J  leircuiiig  the  weight,  clonot  Id  properly  come  under 
Ailulicry.  the  Jenominatioii  ol aJulttratnig — Lvclyu  gives  rules 

' 'and  methods,  both  of  adulterating  and  detecting  a- 

dulterated  metals,  &c. —  Adtiltcrutnigvi  fomcwha:  iefs 
extenlive  than  debafmg,  which  includes  dimiiiilhinjj, 
clipping,  &c. 

To  adulterate  or  debafe  the  current  coin,  is  a  capi- 
tal crime  in  all  nations. — The  ancients  puniihed  it  with 
great  feverity  :  among  the  Egyptians  both  hands  were 
cutort";  and  by  the  civil  law,  the  offender  was  thrown 
to  wild  beafts.  The  emperor  Tacitus  enacled,  that 
counterfeiting  the  coin  lliould  be  capital  ;  and  under 
Conrtantinc  it  was  made  treafon,  as  it  is  alio  among  us. 
The  adiilteratingof  genisisa  curious  art,  and  the  mc- 
thodsofdeie>^ingitnolefsufcful. Nichols  Lapid.p.  18. 

ADULTKRINE,  in  the  civil  law,  is  particularly 
applied  to  a  child  ilRied  from  an  adulterous  amour  or 
commerce.  Adulterine  children  are  more  odious  than 
the  illegitimate  offspring  of  llngle  perfons. — The  Ro- 
man law  even  refufes  them  the  title  of  natural  children  ; 

as  if  nature  difowned  them Adulterine  children  arc 

not  calily  difpenfcd  with  for  admiinon  to  orders.  Thofe 
are  not  deemed  adulterine,  who  are  begotten  of  a  wo- 
man openly  married,  through  ignorance  of  a  former 
wife  being  alive.  By  a  decree  of  the  parliament  of 
Paris,  adulterine  children  are  declared  not  legitimated 
by  the  fubfequent  marriage  of  the  parties,  even  though 
a  papal  difpenfation  be  had  for  fucli  marriage,  wherein 
is  a  claufe  of  legitimation. 

Advlteri.\E  Marriage  s  ,  in  St  Augufline's  fenfe,  de- 
note fccond  marriages,  contra,5tcd  after  a  divorce. 

ADULTERY,  an  unlawful  commerce  between  one 
married  perlon  and  another,  or  between  a  married  and 
unmarried  perfon. 

Punilhmentshave  been  annexed  to  adultery  in  mofl 
ages  and  nations,  though  of  different  degrees  of  feve- 
rity. In  many  it  has  been  capital ;  in  others  venial,  and 
attended  only  with  (light  pecuniary  mulcts.  Some  of 
thepcnaUies  areferious,  andevcn  cruel ;  others ofajo- 
cofe  and  humorous  kind.  Even  contrary  things  have 
been  enacTcd  as  punilhments  for  adultery.  By  fome 
laws,  the  criminals  are  forbid  marrying  together,  in  cafe 
they  became  flngle  ;  by  others,  tluy  arc  forbid  to 
marry  any  befidcs  each  other  ;  by  fome,  they  are  inca- 
pacitated from  ever  committing  the  like  crime  again  ; 
by  others,  they  are  glutted  with  it  till  it  becomes 
downright  naufeous. 

Among  the  rich  Greeks,  adulterers  were  allowed  to 
redeem  tiiemfclvcs  by  a  pecuniary  fine  ;  the  woman's 
father,  in  fuch  cafes,  returned  the  dower  he  had  recei- 
ved from  her  hulband,  which  fome  think  was  refunded 
by  the  adulterer.  Another  punillimcnt  among  thofe 
people  was,  putting  out  the  eyes  of  adulterers. 

The  .-Athenians  had  an  extraordinary  way  of  punifli- 
i ng  adulterers, called -rap an x^@.,afa<^«T()((fiiiT/c,pradifed 
.'.Hlcad  on  the  poorer  fvirt  who  were  not  able  to  pay  the 
fines.  This  was  an  awkward  fort  of  impalement,  per- 
formed by  thurflii^  one  of  the  largefl  radilhcs  up  the 
amis  of  tiic  adulterer,  or,  in  dcfcft  thereof,  a  tifii  with 
a  large  head  called  mugil,  "  mullet."  Alcaeus  is  faid 
to  have  died  this  way,  though  it  is  doubted  whether 
the  punifliment  was  reputed  mortal.  Juvenal  and  Ca- 
tullus fpeak  of  this  cullom,  as  received  alfo  among  the 
Romans,  though  not  a.ithorifed  by  an  exprefs  law,  as 
ii  was  among  the  Greeks. 
Vol.  I. 


Therj  are  various  conjectures  concerning  the  inci-  AJ'ahery. 

eiit  punilliment  of  adultery  among  the  Romans.    Some  ' '^~' 

will  have  it  to  have  been  made  capital  by  a  law  of  Ro- 
mulus, and  again  by  the  twelve  tables.  Others,  th^c 
it  was  firfl  made  capital  by  Auguflus  ;  and  others,  not 
before  the  emperorConftantine.  The  truth  ij,  the  pu- 
nilhmentin  the  early  daysv/as  very  various,  much  be- 
ing left  to  the  difcrction  of  the  hufband  and  parcntsof 
the  adulterous  wife,  who  exerci  fed  it  dittc-rently,  rather 
with  the  filence  andeounienance  of  the  magillratc  than 
any  formal  authority  from  him.  Tliuswcare  told,  the 
wife's  father  was  allowed  to  kill  both  parties,  when 
caught  in  thcfacl,  provided  he  did  it  immediately,  kil- 
led both  together,  and  as  it  were  with  one  blow.  The 
fame  power  ordinarily  was  not  indulged  the  hufband, 
except  the  crime  were  committed  with  fome  mean  or 
infamous  perfon;  tho',  in  other  cafcj,  if  his  rage  car- 
ried him  to  put  them  to  death,  he  was  not  puniilicd  as 
a  murderer.  On  manyoccafions,  however,  revenge  was 
not  carried  fo  far  ;  but  mutilating,  caflrating,  cutting 
off  the  ears,  nofes,  &c.  ferved  the  turn.  The  punilli- 
ment allotted  by  the  /t-.v  Jn/ia,  was  not,  as  many  have 
imagined,  death  ;  but  rather  banifhment,  or  deporta- 
tion, being  interdicled  tire  and  water :  though  Oclavi- 
us,  appears,  in  fcveral  inftances,  to  have  gone  beyond 
his  own  law,  and  to  have  put  adulterers  to  death.  Un- 
derMacrinus,  many  were  burnt  at  a  flake.  Conflantinc 
firfl  by  law  made  the  crime  capital.  UnderConftan- 
tius  and  Conftans,  adulterers  were  burnt,  or  fewed  in 
facks  and  thrown  into  the  fea.  Under  Leo  and  Mar- 
cian,  the  penalty  was  abated  to  perpetual  banillimenr, 
or  cuttingoff  thenofe.  Under  Juflinian,  a  furtiier  mi- 
tigation was  granted,  at  leaf!  in  favourof  the  wife,who 
was  only  to  be  fcourged,  lofe  her  dower,  and  be  ihutup 
in  a  monaftery  :  after  two  years,  the  hufband  was  at  li- 
berty to  take  her  back  again  ;  if  hercfufed,lhe  wasflia- 
vcn,  and  made  a  nun  for  life  :  But  it  ftill  remained  deat  h 
in  the  hufband.  The  reafon  alleged  for  this  difference 
is,  that  the  woman  is  the  weaker  velfel.  Matthjeus  de- 
claims againft  the  emprcfs  Theodora,  who  is  fuppofeJ 
to  have  been  the  caufe  of  this  law,  as  well  as  of  others 
procured  in  favour  of  that  lex  from  the  emperor. 

Under  Thcodofius,  women  convicted  of  this  crime 
were  punifhed  after  a  very  lingular  manner,  viz.  by  a 
public  conftupration  ;  being  locked  up  in  a  narrow  cell, 
and  forced  to  admit  to  their  embraces  all  the  men  that 
would  offer  ihemfelves.  To  this  end  the  gallants  were 
to  drefs  thcmfclves  on  purpofe,  having  feveral  little 
bells  faftened  to  their  clothes,  tlie  tinkling  of  which 
gave  notice  to  thofe  without  ot  every  motion.  The 
cullom  was  again  aboliflied  by  the  fame  prince. 

By  the  Jewiih  law,  adultery  was  puniihed  by  deatlt 
in  both  parties,  where  they  were  both  married,  or  on- 
lythewomAn.  The  Jews  had  a  particular  method  of 
trying,  or  rather  purging,  an  adulterels,  or  a  woman 
fufpefted  of  the  crime,  by  making  her  drink  the  bit- 
ter waters  of  jcaloufy  ;  which,  if  Ihc  were  guilty,  made 
her  fwell. 

Among  the  Mingrelians,  according  toChardin,  a- 
dultery  is  puniihed  with  the  forfeiture  of  a  hog,  whicli 
is  ufually  eaten  in  good  fricudlhipbetweenthe  gallant, 
the  adultrcfs,  and  the  cuckold.  In  fome  parts  of  the 
Indies,  it  is  fiid  any  man's  wife  is  permitted  to  pro- 
ftitutc  herfelf  to  him  who  will  give  an  elephant  for  the 
ufe  of  her ;  and  it  is  reputed  no  fniall  glory  to  her  to 
R  have 


A  D  U 


[     130    ] 


A  D  U 


AJuUcry.  liavc  Dccu  liUcd  fo  high.  Adultery  is  laid  to  be  l"o 
*~— >» — -  I'rcqiient  at  Ceylon,  that  not  a  woman  but  praiMifes  it, 
uotwithflandiiig  its  bei:ij;  jninilhablc  with  dcatli.  A- 
mong  the  Japancfe,  and  divers  other  nations,  adultery 
is  only  penal  in  the  woman.  Among  the  ,'\byllinians, 
the  crime  of  the  hiifband  is  faid  to  be  only  punilhed  on 
the  innocent  wife.  In  tiie  Marian  illands,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  woman  is  not  punilhable  for  adultery  ;  but 
if  the  man  go  aftray  he  pays  fevercly :  the  wile  and 
her  relations  wafte  hislands,  turn  him  out  of  his  houfe, 
&c.  Among  the  Chincfc,  there  is  reafon  to  conclude 
that  adultery  is  not  capital ;  for  it  is  laid  that  fond  pa- 
rents will  make  a  coatrad  for  their  daughters  fn- 
lure  hulbands  to  allow  ihem  the  indulgence  of  a  gal- 
lane. 

In  Spain,  they  punilhed  adultery  in  men  by  cutting 
oft'  that  pan  wliich  had  been  the  inllrumcnc  of  the 
crime.  In  Poland,  before  Chrifliany  was  tllablilhed, 
they  punilhed  adultery  and  fornication  in  a  very  parti- 
cular manner:  tlie  criminal  they  carried  to  the  mar- 
ket-place, and  there  f.ilUncd  himby  the  telliclcs  with 
a  nail ;  laying  a  razor  within  his  reach,  and  leaving 
him  under  the  iieceinty,  cither  of  doing  jullice  upon 
hiinfclf  or  of  perifliing  in  that  condition. 

The  Saxons  formerly  burnt  the  adultrefs,  and  over 
herafiies  crcifted  a  gibbet,  whereon  the  adulterer  was 
hanged.  In  England,  likewife,  adultery,  by  the 
ancie:it  laws,  was  fevercly  punilhed.  King  Edmund 
the  Saxon  ordered  adultery  to  be  punilhed  in  the  fame 
manner  as  homicide  ;  and  Canute  the  Dane  ordered 
thai  a  man  who  committed  adultery  Ihould  be  banilh- 
cd,  and  that  the  woman  fliould  have  her  nofe  and  ears 
cut  off.  In  the  time  of  Henry  I.  it  svas  punilhed  with 
the  lofs  of  eyes  and  genitals. 

In  Britain,  adultery  is  reckoned  a  fpiritual  offence, 
that  is,  cognisable  by  the  fpiritual  courts,  where  it  is 
punilhed  by  fine  and  penance.  The  common  law  takes 
310  farther  notice  of  it,  than  to  allow  the  party  grie- 
ved an  aclion  and  damages.  This  practice  is  often  cen- 
fured  by  foreigners,  as  making  too  light  of  a  crime, 
the  bad  confequences  of  which,  public  as  well  as  pri- 
vate, arc  fo  great.  It  has  been  anfwered,  that  per- 
haps tbis  penally,  by  civil  adion,  is  more  wifely  cal- 
culated to  prevent  the  frequency  of  theoffence,  which 
Di'jrht  to  be  the  end  of  all  laws,  than  a  fcverer  punilh- 
cient.  He  that  by  a  judgment  of  law  is,  according 
tocircumftances,  llrippcJ  of  great  part  of  his  fortune, 
thirown  into  prifon  till  lie  can  pay  it,  or  forced  to  fly 
his  country,  will,  no  doubt,  in  moll  cafes,  own  that  he 
pays  dearly  for  his  amulement. 

As  to  the  moral  turj/itudeof  this  offence,  fome  have 
vainly  endeavoured  to  deny  or  explain  it  away  by  va- 
rious arguments,  and  even  by  an  appeal  to  fcripture. 
On  the  part  of  the  man  who  folicits  the  chalUty  of  a 
married  woman,  it  certainly  includes  the  crime  of  se- 
tiUCTioN,  and  is  attended  with  mifchief  flill  more 
tomplicattd  and  extenlivc  :  It  creates  a  new  fufferer, 
the  injured  hufhand,  upon  whofe  limplicity  and  affec- 
tion is  inflifted  a  wound  the  mofl  painful  and  incu- 
rabie  that  human  nature  knows.  The  infidelity  of  the 
VQMiu!  is  aggravated  by  cruelty  to  her  shildren,  who 
are  generally  involved  in  their  parents  fliamc,  and  al- 
ways made  unhappy  by  their  quarrel. 

It  has  been  argued,  that  thcfe  confequences  ought 
lefstobe  attributed  to  the  crime  than  to  the  difcovcry. 
But,  in  the   nrft  place,  the  crime  co;;ld  not  be  difco- 


vert  J  uulcfs  it  were  committed,  and  the  commilllon  is  Adultery, 
never  fccurc  from  difcovcry.     Zi/Zy,  If  adulterous  con-  ^r— 

nedioiis  were  allowable  whenever  the  parties  could 
hope  to  efcapc  deiedion,  which  is  the  conclulion  to 
which  this  argument  leads,  the  hulband  would  be  left 
no  other  fecuriiy  for  his  wife's  chalUty,  than  in  her 
want  of  opportunity  or  temptation  :  which  would  pro- 
bably deter  moll  men  from  marrying  ;  or  render  mar- 
riage a  rtate  of  continual  jealoufy  and  alarm  to  the  huf- 
band,  which  would  end  in  the  (lavery  and  confinement 
of  the  wife. 

The  i75arriagc-vow  is  "  witneffed  before  God,"  and 
accompanied  with  circumflanccs  of  folcmnity  and  re-  • 
ligion  which  approach  to  thp  nature  of  an  oath.  The 
married  offender,  therefore,  incurs  a  crime  little  fliort 
of  perjury,  and  the  feduftion  of  a  married  woman  is 
little  lei's  than  fubornation  of  perjury  : — and  this 
guilt  is  independent  of  the  difcovcry. 

But  the  ufiial  apology  for  adultery  is  the  prior  tranf- 
greflion  of  the  other  party  ;  and  fo  far,  indeed,  as  the 
bad  erterts  of  adultery  arc  anticipated  by  the  conduft 
of  the  hulband  or  wife  who  offends  firll,  the  guilt  of 
the  fecond  offender  is  extenuated.  But  this  can  never 
amount  to  a  jullification  ;  unlefs  it  could  be  Ihown  that 
the  obligation  of  the  marriage-vow  depends  upon  the 
condition  of  reciprocal  fidelity  ;  a  conllrudion  which 
appearsfounded  ncitherinexpediency,norin  thetcrms 
of  the  vow,  nor  in  the  delign  of  the  legillature  which 
prefcribcd  the  marriage-rite.  The  way  of  confidering 
the  ofi'cncc  upon  the  ioonngof  provocation  and  rttalia- 
tion,  is  a  childilh  trifiing  with  words. 

"Thou  llialt  not  commit  adultery,"  was  an  intcr- 
did  delivered  by  God  himfclf ;  yet  fcripture  has  been 
adduced  as  giving  countenance  to  the  crime.  As  Chrift 
told  the  woman  taken  in  adultery,"  Neither  do  I  con- 
dctiiii  thee,"  we  mult  believe,  it  is  faid,  that  he  deemed 
her  conduct  cither  not  criminal,  or  at  leaft  not  a  crime 
of  the  heinous  nature  we  reprefent  it  to  be.  But  from 
a  more  attentive  cxanunation  of  the  cafe,  it  will  be 
evident  tliat  nothing  can  be  concluded  from  it  favour- 
able to  fuch  an  opinion.  The  tranfadion  is  thus  re- 
lated* :  '  Early  in  the  morning  Jefus  came  again  in- 
'  to  the  Temple,  and  all  the  people  came  unto  liim  ; 

<  and  he  fat  down  and  taught  them  ;  and  the  Scribes  ''"'• 
'  and  Pliarifces  brought  unto  him  a  woman  taken  in 
'  adultery  ;  and  When  they  had  fet  her  in  the  midft, 
'  they  fay  unto  him,  Mafter,  this  woman  was  taken 
'  in  adultery,  in  the  very  ad;  now  Mofes  in  the  law 
'  commanded  that  fuch  Ihould  be  Itoncd,  but  what 
'  faycfl  thou  ?  This  they  faid  tempting  him,  that  they 
'might  have  to  accufe  Iiim  :  but  Jcfus  Hooped  down, 
'  and  with  his  finger  wrote  on  the  ground  as  though 
'  he  heard  them  not.     So  when  they  continued  alking 

<  him,  he  lift  up  himfelf,  and  faid  unto  them,  He  that 
'  is  without  fin  amonglt  you,  let  him  firfl  call  a 
'  flonc  at  her  ;  and  again  he  ftooped  down  and  wrote 
'  on  th^ground  :  and  they  which  heard  it  being  con- 
'  vided  by  their  own  confcitnce,  went  out  one  by  one, 
'  beginning  at  the  eldefl,  even  unto  the  lall  ;  and  Je- 
'  fus  was  left  alone,  and  the  woman  Handing  in  the 
'  midA.  'When  Jcfus  had  liit  uphirrfclf,  and  law  none 
'  but  the  woman,  he  faid  unto  licr,  Woman,  where 
'are  thofe  thine  accufers  ?  Hath  no  man  condemned 
'  thee  ?  She  faid  unto  him.  No  man,  Lord  :  and  he 
'  faid  unto  her.  Neither  do  1  coudemn  thie ;  go  and  fin 
'  no  more.' 

'This 


•  St  John's 
Gofpcl,  ch. 


A  D  U 


[     131     ] 


A  O  V 


A'lulffry. 


Mtrat  and 
Polilital 
Pbiltfifby. 
Philad.cd. 
p.  i03- 


*Dt  S:rm. 
Dom.  in 

cap.  16. 

Civ  Dti, 
lib.  xvi. 
Cip.  Ji. 


'  This  ihey  faid  tcmptin":  him,  that  they  niight 
'  have  to  accufc  him  ;'  trial  is,  to  draw  him  into  an 
exercife  of  judicial  authority,  that  thty  might  have 
to  accufe  him  belbrc  the  Ronian  governor  of  iifurping 
or  intermeddling  with  ilic  civil  government. 

'This  was  their  dcfign  ;  and  Chrill's  behaviour 
throughout  the  whole  aftair  proceeded  from  a  know- 
ledge of  this  defign,  and  a  determination  to  difcat  it. 
He  gives  them  at  tiril  a  cold  and  fullcn  n  ceptioi;,  well 
ftiitcdto  the  inliduousintcution  with  which  they  came  : 
'  he  Hooped  down,  and  with  his  linger  wrote  on 
'  the  ground  as  though  he  heard  them  not.'  '  When 
'  they  contintieti  Jibing  him,'  when  they  tcaztd  him 
to  fpcak,  he  difmilicd  rhem  with  a  icbukc,  which  the 
impertinent  malice  of  their  errand,  as  well  as  thefc- 
crct  charaftcr  of  many  of  them,  dcicrvcd  :  '  he  that  is 
'without  lin  (that  is,  this  fm)  among  you,  let  him 
'  rirlt  call  aftoncat  her.'  This  had  its  ctfeft.  Siimg 
with  the  reproof,  and  difappointed  of  their  aim,  thty 
ftole  away  one  by  one,  anti  left  Jefus  and  the  woman 
alone.  And  then  follows  the  cuflverfaiion,  svhich  is 
the  part  of  the  narrative  molt  material  to  our  prcfent 
fubjccl.  '  Jefus  faith  unto  her,  Woman,  where  are 
'thofe  thine  accjfcrs  .'  hath  no  man  condemned  thte  ? 
'She  faid,  No  man.  Lord.  And  Jefus  faid  unto  her. 
Neither  do  I  condemn  thee  ;  go  and  fin  no  more.' 
Now,  when  Chrift  alked  tlie  woman,  <  Kaih  no  man 
'  coitdtjuncdlhct  ?  he  certainly  fpoke,and  was  under- 
flood  by  the  woman  to  fpeak,  of  a  legal  and  judicial 
condemnation;  oiherwifcheranfwer, 'Nomau,Lord,' 
was  not  true.  In  every  other  fenfe  of  condemation, 
as  blame,  cenfur::, reproof,  private,  judgment,  and  the 
like,  manyhad  condemned  her  ;  all  thofe,  indeed,  who 
brought  her  to  Jefus.  If  then  a  judicial  fciuence  was 
what  Chrill  meant  by  coiideimiing  in  the  (jucfiion,  the 
coramqn  ufe  of  language  requires  us  to  fuppofc  that 
he  meant  the  fame  in  his  reply,  'Neither  do  I  con- 
'  demn  thee  :'  i.  e.  I  pretend  to  no  judicial  charaifler 
or  authority  over  thee  ;  it  is  no  office,  or  bufinefs  of 
mine  to  pronounce  or  execute  the  fcntencc  of  the  law. 
When  Chrift  adds,  '  Go  andiinnomore,"  heinerteft 
tells  her  that  ftie  had  iinned  already  ;  but  as  to  the 
degree  or  quality  of  the  fin,  or  Chrill's  opinion  con- 
cerning it,  nothing  is  declared,  or  can  be  inferred,  ci- 
ther way." 

It  has  been  controverted,  whether  adultery  may  be 
lawfully  committed  in  war,  with  the  enemies  wives  ? 
The  anfwcr  is  in  thcnegativc,  and  the  authorifcd prac- 
tice of  civilized  nations  is  agreeable  to  this.  It  has 
alfo  been  a  famous  qucftion,  whetlicr  it  be  lawful  for 
a  woman  to  commit  adultery  with  the  confent  of  her 
hulband,  and  for  tlic  procuring  fomc  great  good  to 
him  ?  St.  Auftin  apparently  allows  of  it ;  at  Icaft  docs 
not  condemn  it*. 

It  has  likcwifc  been  a  difpute,  whether  it  be  lawful 
foroneof  the  parties  married  to  commit  adultery,  with 
the  confent  of  the  other,  for  the  fake  of  liaviiig  chil- 
dren ?  of  which  we  liave  iiiftance-s  iuAbraliam,  who, 
on  this  account,  convcrfed  with  Haaiar  :  and  likcwifc 
among  the  Greeks  an  J  Romans.  Pollnian,  a  German 
proferfor,  has  a  dilfcrtation  on  the  hulband's  right  10 
alienate  his  wife's  body  to  another's  ufe. 

It  is  much  difputed  whether  adultery  diflblvcs  the 
bond  of  matrimony,  and  be  a  fufficicnt  caufe  of  di- 
vorce, fo  that  tlie  particsraay  marry  again.      This  w  as 


allowee!  in  the  ancient  church,  and  is  Aill  continued  in  .".dultcry, 
the  Greek,  as  well  as  the   Lithcrca  and  Calviiiift  AJvooic. 
churches.    Romani.ls,  however,  difallow  of  it,  and  the         * 
council  of  Trent  even  anathematized  tliofe  who  main- 
tain it  :    though  the  canon  of  anathematization  was 
mitigated  in  deference  to  the  republic  of  Venice^  in 
fomc  of  whofc  dominions,  as  Zan:,  Cephaloaia,  &c. 
the  contrary  ufage  obtains.     Theecclcfiallical  courts 
iii  England  fo  far  agree  with  thofe  of  Rome,  that  they 
only  grant  a  divorce  i  vKrfa  et  thuro,  in  cafe  of  adul- 
tery ;  fo  that  a  complete  divorce,  to  enable  the  panics 
to  marry  again,  cannot  be  had  without  an  aifl  of  par- 
liament. 

Adultert  is  alfoufcd  in  ancient  cuftoms,  for  the 
punilhment  or  fineimpofed  for  that  offence,  or  the 
privilege  of  profecuting  for  it.  In  which  icuituduiiL-- 
riu7/i  amounts  to  the  fame  with  what  the  Saxons  cali 
/cgertuita. 

Adultery  is  fometimes  ufed  in  a  more  extenfivc 
fenfe,  for  any  fpecies  of  impurity  or  crime,  againll 
the  virtue  of  chaftity ;  and  in  this  fenfe  divines  under- 
Hand  the  feventh  commandment. 

Adultery  is  alfo  ufed,  efpecially  in  fcripture,  for 
idoktry,  or  departing  from  the  true  God,  to  the  wor- 
Ihip  of  a  falfc  one. 

Adultery  isalfo  ufed,  inecclefiaftical'writers,  for 
a  pcrfon's  invading  or  intruding  into  a  biOiopric  du- 
ring the  former  bifliop's  life.  The  reafon  of  the  ap- 
pellation is,  that  a  bifhop  is  fuppofed  to  contract  a 
kindoffpiritual  marriage  with  his  church.  The  tranf- 
lationof  a  bilhop  from  one  fee  to  another  was  alfo  re- 
puted a  fpecies  of  adultery  on  the  fuppofition  of  its  be- 
ing a  kind  of  fecond  marriage,  which,  in  thofe  days, 
was  efteemed  a  degree  of  adultery.  This  conelulion 
was  founded  on  that  text  of  St  Paul,  Let  a  bijkop  he 
thi  h:ijba>:d  of  one  'xife,  by  a  forced  conftruclion  of 
church  for  wife  and  of  bilhop  forhufband.   Du-Cange. 

Adultery  is  alfoufcd,  in  ancient  naturalifts,  for 
the  ai5b  of  ingrafting  one  plant  upon  another.  la 
which  fenfe,  Pliny  fpeaks  of  the  adulteries  of  trees, 
arborum  adulttria,  which  he  rcprefents  as  contrary 
to  nature,  and  a  piece  of  luxury,  or  necdlcfs  rctinc- 
ment. 

ADVOCATE,  among  the  Romans,  a  perfon  f^dll- 
ed  in  their  law,  who  undertook  the  defence  of  caufes 
at  the  bar.  The  Roman  advocates  anfwercd  to  one 
part  of  the  office  of  a  barrillcr  in  England,  viz.  the 
pleading  part ;  for  they  never  gave  council,  that  being 
the  bufinefs  of  the /vr//I',>,y;//r;. 

The  Romans,  in  the  firil  ages  of  their  ftate,  hclj 
the  profefTion  of  an  sdvocote  in  great  honour  ;  and 
the  feats  of  their  bar  were  crowded  with  fenarorsand 
confuls  ;  they,  whofe  voices  comnLindcd  the  people, 
thinking  it  an  honour  to  be  employed  in  dcfcnJiag 
them.  They  were  llylcd  comites,  hontrjti,  cl-irifir<i, 
and  even  fJtroni;  as  if  their  clients  were  no;  lefs  obli- 
ged to  them  than  freed  men  to  tiieir  inalters.  The 
bar  was  not  at  that  time  venal.  Tlioff  who  aff'trcj 
to  honours  sndofliccs  took  this  wiy  ,  an  in- 

tercft  in  the  people,  and  alw.iys  pies  ^  .  But 
nofooncrwcrc  luxury  and  corriiption  introduced  into 
the  commonwealth,  than  the  bar  become  a  Ciarcr  in 
them.  Then  it  was  that  the  fenatirs  let  out  their 
voices  for  pay,  and  zeal  and  eloquence  were  fold  to 
the  highcH  bidder.  To  put  a  flop  to  this  abufc,  the 
R  a  trlb'.:ne 


A  D  V  [13 

Aiivocatt'.  tiiuiincCiiu'ius  jit'ociired  a  law  to  be  parted,  called  from 

'^ •^ 'him  Lex  Ci'icia,  \\ lurtby  tlic  advocates  were  forbid 

to  take  any  money  of  their  clients.  It  had  before  this 
been  prohibited  the  advocates  to  take  any  prtfcnts  or 
-  gratuities  for  their  pleading.  The  emperor  Aufnillus 
added  a  penalty  toit:  notuithlUnding  which,  ihead- 
vocatcs  pl.iycd  their  part  fo  well,  that  the  emperor 
Claudijs  thought  it  an  extraordinary  circnmllance, 
when  he  obliged  them  not  to  take  above  ei^ht  great 
fcflerccs,  which  are  equivalent  to  about  64I.  Sterling, 
for  pleading  each  caule. 

Advocate  is  ftill  ufcd,  iii  countries  and  courts 
where  the  civil  law  obtains,  for  thofc  who  pkad  and 
defend  the  caufc  of  clients  truflcd  to  ihcm. 

Aovoctrt.  if  n  City,  in  the  German  polity,  a  ma- 
giflrate  appointed  in  the  emperor's  name  toaJminiiler 
juftice. 

Advocate  is  more  particularly  ufed,  in  church  hi- 
llory,  for  a  perfou  appointed  to  defend  the  rights  and 
revenues  of  a  church  or  religious  linufc.  The  word 
adv<jcat:is,  or  advbiuee,  is  flill  retained  for  what  wc  ufu- 
ally  call  \.\\c  patron,  or  he  who  has  the  advowfon,  or 
right  of  prefentation,  in  his  own  name. 

Conjiflorial  /Idvocatfs  ;  ofliccrs  ef  the  confiftory  at 
Rome,  who  plead  in  all  oppofiiions  to  th»  difpofal  of 
benefices  ia  that  court :  they  arc  ten  in  number. 

Elcdive  AuvcciTLS,  thofc  chofen  by  ihe  abbot,  bi- 
fliop,  or  chapter  ;  a  particular  licence  being  had  from 
rhe  king,  or  prince,  for  that  purpofe.  Thcclcftions 
were  originally  made  in  tlic  prcfencc  of  the  count  of 
the  province. 

Feudal  Aavo( ATE!:.  Thefc  were  of  tlic  military 
kind,  who,  to  make  them  more  zealous  for  the  inrc- 
lefl  of  the  church,  had  lands  granted  them  in  fee, 
which  ihcy  held  of  the  church,  and  did  homage,  and 
took  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  bilhopor  abbot.  Thefe 
were  to  lead  tlic  vatTals  of  the  church  to  war,  not'only 
in  private  quarrels  of  the  church  itfclf,  but  in  military 
expeditions  for  the  king's  fervice,  in  which  they  were 
the  ftandard-bcarcr^of  their  churches. 

Fifcat  Advocatf.,  fifci  advocatui,  in  Roman  anti- 
quity, an  oflicer  of  ftatc  under  the  Roman  emperors, 
who  pleaded  in  all  caufcs  wherein  ihcfifcus,  or  private 
treafury,  was  concerned. 

Juridical  Advocate'^,  in  the  middle  age,  were  thofc 
who  from  attending  caufes  in  the  court  of  the  comes, 
or  count  of  the  province,  became  judges  themfclves, 
and  held  courts  of  their  vaflals  thrice  a-year,  under  the 
name  of  the  tria  placita generalia.  In  confideration 
of  this  further  fervice,  they  had  a  particular  allowance 
of  one  third  part  of  all  fines,  or  mulds,  impofed  on 
defaulters.  Sec.  befides  a  proportion  of  diet  for  them- 
fclves and  fervants. 

Mairicutar  Advocates,  were  the  advocates  of  the 
mother  or  cathedral  churches. 

Military  AorocATEs,  thofe  appointed  for  the  de- 
fence of  the  church,  rather  by  arms  and  authority  than 
by  pleading  and  eloquence.  Thefe  were  introduced 
in  the  times  of  confufion,  when  every  perfon  was  obli- 
ged to  maintain  their  own  property  by  force  ;  bifliops 
and  abbots  not  being  permitted  to  bear  arms,  and  the 
fcholaflic  or  gowned  advocates  being  equally  unac- 
quainted with  them,  recourfc  was  had  to  knights,  no- 
bJemen,  foldiers,  or  even  to  princes. 

Nimi'iativc  AoyoC'tTES,  thofe  appointed  by  a  king 


2     ] 


A  D  V 


or  pope.     Sometimes  the  churches  petitioned  kings,  AJv.ic«tci 
&c.  to  appoint  them  an  advocate  ;  at  other  times  this  •— ^<— — 
was  done  of  their  own  accord.     By  fome  regulations, 
no  perfon  was  capable  of  being  elected  advocate,  un- 
lefs  he  lud  an  ellate  in  land  in  the  fame  county. 

Regular  AmotATEh,  thofe  duly  formed  and  quali- 
fied lor  their  profcllion,  by  a  proper  courfe  of  liudy, 
the  requitite  oath,  ful)fcription,  licence,  &c. 

Sul/itrdujute  Aut'ocATEs,  thofe  appointed  by  other 
fiiperior  ones,  acting  under  them,  and  accoiuitable  to 
them.  ']  here  were  various  reafons  for  the  creation  of 
thefe  fubordinate  advocates,-  as,  ilie  fuperior  quality 
of  the  princi)>al  advocate,  his  being  detained  in  war, 
or  being  involved  in  other  affairs  ;  but  chiefly  the  too. 
great  dillance  of  fome  of  the  church-lands,  and  their 
lying  in  the  dominions  of  foreign  princes. 

Siiprewe  or  Soveri'igv  Am'rjc/>rES,  w  ere  thofc  who- 
had  the  authority  in  chief;  but  a<^ed  by  deputies  or- 
fubordinatc  advocates.  Thefe  were  called  3.\(o  friiici- 
fai,  greater,  and  ferret  imes^v^AcT*/ advocates.  Such 
in  many  cafes  were  kings,  &C.  when  either  they 
had  been  chofen  advocates,  or  became  fuch  by  be- 
ing founders  or  endowers  of  churches.  Princes  had 
alio  another  title  to  advocatefliip,  fome  of  them  pre- 
tending to  be  advocati  nati  of  the  churches  within 
their  dominions. 

Advocates,  in  the  Englilli  courts,  are  more  ge- 
nerally called  cointfel.     See  Counsel. 

Faculty  oj  AoyocATES,  in  Scotland,  a  refpciFlablc 
body  of  lawyers,  who  plead  in  all  caufes  before  the 
Court  of  Sellion,  Jufliciary,  and  Exchequer.  They 
are  alfo  intitled  to  plead  in  the  houfe  of  peers,  and  o- 
thcr  fupreme  courts  in  England. 

In  the  year  1660,  the  faculty  founded  a  library 
upon  a  very  extenfive  plan,  fuggefted  by  that  learned 
and  eminent  lawyer  Sir  George  M'Kenzie  of  Rofe- 
haugh,  advocate  to  king  Charles  II.  and  king  James 
Vll.  who  enriched  it  with  many  valuable  books.  It 
has  been  daily  incrcalin.g  fmce  that  time,  and  now  con- 
tains not  only  the  befl  collection  of  law-books  in  Eu- 
rope, but  a  very  large  and  (cltii  collection  of  books  on 
all  fubjecT;s.  Befidcs,  this  library  contains  a  great 
number  of  original  manufcripts,  and  a  vaft  variety  of 
Jewiili,  Grecian,  Roman,  Scots,  and  Englilh  coins  and. 
medals. 

A  candidate  for  the  office  of  an  advocate  undergoes 
three  fcvcral  trials:  The  firll  is  in  Latin,  upon  the  ci- 
vil law  and  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities  ;  the  fecond, 
in  f.nglifli,  upon  the  municipal  law  of  Scotland  ;  and, 
in  the  third,  he  is  obliged  to  defend  a  Latin  thefis, 
which  is  impugned  by  three  members  of  the  faculty. 
Immediately  before  putting  on  the  gown,  the  candidate 
makes  a  fliort  Latin  fpeech  to  the  lords,  and  then  takes 
the  oaths  to  the  government  and  de  fideli. 

The  faculty  at  prefcnt  confifts  of  above  200  mem- 
bers. As  an  advocate  or  lawyer  is  efteemed  the  gen- 
teelefl  profcflion  in  Scotland,  many  gentlemen  of  for- 
tune take  the  degree  of  advocate,  without  having  any 
intention  of  praftifing  at  the  bar.  The  circumftancc 
greatly  incrcafes  their  number,  gives  dignity  to  the 
profcllion,  and  enriches  their  library  and  public  fund. 
It  is  from  this  refpeftable  body  that  all  vacancies  on 
the  bench  are  generally  fupplicd. 

Lord  Advocate,  or  King's  Advocate,  one  of  the 
eight  great  officers  of  flate  in  Scotland,  who  as  fucb. 

fai; 


A  D  V 


[     ^3^^     ] 


A  D  V 


Advocation  Lit  in  parliamciu  without  clcftion.  He  is  the  priiici- 
Advowee.  pal  crown-livvycr  iu  ticoiland.  His  buliucfs  is  to  ait 
~7~^  as  a  public  profecutor,  and  lo  plead  in  all  cafes  that 
concern  the  crown;  but  puticularly  in  Inch  as  arc  of 
a  criminil  nature.  The  office  of  kiiig's  advocate  is 
not  very  ancient  :  It  fceuis  to  have  been  eftabliflicd 
about  the  bcginnifigof  ihc  i6th  century.  Originally 
he  had  no  power  to  profecutc  crimes  without  the  con- 
currence of  a  private  party  ;  but,  in  the  year  1597, 
he  was  empowered  to  profecute  crimes  at  his  own  in- 
ilance.  He  has  the  privilege  of  pleading  in  court  with 
liishaton.  This  privilege  was  firil  granted  to  Sir 
Tlionias  Hope  ;  who  having.ihrce  fonslords  of  fellion, 
it  was  thought  indecent  tliat  the  father  (hould  plead 
uncovered  before  the  f)ns,  who  as  judges  fat  covered. 

Bill  ck  ADVOCATIOI^,  in  Scots  law,  a  writing 
drawn  up  in  the  form  of  a  petition  ;  whereby  a  party, 
ia  an  adion  before  an  inferior  court,  applies  to  the  fu- 
preme  court,  or  court  of  ScIIion,  for  calling  the  action 
from  the  inferior  court  before  itfelf. 

Letters  of  ^iivoc^rto\,  in  Scois  law,  the  decree  or 
warrant  of  the  court  of  SciRon  upon  cognifance  of  the 
fafls  fet  forth  in  the  bill,  drawn  up  in  the  form  of  a 
fummons,and  paffing  under  the  fignet,difcharging  the 
inferior  judge  and  all  others  from  further  procedure  in 
the  caufe,  and  advocating  it  to  itfelf. 

ADVOWEE,  iu  ancient  cuftoms  and  law  books, 
denotes  the  advocate  of  a  church,  religious  houfe,  or 
the  like.  There  wereadvoweesof  cathedrals,  abbeys, 
nionafteries,  &c.  Tlius,  Charlemagne  had  the  title  of 
advowee  of  St  Peter's;  king  Hugh,  of  St  Riquier  ; 
and  Bolandus  mentions  fome  letters  of  pope  Nicholas, 
by  which  he  conflituted  king  Edward  the  Confeflbr, 
and  his  fuccelTors,  advowees  of  the  monaflery  aiWefl- 
jniuiler,  and  of  all  the  churches  in  England.  Thefe 
advowees  were  the  guardians,  proieftors,  and  admini- 
ftratorsof  the  temporal  concerns  of  the  churches,  &c. 
and  under  their  atithority  were  palfcd  all  contrads 
which  related  tothem.  It  appears  alfo,  from  ihemofl 
ancient  charters,  that  the  donations  made  to  churches 
wxre  confcrredon  theperfons  of  the  advowees.  They 
always  pleaded  the  caufes  of  the  churches  in  court, 
and  (liflributtd  juftice  for  tlicm,  in  the  places  under 
tlieir  jurifdidion.  They  alfo  commanded  the  forces 
fiirniiiicd  by  their  monafleries,  kc.  for  the  war  ;  and 
c  I'en  were  th circhampions,  and  fometimes  maintained 
duels  for  them. 

This  office  isfiij  to  have  beenfirft  introduced  in  tire 
fourth  century,  in  the  time  of  Stillico ;  though  the 
Benedicli  'cs  do  not  iix  its  origin  before  the  eighth 
century.  By  degrees,  men  of  the  firll  rank  were 
brought  intoit,  as  it  was  found  necelfary  cither  to  de- 
fend with  arms  or  to  proteft  with  power  and  authority. 
In  fome  monallcries  they  were  only  r'.Ued  conprvators; 
but  thefe,  without  the  name,  had  all  the  functions  of 
advowees.  Tlicrc  were  al  b  fometimes  fcveral  fub- 
advowccs,  or  fub-advocates,  in  each  nionaliery,  who 
officiated  inflead  of  the  advov/ecs  themlelves  j  which, 
however,  proved  the  ruin  of  monafleries  ;  thofc  infe- 
rior officers  runniii>>;  intogrcat  abufcs. 

Hence  alfo,  hulbands,  tutors,  and  every  perfon  in 
general,  who  took  upon  bin  the  defence  of  another, 
were  denominated  ./.■/t'OTU.vj,  or  advocates.  Hence  fc- 
veral cities  had  their  advowees;  which  were  cflablilh- 
oj  long  after  the  ccclcfiallical  ones,  and  doubtlcfs  from 


their  example.     Tlius  wc  read  in  hiftory  of  the  aJ-  Mwv/ti, 
vowecs  of  Augfburg,  of  Arras,  &c.  AUvowion. 

The  f/./iia.'/afiunied  the  quality  of  advowees  ;  and  '  ^~^ 
hence  it  is,  that  fevcral  hiflorians  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury confound  the  two  funi^lions  together,  ilcnce  al- 
fo it  is,  that  feveral  fecular  lords  in  Germany  bear 
mitres  for  tlieir  crefls,  as  hiving  anciently  been  ad- 
vow'ecs  of  the  great  churches. 

Spelman  diflinguiflies  two  kinds  of  eeclefiafiical  ad- 
vowees.— The  one,  of  caufes  or  procelles  adtccati 
caufantm;  (lie  other,  of  territory  or  lands,  a./vccati 
flit.  The  former  were  nominated  by  the  king,  and 
were  ufually  lawyers,  who  undertook  to  plead  the 
caufes  of  the  monafleries.  The  other,  which  ftill 
fubfifl,  and  are  fometimes  called  by  their  primitive 
name,  advciuees,  though  more  ufually  patrons,  were 
hereditary  ;  as  being  the  founders  and  cndowcrs  of 
churches,  &e.  or  their  heirs. 

Women  wcrcfometimesadvowecs,^yyi;cd//^f .  And, 
ia  cfieJl,  the  canon  law  mentions  fome  who  had  this 
title,  and  who  had  the  fame  right  fif  prefentation.  Sec, 
in  their  churches  wliich  the  advowees  themfelveshad. 
In  a  flat.  25  Edw.  III.- wc  meet  with  advoviet  para- 
mount for  the  liighefl;  patron  ;  that  is,  the  king. 

ADVOWSON,  or  Acvowzen,  iu  common  law, 
fignities  a  right  to  prefcnt  to  a  vacant  benefice.  Ad- 
vowfon  isfo  called,  becaufe  the  right  of  prcfenting  to 
the  church  was  (irfl  gained  by  fuch  as  w  ere  founders, 
benefactors,  or  maintainersof  the  church. 

Though  the  nomination  of  fit  perfons  to  officiate  in 
every  dioccfe  was  originally  in  the  bilhop,  yet  they 
were  content  to  let  the  foundersof  churches  have  the 
nomination  of  the  perfons  to  the  churches  fo  founded, 
relcrving  to  themfelves  a  right  to  judge  of  the  fitnefs 
of  the  perfons  fo  nominated. 

Advowfons  formerly  were  moflof  them  appendant 
to  manors,  and  the  patrons  were  parochial  barons  : 
the  lordlliip  of  the  manor  and  patronage  of  the  church 
were  feldom  indifferent  hands,  until  advowfons  were 
given  to  religious  houfes.  But  of  late  limes  the  iord- 
lliip  of  the  manor  and  advowfon  of  the  church  have 
been  divided. 

Advowfons  are  prefentjtivs,  collativi,  or  donative  : 
prcfintative,  wliere  the  patron  prefents  or  ofi'crs  hi* 
clerk  to  the  bilhop  of  the  diocefc,  to  be  inllitutcd  Ih 
his  church  ;  collathc,  where  the  beneike  is  given  by 
the  bifhop,  as  original  patron  thereof,  or  by  mcansof 
a  right  he  has  acquired  by  lapfc  ;  donative,  as  where 
the  king  or  other  patron  does,  by  a  fmgle  donation  in 
writing,  put  the  clerk  into  polfcffion,  without  prefen- 
tation, iuflitution,  or  iuduition. 

Sometimes,  anciently,  ilie  patron  had  the  fole  no- 
mination of  the  prelate,  abbe,  or  prior  :  either  by  in- 
vcfliture  (/.  ^.delivery  of  a  pafloral  Raff),  or  by  dircdt 
prefentation  to  the  dioccfan  ;  and  if  a  freeeledion  was 
left  to  the  religious,  yet  a  cnn^c  d'eltre,  or  li-cnce  of 
eleftion,  was  firlt  to  be  obtained  of  the  patron,  and 
the  perfon  ek:tcd  was  cijn'irnicd  by  him.  If  the 
founder's  family  became  cxtiiu.,  the  patronage  of  the 
convent  went  to  the  lord  of  the  manor.  Unlifs  the 
fcveral  colleges  in  the  univerlities  be  reflrained  in  the 
number  of  advowfons  they  may  receive,  it  i<  argued 
they  will  in  time  acquire  fuch  a  llock  as  to  frultratc 
the  defign  of  their  foundation  (which  is  the  education 
of  youth,  by  creating  too  quick  a  fuccelHon  of  fel- 
lows ; 


ADZ  [     134     ] 

MuA     lows  ;  fo  that  there  will  not  be  in  the  college;  a  I'ufR- 

ll         ciciit  number  ofpcrronsot'compttciit  age,  knowledge, 

Ad^a-     anil  experience,  to  inllruft  and  form  the  niiiidsot  the 

'         youth In  I'onie  colleges  the  number  of  advowfoiis  is 

iaiii  to  be  already  two  thirds,  or  more,  of  the  number 
of  fellows. — It  is  ohjcded,  on  tlic  other  fide,  that  tire 
fucccllion  of  fcllevvs  may  be  too  flow  as  well  as  too 
quick  ;  whereby  pcrfons  well  qualified  may  be  detained 
folong  in  colleges  as  not  to  have  llrcngth  01  activity 
enough  left  for  the  difchargc  of  parochial  functions. 

Colleges  holding  more  advowfons  in  number  than 
moiety  of  the  fellows,  are  not  capable  of  purchafmg 
more.  Grants  of  advowfoas  by  papiUs  are  void. 
9  Geo.  II.  c.  36.  5  J.      II  Geo.  II.  c.  17-  ^  5- 

Advowfonsarc  temporal  inheritances  aiul  lay  fees  ; 
they  may  be  granted  by  deed  or  will,  and  are  alfets  in, 
the  hands  of  heirs  or  executors.     Prcfcniations  toad- 
vowfons  for  money,  oroiher  reward,  arc  void.  31  Lliz. 
cap.  6. 

In  Scotland,  this  right  is  called  patronage.  See 
Patronage. 

ADUST,  Adustus,  among  phyficians,  &c.  is  ap- 
plied to  fuch  humours  as  by  lon|»heat  become  of  a  hot 
and  fiery  nature.  Such  is  choler  fuppofcd  to  be. 
Melancholy  is  ufually  coufidered  as  black  and  adullbile. 
Blood  is  faid  to  be  aduft,  when,  by  reafon  of  fonic 
extraordinary  heat,  its  more  I'ubtile  pans  are  all  eva- 
porated, leaving  the  grollcr,  with  all  the  impurities 
therein,  half  torrihed. 

ADY,  in  natural  liiftory,  a  name  given  to  the  palm- 
tree  of  the  iilandof  St  Thomas.  It  is  a  tall  tree,  with 
a  thick,  bare,  upright  llcm,  growing  linglcon  its  root, 
of  a  thin  light  timber,  and  full  of  juice.  The  head  of 
this  tree  (hoots  into  a  vail  number  of  branches,  which 
being  cut  o(F,  or  an  incifion  being  made  therein,  afford 
a  great  quantity  of  fwect  juice,  which  fermenting  fup- 
plics  the  place  of  wine  among  the  Indians.  The  fruit 
of  this  tree  is  called  by  the  Poriugucfe  Car\  occs  and  Ca- 
rh'J;  ;  and  by  the  black  natives,  Abauga.  This  fruit 
is  of  the  fize  and  fhape  of  a  lemon  ;  and  contains  a 
kernel,  which  is  good  to  eat.  The  fruit  itfclf  is  eat 
roaflcd,  and  the  raw  kernels  are  often  mixed  with  man- 
dioc  meal.  Thcfe  kernels  are  fuppofcd  very  cordial. 
An  oil  is alfo  prepared  from  this  fruit,  which  anfvvers 
the  purpofe  of  oil  or  butter..  This  oil  is  alfo  ufed  for 
anointing  ftitt'and  contraaed  parts  of  the  body. 

ADYNAMIA,  in  medicine,  debility,  or  weakncfs, 
from  fickncfs. 

ADYNAMON,  among  ancient  phyficians,  a  kind 
of  weak  faftitious  wine,  prepared  from  mull  boiled 
down  with  water  ;  to  be  given  to  patients  to  whom 
genuine  wine  might  be  hurtful. 

ADYTUM,  in  pagan  antiquity,  the  mofl  retired 
and  facred  place  of  their  temples,  into  which  none  but 
thepriefts  were  allowed  to  enter.  The  Ssnf^um  Sanc- 
torHi'iof  the  temple  of  Solomon  was  of  the  nature  of 
the  pagan  adytum,  none  but  the  high  pricft  being  ad- 
iviited  into  it,  and  he  but  once-year. 

ADZE,  or  Addick,  a  cutting-tool  of  the  ax  kind  ; 
havinjr  its  blade  made  thin  aud  arching,  and  its  edge 
at  right  an/lts  to  the  handle  ;  chicly  ufed  for  taking 
oft  thin  chips  of  timber  or  boards,  and  for  paring  away 
certain  irret^ularities  which  the  a.x  cannot  come  at. 
The  adze  is  ufed  by  carpenters,  but  more  by  coopers, 
as  being  convenient  for  cutting  the  hollow  liJes  of 


IE  D  I 


boards,  &c.     It  is  ground  from  a  bafe  on  its  infidc  to       Ae 
its  outer  edge  ;   fo  that,  wiicn  it  is  blunt,  they  cannot         Jl 
conveniently  grind  it  without  taking  its  helve  out  of  -^'^"'"'*' 
the  eye. 

AE,  or  A",,  a  diphthong  compounded  of  A  and  F. 
Authors  are  by  no  means  agreed  as  to  the  ufe  of  the 
a;  in  tngiifh  words. — Some,  out  of  regard  toeiynio- 
logy,  inlilt  on  its  being  retained  in  all  words,  particu- 
larly teciinical  ones,  borrowed  from  the  Greek  and 
Latin  ;  v.'hile  others,  from  a  coniidcration  that  it  is 
no  proper  dijiluhong  in  our  language,  its  found  being 
no  other  than  that  of  the  fimple  e,  contend  thit  it 
ought  to  be  entirely  difiifcd  ;  and, in  faft,  the  limple<; 
has  of  hte  been  adopted  inlleJd  of  the  Roman  ^r,  ai 
in  the  word  equator.  Sec. 

,^-;ACEA,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  folemn  feflivals 
and  games  celebrated  ^t  A'gina,  in  honour  of  Abacus. 

ABACUS,  the  fon  of  Jupiter  by  Algina.  When  the 
IHe  of  Angina  was  depopulated  by  a  plague,  his  father, 
in  compallionto  his  grief,  changed  all  the  ants  upon  it 
into  men  and  women,  who  were  called  Mjrr/ndons, 
I'rom  ftuffif^,  an  ant.  The  foundation  of  the  fable  is 
faid  to  be,  that  when  the  country  had  been  depopula- 
ted by  pirates,  who  forced  the  {c\v  that  remained  to 
take  liieltcr  in  caves,  yEacus  encouraged  them  to  come 
out,  and  by  commerce  and  induflry  recover  what  they 
had  loll.  His  charader  for  jullice  was  fuch,  that,  in  a 
time  of  univerfal  drought,  he  was  nominated  by  the 
Delphic  oracle  to  intercede  for  Greece,  and  his  prayer 
wasanfwercd.  See  the  article  Algina.  The  Pagans 
alfo  imagined  that  Abacus,  oa  account  of  his  impartial 
juilice,  waschofenby  Pluto  one  of  the  three  judges  of 
the  dead  :  and  that  it  was  his  province  to  judge  the  Eu- 
ropeans. 

vEBURA  (anc.geog.),  a  town  of  Spain,  in  Eftre- 
madura,  on  the  river  Guadiana,  to  the  well  of  Me- 
rida,  now  called  Tatavera.  W.  Long.  7.  15.  Lat. 
3S.  40. 

AiCHMALOTARCHA,  in  Jewilli  antiquity,  a  ti- 
tle given  to  the  principal  leaderor  governor  of  the  He- 
brew captives  refiding  in  Chaldea,  Alfyria,  and  the 
neighbouring  countries.  This  magiftrate  was  called 
by  the  Jews  lofck-galah,  i.  c.  the  chief  of  the  capti- 
vity :  but  tlie  above  term,  of  like  import  in  the  Greek, 
is  that  ufed  by  Origen  and  others  who  wrtte  in  the 
Greek  tongue. 

The  Jcwilh  writersalTure  us,  that  tie  achmahtarcha 
were  only  to  be  chofen  out  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  The 
ealkrn  Jews  had  their  princes  of  the  captivity,  as  the 
wcftcrn  Jews  their  patriarchs.  The  Jews  are  (lilllaid 
to  have  an  achtnalotaicha  at  Babylon,  but  without  the 
authority  of  theancientones.  BafnageHlll.  Jews, and 
Prideaux's  Connexion. 

AlCULANUM  (anc.geog.),  a  town  of  the  Hir- 
pini  in  Italy,  at  the  foot  of  the  Appenine,to  the  eaft 
ofAbellinum,  contracled  JEclainnn,  litnate  bctv.een 
Beneventum  and  Tarentuni.  The  inh.'ibitants  are  call- 
ed JEciilani  by  Pliny  ;  ^wA/Eclamnfis,  inan  ancicntin- 
fcription,(Grutcr).  The  town  is  now  called  Fricetito, 
Cluverius  4^  miles  eaft  of  Naples.  E.  Long.  ij.  38. 
Lat.  41.  I }. 

Tl^lDES,  in  Roman  antiquity,  bcfides  its  more  ordi- 
nary lignilication  of  a  houfe,  likew  ife  figiiijicd  an  in- 
ferior kind  of  temple,  confccratcd  to  fome  deity. 

A^DICULA,  a  term  ufed  to  denote  the  inner  part 

of 


JE  D  I 


r  13s  ] 


7E  G  I 


of  die  temple,  where  the  altar  and  ftatue  of  the  deity 
flood. 

AIDILATE,  the  office  of  a:dile,  fometimcs  called 
JEdititty.     Sec  the  next  article. 

itDlLE  {irdiits^,  ia  Roman  antiquity,  a magiftrate 
whofc  chief  bulincis  was  to  fupcriiuciid  buildings  of  all 
kinds,  but  more  efpecially  public  ones,  as  temples, 
aqacduiSs,  bridges,  &c.  To  the  aedilcs  likcwile  be- 
longed the  care  of  the  highways,  public  places,  weights 
and  racafures,  &c.  They  alio  fixed  the  prices  of  pro- 
vjllons,  took  cognizance  of  debauches,  punilhed  lewd 
womcn,andfuchp€rfons  as  frequented  gaming  honies. 
The  cultody  of  the  plcbifcita,  or  orders  of  the  people, 
waslikewifc  committed  to  them.  They  had  the  infpec- 
tionof  comcdiesand  other  pieces  of  wit ;  and  were  ob- 
liged to  exhibit  magniricent  games  to  the  people,  at 
their  ownexpcncc,  whereby  many  of  them  were  ruin- 
ed. To  them  alfo  belonged  the  cullojy  of  the  pie- 
bifcita,  and  the  cenfure  and  examination  of  books. 
They  had  the  power,  on  certain  occaiions,  01  ilfuiiig 
edicts  ;  and,  by  degrees,  they  procured  to  thcmftlvcs 
a  conlidcrable  jurifdidiou,  the  cognizance  of  various 
caufes.  Sec.  ThisoiHcc  ruined  numbers  by  its  txpcn- 
livcncfs  J  fo  that,  in  Auguftus's  time,  even  many  fc- 
nators  declined  it  on  that  account. 

Allthcfe  fundions  which  rendered  the  aedilcs  fo  con- 
fidcrable  belonged  at  firfl  to  the  xdiles  of  the  people, 
adtiiiplebeii,  or  miuorci :  thefe  were  only  two  in  niun- 
ber,  and  wcrefirft  created  in  the  fameyear  as  the  tri- 
bunes :  for  tjie  tribunes,  finding  themfclves  oppreii'ed 
with  the  multiplicity  of  affairs,  demanded  of  the  fe- 
natc  to  have  officers,  with  whom  they  might  ijitruft 
matters  of  lefs  importance  ;  and  accordingly  two  aedi- 
lcs were  created  ;  and  lience  it  \v  as  that  the  arailes  w  ere 
elected  every  year  at  the  fanicaircmbly  asthc  tribunes. 
But  thefe  plebeian  aediles  having  refufcd,  on  a  iJgnal 
occalinn,  to  treat  the  people  with  ihows,  as  pleading 
ihemfclvcs  unable  to  fnppori  the  cxpence  thereof,  the 
patricians  ma je  an  otter  to  Jo  it,  proviJcJ  tliey  would 
admit  them  to  the  honours  of  the  adil^tc.  On  this 
occafion  there  were  two  aediles  created,  of  tlie  num- 
ber of  the  patricians,  in  the  year  of  Rome  ;!88  ;  they 
Were  called  trdilis  airuits,  or  wiijtra  ;  as  having  a  right 
to  fit  on  a  curule  chair,  enriched  w  ilh  ivory,  when 
they  gave  audience  ;  whereas  the  plebeian  asdilcs 
only  fat  on  benches. —  Belides  that  tiic  curule  asdilcs 
lliared  all  the  ordinary  fundions  with  the  plebeian, their 
chief  employ  was,  to  procure  the  celebration  of  the 
grand  Roman  games,  and  to  exhibit  comedies,  Ihews 
of  gladiators,  &c.  to  the  people  ;  and  they  were  alfo 
api)ointcd  judges  in  all  cafes  relating  tu  tlie  felling  or 
exchanging  cftaies. 

To  caie  thefe  four  firft  asdilcs,  Caefar  created  a  new 
kind,  called  xdiLi  ccniilei,  as  being  deputed  cliietly  to 
take  care  of  the  corn,  which  was  called  dmuu  ccrerit ; 
for  the  Heathens  honoured  Ceres  as  the  goddefs  who 
prefided  over  corn,  and  attributed  to  her  the  inven- 
tion of  agricnlturc.  Thefe  aediles  cercalcs  were  alfo 
taken  out  of  the  order  of  patricians.  In  the  munici- 
pal cities  there  were  sedilcs,  and  with  the  fame  autho- 
rity as  at  Rome. 

We  alfo  read  of  an  ledilts  alimentarius,  cxprcficd  in 
abbreviature  by  JEdil.  aihn.  whofe  bufinefs  ftcms  to 
have  been  to  provide  diet  for  thofc  v.  ho  were  maintain- 
ed at  the  public  charge,  though   others  aiDgn  him  a 

I 


ditfcreut  office. — In  an  ancient  infcriptionwc  alfo  meet  >E-iilitiiin 


with  ddiliof  the  camp,  icdtlii  cafimnnit. 

jtDILITIUM  EDicTi!M,among  the  Romans,  was 
that  whereby  a  remedy  was  gi\en  a  buyer,  in  cafe  a 
vicious  or  unfound  beafl,  or  Have,  was  fold  him.  It 
was  called  trditititim,  becaufcthe  preventing  of  frauds 
infalcsand  conti-a£ls  belonged  efpecially  to  the  curule 
aediles. 

^DITU  US,  in  Roman  antiquity,  an  ofHcer  belong- 
ing to  the  temple,  who  had  the  charge  of  the  oticrings, 
treafure,  andfacred  utcnfils.  The  female  deities  had 
a  woman  officer  of  this  kind  called  JEdilua. 

AIGAGROPILA,  a  ball  conipofed  of  a  fubflancc 
rcfrmblinghair,  gencratedin  tiic  ftom3ch,ofthe  cha- 
mois-goat. This  ball  is  of  the  fame  nature  with  thofc 
found  in  cows,  hogs,  &c. 

A'.GJV.,  or  /Eg«a  (anc.geog.),  the  name  of  iEj/c-/^ 
fa,  fo  called  from  the  following  adventure  .•  Caranus, 
the  tirll  king  of  Macedonia,  being  ordered  by  the  o- 
racle  to  feek  out  a  feitlcment  in  Macedonia,  under  the 
condut^  of  a  (lock  of  goats,  furprifed  the  town  o{  AL- 
dciTa  during  a  thick  fog  and  rainy  weather,  in  follow- 
ing the  goats  that  fled  from  the  rain  ;  which  goats 
ever  after,  in  all  his  military  expeditions,  he  caufcd 
to  precede  his  ilandard  ;  and  in  memory  of  this  he 
called  AAcSiJEgtca,  and  his  fco^Xc/E^xadaa.  And 
hence  probably,  in  the  prophet  Uaniel,  the  he-goat  is 
the  fymbol  of  the  king  of  Macedon. 

AEGEAN  SEA  (anc.  geog.),  now  the  Archipelago, 
a  part  of  the  Mediterranean,  feparating  Europe  from 
Afia  and  Africa  ;  walhing,  on  the  one  hand,  Greece 
and  MacedoHia  ;  on  the  other,  Cariaand  Ionia.  The 
origin  of  the  name  is  greatly  difputcd.  feflus  advan- 
ces three  opinions  :  one,  that  it  is  fo  called  from  the 
many  iilands  therein,  at  a  dillancc  appearing  like  fo 
many  goats  :  another,  becaufe  y^igca  queen  of  the  A- 
niazons  pcriflied  in  it:  a  third  opinion  is,  becaufe  A- 
gcus,  the  father  ofThefeus,  threw  hinifelf  headlong 
into  it. 

AIGEUS,  in  fabulous  hillory,  was  king  of  Athens, 
and  the  father  of  Thefcus.  The  Athenians  having 
bafely  killed  the  fon  of  Minos  king  of  Crete,  for  carry- 
ing away  the  prize /roni  them,  Minos  made  war  upon 
the  Athenians  ;  and  being  vidorious,  impofcd  this  fe- 
vere  condition  on  yf^gcus,  that  he  fliould  annually  fend 
intoCrete  fcven  of  the  nobleftof  the  Athenian  youths, 
chofcn  by  lot,  to  be  devoured  by  the  Minotaur.  On 
the  fourth  year  of  this  tribute,  the  choice  fell  on  The- 
fcus; or,  as  others  fay,  he  himfclf  intreated  to  be  fcnt. 
The  king,  at  his  fon's  dej'arture,  gave  orders,  that  as 
thefliip  failed  with  black  fails,  it  (hould  return  w  ith  the 
fame  in  cafe  he  pcriihed  ;  but, if  he  became  victorious, 
he  fiioiildchange  them  into  white.  When  1  hefcus  re- 
turned to  Crete,  after  killing  the  Minotaur,  and  for- 
got to  change  the  fails  in  token  of  his  vidory,  accord- 
ing to  the  agreement  with  his  father;  the  latter, 
who  watched  the  return  of  the  velTel,  fuppofmg  by 
the  black  fails  that  his  fon  was  dead,  calthimfelf  head- 
long into  the  lea,  which  afterwards  obtained  the  name 
of  the  JEgcan  Sea.  The  Athenians  decreed  .igcus 
divine  honours  ;  and  facriliced  to  him  as  a  marine  dei- 
ty, the  adopted  fon  of  Neptune. 

^.GIAS,  among^yficians,  a  white  fpeck  on  the 
pupil  of  the  eye,  wNfch  occaiions  adimnefs  of  fijht. 

AGIDA,  (  Pliny  )^  nowCrf/9  </'  Jjtria,  the  princi- 
pal 


I 


^  G  I 


[     136     J 


/E  G  I 


^giiopi    pal  town  on  the  north  of  the  territory  of  Iftria,  fitiiatcd 

(         ill  a  little  iila;id, joined  to  the  land  by  abridge.    Inau 

^  JE/ina.    infcription,  (Gniter),  it  is  called  j£gidis  1/iJ'uta.     K. 

'       "         Long.  14.  20.  Lar.  45.  50.     It  wasaficrwards  called 

Juliiinpolis,  after  the  enipcior  Juflinus. 

AGILOI'S,  the  name  of  a  tumor  lathe  great  angle 
of  the  eye  ;  cither  with,  or  without,  an  inriamniation. 
The  word  is  compcKinded  of  «;f ,  giat,  and  a^,  ^y  ; 
as  goats  arc  fuppolcd  CMtrcmelv  liable  to  this  diilciu- 
per. 

Authors  frcquenly  iile  the  words  agil'jfs,  avch'.hpi, 
zxiA  fijl::ta  lachryiiialis,  promifcuouily  ;  but  the  more 
accurate,  after  ytginiti,  make  a  difference. — The  tu- 
mor, before  it  becomes  iilcerous,  is  properly  called  an- 
chilops :  and,  after  it  is  got  into  the  lachryn\al  palfagcs, 
and  has  rendered  the  os  lachrymale  cit\o\i%,JiJiula  ia- 
chrynalis. 

If  the  segilops  be  accompanied  with  an  inflamma- 
tion, it  is  fiippofcd  to  take  its  rife  from  the  abundance 
of  blood  V  hich  aplcthoiichabit  difchargcson  the  cor- 
ner of  the  eye.  Jf  it  be  without  an  inrtammation,  it  is 
fuppofed  to  proceed  from  a  vifcous  pituitous  hamour, 
thrown  upon  this  part. 

The  method  of  cure  is  the  fame  as  that  (  f  the  opli- 

thalmia.  But  before  it  has  reached  the  lachrymal  paf- 

.    fages,  it  is  managed  like  other  ulcers.  If  the  a;gilops 

be  negleded,  it  burfls,  and  degenerates  into  a  lillula, 

which  eats  into  the  bone. 

^',GiLOPs,/f'////".-//.vc;3genusofthemouoeciaordcr, 
bclongingto  tlie  polyganiia  clafsof  plants,  and  ranking 
-under  the  4""  natural  order,  Craw//;^. — Thecharadcrs 
arc:  The  hennaphrodit!  caljx  isa two- valvcd glume,  tri- 
florous  ;  the  corolla  a  two-valvcd  glume,  the  exterior 
valvalct  terminated  by  three  ariflse  or  awns,  the  in- 
terior awnlcfs  :  5/^;;/.'///^,  three  capillary  rilamcnts  ; 
ftylc,  two  :  Sad,  one,  oblong.  Mah' calyx  iwA  corolla, 
each  a  glume  as  in  the  farmer  ;   ^nd  /lamina,  the  fame 

number There  are  fevcn  fpecics,  natives  of  Italy 

and  fome  other  parts  of  Kiirope  ;  one  of  them,  the  in- 
curvata,  anativeof  Britian,growsby  thefea-lhore,  and 
is  vulgarly  aWcdfea-hard-grafs. 

yKoiLorsis  alfo  the  trivial  name  of  a  fpccies  of 
Qy  E  R  c  u  s . 

jtGIMURUS  (  anc.  geog.  ),  .-m  illand  on  the  bay 
of  Carthage,  about  30  miles  dillant  from  tliat  city, 
(Livy)  ;  now  the  CaUtta  :  This  illand  being  after- 
wards funk  in  the  lea,  two  of  its  rocks  remained  a- 
bove  water,  which  were  called  Ai\r ,  and  mentioned 
by  Virgil,  tecaufe  the  Romans  and  Carth.iginians  en- 
tered into  an  agreement  or  league  to  fettle  their  mu- 
tual boundries  at  thcfe  rocks. 

..tGlNA,  in  fabulous  hillory,  the  daughter  of  ^- 
fopiis,  king  of  Bseotia,  was  beloved  by  Jupiter,  who 
debauched  her  in  the  finiilitude  of  a  lambent  flame, 
and  then  carried  her  from  Epidanrus  to  a  defert  illand 
called  Oeiiope,  which  afterwards  obtained  her  own 
name. 

j^GINA  (anc.  geog.),  an  illand  on  the  Saronic  Bay, 
or  bay  of  Engia,  20  miles  dillant  from  tlie  Piraseus, 
formerly  vyin;^  with  Athens  for  nival  power, and  at  the 
fca-fight  of  Salamin  difputiiig  the  palmof  vidory  wiiii 
the  )^thcniaiis.  It  was  the  coiintry  and  kingdom  of 
VEacus,  who  called  it  JEgiiia  from  Ills  mother's  name, 
it  being  before  called  Oenopia,  (Ovid  ).  The  inhabi- 
tants were  called  JEginrtic,  and  JEginenf.-s.  The  Greeks 

3 


had  a  common  temple  dedicated  to  Jupiter  in  JF.gim. 
Thejtginetae  applied  to  commerce  :  and  were  the  tirll 
who  coined  money,  called  No^ir//aA>/»a/M  :  hence  Al- 
giiKliai.ti  as,  formerly  in  great  repute.  The  inhabi- 
tants were  called  My n/iyd cms,  or  a  nation  of  ants, 
from  their  great  application  to  agriculture.  Sec  jEa- 
cus. 

This  illand  was  furroundrd  by  Attica,-the  territory 
of  Megara, and  the  I'cloponnefus,  each  diftant  about  100 
Haiia,  or  1 2  milts  and  a  half.  In  circumference  it  was 
reckoned  180  iladia,  or  22  miles  and  a  half.  It  was 
walhedonthf  call  and  fouth  by  the  Myrtoauand  Crc- 
.tan  feas. 

It  is  now  called  Eyiiia,  or  Eg'ma,  thc^.foft  and  the  i 
fliort.  The  temple  abovemcntioned  is  (ituated  upon 
the  fummit  of  a  juountain  called  faiihiUcnius,  about 
an  hour  dillant  from  the  Ihore.  The  A^ginetans  affirm- 
ed it  was  crct^ed  by  /l^Acus  ;  in  whofe  time  Flellas 
being  terribly  opprclfedby  drought,  the  Delphic  oracle 
was  con  lulled;  and  thcrtlponfe  was,  That  Jupiter  mull 
be  rendered  propitious  by  iEacus.  The  cities  intreat- 
cd  him  to  be  their  mediator  :  He  facriticcd  and  prayed 
to  Jupiter  Panhellcuius,  and  procured  rain. 

The  temple  was  of  the  Doric  order,  and  had  fix  co- 
lumns in  front.  Twenty-one  of  the  exterior  columns 
arc  yet  ftanding,  with  two  in  the  front  of  the  pronaos 
and  of  the  polliciim,  and  five  of  the  number  which 
formedtherangesof  the  cell.  The  entablature,  except 
the  architrave,  is  fallen.  The  Hone  is  of  a  light  bro%vn- 
illi  colour,  much  eaten  in  many  places,  and  indicating 
a  very  great  age.  Someof  the  columns  have  been  in- 
jured by  boring  to  their  centres  for  the  metal.  In  fc- 
vcral,  the  junction  of  the  parts  is  fo  exact,  that  each 
feems  to  conliA  of  one  piece.  This  ruin  Mr  Chandler 
conllders  as  fcarcely  to  be  paralleled  in  its  claim  to  a 
remote  antiquity.  The  lituation  on  a  lonely  mountain, 
at  a  diflance  from  the  fea,  has  prcfcrved  it  from  total 
demolition,  amid  all  the  changes  and  accidents  of  nu- 
jTierous  centuries. 

Near  the  fliore  is  a  barrow,  raifed,  it  is  related,  for 
Phocus,  tipon  the  following  occalion.  Telamon  and 
Pcleus,  fons  of  Abacus,  challenged  their  half-brother 
Phocus  to  contend  in  the  Pentathlum.  In  throwing 
the  Hone,  which  ferved  as  a  quoit,  Pcleus  hit  Phocus, 
who  was  killed;  when  both  of  them  fled".  Afterwards, 
Telamon  fent  a  herald  to  alFert  his  innocence,  j^acus 
would  not  fuffer  him  to  land,  or  to  apologize,  except 
from  the  vclfcl ;  or,  if  hechofe  rather,  from  aheap  cafl 
up  in  the  water.  Telamon,  entering  the  private  port 
by  night,  raifed  a  barrow,  as  a  token,  it  is  likely,  of  a 
pious  regard  for  the  deceafed.  He  was  afterwards 
condemned,  as  not  free  from  guilt ;  and  failed  away  a- 
gain  to  Salamis.  The  barrow  in  the  fecond  century, 
when  feenby  Paufanias,  was  furroundcd  with  a  fence, 
and  had  on  it  a  rough  Hone.  The  terror  of  fomc 
dreadful  judgment  to  be  inilitled  from  heaven  had  pre- 
fcrvcd  it  entire  and  unaltered  to  his  time  ;  and  in  a 
country  dcpapulated  and  negletled,  it  may  ftill  endure 
for  many  ages. 

The  foil  of  this  illand  is,  as  dcfcribed  by  Strabo, 
very  ftony,  efpecially  the  bottoms,  but  in  fome  places 
not  unfertile  ingrain.  Bclidcs  corn,  it  produces  olives, 
grapes,  and  almonds  ;  and  abounds  in  pigeons  and 
partridges.  It  has  been  related,  that  the  iilgine- 
tans annually  wage  war  with  the  feathered  race^  care- 
fully 


Ji-ixm- 


JE  G  I 


[     '37     ] 


/\L  G  I 


fully  colkAiiigor  breaking  their  eggs  toprtvtiit  tlicir 
iiuilnplying, aiidiiicoiifcqutnci  ay tarly  limine.  Tluy 
•  liavc  no  hares,  foxes,  or  v.ohxs.  Tlie  rivers  in  fum- 
mcr  arc  all  dry.  The  vaiwode  or  governor  farms  the 
revenue  of  the  Grand  Signior  for  J2  purfcs,  or  6000 
juaftres.  About  half  this  fiini  is  repaid  yearly  by 
the  caratch-moncy,  or  poll-tax. 

AlciNA,  the  capital  of  the  above  illand.  Itsfitehis 
been  long  forfaken.  hiflead  of  the  temples  mention- 
ed b/  Paiifinias,  there  arc  13  lonely  churches,  all 
very  mean  ;  snd  two  Doric  columns  fiipj'orting  their 
architrave.  Thefc  ftand  by  the  fea-fide  toward  the 
low  cape  ;  and,  it  has  been  fuppofcd,  arc  a  remnant 
of  a  temple  of  Venus,  which  %\  as  (ituated  by  the  port 
principally  frequented,  'i  he  tlicatrc,  which  is  recor- 
ded as  worth  feeing,  refembled  that  of  the  Kpidaurians 
both  in  (i/.c  and  workmanlhip.  It  was  not  far  from 
the  private  port ;  the  rcadiuni,Vy'hic!i,likc  that  at  Pricnr, 
was  conlh'uded  with  only  one  fide,  being  joined  to  it 
liehind,  and  each  ftruc^urc  mutually  fullaining  and 
proppi;ig  tlic  other.  The  walls  belonging  to  the  ports 
andarfenal  were  of  excellent  niafonry,and  may  be  tra- 
ced 10  aconfideraLle  extent,  above,  or  nearly  even  with 
tlie  water.  At  the  entrance  of  the  mole,  on  the  left, 
is  a  fmall  chapel  of  St  Nicholas;  and  oppofite,  a  fquarc 
tower  with  licps  before  it,  dctkched,  from  which  a 
bridge  was  laid  acrofs,  10  be  removed  on  any  alarm. 
This  ftruflurc,  which  is  mean,  was  erefted  by  the  Ve- 
netians, while  at  war  with  tlfc  Turks  in  1693. 

A^GINKTA  (Pauhis),  a  celebrated  fur^geon  of  the 
illand  of  .."Jilgiiia,  from  whence  lie  derived  his  name. 
According  to  M.  Le  Clerc's  calculation,  he  lived  in 
the  fourth  century  ;  but  Abulpharagius  the  Arabian, 
M'ho  is  allowed  to  give  the  bell  account  of  thofc  limes, 
places  him  with  more  probability  in  the  fevcnth.  His 
knowledge  in  ftirgery  was  very  great,  and  his  works 
arc  dcfervedly  famous.  Fabrieius  ab  Aquapendcnte 
has  thought  tit  to  tranfcribe  him  in  a  great  variety  of 
places.  Indeed  the  doJlrinc  of  Paulus  .+;gineta,  toge- 
ther with  that  of  Ctlfusand  Albucafis,  make  up  the 
whole  text  of  this  «u:hor.  He  is  the  firft  writer  who 
takes  notice  of  liie  cathartic  quality  of  rhubarb  ;  and, 
according  to  Dr  Milward,  is  the  hrft  in  ail  antiquity 
who  deferves  the  title  of  a  ma:i-niidwifc. 

i9-',GINHARD,  the  celebrated  fscretary  and  fup- 
pofed  fon-ir.-law  of  Charlemagne.  He  is  faid  to  liavc 
been  carried  through  the  fnow  on  the  Ihouldcrs  of  the 
affeclionate  and  ingenious  Imma,  to  prevent  his  being 
tracked  from  her  apartments  by  the  emperor  her  fa- 
ther :  a  ftory  whi-.h  the  elegant  pen  of  Addifon  has 
copied  and  embellilhed  from  an  old  German  chronicle, 
and  iuferted  in  the  3d  volume  of  the  Spectator. — This 
happy  lover  (fuppoiing  the  llory  to  be  true)  fecms  to 
have  pofTell'ed  a  heart  not  unworthy  of  fo  enchanting  a 
miftrcfs,  and  to  have  returned  her  affeftion  with  the 
nioft  faithful  attachment ;  for  there  isaletterof  ^tgin- 
hard's  flill  extant,  lamenting  the  death  of  liis  wife, 
which  iswritteninthc  lendereftflrain  of  connubial  a  f- 
fli.'lion  ; —  it  joes  not.  howe\  er,  cxprtfs  that  this  lad^' 
was  the  afTcdionateprinccfs, and  indeed  fome  late  critics 
have  proved  that  Imnia  was  not  the  daughter  of  C}iar- 
lemagne. — Uut  to  return  to  our  hillorian :  He  was  a 
native  of  Germany,  and  educated  by  the  muniticence  of 
his  imperialmalUr,  of  which  he  has  left  the  moft  grate- 
in!  tellimony  inhis  preface  tothc  fife  of  that  monarch. 
Vol.  1. 


.i^ginharJ,  after  the  lofs  of  his  hmentcd  v.  ifc,  is  fup-    ys^ij.aii 
poled  10  have  palled  tiie  remainderof  his  days  in  rtli-         I 
gious  retirement,  and  to  have  died  foon  after  the  year  j'^nil'ii-'*- 
8^0.     ITis  life  of  Charlemagne,  his  a:;r..-.ls  from  7.^1  to  "      '^ 
839,  and  his  letters,  are  ah  iufcned  in  the  2d  volinne 
of  Duchc.Gie's  Scriptores  Krancorum.     But  there  is  an 
improved  cdili'Ui  of  this  valuable  hiftorian,  with  the 
annotations  of  Hermann  Schniincke,  in  4to,  1711. 

AiGlPAN,  in  heathen  mythohigy,  a  dcnominaiion 
given  to  the  god  Pan,  becaufe  he  was  reprcfcr.ltd  with 
the  horns,  legs,  feet,  &c.  of  a  goat. 

A-GIPHILA,  Go.4T-i  RiF.ND  ;  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogy  niaori!er,bt  longing  to  the  tetrandriaclafsof  plants; 
the  charaftersof  which  arc  :  The  caljx  is  a  iinglc-lea- 
ved  perianthiuni,  bcll-(hap'd,  four- tooth 'd,loofe,  very 
(liort,  and  perfirtent:  The  co:  o//a  conliftsof  one  petal ; 
the  tubus  cylindric,  narrower  and  longer  than  the  ca- 
lyx ;  the  border  divided  into  four  fegmcnts,  flat  and  e- 
qual ;  the  divifions oblong  :  The/^v/z/Haconliftof  four 
ere(5l  capill;>ry  filaments  ;  the  antherse  arc  incumbent 
and  fquared  :  1  he pij'.illuifi  has  a  gernu)i  above  ;  a  ca- 
pillary, two-cleft,  iniddle-llzed  llylus;  and  a  fimple 
fligma :  The  /'ericarphn/i  is  a  roundilh  unilocular  ber- 
ry :  The  A-.'(/j  are  four.  There  is  only  one  fpccics,  a 
native  of  Martinique. 

/LGlS,  in  the  ancient  mythology,  s  name  given  to 
the  fliield  or  buckler  of  Jupiter  and  Pallas. 

The  goat  Amalthca,  which  had  fucklcd  Jove,  being 
dead,  that  god  is  faid  to  have  covered  his  buckler  with 
the  (kin  thereof;  whence  the  appellation  irgis,  from 
«(f,  aiy<,t,Jhc'-g(iat.  Jupiter,  afterwards  rcAoring  the 
beaft  to  life  again,  covered  it  with  a  new  Ikin,  andpla 
ccd  it  among  the  flars.  As  to  his  buckler,  he  made  a 
prefent  of  it  to  Minerva  ;  whence  that  goJdcfs's  buck- 
ler is  alfo  called  a-gii. 

Minerva,  having  killed  the  Gorgon  Mcdufa,  nailed 
her  head  ill  the  middle  of  ihe;rgis,  which  henceforth 
had  the  faculty  of  converting  into  /lone  all  thofe  who 
looked  thereon;  as  Medufa  herfelf  had  done  durini' 
her  life. 

Others  take  the  aegis  not  tohave  bcenabue^;ler,  bnt 
a  cuirafs,  or  breaft-plate  :  and  it  is  certain  the  asgis  of 
Pallas,  defcribed  by  Virgil,  A'.n.  lib.  viii.  yer.  43y, 
mull  have  been  a  cuirafs  ;  fincc  that  poet  fays  cxjTcfs- 
ly,  that  Medula's  head  was  on  the  breall  of  the  goj- 
defs.  But  the  cegis  of  Jupiter,  mentioned  a  little  high- 
er, ver.  3J4,  fecms  to  have  been  a  buckler  :  the  words 
Cunifxl:  tiigrantcvi 
vEgida  ctiicuUret  dextra, 
agreeing  very  well  to  a  buckler  ;  but  not  at  all  to  a 
cuirafs  or  brcaft-platc. 

Servius  makes  the  fame  dillinflion  on  the  two  paf- 
fagcs  of  Virgil  :  for  on  verfe  ;J4,  he  takes  the  xgis 
for  the  buckler  of  Jupiter,  made,  as  aboveincntioned, 
of  the  (Vin  of  the  goat  Amalthca  ;  and  on  verfe  455^ 
he  defcribes  the  affgis  as  the  armour  which  covers  the 
bread,  which  in  fprakingof  men  is  called  ci//^},and 
tgis  in  fpeakingof  the  gods.  Manyauthors  have  over- 
looked thcfc  dillinilions  for  want  of  g"ing  to  the  four- 
ces. 

^^GISTHUS,  in  ancient  hiilory,  was  the  (on  of 
Tycfles  by  hii  own  daughter  Pllopeia,  who,  to  con- 
ceal her  flume,  expofed  him  in  th'-  woods:  fome  fay 
he  was  taken  up  by  a  Ihepherd,  and  fuckled  by  a  goat, 
whence  he  was  called  AgiUhuu  He  corrupted  Cly- 
'^  tcjiineltr* 


.^  G  O 


[     138     ] 


.^  G  O 


^glthallus  icmncAra  the  wife  of  Agamemnon  ;  and  with  litr  af- 

I         (illancc  (lew  her  hulbuiui,  aud  rci^^ncd  fcvcn  years  in 

JEgofpota-  Mycciigg.     He  was,  toocilicr  with  Cly  tcmncflra,  (lain 

.   "'"'•      byOrcflcs.  Pompey  iifcd  tocull  JiiliuiCxfar/E^///'/v/j, 

on  account  ol  his  having  corrupted  his  wife  Miitia, 

whom  he  afterwards  put  away,  though  he  had  three 

cliilJren  by  her. 

i?->GlTHALLUS  (anc.  gcog.),  a  promontory  and 
citadel  of  Sicily,  between  Drcpanum  and  the  Kmpo- 
rium  Acgiftanum,  afterwards  called  /Iccllus  ;  corrupt- 
ly written  J.-githaif'>s,  in  Ptolemy  ;  fituatc  near  mount 
Eryx,  and  now  called  Vapo  di  Santo  Teoiioro. 

jCGIUM,  (anc.  gcog.)  a  town  of  Achaia  Propria, 
five  miles  from  the  place  where  Hclicc  Aood,  and  fa- 
mous for  thccouncilof  the  Acheans,  which  ufiiiilly  met 
there  on  account  either  of  the  dignity  or  commodious 
fituation  of  the  place.  It  was  alfo  famous  for  the  m  or- 
fliip  of  o^«)i-f/oc  2(1/5,  Conventional  Jiipitir,  andof  7'^- 
natharaiiCtiis.  The  territory  of  A^gium  was  \\atered 
by  two  rivers,  viz.  the  Phoenix  and  Meganitas.  The 
epithet  is  JE^iciifu.  There  is  a  coin  in  the  cabinet  of 
the  king  of  Pruilia,  with  the  infcription  Airi,  and  the 
figure  of  a  tortoife,  which  is  the  fymbol  of  Pelopon- 
nefus,  and  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  the  place  where  it  was 
flruck. 

^GOBOLIUM, ill  antiquity,  the  facrifice  of  a  goat 
offered  to  Cybclc.  The  xgobolium  was  an  expiatory 
facrifice,  which  bore  a  near  rcfcmblance  to  the  tauro- 
bolium  and  criobolium,  and  leems  to  have  been  fome- 
liniesjoincd  with  them. 

/f^GOPODIUM,  S.M  ALL  WILDAn-CELICAjGoUT- 
WORT,  GOATSKOOT,  HeRbGf.  RARD,  or  Ash  WEEP  ; 

a  genus  of  the  digynia  order,  belonging  to  the  penian- 
dria  clafs  of  plants;  the  charadcrs  of  which  are: 
The  univcrfal  calyx  is  a  manifold  convex  umbel  ;  the 
partial  one,  confnnilarand  flat ;  there  is  noiuvolucrum  ; 
and  the  proper  perianthium  is  fcarccly  difcerniblc  : 
The  univerfalcoro/7a  is  uniform,  the  florets  all  fenile  ; 
'  the  proper  one  has  five  inverfe-ovate,  concave,  equal 

petals,  inriecled  at  the  top:  The  jlamina  confill  of 
live  fimfle  filaments  twice  the  length  of  the  corolla  ; 
the  antherx  roundidi :  The  pijVtllum  has  a  germen  be- 
neath ;  two  purple  creft  ftyli  the  length  of  the  corol- 
let ;  the  (lamina  are  headed  :  No  fericarpiiu:i  :  The 
fruit  is  ovate,  ftriated,  and  bipartite:  The/ftv/;  are 
two,  ovate,  on  one  fide  convex  and  ftriated,  and  flat 
on  the  other.  There  is  but  one  fpecies,  a  native  of 
•  Britain  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  very  common 
under  hedges  and  about  gardens;  the  leaves refemWe 
thofe  of  Angelica,  and  it  carries  fniall  white  flowers 


into  the  IlcUefpont,  to  the  north  of  CeAos  ;  alfo  a  jT.gofpota- 
town.  Ration,  or  road  for  ihips,  at  its  mouth.     Merc        mos- 

the  Athenians,  under  Conon,  through  the  fault  of  his  ^"""^ ' 

colleague  Ifocratcs,  received  a  lignal  overthrow  ficm 
the  Laccdemoiiiarisunder  Lyfaiulcr,  which  was  follow- 
ed by  the  taking  of  Athens,  and  put  an  end  to  the 
Peloponnelian  war.  'Ihe  Athenian  fleet  having  fol- 
lowed the  Lacedemonians,  anchored  in  the  road,  over 
agaiufl  the  enemy,  who  lay  before  Lampfacus.  The 
Hilkfpont  is  not  abcve  two  ihoufand  paces  broad  in 
that  place.  The  two  armiesfceiiig  theinlelves  foncar 
each  other,  expected  only  to  reft  that  day,  and  were 
in  liopes  of  coming  to  a  b.itllc  on  the  next. 

Hut  l.yfandcr  had  another  dclign  in  his  view.  He 
commanded  the  feamen  and  pilots  to  go  on  board  llicir 
galleys,  as  if  they  were  in  reality  to  fight  (he  next 
morning  at  break  of  day,  to  hold  themfelves  in  rcadi- 
ncfs,  and  to  \\ait  his  orders  with  profound  (ilcnce. 
He  commanded  the  land-army  in  like  manner  to  draw 
up  in  battle  upon  the  coafl,  and  to  wait  the  day  with- 
out noife.  On  the  morrow,  as  foonas  the  fun  was  ri- 
fen,  the  Athenians  began  to  row  towards  them  with 
their  whole  fleet  in  one  line,  and  to  bid  them  defiance. 
Lyfand';r,  though  his  lliips  were  ranged  in  order  of 
battle,  with  their  heads  towards  the  enemy,  lay  Aill 
without  making  any  movement.  In  the  evening,  when 
the  Athenians  withdrew,  he  did  not  fuller  his  Ibldiers 
to  go  afliorc,  till  two  or  three  galleys,  which  he  had 
fent  out  to  obferve  them,  were  returned  with  advice 
that  they  had  fecn  the  enemy  land.  The  next  day 
palled  in  tlic  fame  manner,  as  did  tlie  third  and  fourth. 
Such  a  condu(;l,  which  argued  referve  and  apprchen- 
lion,  extremely  augmented  the  fecurity  and  boldnefs 
of  the  Athenians,  and  infpired  them  with  an  extreme 
contempt  for  an  army,  which  fear,  in  their  fenfe,  pre- 
vented from  iliowing  themfelves,  and  attempting  any 
tiling. 

W'hilA  this  pafFcd,  Alcibiades,  who  was  near  the 
fleet,  took  hori'e,  and  came  to  the  Athenian  generals  ; 
to  whom  he  reprcfented,  that  they  kept  upon  a  very 
difadvantagcous  coafl,  where  there  were  neither  ports 
nor  cities  in  the  neighbourhood  ;  that  they  were  ob- 
liged to  bring  their  proviflons  from  Cellos  with  great 
danger  and  difficulty  ;  and  that  they  were  very  much 
in  the  wrong  to  fuffer  the  foldiers  and  mariners  of 
the  fleet,  as  loon  as  they  were  alliore,  to  Araggle  and 
difpcrfc  themfelves  at  thcirown  pleafure,  whilft  dvcy 
Were  faced  in  view  by  the  enemy's  fleet,  accuAomed 
to  execute  the  orders  of  their  general  with  the  rca- 
dieft  obedience,  and  upon  the  IlighteA  fignal.     He 


I.s  roots  run  fo  fafl,  as  to  render  it  a  very  troublefome     offered  alio  to  attack  the  enemy  by  land  with  a  Arong 
weed.  —  - 

^^GOPRICORN,  a  genus  of  the  monoecia  order, 
belonging  to  the  diandria  clafs  of  plants  ;  the  characters 
•  of  which  are  :  The  calj-xhoih  of  the  male  and  female 
is  a  tubular  perianthium  of  one  leaf  divided  into  three 
fcgmcnts  :  Coro//a  wanting  in  both  :  The  JIan/ina  con- 
I'lAofa  finj;lecrca filament  longer  than  the  calyx,  with 
an  ovate  anthera  :  The  pi/lillum  has  an  ovate  germen, 
three  divaricated  Ayli,  and  fimple  perfiAent  Aigmata  : 
The  pcricarpium  is  a  globular  berry,  three-grained 
within,  and  three-ccU'd  :  The/vj'j  are  folitary,  and 
angular  on  one  fide — There  is  but  one  fpecies,  a  na- 
tive of  Surinam. 

.^^GOSPOTAMOS,    (anc.  geog.),  a  river  in  the 
Thracian  Chcrfoncfus,  falling  with  a  fouth-eaA  courfe 


body  of  Thracian  troops,  and  to  force  them  to  a  bat- 
tle. The  generals,  efpecially  Tydeus  and  Mcnan- 
der,  jealous  of  their  command,  did  not  content  them- 
felves with  refufing  his  offers,  from  the  opinion,  that 
if  the  event  proved  unfortunate,  the  whole  blame 
would  fall  on  them,  and  if  favourable,  that  Alcibia- 
des alone  would  have  the  honourof  it;  but  rejecfled 
alfo  with  infult  his  wife  and  falutary  council,  as  if  a 
man  in  difgrace  loA  his  fcnle  and  abililics  with  the 
favour  of  the  commonwealth.  Alcibiades  withdrew. 
The  fifth  day  the  Athenians  prefciited  themfelves 
again,  and  offered  battles  retiring  in  the  evening  ac- 
cording to  cuftom  with  more  infuliing  airs  than  the 
days  before,  l.yfander,  as  ufual,  detached  fome  gal- 
leys to  obferve  ihem,  with  orders  to  return  with  the 

utinoft 


iE  G  Y 


[     139     ] 


J^  M  I 


^gofpora-  utmoft  digilcnce  when  they  law  the  Athenians  land- 

mu*       cd,  and  to  put  up  a  brazen  buckler  at  each  ihip's  head 

I         as  foon  as  they  reached  the  middle  of  the  channel. 

^gyP"'   *  Himl'clf  in  the  mean  time  ran  through  the  whole  line 

in  his  galley,  cxhortiuj;  the  pilots  and  otiiccrs  to  hold 

the  fcimcn  and  foldicrs  in  readinefs  to  row  and  tight 

on  thcfirft  lignal. 

As  foon  as  the  bucklers  were  put  up  in  the  fliips 
heads,  and  the  admiral  galley  had  given  the  fignal  by 
the  found  of.  trumpet,  the  whole  Hcct  fet  forward  in 
good  order.  'Jhi-  land-army  at  the  fame  time  made  all 
pojiblc  hafte  to  the  top  of  the  promontory  to  fee  the 
battle.  The  (lr«it  that  fcparatcs  the  two  continents 
in  this  place  is  about  fifteen  IlaJia,  or  three  quarters 
of  a  league  in  breadth  ;  whichfpacc  was  prcfently  clear- 
ed through  the  aftivity  and  diligence  of  the  rowers. 
Conon  the  Athenian  general  was  the  firrt  who  percei- 
ved from  fliore,  the  fleet  advance  in  good  order  to  at- 
tack him  ;  upon  which  he  immediately  cried  out  for 
the  troops  to  embark.  In  the  height  of  forrow  and 
•  trouble,  fomc  he  called  to  by  their  names,  fome  he 
conjured,  and  others  he  forced  to  go  on  board  their 
galleys  ;  but  all  his  endeavours  and  emotion  were  inef- 
fcdual,  the  foldiers  being  difperfed  on  all  iides.  For 
they  were  no  fooner  come  on  iliorc,  than  fome  ran 
to  the  futlers,  fome  to  vvalk  in  the  couJitry,  fome 
to  lleep  in  their  tents,  and  others  had  begun  to  drefs 
their  fuppcrs.  This  proceeded  from  a  want  of  vigi- 
lance and  experience  in  their  generals,  who,  not  fuf- 
petting  the  Jeafl  danger,  indulged  themfclves  in 
taking  their  repofc,  and  gave  their  foldiers  the  fimc 
liberty. 

The  enemy  had  already  fallen  on  with  loud  cries  and 
a  great  noifeof  their  oars,  when  Conon,  difengaging 
himfclf  wiiliniucgalleys,of  wliich  numbcrwas  the  fa- 
cred  fhip  called  the  Puralian,  flood  away  for  Cyprus, 
where  he  took  refuge  with  Evagoras.  The  I'elopon- 
ncfiaus,  falling  upon  the  reft  of  the  fleet,  took  imme- 
diately the  galleys  which  were  empty,  and  difabled  and 
deftroycd  fuchas  began  to  fill  wi  h  men.  The  foldiers, 
who  ran  without  order  or  arms  to  their  relief,  were  ei- 
ther killed  in  the  endeavour  to  get  on  board,  or  flying 
on  fliore  were  cut  to  pieces  by  the  enemy,  who  landed 
in  purfuit  of  them.  Lyfandcr  took  3000  prifoners, 
with  all  tl'.e  generals,  and  the  whole  fleet.  After  ha- 
ving plundered  the  camp,  and  fafltned  the  enemy's 
galleys  to  the  flerns  of  his  own,  he  returned  to  Lamp- 
facus  amidft  the  found  of  flutes  and  fungs  of  triumph. 
It  was  his  glory  to  have  aichievcd  one  of  the  greatell 
military  exploits  recorded  in  hiftory  with  little  or  no 
lofs,  and  to  have  terminated  a  war  in  the  fmall  fpacc 
of  an  hour,  which  had  alrc.idy  laflcd  17  years,  and 
which,  perhaps,  without  him,  had  been  of  much  longer 
continuance. 

itGYPT.     See  Egypt. 

iEGYP TIACL'M,  in  pharmacy,  I'le  name  of  fcvc- 
ral  detergent  ointments  ;  which  are  dtfcribcd  under 
the  article  Ointnent. 

itlGYPTILLA,  in  natural  hiilory,  the  name  of  a 
ftone  defcribcd  by  the  ancients,  and  faid  by  foutc  au- 
thors, to  have  the  rcpKirkable  quality  of  giving  water 
tlic  colour  and  taflc  of  wine.  This  feems  a  very  ima- 
ginary virtue,  as  arc  indeed  too  many  of  thofc  in  for- 
mer ages  attributed  to  Hones.  The  dcfcriptions  left  us 
of  this  remarkable  foffil  tell  us,  that  it  was  variegated 


with,  or  compofed  of,  veins  orolackand  white,  or  black   VEjryt'" 
and  blucifli,  with  fomctimcs  a  plate  or  vein  of  whitiUi         \t 
red.     'J'hc  authors  of  thcfe  accounts  fccm  to  have  un-  -^ "*''"":. 
derflood  by  this  name  the  feveral  Hones  of  the  onyx, 
fjrdonyx,andcamacakind;  all  which. we  have  at  prc- 
fent  conimou  among  us,  but  none  of  which  poflcfs  any 
fuch  flraiigc  properties. 

A:GYPT0S,  (fab.  hifl.)  was  the  fon  of  Bcleus,  and 
brother  of  Danaus.     See  Beliues. 

ytLINATit,  inantiquiiy,  a  denomination  given  to 
the  fcnatorsof  Miletus,  because  they  held  their  deli- 
berations on  board  a  fliip,  and  never  returned  to  land, 
till  iHatters  had  been  agreed  on, 

.(tLlAN  (Claudius),  born  at  Prasnefte  in  Italy.  He 
taught  rhetoric  atRome,  according  to  I'erizonius,  un- 
der the  LmprrorAlexanderScverus.  Iiewai  lirnamed 
Mf>./}>.4?a-7©k.,  Honey- Ahuth,  on  account  of  the  fwcel- 
nefs  of  his  flyle.  He  was  likewife  honoured  with  the 
tide  of  Sophill,  an  appellation  in  his  days  only  given  to 
men  of  learning  andwifdom.  He  loved  retirement, 
and  devoted  hinifelf  tofludy.  He  greatly  admired  and 
fludied  Plato,  Ariflotle,  Ifocratcs,  Plutarch,  Homer, 
Anacreon,  Archilochus,  &c.  and,  though  a  Roman, 
gives  the  preference  to  the  writers  of  the  Greek  nation. 
His  two  moll  celebrated  works  arc,  his  Various  Hi- 
flory,and  Hillory  of  Animals  .  He  compofed  likewifc 
a  bo.ik  on  Providence,  mentioned  by  Euftatliius  ;  and 
another  on  divine  Appearances,  or  The  Declarations 
of  Providence.  There  have  been  feveral  editions  of 
his  Various  Hiflory. 

yELl  PONS  (anc.  gcog.)  one  of  the  fortrefTes  near 
the  wall  or  rampart,  or,  in  the  words  of  the  Notitia, 
through  thclincof  the  liitherwall;  built,  as  is  thought, 
by  Adrian*.     Now  Portcland,   (Camden),  in  North- *S«-^-^'«« 
umbcrland,  between  Newcaftle  and  Morptth.  (emperor). 

/^iLIUS  PON'S,  now  it  Poriti  S.  Aiigeln,  a  ftone- 
bridgeat  Rome,  over  the  Tyber,  which  leads  to  the 
Burgo  and  Vatican  from  the  city,  along  Adrian's  mole, 
built  by  the  Emperor  Adrian. 

yELKRXD.     SteALfRED. 

ALURUS,  in  Egyptian  mythology,  the  deity  or 
god  of  cats  ;  reprefented  fomctimcs  like  a  cat,  and 
fometimes  like  a  man  witli  a  cat's  head.  The  Egyp- 
tians had  lo  fupcrflitious  a  regard  for  this  animal,  that 
the  killing  it,  whether  by  accident  ordelign,  waspu- 
niihcd  with  death  :  and  Didorus  relates,  that,  in  the 
time  of  extreme  fauiiuc,  they  chofc  rather  to  eat  one 
another  than  touch  thcle  facred  auim.-.ls. 

AEM,  Am,  or  Ame,  a  liquid  meafurc  ufcd  in  moll 
parts  of  Germany  ;  but  different  in  diiFerent  towns  ; 
tlic  aem  commonly  contains  20  vertils,  or  80  malfes  » 
that  of  Heidelberg  is  equal  to  4S  maiies  ;  and  that  of 
A\'irtcmbcrgh  to  i6omafl"es.     See  Aam. 

AMIl.IL'S  (Paubis),  the  fon  of  Lucius  P^iilus, 
who  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Cannx,  was  twice  con- 
ful.  In  his  flrft  confulatc  he  triumphed  over  the  Li- 
gurians  :  and  in  the  fecond  fubducd  Perfeus  king  oi 
Macedonia,  and  reduced  that  country  to  a  Roman  pro- 
vince, on  wiiich  he  obtained  the  furnamcof  Maccdoni- 
cus.  He  returned  to  Rome  loaded  with  glory,  and 
triumphed  for  three  days.  He  died  160  years  b:io;c 
Chrift, 

jk'.s\  iLius  (Paulus),  a  celebrated  hiflorian,  boni  a: 

Verona,  who  obtained  fuch  reputation  in  Italy,  th  .the 

was  invited  into  France  by  the  cardinal  of  Biurboi,  in 

S  2  the 


IE  N  E 


[     140     ] 


.-E  N  I 


stair* J  Le* 


tliercigii  of  Lewis  XII.  iiionkr  to  wiiic  ilic  liillury 
oi  the  T.iiij^j  of  Krancc  in  Latin,  m\<\  was  given  a  ca- 
lioiiry  ill  the  cathedral  of  I'.iiis.  He  was  near  30 
year.;  in  writing  that  hiilory,  which  has  heen  greatly 
admired  ;  auJ  iiicd  at  Pat i*  on  tTic  5th  of  May  1529. 

iliMOBOLlUM,  in  aniiiiuity,  the  blood  ^)(  a  btill 
or  ran\  oft'cred  in  the  facririccs,  called  tauiobotia  and 
iiioliolia :  in  which  I'cnfe  the  w.jrd  occurs  in  ancient 
infeti,'tions. 

jtNARIA  (anc.  geog.),  an  iiland  on  the  bay  of 
.Cum«,  or  ovcr-ag.'.inllCumxinltaly,  (I'iiny  )  It  is 
alfo  called  Inariim,  (Virgil)  ;  and  now  Jfchia :  fcarce 
three  milts  diltant  from  the  coall,  and  the  piomontoiy 
Mifenns  to  the  well ;  20  miles  in  conipafs  ;  called  /  1- 
ik.cufa  by  the  Greeks.  It  is  one  of  the  OenotriJes, 
and  fenced  round  by  very  high  rocks,  lo  as  to  be  in- 
acceliible  hut  on  one  fide  ;  it  wa:  formerly  famous  for 
its  earthen  ware.     Sec  Ischia. 

ytNKAS  (fab.  hill.),  a  far.ious  Trojsn  prince,  the 
fo;i  of  Anchifts  and  Veiuis.  At  the  deitruction  of 
Troy,  he  bore  his  aged  father  on  his  back,  and  favtd 
him  from  the  Greeks;  but  being  too  folicitous  about 
his  fuuand  houfehold-gods,  lo!lhis  wile  Crcufainthe 
cfcajie.  Landing  in  Ahita,  he  was  kindly  received  by 
queen  Dido:  bimiuitting  hercoali,he  arrived  in  Italy, 
where  he  mirried  Lavinia  the  daughter  of  king  Lati- 
nus,  and  defeated  Turnus,  to  whom  flic  had  been  con- 
traacd.  After^hc  death  of  his  father-in-law,  he  was 
made  king  of  the  Latins,  over  whom  he  reigned  three 
years  :  but  joining  WMth  the  Aborigines,  he  was  llain 
in  a  battle  againll  the  Tufcans.  Virgil  has  rendered 
the  name  of  tiiis  prince  immortal,  by  making  him  the 
hero  of  his  poem.     Sec  /Eneid. 

yE.NEAs  SvLvies,  (Pope).     See  Pius  II. 

.ICNEATORES,  in  antiquity,  the  niuficians  in  an 
army,  including  thofe  who  played  trumpets,  horns,  &c. 
The  word  is  formed  from  ^nnf,  on  account  of  the 
braiicn  inllrumeius  ul'cd  by  them. 

yKNKID,  the  name  of  Virgil's  celebrated  epic  po- 
.  ein.  The  fubjtd  of  the  /tneid,  which  is  the  ell.ib- 
lilltment  of  .tncas  in  Italy,  is  extrcmily  happy.  No- 
thing could  be  more  inttreiU'.ig  to  the  Romans  than  to 
look  back  tothcir  orij,iii  from  lb  famous  a  hero  While 
theobjcft  was  fplendid  itl'elf,  the  traditionary  hillury 
of  his  country  opened  intcrelling  lields  to  the  poet  ; 
and  he  could  glance  at  all  the  future  great  exploits  of 
the  Roin.iiis,  in  its  ancient  and  fabulous  (late. 

As  to  the  unity  of  action,  it  is  perfectly  well  prc- 
ferved  in  the  Aineid.  The  fcttlement  of  A;neas,  by 
the  order  of  the  gods,  is  conOantly  kept  in  view.  The 
epifodes  are  linked  properly  with  the  main  fiibject. 
The  nodus,  or  intrigue  of  the  poem,  is  happily  ma- 
naged. The  wrath  of  Jnno,  whooppofesj'Eneas,  gives 
rife  to  all  his  difficulties,  and  connects  the  human  with 
the  ccieftial  operations  throughout  the  whole  poem. 

One  great  imperfeclion  of  the  /Eneid,  h.owever,  is, 
that  there  are  aluioll  no  marked  characters  in  it.  A- 
chates,  Cloanthes,  Gyas,  and  other  Trojan  heroes  who 
accompanied  yEneas  into  Italy,  arc  inlipid  figures. 
Even  Apneas  hiinfclf  is  without  intercfl.  The  charac- 
ter of  Dido  is  the  befl  fupportcd  in  the  whole  Alncid. 

The  principal pxcellcneyof  Virgil  istenderncfs.  Hi; 
foul  was  full  of  fenlibility.  He  mull  have  felt  him- 
felf  all  the  affcfting  circumftances  in  the  fcencs  he  de- 
fcribes ;  and  hekiic  w  how  to  touch  the  heart  by  a  finglc 


llrokc.     In  an  epic  poem  this  merit  is  the  next  to  fub-    JEn^lna, 
liuiity.     The  fecond  book  of  the  /Eneid  is  one  of  the   Mm%mi. 
greatcll  mailer  pieces  that  ever  was  executed.     The  """    ' 
death  of  old  Priam,  and  thefamily-pieces  of /Eneas, 
Anchifes,  and  Crcufa,  are  as  tender  as  can  be  conceiv- 
ed.    In  the  fourtli  book,  the  u.i happy  pallion  and 
death  of  Dido  arc  admirable.     The  epifodes  of  Palkis 
and  Evander,  of  Nifus  and  Euryalus,  of  Laufus  and 
Mczentius,  arc  all  fupcrlaiively  fine. 

In  his  battles,  \  irgil  is  far  inferior  to  Homer.  But 
in  the  important  cp'fode,  the  defcent  into  hell,  he  has 
outdone  Homer  by  many  degrees.  Tiicrc  is  nothing  in 
antiquity  to  equal  the  lixth  book  of  the  /Eneid. 

/ENG1N.'\,  one  of  the  illands  of  the  Archipelago. 
It  lies  in  the  bay  of  Engia,  and  the  town  of  tiiat  name 
contains  about  800  houfes  and  a  caillc  ;  and  near  it  arc 
the  ruins  of  a  magniliccnt  ilructure,  which  was  pro- 
bably a  temple. 

A^NIGMA,  denotes  any  dark  faying,  wherein  fomc 
well-known  thing  is  concealed  underobfcureUuguagc. 
The  word  is  Greek,  \iiiyun,  formed  ol  ainTTiTSai,  ob- 
fcure  iiinuerc,  to  hint  a  thing  darkly,  and  of  jr/»oc,  an 
obfcurc  fpcecliordifcourle.  Ihc  popularnameisr/i/.//^; 
from  tiie  Bclgic  rasdn:,  or  the  Saxon  ariftMa//,  to  in- 
terpret. Ka.  Bouhours,  in  the  memoirs  of  Trevoux, 
delincs  an  a;nigma,  Adifcoarfe,  or  painting,  including 
fomc  hidden  meaning,  which  is  propoftd  to  be  guelFcd. 

/'a;//r£'J'yEN-lGMAS,arereprefentationsof  the  works 
of  nature, orart, concealed  undcrhuman  figurcs,drawa 
from  hiilory,  or  fable. 

//A'c)-^<7/ .-Enigma, is  awitty,  artful,  and  abflrufc 
defcription  of  any  thing — In  a  general  fenfe,  every 
dark  faying,  every  dithcult  quellion,  every  parable, 
niiy  pals  for  aji  .migma.  Hence  obfcure  laws  arc  , 
called  JEiiigmat.i  Juiis.  The  alchcmifts  arc  great 
dealers  in  the  a;nigmatic  language,  their  procelTes  for 
the  philofophers  (lone  being  generally  wrapped  up  in 
riildies:  e.  g.  Fuc  ex  viaic  at  fiemtna  circiilutii,  iiide 
quadrangluiis,  hiiic  triaiig:ilu'>i,  f'lic  ci'd/Jmu,  el  hul/eliit 
lapi.-lcui philop,,'  honitn. — F.Menellricr  has  attempted  to 
reduce  the  compolition  and  refolution  of  isnigmas  to  a 
kiiid  oi  art,  with  fixed  rules  and  principles,  which  he  : 
calls  the  philolbpiiy  oi  .tuigvtatic  images. 

7/v  SubjeSi  of  an  ytNiOMA,  or  the  thing  to  be  ■ 
concealed  and  niade  a  myllcry  of,  he  juftly  obferves, 
ought  not  to  be  fuch  in  itfclf ;  but,  on  the  contrary, 
common,  obvious,  and  eafy  to  he  conceivei!.  It  is  to 
be  taken,  either  iVom  nature,  as  the  heavens,  or  ftars  : 
or  from  art,  as  painting,  the  compafs,  a  mirror,  or 
•  the  like. 

Tht  Form  c/zF^NioMASconfii'lsin  the  words,  which, 
whether  they  be  in  profeor  verfe,  contain  either  fomc 
defcription,  a  quellion,  or  a  profopop*ia.  The  lalt 
kind  are  the  moil  pleafing,  inafmuch  as  they  give  life 
and  aflion  to  things  which  otherwifc  have  them  nor. 
To  make  an  oeni'^ma,  therefore,  two  things  arc  to  be 
pitched  on,  which  bear  fomerefcmblancetoeachotlier; 
as  the  fun  and  a  monarch;  or  a  fliip  and  a  honfc  : 
and  on  this  refemblan:c  is  to  be  raifcdafupcrftruftiirc 
of  contrarieties  to  amufc  and  perplex.  It  is  caficr 
to  find  great  fubjefts  for  oenigmas  in  figures  than  ki 
words,  inafmuch  as  painting  attracts  the  eyes  and  ex- 
cites the  attention  to  difcovcr  the  fenfe.  The  fubjeifts 
of  enigmas  in  painting,  are  to  be  taken  either  troiM 
hiilory  or  fable  :  the  compolition  here  is  a  kind  of  ine- 

lamor^ioUSj  . 


IE  N  I 


[     t 


,  tamorplioiis,  wherein,  c.  g.  human  figures  arc  changed 
■  iiuo  irces,  and  rivers  iuio  mculs.  It  is  clTcntial  to  ae- 
niTmas,  that  the  hillory  or  tabic  under  which  they 
arc  prefented,  be  known  to  every  body  ;  othcrwifc  it 
■will  be  two  Kuigmas  inflead  of  one  ;  the  firll  of  the 
liillory  or  tabic,  the  fccond  of  the  fcnfe  in  which  it 
is  to  be  taken.  Another  clTential  rale  ofthesenigma 
is, that  it  only  ad  mils  of  one  fenfc.  Every  ajnigmawhicli 
is  fofccptivc  of  different  interpretations,  all  equally 
natural  is  fo  far  impcrfti^.  What  gives  a  kind  of  eru- 
dition to  an  aenigiiia,  is  an  invention  of  figures  in  li- 
tuations,  gefturcs,  colours,  &c.  authorifcd  by  palTages 
of  the  poets,  thecuftonisofariiflsin  ftaiucs,  baifo  relie- 
vos, infcriptions,  and  medals. — In  foreiga  colleges. 

The  explication  cj  Enigmas  makes  a  conliderablc 
exercife  j  and  that  one  of  the  moii  difficult  and  amu- 
ling,  where  wit  and  penetration  have  ihc  largcft  field. 
—  By  explaining  an  aenigma,  is  meant  the  finding  a 
motto  correfponding  to  the  adion  and  perfons  repre- 
fented  in  a  picture,  taken  eitlicr  from  hiftory  or  my- 
tliology.  The  great  art  «f  this  exercife  conlifls  in  the 
choice  of  a  motto,  which  cither  by  itfclf,  or  the  cir- 
cumftanccsof  lime,  place,  pciibn  who  fpeaks,  or  thofc 
before  whom  he  isfpeaking,  may  divert  the  fpedlators, 
and  furnifli  occafion  for  ftrokesof  wit ;  alfoin  lliowing 
to  advantage  the  conformities  between  the  figure  and 
thing  figured;  giving  ingenious  turns  to  the  reafons 
employed  to  fupport  what  is  adk'anced,  and  in  artfully 
introducing  pieces  of  poetry  to  illuflrate  ihefubjecl  and 
awaken  the  attention  of  the  audience. 

As  to  the  folution  of  aenigmas,  it  may  be  obfcr- 
▼cd,  that  tbofe  exprefledby  figures  arc  more  difficult 
to  explain  than  thofc  confifting  of  words,  by  rcafon 
images  may  figuify  more  things  ihan  words  can  ;  fo 
that  to  fix  them  to  a  particular  fcnfe,  we  mull  apply 
every  (ituation,  fymbol,  &c.  and  without  omitting  a 
circumflance. — As  there  arc  few  perfons  in  hillory,  or 
mythology,  but  have  fome  particularcharaifler  ofvicc 
or  virtue,  we  are,  before  all  things,  to  attend  to  this 
ckaralhr,  in  order  to  divine  what  the  figure  of  a  pcr- 
fon  reprcfented  in  a  painting  fignifies,  and  to  find  what 
agrtemcTt  thismay  have  with  the  fubjeft  whereof  we 
would  explain  it.  Thus,  if  Proteus  be  reprcfented  in 
a  picture,  it  may  be  taken  to  denote  ir.coKJhmcy,  and 
applied  citJKr  to  a  phylical  or  moral  fubjecl,  wbofc 
chara'leris  to  be  changeable  ;  e.g. an  almanack,  which 
fxprcflcs  the  weather,  the  feafons,  heat,  cold.llorms, 
aii.l  the  like.  The  colours  of  figures  may  alio  help  to 
unriddle  what  they  mean:  luA-r^,  forindanee,  isa  mark 
of  innocence,  red  of  moJedy,  green  of  hope,  black  of 
forrow,  &c.  When  figures  are  accompanied  with 
fymhoh,  they  are  lefs  precarious  ;  thcfe  being,  as  it 
were,  the  foul  of  xnigmas,  and  the  key  that  opens  the 
niyflcryof  them.  Of  all  the  kinds  offymbo's  v.liich 
may  be  met  vu:h  in  thofc  who  have  treated  profclFed- 
ly  on  the  fubjccf .  thconly  truly  :T;i-igmaticaI  arc  thofc 
of  Pythagoras,  which,  nnderdark  prBVcrbs.hold  forth 
ciTonsof  morality  ;  as  whcnlic  (.xys^Stiiteraw  ue  trun- 
(ili'ts,  to  fi'Tnify,  Do  no  i'.'juftioc. 

But  it  mull  be  added,  that  we  meet  with  fome  x-n'>^- 
inas  in  hillory,  coropliuxtcd  to  a  degree,  wh'ch  much 
tranfccnds  all  rules,  and  has  given  great  perplexity 
to  the  interprctr  i  of  them.  Such  is  that  celebrated 
ancient  ore  jEiia  L^lia  CrifpU,  about  which  n;nny  of 
the  learned  Lave  puzzled  tlicir  heads.  There  arc  two 


41     3  /E  N  I 

exemplars  of  it :  one  found  140  years  ago,  on  a  mar- 
ble near  Bolognia  :  the  other  in  an  ancient  MS.  writ- 
ten in  Gothic  letters,  at  Milan.  It  is  controverted  be- 
tween the  two  cities,  which  is  to  be  reputed  the  more 
authentic. 

The  Gononian  Mnigvta. 

D.     M. 

JElia  La-lia  Criffii, 

Nee  vir,  nee  mulier. 

Nee  androgyna  ; 

Nee  puella,  aecj.yve/iis, 

Nee  anus  ; 

N.'c  cajla,  nee  mcrelr'ix, 

Nee  pudica  j 

Sed  omnia  : 

Sublata 

Nf  Hue  fame,  neqtieferro, 

Neqtii  veneno  ; 

5: d  omnibus  : 

Nee  ctIo,  nee  terris, 

Nee  aquis, 

Sed  uhique  jacit. 

Lucius   AguthH  Prifcius, 

Nee  7iiaritui,  nee  aviator, 

Nee  Jiecelfarius  ; 

Neque  vixrens,  neque gaudens, 

Neque  fiens ; 

Hanc, 

Nee  molem,  t:ee pyraviidem, 

Nee  J'cpuUhruiii, 

Sed  omnia, 

Scit  et  nefcit,  c'li  popierk. 

That  is  to  fay,  To  the  gods  manes,  JElia  LxrtaCriff.is,  ■ 

neither  man,  or  luoman,  nor  hermaphrodite  ;  neither  girl, 

nor  fouug  -woman,  nor  old ;  neither  ehajte,  nor  a  -euhtre  ; 

but  all  the fe  :  killed  neither  by  hunger,  iiorfteel,  nor  pci- 

fon  ;    but  by  all  tkefe  :  rej/s  neither  in  heaven,   nor  on 

earth  nor  in  the  waters  ;    tut  every  where.      Lucius  A- 

gatho  Pr'fciui,  neither  her  hujband,  nor  lever,  nor  friend ; 

neither  forrowful,  nor  joyful,  nor  weeping,   certain   cr 

uncertain,  to  wle'itn  he  rears  this  vicnuvient,   neither  e- 

reBs   her  a  temple,    >:o'r  a  pyramid,    nor  a  tomb,   but 

alt  thcfe.     In  the  MS.  at  Milan,  inllead  of /3.  M.  we 

find  A.  M.  I'.  P.  D.  and  at  the  end  the  following  ad 

dition  : 

Hoc  efl  fepulchrum  intus  cadaver  noii  habcns, 
H'jc  ejt  cadaver  fe piilchi  U)n  extra  non  babens, 
Sed  cadaver  ii^  m  ejl  et  fepulchrum 
We  find  near  50  fcvtral  folutions  of  this  aenigma 
advanced  by  learned  men.  Marius  Michael  Anue- 
lus  maintains  JElia  L.elta  Crifpis  10  (Ignify  rain-wa- 
ter fallin  J  into  the  lea.  Ri.  Vitus  lirll  explained  it  of 
Niube  turned  to  a  flone,  afterwards  of  the  rational 
foul,  and  afterwardsoftl'.e  PI  itonicidca  ;  Jo.Turrius, 
of  "the  materia  prima  ;  Fr.  Schottus,  of  an  eunuch; 
Nic.  Bernardus.of  the  philolophcrs-nonc.in  wliich  he 
is  followed  by  Borrichius  ;  Zucb.  Poiitinus,  of  three 
human  bodies  in  i'.ic  famclitu.ition,aiulliiiricJby  three 
ditrcreiit  men  it  the  fame  lime  j  NcfmonJius,  of  a 
l.iw  fuit ;  [o.  Gaf.  lierartius,  of  love  ;  7.u.  Boxhor- 
nius,  of  a  (liidow  ;  P.  Tcrronus,  of  mulic.  Fort  Li- 
ceius,  ofgrncratiun  friendlhip,  and  privation  :  M.Ov. 
Montalbanus,  of  hemp  ;  Car  Ca-f.  Malvalia,  ofana- 
bortive  girl  proniifcd  in  marrlajre  ;  Pet  >'engailu,':,  of 
the  rule  of  cIiaAity,  prefcribed  by  the  founder  of  the  - 

military.'' 


JF.mzTKk^ 


^,  O  L 


[ 


VEniftiiatO' 
grjphy 

11 
j'EoUpilc. 


■  military  religion  of  St  Mary  ;  M.  dc  Ciconia,  of  pope 
Jo.iii ;  llciiinaiuis,  of  Lot's  wife  ;  and  Lutly,  J.  C.  S. 
an  anonymous  writer  in  the  Leipiic  Ads,  of  the  Chri- 
ilian  church. 

.t:NlGMATOGRAPHY,or^:NiGMATHOLOGY, 
the  art  of  rcfolving  or  making  asnigmas. 

ANONA  (anc.gcog.),acity  of  Liburnia,  called  by 
Pliny  C/p//tf/  I  /tf/.'»;;,lhercalon  of  which  isiinknown  ; 
aho  £/;o«rt,andisnow  called  A  o«a  ;  on  the  Adriatic,  by 
which  it  is  for  I  he  greater  part  furrounded;  ovcr-againll 
the  illand  Gilia,  from  which  it  is  dillant  four  miles  to 
the  well.     E.  Long.  i6o,  Lat.  28". 

jtNL'S  (anc.  geog.),  now  the  /;;;/,  a  river  of  Ger- 
many, which,  riling  in  the  country  of  the  Grifons, 
out  of  the  Alps,  in  the  dillriiit  called  Gottes-haus-punt, 
runs  through  the  Grifons,  the  county  of  Tyrol,  the 
duchy  of  Havaria,  and  through  Pallau  into  the  Da- 
nube. 

ALkvs,  JEhos,  ox  JEnum  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of 
Thrace,  fituate  on  the  eaft-moft  mouth  of  the  Hebrus, 
which  has  two  mouths  ;  and  faid  10  be  built  by  the  Cu- 
means.  It  was  a  free  town,  in  which  flood  the  tomb 
ofPolydorus,  (Pliny)  ;  A'///.vj  is  the  epithet.  Here  the 
brothcrof  Cato  Uticcniis  died,  and  was  honoured  with 
amonument  of  marble  in  the  forum  of  the  ^nii,  (Plu- 
tarch) ;  called  JEiu'i,  (Stephanus)  ;  Livy  fays  that  the 
town  was  oiherwifc  called  Ahfynihus.     Now£«o. 

^NITHOLOGIUS,  in  poetry,  a  verfe  of  two 
dacly Is  and  three  trochxi  ;  as,  Pracliu  dira  placciit 
triici  juveiilae. 

>EOLI/E  INSULj?:;,  now  Ifole  di  Lipari,  (anc. 
geog.),  fcveni (lands,  fituatcd  between  Sicily  and  Italy, 
io  called  from  yEolus,  who  reigned  there  about  the 
time  of  the  Trojan  war.  The  Greeks  call  them  H^l^hae- 
Jliades  ;  and  the  Romans  K«/t^«;<7t-,  from  their  fiery 
eruptions.  They  are  alfo  called  Liparaeorum  liifu- 
lac,  from  their  principal  illand  Lipara.  Dionyfms  Pe- 
riegetes  call  them  n>.i/Ta/  becaufe  circumnavigable. 

jtOLIC,  in  a  general  fenfe,  denotes  fomething  be- 
longing to  Aolis. 

A^OLIC,  or  i-Eoi.iAN,  in  grammar,  denotes  one  of 
the  five  dialects  of  the  Greek  tongue.  It  was  tirfl  ufcd 
in  Koeotia  ;  wiicnce  it  palled  into  ^Eolia,  and  was  that 
which  Sappho  and  Alcseus  wrote  in.  The  Alolic  dia- 
Icft  generally  throws  out  the  afpirate  or  Iharp  fpirit, 
and  agrees  in  fo  many  things  with  the  Doric  dialect 
that  the  two  are  ufually  confounded  together. 

JE'jUc  digawa'i'i,  a  namegi\f.i  to  the  letter  F  which 
the  yJlolians  ufed  to  prefix  to  words  beginning  with 
vowels  as  \  octc,  for  ixroc ;  alfo  to  infert  between  vow- 
els, as  OF  j{,  for  mc 

JEoLic  yerfi,  in  profody,  a  verfe  confining  of  an  i- 
ambus,  or  fpondce ;  then  of  two  anapefls,  feparated 
by  a  long  fy liable  ;  and,  ladly,  of  another  fyilable. 
Such  as,  0  jtillifiii  coiidilor  orbii.  This  is  otherv.ilc 
called  i?;/A^'/c  verfe  ;  and,  from  the  chief  poets  wlio 
ufed  it,  Arch'dochiait  and  rindarit. 

/^iOLIPlLE,  in  hydraiilics,  is  a  hollow  ball  of  me- 
tal, generally  ufed  in  courfes  of  cx|"eriniental  philofo- 
phy,  in  order  to  demonftrate  the  poiiibility  of  convert- 
ing water  iiito  an  elallic  ileam  or  vapour  by  heat.  The 
inilrumcnt  therefore,  conlilts  of  a  (lender  neck,  or 
pip;-,  having  a  narrow  orifice  inferred  into  the  bnll  by 
means  of  a  Ihouldertd  fcrew.  This  pipe  bcini>  taken 
out,  the  ball  is  filled  almufl  full  of  water,  and  the  pipe 


4.2       ]  y1^    O   L 

being  again  fcrewed  in,  the  ball  is  phced  on  a  pan  of    jEilis 
kindled  charcoal,  whi^c  it  is  well  heated,  and  tliere  I 

iliues  from  the  orifice  a  vapour,  with  prodigious  vio-  .  -^""- 
lencc  and  great  nolle,  which  continues  till  all  the  in- 
cluded water  is  difcharged.  'I'hc  Itronger  the  fire  is, 
the  more  elallic  and  violent  will  be  the  lUim ;  but  care 
mull  be  taken  that  the  fmall  orincc  of  the  pipe  be  not, 
by  any  accident,  Hopped  up  ;  becaufe  the  inilrumcnt 
would  in  that  cafe  infallibly  burit  iu  pieces,  with  fucli 
violence  as  may  greatly  endanger  the  lives  of  the  per- 
fons  near  it.  Another  way  of  introducing  the  water 
is  to  heat  the  ball  red-hot  when  empty,  which  v.'ill 
drive  out  almofl  all  the  air  ;  and  then  by  fuddenly  im- 
mcrging  it  in  water,  the  prcifure  of  the  atraofpherc. 
will  force  in  the  fluid,  till  it  is  nearly  full.  Des  Cartes 
and  others  have  ufedthisjnlhunicnt  to  account  for  the 
natural  eaufc  and  generation  of  the  wind  :  and  hence 
it  was  called  JEohpila:  q.  d.  pilaJEoli,  the  ball  of  JiLo- 
lus  or  of  the  god  of  the  winds. 

v^-^OLIS,or  yEo  I.I  A  (  anc.  geog  ),  a  country  of  the 
Hither  Afia,  fettled  by  colonies  of  vtolian  Greeks. 
Taken  at  1  irgc,  it  comprehends  all  Troas,  and  the  coafl 
of  the  Hellefpont  Co  the  Propontis,  becaufe  in  thofc 
parts  there  were  feveral  /tolian  colonies:  moreftrictly, 
it  is  lituated  between  Troas  to  the  north,  and  Ionia  to 
thelouth.     The  people  are  called  JEolns,  or  JEolii. 

iiEOLIUM  MARE  (anc.  geog.),  apartoftheEgeaa 
fea,  wadiing  /Eolis  ;  called  alfo  Myfium,  from  Mylia* 
Now  Cillcd,  (Jbtfo  diSmynia. 

/J^OLUS  in  heathen  mythology,  the  god  of  the 
winds,  was  faid  to  be  the  fon  of  Jupiter  by  Acalla,  or 
Sigclia,  the  dauglitcr  of  Hippotus;  or,  according  to 
others  the  fon  of  Hippotus  by  Mcneclca,  daughter  of 
Hyllus  king  of  Lipara.  He  dwelt  in  the  illand 
Strongylc,nowcalledi'/r6«io/o,oneof  thefeven  illaads 
called  /Eolian  from  their  being  under  the  domin- 
ion of  ..i^olus.  Others  f;iy,  that  his  relidcnce  was  at 
Regium,  in  Italy  ;  and  others  again  place  him  in  the 
illand  Lipara.  He  is  rcprefentcd  as  having  authority 
over  the  winds,  which  he  h  eld  enchaincdin  a  vaflcavera 
to  prevent  their  continuing  the  deveflations  they  had 
been  guilty  of  before  they  were  put  under  h  is  direction. 
Mythologids  explain  the  original  of  ihefe  fables,  by 
faying,  that  he  was  a  wife  and  good  prince  ;  and,  be- 
ing (killed  in  aftrononiy,  was  able,  by  the  flux  and  re- 
flux of  the  tides,  and  the  nature  of  the  volcano  in  the 
illand  Strongylc,  10  foretel  (lorms  and  tcmpelts. 

Harp  of  ALiilvs,  or  the /Eolian  lyre.  Sec  Acot;- 
sTics,  n"  10. 

AiOX,  a  Greek  word,  properly  fignifying  the  age 
or  duration  of  any 'hing. 

/Eon,  among  the  followers  of  Plato,  was  ufcd  to 
fignify  any  virtue,  attribute,  or  perfection  :  hence 
they  rcprefentcd  the  deity  as  an  alfemblage  of  all  pof- 
liblc  seons  ;  and  called  him  pleiorna,  a  Greek  term 
lignifyiaqiy.'vA/f/}.  The  Valcntinians,  who,  in  the  firfl 
ages  of  the  church,  blended  the  conceits  of  the  Jewifli 
cabalifts,  the  Platonills,  and  the  Chaldean  pliilofoplicrs, 
with  the  I'lmplicity  of  the  Chrilliando^trine,  invented 
a  kind  of  Thcogiiny,  or  Genealogy  of  Gods  (not  un- 
like that  of  Heliod),  whom  they  called  by  fc  veral  glo- 
rious names,  and  all  by  the  general  a)ipcl!ation  of 
/Eons  ;  among  which  they  rcckoncilzaw,/^//?;  Aoj-ot, 
Word ;  Mer(->-cr»:,  Oniy-bigutteu ;  n>.»f(it-«,  fiilir.fs  ;  and 

many  other  divine  powers  and  emanations,  amountijig 

in 


JE  R  A 


C    H3     ] 


A  E  R 


JE^ri 


An. 


iu  number  to  thirty;  which  they  fancied  tobefuc- 
cclTivcly  derived  from  one  another  ;  and  all  from  one 
fclf-origiiiatcd  deity,  named  Bjthus,  i.e.  projoiind  or 
'  unJathoviabU  ;  wliom  they  called  likcv\  ifc,  Thi  j/iojl 
high  and  iiicffabie  Father,     See  V  A  L  E  N  T  i  N  i  A  n  s . 

^ORA,  among  ancient  writers  on  medicine,  is  ufed 
forgeftaiion  ;  which  fortofexercife  was  often  prefcri- 
bed  by  the  phyficians  of  thofc  days.  Other  cxcrcifes 
coiuillcd  principally  in  the  motion  of  the  body  ;  but 
in  the  awa  the  limbs  were  at  reft,  while  the  body  was 
carried  about  and  moved  from  place  to  place,  in  fuch 
a  manner  as  the  phyfician  prefcribed.  It  had  there- 
fore theadvantagcs  of  extrcife,  without  the  fatigue  of 
it. — This  exercife  was  promoted  fevcral  ways  :  Tome- 
times  the  patient  was  laid  in  a  fort  of  hammock,  fup- 
ported  by  ropes,  and  moved  backward  and  forward  ; 
fometimes  his  bed  run  nimbly  on  its  feet.  And  belidc 
thcfe,  the  feveral  ways  of  travelling  were  accounted 
fpeciesof  the  xora,  whether  in  tiic  litter,  in  a  boat  or 
Hiip,  or  on  even  ground  ina  chariot. — Afclepiadcs  was 
the  firft  who  brought  gellation  into  praflice,  which 
w-as  ufed  as  a  means  to  recover  flrcngth  after  a  fe- 
ver, &c. 

jiQUANA  juGA,  (anc.  geog.)  ;  mountains  of 
Picenum,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  now  called  Mou- 
tagiia  lit  Sorrsnto,  denominated  from  the  town  Aiqua, 
which  being  deftroyed,  was  replaced  by  Vicus,  now 
Vico  diSarrtiito  ;  called  alfo  JEquatia,  Sil.  Italicus. 

.lEQUIMELIUM,  in  antiquity,  a  place  in  Rome, 
where  flood  the  houfe  of  Spiirius  Melius,  who,  by  lar- 
gclTcs  corrupting  the  people,  affeded  the  fuprerac 
power  :  rcfufnig  to  appear  before  the  dictator  Cincin- 
natus,  be  was  (lain  by  Scrvilius  Ahala,  mafter  of  the 
horfe  ;  his  houfe  was  razed  to  the  ground  ;  and  the 
fpot  on  which  it  ftood  was  called  Area  Equiiuelii. 
(Livy.) 

jtRA,  in  chronology,  a  fi.xed  point  of  time  from 
whence  any  number  of  years  is  begun  to  be  counted. 

It  is  fometimes  alfo  written  in  ancient  authors  Era. 
The  origin  of  the  term  is  contefted,  though  it  is  ge- 
nerally allowed  to  have  had  its  rife  in  Spain.  Scpul- 
veda  fuppofed  it  formed  from  A.  £R.  A.  the  notoe  or 
abbreviatures  of  the  words,  annus  crat  Atigujli,  occa- 
fioned  by  the  Spaniards  beginning  their  computation 
from  the  time  their  country  came  under  the  dominion 
of  Auguftus,  or  that  of  receiving  the  Roman  calendar. 
This,  opinion,  however  ingenious,  is  rejcfted  by  Sca- 
ligcr,  not  only  on  account  that  in  the  ancient  abbre- 
viatures /i/ncver  ftood  for  annus,  nnlefs  when  preceded 
by  V  for  vixU  ;  and  that  it  fcems  improbable  they 
fliould  put  ER  for  erat,  and  the  letter  A,  without  any 
difcrimination,  both  for  annus  znd  Auguftus.  Voffius 
nevcrthelcfs  favours  the  conjedure,  and  judges  it  at 
leaft  as  probable,  as  cither  that  of  Ifidore,  who  de- 
rives ara  from  as,  the  tribute-money,"  wherewith 
Auguftus  taxed  the  world  :  or  that  of  Scaliger  himfelf, 
vho  deduces  it  likcwife  from  ars,  though  in  a  different 
manner.  JEs,  he  obf«rves,  was  ufed  among  the  an- 
cients for  an  article  or  item  in  an  account  ;  and  hcnc* 
it  came  alfo  to  ftand  for  a  fum  or  number  itfelf. 
From  the  plural  <r»d,  cameby  corrupiion  ra,  aravi, 
in  the  fingular  ;  much  as  Ofti,  Ofliam,  the  name  of  a 
place,  from  Gllia,  the  mouths  of  the  Tyber. 

The  difference  between  the  terms  .rra  and  e[ioch  is, 
that  the  acras  arc  certain  points  fixed  by  fome  people, 


or  nation  ;  and  the  epochs  are  poins  fixed  by  chrono-  jErarium 
logifts  and  hiftorians.     The  idea  of  an  aera  compre-  \ 

hends  alfo  acertainfucceffion  of  years  proceeding  from     XxtaU  ^ 
a  fixed  point  of  time,  and   the  epoch  is  that  foint  it-  "       ' 

felf.  Thus  the  Chriftian  aera  began  at  the  epoch  of 
the  birth  of  Jefus  Chrift.  Sec  Chro.s-oloc  v,  where 
the  different  itras,  &c.  are  enumerated  and  explained. 

^RARIUM,  thctreafury  or  place  where  the  pub- 
lie  money  was  depofited  amongft  the  Romans. 

JERAKiv.MSanflhis  contained  the  monies  arifing  from 
the  twentieth  part  of  all  legacies  :  this  was  kept  for  the 
extreme  neceffities  of  the  ftate. 

JEr4rilm  Prhalum  was  the  emperor's  privy  purfc, 
or  the  place  where  the  money  arifing  from  his  private 
patrimony  was  depofited. 

jUrarivm  Viceftmarum,  the  place  where  the  money 
arifing  from  the  taxes  levied  fromforeign  countries  was 
laid  up,  fo  called  becaufe  it  inoft  commonly  conlirttd 
of  a  twentieth  part  of  the  produce. 

Mrarivm  Ilithjiae,  or  Junortis  I.ucinae,  was  where 
the  monies  were  depofited  which  parents  paid  for  the 
birth  of  each  child. 

There  are  feveral  other  trcafurics  mentioned  in  hif- 
tory,  as  the  xrariutn  Juventutis,  Veneris,  &c.  The 
temple  of  Saturn  was  the  public  treafury  of  Rome, 
either  becaufe  Saturn  firft  taught  the  Italians  to  coin 
money,  or,  which  is  moft  likely,  becaufe  this  temple 
was  the  ftrongeft  and  moft  fecure,  and  therefore  the 
fitteft  place  for  that  purpofe. 

JErarnnu  differs  from  Jifcus,  as  the  firft  contained 
the  public  money,  the  fccondthat  of  the  prince.  The 
two  are,  however,  fometimes  indifcriminaiely  ufed  for 
each  other. 

^RARIUS,  a  name  given  by  the  Romans  to  a 
degraded  citizen,  who  had  been  ftruck  off  the  lift  of 
his  century.  Such  perfons  were  fo  called  becsufe  they 
were  liable  to  all  the  taxes  {^ara),  without  enjoyino- 
any  of  its  privileges. 

The  ararji  were  incapable  of  making  a  will,  of  in- 
heriting, of  voting  in  alfemblies,  of  enjoying  any  poft 
of  honour  or  profit ;  in  effect,  were  only  fubicct  to  the 
burdens,  without  the  benefits  of  fociety  ;  yet  they  re- 
tained their  freedom,  and  were  not  reduced  to  the  con- 
dition of  (laves.  To  be  made  an  urarlns  was  a  pu- 
niflimeni  infiicled  for  fome  offence,  and  reputed  one 
degree  more  fcvere  than  to  be  expelled  a  tribe,  triiu  ■ 
nioveri. 

j9iR  ART  us  was  alfo  an  officer  in  ftittited  by  .'Alexander 
Severus,  forthe  diftribution  of  the  money  given  in  lar- 
geffes  to  the  foldiery,  or  people. 

j^RARius  was  alio  ufed  for  a  perfon  employed  in 
coining  or  working  brafs. 

Thcfe  arc  fometimes  called  *r*r////y(iri?j  :  at  other 
times,  ararius  is  diftinguiflicd  from  y'/z/or  ;  the  former 
anfwering  to  what  we  now  callcopper-fmiths,  the  lat- 
ter to  founders. 

jEr  ARi  c  s  was  ILkewifc  applied  to  a  foldicr  who  re- 
ceives pay. 

AERIA,  or  Eeria  (anc.  geog.),  the  ancient  name 
of  Egypt:  the  fcholiaft  on  Apollonius  Rhocii;s,  fays, 
that  not  only  Thclfaly,  but  Egypt,  was  called  'Hifiaby 
the  Greeks,  which  Eufebius  alfo  confirms  :  and  hcucc 
ApoUinarius,  in  his  tranilation  of  the  ir^th  Pfalm, 
nfes  it  for  Egypt.  Hefychius  applies  this  name  to  E- 
thiopia. 

AERIAL, 


1 


A  E  R 


[     144    ] 


A  E  R 


Aer;al,         AETIIAL,  i:i  a  gciicfiil  fcnfc,  Jcnotcs  f,;niciliir.g 
Acrians.    partaking  of  the  nature  of  air;  ihus,  aeiial  lubilaiicc, 
"^        aerial  particles,  &c. 

JtiiiAL  I  crjjpiflhe. ScePEK.sri.cTi\  E  aiidPAiNT- 

ING. 

AKRIANS,  in  church  hiflory,  a  brar.ch  of  Arians, 
vlio,  10  the  doitriiicsof  that  feet,  a.'.Jeil  fame  pecu- 
liar dogmas  of  tiicir  own;  as,  that  ilierc  is  no  dilfe- 
rcncc  between  Lifliops  and  pricfts  ;  a  doftrlne  iiiain- 
tained  by  mar.y  modern  divines,  par;ici;ljrly  of  the 
prefbyterian  and  reformed  churches.  The  fcclrcceiv- 
cd  its  denomination  from  Acrius  an  Arn'.enian  pricft  of 
the  fourth  century.  He  founded  liis  dodtriuc  chitrly 
npon  fo.iic  palfagcs  in  St  Paul  ;  and,  am')ng  others, 
upon  that  in  i  Tim.  iv.  14.  where  the  apollle  exhorts 
him  not  to  ncglccl  Iki  giji  *..•  haJ  rccifived  by  the  Uiying 
nil  of  the  hanih  of  the  I  rcjl'jtiry.     Here,  obfervcs  Ac- 


rius, are  no  iTicntioiiof  bifliops  :  on  the  con-.rary,TL-  Flo<  Jy- 
luotliy  evidently  received  hiv-urdination  from  the  pref-  jTicro, 
bytcrsor  priclls. —  Epiphiniuszcalr;ul1y  mainiaiiis  the  .    T"-' 
fuperiorily  of  bilhops  againft  the  Atrians.     The  word 
preJl>)Un,  ulVd  by  the  apoftb  ,  he  obfervcs,  includes 
both  bifiiops  and  pricRs  ;  the  v<hole  fcnatc  or  allembly 
of  the  cccleuadics  of  the  place. 

Flos  /tRlS,  among  alchcniifls,  fniall  fcales procu- 
red from  copper  melted  by  a  ftrong  heat ;  it  is  fomc- 
linits  ufcd  for  wnigo  or  vcrdigrifc. 

AEROGRAl'HY,  from  «.f,  air,  and  >;«?»,  I d.'- 
fi.ribc ;  a  dcfcriptionof  thcair,oratmofphcrc,  its  limits, 
liimcnfions,  properties,  &c. —  fliis  amounts  to  much 
the  fame  \\  ith  aerology,  unlefs  wc  fuppofc  thcla'tcr  to 
enter  into  ilic  rational,  and  tlie  former  to  conline  it- 
fclf  to  3  defcription  of  the  more  obvious  affcclioas 
thereof.     See  Atmosphere. 


AEROROLOGY, 


THE  doflrineor  feicnccof  Air,  its  nature  and  dif- 
ferent fpccies,  with  their  ingredients,  properties, 
phenomena,  and  ufcs. 

Air,  in  a  general  fenfe,  isthat  invifiblc  fluid  every- 
where furrounding  the  globe;  on  which  depends  not 
op.ly  animal  but  vegetable  life  J  and  which  fecins,  in 
fliort,  to  be  one  of  t)ic  great  agents  employed  by  na- 
ture in  carrying  on  her  operations  throughout  th« 
world. 

Though  the  atteniwnof  philofophers  has  in  all  ages 
been  eng.igcd  in  fome  mcafureby  inquiries  concerning 
the  nature  of  the  atmof|diere,  yet  till  within  thefc  lafl 
50 years,  little  more  than  the  mere  mechanical  action 
ofthis  fluid  wasdifcovercd,  with  the  exigence  of  fome 
anomalous  and  permanently  elaflic  vapours,  whofcpro- 
perties  and  relation  to  the  air  we  breathe  were  aliiioll 
entirely  unknown,  ^\■ithin  tlie  abovemtntioncd  pe- 
riod, hovvcver,  tlic  difcovcries  concerning  the  conlli- 
tuent  parts  of  the  atmofphcrc  itfelf,  as  well  as  the  na- 
ture of  the  dilTercr.i  j'ermancnlly  clallic  fluids  which  go 
under  the  general  nameof  </jr,  have  been  fo  numerous 
and  rapid,  that  they  have  at  once  raifed  this  fubjcit  tt) 
the  dignity  o( 3.  Science,  and  now  form  a  very  conlidcr- 
ablc,  as  well  as  important,  part  of  the  modern  fyflcm 
of  natural  philofophy. 
TTtility  of  Thofc  difcoveries,  indeed,  have  not  been  more  in- 
ithefabjca.  tcrefling to philofophers,  than ufeful  tofcienccand  be- 
neficial to  fociety.  Many  perplexing  procclfcs  in  che- 
miltry  have  been  explained  in  confecjuencc  of  them, 
fevcral  have  been  facilitated,  and  a  number  of  new 
and  nfcfur  ones  have  been  introduced.  The  pheno- 
mena attending  metallic  calcinations  and  reductions 
have  been  greatly  elucidated.  The  knowledge  of  the 
ufe  of  the  air  in  refpiration  ;  the  method  of  afcertain- 
ing  its  purity  and  titnefs  for  that  funftion;  the  invcfti- 
gation  of  dephloj'jfticated  air  ;  the  metliod  of  impreg- 
nating water  with  fixed  air  ;  are  all  cakulated  to  an- 
fwerpurpofes  of  the  highefl  utility.  Tlie  medicinal 
properties  of  rixcd  air  have  been  in  a  great  nieafure 
afcertained,  and  its  aniifcinic  qualities  in  other  re- 
fpccls  pri^nife  to  be  of  conlideraMc  advantage.  The 
method  of  afcertaining  the  purity  of  the  air  of  a  place, 
and  the  inai,iner  of  ventilating  an  apartment,  arc  of 


great  ufe  for  thofc  concerned  in  public  buildings.  In 
ihort,  there  is  perhaps  no  flation  in  life  where  fome 
knowledge  of  tliis  fubjett  may  not  be  of  ufe. 

Sect.    1.     Of  the  general  Conflitutlon,  Mechanical 
Fropcrtics,  and  Operations  of  the  Air. 


\  I.  The  general  Conflilution  of  the  Air  lue  breathe. — 
For  many  ages  this  fluid  was  fuppofed  to  be  ilmplc 
and  homogeneous  ;  its  common  operations  to  depend 
on  its  heat,  cold,  moillure,  or  drynefs  ;  and  any  eilcds 
which  could  not  be  explained  by  thefc  (fuch  as  the 
appearance  of  pellileniial  difcafcs),  were  reckoned  to 
be  entirely  fupernatural,  and  the  immediate  etfee^sof 
Divine  power.  But,  however  limple  and  homogene- 
ous this  fluid  may  have  been  thought  in  former  times, 
itis  fo  far  from  poircfling  the  fimplicity  of  an  element, 
that  it  is  the  receptacle  of  all  kinds  of  effluvia  )iroduced 
from  terrefirial  fubftanccs  either  naturally  or  artificial- 
ly.Hence, whatever  maybe  the  nature  of  the  aerial  fluid 
when  abfolutely  pure,  that  which  we  breathe,  and  com- 
monly goes  under  the  name  of  air,  mnlt  be  confidercd 
as  an  exceedingly  heterogeneous  mixture,  various  at 
various  times,  and  which  it  is  by  no  means  poflible  to 
analife  with  accuracy. 

Though,  in  this  view,  air  feems  to  be  a  kind  of  fink 
or  common  fewer,  where  all  the  poifonous  effluvia  ari- 
fingfrom  putrid  and  corrupted  matters  are  depolitcd  ; 
yet  it  has  a  wonderful  facility  of  purifying  itfelf,  and 
one  way  or  father  of  depofiting  thofe  vapours  contained 
in  it ;  fo  that  it  never  becomes  noxious  except  in  par- 
ticular places,  and  for  a  fliort  time  ;  the  general  mafs 
remaining  upon  all  occalions  pretty  murh  the  lame. 
The  way  in  which  this  purification  is  efl^efted  is  dif- 
ferent,according  to  the  nature  of  the  vapour  with  which 
the  air  is  loaded.  That  which  molt  imivcrf.illy  pre- 
vails is  water  ;  and  from  experiments  it  appears,  that 
the  quantity  of  aqueoiis  vapour  contiined  in  the  a'- 
mofphcrc  is  immcnfe.  Dr  f'allcy,  from  an  experi- 
ment on  the  evaporation  from  a  fluii  furface  heated  to 
the  fame  degree  with  that  given  by  our  meridian  fun, 
has  calculated,  that  the  evaporation  from  thcMediicr- 
ranean  fea  is  alone  fufScicnt  to  yield  all  the  water  of 

the 


Ancient  0- 
pinions 
concerning^ 
the  air. 


a 
Common 
air  3  very 
heteroge- 
neous fluid* 

3 
In  what 
manner 
it  ymrifici    ' 
itfelf. 


4 
Vaft  quail" 
titich  of 
water  con- 
tinuallydil* 
charged  in- 
to it  by  e- 
vaporation. 


Sea.  I. 


A       E       R 


o 


5 
l')iffcreut 
kinds  of 
apoitfs 


Of  Air  tlic  rivers  wliiclinin  iiitoic.  Dr.  Wstfoii,  in  liisCla- 
iii  general.  lAical  K:r;ys,  h;'.s  givcnaii  accoiintoflomc  cxpcrinicnis 
^ mr.dc  with  a  view  to  determine  the  ijnaiitity  of  tin;  wa- 
ter raifci!  from  the  earth  iif^if  in  time  of  dro-.iijht. 
He  informs  us,  that,  when  there  had  been  no  r.-iii  for 
ahove  a  inojiih,  and  the  grafs  vas  become  quite  brown 
and  parched,  the  evaporation  irom  an  acre  was  iioi  lefs 
than  i6co  gallons  in  24  hours.  Making  afterwards 
two  experiments,  when  the  ground  had  been  v.tited  by 
a  thimdcr-lhowcr  the  day  before,  the  o:!e  gave  i97?> 
the  other  1905,  gallons  in  12  hoiirs,  I'rom  this  the 
.lir  is  every  moment  purilicd  by  the  afccnt  of  the  va- 
pour, which  flying  off  into  the  clouds,  th'.;s  leave*  room 
lor  the  exhahtion  of  frclh  quantities  ;  fo  thai  as  the 
vapour  is  coiifiderably  lighter  than  tlie  common  r.tmo- 
fphere,  andofconfequeucc  afcends  with  greater  velo- 
city, t!if  air  during  all  this  time  is  faid  to  be  i!i\}  ,  not- 
withflariding  the  vifl  quantity  of  a'.jutou3  fluid  that 
paflcs  through  it. 

Nor  is  it  only  from  t!ic  aqueous  vapou/  tiiat  the  air 
is  purified  at  this  time.  Much  of  that  vapour  arifing 
from  decayed  and  putrid  animal  and  vegetable  fub-  ■ 
'*'"'''"'"■  llances,  and  which  by  font e  nioJern  I'liilofopheis  is 
called  phlojijioti,  attaches  itftlf  to  cue  aqueous  vapour, 
and  afcends  along  with  it.  Another  part  is  abforb- 
od  by  vegetables  ;  for  tke  phlogiliic  vapour,  as  is 
fliowuundcr  Agriciii.ture,ii°  J.  is  probably  the  food 
of  plants.  The  phlogifiic  vapours  which  afccnd  along 
vnth  the  water,  probably  continue  there  and  defcend 
along  with  the  rain;  whence  the  fertilizing  quilities 
of  rain-water  above  thofc  of  any  other.  Thus  we  may 
fee  why  a  dry  air,  whether  cold  or  hot,  niiifl  always 
be  wholcfomc  ;  but  as  the  atmofphere  cannot  always 
receixie  vapours,  it  is  obvious,  that  when  great  rains 
come  on,  efpecially  if  attended  with  heat,  the  lower 
regions  of  the  air  raufl  be  overloaded  with  vapours  botli 
of  the  aqueous  and  phlogiliic  kind,  aiidof  confcquence 
be  very  iinwholcfomt. 

But  btlides  the  aqueous  and  phlogiftic  vapours,  both 
of  which  are  fpecih'cally  lighter  than  common  air, 
there  arc  others,  which,  being  fpecifically  heavier, 
cannot  be  carried  off  in  this  manner.     Hence  thefc 
grofs  vapours  coniamiuatc  certain  places  of  the  atmo- 
fphere, rendering  them  not  only  unhealthy,  butabfo- 
lutcly  poifonous.     Ofthefeare,  I.  Sulphureous,  acid, 
and  metalline  exhalations.     Thefe  are  produced  prin- 
cipally by  volcanoes  ;  and  as  they  defcend,  in  confc- 
quence of  their  fpceific  gravity,   they  fuftbcate  and 
fprcaJ  deft-  uelion  all  around  them,  poifoning  not  only 
animals,  but  vegetables  alfo.     2.  The  vapours  ari(ing 
from  houfeswherc  lead  and  other  metah  arefnielted, 
have  the  fame  pernicious  qualities  ;  infomuchthat  the 
men  who  breathe  them,  the  cattle  who  cat  the  grafs, 
and  the  fiihcs  who  ir.habit  the  waters  on  which  they 
fall,  arc  poifoned  by  them  if  taken  into  the  body  in  a 
certain  proportion,      j.  Of  the  fame  kind  arc  the  }/io- 
fctcs,  orcminaiions  of  fixed  air,  which  fomctimes pro- 
ceed fromokl  lavas,  or  perhaps  from  fome  other  places 
even  of  the  f.irfacc.     From  all  thefc  the  air  feems  not 
capable  of  purilying  itfelf,  otherwife  than  either  by 
difpcrfmg  them  by  winds,  or  by  letting  them  fubfidc 
by  ihcir  fuperior  gravity,  till  they  are  abforbed  cither 
by  the  earth  or  water,  according  as  it  is  their  nature 
to  unite  with  one  or  other  of  thefc  elements.     4.  Of 
this  kind  alfo  feem  to  be  the  vapours  w  hich  are  called 
'      Vol..  1. 


LOG       Y. 

properly  pcjliU-utiaL  'J"hc  contagi  in  of  the  plag.ic  it- 
felf feems  to  be  of  an  heavy  Ihiggiih  nature,  i::capjble 
ofariJingin  the  air,  but  attaching  itfelf  to  the  wall? 
of  houf.s,  bed-cloihs,  and  weariig  apparel.  Hence 
fcar.-e  any  conftitution  of -the  atmofphere  can  difpcl 
thefe  noxious  eiiluvia  ;  nor  does  it  fccm  probable  that 
pcftileniial  diftempers  ever  ccafe  until  the  contagion 
has  operated  fo  long,  and  been  fo  frcqicnily  comnui- 
nicatcd  from  one  to  another,  that,  like  a  ferment  much 
cxpoled  to  the  atmofplierc,  it  becomes  vapid,  comma- 
iiicatcs  a  milder  infection,  and  at  lail  lofesiis  ftrcniiih 
altogether. 

5  2.  3ici.k.ii!ical VitpirtUs  of  th;  Aiyi In  common 

with  v.-ater,  the  air  we  breathe  polFcdcs  gravity,  and 
confcquentlywill  perform  evcrythingiii  tiut  waywhich 
water  can  do,  making  allowance  for  the  great  ditfc- 
rence  between  the  fpeciric  gravity  of  water  and  of  air. 
This  dirt'eret'.ce  indeed  is  exceedingly  great,  and  has 
been  varioudy  calculated.  Iliceioluseftimates  the  gra- 
vity of  air  to  be  to  that  oi  water  as  i  to  1000  ;  Mcr- 
fennus,  as  i  to  1300,  or  i  to  1356  ;  Lana,as  i  to  6..;o  ; 
and  Galileo,  only  as  i  to  400.  Mr  Boyle,  by  more  ac- 
curate experiments  makes  the  air  at  London  to  be  to 
water  as  i  to  983  ;  and  thinks,  that,  all  things  con- 
fidered,  the  proportion  of  r  to  icoo  may  be  taken  ai 
a  medium.  Jiut  by  three  experiments  made  lince  that 
time  before  the  Royal  Society,  the  fpceific  gravity  of 
the  air  was  determined  to  be  to  that  of  water  as  i  to 
84D,  S52,  and  860.  By  a  very  accurate  experiment, 
Mr.  Haukfbee  fixed  the  proportion  as  i  to88j.  But 
as  all  thefc  experiments  were  made  when  tl;e  barome- 
ter was  at  29',  inches,  Dr  Jurin  fuppofcs,  that,  at  a 
medium  between  heat  a;'.d  cold,  when  the  barometer 
is  50  inches  high,  the  proportion  between  the  two 
fluids  may  be  taken  as  one  to  800 ;  and  this  agrees  with 
the  oblervations  of  the  Hon.  Mr  Cavendilh,  made 
when  the  barometer  was  594  inches,  and  the  thenr.o- 
me  ter  at  jo. 

By  means  of  its  gravity,  the  air  prclfcs  with  great 
force  upon  all  bodies,  accordiitg  to  the  extent  of  their 
farface.  M.  Pafcal  has  computed  the  quintityof  this 
prelfure  to  be  no  Icfs  than  2232  pounds  upon  every 
fquarc  foot  of  furface,  or  upwards  of  15  pounib  on 
every  fquare  inch.  According  to  fome  cxprinients 
made  by  M.  Amontons  andde  la  Hire,  a  column  of 
air  on  the  furface  of  the  earth,  and  36  fathoms  high, 
is  equal  in  weight  to  three  lines  depth  of  mercury. 
F'rom  the  barometer,  however  we  know  that  the 
vliok  prellare  of  the  almolpherc  is  very  different; 
fometimc:;  b.ing  equal  only  to  a  column  of  23  inches, 
and  varying  from  thence  to  31  inches.  The  whole 
quantity  of  prelliire  mufl  thus  be  be  immeufe,  and  has 
been  computed  equal  to  a  globe  of  lead  60  miles  in  dia- 
meter. 

By  means  of  itsgravity ,  t!icatmofphe"rc  accompliilies 
many  ufefal  purpofes  in  nature.  It  prevents  the  ar- 
terial vell'els  of  animals  and  the  fap-vclFels  of  plants 
from  being  toomnch  di:tcnded  by  the  expanfivc  power 

f whatever  it  is),  which  has  a  perpetual  tendency  to 
well  them  out.  Thus  we  fee,  that,  in  the  operation 
of  cupping,  where  the  ^'refr.rc  of  the  air  is  taken  oS" 
from  a  pariiei.hr  part,  the  rxpanfivc  force  inftantly 
ads, and  fwellsoutthc  velfcls  toagreat  degree.  Hence 
alfo,  when  animals  are  put  i:'i>  an  air-pump,  their 
whole  bodies  fwcU. 

T  By 


6 

Specific 
j»ravity  of 
the  air. 


Effea$  of 
the  praviry 
of  the  air. 


14^ 

Of  Air 
in  gcueral' 

8 

Elafticity 
of  the  air. 


9 
Whether 

thisproper 

ty  can  be 

diminilhed 


A       E       11       O 

By  its  graviiy,  ihe  air  promotes  the  union  of  liiiiJ 
bodies,  wliicli  woiilJ  iiiftantly  ccafc  in  vacuo.  Thus 
oils  ami  falts,  whicli  remain  united  in  air,  feparate  as 
foon  as  iliat  lluid  is  extracted.  Hence  alio,  when  hot 
water  is  put  under  an  exhauftcd  receiver,  it  boils  vio- 
lenily  ;  becaule  the  prelllire  of  the  air  being  now  ta- 
ken of,  the  panicles  of  lleam,  which  cxided  iiivilibly 
amonj;  the  water, and  which  the  gravity  oftheatmol- 
phere"prcventcd  from  liyingotf  fo  foon,  are  now  hur- 
ried up  with  great  velocity,  by  means  of  the  exccliivc 
comparative  gravity  of  the  aqueous  fluid. 

On  the  graviiy  of  the  air  depend  the  afcent  of  wa- 
ter in  pumps.fyphons,  &c.  and  likcwifc  all  the  phtno- 
nomcnaofthe  barometer. 

Belides  its  gravity,  which  the  air  has  in  common 
with  water  and  other  fluids,  there  is  another  which 
it  has  only  in  common  with  fleam  or  vapour.  This  is 
cnlleii  its  ilapkily  ;  by  which,  like  a  fpring  it  allows 
iifclf  to  be  comprclfed  into  a  fmaller  bulk,  and  then 
rtturns  again  to  its  original  li/,c  upon  removing  the 
prelfure. 

The  elafticityof  the  air  was  firfl  afccrtaiucd  by  fomc 
experiments  of  lord  Bacon,  wiio,  upon  this  principle, 
conftrufted  the  tirA  thermometer,  which  he  called  his 
vitrui/icalciidarf.  Of  this  power  we  have  numerous 
proofs.  Thus  a  blown  bladder  being  fijueezed  in  the 
hand,  we  find  the  included  air  fcnlibly  refill ;  fo  that, 
upon  ccaling  to  comprefs,  the  cavities  or  imprclTions 
made  in  its  furfacc  arc  readily  expanded  again  and 
filled  up. 

The  ftruilure  and  office  of  the  ///V-Pump  depend 
on  this  elaflic  property.  Every  panicle  of  air  always 
cxertsa  nifus or  endeavour  to  expand,  and  thusilrives 
againll  an  equal  endeavour  of  the  ambient  particles  ; 
whole  rcfiftauce  happening  by  any  means  to  be  weak- 
ened, it  immediaiely  dilfufes  itfelf  into  an  immenfe 
extent.  Hence  it  is  that  thin  glafs  bubbles,  or  blad- 
ders filled  with  air,  and  exa^ly  doled,  being  included 
in  the  exhaullcd  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  burllby  the 
force  of  the  air  tliey  contain  ;  and  a  bladder  almofl 
quite  flaccid,  fwells  in  the  receiver  and  appears  full. 
The  fame  effect  alfo  takes  place,  though  in  a  fmaller 
decree,  on  carrying  the  flaccid  bladder  to  the  top  of 
an  high  mountain. 

It  has  been  quellioncd  among  philofophers,  whether 
this  elaflic  power  of  the  air  is  capable  of  being  deflroy- 
edordiminidicd.  Mr  Boyle  made  feveral  experiments 
with  a  view  to  difcovcr  how  long  air  would  retain  its 
fpring  after  having  alfumed  the  greatefl  degree  of  ex- 
panlion  his  air  pump  would  give  it  ;  but  he  was  never 
able  toobfcrvc  any  feniible  dimunition.  Defaguliers 
found,  that  air,  after  having  been  inclofed  for  half  a 
year  in  a  wind-gun,  had  lofl  none  of  its  elaflicity  ;  and 
Robcrval,  after  preferving  it  in  the  fame  manner  for 
l6  years,  obfcrved,  that  its  expanfive  projedile  force 
was  the  fame  as  if  it  had  been  recently  condenfcd. 
Iseveithelcfs,  Mr  Haukfbec  concludes,  from  a  later 
cxptriment,  that  the  fpring  of  the  air  may  be  di/lurb- 
cd  by  a  violent  prcllure,  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  require 
fomc  time  to  return  to  its  natural  tone.  Dr  Hales  in- 
terred, from  anumber  of  experiments,  that  the  elafli- 
city of  the  air  is  capable  of  being  impaired  and  dimi- 
nilhed  by  a  variety  of  caufes. 

The  weight  or  prelTure  of  the  air  has  no  dependence 
on  its  elafticiiy  ;  but  would  be  the  fame  whether  it  had 


o 


Y. 


Sea.  I. 


fuch  a  property  or  not.  The  air,  however,  being  c-  Of  Air 
laflic,  isneccilkrily  afFe(5led  by  the  prcffurc,  which  re-  '"  i*^^"*^ 
duces,it  into  fuch  a  fpacc,  that  the  tlalliciiy,  which  rc- 
atts  agamll  the  conipnlliing  weight,  is  equal  to  that 
weight,  hi  eticC;t,the  law  of  this  clailicily  is,  that  it 
increafts  as  the  denfiiy  of  the  air  increafcs  ;  and  the 
deiility  increafcs  as  the  force  increafcs  by  which  it  is 
prefVed.  Mow  there  uiufl  necelfarily  be  a  balance  be- 
tween the  adion  and  rc-action  :  i.  e.  the  gravity  of  the 
air  which  tends  to  comprefs  it,  and  the  elaflicity  by 
which  it  endeavours  to  expand,  mull  be  equal.  Hence 
the  elaflicity  increafiug,  or  diminilhing  univerfally,  as 
the  denlity  lucrealesor  diminiihcs,  it  is  no  matter  whe- 
ther the  air  be  coniprelfcd  and  retained  in  fuch  a  fpacc 
by  the  weight  oi  the  atmofpherc,  or  by  any  other 
means  ;  it  mufl  endeavour  in  cither  cal'e  to  expand 
wall  the  fame  force.  And  hence,  if  air  near  the  earth 
be  pent  up  in  a  veflcl,  and  all  communication  with  the 
external  fluid  cut  ott,  the  prcllure  of  ihc  inclofed  air 
will  be  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  atinofphcre  at  the 
time  the  quaniiiy  was  conlincd.  Accordingly,  we  find 
mercury  iuflained  to  the  fame  height,  by  the  elaflio 
force  of  air  inclofed  in  a  glafs  vcllel,  as  by  the  whole 
atmofpherical  prelfurc.  On  the  fame  principle  air  may 
be  artificially  coiidcnlcd  ;  and  hence  the  llrufturc  of 
theAiK-6'««.  jg 

The  utnioll  limits  to  which  air,  of  the  dcnfity  which  Utmoft  li- 
it  potrellcsat  the  furfacc  of  the  earth,  is  capable  of  be-  mitsof  its 
ing  comprelled,  have  not  been  afcertained.  Mr  Boyle  condcnfa- 
niadc  it  i  3  times  more  denfe  ;  Dr  Halley  fays  that  he  "°"  *"•* 
has  feen  it  comprellcd  fo  as  to  be 60  times  denfer  than  '"P*""""- 
in  its  natural  Itatc,  whi«h  is  farther  confirmed  by  M. 
Papin  and  M.  Huygeus.     Dr  Hales,  by  means  of  a 
prcfs,  condenfcd  it  38  times  ;  and  by  forcing  water  in 
an  iron  bailor  globe,  into  1551  tinics  lets  Ipace  than 
it  naturally  occupies.      However,  Dr  Halley  has  af- 
ferted,  inthe  Philofophical  Tranfaillions,  Abr.  vol.  ii. 
p.  I  7.  that  from  the  experiments  made  at  London,  and 
by  the  academy  del  Cimcnto  at  Florence,  it  might  be 
fal'cly  concluded,  that  no  lorce  whatever  is  able  to  re- 
duce air  into  800  times  Icfs  fpace  than  that  which  it 
naturally  pollell'es  on  the  furfacc  of  our  earth.     In  an- 
fwer  to  this,  M.  Amontons,  in  the  Memoirs  of  the 
French  Academy,  maintains,  that  there  is  no  fixing 
any  bounds  toitscondenfation  ;  that  greater  and  great- 
er weights  willflill  reduce  itintolefsandlefscompafs  : 
that  it  is  only  elaflic  in  virtue  of  the  tire  which  it  con- 
tains i  and  that  as  it  is  impollible  ever  to  drive  all  the 
fire  out  of  it,  it  is  impoffiblc  ever  to  make  the  utmoll 
condenfation. 

The  dilation  of  the  air,  by  virtue  of  its  elaflic  force, 
is  found  to  be  very  furpriling  ;  and  yet  Dr.  Wallis  fug- 
gefls,  that  we  are  far  from  knowing  the  utmofl  of 
which  it  is  capable.  It  fever,:l  experiments  made  by 
Mr.  Boyle,  it  dilated  firfl  into  nine  times  its  former 
fpace  ;  then  into  5 1  times,  than  into  60  ;  then  into  1 50. 
Afterwards  it  was  brought  to  dilate  into  8000  times 
its  fpace,  then  into  10,000,  and  even  at  laftinto  i  3,679 
times  its  fpace  ;  and  tliis  altogether  by  ilsown  expan- 
five force,  without  the  help  of  lire.  On  this  dejiend 
the  flrudurc  and  ul'c  of  the  Manometer. 

Hence  it  appears,  that  the  air  we  breathe  near  the 
furfacc  of  the  earth  is  comprelfed  by  its  own  weight 
into  at  lead  the  i3,679lh  part  of  the  fpace  it  would 
polftCs  ill  vacuo.     But  i-f  the  fame  air  be  condenfcd  by 

art. 


Sect.  1. 


E       R     O 


Of  Air     ai't,  the  fjiace  it  will  take  up  when  mod  dilated,  to 
in  ncnci-al.  tliat  it  pojiclI'c>.  when  comleiifcd,  will  be,  accoiiliiig  to 

" •' the  lame  author's  cxperiineiiti,  as  550,000  10  1. 

_     "j:  M.  Ai:ioiitoiis,  ami  others,  w  t  have  already  obfcr- 

.,f  the  air    vcil,  atiribtitc  the  rarefaetion  of  the  air  w  holly  to  tlic 
by  heat      fire  contained  in  it ;  and  therefore  by  ir.crcaling  the 
degree  of  heat,  the  degree  of  rarefaction  may  be  car- 
ried IHII  farther  than  its  fpontancous  dilatation.     Air 
is  expanded  one-third  of  its  bulk  by  boiling  water. 

Dr  Hales  found,  that  the  air  in  a  retort,  when  the 
bottom  of  the  vellel  was  juft  beginning  to  be  red-hot, 
was  expanded  through  twice  its  former  fpace  ;  and  in  a 
white,  or  almoft  melting  heat,  it  occupied  thrice  its 
former  fpacc  ;  but  Mr  Robins  found  it  was  cx]>anded 
by  the  heat  of  iron,  jull  beginning  to  be  white,  to  four 
times  its  former  bulk.  On  this  principle  depend  the 
llrufture  and  oftice  of  the  Thermometer. 

M.  Amontons  tirll  difcovcrcd  that  air  will  expand 
in  proportion  to  its  denlity  with  the  fame  degree  of 
lieat.     On  this  foundation  the  ingenious  author  has  a 
difcourfc,  to  prove  "  that  the  fpring  and  weight  of  the 
air,  with  a  moderate  degree  of  warmth,    may  enable 
it  to  produce  even  earthquakes,  and  other  of  the  molt 
vehement  commotions  of  nature."     See  the  article 
jj        Earthcjuake. 
General  ef-      The  elalUc  powcrof  the  air,  then,  is  the  fecond  great 
lc&»  of  the  fource  of  theeff'edsofthis  important  fluid.  Thusit  in- 
air'selafti-  fmuatcs  into  the  porcs  of  bodies  ;  and,  by  podcfling  this 
"'f'  prodigious  faculty  of  expanding,  which  is  fo  ealily  ex- 

cited, it  mud  neceflarily  put  the  particles  of  bodies 
intowhicli  it  inilnuatcsitfeif  into  perpetual  ofcillations. 
Indeed,  the  degree  of  heat,  and  the  air's  gravity  and 
dcnliiy,  and  confcqucntly  its  elafticity  and  expanlion, 
never  remaining  the  fame  for  the  Icall  fpace  of  time, 
there  muft  be  an  incelfant  vibration  or  dilatation  and 
contraftion  in  all  bodies. 

We  obfcrvc  this  reciprocation  in  feveral  inftanccs, 
particularly  in  plants,  the  air-veflcls  of  which  do  the 
office  of  lungs  ;  for  the  contained  air  alternately  ex- 
panding and  contrading,  according  to  the  incrcufe  or 
diminution  of  the  heat,  alternately  prell'es  the  vellels 
and  eafes  them  again,  thus  keeping  up  a  perpetual  mo- 
tion in  their  juices. 

Hence  we  find,  that  no  vegetation  or  germination 
will  proceed  /;/  vacuo.  Indeed,  beans  have  been  ob- 
fervcd  to  grow  a  little  tumid  therein  ;  and  this  has  led 
fome  to  attribute  that  to  vegetation  which  was  really 
owing  to  no  other  caufe  than  the  dilatation  of  the  air 
within  them.  The  air  is  very  inflrumental  in  the  pro- 
duftion  and  growth  of  vegetables,  not  only  by  invigo- 
rating their  feveril  juices  while  i  nan  elafti'- active  ftate, 
but  alfo  by  greatly  contributing  in  a  fixed  ftate  to  tlie 
union  and  firm  connexion  of  tneir  feveral  conftitucnt 
parts. 

From  the  fame  caufe  it  is,  that  the  air  contained  in 
bubbles  of  ice,  by  its  continual  adion  burfls  the  ice. 
Thus  alfo,  entire  columnsof  marble  fomeiimes  cleave 
in  the  wintertime,  from  theincrcafed  elafticity  of  fomc 
little  bubble  of  air  contained  in  them.  From  the  fame 
principle  aiifc  all  putrcfartion  and  fermentation  ;  nei- 
ther of  which  will  proceed,  even  in  the  beft  difpofed 
fubjcdils,  In  vacuo. 

Since  we  find  fuch  great  quantities  of  ekftic  air  ge- 
nerated in  the  fohition  of  animal  and  vegetable  fub- 
llances,  a  good  deal  mult  conflantly  arife  from  the  dif- 


»47 

Air 


LOGY. 

foluiion  of  ihefe  aliments  in  the  ftDma'.h  aa J  bowels,     O; 
wiiich  is  much   promoted  by  it  ;  and,  i.i  rt^alily,  ail  ■'>  gitciil. 
natural   cjrrupiion  and  alteration  fecin  to  depend  on  ' 

air. 

\    3.  F.ffeCis  of  the  different  Ingndietiti  if  /lir 

This  Iliiid  acls  not  only  by  its  common  properties  of 
gravity  and  elafticity,  but  produces  numerous  other  cf- 
itds  ariiing  from  the  peculiar  iugrtdicnts  of  which  it 
con  fills.  J, 

Thus,  I.  It  not  only  dilFoivcs  and  attenuates  bodies  SoUmt 
by  its  prefliirc  and  attrition,  but  as  a  chaos  containing  power  of 
all  kinds  of  mcnftrua,  and  confcqucntly  poirclling  pow-  'li'*""  <"> 
ers  for  dill'olving  all  bodies.     It  is  known  that  iron '""*''■ 
and  copper  readily  diiFolvc  and  become  ruflyin  air,  ini- 
lefs  well  defended  with  oil.   Bocrhaave  alFures  us,  that 
he  has  fcen  pillars  of  iron  fo  reduced  by  air,  that  they 
might  be  crumbled  to  duft  between  the  fingers  ;  and  as 
for  co)>pcr,  it  is  converted  by  the  air  into  a  fubftance 
much  like  the  verJigril'c  produced  by  vinegar. 

Mr  Boyle  relates,  that  in  the  fouthcrn  Englilh  co- 
lonies the  great  guns  ruft  fo  i:i.ti.,  that  after  lying  in 
the  air  for  a  few  years,  large  cakes  of  crocus  raartis 
may  be  feparated  from  them.  Acofta  adds,  that  in 
Peru  the  air  diirolvcs  lead,  and  confidcrably  increafes 
its  weight.  Yet  gold  is  generally  eftcemed  indilfoluble 
by  air,  being  never  found  to  contract  ruft,  though  ex- 
pofcd  to  it  ever  fo  long.  In  the  laboratories  of  che- 
mifts,  however,  where  aqua  rcgia  is  prepared,  the  air 
becoming  impregnated  with  a  quantity  of  the  vapour 
of  this  mcnftruum,  gold  contracts  a  ruft  like  other  bo- 
dies. ,^ 

Stones  alfo  undergo  the  changes  incident  to  metals.  On  ftouc». 
Thus  Purbeck  ftone,  of  which  Salilbury  cathedral  con- 
lifts,  is  obferved  gradually  to  become  fofter,  and  to 
moulder  away  in  the  air  ;  and  Mr  Boyle  gives  the  fame 
account  of  Blackington  ftone.  He  adds,  that  air  may 
have  a  confiderable  operation  on  vitriol,  even  when  a 
ftrong  fire  could  ait  no  farther  upon  it.  And  he  has 
found,  that  the  funics  of  a  corrofive  liquor  work  more 
fuddcnly  and  manifelHy  on  a  certain  metal  when  fuf- 
tained  in  the  air,  than  the  mcnftrumn  iifclf  did,  w  liich 
emitted  fumes  on  thofe  parts  of  the  metal  which  it  co- 
vered ;  referring  to  the  effects  of  the  effluvia  of  vinegar 
on  copper. 

The  dilfolving  power  of  air  is  increafed  by  heat,  and 
by  other  caufes.  It  combines  with  water  ;  and  by  ac- 
ccfs  of  cold,  dcpofits  part  of  the  matter  which  was 
kept  diifolved  in  it  by  a  greater  degree  of  heat.  Hence 
the  water,  by  being  depofitcd  and  condcnfcd  upon  any 
cold  body,  fuch  as  glafs,  &c.  in  windows,  forms  fogs, 
and  becomes  vifible. 

In  the  various  operations  of  chemiftry,  air  is  a  very  y    -^-^ 
neceifary  and  important  agent ;  the  refuli  oi  particular  chemicll 
procelles  depending  on  its  prefcncc  or  abfencc,  on  its  effefij  of 
being  open  or  inclofed.     Thus,  tiic  parts  of  animals  the  air. 
and  vegetables  can  only  be  calcined  in  open  air  ;  in 
clofe  vellels  they  never  become  any  other  than  black 
coals.    And  thcfc  operations  arc  effected  by  the  changes 
to  which  the  air  is  liable.     .Many  inftanccs  mioht  be 
adduced  to  this  purpofe.     Let   it  fuffice  to  obferve, 
that  it  is  very  ditticult  to  procure  oil  of  fulphur,  pa- 
catnpanam,  in  a  clear  dry  atmofphere  ;  but  in  a  thick 
moift  air  it  may  be  obtained  with  greater  cafe,  and  in 
larger  quantities.     So,  pure  wcll-fermenicd  wine,  if  it 
be  carried  to  a  place  where  the  air  is  repleniii.ed  with 
T  2  the 


J  48 


of  Air 
ill  jjciicral 


l6 
Van  Hel- 
niunc  the 
firft  difco- 
vertrofdif- 
fcrcntkiiids 
cf  air. 


>7 
Difcovcrics 
hy  Mr 


A       E       R       O 

tfit  fiir.ics  of  new  wiiic  ilicu  rcnneiiiiiig,  will  btgiii  to 
'  I'crnicm  atVtlh. 

1  he  changes  in  the  air  arifc  from  various  caiifcs, 
andare  obfcrvaLIc,  not  only  iii  its  mechanical  proptr- 
lics,  fuch  as  gravity,  dcniity,  &c.  but  in  the  ingredients 
ihat  cmifofe  if.  'i  hiss,  as  Kalhlun  in  Sweden,  noted 
forcojii'cr-mincs,thc  mineral  exhalations  affe,:l  the  air 
in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  dilVolour  the  lilver  coin  in  purfes ; 
and  the  fame  titiuvia  change  the  colour  of  brafs.  In 
Carniola,  Campania,  &c.  w  lit  re  arc  mines  or  fulph.ir, 
the  air  bcconus  fometimcs  very  unwholefome,  which 
occalions  frequent  epidemic  difcafes,  «c. 

T!ic  ellUiviaof  animais  alio  have  their  effcft  in  vary- 
ing the  air  ;  as  is  evident  iiicoi.tagious  difcafes,  plagues, 
murrains,  and  other  mortalities,  which  arc  iprcud  dy 
an  infcded  air. 

For  the  vivifying  principle  of  air,  fee  the  article 
Blooc. 

Sec  r.  H.  Hiliorual  AccoidA  of  tkc  pr'titcipal  Difcove- 
riTS  ctnccrniir^  thi  Compojltiun  of  yitmojphencal  Aif 
and  othir  AJritil  Fluidi. 

Wh  ile  the  preceding  difcoveries  were  making  con- 
cerning the  mcehanical  and  other  propcniesof  the  air, 
little  notice  feems  to  have  been  taken  cf  the  elementa- 
ry parts  of  the  air  itfelf,  or  the  dilferent  kinds  of  Huid 
which  go  under  that  name.  It  was  known,  indeed, 
that  air  was  feparable  from  tcrreflrial  bodies  by  means 
of  fire,  fermentation,  &c.  but  this  was  commonly  rec- 
koned to  be  the  fame  \\ith  what  we  breathe.  Van 
Helniont,  a  difeiple  of  Paracelfus,  was  the  tirll  who 
undertook  to  n'.ike  inquiries  concerning  this  Ipccics  of 
air.  He  gave  it  the  name  of  gas  f)lvi.Jlre,  Irom  the 
Dutch  woTy^ghnajl,  figr.ifying  fpirit  ;and  obfcrvcs,that 
fome  bodies  refolve  themfelvts  ahiiofl;  entirely  into  it. 
"  Not  (fays  he)  that  it  had  btcii  aclually  contained 
in  that  form  in  the  bodies  from  which  it  was  feparatcd  ; 
but  it  was  contained  under  a  concrete  form,  as  il  iixed, 
or  coagulated."  According  to  this  aiuhcr,  the  gas 
fylveftrc  is  the  fanicv^ith  what  is  feparated  from  all 
fubftances  by  fermentation  ;  from  vegetables  by  the 
aftion  cf  fire  ;  from  gun-powder  when  it  explodes  ; 
and  from  charcoal  when  burning.  On  tliisoccalion  lie 
alFerts,  that  62  pounds  of  charcoal  contain  61  pounds 
of  gas  and  only  one  pound  of  earth.  To  the  etiiuvium 
cf  gas  he  alfo  attributes  the  fatal  efFeols  of  the  grotto 
del  Cani  in  Italy,  and  the  fuffocation  of  workmen  in 
mines.  He  allcrts,  that  it  is  to  the  corruption  of  the 
aliment,  and  the  gas  difcharged  from  it,  that  we  are 
to  attribute  wind,  and  the  difchargcsofit  from  the  bow- 
els. Upon  the  fame  principles  he  accounts  for  the 
ftvellingof  dead  bodieswhith  have  remained  for  a  time 
under  water,  and  for  the  tumours  which  arifc  on  fome 
parts  of  the  body  in  certain  difcafes.  He  alfo  '.eter- 
mines, that  t  his  gas  is  diftl  rent  from  the  air  we  breathe  ; 
that  it  has  a  greater  affinity  with  water  :  and  he  ima- 
gined it  might  conlift  of  water  reduced  to  vapours,  or 
a  very  fubiile  acid  combined  with  volatile  alkali. 

My  Boyle  repeated  all  Van  I'clmont's  experiments 
to  more  advantage  th.ni  hehimfclfhad  perforined  them  ; 
but  feems  not  to  have  proceeded  further  in  his  difco- 
veries than  Van  Hclmont  did  :  only  he  found  fome 
bodies,  fu;h  as  fulphur,  amber,  camphor,  &c.  dimi- 
niCh  the  volume  of  air  in  which  they  burn.^ 


O  Cr 


Sedt.  ir. 


Dr  Hales  firll  attempted  to  ddermine  the  quantity 
of  air  produced  from  dilierent  bodies  ;  for  which  pur- 
pole  he  made  experiments  on  almoft  every  known  fub- 
Itance  in  nature,  examining  them  by  uiltillaiion  fer- 
mentation, eonibuiUon,  combinations,  he.  He  alfo 
firll  fufpeded,  that  the  brilknefs  and  fparkling  of  the 
\saters  called  acdtHous,  Vi-cre  owing  to  the  air  they 
contained,  liut  netwithllanding  all  hisdifcovcricscon- 
cerning  the  quantity  of  elallic  tluld  obtained  from  dif- 
ferent bodies,  he  did  not  imagine  there  was  any  ellen- 
lia!  dilFerence  between  this  riuid  and  the  air  we  breathe; 
only  that  the  former  was  loaded  \\  ith  noxious  vapours, 
lorcign  to  its  nature.  His  lufpicion  ceiicerning  this- 
impregnation  was  confirmed  by  i\l.  Vend,  protellijrof 
chemiltry  at  Montpilier,  in  a  memoir  read  before  the 
"Royal  Academy  of  iieicnccs  in  1750.  This  gentle- 
man was  able  to  difeiigagc  the  air  from  the  5ilt/.er 
v.-aters,  and  to  meafurt  its  quaiitity  ;  vhichhccon- 
flanily  found  to  amount  to  about  one-fitih  of  its  bulk. 
The  water  thus  dcj'rivcd  i>f  its  air  became  fiat,  and 
ceafed  to  Iparkle  ;  the  only  diHerence  then  betwixt  it 
and  common  water  was,  that  the  former  contained  a 
fmall  quantity  of  fea-falt.  Upon  ihefe  principles  he 
attempted  to  recompofc  Selt/.er  water,  by  dilfolving 
in  a  pint  of  common  water  two  drachms  of  ludile  al- 
kali, and  tlun  adding  an  equal  quantity  of  nariiie  acid. 
The  quantity  of  fea-filt  produced  by  the  union  of 
ihefc  two,  he  knew  would  prove  equal  to  that  contain- 
ed in  a  pint  of  Seltzer  water  ;  and  the  effcrvtfcencc 
produced  by  the  aiflion  of  the  acid  and  alkali  upon 
each  other,  he  imagined,  would  produi^c  air  fuflitie]U 
for  the  impregnation  of  the  water.  In  this  he  was 
not  deceived  ;  the  water  thus  produced  was  not  only 
analogotis  toiieltzer,  but  nuith  nore  llrongly  impreg- 
nated will)  air. 

Dr  131ack  lirfl  difcovcicd,  that  chalk,  and  the  other 
earths  reducible  to  quicklime  by  calcination,  confillof 
an  alkaline  cs.riii  by  iifclf  fohiblc  in  water,  but  which, 
combined  with  a  large  <|uan;ity  of  fixed  air,  becomes 
iufoluble  ;  loling  the  propeniesof  quicklime,  and  af- 
fuming  the  natural  appearance  we  obfervc  ihofe  earths 
to  have  when  nt)t  reduced  into  lime.  The  fame  thing 
he  difcovcrcd  in  niagnelia  alba,  and  in  alkaiis  botii. 
fixed  and  volatile.  On  the  fixed  air  contained  in  thcfc 
bodies,  he  found  not  only  their  property  of  cfTcrvef- 
cing  with  acids  to  depend,  but  likewife  their  niildncfs; 
both  the  alkalis  and  calcareous  earth  being  highly 
caufiicwhen  deprivtdof  their  fixed  air.  He  alfo  found, 
that  this  fl'jid,  which  he  C2\\td.  fixed  air,  had  different 
degrees  of  affinity  with  different  fubflanccs  ;  that  it 
was  Hrongcr  w  ith  calcareous  earth  than  with  fixed  al- 
kali ;  with  fixed  alkali,  than  magnefia  ;  and  v,  ith  mag- 
nelia,  than  volatile  alkali.  He  aifofurpc(?}cd,  thatlhe 
fixed  air  of  alkaline  falls  unites  itfelf  with  the  precipi- 
tates of  metals,  when  thrown  down  from  acids  ;  and 
that  the  incrtafc  of  weight  obfcrvable  in  thefe  preci- 
pitates was  owing  to  this  caufe.  But  he  was  of  opini- 
on, that  the  fluid  which  he  called ^xt"/  o/r  was  very 
different  from  the  common  air  we  breathe  ;  and  there- 
fore adopted  the  name  of  air,  merely  as  one  already 
cftablilhed,  whatever  impropriety  there  niitht  be  in 
the  term. 

It  was  not  long  bef  re  the  difcovrry  of  this  fpecies 
of  air  fuggefled  new  theories  in  pliyliology  and  natural 
pbilofopliy.  Mr  Haller  had  inferred,  from  Dr  I'ales's 

experiments. 


Of  Air 
in  gencrsiU 

~l8 
Uy  Ur 
Halt*. 

19 

Sufpicion 
uf  airinniU 
ntral  wa- 
ters. 


ao 
t'onBrmed 
liyM.Vcr- 
net 


Ilifcuvcfics 
by  Dr 
Black,  &c. 


Scd.  H. 


A      E       R      O 


O 


Y. 


'49 


of  Air 
ill  general 


(Quantity 
of  filed  air 
coQtainc'l 
in  alkaline 
falfs  dctcr- 
mincil  by 
Mr  CaVLii- 
dift. 


1,? 
Coatcft 
concerning 
the  doc- 
trine of 
fixed  air. 


14 
Con-j-nfi- 
lion  *»f  the 
atrr.ofphere 
difcovtred. 


e:4pcrimcnt$,  that  air  is  the  real  cement  of  bodies  ; 
which,  tixiiigiil'tlt  in  thcfoiijj  aaJiiiiitis.iiaiics  them 
to  cacli  otiicr,  and  I'civcs  as  a  bond  by  svolcIi  they  arc 
kept  tVoiu  diiroliition.  In  r764,  Ur  .vlacbiidc  ot  Uub- 
lia  publiflied  a  number  ot  txi>erimciits  in  fiipjiort  of 
this  doctrine,  from  his  work  it  appcai\>,  that  lixcd 
air  is  leparatcd,  not  only  from  all  f.ibltaucLS  in  fenncn- 
tation,  bjtalfo  from  all  animal  fuDltanccs  a>  they  begin 
to  putrefy  ;  and  that  this  air  is  capable  of  ujiiiing  it- 
A!f  10  all  calcareous  earths,  as  well  as  alkalisbjth  nxtd 
a;'.d  volatile,  and  rclloring  to  them  the  property  of  ef- 
ftrvcfting  with  acids  when  they  have  by  any  means 
been  deprived  of  it.  But  though  thcfe  opinions  have 
(ince  been  found  erroneous,  the  conclulioas  drawn  by 
him  from  his  numerous  experiments  llill  liold  good, 
viz.  that  fixed  air  is  an  clailic  fluid,  very  dittcrcnt  from 
the  common  air  we  breathe:  that  it  is  poli'eli'cd  of  a 
llrong  antifeptic  quality,  and  may  be  introduced  with 
fafcty  into  the  intellinal  canal,  and  other  parts  of  the 
aiiiuial  (Economy,  where  common  air  would  have  fatal 
clFccls;   but  is  mortal  if  breathed  into  the  lungs,  &:c. 

In  1766  and  1767,  Mr  Cavendilli  communicated 
fomc  new  experiments  to  the  royal  Society  at  Lon- 
don, wherein  he  determines  tiie  quantity  of  air  con- 
tained in  fixed  alkali,  when  fully  faturatcd  with  it,  to 
be  live-twclfthsofits  weight, and  fcven-twclfthsinvo- 
latilc  alkali :  that  water  is  capable  of  a'oforbing  more 
than  its  own  bulk  of  this  air  ;  that  it  has  then  an  agree- 
able, fpirituous,  and  acidulous  talle;  and  that  it  has 
the  property  of  dilFolving  calcareous  earths  and  mag- 
nelia,  as  well  as  almoll  all  the  metals,  eipecially  iron 
and  zinc  :  that  the  vapour  of  burning  charcoal  occali- 
ons  a  remarkable  diminution  of  common  air,  at  the 
fame  time  that  a  coiMiderable  quantity  of  fixed  air  is 
produced  in  liie  operation,  lie  f.lfo  found,  that  foLi- 
tion  of  copper  in  fpirit  of  fak,  inlleail  of  producing  in- 
flammable air,  like  that  of  iron  or  zinc,  atri)rded  a 
fpccics  of  air  whicli  lot  its  clallicity  as  foon  as  it  came 
into  coniaft  with  water. 

The  dikovcrics  of  Dr  Black  concerning  fixed  air 
had  not  been  long  publiih-.-d,  when  they  were  violcntl/ 
attacked  by  fome  foreign  chcmills,  while  his  cai;fc  was 
3s  eagerly  cfpoufcd  by  others.  The  principal  oppo- 
nents were  Mr  Meyer  apothecary  at  Ofnabrnck,  Mr 
Crans  phylician  to  his  Ruliian  ALijerty,  and  f.lr  dc 
Smcthat  Utrecht.  Tlu Ir arguments,  however,  Vvcre 
eifcctually  cnfwcrcdat  the  time  by  Mr  Jacquin,  bota- 
nical profeilbr  at  Vienna;  and  the  numerous  difcovc- 
ries  made  fince  that  time  have  given  fuch  additional 
confirmation  to  liis  do^'trine,  that  it  is  now  univcrfally 
adopted  by  chcmills  both  in  Britain  and  other  coun- 
tries. It  was  refcrved,  however,  for  Dr  Priclllcy  to 
make  the  great  difcovery  concerning  the  natureofour 
atr.iofphcrc  ;  and  to  inform  the  world,  that  it  is  com- 
pofcd  of  two  fluids ;  tlie  one  abfolutcly  noxious,  and 
i;;capablc  of  fupporiing  animal  life  for  a  moment ;  tlic 
other  extremely  falutary,  and  capable  of  prcfcrving 
auiiiiaJs  alive  and  healthy  for  a  much  longer  time  than 
the  purefl  air  we  can  meet  with.  Ti'.is  may  beconli- 
dercd  as  the  ultimate  period  of  our  hiltory  :  for  finrc 
that  time  thedifcovericsof  philofophcrs  Piill  living,  i.i 
many  diltlrcnt  countries  have  been  fo  rapid,  that  it  is 
ditiicult  toafccrtain  the  dates  ofthcmby  any  authentic 
documents  ;  cfpccially  as,  by  rcafon  of  Inch  numerous 
txpcrimeiits,  the  time  things  have  not  unfrcquently 


been  difcovcrcd  by  diifercut  pcrfons  unk.iowr.  t-'CJch  n.r!iIo<;if- 
other.   We  Ihall  tlicrefore  proceed  to,gi.  .  it  ticiSed  .-lir. 

of  the  diit'tront  kinds  of  aerial  riui.ls,  bi^i,  .h         y~~' 

thole  which  arc  kno.vn,  or  fuppofcd,  u  coiuutuie  a 
par:  of  our  atniofphcrc. 

Sect.  Ill,     0/ Defh.'cri/licjteJ  Air. 

5  I.  Difcji'try  and  Mithods  of  proc:iriiig  this  K:i:J 
of  Air.—  L'cplilogiilicated  air  was  firlt  obtained  by  Vr 
I'riellleyon  the  iit  of  Augull  1774.  The  circjmuan- 
ces  w  hich  led  him  to  the  tiifcovcry,  were  his  caving 
always  procured  inliammable  air  from  fpirit  of  fait,  by 
adding  to  it  Ipirit  of  wine,  oil  of  olives,  oil  of  t'Trj-cn- 
tinc,thirco:'.l,pholphoru;,.  bees  wax,  and  even  fulphur. 
Hence  he  fulpcctcd,  that  the  common  air  we  breathe 
might  be  compofcd  of  fomc  kind  of  acid  united  with  j. 
phlogilton.  On  this  iuppolition  he  extracted  air  from  Whence 
mercurius  calcinatus  p^rfi,  by  expoling  it  to  the  fccus  5r(l  ex:nc- 
ofa  burning-glafs  12  inches  in  diameter;  and,  hiving '^■'• 
repeated  thcexperiment  with  red  precipitate  and  mini- 
um, he  found,  that  though  a  quantity  of  fixed  air  was 
always  produced,  yet  after  that  wasfeparated,  the  re- 
mainder fupported  iiame  much  more  vigoroudy  than 
common  air  ;  for  a  candle  burned  in  it  with  a  rtimc 
very  much  enlarged,  and  with  a  crackling  noifc,  at 
the  fame  time  that  it  appeared  fully  as  much  diniiniih- 
cd  by  the  tell  of  nitrous  air.  \V  hence  he  concluded, 
thaiit  wasrefpirable  ;  and,  on  making  thcexperiment, 
found  that  it  a^'tiially  was  fo,  for  a  moufc  lived  a  full 
halfhourinaqujntity  of  this  fluid  ;  which,  had  it  been 
common  air,  would  only  have  kept  it  a'liV-c  half  that 
time.  No-  did  the  animal  fccm  to  be  otherwifc  irjureil 
thaii  by  the  cold  ;  as  it  prefently  revived  on  bringing 
it  near  the  fire,  and  the  remainder  of  the  air  fti'.fap-  \ 
p-arcd  better  than  that  of  the  ?.tniofphcrc,  when  the 
t£!l  of  nitrous  air  was  apj'licd  to  it.  , 

This  pure  kind  of  air  being  difcovcrcd,  the  Do.".cr  why  na- 
next  proceeded  to  nzmc'n  d^pklcp'tjticat.d,   from  his  ire.'. de- 
opinion  that  common  air,  in  the"acl  of  burning,  ab- pJilosiKi^^- 
forbed  pl.logidon  ;  of  conftqiience,  he  fuppofed,  that  "'*• 
which  abfurocd  the  moll,  or  which  inoft  vigoroudy  and 
for  the  grtateil  length  of  time  f  :pportcd  flame,  was 
fuppofed  10  contain  the  fmallell  qu.intity  of  this  fub- 
lla.icc.     In  the  courfc  of  his  inquiries  why  this  kind 
of  air  comes  to  be  fo  much  dcphlogifticatcd,  he  fell  upo:i 
a  method  of  extrafling  it  from  a  great  variety  of  fub- 
ftancesjviz.  bymoiilcningthtmwiihfp:ri:ofnitre,and 
then  dilUUing  them  witha  ftronghcat.     Thus  hcob-  Produced 
taincd  it  from  ilowcrsofziirc,chalk,quicklime,llacked  from  a 
lime,  tobjcco-pipe  clay,  riint,  Mufcovy  talcs,  and  even  great  vari- 
glafs.     He  then  found,  that  by  finiply  diilblving  any  ''X  oifnh- 
metal-in  the  nitrous  acid,  and  then  dillilling  the  foln-  '^""'• 
lion,  he  coulj  obtain  very  pure  air:  and  Mr  Warltirc 
found  even  the  trouble  of  diftillaiiounnnectirary  ;  no- 
thing more  being  requiiite  than  to  moilteiiVc'd  lead 
with  the  fpirit  of  nitre,  and  then  pour  upon  it  the  oil 
of  vitriol,  which  inftantly  i:ifengiv;ed  the  dephloTifti- 
cated  air  without  applying  any  more  heat  than  what 
was  generated  by  the  mixture.'  jg 

\V  hi:e  difccvcries  of  this  kind  engaj:;ed  Dr  Prieulev  Thii  kind 
in  Engl md,  Mr  Scheele  was  employed  in  a  fin-.ilarman-  of  »'•■  J'f- 
ner  in  Sweden  ;  and  had  adually  obtai;;cd  the  fame '■"°''""^"=''.^-- 
kind  of  air,  without  knowing  anv  thing  of  w-hat  Dr^"}''^'' 
Prie.llcy  had  done.     Th:  latisr  had  the  merit  of  the  '"'"''• 

prior 


'JO 


E 


K 


O 


»9 

Mjy  be 
)in)duccil 
wiihout  111 
trui'5  aciil. 


Ucj-libgif-  piiyr f?if covery  :  but  Mr  Stlicdc's  method  wus  more 
ti.  jctd  Air.  i,:iij,l..-,  ^oiiliiiingoal/  in  tli.  dillilUtion  otiiilvc  witli 
*"  a  llroii^  iit-at  ;  by  \.hich  weans  ii  is  iinw  lunad  tha; 
dirphli'jiiUcaicd  air  uiay  bcobiuincd  in  very  coniulci- 
ablc  quantity,  and  in  as  grtar  purity,  as  by  llic  more 
< xpciilivf  proccllcS.  Tlic  port  uir  from  riiuc  haj  in- 
c'ctdpirtly  btcn  obtai.icd  by  Dr  H^lcs  long  before 
lliis  time  ;  liiK-e  lie  intornis  lu,  that  liilf  a  cubic  inch 
of  nitre  yielded  90  cubic  inches  ol'air,  which  was  un- 
doubtedly the  fluid  \vc  Ipeak  of;  but  as  he  neglected 
t'j  profecutc  the  dilcovcry,  nothing  fanlur  was  known 
at  that  lime. 

As  the  nitrous  acid  was  univcrfally  concerned  in  the 
(irft  pr6ccires  for  obtaining  this  kind  of  air,  it  was  for 
fome  lime   generally   believed    to  be  a  peculiar  pro- 
perly of  thai  acid   alone  to  produce  it  ;    but   the  in- 
defatigable genius  of  Dr  PriclUey  fooi.  found,  that  it 
might  not  only  be  procured  where  no  niirous  acid  was 
employed,  but  where  the  fubllances  were  treated  with 
vitriolic  acid.     It  was  indeed  evident,  from  the  very 
lirft  experiment,  that  niirous  acid  was  not  ellcniially 
nccelfary  ;  fmce  pure  air  was  procured  from  precipitaie 
fir  fi,  in  the  preparation  of  \\  hich  no  nitrous  acid  is 
cmi>loycd.  The  AbbeKontana  found,  that  192  grains 
of  this  fubftance  yicldcd65l  cubic  inches  of  dephlogi- 
flicaied  air,  at  ihe  fame  time  that  the  weight  of  it  was 
reduced  to  7885  grains,  which  is  nearly  the  weight  of 
that  quantity  of  air.     It  had  formerly  been  obfervcd, 
that  the   weight  of  mercury  is  augmented  during  its 
convcrlion  into  precipitate  psr  fe,  as  that  of  lead  is  by 
its  converlion into  minium.  The  experimentsjull  now 
r.'.eniioned,  therefore,  Ihow,  that  during  this  procefs 
the  air  is  decompounded  ;  the  pure  dcphlogillicaicd 
part  of  it  being  abforbed  by  the  metal,  and  appearing 
agiinon  the  application  of  heat  ,  and  the  fame  appears 
to  be  the  cafe  with  red  lead,  from  the  experiment  of 
Mr  Warltirc  already  mentioned.  With  regard  to  this 
Lift  fubfl.ince,  however,  a  very  great  fingulariiy  is  ob- 
fervcd ;  viz.  that  when  new  ly  prepared  it  yields  none 
at  all,  and  even  for  fome   tii.ie  after  ihc  produce  is 
much  fmaller  than  when  it  has  been  long  kept.     The 
reafon  of  thisfcems  to  be,  that  the  minium  fiill  con- 
tains a  confiderable  quantity  of  phlogilion,  which  flics 
ofFintuthcatmofpherc  by  long  keeping,  a  larger  quan- 
tity of  the  dephlogiilicated  part  of  the  atmofphcre  be- 
ing imbibed  a  the  fame  lime.     The  mode  of  applying 
heat  has  alio  a  very  confiderable  efTcfl  on  the  quantity 
of  air  produced.    Thus,  Dr  Prieflley  remarks*,  that 
aiii  Obfcrv  "  from  equal  quantities  of  red  lead,  wiihout  any  mix- 
i  i.  27.        ture  offpirit  of  nitre,  andulingthe  fame  apparatus  for 
30        diftilling  it,  he   obtained,  by  means  of  heat  applied 


•  Exper. 


Ill  grcutc 


;n 


I'riuluccd    Cudjf „iy^  more  air  than  when  (lowly  applied,  in  the 

fcy'i'qu'ick  was  the  fame  in  both  cafes,  and  the  remainder  equally 

and  vUrntdephlogiiticated." 

heat.  By  heat  alone,  the  Doftot  found,  that  fedaiivc  fall, 

31        mangaiiefe,  lapis  calaminaris,  and  the  mineral  called 
Method  of  -       -  ■  ■  

itVrom'TO-  pill' gift'catcd  air  ;  the  firft  indeed  in  very  fmallqnan- 
rious  fub-  t'ty >  and  f  'mciimcs  even  of  a  quality  very  little  fupc- 
flmccs.  rior  to  common  air.  In  thefe  experiments,  he  made 
uft  of  fmall-bellied  retorts  of  green  glafs,  which  can 
fland  the  fire  bell,  containingabout  an  ounceof  water, 
and  having  narrow  necks  18  or  20  inches  long.  The 
Hibllance  xo  be  examined  was  put  into  a  retort  of  this 


proportion  of  ten  to  fix.     The  proportion  of  fixed  air 


lap:i poni;rofui,  luolfiam,  or  tuiiglieri,  would  yield  dc- 


LOGY.  Seel.  Iir. 

kind,  and  theuexpofed  10  a  red  heat,  cither  in  ftnd  or  Dephlogir- 
ovcr  a  lukcil  tire,  while  the  neck  of  the  vtiltl  was  «i"'<-<i--^'''- 
i)lungtd  in  water  or  mercury.  ^——-r—^ 

Haviugdiifolved  lixpcnnywcightsof  very  clean  iron 
in  oildf  \itriol,  and  ihen  dillilUd  ihe  fohiiion  to  dry- 
nefs  iji  a  long- necked  retort,  he  received  the  common 
air  a  liiilc  phlogiiticaicd,  fome  fixed  air,  nmch  viuio- 
lic  acid  air,  and  laiUy  18  ounce  mcafiires  of  dt))hlo- 
gilticaicd  air.  The  iron  that  remained  undinulved 
weighed  2;;  grains,  l"o  that  the  air  uas  yielded  by  live 
pennyweights  one  grain  of  iron.  The  ochre  weighed 
ii:\c\\  pennyweigliij  thirteen  grr.ins  :  folhat,  fays  lie, 
tliere  probably  remained  a  quantity  of  oil  of  vitriol  in 
it ;  andconfequently,  had  the  heal  been  greater,  more 
air  would  have  been  obtai'cd. 

In  his  experiments  wiili  the  nitrous  acid,  as  it  had 
conflantly  been  found,  that  by  pouring  on  more  nitrous 
acid  on  ilie  reliduum,  and  repeating  the  operation, 
IP  >re  deplilogiflicated  air  might  be  obtained,  the  Doc- 
tor determined  to  try  whether  the  fame  would  not  hold 
good  with  vitriolic  acid  alio.  For  this  purpofe,  he 
added  more  oil  of  vitriol  to  the  rcliduutn  of  the  laft- 
meniioncd  experiment.  When  in  a  red  heat  with  a  glafs 
retort,  it  )iclded  a  quantity  of  vitriolic  acid  air,  no 
fixed  air,  but  aboat  24  ounce  mcafurcs  of  dephlogifti- 
cated  air :  when,  the  retort  being  melted,  a  good  deal 
of  the  air  was  neccllarily  loll ;  but,  on  refuming  the 
procefs  in  a  gun-barrel,  he  procured  as  much  air  as 
had  been  got  before. — Purfuinglhefe  experiments,  he 
obiain.cd  with  common  crull  of  iron  and  oil  of  vitriol, 
dephljgillicaied  air  at  the  firfl  diftillaiion,  and  a  great 
deal  more  from  the  reliduum,  by  pouring  frelh  oil  of 
vitriol  upon  it.  The  fame  proLluct  he  obtained  from 
blue  vitriol,  fohuion  of  copper  in  the  vitriolic  acid, 
and  from  a  folution  of  mercury  in  that  acid.  On  this 
fubftance  he  remarks,  that  "  cither  by  means  of  oil  of 
vitriol  er  fpirit  of  nitre,  it  yields  a  great  quantity  of 
dephlogifiicatcd  air  :  but  wiih  this  diffiirence,  that  in 
the  procefs  w  ith  fpirit  of  nitre,  almoll  the  whole  of 
the  mercury  is  revived  (not  more  than  a  twentieth 
pan  being  loll, if  the  procefs  be  conduced  w-iih  care),; 
but  in  that  with  vitriolicacid,almo(lthe  whole  islofl." 
From  the  later  cxperimcntsof  Mr  Lavoifier,  however, 
it  appears  that  the  Doctor's  procefs  had  not  been  con- 
ducted with  futhcicni  care  ;  as  from  two  ounces  of  the 
dry  fall  formed  by  a  combination  of  vitriolic  acid  with 
mercury,  the  former  obtained  6  drachms  12  grains  of 
running  mercury,  belides  %  drachms  58  grains  of  mer- 
curial fublim:  tc  of  two  ditTcrent  colours.  Dcphlogi- 
flicated  air  was  likiwife  obtained  from  pure  calx  of 
tin,  or  putty,  mixed  with  oil  of  vitriol ;  but  none  ill 
any  trial  with  the  marine  acid,  excepting  when  it  was 
mixed  with  minium  ;  in  which  cafe  the  airobtainedwas 
probably  that  which  the  minium  would  have  yielded 
wiihout  any  addition. 

Thercfult  ofallihefe,and  innnmcrableotherexperi- 
m  cuts  made  by  philofophers  in  different  countries,  was, 
that  dephlogifticaicd  air  may  be  obtained  from  a  vafl 
variety  of  mineral  and  metallic  fubftances  by  means  of 
the  vitriolic  and  niirous  acids.     It  now  remained  only  How  d«- 
to  difcover  in  w  hat  manner  this  fluid,  foeiTentiatly  nc-  phlogifti- 
celFary  to  ihe  fupport  of  animal  lit'c,  is  naturally  pro-  cated  air  is 
duced  in  quantities  fufficient  for  the  great  expence  of  naturally 
it  throughout  the  whole  world,  by  the  breathingof  a-  P''"""^' 
nimals,  the  fupport  of  fires,  &c.     This  difcovcry,  in- 
deed. 


Sedt.  III. 


A       E 


R 


O 


O 


Y. 


'5» 


Dcphlogif-  deed,  had  been  made  before  even  ths  cxirtencc  of  de- 
ticatcdAir.  phlogifticatcd  air  itl'clf  was  known.  Dr  Pritltlcy,  af- 

^^ tcr  haviiijjcricd  various  mtllioJsof  purifying  contami- 

natidair  unfuccefsUilly,  found  at  Ull,  thai  foine  kinds 

of  vegetables  anfwcrcd  this  purpole  very  clfectually  ; 

for  which   difcovcry  he  received  the  thanks  of  the 

Royal  Society.  Among  the  vegetables  employed  on  this 

occaiion,  he  found  mint  anfwer  the  purpofc  very  cltlc- 

•  Ejpcr.     tually.  "  When  air,"  fays  he*,  "lias  been  frelhly  and 

andObfcrv.  ftrongly  tainted   with  putrefaction,    fo  as  to    fmell 

vol.  1.  p.  I.  through  the  water,  fprigs  of  mint  have  prefently  died 

4-        upoH  being  put  into  it,  their  leaves  turning  black  ;  but 

if  they  do  not  die  prefently,  they  thrive  in  amoltfur- 

prifing  manner.  In  noothcr  circuiulUnces  hivcl  ften 

vegetation  fo  vigorous  as  in  this  kind  of  air,  which  is 

immediately  fatal  to  animal  life.  Though  tlicfc  plants 

have  been  crowded  in  jars  tilled  with  tiiis  kind  of  air, 

every  leaf  has  been   full  of  life;  frefh  Ihoots   have 

branched  out  in  various  directions,  and  grown  much 

33  fafltr  thanother  limilarplaius  growing  in  the  famee.x- 
Noxiousair  pofurc  in  common  air." — Having  in  confequcnce  of 
improved  j|j j^  obfcrvation  rendered  a  quantity  of  air  thoroughly 
by  vcgcu-  „ojjjm,5^  l,y  f„j^j  breathing  and  dying  in  it,  he  divi- 

'  ^  '  ded  it  into  two  receivers  inverted  in  water,  introdu- 
cing a  fprig  of  mint  into  one  of  them,  and  keeping 
the  other  receiver  unaltered.  About  eight  or  nine 
days  after,  he  found  that  the  air  of  the  receiver  into 
which  he  had  introduced  the  fpri  g  had  become  refpi- 
rable  ;  for  a  moufc  lived  very  well  in  this,  whereas  it 

34  died  the  moment  it  was  put  into  the  other. 

fixperi-  From  thefe  experiments  the  Doilor  at  hrfl  conclu- 

mcutj  ded,  that  in  all  cafes  the  air  was  meliorated  by  the  ve- 
ceming  y  ~jtation  of  plants  :  but  even  in  his  tirft  volume  he  ob- 
t<jry_  lerves,  that  lome  experiments  ot  this  kind  did  not  an- 

fwer fo  well  towards  the  end  of  the  year  as  they  had 
done  ill  the  hot  feafon  ;  and  a  feconJ  courfc  fcemcd  to 
be  almoft  entirely  contrary  to  the  former.  Having 
tried  the  power  of  fevcral  forts  of  vegetables  upon  air 
infected  by  refpiration  or  by  the  burning  of  candles, 
he  found  that  it  was  geiurally rendered  worfc  by  their 
vegetation;  and  the  longer  the  plants  were  kept  in  the 
infecled  air,  the  more  they  phlogiilicated  it ;  though 
in  feveral  cafes  it  was  undoubtedly  meliorated,  efpcci- 
ally  by  the  Ihoots  of  ftrawberrics  and  fome  other 
plants,  introduced  into  the  vials  containing  foul  air, 
and  inverted  in  water,  which  were  placed  near  them, 
whilft  their  roots  continued  in  the  earth  in  the  garden. 
Sometimes  the  infected  air  was  fo  far  mended  by  the 
vegetation  of  plants,  that  it  was  in  a  great  meafurc 
•  Eipcr.  tiirncd  into  deplogiilicated  air.  "  On  ihe  whole,*" 
andObfcrv.  fays  Or  Priertlcy,  "  I  ftill  think  it  probable,  that  the 
iv.  vegetation  of  healthy  plants,  growing  in  fituations  na- 

tural to  them,  have  a  falutary  effect  on  thcair  in  which 
they  grow — For  one  inflance  of  the  melioration  of  air 
in  thefccircumilances  iliuuld  weigh  againfl  an  hundred 
in  which  the  air  is  made  worfe  by  it,  both  on  account 
of  the  difadvantagcs  under  which  all  plants  labour,  in 
the  circumllances  in  which  thefe cxperimentsniullbc 
35         made,  as  well  as  the  great  attention  and  many  prerau- 
m'cms'of     "°"^  '^^'  ^'"'^  requilite  incondudiing  fuch  a  prorcfs." 
Dr  Inpcn-        ^^  ''i<^  ''"^^  t''^'  Dr  Pricftley   made  thefe  cxptri- 
houfz  on     mcnts,  he  fuppofed  that  the  air  was  meliorated  merely 
thcratlio-  by  the  abforption  of  phlogillon  from  that  which  had 
ration  of     been  tainted  ;  but  the  experiments  of  Dr  Ingenhoufz, 
air  by  ve-  ^ajj  jjj  j  -j.j^   foowcd  that  this  wasaccomnliflied,  not 
gct.ition.  ^  ' 


only  by  the  abforption  jnft  mentioned,  but  by  the  e-  Dcphlo;;lf 
milfion  of  dephlogifticated  air.  He  obfcrvcd  in  L;c;it-  litatcd  Mr- 
ral,  that  plants  have  power  of  correding  bad  air,  and  " 
even  of  improving  common  air  in  a  few  hours,  when 
expofed  to  the  light  of  the  fun  ;  but, in  ihc  night-time, 
or  when  they  arc  not  iiiHucnced  by  the  folarrays,  they 
contaminate  the  air.  This  property,  however,  docs 
not  belong  in  an  equal  degree  to  all  kinds  of  plants  : 
nor  is  it  polfible  to  difcover  by  the  external  properties 
of  a  plant,  whether  it  be  fit  for  this  purpofeor  not  ;  as 
fome  whicli  have  a  bad  fmcll,and  are  entirely  unfit  for 
food,  fi^ow  (hemfelves  much  fuperior  toothers  whole 
external  appearance  would  fccm  preferable.  His  me- 
thod of  making  the  experiment  was,  to  fill  a  vial  with 
air,  fouled  either  by  refpiration  or  coinbullion  ;  after 
which  a  fprig  of  any  plant  was  introduced,  by  palfmg 
it  through  the  water  in  which  the  vial  was  immerfed. 
The  vial  was  then  flopped  ;  or  it  was  removed  into  a 
fniall  bafoH  full  of  water,  and  expoled  to  the  fun,  or  fi- 
tuatedin  fome  other  proper  place  asoccafion  required. 
Air  phlogiflicated  by  breathing,  and  in  which  a  candle 
could  not  burn,  after  being  expoled  to  the  fun  for  three 
hours,  with  a  fprig  of  peppermint  in  it,  was  fo  far  cor- 

reftcd,  as  to  be  again  capable  of  fupporting  flame 

The  following  experiment,  however,  made  with  a 
muflard  plant,  may  be  looked  upon  as  decifive:  A  plant 
of  this  kind  was  put  into  a  glafs  receiver  containing 
common  air,  and  its  (lem  cut  oif  even  with  ihemoutii 
of  the  receiver.  The  veHcl  was  then  inverted  in  au 
earthen  pan,  containing  fome  water  to  keep  the  plant 
alive,  and  the  whole  apparatus  was  fctover-night  in  a 
room.  Next  morning  the  air  was  found  fo  much  con- 
taminated, that  it  exttnguilhed  liie  flame  of  a  wax  ta- 
per. On  expoling  the  apparatus  to  the  fun  for  a  qu  ir- 
terof  an  hour,  the  air  was  found  to  be  fomewhat  cor- 
refted  ;  and  after  an  hour  and  an  half  it  was  fo  far  im- 
proved, that  by  the  ted  of  nitrous  air  it  appeared  con- 
liderably  better  than  common  air.  •(, 

Before  we  proceed  farther  in  the  account  of  Dr  In-  l)cphli>gif- 
genhoufz's  experiments,  it  will  be  ncceliaiy  to  relate  t'catid  ^ic 
fome  obfervations  made  by  Dr  Prielllcy  ;  from  wlii:h  pfo'luctd 
it  appears,  that  dephlogifticatcd  air,  in  very  conlidcr-  ^'""^  *■'" 
able  quantity,  may,  in  certain  circumllances,  be  pro- 
cured from  water  alone.  The  fubllance  of  thefe  is, 
that  water,  efpccially  pump-water,  when  cxpofed  to 
the  light  of  the  fun,  emits  air  (lowly  :  but  after  fome 
time  a  green  matter  appears  on  the  bottom  and  lidcs 
of  the  glafs ;  after  which  it  emits  very  pwre  air  in  great 
quantity,  and  continues  to  do  fo  for  a  very  long  time, 
even  after  the  green  matter  has  Ihown  lomefymptoms 
of  decay  by  becoming  yellow.  He  obfervcd,  that  the 
water  which  naturally  contained  the  greatefl  quantity 
of  fixed  air,  yielded  alfo  ihcgreated  quantity  of  that 
which  was  dephlogiflicatcd  ;  but  that  the  quantity  ot 
the  latter  much  exceeded  that  of  the  fixed  air  contain- 
ed even  iu  any  water.  Thelightof  the  fun  was  found 
to  be  an  rlfential  requifitc  in  the  foriuaiionof  thisair, 
as  very  little,  and  that  of  a  much  worfc  quality,  was 
produced  in  the  dark. 

Asthegreen  matter  produced  in  Dr  Prielllcy  "s  glaf- 
fcs,wasby  himlVlf,  as  well  as  others,  confidercd  as  be- 
longingto  the  vegetable  kinirdom,  Dr  hii^r -.houf/  im- 
proved upon  his  procefs,  by  putting  the  leaves  of  pla.irs       37 
into  water,  and  cxpofing'them  to  the  fun.    .All  planes  From  the 
were  not  equally  fit  for  producing  dcphlcMjiflicatcd  air  '«'""  "' 
3  bjP'"':». 


'5^ 


A 


R       O 


O 


Y. 


Sed.  III. 


P?plilo;;ir-  by  t uli  i;-.cthc J  ;i.o:'c  ilii.i  by  tlic orhcr.  Some  pcifonous 
ti..i!:i  Air.  pliiiis,  £3  ihe  hyofcyanuis,  lauro-ccraCi'.s,  lii^ht-l'.iaJi-, 

" '^ ilic  tnbacco-phiit,  a  trijil-rx  vulvarii,  ci:u[u  aqiutica, 

.MiJfabina,  were  fouiij  \cry  fit  tor  the  purpolc  ;  biu 
ihcpurcll  kindof  air  was  cxtrac-lcj  frmu  ioiwc  aquaiic 
vegetables, the  turpciuiiic-trees.andcfpccijUyrroiii  I iic 
green  mailer  be  collected  in  a  fionc  :;o;i;^h  v.hicliwas 
kept  eoiitinual'y  filled  \\i;h  water  froiu  t!vc  Ipiingncar 
the  lii^h-roaJ.  Tlic  purity  of  rliis  dephlogilticatcd air, 
he  fays,  was  cfjual,  it  not  fupcrior,  lo  that  procured  by 
the  beft  chemical  procelTcs  ;  as  it  lonictimcs  required 
tight  timta  its  own  quantity  of  nitroi's  air  to  faturate 
it.  All  pans  of  the  plants  were  not  found  equally  pro- 
j'crfor  ihe  prodadijn  of  tlcphlogidiciitt-J  air  ;  the  full 
grown  leaves  yield  it  in  grcatcll  quantity  and  purity, 
tfpccir.liy  from  their  under  fiirfic<'.  It  was  alio  pro- 
tared  from  the  green  Ualki.— One  liundrcj  leaves  of 
Ngjltiitl:i,"ilnd!c!im,  put  into  a  Jar  holding  a  gallon, 
filled  witli  ordinary  punip-watcr,  and  expofed  to  the 
fun  from  to  to  12  o'clock,  yielded  as  mucji  air  as  lill- 
fd  a  cylindrical  jar  four  inches  and  an  half  in  length, 

and  one  and  three  quaitcrs  in  brcaJtli On  removing 

this  quantity  of  air,  end  expoling  them  again  to  the 
fin  till  fevcn  o'clock,  abouthaltasniuch  wasprodiiccd, 
of  a  quslity  ilill  fupcriorto  the  fornur  ;  andnextinor- 
iiing  by  eleven  o'clock,  they  yielded  as  much  more  of 
an  equal  quality.  The  roots  of  the  plants,  he  fays, 
when  kept  out  of  ground,  generally  yield  bad  air,  and 
at  all  times  contaminate  common  air,  a  few  only  ex- 
cepted. l'"lowers  and  fruits,  in  general,  yield  a  very 
fuiall  quantity  of  noxious  air,  and  contaminate  a  great 
quantity  of  common  air  at  all  times,  efpecially  in  the 
night,  and  when  kept  in  th'j  dark.  Two  dozen  of 
young  and  fmall  French  beans,  kept  in  a  quart-jar  of 
common  air  for  a  fingle  night,  co-.;tar.iinated  the  air 
to  fu;h  a  degree,  that  a  very  lively  chicken  died  by  be- 
ing eontinci!  in  it  kfs  than  half  a  minute. 

The  ohfervations  of  Dr  IngcnhoulV.  on  the  whole, 
fays  Mr  Cavallo,  clearly  Ihow,  <<  that  the  vegetation 
iiriiigen-  of  plants  isone  of  the  great  means  employed  by  nature 
hHufz's  ex-  to  purify  the  atraofphcrc,  fo  as  to  couiit:raet,  in  great 
primciitr.  meafure,  the  damage  done  by  animal  refpiration,  com- 
buflion,&c.  It  may  only  be  faid,  that  vegetation  does 
not  appear  to  be  fufneient  to  remedy  entirely  that  da- 
ma'^e."  The  Doclor  himfclf,  however,  fpeaks  very 
highly  of  the  powers  of  vegetables  in, this  refpert.  He 
intorms  us,that  their  office  in  yielding  dephlogil^icatcd 
air  begins  a  few  hours  after  the  fun  lias  made  his  ap- 
pearance in  thchorizon,or  ratherafter  it  has  palled  the 
meridian, and  ceafcs  with  theclofcof  the  day  ;  cxcept- 
ino-fome  plants  which  continue  it  a  fltort  time  after  fun- 
fen  The  quantity  of  dephlogillicated  air,  yielded  by 
plants  in  general,  isgrcterin  a  clear  day  than  when  it 
isfomewhat  clojily.  It  is  r.lfo  greater  when  the  plants 
are  more  exjjofcd  to  the  fun,  than  wlicn  they  are  lituated 
ja  fliady  places.  lie  obfcrves,  moreover,  that  the  da- 
mage done  by  plants  in  the  night,is  more  than  counter- 
balanced by  the  benefit  they  ailbrd  in  the  day-time — 
"  By  a  rough  calculation, (fays  he),  I  found  the  poifon- 
OBS  .'.ir,  yielded  by  any  plant  during  the  whole  nif  ht, 
could  not  amount  to  one  hundredth  part  of  the  depfilo- 
gifticated  air  which  tlie  fame  plant  yielded  in  two  hours 
time  in  a  fair  day." — It  does  not  appear,  however,  that 
plants  yield  dcphlogifticatcd  air  iiy  any  kind  of  genera- 
tion of  that  fljid,   but  only  by  liltrating  the  common 


•    3» 
("onclufi- 
oni  frotii 


:;ir,  which  all  plants  abforb  thrc-.igh  their  pores  ;  the  DcpMogif- 

plilogillic  ji^art  becomijig  part  of  tlicir  fubllance,  and  located  air. 

jiroLiably  being  the  true  vegetable  food,  as  is  explain-  '      *"      ' 

td  more  at  large  under  the  article  .-\chicl'ltvre. — 

JJry  plants  liavc  little  or  no  cfTed  upon  the  sir  until 

they  were  nioiiUned. — Onall  thclecxperirfteiits,how- 

ever,  it  mufl  be  obfcrvcd,  that  they  liavc  fomctimcs 

failed  in  the  hands  of  ihofc  whom  wc  cannot  but  fup- 

pofc  very  ccpab'.c  of  trying  them  ;   as  Mr  Schcde, 

Mr  Cavallo,  and  the  Abbe  Kontana. 

After  the  publication  of  Dr  Ingenhoufz's  cxperi-  <j|^  if'^;,. 
ments,  it  became  generally  believed,  tliat  the  atniof-  niinTliom- 
pherc  was  meliorated  by  the  common  proccfs  of  vegc-  fon's  expc- 
tation,  and  that  plants  abforbcd  the  plilogidic  part  as  mtiits. 
their  food,  difehargiiig  the  purcdephlogilticated  airas 
an  excrement  ;  which  isjuft  the  reverie  of  what  hap- 
pens to  animals,  who  abfi^rb  the  pure  part  in  rcfj)ira- 
tion,  and  rcjec'lthc  phlogilMc.     Jn  the  Philofophical 
Tranfaiflions  for  1787,  however,  we  lind  a  numberof 
experiments  related  by  Sir  Benjamin  Thompfon,  which 
feem  to  render  tills  matter  dubious. — One  very  conli- 
derable  objedfion  is,  that  ihc  green  matter,  already 
mentioned  in  DrPrieftley's  experiments,  when  care- 
fully obferved  by  a  good  microfcopc,  appears  not  to  be 
of  a  vegetable,  but  ofanajiimal  nature.  Tlie  colouring 
matter  of  the  water,  fays  lie,  is  evidently  of  an  animal  Green  mat- 
nature  ;  being  nothing  inorethan  the  aflemblage  of  an  tcr  obfcr- 
inlinitenumber  of  very  fmall,  active,  oval-formed  ani-  vcd  l>yn 
inalculcs,  without  any  thine  refembling  trtimlla,  or  J'r,     7'  r 
that  kind  of  green  matter  or  watcr-mofs  which  forms  ■     , 

upon  the  bottom  and  fides  of  the  vefTel  when  this  water  na,ure. 
is  fuffcred  to  remain  on  it  for  a  confidcrable  time,  and 
into  which  Dr  Ingenhoufz  fuppofcs  the  animalcules 
above  mentioned  to  be  aftually  transformed. 

This  gentleman  has  alio  foniid,  that  feveral  animal 
fubflances,  as  well  as  vegetables,  have  a  power  offepa- 
raiiiig  dephlogiAicated  air  from  water  when  expofed 
to  the  light  of  the  fun,  and  tliat  for  a  very  great  length 
of  time.  Not  that  the  fame  quantity  of  water  will  al- 
ways continue  to  fiirniili  air;  but  the  fame  animal  fub- 
itance  being  taken  out,  wadied,  and  again  put  into 
frclh  water,  fcems  to  yield  dcphlogifticated  air,  with- 
out any  kind  of  limitation. 

Raw  lilk  poifelfcs  a  remarkable  power  of  this  kind.  D^piJio. 
To  determine  it,  Sir  Benjamin  introduced  30  grains  of  gijij^ated 
this  fubllance,  previoully  waflied  in  water,  into  a  thin  airprodu- 
glafs  globe  44- inches  in  diameter,  having  a  cylindrical  ced by  raw 
neck  ^nhsofan  inch  wide,  and  twelve  inches  long,  in-  '•In- 
verting the  globe  into  a  jar  filled  with  the  fame  kind  cf 
water,  and  expoling  it  to  the  adion  of  the  fun  in  the 
window.     It  had  not  been  ten  minutes  in  this  ftuati- 
on,  when  the   lilk  became  covered   with  an  infinite 
number  of  air-bubbles,  gradually  incrcafing  in  lizc,  till, 
at  the  end  of  two  hours,  the  lilk  was  buoyed  up,  by 
their  means,  to  the  top  of  the  water.  By  degrees  they 
began  tofeparate  themfclves,  and  form  a  collection  of 
air  in  the  upper  part  of  the  globe  ;  which,  when  exa- 
mined by  the  tell  of  nitrous  air,  appeared  to  be  very 
pure.  In  three  dayshe  had  collected  ^;  cubic  inches  of 
air  ;  into  which  a  wax-taper  being  introduced,   that 
h.ad  juft  been  before  blown  out,  the  wick  only  remain- 
ing red,  it  inftanily  took  fire,  and  burned  with  a  bright 
and  enlarged  flame.  The  water  in  the  globe  apjieared 
to  have  loll  fomething  of  its   tranfpa.ency,   and   had 
clianged  its  colour  to  a  very  faint  grecnilh  caft,  having 

at 


Sect.  III. 


R 


O 


Dcphlogif-  at  the  fiimc  time  acquired  tlie  fmtU  of  raw  filk — This 
ticatcdAir.  was  fevcral  times  repeated  with  frcili  water,  retaining 
"       "       '  the  fame  lllk,  and  always  with  a  fnialler  refult ;   but 
witli  this  difference,   that  when  the  fun  Ihone  very 
bright,   the  quantity  of  air   produced   was  not  only 
greater,  but  its  quality  fuptrior  to  that  yielded  when 
the  fun's  rays  were  feeble,  or  when  they  were  fre- 
quently intercepted  by  tlying  cloudb.  "The  air,  how- 
ever, (fays  he),  was  always  not  oiilymuch  beiter-than 
common  air,  but  even  than  that  produced  by  the  frefli 
Icavcsofplantscxpofcdinwater  to  the  fun's  rays  in  the 
experiments  of  Dr  ingcnhoufz  ;  and,   under  the  moll 
favourable  circumllances,  it  was  fo  good,  that  onemea- 
fure  ot  it  required  four  of  nitrous  air  to  faturate  it, 
and  the  whole  live  meafures  were  reduced  to  i.^S-" 
No  air  pro-      ^"  experiment  was  next  made  in  order  to  determine 
duccd  ill      thecrfctt  of  uarknefs  upoa  the  proJuftionof  air:  and 
the  dark,     in  this  cafe  only  a  few   inconlidcrable  bubbles    were 
formed,  which  remained  attached  to  tliefilk;  nor  was 
the  cafe  altered  by  removing  the  globe  into  a  German 
flovc.      Some  llngle  bubbles,   indeed,    iiad  detached 
thenifelves  from  the  filk  and  afceuBed  to  the  top,  but 
the  air   was   in  too  little  qoantiiy  to  be  meafurcd  or 
proved. — The  medium  heat  of  the  globe,  when  expo- 
fed  to  the  fun's  rays,   was  about  90"  of   Fahrenheit, 
though  fometimes  it  would  rife  as  high  as  96  ;  but  air 
wasfrequently  produced,  when  the  heat  did  not  exceed 
EffccU  of    ^5  3ud  70°.—  On  reverfing  this  experiment,  in  order 
light  with-  to  try  the  etfett  of  lighi  without  heat,    it  was  found, 
•utheat.      that  by  plunging  the  globe  into  a  mixture  of  ice  and 
water,  which  brought  it  to  the  temperature  of  about 
50°of  Kahrenheit,  the  produce  of  air  was  diniinilhcd, 
though  it  ftill  continued  in  confiderable  quantity. 

_.  **..  •  1       Th'  effedtof  artilicial  light,   inllead  of  that  of  the 
Of  artificial  -  .._'?.' 


light. 


fun,  was  next  tried.  For  this  purpofe  all  the  air  was 
removed  from  the  globe  ;  and  its  place  being  fupplied 
with  a  quantity  of  frefli  water,  fo  as  to  render  it  quite 
full,  it  wasagaininvertedinthe jar,  and  removedintoa 
dark  room  furrounded  with  fix  lamps  and  refleftors;  iix 
wax  candles  were  alfo  placed  at  different  diilancesfrom 
three  to  fix  inches  from  it,  and  dil'pofcd  in  fuch  a  man- 
nerasto  throw  the  greatefc  quantity  of  light  polfiblc 
upon  the  lilk,  taking  care  at  the  fame  time  that  the 
water  Ihould  net  acquire  a  grer.ter  heat  than  90".  In 
this  fituation  llic  lilk  began  to  be  covered  with  air- 
bubbles  in  about  ten  minutes;  and  in  fix  hours  as  much 
was  collected  as  could  be  proved  by  nitrous  air,  whea 
it  was  found  to  be  very  pure.  A  frefl\-gathcred, 
healthy  leaf  of  a  peach-tree,  and  a  ftcm  of  the  pea- ' 
plant  with  three  leaves  upon  it,  furnilhcdair  by  expo- 
fure  to  the  fame  light,  but  in  fmaller  quantities  than 
by  the  iiflion  of  the  folar  rays.  The  air  produced  in 
the  dark,  in  whatever  manner  procured,  was  always 
in  too  fmall  a  quantity  to  be  meafnred. 

In  making  thefe  cxucriments,  as  it  was  found  fomc- 
whattroiiblcforae  to  invert  the  globes  in  water,  they 
wcrcatlalloulykcpt  iiian  inclined  poihireonthe  t.ible, 
as  reprcfented  in  PI.  X.  lig.  i.the  aircolktlingitfelf 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  belly.  Having  provided  iiim- 
felf  with  a  number  of  globes  of  diiierent  fizes,he  then 
proceeded  in  his  experiments  in  the  following  manner. 
Finding  that  raw  filk,  expofed  to  the  aiflion  ol"  light, 
produced  fo  rreat  a  quauaiy  of  air,  ie  was  induced  to 
fuljftltutird  try  whether  Ibrae  other  fubftaiiccs  might  not  be  found 
(or  raw  out  capable  of  doing  the  fame.  Having  therefore 
filk-  Vol..  I. 


AS 
▼arioiis 
fu'ulancc* 


LOGY. 

provided  fix  globes  of  4'.  inches  in  diimetcr,  and  filled 
tiK:mwithfpringwater,hcintroducedintocachof  them 
1 5  grainsof  one  of  the  following  fubltanccs,i'/c.thcep's 
wotd,  cider-down,   fur  of  a  Ruliian  hare,  cotton  wool, 

lint  or  the  ravelingsof  linen  yarn,  and  human  hair 

The  refults  of  tl.efe  experiments  were,  i.  The  globe 
containing  the  fheep's  wool  began  to  yield  air  in  three 
da^s;  but  feveral  days  of  cloudy  weather  iiucrvcning, 
he  did  not  remove  it  for  fome  time,  when  only  ijihs 
of  an  inch  of  air  was  coUefted,  which  proved  very 
pure  when  tried  with  nitreus  air;  but  the  wool,  even 
in  the  moll  favourable  circumllances,  never  afforded 
more  than  one  third  of  the  quantity  which  would  have 
been  yielded  by  lilk.  2.  The  water  with  the  eider- 
down began  to  furnilhair  almoll immediately,  and  con- 
tinued to  do  foin  quantities  little  Icfs  than  had  been 
furnilhed  by  the  filk,  and  nearly  of  the  fame  quality. 
One  cubic  inchand  ihreequarttrsof  thisair,  furuilhtJ 
the  eighth  day  from  the  beginningof  the  experiment, 
with  three  meafures  of  nitrous  air,  was  reduced  to 
1.34.  3.  The  furof  the  hare  pi oduced  more  air  thaa 
the  wool,  but  lefs  than  the  cider-down.  Two  cubic 
inches  of  air  were  collected  in  four  days  ;  which  made 
its  appearance  in  a  different  manner  from  that  of  the 
other  fubftances,  the  air-bubbles  being  at  confiderable 
diilancesfrom  one  another,  and  growing  loan  uncom- 
mon lize  before  they  detached  themfelvcs  from  the  fur. 
The  cotton  yielded  a  conlnlerable  quantity  of  air  of  a 
better  quality  than  any  of  the  former.  Tiic  ravelings 
of  linen  were  very  flow  in  furnilhing  air,  and  produced 
but  a  fmall  quantity  ;  only  two  cubic  inches  beinw  col- 
ledUd  in  the  fpace  of  a  foi'tnight.  This  fubllance  ap- 
peared to  be  the  very  re\'crfeof  the  hare's  fur;  for  the 
air,  inlUad  of  attaching  and  coUet^ingitfclf  about  the 
fubtlance  in  large  bubbles,  fearce  ever  ma3e  its  appear- 
ance in  fufficient  quantity  to  raife  it  to  the  top  of  the 
water.  The  human  hair  furniOied  ilill  lefs  than  the 
linen,  and  the  produce  wasof  inferior  quality,  though 
ftill  fuperior  to  the  common  atmofphere. 

In  order  to  difcover  the  comparative  finenefs  of  air 
produced  from  vegetables  and  from  raw  filk,  a  fmatl 
qiinntityof  airfrom  tlie  llemof  a  pea-plant,  which  had 
four  healthy  leaves  upon  it,  was  proved  with  nitrous 
air,  and  found  greatly  inferior  to  that  from  raw  lilk 
and  feveral  of  the  fubftances  already  mentioned.  An 
entire  plant  of  houfewort,  of  a  moderate  fize,  furnilhed 
only  jths  of  a  cubic  inch  of  air  in  feven  hours,  and 
that  greatly  inferior  to  common  air;  but  the  leaves  a- 
lone  afforded  a  much  greater  quantity,  and  o[  a.qua- 
lity  greatly  fuperior. 

Having  proceeded  thus  far,  it  was  next  determined 
to  afcertain  how  much  air  a  given  quantiiy  of  water 
would  yield  by  expofiirc  to  tlic  fun's  rays.  For  this 
purpole,  a  globe  of  tine  white,  clear,  and  very  thin 
glafs,  containing  296  inches,  being  liiled  with  frelh 
Ipring  water,  and  30  grains  of  raw  filk  immerfed  in  ii, 
was  expofed  to  the  air  for  three  days  in  the  mouth  ot 
May,  but  for  the  moll  part  rold  and  cloudy.  During 
this  lime  only  94.  inches  of  air  were  produced  ;  but 
next  day.  by  expofure  to  the  fun  from  nine  in  the 
morning  till  rive  in  the  afternoon,  the  weather  being 
Very  tine,  S.46  inches  more  were  produced.  The  wa- 
ter h  ul  now  alfumed  a  light  grecnilh  colour.  Next 
day,  the  produfl  of  air  wa*;  ni;ie  cubic  inches,  of  a 
better  quality  ;  and  the  day  following,  Iix  inches  ftill 
U  fureritv. 


'i3 


ticatcdAir 


46 

Of  the 
"juantirjr 
of  air  pro- 
cured by 
means  of 
ihcfc  fu!>- 
llanccs 
from  w-a* 
tc.-. 


'54 

(Icatcd  V 


E 


R 


O       L      O      G      Y. 


St(ft.  III. 


47 
Of  the 
taafc  of 
this  pro- 
du<5lion 
air. 


f-  f.iperi'.ir,  tlioii  tJi  cxpift J  only  for  tlirce  hoar-i  anJ  an 
"•  hilf ;  b  u  thf  next  da/,  it  bci.ig  coKl  aid  cloudy,  only 
J;lis  of  an  iaoh  of  air  were  proJuccd,  a:;d  tlufc-  maiii- 
f  flly  iiiftriiirtu  tlie  f  ireji;oiii^.  Is'u  niort  air  could 
sfttrwirds  be  pro-iirtd,  ex  tpiiiigoiii-quancr  of  a  cu 
l>ic  iiicli  i  f'tliat  friin  29')  iiiclies  of  thii  water,  3  .9''> 
of  air  were  obtained. 

In  tliis  ex^>cri;iKm  the  air  prodarcd  wis  every  day 
removed  from  t'.ie  globe,  and  its  place  f.iyi'litd  willi 
\vat<r  :  the  follow  i.ijr  were  niade,  to  dcterniiac  vhat 
alteration  wj.ibl  t.:ke  j'la?e  on  allowi.ij;;  llie  quantity 
of  air  prodn  ed  t.>  remain  from  firft  to  l.ift.  The  globe 
being  therefore  filled  again,  and  the  filk  well  wilhcd 
a;id  replaceJ  in  it,  the  quantuy  of  air  produced  a- 
r.iounted  in  foardayb  to  ;o.i  c.ibit  inches  ;  a.id  would 
probably  h.-.ve  been  iiure  co  ili  Icrable,  had  not  the 
globe  been  unable  to  contain  it  along  with  the  water, 
a  id  therefore  there  was  a  nccelfity  for  putting  an  end 
to  the  experiment.  Thcqvia'iiy  was  fupcri -r  to  the 
former. — In  this  experiment  the  water  had  loft  its 
tranfparency,  and  acq.iircd  a  grecnilhcafl ;  a  quantity 
of  ycllowilh  earth  ivas precipitated  to  the  bottom,  and 
altarhcd  iifelf  fo  ftroiigly  to  the  glafs,  that  it  could 
rot  be  removed  v.ithout  great  diiiiculiy. 

On  varying  the  experiment,  by  employ ing  unwidi- 
eJrawfilk,  it  was  found,  that  i  7  grains  of  it  in  20  cu- 
bic inches  of  water,  produced,  for  the  firft  4  days,  air 
of  a  worfc  quality  than  the  atmofphcre  ;  but  afterwards 
yielded  near  two  inches  of  a  fupeiior  quality.  The 
quantity  o!  this  air  was  fuperior  to  that  in  otlier  expe- 
riments, tliough  its  quality  was  fumewhat  inferior. 

Inrefleclingon  the  experiments  above  related,  it  oc- 
curred to  Sir  Benjamin,  tliat  the  cotton-like  fubftancc 
produced  by  l^c  pof>fi/r/s  t:'igra,a.  fpecies  of  poplar  tree, 
jnight  be  a  proper  fubftitute  for  the  raw  filk  ;  efpeci- 
«lly  as  he  rccoUeded,  tliat  on  rendering  it  very  dry 
i ir  fome  other  purpofe,  fome  parcels  of  it  had  quitted 
the  plate  on  which  they  were  laid,  and  mounted  u])  to 
the  top  of  the  room.  An  hundred  and  twenty  grains 
of  tliis  fubftance  were  therefore  put  into  the  large 
globe  containing  296  inches  ;  but  after  cxpofure  to  the 
fun  for  fome  hmirs  the  air  produced,  in  quantity  a- 
bout  I  Jihs  of  a  cubic  inch,  was  found  to  be  little  bet- 
ter tliavi  phlogifticatcd  air.  In  three  days  after,  only 
one  cubic  inch  was  formed  ;  and  this  appeared  to  be 
completely  phloriftif-ated.  Next  day,  only  a  few  iu- 
confiderable  air-bubbles  appeared  ;  but,  the  day  fol- 
lowing, the  water  fuddcniy  changed  to  agrcenilh  eo- 
1  )ur,  and  began  all  at  once  to  give  good  air,  aid  in 
great  abundance.  This  day  10.42  cubic  inches  were 
produced,  and  the  next  14.34  The  fame  water  con- 
tinued to  furniih  air  for  four  days  longer  ;  the  whole 
quantity  amounting  to  44',  cubic  inches,  tlic  quality 
of  which  was  fuperior  to  that  of  the  air  produced  in 
former  experiments. 

In  fpeculatingon  the  caufcof  this  projiK^tion  of  air, 
it  occurred  to  our  author,  that  perhaps  the  quantity  of 
it  might  be  in  proportion  to  the  fnrfaccs  of  boh.  In 
order  toaf-crtain  this,  he  viewed  an  hair  of  filk,  and 
another  of  poplar-cotton,  through  a  good  microfcope, 
when  the  former  appeared  twice  the  diameter  of  the 
latter.     The  fpecilic  gravity  of  the  cotton  was  found 


of 


lobe  nearly  equivalent  to  th  it  of  witcr;  a:i!,  by  a  Pcrhlogif- 

comparative  view  of  the  two  througli  a  microfcope,  ti'^'td  Air. 

thefurfa.es  appeared  tobe'as  loco  to  5468.     1  y  pro-  "~    "' 

ceedingin  thii  calculation,  iiappearc  !  that  the  furiacc 

cf  30grai'i5of  the  cott  m  could  not  be  Icf.  than  66co 

fquarc  inches,  while  that  of  a  like  q  lantity  of  the  filk 

a  nounted  to  no  more  thin  476       rcnec  it  evidently 

appeared,  that  tlic  produce  of  air  from  the  two  f  b- 

Itance*  w  as  neither  in  proportion  to  th'  ir  v\  eights  nor 

their  fiirfaces.     It  appeared  alfo,  tliat  the  qiility  of 

t'leair  produced  it  firll  was  confulerably  inferior  to  tjial 

ji'lded  fometiuie  afterwards.      In  order  toafceitain 

t!ie  times  at  which   air  of  the  bt  ft  quality  was  produ-        48 

ctd,  &c.  tliefollov;  ills;  experinients  were  made  :    i.  A  At  »hat 

irlobe.containiiiCT  /}(>  cubic  inches.beiu'i  filed  with  \\a-  '■"'<^*  air  of 

tcr,  and  30  grains  of  raw  filk,  well  wallicd,  and  freed        ,'     . 
r,°.  ,-/■  •  .         .      quality  is 

from  the  remains  ot  former  expennieius,  put  into  it,  pn.juccd 

yielded  ill  a  cold  and  cloudy  day  only  ith  of  a  cubic 
inch  of  air  :  the  two  fjllowiugdays  it  yielded  3^  cubic 
inches,  the  quality  of  whi  :h  was  fuperior  to  that  of  the 
former  in  the  proportion  of  296  to  1 14  (a).  2.  T  he 
globe  filled  again  with  water,  in  two  other  diyswhcn 
the  funihine  was  kfs  powerful,  the  q  lality  was  197, 
and  the  quantity  ij.ih  ;  but  afterwards,  when  the 
weather  became  fine,  the  quantity  wasa^'ain  3.8  in- 
ehes,  and  quality  342.  3.  The  globe  being  again  fil- 
led w  ith  water,  and  expofed  to  the  fun  for  two  days, 
yielded  2  2  inches  of  air,  of  a  qualiiy  equal  to  233. 
4.  A  limilar  globe,  with  poplar-co'ton  which  had  been 
ufed  informer  experiments, gave  2.53  inches,  of  a  qua- 
lity 280.  5.  A  fuiall  globe  of  20  inches,  with  17 
grains  of  raw  (ilk,  gave  one  cubic  inch  of  air,  of  the 
quality  263.  6.  A  large  globe  of  296  iichcs,  filled 
with  frelh  water,  and  a  fmall  quantity  ufco'Jcrva  rivu- 
Iciiii,  gdiVC  ij.  cubic  inch,  of  the  quality  only  of  124. 
The  water  was  changed  to  a  brown  colour.  7.  On 
repeating  the  experiment  \\  ith  a  fmall  handful  of  the 
conferva,  1314  cubic  inches  of  air  were  produced,  of 
the  qu.iliiy  24').  The  water  was  very  faintly  tinged, 
towards  the  end  of  the  experiment,  of  a  greenilh  call. 
8.  '1  he  globe  of  46  inches,  w  ith  30  grains  of  raw  iilk 
ufed  in  many  former  experimenis,  produced  in  two  days 
1.6  cubi"  inches  of  air,  of  the  quality  of  204.  9.  A 
globe  of  equal  capacity,  with  1  j  grains  of  poplar-cot- 
ton, produced  ill  the  fame  tine  1.2S  inches,  of  tlie 
quality  260.  In  both  thcfe  experiments,  the  water  had 
acquired  a  faint  greenilh  eaft  ;  but  the  colour  of  that 
with  the  cotton  was  deepeft.  On  examining  this  wa- 
ter with  a  microfcope,  it  was  found  to  contain  a  great 
number  of  animalcules  exceedingly  fnia'I,  aid  nearly 
of  an  oval  figure  ;  that  with  the  (ilk  contained  them 
likewife,  but  not  in  fiich  numbers  :  however,  our 
author  affiires  us,  that  in  all  cafes  in  which  the 
water  acquired  a  greenilh  hue,  he  never  failed  to  find 
thein  ;  and  thinks,  that  from  their  prcfence  alone, 
the  colour  of  the  water  in  the  firfl  inftanccuniverlally 
arofe.  49 

As  SirBenjamin  was  now  more  than  ever  embarralTcd  Exp'-ri- 
with  refpect  to  the  lliare  the  filk  and  other  bodies  em- JT""" '^''''' 
ployed  in  thcfe  experiments  had  in  producing  the  air,  ''"'S'*'*- 
he  made  the  following   experiment  to  determine  I'nc 
matter  :  "  Concluding  (fays  he),  that  if  Iilk  and  other 

bodies. 


(a)  In  a'.l  thcfe  experiments^  the  quality  of  the  atiu'^fpheric  air  is  fuppofcd  to  be  ico. 


Sed.  III. 


E      R      O      L      O 


Y. 


50 

Of  the 

quantity 


])e|ihloi;if-  boJits,  ufrdhi  die  foregoing <xj>criirieius,  acliuill/iiij 
tiiateilA.r.  not  conuibiiic  any  thiiu';,  conliJcicd  as  chemical  fub- 
'—''—'  ftanccs,  in  the  piocefs  of  the  jJiodiK'tion  of  inirc  air 
yii IJt J  by  water  ;  but  if,  on  [he  contrary,  they  ae'Ud 
merely  as  a  methauical  aid  in  its  fi[arut.oii  (roin  the 
v.'ater,  by  affording  them  a  coiivcuient  tarfacc  for  air  to 
attach  iifelf  to  ;  in  this  cafe,  any  other  body  having  i 
large  furface,  and  atiraetin^^  air  in  water,  miglit  Le 
niadeufc  ofinflcad  of  the  lilk  in  the  cxp  rin.ciit,  and 
jnire  air  flioild  be  furnilhtd,  though  the  body  fliould 
be  totally  incapable  of  communicating  any  thing  what- 
ever to  the  water." 

With  a  view  toafcertain  this,  the  large  globe  bi  in 5 
made  pcifccdy  cUan,  and  lilkd  with  fpring-wattr,  he 
introduced  into  it  a  qianiity  of  tlie  fine  thread  of  glafs 
commonly  calli  d  fiuii.gUiJ's,  futh  as  is  uftd  for  making 
a  brulli  for  ckauing  jewels,  and  an  rtitlci;.!  feather 
fold  by  Jew  pedlars.  The  rcfult  of  the  cxpirimcit 
was,  that  the  globe  being  t ^poftd  to  the  fun,  air- 
bubbles  begjn  almoft  inftaiuly  to  make  their  appear- 
ance on  the  furface,  and  in  four  hours  0.77  of  a  cu- 
bic inch  of  air  was  produced,  which,  witli  niirous  air, 
fliowed  a  quality  of  88  ;  after  which,  not  a  lingle  glo- 
bule more  was  procured,  thouivh  the  globe  was  expo- 
fed  for  a  whole  week  in  fine  funlhinc  weather.  Hence 
it  appears,  th.it  fomctliing  more  than  mere  furface  was 
wanted  to  produce  dcphlogillicaiedair  from  svater  by 
means  of  the  fun's  light. 

Thefollowin^  experiments  were  made  with  a  view 
to  determine  the  quantity  and  quality  of  air  produced 
and  <iu.ility  by  means  of  the  heat  and  light  of  the  fm  fioin  water 
iifuirpro-  alone.  A  large  jar  of  clear  glafs,  containing  455  cu- 
duccdfrom  j^j^  inches,  bcine  wafhed  very  clean,  was  tilled  with 
frefli  fpring  water,  inverted  ui  a  glafs  baton  ot  the 
fame,  and  expofed  to  the  weather  for  28  days,  ^t  the 
fame  time,  another  fimilar  jar  was  tilled  with  water 
taken  from  a  pond  in  a  garden  ia  which  many  aquatic 
plants  were  growing,  and  expofed  in  the  fame  place, 
and  during  the  fame  period.  The  latter  began  to  yield 
air  in  pretty  large  quantities  on  the  thi:d  day,  and 
continued  to  do  fo  till  the  14'''  ;  the  former  yielJeJ 
little  or  none  till  the  14''';  when  it  began  to  emit  air, 
and  continued  todo  fo  till  the  22d.  On  removingthe 
air  produced,  that  from  the  fpring-watcr  was  14  in- 
ches in  quantity,  and  I  58  in  quality;  but  from  the 
pond  water,  31  ;  in  quantity,  and  252  in  quality.  The 
colour  of  the  water  was  not  changed;  but  both  of 
them  had  depofitcd  a  confidcrable  quantity  of  earth, 
which  was  found  adheringto  the  furfaces  of  the  glafs 
bafons  in  which  the  jars  were  inverted.  As  thefeba- 
fons,  however,  were  very  thick,  and  confcquently  had 
but  little  iranfparcncy,  the  fcdiment  of  the  water  was 
in  a  irrc.t  meafure  deprived  of  the  benefit  of  the  fun's 
liffhi ;  the  experiment  wastherefore  repeated  n  iih  the 
following  variation:  In  alarge  cylindrical  jar  of  very 
fine tranfparent  glafs,  loinchis  in  diameter  and  12  in- 
ches hi  jh,  filled  with  fpring-watcr,  a  conical  jir,  9J  i  ".- 
chesin  diameter  at  the  bottom,  and  containing  2^4  in- 
ches, was  inverted,  and  the  'vhole  «xp  fed  to  the  fii  t 
for2ldays.  Liltlcair  was  furiii.l  ed  till  the  7""  day, 
when  the  licpjor  alHimed  a  grccniili  c.-ift,  and  a  tine 
(limy  fcdiment  of  the  fimc  colour,  the  green  matter  oi 
Dr  Pricflley,  be»;inning  fo  be  formed  on  the  botto;?, 
air  was  generated  i:i  abuiij  rice,  and  was  lurniiiicd  i:j 
pretty  large  (luautit'es  till  the  iSth,  when  it  entirely 


ceafid.  T  he  whole  amounted  lo;)ocuUc  inches,  :nd 
the  quality  21  ?. 

T  he  f(? are '.he  principal  experiments  contained  in  Sir 
rei^janiin  Thomjifon's  letter  to  Sir  Jofepli  Banks. 
In  his  poftfcript  he  obfervis,  that  as  he  never  was 
thoroughly  fatisf  ed  with  tlic  opii.iun of  DrIngeHhouf/,, 
that  the  dephlogiiticatcd  air  wasWiiis/a/s-i/in  the  vcf- 
fi  Is  of  the  plant,  he  found  his  doubts  rather  confirmed 
than  diminidicd  by  the  experiments  above  related. 
'That  ihefrelh  1;  aves  of  certuiii  vegetables  (fays  he) 
expofed  in  wat^r  to  thra(ftion  of  the  fun's  rays,  caufe 
a  certain  quantity  of  pure  air  to  be  produced,  is  a  faA 
which  has  been  put  beyond  all  doubt  :  but  it  does  net 
appear  to  me  by  any  means  fo  clearly  proved,  thai  this 
air  is  '  elaborated  \\\\\\t\\M\.\-^  the  powers  of  vege- 
tation,— phlogiflicatcd  or  fixed  air  being  received  by 
the  plant  as  food,  and  the  dephlogifticaied  air  rejccl(  d 
as  an  excrement:'  for  befides  that  many  other  fuh- 
flanccf,  and  in  which  no  elaboration  or  circulation  can 
poffbly  be  fuppofed  to  take  place,  caufe  the  water  in 
which  they  are  expofed  to  the  action  of  the  light  u 
yield  dephlogiRicatedair  as  well  as  plants,  and  even  in 
niuth  greater  quantities,  and  of  a  more  eminent  qua- 
lity ;  the  circumflances  of  the  leaves  of  a  vegetable, 
w  liich,  accuP.omed  to  grow  in  air,  arc  fcparated  from 
its  flem  and  confined  in  w^ater,  are  fo  unnatural,  that  I 
cannot  conceive  that  they  can  perform  the  fame  func- 
tions in  filch  differtnt  lituations. 

"  Among  many  facts  which  have  been  brought  i:i 
fupport  oi  the  received  ojiinion  of  the  elaboration  of 
air  in  the  vclfels  of  plants,  there  is  one  upon  which 
great  flrcfs  is  laid,  which,  1  think,  requires  further  ex- 
amination. The  frclll  healthy  leaves  of  vegetable.', 
fcpp.rated  from  the  plant,  and  expofed  in  water  tothrf 
action  of  the  fun's  rays,  appear,  by  all  the  experiments 
w  Iiich  have  hitherto  been  made,  to  furnilli  air  only  for 
a  fliorttinie.  .'^fter  a  day  or  two,  the  leaves,  chan- 
ging colour,  ceafe  to  yield  air.  This  has  been  con- 
ceived to  arife  from  the  powers  of  vegetation  being  dc- 
flrcyed,  or,  in  other  words,  the  death  of  the  plant : 
and  from  hence  it  has  been  inferred,  w  ith  fome  degree 
of  plaulibility,  not  only  that  the  leaves  actually  retain- 
ed their  vegetative  powers  for  fomc  time  after  they 
were  fcparated  t'rom  their  flalk  ;  but  that  it  was  in 
confequence  of  the  exertion  of  thofe  powers,  that  the 
air  yielded  in  the  experiment  was  produced. 

"  But  I  have  found,  that  although  the  leaves,  expo- 
fed  in  water  to  the  a>-tion  of  light,  actually  A^i  ceafe 
to  furnilli  air  alur  a  certain  time,  yet  that  they  regain 
this  power  after  a  dion  interval,  when  they  furniih  (or 
rather  caufe  the  water  to  furniih)  more  and  better  air 
than  at  firft ;  which  can  hardly  be  accounted  for  upon 
the  fuppolition  that  the  air  is  elaborated  in  the  vcifcls 
of  the  plant." 

Ill  conf.rmation  of  this  do<5trinc,  the  globe  of  ^5 
inchcswas  tilled  with  frelli  fpringwater,anJtwo  j>earh- 
leaves  were  expofed  for  10  days  to  the  fun.  Ii  fo'  r 
days  the  water  fcemed  to  be  entirely  cxh..iiflcd  ;  bur, 
not  day,  the  water  .icquired  a  gntniih  col  ur,  and 
again  produced  air  prett_y  plentifvilly,  which  appeared 
in  bubbles  on  the  leaves  ;  and  on  th>-  6th  day,  0.^4  of 
a  cubic  inch  of  air  was  produced,  of  the  q..:dity  I'l. 
Next  d;y  it  yielded  ,',.lhiv'f  a  cubic  i:irh,  of  the  quality 
291.  rhc  ihree  fuccccdingd.ysityiclded  1 '.  i'lchis^the 
quality  307  ;  after  which  an  end  was  put  to  the  e xpe- 
U   2  riir.fiit. — 


Dtpllloi;  f- 

traced  Air. 


CI 

Dr  iiig>K- 

ll'jufz'j 

iheoiyctiu- 
tcacd. 


5» 
Lravcs  of 
j'lihts  rc- 
funtc  their 
property  c( 
emitting 
air,  d/t-T 
fceminsT  t» 
havclollit^ 


156 


E       R       O       L     O 


Y. 


Sc(5t.  III,., 


Si 
Pure  air 
found  in 
fca-water. 


54 
How  to 
procure 
pure  air  in- 


l^cphlogif-  rimciu. — Onmakiiigotlier  trials  with  leaves  immtirc  J 
ticjted  Air  ju  water  already  green  andprejiarcd  to  yield  dcplil.igi- 
""""  Aicaced  air,  it  was  found  that  they  produced  air  in 
great  quantity  :  but  our  author  is  of  opiiiion,  that  all 
the  appearances  may  be  folvcd,  by  I'uppoling  that  the 
air  was  produced  in  the  mals  ot  water  by  the  j;rccn 
matter  ;  and  thai  the  leaves,  (ilk,  &c.  did  iioinore  than 
ainn  it  in  making  its  tl'capc,  by  atfording  a  conveni- 
ent furface  to  which  it  eouid  attach  iifelf,  in  order  to 
colled  together  and  alVunie  its  elallic  form. 

Thus  we  fee,  that  nature  i^  provided  with  abundant 
refourccs  for  tlie  fupplying  of  this  pure  part  o(  the  at- 
mofphcre  which  is  fiibjed  to  fueh  continual  w  alle  ;  and 

•  there  is  not  tlie  leall  doubt,  that  in  a  great  number  of 
cafes  the  light  of  the  fun  produces  pure  air  from  wa- 
ter as  well  as  from  vegetables.  Jt  is  probable,  alfo, 
that  even  the  waters  of  the  ocean  contribute  towards 
this  falutary  purpofe  j  as  Dr  Dobfon  of  Liverpool 
found,  that  fea-watcr  contained  air  fuperior  in  quality 
to  that  of  the  atmofpherc.  The  purification  of  a.mo- 
fpherical  air  by  agitating  it  in  water,  will  be  confidered 
in  a  fubfecjuent  feetion. 

As  deplilogi.'ticated   air  is  found  to  fupport  animal 
life  for  a  mucli  longer  time  than   common   air,  it  has 
been  fupjiofed  thst  it  might  anfwer  valuable  purpofcs 
large  quail-  j^  medicine,  provided  any  cheap  method  of  procuring 
*">'•  it  in  large  quantities  could  be  fallen  upon.     With  this 

view,  Air  Cavallo  propofesto  dillil  it  from  nitre  with 
a  ftrong  heat ;  but  the  experiments  already  related  cer- 
tainly point  out  an  caller  method,  free  from  the  ex- 
pence  and  trouble  which  mull  necellarily  attend  every 
chemical  operation  of  tliis  kind. 

§  2.  Properties  oj  Dcphiogifikatcd  Air This  kind 

•  of  air  polfcfTes  feme  of  the  properties  of  common  air  in 
a  very  eminent  degree,  but  isdetiticnt  mothers.  Thofc 
in  which  it  excels,  are  the  fupport  of  dame  and  of  ani- 
mal life.  It  is  equally  elalUc  or  rather'more  fo,  than 
common  air  ;  as  it  likewife  exceeds  it  a  little  in  fpecific 
gravity,  the  proportion  betwixt  it  and  common  air 
iseing  that  ofi6o  to  152.  On  introducing  a  lighted 
candle  into  dephlogiflicatcd  air,  the  flame  not  only 
grows  larger,  but  becomes  exceedingly  bright  ;  and 
when  the  air  is  very  pure,  the  candle  burns  with  a 
crackling  noifc,  as  if  the  air  contained  feme  combuili- 
ble  matter,  at  the  fiimc  time  that  the  wax  or  tallow 

j5  walles  furpriliiigly  fafl. 
r«pliiogif-  The  heat  of  the  tlamc  is  in  proportion  to  its  li^^ht. 
ticattd  air  Jf  ue  fill  abladder  with  dcphlogi/lieated  air,  and  then 
produces  fa/^^n  to  its  neck  a  glafs  tube  whofe  aperture  is  drawn 
to  a  fine  point,  the  dcphlogicated  air,  if  driven  out 
by  prelfing  the  bladder,  will  augment  the  heat  of  a 
candle  to  fuch  a  degree,  that  if  any  fmall  bits  of 
metal,  placed  on  a  piece  of  charcoal,  be  held  in  the 
apex  ofihe  flame,  they  will  almod  inflanly  be  melted. 
Even  grains  of  platina  may  by  this  means  be  melted  ; 
and  in  a  larger  fire  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  cffcels  of 
burning  mirrors  might  be  equalled. 

On  mixing  dcphlogifticated  and  inflammable  air,  to- 
gether, an  explollon  takes  place  as  on  mixing  com- 
jlamiuaHe  mon  and  inflammable  air,  but  with  much  greater  vio- 
»■'■•  lencc.     If  an  ounce  vial,  which  for  thispnrpofe  fliould 

be  very  .flrong,  be  filled  with  a  little  more  than  one- 
third  of  dephlo^iflicatcd  andtherclt  inflammable  air, 
and  the  flame  of  a  candle  prefented  to  its  mouth,  it 
■will  explvdt  uearly  as  loud  as  a  fmall  pillol. 


intcnfc 
heat, 


56 

Explodes, 
with  in- 


J9 


All  phlogiflic  procelfes  are  pronoted  nmch  better  Dcpldogif- 
by  dephlo^ikicatcd  than  comruou  jii.       i^r  Prieltlcy  titauJAir, 
put  a  quantity  of  pyrophorus  intoo.ie  ol  the  f;,iall  jars         ^ 
uicd  for  making  experiments  upon  air  in  quiklilvir  ;        j^ 
then  liUing  up  the  vcll'el  with  that  lluid,  he  inverted  it  Burns  ve- 
in  a  bafou  of  the  fame,  and  thiew  in  deplilogiilieateil  iKuuntly 
air  at  diiitrenc  times.     It  always  occafioned  a  fudden  with  pyro- 
aiid  vehement  accenfion,  like  the  tialhingof  guii-pow-  !>"<"■"»• 
der,  and  the  air  was  gre.illy  oiniinillied.  ^g 

It  iias  been,  almolt  througiiout  all  ages,  believed,  Cftmnion 
mat  combuilion  in  every  inltance  dimiuiahed  common  air  is  not 
air,  or  reduced  it  to  a  fmaller  volume  :  but  the  late  diminifln-d 
experimenuof  .Mr  Lavoilier  have  Ihown,  that  this  is  ^"i  ''"'"'"S 
a  miltakc  ;  and  that  in  ordinary  procelfes  attended 
with  the  jiroduCtion  of  fixed  and  phlogillicatcd  air, 
the  quantity  of  vapour  produced  is  equivalent  to  that 
abforbed,  or  other  wife  made  to  diiappear  during  the 
operation.  With  dephlogillicatedair  the  cafeis  very 
dirt'creiit.  *  Mr  Lavoilier  hiving  introduced  a  burning 
candle  into  a  glafs  jar  filled  With  very  I'U'c  ^ir  obtain- ^.^jj^^jjig. 
cd  from  calciu.aed  mercury,  a  great  iieat  took  place  ;  giuKmed 
which  at  lirll  expelled  a  fmall  quantity  of  the  air  ;  but  au-  lulTers 
afterwards,  when  the  candle  was  extiuguilhcd,  it  was  dimiuutioo 
found  that  two-thirds  of  the  bulk  of  air  employed  had 
been  converted  into  tixed  air,  or  a  quantity  of  this 
kind  of  air  equivalent  to  the  former  had  been  produ- 
ced. The  remainder,  after  taking  up  the  fixed  air  by 
cauflic  alkali,  was  flill  as  pure  as  before.  In  ihc  com- 
mon procelfes,  he  obferves,  that  notnuore  than  onc- 
tonih  of  the  air  employed  is  converted  into  fixed  air. 
In  this  cxperin\ent,  the  fuperior  gravity  of  fixed  air, 
and  the  confequcnt  condcnfation  of  the  other,  mull 
undoubtedly  have  produced  fonic  diminution  in  the 
volume  of  air,  though  Mr  Lavoilier  does  not  take  no- 
tice of  it.  In  other  cafes,  hbwever,  the  diminution 
is  much  more  perceptible.  Mr  Scheele  having  intro- 
duced fome  live  coals  into  ainatrafs  filled  witli  dephlo- 
gillicated  air,  found  that  it  was  diminillied  by  one- 
fourth  of  its  quantiiy.  Repeating  the  experiment 
with  fulpluir,  the  flame  beeanielarger  and  more  vivid 
than  in  common  air,  and  three-fourths  of  its  quantity 
were  loft.  Putting  a  piece  of  pliofphorus  into  feveii 
ounce-meafures  of  this  kind  of  air,  flopping  the  mouth 
of  the  bottle  with  a  cork,  and  fcttingfire  to  thephof- 
phorus  within  it,  the  phial  broke  to  pieces,  as  foon  as 
the  flame  wasextinguilhed,  by  the  prelfure  of  the  ex- 
ternal air.  Repcatingrhe  experiment  with  allrongcr 
vial,  and  opening  it  afterwards  under  water,  the  fluid 
rulhed  into  it  in  fuch  a  manner  as  almoft  to  fill  it  en- 
tirely. This  extraordinary  diminution  was  alfo  per- 
ceived on  felling  fire  to  iiUlammableair  in  the  dephlo- 
gifticated  kind.  The  way  in  which  he  accomplilhed 
this  was,  by  filling  a  matrafs  with  dephlogilHcated  air, 
and  invcrtingit  over  a  phial  containing  an  cff'Tvefcing 
mixture  of  vitriolic  acid  and  iron-tilings  plunged  into 
a  vcllel  of  hot  water,  andfurninied  with  a  flendertiibe 
reachingabove  the  furface  of  the  vellcl,  asrcprefcnted 
Plate  X.  fig.  2.  The  inflammable  air  iiiuing  from 
the  orifice  of  the  fmall  tube,  was  let  on  fire  previous 
to  the  inverlion  of  the  maltrafs,  and  the  mouth  of  the 
latter  immerfed  in  the  water;  on  which  that  fluid  foon 
began  to  rife,  and  continuedto  dofo  ti'l  fevcn-eighths 
of  the  velTcI  were  full.  In  cafes  of  flow  combuftion, 
where  common  air  is  diniinifhed  and  phlogifticated, 
the  dcphlogilUcaicd  kind  was  found  to  be  almoft  en- 
tirely 


Seel.  III. 


E       R       O 


O 


Y. 


157 


Dcphlogil- 
ticaccd  air. 


60 
I'hciionic- 
m  oi  dc- 
phlogidi- 
catt'd  with 
■itroiis  air. 


How  de- 
phlugifli- 
Ciitctt  air 
tn:^yl)(:  coii- 
uminatcd. 


tirily  dcftroycd.  A  phial,  containing  20  ounce  nica- 
fiires  of"  citplilogifticatcd  air,  and  inverted  into  a  lo'ln- 
tion  of  litpur  l.iipluiris,  was  entirely  lilUd  with  the 
latter  in  the  Ipaec  of  two  days. 

The  purity  of  dcphlogiilicatcd  air  js  .ifcertaincJ 
by  itb  degree  of  diniiniaion  with  nitrous  air;  which, 
like  that  of  the  diniiniition  by  liver  of  fiilphiir,  or  o- 
thcrwU'e,  is  lobe  coalidercd  as  a  phlogifiic  procefs,  or 
kind  ol  biirniu;;,  cfpecially  as  a  conlideraLle  degree  of 
heat  is  thereby  generated.  Very  great  dilarenccs  are 
perceived  in  tliis  refpect ;  and  according  to  the  quan- 
tity of  diniinulion,  the  air  is  faid  to  be  two,  three, 
or  four  times  bet.er  than  common  air.  It  is  not  yet 
accurately  determined  how  far  this  proportionable  pu- 
rity extends.  Dr  FrieUley  mentions  fonie  extracted 
from  red  lead  five  times  as  pure  as  common  air.  Another 
quantity,  produced  from  aloUiticn  ohiiercury  in  nitrous 
acid,  was  fo  pure,  that  one  meafurc  of  it  mixed  with 
two  of  nitrous  air,  which  had  been  obtained  in  tiie 
firft  part  of  the  fame  procefs,  occupied  only  0.0;  of  a 
meafure.  "  Repeating  the  experiment  (fays  he),  I 
found,  that  two  meafures  of  nitrous  air  were  ratiicr 
more  than  fufRcir.nt  to  faturate  one  meafurc  of  the  de- 
phlogiflicatedair;  fo  that  poliibly,  had  the  former  ex- 
periment been  made  with  more  circumfpcctioii,  the  di- 
Jiiinution,  extraordinary  as  it  was,  wouKI  have  been 
fomewhat  greater.  Indeed  it  cannot  be  fuppofed, 
that  exactly  two  meafures  of  nitrous  air  fliould  be  the 
prccifc  quantity  lliat  would  afford  the  grcatcll  diminu- 
tion. It  (hould  alfo  be  confidercd,-  that  a  fmall  por- 
tion of  air  might  be  yielded  by  the  water  in  which  the 
experiments  were  made.  Upon  the  whole,  therefore, 
I  am  inclined  to  think,  that,  were  it  pollible  to  make 
both  thedephlogifticated  and  nitrousair  in  thcgrcatefl 
purity,  and  t;ien  to  mix  them  in  fonic  exact  jiropor- 
tion,  the  aerial  form  of  them  both  wwdd  be  dellroy- 
cd,  the  whole  quantity  feeming  to  difappcar,  as  in 
the  mixture  of  alkaline  and  acid  air." 

Notwithftanding  this  great  degree  of  purity,  the 
befl  dephlogii;icated  air  is  capable  of  being  co.irami- 
nated  by  fome  of  the  procelFes  which  alteti  the  com- 
mon air  of  our  atniofphcre.  Dr  Pricftky  having  in- 
troduced a  quantity  of  very  dry,  clean  nails,  into  a  re- 
ceiver tilled  with  dephlogillicatcd  air,  and  inverted  it 
in  quickfilver,  found,  that  about  nine  months  after, 
one-tenth  of  the  whole  quantity  h.id  difappeared,  the' 
he  could  not  perceive  any  riilt  upon  the  nails.  The 
etfe.-ts  of  combultion  have  already  been  related,  viz.  as 
producing  a  great  quantity  of  pure  fixed  air  ,  but  pn- 
trefailion  and  animul  refpiraiion  probalily  t'ontaininatc 
it  in  a  manner  limiiar  to  that  of  atmofplurical  air,  , 
tliouirh  few  or  no  experiments  feem  to  have  been  made 
on  this  fubjecl.  Mr  Cavallo,  however,  i.  forms  us, 
thai  "  when  an  animal  is  contined  in  a  quantity  of  de- 
phlogifticated  air,  and  is  kept  therein  till  it  dies,  that 
air  is  not  rendered  fo  bad  but  that  it  will  Hill  be  ca- 
pable of  confiderablc  diminution  by  nitrousair.  This 
feems  to  (liow,  tha'  dephlngifticated  air  is  fomewhat 
different  from  pure  common  air  ;  or  that  common  air 
is ori;rin.^lly  different  fn-mdcphlogiftirated  air,  lower- 
ed by  the  addition  of  phlogifton.  The  phenomenon  is 
certainly  very  remarkable  ;  and  fomctimes  a  quantity 
of  dephlogi?\icated  air,  after  having  been  brriuhed  by 
an  animal  till  it  died,  will  .ippear  by  the  nitr(^ns  tell 
to  be  even  better  than.cominoa  air.    When  the  expe- 


riment is   performed  over  limc-witcr  (to  abforb  the  Dcphlogif- 
fixcd  air  produced  in  refpiraiion),  the  diminution  by  a  ticatcdAir. 
mixture  of^niirous  air  is  lefs  than  it  would  otherwife         ' 
be  ;  but  it  is  llill  diminilhed  much  more  than  common 
air  after  an  animal  has  died  in  it  ;  which  feems  to  in- 
timate, that  the  death  of  the  animal  in  dephlogiltica- 
ted  air  is  principally  owing  to  the  lixed  air  formed  by 
the  att  of  refpiraiion.     It  may  be  faid,  that   the  in- 
fiammable  principle  difcharged  through  the  Inngs  of 
an  anvj'.ial,  being  perhaps  combined  vith  fome  other 
principle,  requires  a  longer  time  to  combine  with  the 
dephlogifticated  air  than  tlic  phh'gilton  of  nitrous  air; 
but   this   is  only  an  hypothetical   explanation  of  the 
abovementioned  remarkable  phenomenon,  which  re- 
quires many  direct  proofs."  *i 

Dephlo^;;illicated  air  is  much  inferior  to  that  of  the  ^^e-'-^^'on 
common  atmofphtre  in  fupporling  vegetable  life.  This  '  ^,"1'?°"' 
has  been  afcertained  by  the  experiments  of  Dr  Prieft-  phiogiftH 
ley,  Mr  Fontana,  Mr  Schccle,  Dr  Ingenhoufz,  Scccatedaic 
Dr  PrielUey  took  three  fprigs  of  mint,  and  having  put 
allihc  roots  into  vials  containing  the  fame  pump- water 
which  had  been  for  fome  time  expofed  to  the  atiuo- 
fphere,  introduced  one  of  them  into  a  jarof  dephlogi- 
fiicaied  air,  anotherin  to  ajar  of  common  air,  and  a  third 
into  that  which  had  been  phlogillicated  with  nitrous 
air  fevcrral  months  before,  and  in  fuch  a  (late,  tliatonc 
meafure  of  it,  and  one  of  nitrous  air,  occupied  the 
fpacc  of  I  =  meafures.  This  was  done  in  April ;  and 
on  examining  them  on  the  12th  of  May  following,  it 
was  found,  that  the  plant  in  phlogillicated  air  had 
grown  remarkably,  much  better  than  tiiatiu  common 
air  ;  while  the  plant  in  dephlogifticated  air  had  a  very 
liekly  appearance.  Examining  them  on  the  26th  of  the 
fame  mom  h ,  the  appearance  continued  nearly  as  before ; 
but  it  was  now  found,  that  though  the  plant  in  phlo- 
giflicated  air  had  grown  fo  w'ell,  the  air  was  not  fen- 
(ibly  improved  by  it,  though  the  dephlogifticated  air 
was  injured  by  the  plant  which  grew  in  it. 

5  3.   (5/  t/je  Cowpojitioi:  oj  DephlogijltcaUd  A')- <',1 

When  Dr  Prieftley  firll  difcovcrcd  the  exiftencc  of  this  r*"",  Pridl- 

fluid,  having  found  that  it  was  always  procured  by  !''  '  \^r 

r  I       r  1  n  J    1  •  hypotbeli». 

means  of  earthy  fubftances  ;  and  that  as  it  came  over,    " 

the  bubbles  appeared  full  tine  of  white  powder  ;   he 
concluded,  tliat  it  is  compofed  of  the  nitrous  acid  and 
earth,    with  as  much  phlogiflon  as  is  necedary  to  its 
clafticity  ;    and  that  the  common  aimofphere  has  as 
much  more  as  is  necelfary  to  bring  it  into  the  mean 
condition  in  which  wc  find  it.    It  was  not  lor.g,  how- 
ever,   before  this  theory  lyet  with  oppolition.     Dr 
Prieftley  himfelf,  thouirh  induced,  from  the  wafte  of 
the  folid  matter  ufed  in  his  experiments,  to  conclude 
that  the  air  contained  fome  quantity  of  earth,  was 
nevcrthelcl's  unable,  by  any  method  he  could  think  of 
to  afcertain  that  quantity.     His  experiments  were  op-        64 
pofcd  by  others  made  by  Lavoiiicr  ;  who  intilled,  tli.it  niffcr-n'-c 
when  folution  of  mercury  was  carefully  didilled,  tiic  ''c''<^i»t  l'» 
metal  w.ts  obtained  in  full  quantity,  or  with  fcarce  r^'v'  ^^' 
any  lofs,  notwi:hftandingthc  dephlogiliieatedair  pro-  '^^^  ^^ 
duced.     This  gtnileman  having  put  two  ounces  and 
one  drachm  of  mercury  into  red  precipitate,  and  after- 
wards revived  it,  loft  a  very  few  grains  of  ihc  metal; 
which,  he  fays,  might  be  the  weight  of  a  little  red 
matter  that  was  found  adhering  to  the  neck  of  the 
velFcl.     The  fame  thing  wis  ohfcrvedby  Mr  Kontana, 
who  repeated  the  experiment  olxu  v/iii^lcls  than  a. 

graini 


1^3 


A       E       \l      O      L      O 


Y. 


Sect.  iir. 


<s 

Farth  can- 
not be  yrj- 


Uq^M'^gif-  grain  wiight  of  lufs.  The  vcll'il  he  ufcd  liaJ  a  iuc'< 
tiritcd  ^ir  cf  ab('m  ;\vo  feet  long  :  and  lie  particularly  rclua^lv.^, 
"  thur,  in  order  to  facciCil  ill  liiis  txfciiiv.eiit,  the  fire 
flioulJ  be  managed  with  very  great  dexterity  ;  for  it 
that  be  toj  Ihong,  part  of  ikc  j  rccipitaic  w  ill  be  vo- 
hiiliifJ,  and  then  the  rtfult  of  the  txpcrimtiu  is  pre- 
carious. 

Thtfe  cxpciinien:s  were  oppofed  by  others  made  by 
rrrricftlty,  who  in  fevcral  tri  JslounJ  th.  t  aconli- 
dtrablc  qiaaiiiy  of  the  nutal  was  always  loll.  In  one 
of  ihtfc  expirinicnts,    oat  of  1 1   pennyweights   lO 
grdns  of  mtrciiry,  the  lofs  amounted  to  one  penny- 
weight two  grains.  In  another  experiment,  88  grains 
wtre  loll,  out  of  a  quantity  of  red  precipitate,  in  the 
preparaiion   of  which   half  an  ounce  of  mercury  had 
bi  en  cnipl.iyed.     The  qnanliiy  of  mercury  loll  in  his 
experiments  or  rather  the  proportion  of  it  to  that  of 
the  metal  employed,   was  always  various,  and  the  dif- 
ference not  very' fm..ll;  whence  !V!rCa  valla  and  others, 
with  gri  at  appearance  of  reifon,  conclude,  that  the 
ved  toTxirt  tnie  rei.fonofany  perceptible  lofs  was  ihc  llrong  heat 
ind.phlo-  made  i-feofin  the  didillation,  and  confequentiy  that 
giliicaud    there  is  no  reafon  to  fuppofc  that  any  earth  exiils  in 
air-  dcphlogifticuled  air. 

Tlie  next  qucllioa  was.  Whether  any  of  the  nitrous 
aciJ.exillcd  in  dephlogiliicated  air  >  '1  hat  it  contains 
nor.ein  a  proper  ll^te  of  acidity,  is  indeed  evidmt  from 
many  decilive  experiments  ;  but  an  idea  was  naiurally 
entertained,  that  in  the  fonnalion  of  dt  phlogil.icated 
66       air  the  nitrous  acid  was  decompofed,  and  part  of  it  en- 
Wtuthcr     tered  into  the  coirpoiition  of  the  aerial  fluid.     This 
the  nitrous gjyj  j-jfc  to  the  theories  of  N'r   Lavoilicr  and  N'r 
a.idei  t»s  Kjr^van,  which  are  noticed  under  the  ar.irle  Acid  ; 
■p^"""!'"''- as  alfo  the  experiments  of  Mr  Watt,  which  tend- 
*"°'  cd  to    fhow  that    no  nitrous  acid  was  dcllroyed  it 

the  compolition  of  dephlogiliicated  air.  To  thcfe 
MrKirwan  r(  plied  in  the  manner  rela'.ed  in  that  ar- 
ticle. We  Ihall  here,  however,  give  a  quotation  from 
Dr  PrieRley  as  a  kind  of  addition  to  Mr  Watt's  tefti- 
n-.ony  on  tjiis  head,  fo  that  the  reader  may  be  the  bet- 
ter al  le  to  determine  the  weight  of  the  evidence  on 
both  fid<  s. 

"  At  Mr  Watt't  requcfl  (fays  he),  I  endeavoured  to 
afcertain  the  quantity  of  acid  that  was  expelled  from 
nitre,  in  procuring  the  dephlogifticated  air  from  it. 
To  do  this,  I  put  two  ounces  of  purified  nitre  in;o  a 
glafs  retort,  and  rtctiving  the  air  in  joo  oniice  mcc- 
furcs  of  water,  only  filled  each  recipient  h;'.lffull,  and 
ajiiated  the  air  very  much  in  the  water,  in  orJir  to 
make  the  fluid  in  bibe  as  much  as  polliMe  of  the  acid 
it  contained.  Notwithfanding  this  agitation, hosvtver, 
every  velFt  lof  the  air  retained  a  ftropgfmell  of  the  acid. 
The  moment  the  air  eeafed  to  come,  I  f.lled  a  large 
phial  with  the  water,  and  carried  it  to  Mr  Watt,  \\  h.> 
carefully  <  xamincd  it:  and  in  a  pap<r  w  hich  he  prefeni- 
ed  to  the  Royal  Society,  and  which  is  publiflied  in  the 
Philofcph.ital  tranTic^ions,  he  has  given  an  account  of 
the  quantity  of  acid  that  w..s  contained  in  all  the  ;oo 
ounces  of  water  :  whence  it  may  be  fairly  inferred, 
that  thtre  was  .lo  occafion  to  fuppofe  tlatany  of  the 
acid  entered  into  the  eonipofi[iin  of  the  ;  ir  ;  but  that 
it  WJS  all  either  rendered  volatile  or  retained  in  the 
water."  On  the  other  hand,  the  Abbe  I'ontaniin- 
forms  us,  that,  in  diftilling  an  ounce  of  nitre  with  a 
flrong  hcat^  in  order  to  expel  dephlogi  .icated  air  from 


metals. 


it,  only  a  few  grains  of  weak  nitrous  acid  .ire  obt.ii;-  Dtplilogif- 
ed,  more  or  lefs  as  the  fire  ap,  lied  is  weak  ir  I'rong:  ticjtcd  .\iri 
but  tlua  the  quantity  of  dephlogiliicated  air  extricated  >/— 

from  it  follows  the  toiitrary  rule  -,  being  grcateil  w  hen 
the  heat  is  moll  vi.ilent  and  fuddc.'ly  applied,  and  lefs 
when  the  fire  is  griiiually  applied. 

On  eakiningmeialsin  dcptilogiuicaied  air,  very  fm- 
guhr  phcnoinei.a  are  obfervcd,  which  feem  to  throw 
great  light  upon  the  compolition  of  this  iluid.  "  One 
of  the  moll  limplc  of  all  iihlogiilic  proce-lfts  (fays  Lr 
Piieltlcy),is  thatin  which  mciuls  aremeUed  indfplilc- 
giiticated  air.  1  therefore'began  with  thi",  with  a 
view  loafccrtain  whether  any  water  be  produLcd  when 
the  air  is  made  to  difappear  in  it.  Accordingly,  into 
a  glafs  vellel,  containing  fevenouncc-meafures  of  pret- 
ty pure  dephlogiliicated  air,  I  introduced  a  quantity  of 
iron  turnings,  which  is  iron  in  thin  fm  11  pieces,  ex- 
ceedingly eoiiViniem  for  thefe  and  many  other  expe- 
riments, having  pre  vioully  made  them,  together  wiili 
the  vellil,  the  air,  and  the  m^rcmy  I'y  which  it  was 
coniiUtd,  as  diy  as  I  polii,  ly  could.  Alfo  to  prevent 
the  air  from  imbibing  any  moillure,  1  received  it  im- 
mediately in  the  vellil  in  which  the  experiment  was 
ma  V,  from  the  procefs  of  procuring  it  fiom  red  prc- 
eiiitate,  fo  that  it  had  never  been  in  contacl  with  any  5- 
waiCr.  I  then  tired  the  iron  by  means  of  a  burning  ivpKlogif- 
lens,  and  prtfently  reduced  the  fevenouncc-meafures  tica-ed  air 
to  0.6  J  of  a  mepfiirc  ;  but  I  found  no  more  water  af-  '"'•''l"-*'  t] 
ler  this  proccls  than  1  imagined  it  had  not  been  polfi-  <^»''-=s '^1 
blc  for  me  to  exclude,  as  it  bore  no  proportion  to  the 
air  which  had  difappeared.  Eyamiiiing  tlie  n  liduuia 
of  the  air,  I  found  one-fifth  of  it  to  be  fixed  air  ;  and 
when  I  tried  the  puiity  of  that  which  remair.ed  b/ 
the  tell  of  nitrous  air,  it  <lid  not  appear  that  any  phlo- 
gillicatcd  air  had  been  produced  in  the  proceis  :  for 
though  it  was  more  impure  than  I  fuppofc  ihe  .  ir  w  iih 
which  1  began  the  cxpirimei.t  mull  have  been,  it  was 
not  more  fo  than  the  phlogifcicaied  air  of  the  frven. 
ounce-mcafures,  which  had  not  been  affected  by  the 
proctfs,  and  which  mull  have  bten  contained  in  the 
refiduuni,  would  necellarily  make  it.  In  this  cafe,  one 
meafure  of  this  refidunm,  and  two  of  nitrous  air,  oc- 
cupied the  fpace  of  0.52  of  a  meafure.  In  another 
experiment  of  this  kind,  ten  ounce-meafurcs  of  de- 
phlogifticated air  wercreduced  too. Sofa  meafure, and 
by  wafliing  in  lime-water  to  0.38  of  a  meafure.  In 
anothcrexperiment,  yi  ounce-meafures  of  dephlogilii- 
cated air  were  reduced  to  half  an  ouncc-meafure,  of 
\\  hich  one-fifth  was  fixed  air,  and  the  rcliduuin  was 
quite  as  pi're  as  the  air  with  which  I  began  the  expe- 
riment; the  teflwith  nitrous  air,  in  the  proportions 
abovemeniioncd,  gi\ing  0.4  in  both  cafes. 

"  In  thefe  experiments  the  fixed  air  mu/l,  I  pre- 
f-imc,  have  been  formed  by  the  union  of  the  phlo^iiloii 
from  the  iron  and  dephlogiliicated  »ir  in  which  it  was 
igniied  ;  but  the  quantity  of  it  was  very  fmall  in  pro- 
portion to  the  air  which  had  difappeared  ;  and  at  that 
time  I  hnd  nofifpicion  that  the  iron,  which  had  been 
melted  and  gathered  into  round  balls,  could  have  im- 
bibed it ;  a  melting  heat  having  been  fuificient,  as  I 
had  imagined,  to  expel  every  thing  that  was  capable 
of  alfuniing  the  form  of  air  from  any  fubllancc  what- 
ever. Sinlible,  however,  that  fnch  a  quantity  of  air 
mufl  ha\  e  been  imbibed  by  Aw./.f.wr,  to  which  it  mufl 
hive  given  a  very  perceptible  addition  of  weight,  and 

feeing 


Etdt.  III. 


A       E      R       O       L      O 


Y. 


a;n-,o- 
fjihcre 


L!ei))il.>glf-  f.ciiig  fiOthii-.g  the  tlut  could  h-ivc  in;Libcd  it,  ii  oc- 
icatcJ  Air.furrtd  to  D.e  to  Weigh  the  caljc  into  wbi.h  the  iron 
^~~fil'  tJii  betii  reduced  ;  and  Ipreltntly  foand,  that  the 
ITuhl.pif-  dcfhlo^iliit.itcd  air  had  aaiially  been  iir,b!bed  by  the 
ticatidair  Lu'licd  iron,  in  the  lame  manner  as  in.-ianiir.abjc  air 
iir,bii)td  by  had  been  iir.bibed  by  ihc  melted  calces  of  metals  in  my 
•"*"  former  experiments,  how  ever  ir.iprobiblc  f  ich  aa  ab- 

forption  might  have  appeared  a  /"hri.     In  the  (irft 
i.iftancc,  about  twelve  ojuce-mtaiures  of  dcphh>giHi- 
catcd  air  hp.d  dilappcarcJ,  and  the  iron  had  giiacJ  fjx 
grains  in  weight.  Repeating  the  experiment  very  fre 
qutntly,  I  always  found  that  other  cjnaiitiiics  cl  i/on, 
treated  in  the  fime  manner,  gained  iiuiilar  adJi.ions 
cf  weight,  which  was  always  very  nearly  th.^.t  of  the 
g.        air  which  had  difappeared. 
l8car''We        '<Concl.idi;igfrom  the  preceding  experiments,  that 
cf  taVing  it  iron,  f  ifHciently  heated,  was  capable  of  fitiirati.ig  it- 
unirom  the  fclf  v.  ith  p  irc  air  from  the  atmofphcrc,  1  then  procecd- 
cd  to  melt  it  with  the  heat  of  a  burning  lens  i;i  the 
open  air,  and  1  prcfently  found,  thatpcrfeit  iron  was 
tafily  capable  of  being  fafcd  in  this  way,  and  conti- 
i:ucJ  in  this  fjfion  a  certain  time,  exhibiting  the  ap- 
pearance of  h/ili/ig  or  throwing  out  air  ;  whereas  it 
was,  on  the  coiitrary,  imbibing  air  ;  and,  w  hen  it  was 
fuiirated,  the  fadon  ceafed,  and  the  heat  of  the  lens 
could  make  no  f  irther  inipreffion  upon  it.  When  this 
was  the  cafe,  I  always  found  that  it  had  gained  weight 
i'l  tlie  proportion  of  71  to  24.  which  is  very  nearly 
one-third  of  the  original  w  eight.     The  fame  was  the 
cffcft  when  I  melted  fteelin  the  fame  circuniTtances, 
and  alfo  every  kindof iron  on  whi:h  the  experiment, 
could  be  tried.   But  I  have  reafou  to  think,  that  with 
a  greater  degree  of  heat  than  I  could  .ipply.  the  iron 
might  have  been  kept  in  a  Rate  of  fulioii  fomewhat 
longer  ;  and  by  that  means  have  iuibibed  more  than 
even  one-third  of  its  original  weight. 
n.eiiijr»-         "  There  was  a  peculiar  circumftancc  attending  the 
able  pheno  melting  of  calt  iron  with  a  burning  lens,  w^hich  ren- 
Djcnon  3t    dercd  it  impollible  to  afcertain  the  addition  thu  w-as 
t.-mlingthc  made  to  its  weight,  and  at  the  fame  t  me  afforded  an 
melting  of  amufing  fpeiJlaclc  :  for  the  moment  that  any  qaantity 
cafl-iron.    ^^j- j^  ^^,.^^  melted,  and  gathered  into  a  round  ball,  it 
began  to  difperfe  in  a  tho  ifiind  diredions,  exhibiting 
the  appearance  of  a  moll  bca'itiful  fire-work  ;  feme  of 
the  particles  flying  to  the  dillance  of  half  a  yard  from 
the  place  of  fufion  ;  and  the  whole  was  attended  with 
a  confiderable  hiJm?  noife.     So:^c  of  the  large  ft  pie- 
ces, which  had  been  difpcrfed  itl  this  manner,  1  was 
able  to  collcv.!,  and  havin<;  f  ibjccted  them  to  the  heat 
of  the  lens,  they  exhildicd  the  fame  appc  trance  as  the 
larger  mafsfron  which  they  had  been  fcattercJ. 

'«  When  this  caft  inm  i.i-a,s  melted  in  the  bottom  of 
a  deep  fflafs  receiver,  in  order  to  colleft  all  the  par- 
ticles that  w^ere  difpc-fcd,  they  firmly  aJhercd  to  the 
plafs,  melting  it  faperlici.illy,  though  without  nuking 
it  crack,  fo  that  it  was  fiill  impoiriblc  to  collect  and 
weigh  them.  However,  I  generally  found,  that,  not- 
withftandingthe  copious  difperfion,  what  rem  lined  af- 
ter the  experiment  rithcr  excceJcd  th  in  fell  lliort  of 
the  original  weight  of  the  iron  " 

On  attempting  to  revive  this  calx  of  iron  in  iuflani- 
mablc  air,  a  very  newand  unexpeifl'  d  appearance  took 


Rem^rk- 


Ff)rination 
of  ua'er 
from  de- 
phlogifti- 
catcd  ami 
inflam 
Stable  air. 


place. 


FTaving  put  i  piece  of  iron  faturited  with  pure 
air  into  a  vclTcl  filled  with  in'^amTable  air  con.'incd  by 
Water,  the  inflammable  air  di(;ippcared  and  the  metal 


V. as  revived  ;  but  on  weigl)in^  it,  he  found  thJt  a' 
grains  out  of  1 1|  had  been  IjA,  bclides  the  7^  ouuce- 
r.icjf  res  cfia.iamn;  able  air  which  had  vaniihtd.  Con- 
lideringall  thcfe  cir.umftanccs,  the  L>oc"tor  had  now 
110  doubt  that  the  two  kir.ds  of  air  had  u.ijicd  a::d 
formed  either  fixed  air  or  v,  atcr  j  and  w  ith  a  view  10 
deterii.ine  this  point,  he  repeated  the  tx,>eriiiicnt  in  a 
vcU'el where  thein'iammablc  wascoiit'ncdby  mcrcuty, 
loth  th.c  vcllcl  and  mercury  having  been  peviou:ly 
r.iadc  as  dry  as  pofliblc.  In  the  I'e  circuinftaucts  he  had 
no  fooner  begun  to  hjat  the  iron,  than  the  air  was 
perceived  to  dimiiiifn,  and  at  the  finie  tine  the  iiifidc 
of  the  veflel  to  become  clo  idy,  with  pirticks  of  dew 
that  covered  alnioft  the  whole  of  it.  Thefc  particles 
ly  degrees  gathered  into  drops,  and  ran  down  in  all 
places,  excepting  thofe  w  hich  were  heated  by  the  fan- 
beams.  On  ccUefting  the  water  produ  -cd  i.rthis  ex- 
periment, by  menns  of  a  piece  of  hltcring  paper  care- 
fully introduced  to  abfoib  it,  he  found  it  to  be  as  near- 
ly as  pofTible  of  jhe  fame  w  eight  w  ith  that  w  hich  h^id 
been  loft  by  the  iron  ;  and  alfo  in  every  cxperinitut  of 
this  kind,  in  which  he  atten.led  to  the  circurr.rtance, 
he  found  that  the  quantity  of  iuflammablc  air  which 
had  dif.ippeared  w  as  about  double  that  of  the  depLlo- 
p^ifticate  J  air  fct  loofe  in  the  operation,  f  ippofmg  that 
weight  to  have  been  reduced  into  air.  Ihus,  at  0:1: 
time,  a  piece  of  this  (l.ig  abforbcd  j^  ounce-nicafures 
cf  in.larnmable  air,  while  it  loft  the  weight  of  a'jont 
three  ouncc-meafures  of  dcphlogifticited  air,  and  the 
water  coUcfted  weighed  two  grains.  Another  time  a 
piece  of  flag  loft  i.j  grains,  and  the  water  produced 
V. as  1. 7 grains.  In  a  third  cafe,  where  6^  oance-ntca- 
fuces  of  inflammable  air  were  reduced  to  0.92  of  a  mc::- 
fare,  the  iron  hid  loft  th.e  weight  of  5.3  ouuce-.nea- 
fures  of  dephlogifticated  air,  or  nearly  two  grains. 

Th  c  Do'itor  having  fuccceded  fo  well  svith  iron,  next 
tried  the  calx  of  copper,  or  thofe  f.aK-s  which  fly  off' 
from  it  by  hammering  whiUl  it  is  red-hot ;  and  found 
water  produced  in  the  inSammable  air  in  the  fame 
manner  as  when  the  fcalcs  of  iron  were  nfcJ.  On  u- 
fmg  precipitate /t-r/i-,  he  imagined  at  firft  that  water 
was  obtained  from  this  fubftance  alfo  ;  but  on  repeat- 
ing the  experiment  to  more  advantage  he  found  no 
Hiore  water  than  might  be  f  ippofcd  to  have  been  con- 
tained as  as  extraneous  fubftance  cither  in  the  in.'lam- 
mableairor  in  the  red  preci,Mtate.  With  iron,  how- 
ever, the  cafe  was  vaftly  ditferent.  As  the  Doctor 
had  formerly  fjtistied  hi.nfeU' that  inHamniabic  air  al- 
ways contains  a  portion  of  water,  and  alfo  thjt  when 
it  has  been  fome  time  confined  by  water  it  imbibes 
more,  fo  as  to  be  increafed  in  its  fpeciiic  gravity  by 
that  means,  he  repeated  the  cx,>eriment  with  in.iam- 
mable  air  which  had  not  been  conrined  by  that  fluid, 
bit  was  re-civcd  in  velfel  of  dry  mercury  from  the 
veflciinwhi  -h  it  haJbeen  generated  .  butinthiscafethc 
v.'aterwasprodu-ed,toappc:iranrc, as  copiously  as  in  the 
former  expcrimcnr.  "  Indeed  ,f."ys he), the  quantity 
of  water  produced,  fo  greatly  exceeding  the  wci_;ht  of 
all  the  inHamm.!b!e  air,  is  fufli-icnt  to  prove  that  it 
nuift  hive  had  f  >  nc  other  fource  tlinn  any  conf^iturnt 
part  of  that  air,  or  thcwholc  of  it,  together  with  the 
water  contained  in  it,  without  taking  inro  confidcra- 
tion  the  corrrfponding  lofs  of  weight  in  the  iron. 

"  I  niuft  here  obferve,  th  it  tic  'ron  flig  w-hi-b  I 
had  treated  in  this  manner,  and  which  hid  thereby  loft 

"  the 


'59 

OepMojr- 
ticati.  J  .Air* 


72 
Quintity 
produced 
inthl:>mai]- 


73 
E.tpL-ri- 
mcnti  with 
cjpper. 


i6o 


AERO 


O 


Sed.  III. 


Dcplilojif-  the  weight  which  it  had  acquired  in  dcplilogiflicaicd 
tkateil  Air.  air,  became  pcrfcc^  iron  as  at  lirll,  and  was  ihcu  ca- 
-1  pable  of  being  melted  by  the  burning  lens  again  ;  fo 
Iron  may  tliat  the  fame  piece  of  iron  would  ftrve  for  tliefe  e^- 
be  niaJc  to  perimcnts  as  long  as  the  operator  ihould  choofc.  It 
imbibe  dc-  was  evident,  therefore,  than  if  the  iron  had  loA  its 
phloj.;i(U-  plilogiftonin  the  preceding  fulion,  it  had  acquired  it 
catctl  air  as  ^ggj,,  f^om  the  intiamniablc  air  which  it  had  abforbcd  ; 

often  as  we    °  ,  ,    ,  ,•      i  i  i  i 

plcafc.        ''"" '  ""  "°'  ^^'^  "°^^  '"^  experiment  can  be  accounted 

7j        for  in  any  oihcr  way." 
Expcri-  As  the  experiments  of  Dr  Prieftlcy   tend    very 

mtiitsof  much  to  throw  fomc  light  on  the  compolition  of  dc- 
^i'""  *■',"""■  phlogiflicated  air,  we  ihall  here  give  an  account  of 
<)ifli,.<cc.on  j-yj^^^  others  made  by  Mr  Cavendilh,  as  well  as  tliofe 
of  Dr  Prieftley  and  the  French  chemifts,  upon  \\  ater  : 
From  all  which  it  is  concluded  by  the  molt  celebrated 
philolbpScrs  and  chemilts,  That  dcphlogilUcatcd  air 
is  oneof  the  conliitucnt  and  elementary  parts  of  water, 
inHamniable  air  being  the  other  ;  though  the  opinion 
is  ftill  contelied  by  fomc  foreign  chemilts. 
PhU.Tranf.  "  As  there  fcemcd  great  rcafon,"  fays  Mr  Cavcn- 
lixiv.  12J.  difli,  "  to  think,  from  DrPricftlcy's  experiments,  that 
the  nitrous  and  vitriolic  acids  were  convertible  into  de- 
phlogidicatcd'air,  1  tried  whether  the  dephlogilticatcd 
part  of  common  air  mi^ht  not  be  converted  into  nitrous 
or  vitriolic  acid."  For  this  purpofe  he  impregnated 
fome  milk  of  lime  witli  the  fumes  of  burning  fulphur, 
by  burning  122  grains  of  fulphur  in  a  large  glafs  re- 
ceiver, in  which  fomc  lac  calcis  was  included.  No 
nitrous  fait,  nor  any  thing  bclldes  felenitc,  was  pro- 
duced in  the  proccfs.  Neither  was  any  nitrous  acid 
:*  produced  by  phlogillicating  common  air  with  liver  of 
fulphur,  or  by  treating  dephlogilticatcd  air  in  the  fame 
manner.  The  liver  of  fulphur  ufed  in  thtfc  experi- 
ments was  made  with  lime  ;  and  the  only  obfcrvation 
made  on  this  occalion  was,  that  the  felenitc  produced 
was  much  more  foluble  in  water  than  when  made  with 
dcphogilticated  vitriolic  acid. 

To  try  whether  any  vitriolic  acid  was  produced  by 
the  phlogiltication  of  air,  50  ounces  of  diltilled  water 
giiticatiou  were  impregnated  with  the  fumes  produced  on  mixing 
of  air  pro-  ^^  ounce-meafures  of  nitrous  air  with  a  quantity  of 
•rioUc  acid. '^""""''"  ^'^  fufficient  to  decompound  it.  This  was 
done  by  tilling  a  bottle  with  fomc  of  this  water,  and 
inverting  it  into  a  bafonof  the  fame  ;  and  then  by  afy- 
phon,  letting  inasmuch  nitrous  air  as  filled  it  half  full; 
after  which,  common  air  was  added  flowly  by  tlic  fame 
fyphon,  till  the  nitrous  air  was  decompounded.  When 
tljis  was  done,  the  diltilled  watcrwas  further  iiiipreg- 
ratcd  in  the  fame  manner  till  the  whole  quantity  of 
nitrous  air  was  employed.  The  impregnated  water 
was  fcniibly  acid  to  the  talte  ;  andondiltillation  yield- 
ed firft  phlogillicated  nitrous  acid,  then  water,  and 
laftly  a  very  acid  liquor  conlilting  of  dephlogilticatcd 
nitrous  acid.  By  faturation  with  fait  of  tartar,  R7; 
grainsof  nitre,  without  any  mixture  of  vitriolatcd  tar- 
tar, or  other  vitriolic  fait,  were  obtained. 

Thefc experiments  having  proved  uniucrcfsful,  Mr 
Cavendilh  next  proceeded  to  try  the  tffeels  of  explo- 
ding dcphlogillicated  and  inHamniable  air  together  in 
clofc  velfcls.     He  begins  with  relating  an  experiment 


76 
Whether 
the  phlo- 


77 
Nitrous  a- 
cid  produ 
ted  frjm 
de|hlo,'if- 


ti.attJ  and  ^  ^    Prlcltlcy  ;  in  which,  it  was  faid,  that'on  firing 

ble  iiir,        3  mixture  of  common  and  innammablc  air  by  elertn- 

city,  in  a  clufe  copper  veflll  holding  .bout  three  pints, 

a  lofs  of  weight  was  always  perceived,  on  an  average 


about  two  grains,  though  the  veflel  was  flopped  in 
fuch  a  manner  that  no  air  could  cfcape  by  tlie  explo- 
llon.  It  is  alfo  related,  that  on  repeating  the  experi- 
ment, in  glafs  vellils,  the  infide  of  the  glafs,  though 
clean  and  dry  betorc,  immediately  became  dewy  ; 
which  confirmed  an  opinion  he  had  long  entertainetl, 
that  common  air  dcpolits  its  moillure  by  phlogiilica- 
tioii.  The  experiment,  however,  did  notfucceed  wilk 
MrCavcndilh,  at  Icall  with  regard  to  the  lofsof  weight ; 
which  never  e.-icceded  the  hfth  part  of  a  grain,  and 
commonly  was  nothing  at  all.  In  thcfe  experiments 
the  greateft  care  was  taken  to  obferve  with  accuracy 
the  diminution  of  air  by  the  explolion,  and  quality  of 
the  remainder  ;  from  which  it  appeared,  that  423  mea- 
fures  of  inrtammable  air  were  ne.irly  fuliicient  to  phlo- 
gill^cate  icooof  common  air,  and  that  the  bulk  of 
air  remaining  atter  liie  explolion  is  very  little  more 
than  fuur-tifthsof  the  common  air  employed  ;  whence 
he  conclu.les,  that  "  when  they  arc  mixed  in  this  jiro- 
portioh,  almollall  thein/lammablc,  and  aboutone-fifth 
of  the  common  air,  lofc  their  el  'llicity,  and  arc  con- 
denfed  into  the  dew  which  lines  the  glafs." 

To  examine  more  exactly  the  nature  of  this  dew, 
500,000  grain-incafures  of  inflammable  air  were  burnt 
with  about  2;  times  the  quantity  of  common  air,  and 
thx' burnt  air  was  made  to  pals  through  a  glafs  cylinder 
eight  feet  long  and  flirce-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter, in  order  to  depoiit  the  dew.  The  two  airs  were 
conveyed  flowly  into  this  cylinder  by  feparate  copper 
pipes,  palling  through  a  brafs  plate  which  Aoppcd  up 
one  endof  the  cylinder  ;  and  as  neither  inflammable  nor 
common  air  can  burn  by  themfelves,  there  was  no  dan- 
ger of  the  Hame  fprcading  to  the  magazines  from  which 
they  were  conveyed.  Each  of  thefc  magazines  eon- 
iKtcd  of  a  large  tin  vcffel  inverted  into  another  jufl  big 
enough  to  receive  it.  The  inner  velFel  communicated 
with  the  copper  pipe,  and  the  air  was  forced  out  of  it 
by  pouriivg  water  into  the  outer  velFel :  and  in  order 
that  the  quantity  of  common  air  expelled  (hould  be 
2V  times  that  of  the  iniiammable  air,  the  watcrwas 
let  into  the  outer  vefltli  by  two  holes  in  the  bottom  of 
the  fame  tin  pan  ;  the  whole  which  conveyed  the  water 
into  that  vcUcl  in  which  the  common  air  was  confined 
being  21  times  as  big  as  the  other.  In  trying  the  ex- 
periments, the  magazines  being  firll  filled  with  their 
refpeftive  airs,  the  glafs  cylinder  was  taken  ott',  and 
water  let  by  the  two  holes  into  the  outer  velfcls,  till 
the  airs  began  to  iiiuc  from  the  ends  of  the  copper 
pipes  ;  they  were  then  feton  fire  by  a  candle,  aiid  the 
cylinder  put  on  again  in  its  place.  By  this  means  up- 
wards of  155  grains  of  Water  were  left  in  the  cylinder, 
which  had  no  talte  nor  Imell,  and  which  left  no  per- 
ceptible fediment  on  being  evaporated  to  drynefs  ;  nei- 
ther did  it  yield  any  pungent  fmell  during  the  evapo- 
ration ;  in  fhort,  it  fcemed  pure  water.  In  one  of  his 
experiments  a  little  footy  matter  was  Jierceived,  butit 
was  found  to  proceed  from  the  luting.  On  repeating 
the  experiment  with  deplilogifticated,  inllcad  of  com- 
mon air,  the  produce  was  nitrous  acid. 

The  following  conclufion  is  drawn  by  Mr  Cavendilh. 
from  all  thcfe  experiments  :  "  There  feem  two  ways 
by  which  the  production  of  the  nitrous  acid,  in  the 
manner  abovementioued,  may  be  explained  :  firft,  by 
r.ppoling  tliat  dephlogilticatcd  air  '-omaiusa  little  ni- 
trous acid,  which  entersintoitas  one  of  the  component 

parts  i 


Dephlogif- 
ticatcd.-iir. 


78 
Qu.vitityiif 
inflamma- 
ble  air  ne- 
celTary  tu 
phlogilli- 
catc  com- 
muD  air. 


Sea.  in. 


A 


R       O 


licphloyif-  parts  ;  and  thai  iliiracid,  when  tiic  inflammable  air  is 
ticateJ  Air.  ia  fafficicilt  proportion,  unites  to  ihc  phloj;' lion,  and  is 
"  '  turned  into  ^•iilo;;iitic;itcd  air,  but  di-cs  not  when  the 

Conrluri-  inflammable  air  isintoo!n>ali  proportion  :  and,fccoud- 
cins  frum  Jy,  by  fuppoling  that  there  is  no  nitrous  acid  mixed 
tliefe  expe-  with  or  entering  into  the  compofition  of  dephlogiUi- 
uients.  cated  air;  but  that,  wii'-n  the  air  is  in  fufficient  pro- 
portion, part  of  the  dephljgiiii'.-at'd  air  with  which  it  is 
dcbafcd  is,  by  the  flrong  aflinity  of  phlo^ifton  to  dc- 
phlogillicated  air,  deprived  of  itsphlogifton,  and  inrn- 
ed  into  nitrous  acid  ;  whereas,  when  the  dcphlogifti- 
cated  air  is  not  more  than  fufficient  to  confamc  the  in- 
flammable air,  none  then  remains  to  deprive  the  phlo- 
gifticatcd  air  of  its  phlogiflon,  and  turn  it  into  acid. — 
If  the  latter  explanation  be  true,  I  think  we  mufl  al- 
low that  dcphlogifticatcd  air  is  in  reality  nothing  but 
d;phlogijikatcd  watir,  or  water  deprived  of  its  phlo- 
giflon ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  water  confifts  of  dc- 
jihlogifticatcd  air  unitrd  to  phlogifton.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  former  explanation  be  true,  v.e  mud  fup- 
pofe,  that  dephlogiflicatcd  air  confifts  of  water  united 
to  a  little  nitrous  acid,  and  deprived  of  its  phlogiflon ; 
but  ftiU  the  nitrous  acid  in  it  muft  only  make  a  very 
fmall  part  of  the  whole,  as  it  is  found  that  the  phlo- 
gifticated  air  into  which  it  is  converted  is  very  fmull 
in  comparifonof  the  dephlogifticated  air.  I  think  the 
fecond  of  thefc  explanations  feems  much  the  raorclike- 
ly  i  as  it  was  found  that  the  acid  in  the  condcnfed  li- 
quor was  of  the  nitrous  kind,  not  only  when  the  de- 
phlogifticated air  was  prepared  from  nitrous  acid,  but 
when  procured  from  plants  or  turbith  mineral.  Ano- 
ther ftrong  argument  in  favourof  this  opinion  is,  that 
dephlogifticated  air  yields  no  nitrous  acid  when  phlo- 
gilticated  by  liver  of  fulphur;  for  if  this  air  contains 
nitrous  acid,  and  yields  it  when  phlogifticated  by  ex- 
plofton  with  intlammable  air,  it  is  very  extraordinary 
that  it  (hould  not  do  fo  by  other  means.  Rut  what 
forms  a  ftrongcr,  and,  I  think,  almoft  decifive  argu- 
ment in  favour  of  this  explanation,  is,  that  when  the 
dephlogifticated  air  is  very  pure,  the  condenfed  liquor 
is  made  much  more  ftrongly  acid  by  mixing  the  air  to 

80  be  exploded  with  a  little  phlogifticated  air." 

Dr  Vrieft-  The  experiments  of  Dr  Priedlcy  alluded  to  were 
ley  •  cxpe-  jhofc  ill  which  inriammablc  air  was  luppofcd  by  Mr 
runciits.  Lavoilier  to  be  procured  from  water  by  paiiing  its 
/team  through  ret-hot  iron  tubes.  It  was  foon  difco- 
vered,  however,  by  DrPriiftliy,  that  this  inflammable 
air  did  not  proceed  from  the  water,  but  from  the  iron  of 
the  tube;  and  might  bcobtaincd  by  tranfmittiag aqueous 
vapour  through  charcoal  or  iron  placed  in  tub-.-sof  cop- 
per, glafs,  or  earthen  ware,  made  red-hot,  but  not 
through  thtfe  tubes  by  ihemfelves.  In  this  cafe,  the 
lofsof  the  water  employed  exceeded  that  of  thcindam- 
inable  air  produced  Ih  the  proportion  of  i.;;  to  2  ;  and 
the  iron  which  had  thus  abforbed  the  water,  aj'pearcd 
exactly  fimilar  to  that  which  had  been  burned  in  de- 

81  phlogifticated  air  in  the  manner  already  rc!a\ed.  His 
Hiscpinion  conclul:ons  from  thence  are  thefc:  "  Since  iron  gains 
conccnimg  ,^g  j-j,,,^  addition  of  weight  by  being  melted  in  dc- 
thc  compe-     i  ,      . „.  ,     .  '  i      i r    i         i  .    •  • 

(itioiioi      phlogifticated  air,  and  alfo  by  the  adoition  ot  water 
water.  Vol.  I. 


L       O      G       V. 

wluii  red  hot,  and  becomes,  abl  have  already  obftrv- 
ed,  the  fanicfubftance  in  allrcfptcts,  it  is  evident  tb:il 
this  air  or  water,  as  exifting  in  the  iron,  is  the  very 
fame  thing;  and  this  can  harJly  be  explained  but  on 
the  fiippofition  that  water  confifts  of  two  kinds  of  air, 
viz.  inllammablc  and  dephlogifticated." 

Of  thcfe  proceflcs  he  gives  the  f.jllowing  explana- 
tion: "  When  iron  is  heated  in  dephlogilUcatcd  air, 
we  may  fuppofc  that,  though  part  of  its  phlogiftioK 
cfcapes,  focnter  into  theconipolitionof  the  fmall  qoan- 
tity  of  fixed  air  which  is  then  procured,  yet  enough  re- 
mains to  form  water  with  the  dcphlogifticatcdair  which 
it  has  imbibed,  fo  that  this  calx  confifts  of  the  inti- 
mate union  of  the  pure  earth  of  iron  and  of  water; 
and  therefore,  v,  hen  the  fame  calx,  thus  faturated  with 
water,  is  expofcd  to  heat  in  intlammable  air,  this  air 
enters  into  it,  deftroys  the  attraiflion  between  the  wa- 
ter and  the  earth,  and  revives  the  iron,  while  tLe  wa- 
ter is  expelled  in  its  proper  form." 

The  whole  of  the  Dofior's  opinions  on  the  compo- 
nent parts  of  this  kindof  air,  however,  are  fummcd  up 
in  the  following  fentence  in  VisObfirvaticiiis  relating  to 
Th:oty  — "The  only  kind  of  air  that  is  no»v  thought 
to  be  properly  elementary,  and  to  conlift  of  a  fimple 
fubftancc,  is  dephlogifticated  air  ;  with  the  addition  at 
Icaftofihe principle  ofheat,concerningwhich  we  know 
very  little  ;  and  as  it  is  not  probable  that  this  adds  any 
thing  to  the  weight  of  bodies,  it  can  hardly  be  called 
an  ^/tw/.'/./in  their compofition.  Dephh>gifticatcd  air 
appears  to  be  one  of  the  elements  of  water,  of  fixed 
air,  of  all  theacids,  and  many  other  fubftanccs,  which, 
till  lately,  have  been  thought  to  be  I'lmple." 

The  experiments  of  the  French  philofophcrs  were  of 
the  fame  nature  with  thofe  of  >ir  Cavcndifli,  but  con- 
ducted on  a  larger  fcale.  The  inference  drawn  from 
them  was  the  fame  with  that  already  mentioned,  viz. 
tliat  dephlogifticated  and  indammable  air  in  all  cafes 
arc  the  twoconftituent  parts  of  water.  This  opiaioa 
is  adopted  by  Mr.  Kirwan  in  his  TrcatiCe  on  Fhlcgijhtt. 
"  The  experiments  of  Mr  Cavendiih,  and  of  Wr 
Mongc,"  fays  he,  "  appear  to  me  to  leave  no  room  to 
doubt,  that  when  very  pure  dephlogifticated  and  in- 
flammable air  are  inflamed,  the  product  is  mere  wa- 
ter (a)  ;  for  when  thefc  airs  are  employed  in  the  pro- 
per  proportion,  only  0,02  of  the  mixture  of  both  airs 
retains  its  aerial  form.  Now  it  is  impoiliblc  to  lupptjfc 
that  all  the  water  obtained  pre-exilled  in  thefc  airs; 
that  is,  that  49  parts  in  jo  were  mere  v.atcr. 

Notwithlianding  thefc  pofiiive  conclufio?.s,  how- 
ever, byfomcof  the  mofl  refpcflablc  names  in  Eng- 
land, the  criJcnces  adduced  have  been  uuialisfac- 
tory  to  fonie  French  chcmiils  ;  who  maintain,  that 
Mrifrs  Cavcndilh,  Pricftlcy,  and  Kirwan,  are  totally 
miftakcii  with  regard  to  the  produ(5iion  of  water  from 
dephl'igitlicatcd  and  indammable  air  ;  contcnding,tiiat 
the  Wutcrobtained  had  prcviou'Iy  exilted  in  the  air,  and 
was  not  originally  pro.iuced  in  the  oper.ition.  The 
facl,  indeed,  becomes  ibmtwhat  dubious  from  fonic  ex- 
periments relatfd  by  Dr  Priefthy  liimfclf,  and  of 
wiiich  w  e  lliall  now  proceed  to  give  an  account. 

X  One 


161 

Ut-i>hlo,c'f- 
ticitcd  Air 


01'fcr%'.anJ 
Lxpcr.  vi. 
40J. 


8» 
Experi- 
menciof 
tlie  ftt  Dch 
philnfu- 
p)icr>. 


8i 
Mr  KJr  - 

wan't  con- 
clofions 
from  them. 


84 
The  fore- 
going theo- 
ries not  sl- 
togcUier 
fatijfifio- 


(a)  The  experiments  of  Mr  Cavcndilh  (how  iliat  niirous  arid  is  the  produi.1  in  this  cafe.  He  takes  notice  of 
the  difference  between  the  refidt  of  the  French  experiments  and  his.  but  afci  ibes  it  to  tlicir  uiiufi;  iiii;.-tnma- 
tit  ait  prepared  from  charcoal:  His  was  from  zinc. 


1 63 

Ucphlopif- 
tiiratcJAir. 


A 


R      O 


O      G      Y. 


Scd.  irr. 


])iiriculti<rs 
;u'iliDj^  ill 
fiimc  of  l)r 
I'rieftlcy's 
•iperi- 
nieiits. 


One  eonff qiicnccof  tlic  liyiiothelis  in  qutlHon  is  evi- 
dent, thai  it"  water  really  he produadhy  the  dctiagra- 
tiou  oi'eiihcr  dc[.hloj;ilticatcctor  common  air  with  in- 
riiuimablt  air,  the  quantity  of  liquid  obtained  ought  to 
iiicrcale  iii  proportion  lo  the  quantity  ot  the  two  sirs 
co'if'tnici!,  and  that  without  any  limitation.  Tliis, 
however,  is  not  the  catc,  as  Dr  I'liiftley  lias  obfcrved. 
He  had  iuccecdcd  indeed  with  I'cales  of  iron  and  cop- 
per, as  has  already  been  related  ;  and  in  the  expeiimcut 
v\  ith  the  latter,  tiie  production  of  water  was  fo  copious, 
that  when  only  3;  ounce-meafurcsof  air  were  abforb- 
cd,  the  water  llood  indropson  the  inlideofthe  vell'cl, 
and  fome  of  thcfe  ran  down  it.  Water  was  alio  pro- 
cured by  firing  dtpiilogiflicated  and  inflammable  air 
from  iron  by  the  electric  fj-ark  in  a  clofe  vclfel,  an  ex- 
periment fimilar  to  thofc  niadcby  Mr  Lavoilicr  at  Pa- 
ris. In  his  tirll  experiment  lie  put  2.7>  ounce-mea- 
fures  of  a  mixture  of  air,  of  which  one-third  vvasde- 
phlogillic.iicJ  and  two-thirds  intlauimablc  air  from 
iron, in  aclofc  vellcl,;'.nd,  after  liic  cxplolion,  found  in 
it  one  grain  of  uioilUirc  ;  but  on  repcatinp;  the  experi- 
ment with  hall'asmuchdephlOj;illicatcdasinrtaramabl£ 
air,  lu  could  perccivcnofign of  nioillure.  The  greatell 
difficulty,  however, which  he  fays  he  ever  met  with  re- 
fpcdingtheprccedin>;theory,arofe  from  hisnever  ha- 
ving been  able  to  procure  any  water  when  lie  revived 
red  precipitate  in  inflammable  air,  or  at  Icall;  no  more 
than  might  have  been  fuppofcd  to  be  contained  in  the 
inflaminablc  air  as  an  extraneous  fubftanc;. 

In  order  to  make  the  experiment  with  the  fcalcs  of 
iron  and  that  with  .the  red  pccipitaicas  much  alike 
as  poifible,  and  compare  them  both  to  the  greatcll  ad- 
vantage,he  made  them  one  immediately  after  the  other 
with  every  circumflance  as  nearly  the  fame  he  could. 
Theinriammablc  air  was  the  fame  in  both  experiments, 
and  both  the  fcales  of  iron  and  red  precipitate  were 
made  as  dry  as  pollible.  They  were  heated  in  vclfcls 
of  the  fame  fize  and  form,  and  equally  confined  by  dry 
mercury  :  and  yet  with  the  former,  water  was  produced 
as  copioully  as  before,  viz.  running  down  the  inlidc  of 
the  veficl  in  drops,  when  only  four  ounce-nieafurcs  of 
inflammable  air  were  abforbcd  ;  but  though  he  heated 
the  red  precipitate  till  eightounce-meafures  of  thein- 
flammablc  air  wercabforbcd,and  only  0.75  of  an  ounce- 
neafure  remained,  there  was  hardly  any  fenlible  quan- 
tity of  water  produced,  "certainly,"  fays  he,  "  not 
on'c-tcnthof  what  appeared  in  the  experiment  with  the 
fcales  of  iron.  In  this  experiment  there  can  be  no 
doubt  but  that  the  dephlogilUcatcd  air  produced  from 
the  red  precipitate  mixed  with  the  inrtammable  air  in 
the  velTel ;  and  as  no  'duuter  equal  to  the  weight  of  tiic 
two  kindsof  air  was  produced,  they  mull  have  formed 
fome  moxcfoliJ fuhfiance,  w  hich ,in  the  fmall  quantities 
I  was  obliged  to  ufe,  could  not  be  found. 

"  The  difficulty,  with  rcfpeol  to  what  becomes  of 
the  two  kinds  of  air,  was  not  leilened  by  the  attempts 
whicli  I  made  to  collect  rdl  that  I  could  from  repeated 
dccompofitionsof  inflammable  anddephlogiflicated  air 
in  a  clofe  velfel.  As  I  had  produced  water  in  this  pro- 
ccfs  when  nomore  than  alingleexplofion  was  made  at 
a  time,  I  thought  that  by  continuing  to  make  explo- 
fions  in  the  f.inie  velfel,  the  water  would  not  fail  to  ac- 
cumulate till  any  quantity  might  be  coUee^ed  ;  and  I 
intended  to  have  collefted  a  coufidcrablc  part  of  an 
ounce.     And  as  I  would  know  exactly  what  quantity 


of  air  I  dccompofed,  I  had  no  doubt  of  being  able  to  licphlogif- 
afcertain  the  proportion  that  the  w  ater  and  air  bore  to  ticatcd  .^ir. 

each  other.     With  this  view  a  mixture  was  made  of  a         " 

large  quantity  of  air,  one-third  dephlogillicaied  and 
two  thirds  inriammable,from  iron  andoilof  vitriwl. — 
But  though  1  had  a  fenlible  quantity  of  water  at  the 
Jirll  explolion  ^in  each  of  which  between  foiiraud  five 
ounce-meafurcsoftiie  mixture  of  air  were  ufed),  I  W'as 
furprifed  to  perceive  no  very  fenlible  incrcale  of  the 
quantity  of  water  on  repeating  iheexplolions.  Ha\ing 
therefore  expended  48  ojnce-mcaluresof  the  mixture, 
the  procefs  w  as  difcontinucd  ;  and,  coUeCling  the  wa- 
ter with  all  the  care  iliat  I  could,  1  found  no  more 
tlian  three  grains,  w^hen  there  ought  to  have  been 
eleven. 

"  III  this  procefs  the  infidc  of  the  veflTel  was  always 
very  black  after  each  explolion  ;  and  when  I  poured  in 
tlie  mercury  after  the  explolion,  though  there  was  no- 
thing viliblc  in  the  air  within  the  vellcl,  there  ilfucd 


86 
Incnnden- 


from  the  mouth  of  it  a  denfe  vapour.     This  was  the 
cafe,  iliough  I  waited  fo  long  as  two  minutes  after  any  'f^^\^  y^, 
explolion,  before  I  proceeded  to  put  in  more  mercury  pourari- 
in  order  to  make  another  ;  w  hith,  if  the  vapour  had  fmg  from 
been  fleam,  would  have  been  time  more  than  iuincienr  ^vater. 
to  permit  it  tocondcnfe  into  water.     I  even  perceived 
this  vapour  when  I  jiad  a  quamity  of  water  in  the  vel- 
fel, and  tiie  ex]ilolion  was  eonfcquenily  made  over  it, 
as  Well  as  in  contatil  with  tlie  lidcs  of  the  velfel  which 
Were  wetted  with  it ;  fo  that,  as  this  vapour  had  paf- 
fed  through  the  whole  body  of  water  when  the  velfel 
Was  inverted,  it  is  prubable  that  it  mull  have  coiililfcd 
of  fomething  clfe  than  mere  water.     But  I  w-as  never 
able  to  collect  any  quantity  of  it,  though  it  mufl  have 
been  fomething  produced  by  theunionof  theiwokinds 
of  air." 

In  order  to  colle<5t  a  quantity  of  this  vapour,  he  con- 
trived an  apparatus,  which,  by  diffuling  it  through  a 
thin  glafs  velfel,  he  fuppofcd  would  condenfe  all  the 
contents  whether  fluid  or  folid  ;  but  after  repeating 
the  experiment  as  carefully  as  polhble,  by  taking  20 
explolions,  and  repeating  the  whole  feveral  times  o- 
ver,  he  could  find  nothing  in  the  velfel  belides  a  fmall 
quantity  of  water,  which,  addeii  to  that  in  tiie  flrong 
veliej,  came  far  ihort  of  the  weight  of  the  air  that 
was  dccompofed.  . 

"  Ail  the  eonjcdure,"  fay  he,"  that  I  can  advance,  prieftfey'i 
in  order  to  explain  tliis  phenomenon  is,  that  fince  foot  coiiieaure 
yields  pure  air,  part  of  the  foot  is  formed  by  the  union  concerning 
of  the  dephlogidicated  air  in  the  atmofphere,  and  the  this  vapour, 
inflammable  air  of  the  fuel  :  hnl  fmoks,  which  contains 
much/c';/,  is  foon  difperfed,  and  becomes  invilible  in 
the  open  air.     Such,  therefore,  may  be  the  cafe  here. 
The  foot  formed  by  the  union  of  the  two  kinds  of  air, 
may  be  diffufcd  through  the  air,  in  the  velfel  in  which 
they  are  exploded,   and  be  carried  inviljbly  into  the 
common  atmofphere  ;  which  may  account  for  my  not 
being  able  to  collcft  any  quantity  of  it  in  this  appa- 
ratus." 88 

Not  difcouraged  by  this  bad  fuccefs,  the  Doftor  at   Unfuccef*- 
temptcd  to  collect  this  volatile  matter  by  means  of  a  fulattempts 
quantity  of  water  incumbent  upon  the  mercury  in  the  tocolleA  it. 
If rong  glafs  velfel  in  which  the  cxplofions  were  made, 
though   he  had  found   that  part  of  it  could  efcape 
through  the  water.  He  decompofcd  agrcat  quantity  of 
the  two  kinds  of  air  in  thcfe  circumftances;  and  pre- 

fcntly 


Sed.  IV. 


E     .!<. 


O 


o 


Y. 


89 

W'attr  in 
confidcr- 


air 

See  Plate 

X.fig.3. 


IVphlogif-  fciuly  found  that  the  water  became  very  cloudy,  anj 
ticatcdAir.  was  at  length  filled  with  a  blackidi  matter.  This  he 

' " '  collected,  and  loiiud  that  it  remained  perlccHy  black. 

upon  the  earthen  velFcl  in  which  the  water  containing 
it  was  evaporated  ;  which  would  not  have  been  the 
cafe  if  the  blackilh  matter  in  the  water  had  been  that 
powder  of  mercury  which  is  produced  by  agitating  it 
in  pure  water  :  For  that  black  mafs  always  became 
white  running  mercury  the  moment  the  water  was  e- 
vaporated  from  it.  Ifafufficient  quantity  of  this  mat- 
ter could  have  been  procured,  he  could  have  fatisticd 
himfelf  whether  it  was  foot  or  not. 

"That  Water  in  great  quantities  (fays),  is  fomc- 
times  produced  from  burning  inriammable  and  dcphlo- 
able  quin-  ginicat^d  air, is  evident  from  the  experiments  of  MeflVs 
edfrom^de-  C-ivcndifli  and  Lavoificr.  1  have alfo frequently  coUcft- 
phlogiftica-  ed  coniidcrablc  quantities  of  water  in  this  way,  though 
ted  and  in-  never  quite  fo  raucii  as  the  weight  of  the  two  kinds  of 
flammable  air  decompofed.  My  apparatus  for  this  purpofc  was  the 
following  :  Into  the  mouth  of  a  large  glafs  balloon,  I 
introduced  a  tube,  from  the  oriticc  of  which  there 
continually  iflued  inflammable  air  from  a  veiiel  con- 
taining iron  and  oil  of  vitriol.  This  being  lighted, 
continued  to  burn  like  a  candle.  Prefently  after  the 
lighting  of  it,  the  infide  of  the  balloon  alvvaysbecame 
cloudy,  and  the  moiflurc  foon  gathered  in  drops,  and 
fettled  in  the  lower  part  of  the  balloon  To  catch 
what  might  iliue  in  the  form  of  vapour,  in  the  cur- 
rent of  air  through  the  balloon,  1  placed  theglafs  tube 
h,  in  which  I  always  found  fonie  water  condenled. 
It  is  very  polhble,  however,  that  in  both  thefc  modes 
of  experimenting,  the  water  may  be  converted  into 
a  kind  of  vapour,  which  is  very  dificrent  from  fleam, 
and  capable  of  being  conveyed  a  great  way  through 
air,  or  even  water,  without  condenfation  along  with 
the  air  with  which  it  is  mixed  ;  and  on  this  account 
it  may  not  be  poITible,  in  cither  of  tliefc  modes 
of  experimenting,  to  collect  a// the  water  into  which 
the  two  kinds  of  air  may  be  converted.  The  nature 
of  this  kind  of  vapour  into  which  water  may  be  chan- 
ged, and  which  is  not  rcadilycondcnfedby  cold,  is  very 
little  underllood,  but  w  ell  defervcs  the  attention  of  phi- 
lofophcrs. 

"  That  the  water  collefted  in  the  balloon  comes 
from  the  deconipolition  of  the  air,  and  not  from  the 
frclh  air  circulating  through  it,  was  evident  from  pla- 
cing bills  of  hot  iron  in  the  place  of  the  llamc,  and 
f.uding  that,  though  the  balloon  was  as  much  heated 
by  them  as  by  the  tlameof  the  burning  of  the  inriam- 
mable air,  and  coafequently  there  miift  have  been  the 
fame  current  of  the  external  air  through  it,  no  moi-  . 
Iture  was  found  in   the  balloon." 

Sect.  IV.     Of  TPhlogijlkated  Air. 

Plilogiai-  "^"^  univerfal  prejudice  in  favour  of  the  cxiflcnce 
caiionofair  of  that  principal  named  Phlogijlsti,  firfl  fiiggelled  by 
explained.  Stahl,  gave  rife,  on  the  firfl  appearance  of  br  I'rieft- 
Icy's  difcoveries,  to  a  theory,  concerning  the  action 
of  this  fubflance  upon  air  and  other  bodies.  As 
it  had  been  obfervtd,  that  air  was  dimiiiilhcd,  in 
forae  cafes  at  lealt,  by  burning,  univtrfally  by  rc- 
(piraiiou,  and  by  fonie  otlier  procellts,  it  was  ima- 
gined that  phlogifton  was  a  body  of  fuch  a  fingular  na- 
ture, that  whcu  mixed  with  air,  it  always  diminiflicd 


163 


itsbiilk,  infleadof  enlarging  it,  which  might  havebcen  Plilt.fifti- 
more  nar,ii-:.lly  expected  from  tiic  mixture  of  any  va-  '■■.ted  .^ir.^ 
ponr  whatever.     Itwasalfofiippofcd  by  fomc,  that  the         '^       ' 
phlogillon  was  not  only  entirely  devoid  ofgra\ity,  but 
thatit  w'as  a  principle  oipoftwe  livity  ;  fo  that  the  <i^- 
Jlluti  wcightof  bodies  was  diniinilhcd  by anunion  wiili 
it,  and  augmented  when  it  was  expelled,  though  their 
_/^c-c//J'cgravity  wasdiminilhcd.  Variousothcrfarprifing 
properties  were  attributed  to  phlogiflon  :  fuch  as  that  y^  '°  , 
of  giving  ehllicity  to  air,  of  conflituting  fiamc  by  a     ""^^^^at- 
chankal (.(,7nbiiiatton  witli  air,  &e.  Its  emillion  into  the  triliuted  to 
aimofphere  was  fu -pofed  to  be  alway  as  attended  w  iih  phlogiflon- 
a  diminution  of  air  j   and  therefore,   all  procelies  in 
which  air  was  diminilhed  and  became  noxious,  fuch  as 
that  by  liver  of  fulphur,  a  mixture  of  iron  tilings  and 
brimllone,  !e.c.  wtrtciWti i>hiog:jiic [iroctjfes.    Rcfpi- 
rationof  animals  was  taken  into  the  fame  account;  but 
neither  in  this,  nor  in  combuflion,  was  it  allowed  that 
any  kind  of  vital  fpirit  was  abforbed  by  the  blood,  or 
feparated  from  the  air  by  the  burning  body.     On  the 
contrary,  it  was  ftrenuoudy  argued,   that  all  this  was 
performed  by  ihcemijpou  o( phiogijloii  from  the  lungs 
or  theinriamed  fubflance,  w-hich  depraved  tlie  air, and 
diminifhcd  it  in  bulk  ;  and  as  all  air  was  fiippofed  to 
contain  phlogiflon, it  was  likewife  imagined,  that  in  all  , 

cafes  where  air  was  mended,  as  by  the  growing  of  ve- 
getables, oragitation  in  water,  the  emendation  was  ac- 
complilhed,  not  by  the  emiflion  of  any  thing  into  the 
atmofphere,  but  by  the  mere  abforption  of  phlogirton. 
In  other  refpefts  this  fubflance  was  thought  to  be  an 
exceedingly  powerful  principle  in  nature  ;  (he  light  of 
the  fun  itfelf  and  the  cledric  riuid  being  faid  to  be  modi- 
fications of  it,  the  different  kinds  of  airs  to  be  phlog- 
Jlic  vapours,  Sec. ;  fo  that  the  whole  fyflem  of  nature 
feemcd  ready  to  be  abforbed  by  it  at  once.  ^i 

The  formidable  powers  of  this  principle  were  firftDovlrlue  of 
checked  by  the  difcoveries  of  Mr  Lavoifier,  though  the  p''Io).'ifion 
latter  erred  equally  on  the  contrary  lide  ;  and  not  con-  "rpof"!  by 
tent  with  keeping  the  phlogillic  principle  within  due  '^^  ^^'a'^" 
bounds,  would  needs  deny  its  exiflence  altogether  *.  '^•tee/i!^ 
In  a  treatife  publilhed  in  the  year  17S2,  he  lirft  im-^j/fw. 
pugns  Dr  Frieflley's  theory  of  refpiraiion,  and  denies 
that  "  the  refpiraiion  of  animals  has  the  propenv  of 
phlogiflicatingairiuauiannerficiilar  to  whatisetfed- 
ed  by  the  calcination  of  metals  ar:d  many  other  che- 
mical proceffes  ;  and  that  it  ccafes  not  be  refplrablc  till 
the  inftant  when  it  becomes  furch.irged,  or  at  Icail  fa- 
turated,  w'ith  phlogiflon." 

In  order  to  difprove  this  afTcriion,  he  introduced  ivfrl-'voi- 
four  ounces  of  mercury  to  jo  cubic  inches  of  common  fict\  expe- 
air,  propofingto  calcine  the  mct.il  by  keeping  it  for  12  rimenu  on 
days  in  a  heat  almoll  equal  to  that  which  is  neceifary  "■•alcinatiou 
to  makeit  boil.     After  the  expiration  of  the  appciiit-  °'^  ""^'^l' 
ed  time,  4J  grains  of  precipitate  pcrf^  were  formed,  *"^  "'•"' 
and  the  air  ill  the  vellcl  was  dirainifiicd  by  about  jth 
of  its  volume.     In  this  flate  ir  did  nor  precipitate  lime 
water;  but  inftantly  cxiingiiillic<l  candles,  and  killed 
animals  immerfed  in  it  ;  no  longer  affording  any  red 
vapours,  or  being  diuiinidird  by  mixture  with  nitrons 
air  :   On  diflilling  the  prei.ipitate    i>rodoced,  about  as 
much  dcphlogiflicaled  air  vas  obtEincd  as  liad  been 
left  by  the  common  lir  in  the  calcination  ;  and  by  re- 
combining  tl'.is  with  the  iiuxious  air  left  in  the  vcflel, 
hereconipoftd  a  fluid  nearly  of  the  lame  goodncfs  with 
common  air.     Hcucc  he  draws  ihc  following  k'HcIu- 
X  2  flon  : 


i6+ 


A      E 


Iv 


O 


Pl.lo-irti- 

citU  dir. 

Cotnpofi- 
ti'Jii  uf  at- 
mofphcci- 
cjI  uir. 


91 

rci|>lraciun 
on  air. 


9J 
Shetlc's 
cxpcri- 
nicQU. 


96 
f'onipou- 
tion  of  at- 
mofpheri- 
cal  airde- 
monllratcd 


linns  :  1.  TliJt  I  ths  of  t!;c.iir  we  breathe  arc  mcpliitic, 
or  iiicaiLiulc  of  lupporiiiig  the  rcfjjii  atioa  of  ailiinali, 
or  the  liiiiainniauon  and  combiiliion  of  boJies.  2.  Thjc 
the  iurjilus,  or  only  j  th  of  the  volume  of  atinofphcrical 
air,  isrcfjii.ablc.  3.  Th.it  in  the  calcination  of  mercury, 
tiiii  uietaliie  fuullantc  abforbs  the  lalubrious  part,  Ita- 
viiig  (liily  the  mcphitic  portion  of  the  air.  4.  That  by 
jtunitiiigtlicfc  two  portions  which  had  beenfeparatcd, 
We  c.iii  rtconipouiiiiainir.iilano  thatof  tlitatmofi>hcrc. 

To  determine  the  itt'ccts  of  rtfpiration  upon  air,  a 
live  fj'arrow  was  placed  under  a  j|,l.ifs  receiver,  tilled 
with  common  air  and  inverted  in  mercury, containing 
3 1  cubic  inches.  Jn  a  quarter  of  an  hour  it  became  a- 
gitated,  and  in  5 j minutes  died  convulfed.  Notwith- 
Jtanding  the  heat  of  the  animal,  which  neccUitrily,  it 
trll,  rariiicd  tiieair  in  the  receiver,  there  was  a  fen- 
iiiile  dimi.iution  of  its  bulk  ;  which,  at  the  end  of  15 
minutes,  amounted  to  one-fortieth  :  but,  inlltad  of 
incrcafing  afterwards,  the  diminution  bc.amc  Ibmc- 
ih  ing  lets  in  about  half  an  hour  ;  and  u  lieu  the  animal 
was  dead, and  the  air  in  the  reccivcrhad  recovered  the 
temperature  of  the  room  wlicie  the  experiment  was 
made,  the  diminution  did  not  a])pear  to  exceed  oiie- 
li:itcenthpart. — I'liisair  which  had  been  refpircd  by 
the  fparrow,  though  in  many  refpcctsiiinilar  to  that  in 
which  the  mercury  had  been  calcined,  uiifcrcd  from 
it  in  this  refpecl,  that  it  precipitated  lime-water,  and, 
by  introducing  cauilic  lixed  alkali  to  ii,  was  reduced 
one-lixth  in  bulk  by  the  abforption  of  hxed  air  ;  after 
w  hich  it  appeared  cxadly  the  fame  with  that  produced 
by  the  calcination  of  mercury  or  other  metals  ;  and  at- 
mofphcrical  air  wab  recompofed  by  mixing  this  with 
pure  dcphlogiilicatcd  air  in  the  proportions  already 
mentioned. 

That  common  air  is  compounded  uf  two  kinds  of 
elallie  Huids,  Mr  Scheele  has  proved  by  the  following 
experiment.:  "  I  diffblved  (  fays  he  )  one  ounce  of  al- 
kaline liverof  fulphur  iueightounces  of  water  ;  of  this 
folution  I  poured  four  ounces  into  an  empty  bottle, 
whofc  capacity  was  24  ounces,  and  worked  it  well ; 
then  I  turned  the  bottle,  immerfed  its  neck  intoafmall 
veilcl  with  water,  and  kept  it  in  this  pofition  a  fort- 
night. The  folutior>had  partly  loft  its  red  colour,  and 
lonie  fulphuf  liad  been  precipitated  fromit  during  this 
time.  After  this  1  put  the  bottle  in  the  fame  poiition 
in  a  larger  velfel  with  water,  keeping  the  mouth  and 
neck  under  water,  and  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  above 
water,  and  thus  I  drew  the  cork  under  water,  which 
immediately  rulhed  W'iih  violence  into  the  bottle.  On 
examining  the  quantify  of  water  in  the  bottle,  it  was 
found,  that  during  this  fortnight,  fix  parts  out  of  20 
of  air  were  loft."  On  repcatins>;  the  experiment  w'ith 
the  fame  matcriils,  and  in  the  fame  bottle,  only  four 
parts  out  of  20  were  loll  by  llanding  a  week,  and  no 
more  than  lix  after  four  months. 

From  thefe  experiments,  and  many  others  fimilar, 
it  appears  that  the  do,.-lrine  of  phlogillon  had  been  car- 
ried too  far  by  Dr  Pricllley  and  other  Britidi  philofo- 
phcrs,and  that  the  air  confifts  of  two  kinds  of  fluids  ; 
'one  perfectly  falutary,  and  friendly  in  the  higheft  de- 
gree to  animal  life  ;  the  other  altogether  untit  for  it. 
Thefe  two  appear  incapable  of  being  converted  direct- 
ly into  one  another  by  any  proccfs,  natural  or  arti.'ici- 
al  :  for  though  both  are  dcftruftiblc,  yet  they  arc 
always  converted  into  other  fubftances  ;   from  which 


LOGY.  Sca.IV. 

indeed,  either  the  one  or  the  other  may  be  cxtrafled  l-hlogifli- 
at  pleafure  by  employing  the  proper  inetiiods.      TJic  "t<-J  .-^ir. 

ftrongeitargmneiits  in  lavour  oi  the  tranfmuiation  of     — " 

phlogiilicatcd  air  into  iiial  of  a  pure   kiiid,  w  ere  drawn 
irom  the  purification  o]  noxious  air  by  vegetation,  uni 
by  agitation  in  water.     In  the  loriner  tale,  howevt  r, 
it  has  been  obftrvcdin  thclail  fecUoii,  iJut  tiiis  fccni- 
i;ig  puriticatioii  is  no  other  liian  an  exchange  of  tlic 
one  air  for  the  other  ;   the    vegetables  abiorbing  the 
phlogiiticattd,  and  emitting  the  dcphlogii.icaicd  air  iii 
its  Head.      With  refpccl  to  tiie  agitation  in  water,  the 
matter  remained  more  dubious  ;  and  it  is  only  in  the  Howtir  is 
lall  volumcof  Or  Prieftlcy's  treaiife  that  wc  have  any  purified  Vj 
account  ot  this  being  accomplilhed  by   an  emillioQ  of  agitation  in 
purerairfrom  the  water. — "  In  the  infancy  of  my  ex-  ^•"'■'' 
periments."  fays  he,  "  I  concluded,  that  all  kinds  of  ^^P""-  "".<* 
air  were  brought  by  agitation  to  the  fame  Hate;  the  ^g/"'  "'' 
purcll  air  btiag  partially  phlogiilicatcd,  and  air  com- 
pletely  phlogifticated  being  thereby  made  purer  ;  in- 
flammable air  alio  loliug  its  inriammability,  and  all  of 
thein  b.-ought  into  fuch  a  Hate  as  that  a  cajidlc  would 
juftgo  out  in  them.     This  inference  I  made  from  all 
thckindsofair  with  w  hich  I  was  then  acquainted,  and 
which  did  notrequirctobeconfinedby  mercury,  being 
brought  to  that  Hate  by  agitation  in  a  trough  of  wa- 
ter,  the  furface  of  which  w  as  e.xpofed  to  the  open  air  ; 
never  imagining  that  when  the  air  in  my  jar  was  fcpa- 
rated  Ironi  the  conimon  air  by  a  body  of  water,  gene- 
rally about  twelve  inches  in  depth  (adding  that  with- 
in to  that  without  the  jar),  they  could  have  any  inriu- 
cnce  on  each  other.  1  have,  however,  been  long  con- 
vinced,   that,  improbable  as  it  then  appeared  to  me, 
this  is  aituuUy  tlie  cafe."  - 

Tins  remarkable  fac^  is  illuHrated  by  the  following  Wa^'r  per- 
experinients  :  i.  About  three  ounce-meafjres  of  air,  vioustoair, 
phlogiflicatcd  by  nitrous  air,  was  agitated  for  a  quar-  and  purifies 
ter  of  an  hour  in  a  vcllel  containing  20  ounces  of  wa-  '' '"  r^'fl'"? 
ter,  which  had  been  boiled  forfcveral  hours,  and  which  '•^'■""g''- 
was  Hill  very  warm.  By  this  proccls  it  became  dimi- 
nilhcd  one-lixth,  and  conliderably  improved  in  qua- 
lily.  The  next  day  the  remainder  was  agitated  for 
another  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  the  water  which 
had  been  boiled  at  the  fame  time,  when  it  was  alfo 
diminifhed  in  quantity  and  improved  in  quality. 
2.  An  equal  qua;uity  of  air,  phlogiHicated  by  means 
ot  iron-filings  and  brimllonc,  being  agitated  for  20 
miiuites,  was  diminilhcil  one  fevcutli^  andimproved 
fo  far  that  a  candle  would  burn  in  it.  3.  After  ex- 
pelling all  the  air  he  could  from  a  quantity  of  water 
by  boiling,  he  put  to  it,  in  feparate  phials,  air  that 
had  been  phlogiHicated  with  iron-tilingsandbrimHonc, 
as  well  as  that  which  the  heat  had  expelled,  leaving 
them  with  their  moiuhs  in  water,  and  agitating  them 
occalionally.  On  examining  the  phials  in  about  two 
mouths,  he  found  both  the  air  that  was  confined  by 
water  and  that  which  had  been  expelled  by  heat  com- 
pleiely  phlogiilicatcd.  4.  That  water  does  imbibe  the 
purer  partof  the  atmofphcre.inpreference  to  that  which 
is  impure,  is  evident,  he  fays,  from  any  examination  of 
it  :  For  if  the  water  be  clear,  and  free  from  any  thing 
that  is  putrcfccnt,  the  air  expelled  from  it  by  heat  is  ge- 
nerally of  the  llandard  of  i  ;  whereas  that  of  the  atmo- 
fphere,  when  the  nitrousair  isthc  purell.  is  about  1.2. 
PhlogiHicated  air  is  equally  invifible  with  common  pronerties 
air,  and  fomething  more  claftic.     Mr  Kirwan   pro-  ofplilogifti- 

curcd  caiod  air. 


Sedl.   IV, 


AERO 


I'hlo^ifti- 
cated  .'Vir. 


Mlirous 
acid  prucU' 
red  from 
phlogilli- 
cate<i  air. 


Mr  (Javen- 
diih's  expe- 
riments on 
tlic  produc- 
tion of  iii- 
tr«u&acid. 


ciiicd  (ome  perfectly  pblo^riuicated,  I'o  that  it  was  i:ot 
ia  the  Ica't  diiiiiiiilhcd  by  nitrujs  air,  I'ronia  mixture 
of  iroil-fili;igs  and  brimrtonc.  Having  driiJ  it  by 
frcqucmlyiir.ro.lijcingdryliltcringpapcr  under  the  jar 
that  contained  it,  he  tound  its  weight  to  be  to  that  of 
the  common  air  as  9?5  to  looo,  the  barometer  flanj- 
ing  at  30.46  and  the  thermometer  at  60".  The  other 
properties  of  it  are,  that  it  is  extremely  fatal  to  ani- 
mal life,  and  friendly  to  t!iat  of  veg«ables,  inl'oiuuch 
that  it  is  nowgencr  lily  believed  to  be  the  trueand  proper 
iiourirair.entoftht latter.  It feems tocxifl originally, in 
very  large  qr.jinty,  in  our  atmofpherc.  It  may  be 
feparated  fro.^l  the  common  mafs  of  air  by  coinbuilioa, 
b|  rcfpiration,  by  putrefaction,  and  in  Ihort  by  every 
fpeciesof  phlogiilic  procefs;  neither  is  there  any  other 
fpccits  of  air  but  what  may  be  converted  into  this  by 
means  of  fire,  dephlogiUicatcd  air  alone  excepted. 

Phlogifticated  air  is  nov.'  generally  believed  to  be  i 
combination  of  the  nitrons  acid  with  phlogifton;  and 
that,  in  its  gradual  pro^^rcfs  towards  this,  which  is  its 
ultimate  ftage,  it  tirll  aifumcs  the  character  of  phlo- 
giilicated  nitrousacid  ;  theu  of  nitrous  air,  in  which  it 
readily  parts  with  its  phlogifton  to  the  atmofpherc,  or 
rather  to  the  dcphlogiilicatcd  part  of  it ;  and  laftly,  it 
bcconus  phlogi.iicatf  d  air,  in  which  the  union  betwixt 
the  principles  is  lb  /Irong,  that  it  cannot  be  broken  by 
fimplc  cxpofure  to  dephlogiflicatcd  air  without  heat  ; 
tliough  the  experiments  of  Mr  Cavendifn  Ihow,  that 
this  maybe  doncby  means  of  the  ckclric  Tiark,  which 
produces  the  moll  violent  heat  we  can  imagine. 

It  had  been  frequently  obfcrved,  that  common  at- 
mofplierical  air  was  always  diniinilhed  by  taking  the 
electric  fpark  in  it  ;  and  this  diminution  was  fuppolcd  to 
beoccaiioned  hy  l\\t phlo^ijl icatt'jn  of  the  air,  and  repa- 
ration of  its  fixed  part ;  in  confcquence  of  which  it 
was  urged,  that  lime-water  is  precipitated  by  taking 
the  eletSric  fpark  over  it  in  a  fmall  quantity  of  air. 
Mr  Cavendilh,  however,  who  has  carefully  examined 
this  fubjeiit,  denies  that  any  fixed  air  is  produced  in 
this  manner  ;  and  by  a  fet  of  very  curious  experiments, 
publilhed  in  the  75'"  volume  of  the  Philofophical 
Tranfaclions,  has  clearly  fliown  that  nitrous  acid,  and 
not  fixed  air,  is  the  produ,-l  of  this  operation. 

The  apparatus  ufcd  in  thefc  experiments,  was  that 
feprcfcntcd  Plate  X.  fig.  4.  and  confills  only  of  a 
crooked  glafs  tube,  whofc  ends  are  plunged  into  r,.iick- 
filver  contained  in  two  glades,  in  th;  middle  part  of 
which  the  air  is  confined  betwixt  the  two  portions  of 
quicklilver.  The  air  was  introduced  by  means  of  a 
fmaller  tube,  fig.  j.  the  tube  M  of  the  foriiicr  fi- 
gure bcini;  filled  with  quick!llver,thcbentei.dof  which 
was  introduced  into  ajar  DtK,  filled  with  the  pro- 
per kind  of  air  and  inverted  in  water.  The  end  C 
being  (topped  by  the  finger,  the  qui:kfilver  was  thus 
prevented  from  falling  out,  let  the  tube  be  placed  in 
what  polition  it  wo.i'd,  until  this  prclFare  was  removed. 
Upon  introdi":ing  the  crooked  tube  into  the  jar  in  the 
pof'tioii  ir  rtfenicd  in  the  ficure,  and  removing  the 
finger  frri,  the  orifice  at  C.  the  qnickfilver  would  dc- 
fcend  ;  and  !  y  flopping  this  orifice  again,  anv  qu.'U- 
tity  of  the  \\w\  may  be  allowed  to  run  out,  and  the 
empty  fpjcc  of  t'.e  tube  will  be  filled  with  the  air  dc- 
fircd.  Having  thus  got  the  proper  quantity  of  air  in- 
to the  tube  ABC.  it  was  held  with  the  end  C  upper- 
moll,  and  flopped  with  the  finger  ;  and  the  end  A, 


LOGY.  16,- 

made  fmaller  for  that  purpofc,  being  i.itroduccd  into  Phlo-ini- 
thc  end  01  rlic  bent  tube  M,  the  air,  on  removing  ;he  fit«d  Air- 
finger  from  C,  was  forced  i:.to  thst  tube  by  the  prtf-   ' ' 

furc  of  the  qaicklilver  in  the  leg  BC.  Thus  he  w«s 
enabled  to  irit.oduce  any  quantity  he  plcafcd  of  ai:/ 
kind  of  air  into  the  tube  M  ;  and  by  the  fiinc  meins  jt 
was  in  his  power  to  let  up  any  quantity  of  foap-ley,  or 
other  liquo;-  which  he  wanted  to  b<.  in  contact  with  it. 
In  one  Cafe,  however, in  whi^h  he  wiihcd  to  introduce 
lir  into  the  lubes  many  times  in  the  fame  expel iment, 
he  made  ufc  of  the  apparatus  rcprcfentcd  lig.  6.  con- 
lilting  of  a  tube  AB,  of  a  fmaller  bore,  a  ball  C  and 
a  tube  Ut  of  a  larger  bore.  This  apparatus  was  firll 
hllcd  with  quickfilvcr  ;  and  then  the  ball  C  and  the 
lube  AB  were  filled  with  air,  by  introducing  the  end 
A  under  a  glafs  inverted  into  water,  wliich  contained 
the  proper  kind  of  air,  and  dra.ijng  out  the  quick- 
lilver from  the  leg  El)  by  a  fyphon.  A  tcr  being  thus 
furnilhed  with  air,  the  apparatus  was  weighed,  and  the 
end  A  introduced  into  one  end  of  the  tube  M,  and 
kept  there  during  the  experiment ;  the  way  of  forcing 
air  out  of  this  apparatus  in;o  the  tub',  being  by  thrull- 
ing  down  the  tube  ED,  a  wooden  cjlinuer  of  fuch  a. 
lize  as  almoft  to  fill  up  the  w  hole  bore,  and  by  occa- 
lionally  pouring  quicklilver  into  the  fame  tube,  to  fup- 
ply  the  place  of  that  puihed  into  the  ball  C.  After 
the  experiment  was  linilhed  the  apparatus  was  wei  h- 
ed  again,  which  lliowcd  cxa.lly  how  much  air  had  bee.i 
forced  into  the  tube  M  during  the  whole  expcrlmctit ; 
it  being  equal  in  bulk  to  a  quantity  of  quicklilver, 
whole  weight  was  equal  to  the  incrcafc  of  wtight  rf 
the  apparatus.  The  bore  of  the  tube  M,  ufcd  i.i  thcfj 
experiments,  was  about  the  tenth  of  an  iuch  in  dia- 
meter; and  the  length  of  the  column  of  air  occupying 
the  upper  part  of  the  tube  was  in  general  from  ;ths 
to  I  i  inches — In  order  to  fore  e  an  elciflrical  fpark 
through  the  tube  .M,  it  was  necclTary  to  place  an  in- 
fulatcd  ball  at  fuch  a  diftancc  from  the  conductor  as  to 
receive  a  fpark  from  it,  and  to  make  a  communication 
between  that  ball  and  the  quickfilvcr  in  one  of  the 
glafles,  while  the  quickfilvcr  in  the  other  glafs  com- 
municated  with  the  ground. 

When  the  elcdric  fpark  was  made  to  pafs  tlirough 
common  air  included  between  Ihort  columns  of  a  fobi- 
tion  of  litmus,  the  folution  acquired  a  red  colour,  and 
the  air  was  diniinilhed,  as  had  bcrn  obferved  by  Dr 
Prielllcy.  When  lime-water  was  ufed  inllead  of  the 
folution  of  liimus,  and  the  fpark  was  continued  till  the 
air  could  be  no  further  diniinilhed  ;  but  not  the  fmalleft 
cloud  could  be  perceived  in  the  water,  tliough  the  air  was 
reduced  to  two  thirds  of  its  ori;;inal  bulk  ;  which  is  a 
greater  diminution  than  it  could  have  fuflcred  by  any 
phlogirticprocefi.that  beinglittle  more  than  one-fifth 
of  the  whole.  The  experiment  being  repeated  with 
impure  dephlogifticaicd  air,  a  great  diminution  took 
place,  but  withont  any  cloud  in  the  limf-\r.iicr.  Nei- 
ther was  any  clond  pniduccd  wucn  fixed  air  was  let  up 
into  it  ;  but,  on  t!  e  addition  of  a  little  caullic  volatile 
alkali,,  a  brown  fcoiment  immcdi.itely  uppcirrd. 

It  beiig  thi-:  evident  that  the  lime  was  faturated  by 
fome  acid  produced  in  the  operation,  the  exrcri.-nent 
Wis  repeated  with  foap-leys  to  difcover  the  nature  of 
it.  A  previous  t  xperincnt  had  beci  made  in  oHer  to 
know  what  degree  of  puri :y  th  -  ;.ir  or.ght  to  be  of  to 
produce  the  grcatell   diminution  ;   a;jd  thus  it  was 

found. 


1 66 

I'hlogilii- 
Catc'U  Air. 

lOi 
TrApor- 
tioiis  u(  the 
different 
airs  iiectf- 
fary  for  the 
prodiuSion 
of  nitrous 
aciJ. 


103 
Mr  Caven- 
dilh's  opi- 
nions on 
nature  of 
phlogifti- 
catcd  air. 


AERO 

focind,  tli.it  when  good  dcphlogifticatcd  air  was  iifcd, 
the  diuiimition  was  but  fiiiall ;  where  |n.rfci.'lly  phlo- 
giilicatcd  air  was  made  ulc  of",  no  fcnru)lc  diiuimitioii 
took  place  ;  but  when  live  pans  of  pure  dcphlogillica- 
tcd  air  were  mixed  with  three  of  coniraon  air,  almoft 
the  vvliolc  was  made  to  difappear It  mull  be  remem- 
bered, that  common  air  confills  of  one  part  of  dephlo- 
gilUcatcd  ami  four  of  phlogifticatcd  air;  fothat  a  mix- 
ture of  five  parts  of  pure  dephlogillicated  air  and  three 
of  common  air,  i.s  the  fame  thing  as  a  mixture  of  fcven 
parts  of  dcphlogilHcatrd  air  witli  three  of  phlogillica- 
tcd.  Having  made  ihifc  previous  trials,  he  introdu- 
ced into  ilie  tube  a  little  foap-leys,  and  tlicnlet  upfome 
dephioj^iiUcatcd  and  common  air  mixed  in  the  above- 
mentioned  proportions,  which,  rifing  in  the  tube  M, 
divided  the  foap-leys  into  its  two  legs.  As  fafl  as  the 
air  w  as  diminilhcd  by  l!ie  elcdric  fpark,  he  continued 
to  add  more  of  the  fame  kind  till  no  further  diminution 
took  place.  Tlie  foap-leys  being  then  poured  out  of 
the  tube,  and  feparatcd  from  the  quickfilver,  fcemed 
to  be  pcrfcclly  neutralized,  as  they  did  not  at  all  dif- 
colour  paper  tinged  with  blue  riowcrs.  On  evapora- 
ting the  liquor  to  dryncfs,  a  fmall  quantity  of  fait  was 
left,  which  was  evidently  niire,  from  the  manner  in 
which  a  paper  impregnated  with  the  folution  of  it 
burned.  On  repeating  the  experiment  on  a  larger 
fcale,  with  five  time;  the  quantity  of  materials,  pure 
nitre  was  obtained  in  proportion,  and  was  found  by  the 
tell  oi  terra  fondirofn falila,  to  contain  no  more  vitri- 
olic acid  than  what  might  Iiave  been  expedlcd  in  ilic 
foap-ley  itfclf,  and  which  is  exceedingly  fmall. 

As,  in  fome  former  experiments  of  Mr  Cavendilh, 
it  had  been  found,  that  by  deriagrating  nitre  with 
charcoal,  the  whole  of  the  acid  was  converted  into 
phlogifticatcd  air,  lie  concluded  that  this  kind  of  air 
is  nothing  clfc  than  nitrous  acid  united  to  phlogiflon; 
according  to  which,  it  ought  to  be  converted  into  ni- 
trous acid  by  being  deprived  of  its  phlogifton.  "  But 
(fays  he)  as  dcphlogillicated  air  is  only  water  depri- 
ved of  phlogillon,  it  is  plain,  that  addin*;  dcphlogilli- 
cated air  to  a  body,  is  equivalent  to  depriving  it  of 
phlogifton,  and  adding  water  to  it;  and  therefore 
phlogifticatcd  air  ought  alfo  to  be  reduced  to  nitrous 
acid,  by  being  made  to  unite  or  form  a  chemical  com- 
bination with  dcphlogifticated  air  ;  only  the  acid  thus 
formed  will  be  more  dilute  than  if  the  phlogifticatcd 
air  was  limply  deprived  of  phlogillon. 

"  Thisbcingpremifed,  we  may  fafely  conclude,  that 
in  theprefent  experiments,  the  phlogifticatcd  air  was 
enabled,  by  means  of  the  eledrical  fpark,  to  unite  to, 
or  form  a  chemical  combination  with,  the  dephlogift- 
catcd  air,  and  was  thereby  reduced  to  nitrons  acid, 
which  united  to  the  foap-leys,  and  formed  a  folution 
of  nitre  ;  for  in  thtfc  experiments  the  two  airs  adually 
dilappeared,and  iiitrousacid  was  formed  in  their  room  : 
and  as  it  has  been  fliown,  from  other  circumdanccs, 
tli.it  plilogillicatcd  air  nnift  form  nitrous  acid  when 
combined  with  dephlogi.'^icaiedairj  theabovemcntjon- 
cd  opinion  fcems  10  be  fufiiciently  eflab1i!l~.cd.  And  a 
i'uriher  conlirmation  is,  that  no  diminution  of  air  is  per- 
ceived when  thccleclijc  fpark  is  pafTcd  cither  through 
pure  deplilogiili'-ated  or  ilirough  perftiJUy  phlosrifti- 
catcd  air  ;  v\  hich  indicates  a  nccelTity  for  the  combi- 
nation of  the  two  in  order  to  produce  nitrous  acid. 
It  was  alfo  found  by  the  laft  experiment,  that  the 


o 


Se(fl.  IV. 


quantity  of  niirc  produced  was  the  fame  that  would  Phlojriai- 
havc  been  obtained  from  the  fuap-leys,  had  tiiey  been  catcJ  Air. 
faturated    with  nitrous  acid  ;    which  Ihows,  that  the  'y—^ 

production  of  the  nitre  was  not  owing  to  any  dccom- 
pofition  of  t!ic  fo,i])leys. 

"  The  fo.-tp-leys  ufed  in  the  foregoing  experiments 
were  made  from  fait  of  tartar  prepared  without  nitre, 
and  were  of  fuch  a  (Irength  as  to  yield  one-tenth 
of  their  wei,iht  of  nitre  when  faturated  with  nitrous 
acid.  The  dcphlogifticated  air  was  alfo  produced 
without  nitre  ;  that  ufcd  in  the  firft  experiment  witli 
the  foaj'-Jeys  being  procured  from  the  black  powder 
formed  by  the  agitation  of  quickfilvermi.xed  with  lead, 
and  that  uled  in  the  latter  from  turbith  mineral.  In 
the  firft  experiment,  the  quantity  of  foap-leys  ufcd  was 
3}  meafurcs,  each  of  which  was  equal  in  bulk  to  one 
grain  of  quickfilver  ;  and  that  of  the  air  abforbcd  was 
416  fuch  meafures  of  phlogifticatcd  air  and  914  of 
dcphlogifticated.  In  llie  fecond  experiment,  17S 
nieafuresof  foap-leys  were  ufed  ;  which  abforbcd  1920 
of  phlogifticatcd  air  and  4860  of  dcphlogifticated. 
It  mull  be  obfcrved,  however,  that  in  both  experi- 
ments fome  air  remained  in  the  tube  undecompofed, 
whole  degree  of  purity  I  had  no  means  of  trying  ;  fo 
that  the  proportion  of  each  fpecies  of  air  abforbcd 
cannot  be  known  with  much  exaiSlnefs. 

"As  far  as  the  experiments  hitherto  publilhed  extend, 
we  fcarccly  know  more  of  the  nature  of  the  phlogifti- 
catcd jiart  of  the  atniofphere,  than  that  it  is  not  dimi- 
nilluil  by  lime-water,  cauftic-alkalies,  or  nitrous  air  r 
that  it  is  unfit  to  fupport  fire  or  maintain  life  in  ani- 
mals ;  and  that  its  fpecific  gravity  is  not  much  lefs 
than  that  of  common  air  :  fo  that  though  the  nitrous 
acid,  by  being  united  to  phlogifton,  is  converted  into 
air  polfeircd  of  thefe  properties  ;  and,  confeqiicntly, 
though  it  was  reafonablc  to  fuppofe,  that  part  at  leafl 
of  the  phlogifticatcd  air  of  the  atniofphere  conlifts  of 
this  acid  united  to  phlogifton  ;  yet  it  might  be  fairly 
doubted  whether  the  whole  is  of  this  kind,  or  whe- 
ther there  are  not,  in  reality,  many  difi'erent  fubftan- 
ccs  confounded  by  us  under  the  name  of  phlogifticatcd  j^, 
air.  I  therefore  made  an  experiment  to  determine  Enperi- 
V.  licther  the  whole  of  a  given  portion  of  the  atmo-  menttode- 
fjli  ere  could  be  reduced  to  nitrous  acid, or  whet  her  the  re  tcmiinethe 
was  not  a  partof  adiiferent  nature froin  the  reft, which  "^'""  °' 
would  rcfufc  to  undergo  that  change.  For  this  pur-  ^  °S".'' 
pofe,  I  diniinidied  a  finiilar  mixture  of  dcphlogiftica- 
ted and  common  air  in  the  fame  manner  as  before, 
until  it  was  reduced  to  a  fmall  part  of  its  original 
bulk  ;  after  which  fome  dcphlogifticated  air  was  add- 
ed, and  the  fpark  continued  until  no  further  diminu- 
tion took  place".  Having  by  thefe  means  condenfed 
as  much  as  I  could  of  tlie  phlogifticatcd  air,  I  let  up 
fome  folution  of  liver  of  fulphur  to  abforb  the  dcphlo- 
gifticated air  ;  after  which  only  a  fmall  bubble  of  air- 
remained  unabforbcd,  which  certainly  was  not  more 
than  ,  ;„.th  of  the  bulk  of  the  phlogifticatcd  air  let  up 
into  the  tube  ;  fo  that  if  there  is  any  part  ofthepliio- 
gifticated  air  of  our  atmofphere  w  hich  differs  from  the 
reft,  and  cannot  be  reduced  to  nitrour  acid,  wc  may 
fafely  conclude,  that  it  is  not  more  than  ..  i ^th  p?.rt  of 
the  whole." 

Though  thefe  experiments  had  fliown  that  the 
chief  raufe  of  this  diminution  of  airs  is  the  convcrlion, 
of  the  phlogifticatcd  kind  into  nitrous  acid,  it  feemed 

not 


twccn  dif- 
ferent li' 
quors. 


Sect.  V.  AERO 

phlogiftica-  not  unlikely,  that  when  any  li(iuor  containing  indam- 
tcil  Air.  maule  matitr  was  in  contact  with  liic  air  in  the  tube, 
"  fomc  of  thii  mat  tr  might  be  burnt  by  the  i'park,  anJ 
Effta'/of  thereby  diminilh  the  air.  In  orilcr  to  determine  this, 
the  cicdric  the  eiti-iric  I'park  was  palled  through  dephlogifticatcd 
fpark  oil  air  included  between  different  liquors  ;  and  ;hc  rclalt 
dci'hlogif-  of  the  txperimeats  was,  that  when  dcphlogiiUcatcd 
ticatcdair  ^j^^  containing  only  V.th  part  of  its  bulk  of  phlo^i- 
inclofedbe-  j^■^^.^^^.^  jj^^  ^^35  conlined  between  Ihort  column:,  of 
fojp  leys,  and  the  fpark  paii'ed  through  it  till  no  far- 
ther diminution  could  be  perceived,  the  airlolt  v'/.il^of 
itsbulk  ;  which  is  not  a  greater  diminution  than  might 
very  likely  proceed  from  the  dccompoution  of  the 
fmall  quantity  of  phlogiilicatcj  air  contained  in  it,  as 
the  uephl'Jgillicated  air  might  eal'ily  be  mixed  with  a 
fmall  quantity  of  common  air  while  putting  into  the 
tube.  When  the  fame  dephlogiUicated  air  was  con- 
fined bttw'ccn  columns  of  Jillillcd  water,  the  diminu- 
tion was  rather  greater  than  before,  and  a  white  pow- 
der was  formed  on  the  fiirface  of  the  quickfilver  be- 
neath :  the  rcafon  of  w'hich,  in  all  probability,  was, 
that  the  acid  produced  in  the  operation  corroded  the 
quickfilver,  and  formed  the  powder  ;  and  that  the  ni- 
trous air  produced  by  that  corrofion  united  to  the  de- 
phlogifticated  air,  and  caufed  a  greater  diminution 
than  would  othcrwifc  have  taken  place.  When  a  fo- 
lution  of  litmus  was  ufcd  inftcad  of  diftillcd  water,  the 
fohiiion  foon  acquired  a  red  colour  ;  which  grew  paler 
and  paler  as  the  fpark  was  continued,  till  it  became 
quite  colourlefs  and  tranfparent.  The  air  was  dimi- 
nilhed  by  almoft  one-half,  and  might  perhaps  have  been 
further  diininilhed  had  the  fpark  been  continued. 
When  lime-water  was  let  up  into  the  tube,  a  cloud 
was  formed,  and  the  air  was  further  dirainilhed  by 
about  one-lifth  ;  the  remainder  was  good  dephlogilli- 
catcd  air.  In  this  experiment,  tlicrcfore,  the  litmus 
was,  if  not  burnt,  at  leafl  decompounded,  fo  as  to 
lofc  entirely  its  purple  colour,  and  to  yield  fixed  air; 
fo  that,  though  foap-leys  cannot  be  decompounded 
by  this  proccfs,  yet  the  folution  of  litmus  can,  and 
fo  very  likely  might  the  folutions  of  many  other  fub- 
ftahccs  be.  But  there  is  nothing  in  any  of  thefe  ex- 
periments which  favours  the  opinion  of  the  air  being 
at  all  dimiuilhed  by  means  of  phlogiflon  csmmiinica- 
ted  to  it  by  the  electric  fpark. 

Sect.  V.  Of  Fixed  Air. 

Fixed  air         Th  E  difcovery  of  this  kind  of  air  is  as  old  as  Van 
found  in  a  Hclmont :  who  gave  it  the  name  oi gas  filviflre,  from 
greatvarie-  its  being  emitted  in  great  quantity  by  burning  char- 
tyoffuh-     coal.     Subfeqiient  difcovcrics  fliowed,  that  a  rtuid  of 
fiances.       tjic  fame  kind  was  plentifully  produced  by  fermenting 
liquor,  in  alraofl  every  kind  of  combuftion,  and  natu- 
rally generated  in  vaft.  quantity  in  mines  and  coal-piis, 
where  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  chouk-davip  ; 
that  it  exills  in  a  concrete  (late  in  alkaline  falts,  chalk, 
limcftone,  the  ihells  of  marine  animals,  magneiui  alba, 
&c.  in  a  very  hrge  proportion,  conftiiuting  one-half, 
and  fometimcs  more  of  their  weight ;  and  that  it  might 
aKvays  be  extracted  from  the  atmofphere,  in  unlimit- 
ed quantity,  by  cxpoiing  certain  fubllances  to  it 

On  'xamining  the  nature  of  this  fluid,  it  was  found 
fo  manifeltly  acid,  that  it  has  now  obtained  a  place 
among  thcfe  fubllances  under  the  name  oi  a'iiiaJaaJ ; 


o 


167 


or,  more  improperly,  cretaceous  acid,  from  its  being  Fited  Air. 
contained  in  great  quantities  in  chalk,  as  has  been  al-  '  ' 
ready  mentioned.  107 

Kixed  air  is  the  heavied  of  all  permanently  claftic  Specinc 
fluids,  excepting  thofc  derived  from  the  mineral  acids.  g''^v"T> 
Mr  kirwan  determines  itto  be  to  common  air  as  1500  '^'  '»''""' 
to  1000,  tnc  barometer  being  at  29. Sj,  thcihcrmo-^'  ' 
meter  at  64,  and  the  tixcd  air  being  extracted  from  cal- 
careous fpar  by  marine  acid,  whole  fpeciflc  gravity  w  as 
1. 01 4;.      He  obfervcs,  however,  that  though  this  air 
was  obtaineiVin  the  dricit  manner  poiuble,  and  that 
the  globe  which  contained  it  appeared  perfedly  free 
from  moiilurc  ;  yet,  when  carried  into  a  room  27  de- 
grees colder,  thciufidc  of  tlic  globe  was  covered  with 
dew,  which  foon  formed  vLliblc  drops. — In  its  concrete 
flate,  fixed  air  is  one  of  thehcavielt  bodies  in  natrre. 
Mr  Kirwan,  in  the  711!  volume  of  the  I'hilofophical 
Traafaclions, gives anaccount  of  hi&ingcnious  method 
of  finding  the  fpccitlc  gravity  of  fixed  air  in  its  tixcd  ' 

flate,  when  combined  with  calcareous  earth,  from 
which  it  appears,  that  fixed  air,  in  tliat  Itate,  ispro- 
digioully  concentrated,  and,  were  it  polfible  to  cxifl 
by  itfclf  in  that  concentrated  (late,  it  would  be  the 
heaviefi;  body  known,  geld  and  platina  excepted. 

MrKirwan  firftafcertained  thefpccilic  gravity  of  a 
piece  of  white  marble  ;  then  expelled  the  fixed  air  from 
a  known  weight  of  it  liuely  powdered,  by  means  of  di- 
lute^ vitriolic  acid;  the  bulk  and  weight  of  the  obtain- 
ed fixed  air  being  afcertained.  Next,  he  calcined  a 
known  quantity  of  the  fame  fort  of  marble,  by  keeping 
it  in  a  whire  heat  for  the  fpace  of  14  hours  ;  after 
which,  being  weighed  again,  and  from  the  weight  loit 
by  this  calcination,  the  weight  of  the  fixed  air,  which 
mull  have  efcaped  ("rora  it  according  to  the  abovemen- 
tioned  experiment,  being  fubtraCted,  the  remainder  is 
the  weight  of  water  contained  in  tlie  marble;  from 
which  experiments  it  appears,  that  too  grains  of  the 
marble  contained  32.42grainsof  fixed  air,  11.66  grains 
of  water,  and  JJ.92  grains  of  pure  calcareous  earth. 

<<  I  next  (fays  he)  proceeded  todifcover  the  fpccific 
gravity  of  the  lime.  Intoa  brafsbox,  which  weighed 
607.65  grains,  and  in  the  bottom  of  which  a  fmall  hole 
was  drilled,  I  fluffed  as  much  as  polhble  of  the  finely- 
powdered  lime,  and  then  fcrewcd  the  cover  on,  and 
weighed  it  both  in  air  and  in  water.  When  immerfcd 
in  this  latter,  a  confiderablc  quantity  of  common  air 
was  expelled  ;  when  this  ceafcd,  I  weighed  it.  The 
refult  of  this  experiment  was  as  follows: 

Grains. 
Weight  of  the  box  in  air         -  -  607.6J 

Its  lofs  of  weight  in  water  -  -  73-75 

Weight  of  the  box  and  lime  in  air         -  1045.5 

Weight  of  the  lime  lingly  in  air  -  43>.S5 

Lofs  of  weight  of  the  box  and  lime  in  water  256.  j 
Lofs  of  weight  of  the  lime  fingly  -  182.3 

"  Hence,  dividing  the  abfolute  weight  of  the  lime 
by  its  lofs  in  water,  its  fpecific  gravity  was  found  to 
be  2.390S. 

"  From  thefc  datx  1  deduced  the  fpccific  gravity  of 
fixed  air  in  its  fixed  flate  i  for  toograinsof  niarblccon- 
firt  of  55.92  of  earth,  32.42  of  fixed  air,  and  11.66  of 
water;  and  the  fpecific  gravity  of  the  marble  is  2.717. 
Now  the  fpccific  gravity  of  the  fixed  air,  in  its  fixed 
flate,  is  as  its  ablblute  weight,  divided  by  it?  lofs  of 
weight  in  water ;  and  its  lofs  of  weight  in  w  iter  is  as 

the 


1 68  A       li       R       O       L 

Fixed  Air.  the  lofs  of  100  gr.iiiisof  marble,  ;////.,vj  the  lolfcs  of  the 
' " pure  calcareous  earth  auii  the  water. 

Lofs  of  100  grs,  of  marble  =_i£2  =36.8  grs. 

a. 717 
Lofs  of  J  J. 92  grs.  of  calcarcoui 

eartii  ... 

i.39 
Lofs  of  11.66  "[rs.  of  water  =  -         11.66 


O      G       Y. 


Scd.  V. 


??-02 


"  Tlicn  the  lofs  of  the  fixed  air  36.8- 


5J-o> 
-J5-o5=i-75; 

coiifcquciuly  its fpecific gravity  islll2?=:  18. 52." 

Its  other  Fixed  air  differs  confiderably  in  its  properties  from 

properties,  the  airs  already  meiuioncd.  Its  acidity  is  manifellto 
the  talle,a!;d  Hill  more  from  its  iiciitialiiingboth  fixed 
aud  volatile  alkalis  ;  which  it  will  do  in  fiich  a  manner 
as  not  only  to  dcftroy  their  cauflicity,  but  to  give  them 
amanifeftlyacid  talk,  and  will  moreover  enable  them 
to  form  cryllals  of  a  neutral  or  acidulous  Hilt.  It  has 
aconfidcrablc  antifcptic  power,  and  will  even  check 
the  putrefaclion  of  animal  fubflanccs  ;  iho'  it  has  been 
obfervcd,  th.it  in  this  cafe  it  acls  only  by  abforbing  the 
putrid  effluvia  already  emitted  from  the  body,  and  be- 
comes itfeli' very  offcnfive,  while  it  fwectens  the  other. 
When  taken  into  the  lungs,  it  is  equally  poifonous  with 
phlogiflicated  orany  other  noxiousair,aud  cxtinguiflies 
flame  as  effectually  ;  but,  when  mixed  with  dephlogif- 
licated  Jiir,  may  be  infpircd  without  any  danger,  and 
f  ven  in  its  pure  rtatc  may  be  fwallowed  in  large  quan- 
tities, not  only  without  danger,  but  with  the  moft  filu- 
lary  cffeds  in  fomc  difeal'es,  whence  it  has  now  be- 
come an  article  of  the  Materia  Medica.  As  an  acid  it 
Aands  in  the  lowefl  rank,  being  expelled  from  alkalis 
by  every  other  ;  though  it  is  capable  of  feparaiing  oils, 
iulphur,  and  the  colouring  matter  of  Prulfian  blue, 
,o,j  froui  the  fubilances  with  whicli  they  are  combined. 
Conftituciit  The  origin  of  this  acid  was  for  a  long  time  as  much 
principles  unknown  as  that  of  the  others;  and  while  the  general 
of  fixed  air.  prejudice  remained  tliat  acids  were  a  kind  of  primary 
elements  unchangeable  in  their  nature,  it  was  fuppofed 
that  iixcd  air  was  fomc  modification  ol  the  others,  pio. 
bably  the  nitrous.  Rut  the  difcoverics  made  of  late 
years,  have  abundantly  tliown,  that  tlie  chctiiical  prin- 
ciples arc  by  no  means  fo  indellrut^ible  as  they  were 
imagined  ;  .ind  that  the  vegetable  acids  particularly, 
may  be  almoll  totally  rcfolvcd  into  lixed  air.  Hence 
ic  was  naturally  fuggclled,  that  fixed  air  itfelf  might 
be  a  compound  of  fome  other  principles  ;  and  it  was 
fiiggeflcd  by  Dr  Black,  that  it  was  a  combination  of 
atmofj.herical  air  with  jihlogifton.  As  the  air  of  our 
atmofphcre, however, is  compounded  of  two  fubfiances, 
one  of  which  naturally  contains  no  phlogiilon,  and  the 
other  as  much  as  it  can  hold  ;  it  fcenied  unlikely  that 
there  (lunildbe  any  pollibiliiy  of  adding  to  the  quat'.tity 
of  phlogillion  contained  in  aportionof  the  atmofpherc, 
without  decompolingit  in  fouie  manner  or  other.  Sjc- 
ceeding  cxi'criinenis  evinced,  that  it  was  by  a  dccom- 
pofition  of  the  pure  part  of  atmofpherical  air,  and  a 
combination  ofthe  phlogifton  of  the  fuel  with  its  bafis, 
that  fixed  air  was  produced  ;  and  this  iact  was  evinced 
by  numerous  experiments  made  by  Mr  Kirwau,  Mr 
Lavoilicr,  and  i)r  Pricftlcy,  (j  that  it  is  now  looked 
upon  to  be  generally  elUbliihcd:  and  as  the  cxperi  meats 


made  by  Dr  Pricllley  ap]>car  fully  as  eoiivificiiig  as  Fixed  Air. 

any,  we  Ihall   here  content  ourfelves  with  giving  an  ^ — " ' 

account  of  them. 

I'he  compound  nature  of  iixtd  air,  and  the  principles  d^  Pricft- 
from  which  it  is  formed,  were  firll  difcovcrcd  by  Mr  ley's  cxpc- 
Kirwan  ;   but  Dr  I'rieflley  was  not  convinced  by  the  rimuit*  on 
proofs  he  adduced,  till  after  making  fome  experiments  ''^f  compo- 
of  his  own.     The  firll  was,  by  tiring  fliavings  of  iron^"'""  ".' 
in  dephlogidicated  air  ;  \\  hen  he  obfervcd  a  conlidcr-  ^'^' 

al)le  reliduum  of  fixed  air,  though  that  in  the  receiver 
had  been  of  the  purefl  dcphlogillicated  kind,  and  iron 
could  only  have  yielded  inHan;niable  air.  The  hypo- 
thclis  of  Mr  Kirwan  was  lUU  further  confirmed  by  an 
cxperi  incnt  in  which  iron- tilings,  wliich  could  only  have 
yielded  iullammable  air,  were  mixed  with  red  precipi- 
tate, which  is  known  to  yield  only  purr  dcphlogilli- 
cated air.  On  heating  thefe  in  a  glafs  retort,  tliey 
gave  a  great  quantity  ot  fixed  air,  in  fome  portions  of 
which  ninetecn-twenticths  were  abforbed  by  lime- 
water,  and  the  reliJuum  was  inflammable  ;  but  when 
the  red  precipitate  was  mixed  with  powdered  charcoal, 
which  iiad  been  found  to  yield  only  inflammable  air, 
the  fixed  air  produced  from  it  was  fo  pure  that  only 
one-fortieth  part  remained  unabforbed  by  water, which 
is  as  pure  as  that  generally  prepared  frofu  chalk  and  oil 
of  vitriol.  In  fome  of  thefe  experiments  it  appeared, 
tliat  three  ouncc-meafures  of  dephlogifticatedair  went 
to  the  compolition  of  two  of  fixed  air  :  for  one  ounce 
of  red  presipitate  gave  60  ounce-meafurcs  of  dcphlo- 
gillicated air  ;  and,  when  mixed  with  two  ounces  of 
iron-filings,  it  gave  about  40  ounce-meafurcs  of  fixed 
air  that  were  actually  abforbed  by  water,  belidesa  rc- 
liduum  that  was  inflammable.  The  fame  proportion 
was  obtained  \\  hen  half  the  quantity  of  materials  were 
made  ufe  of  ;  but  on  uling  an  ounce  of  each,  only  20 
ouncc-meafures  of  fixed  air,  including  the  reliduum, 
could  be  got. 

Inconlideringthis  fubjeCl farther,  itoccurred  to  Dr 
Prieflley,  that  his  experiments,  in  which  charcoal  was 
ufed,  lay  open  to  an  objection,  that  lincc  dry  wood,  and 
iniperfcclly  made  eh.-ircoal,  yield  fixed  air,  it  might  be 
faid,  that  all  the  elements  of  fixed  air  are  contained  in 
charcoal  ;  and  though  this  fubllance  alone,  even  with 
the  afnUance  of  water,  w  ill  not  yield  fixed  air,  this 
might  be  effccled  by  trealitig  it  with  other  fubilances 
without  their  imparting  any  thing  to  it  ;  efpecially  as 
the  inflammable  air  procured  from  charcoal  by  tneans 
of  water,  appears  to  contain  fixed  air  when  decompof- 
ed  v.ith  the  dephlogiflicated  kind.  In  order  to  expel 
all  the  fixed  air  from  charcoal,  he  made  a  quantity  of 
it  from  dry  oak,  and  pounding  it  while  Jiot,  inllantly 
mixed  four  meafures  of  it  with  one  of  red  precipitate, 
and,  putting  them  into  an  earthen  retort,  got,  with  a 
heat  no  greater  than  what  was  futhcient  to  revive  the 
mercury,  a  large  qiantity  of  air,  half  of  whicii  was 
fixed.  Afterwards  the  proportion  of  fixed  air  was  Icfs, 
and  at  lafl  no  fixed  air  at  all  was  obtained  :  but  as  the 
reliduum  wasworfe  than  tlicconimon  atmofphere,heis 
thence  inclined  tobclieve,  notwith  (landing  MrCavcn- 
dilh's  experiments,  that  pMogifliratcd  air  may  be  com- 
pofcd  of  phlogiflon  and  dephlogiflicated  air.  In  ano- 
ther experiment  he  found  a  better  proportion  of  char-  j(,„^^rniiig 
coal  and  red  precipi;ate.  This  was  by  mixing  one  thccumpo- 
ouuce  of  precipitate  with  the  fame  quantity  of  perfect  fition  of 

char-  phlogillica- 
icd  uir. 


Ill 

Prlcftlty's 
opli  ion 


Sea.  V.  A       K       R       O 

FisttI  Air.  charcoal  hot  fror.i  the  retort  in  which  it  was  ma.lc. 

' ^' ■  I'uiiiiig  thcfe  into  a  coatcil  retort^  he  cxpclle'd  from 

ihcin,  by  a  llrong  heat,  about  30  oiincc-iiicafiirts  of 
air,  the  whole  of  which  v/as  the  ptirell  fixed  air,  Ica- 
\  ing  Djily  about  one-fortieth  part  unabforbcd  by  water, 
ami  thibalinoft  perfedly  phlogillicatcd. 

Havi'ij;  recoUecled,  that  in  fonie  former  experi- 
ments he  had  obtained  fixed  air  from  nitrous  acid  arid 
charcoal,  he  therefore  repeated  the  experiment  wi;]i 
fi)nicof  the  fame  charcoal  which  had  then  been  made 
I  ';of;  when  fixed  air  was  obtained,  in  the  quantity 
foinetimes  only  of  one-fifth,  and  fomctin-.es  of  one- 
half;  to  the  formation  of  which  he  fuppofed  the  phln- 
gilHcated  air  produced  by  heating  the  nitrous  acid  mufl 
have  contributed.  Cn  account  of  the  objcdions,  how- 
ever, which  might  be  made  to  the  ufe  of  charcoal,  he 
r.ext  employed /r6//,  which  was  liable  tonothingof  this 
kind  ;  and  on  mixing  an  ounce  of  iron-filings  with  as 
much  charcoal,  and  then  heating  them  in  a  glafs  re- 
tort, he  obtained  20  ounce-meaf'ires  of  air,  ofwhicii 
onc-feventh  rcu'.ained  iniabforbed  by  water.  The  refi- 
duum  was  of  the  flandard  of  i  .52,  but  fiightly  inliam- 
mablc.  Repeating  tlie  experiment  with  h.ilfan  ounce 
of  iron  filings,  he  got  26  oun  cc-mcafures  of  air,  of 
which  t  he  firfl  part  was  pretty  pure, but  afterwards  one- 
tenth  remained  unabforbcdby  water;  but  on  mixingonc 
ounce  of  precipitate  with  two  ounces  of  filings,  he  got 
about  40  ouncc-meafurcsof  air,  ofthcfirlt  portions  of 
which  only  one-twentieth  was  nnabforbcd  by  water, 
though  towards  the  conclufion  the  rciiduum  was  grea- 
ter. Ill  this  procefs  he  got  in  all  36  ounce-meafures  of 
pure  fixed  air,  completely  abforbed  by  water,  belldes 
about  other  four  ounce-meafures,  which,  he  fuppofcs, 
juight  have  been  abforbed  in  receiving  the  air  and 
transferring  it  into  other  velFtls. 

Fixed  air  was  alfo  produced  from  red  pccipitate 
mixed  withbrafs  filings,  with  zinc,  from  turijitli  mi- 
neral with  iron  filings,  and  from  the  blaclt  powder  into 
which  mercury  mixed  with  lead  is  cadly  converted. 
In  this  lal^  cafe  the  Doftor  fuppofcs  that  the  fixed  air 
was  produced  from  the  dephlogifticated  kind  abforbed 
by  the  metals  and  the  plilogillon  of  the  lead  ;  and  this 
is  confirmed  by  an  obfcrvation  that  the  fixed  air  always 
comes  firftin  the  procefs,  when  the  phlogiflon  is  mofl 
readily  leparated,  but  afterwards  tlie  produce  becomes 
quite  pure  and  dcphlogiflicated.  In  attempting,  how- 
ever, to  increai'c  the  quantity  of  fixed  air  by  heating 
this  bhck  powder  in  deplilogiflicatcdair,  lie  found  on- 
ly an  augmentation  of  the  quantity  of  dcphlogiflicated 
air,  anil  tliatof  the  purefl  kind. 

"Perhaps,"  fays  lie,  "  as  deciiWe  aproof  as  any  of 
tlie  real  produdion  of  fixed  air  from  phlogiflon  and  de- 
f  hlogiflicatcdair,  may  be  drawn  from  the  experiments 
in  which  I  always  found  a  quantity  of  it  when  1  burn- 
ed Atlphur  in  dcphlogiflicated  air.  In  one  of  thefc  ex- 
periments, to  which  I  g^ve  particular  attention,  fix 
ounce-meafures  and  an  halfof  the  dephlogiiiicated  air 
were  reduced  to  about  two  ounce-meafarcs  ;  and  one- 
fifth  of  this  was  fixed  air.  When  both  the  vitriolic 
acid  and  fixed  air  produced  by  this  operation  were 
abforbed  by  water,  the  remainder  was  very  puredc- 
logiflicatcd  air. 

"  I  had  always  concluded,  that  no  fixed  air  could 
be  procured  by  the  dccompofition  of  inrtammable  air 
which  had  bcten  produced  by  mineral  acids,  bccaufe  I 

*\"JL.  I. 


LOGY.  ,69 

had  not  been  able  to  do  it  v,  iih  that  which  I  had  get  FIjed  A-.r. 

by  means  of  vitriolic  acid  ;  but  I  learned  from  Mr  hie-   — r^* ' 

thcric,  thattliis  is  peculiar  to  luc  vitriolic  acid,  the  re- 
mains of  which,  dirfiMcd  through  the  in.-lammdbleair, 
procured  by  ii,  he  conjci5iarcs,niay  aftually  decor:;  of: 
the  fixed  air  produced  in  the  proicfs.  For,  as  1  1)  ivc 
hinted  before,  when  the  inflair.miblc  air  is  produced 
from  iron  by  mcansof  fpiritof  fait,  there  is  a  very  per- 
ceivable quantity  of  fixed  air  when  i;  is  united  wiiii  dc- 
phlogiflicated air.  When  I  dccornpofed  thefc  two 
kinds  of  air  in  equal  quantities,  they  wtre  reduced  to 
about  0.5  of  a  meafurc,  and  of  this  not  more  than  a- 
bout  one  fortieth  part  was  fixed  air.  This  experiment 
ought,  hov.  ever,  to  be  added  to  the  other  proofs  of 
fixed  air  being  pruduccd  by  the  union  of  dephlogiUi- 
catcd  air  and  phlogiflon.  j,- 

"  Thelafl  iullance,  which  I  (hall  mention,  of  the  I'roportioa 
generation  of  fixed  air  from  phlogiflon  and  dephioTii".  cf  fixed  air 
ticated  air,  is  of  annich  more  flriking  nature  than  any  r'''"J"ol 
th.-;t  I  have  yet  recited  Having  m.ade  what  I  call  "^'.T  !!f.' 
charcoal  oj  coffer,  by  palling  the  vapour  of  fpirit  of  [^^  ^^ 
wine  over  copper  when  it  was  red-hot,  I  heated  apiece 
of  it  in  different  kinds  of  air.  In  common  air,  obfer- 
ving  neither  iiicrcafe  nordecrcafc  in  the  quantity,  I 
concluded,  perhaps  too  haflily,  that  no  change  was 
made  in  it :  for  when  I  repeated  the  experiment  in 
dephlogillicatedair,  the  charcoal  burned  very  intenfc- 
ly  ;  and  \\hen  a  part  of  it  was  confumed,  wliich  (like 
common  charcoal  in  the  fame  jiroccfs,  was  done  with- 
out Icavingany  fenlible  re(idu-.im)  1  foundthat  no  heat 
which  I  could  apply  afterwards,  had  any  farther  cffcft 
on  what  was  left  of  the  charcoal.  Concludirg,  there- 
fore, that  fome  change  mufl  be  made  in  the  quality  of 
the  air,  I  examined  it,  and  found  about  nine-tentlis  to 
be  the  purefl  fixed  air;  and  therefiduum  was  fach  as 
would  have  been  made  by  feparating  the  abfolutcly  pure 
part  of  the  dephlogiAicated  air;  leaving  all  the  impuri- 
ties behind — Having  afccrtaincd  this  facl,  I  repeated 
the  experiment,  weighing  the  piece  of  charcoal  very 
carefully  before  and  after  the  procefs  ;  and  then  found, 
that  by  she  lofs  of  one  grain  of  charcoal,  I  reduced  four 
ounce  meafurcsofdcphlogifticatedairtill one-ninth  on- 
ly remained  unabforbed  by  water  ;  and  ag."in,  with  the 
lofs  of  one  grain  and  an  half  of  the  charcoal,  I  reduced 
fix  and  .in  half-meafures  of  dcphlogiflicated  air  till  five 
and  an  Iialf-mcafures  were  pure  fixed  air.  In  this  pro- 
cefs there  was  a  diminution  of  bulk  after  thecxperi- 
Tncnt,as  might  have  been  expefted  from  the  change  of 
the  air  into  one  of  a  litavirr  kind  by  means  of  a  iiib- 
flancc  or  principle  that  could  not  add  much  to  tlic 
weight  of  it.  In  one  of  the  experiments,  4.;!  ounce- 
meafures  of  deplilogiflicated  air  were  reduced  about 
one-thirtieth  part  ofthe  whole  ;  andin  this  cafe,  when 
tlie  fixed  air  was  fcparated  by  water,  there  was  a  rcfi- 
duuni  of  0.7J  of  a  meifurc  ofthe  flandard  of  r.o, 
whereas  tlie  dephlogiflicatrd  air,  before  the  experi- 
ment, had  been  of  the  flandard  of  0.2. 

"  That  dcphlogiiiicatedair  aAualiy  enters  into  the 
compofition  ofthe  rixed  air,  in  this  experiment,  is  evi- 
dent from  the  weight  ofthe  iaff  r,  v.  hich  far  exceeds 
that  ofthe  charcoal  difperfed  in  the  procefs.  Fcr,  in 
this  kfl  expcrimciii,  the  weight  ofthe  fixed  air  pro- 
duced was  4.95  grains.  Confrq-iently,  foppodng  the 
charcoal  to  be  wholly  phlogi  Hon,  as  itis  very  nearly  fo, 
fixed  air  juav  be  faiii  toconfift  of  3.45  parts  of  dephlo- 
V  gillicated 


"3 

Effifts  of 


AERO 

j;iAicalcil  r.ir,  and  1.5  of  j.hldgiflon  ;  fo  that  the  dc- 
phlogiilicatcd  air  is  more  than  three  times  the  proi)or- 
tio:i  of  jijilogillon  in  it I  nnill  not  concUidc,   how- 
ever, without  oblcrving,  that,  in  one  experiment,  I  ne- 
ver tailed  to  produce  hxed  air  ;  thougli  it  is  not  eal'y  10 
fee  how  onu  of  its  fuppofcd  tkinents,  viz.  dcphlogilli- 
catcd  air,  could  enter  into  it.  This  is  by  heating  iron 
in  vitriolic  acid  air.  In  one  of  thefe  experiments,  four 
ounce-mcafuresofthcviiriolicacid  air  were  reduced  to 
0.65  of  an  ounce-iueafure  ;  and  of  the  quantity    lolt 
three  and  an  half  meafures  were  fixed  air  abforbed  by 
lime-water,  and  the  remainder  weal.ly  inriammablc." 
Fixed  air,  even  when  pure  and  unmixed,  is  reniark- 
thc  c\t&iic  aijiy  altered  by  the  elearic  fp.irk,  part  of  it  being  thus 
fpark  on      rendered  immifciblc  in  water.     Ur  Pricllley,  having 
fixed  air,     j.jj.j,„  ,|,,.  tic^iiic  fpark  for  about  two  hours  in  a  fmall 
quantity  of  fixed  air  confined  by  mercury,  found,  that 
after  tlic  cipcration,one.fourihof  it  remaincdlmniifti- 
blc  with  water  ;  though,  before  it,  only  one-thirtieth 
part  had  remained  unabforbed.  Theiulide  of  ihe  tube 
had  become  very  black  ;  wiiieh,  in  other  experiments 
of  2  fimilar  kind  with  vitriolic  acid  air,  he  had  obfervcd 
to  arife  from  the  adlielion  of  a  fmall  quantity  of  mer- 
cury fupcrfaturated  with  phlogillon.     In  another  ex- 
periment, in  which  the  fpark  was  taken  an  hour  and 
ten  minutes  in  about  half  an  ounce-meafure  of  fixed 
air,  one-tifth  remained  unabforbed, and  the  llandardof 
the  reliduumwaso.9;though, before  theoperation, only 
one  thirtieth  part  had  been  abforbed,  and  the  llandard 
of  the  reliduum  was  i.o.  Iniiii*  experiment,  alfb,  he 
obfcrved,  that  the  air  was  incrcafcd  about  a  twentieth 
part.  On  taking  the  eleftric  fpark  an  hour  in  half  an 
ounce  of  fixed  air,  as  much  reliduum  was  left  as  had 
remained  in  five  times  the  quantity  of  the  fame  fixed 
air  in  which  no  fpark  had  been  taken.   This  rcfiduum 
was  alio  much  purer  than  that  of  the  original  fixed  air, 
the  ftandard  being  0.8  ;   whereas  that  of  the  original 
fixed  air  had  been,  as  before,  i  .0.     On  repeating  the 
experiment,  he  found  the  refiduum  flill  greater,  but 
equally  pnre  ;  and,   in  this  cafe,   a  goud  quantity  of 
black  matter  was  obferved  adhering  to  the  tube.  Ha- 
ving taken  the  fpark  in  a  fmall  tube  containing  ,'-  th  of 
an  ounce-meafure  of  fixed  air,  the  infide  of  the  tube 
J, 4       was  clouded  with  black  matter,  and  in  the  bottom  was 
Ixpcri-       a  fmall  quantity  of  yellowifh   matter  refemblin;;   ful- 
Bieiit  in  fa-  phur  ;  the  reliduum  was  between  one-founh  and  one- 
vourot   _    fifth  of  the  whole,  and  Icfs  pnre  than  formerly.  This 
Vricftley's  circumflance    he    alfo  fuppofes   to    be    a    proof   that 
cJnctrnin-  ^'^^'^    *'"■    '"*y    '^^   compofed   of  phlogifton   and  de- 
tfic  cumi-o'-  phlogillicated  air.     Purfuing  this  experiment,  by  ta- 
fition  of      king  the  cleftric  fpark  three  hours  in  a  fmall  quantity 
phlogiaica-  of  fixed  air,  he  obfcrved  that  it  was  firA  increafcd,  and 
ttd  air.       t],e;,  diminiflicd  about  one-eighth  of  the  whole  ;   the 
infide  of  the  tube  being  very  black  on  the  upper  part, 
and  below  the  mercury  very  yellow,  for  the  fpace  of 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  all  round  the  tube  ;  but  this  fpace 
had  been  above  the  mercury  in  the  beginning  of  the 
operation.    One-third  of  the  air  remained  unabforbed 
by  water  ;  but  fo  impure,  that  the  fiandard  of  it  was 
1.8,  or  alnioft  completely   phlogifticated — Varying 
the  procefs  by  ufnig  water  impregnated  with  fixed  air 
inftead  of  mercury,  the  quantity  of  air  was  much  aug- 
mented by  that  W'hich  came  from  the  water  ;  but  thus 
the  far  greater  part  of  it  was  incapable  of  being  ab- 
forbed by  lime-water  ;  and  on  this  occafion  he  obfer- 


o 


Y. 


Sect.  V. 


cdair. 


vcd,  that  water  impregnated  with  fixed  air  is  a  much  Fixed  Air. 

worfc  conductor  of  electricity  than  the  fame  fluid  im-  ' ^ ' 

pregnated  with  mineral  acids.  On  uiil  varyi  ig  the 
circumdances  of  the  experiment,  by  ufing  common 
water  inllead  of  that  which  had  abforDed  fixed  air,  he 
found  that  the  quality  of  the  reliduum  was  evidently 
better  than  that  of  the  original  fixed  air.  115 

In  order  to  difcovcr  whetherthc  heat  or  light  of  Ifftdtsof 
thceleclrie  Ipark  were  the  circumftances  which  ell'ett-  »  ftronj 
cd  the  change,  the  Doitor  threw  a  flrong  light,  by  h^'*'""  £*- 
means  of  a  lens,  for  f'omc  hours,  on  a  quantity  of  ^ 
pounded  glafs  confined  in  fome  fixed  air  ;  but  though 
the  volume  of  refiduum  was  thus  fomewhat  increaled, 
yet  as  it  was  of  the  faiuc  q  lality  with  common  air  he 
fufpected  that  it  might  be  only  that  portion  which  had 
been  introduced  among  the  particlcsof  the  glafs.  The 
quantity  of  air  was  increafed  after  the  operation. 
With  glafs-houfe  fand  made  very  hot,  the  quantity  of 
air  was  likewife  increafed  ;  but  the  experiment  was 
not  more  fatisfacliry  than  the  former.  Heated  bits  of 
cruciblesincreafed  the  quantity  of  rciiduum  in  thepro- 
portion  of  10  to  6.6  ;  but  the  quality  was  injured  ci- 
ther direclly  by  a  comparifon  with  nitrous  air  or  b/ 
producing  a  larger  quantity  of  refiduum  equally  bad. 
By  heating  iron,  how  ever,  in  fixed  air,  part  of  it  was 
evidently  converted  into  phlogillicated  air.  On  htat- 
ing  turnings  of  malleable  iron  for  fome  time  in  fixed 
air,  one-tenth  partof  it  was  rendered  immifcible  with 
water  ;  and  on  rcpeatirig  the  procefs  with  the  remain- 
der, there  was  a  refiduum  of  one-fourth  of  the  whole. 
There  was  alfo  a  fmall  addiiion  to  the  quantity  of  air 
after  the  i\rl\  part  of  the  procefs,  but  none  after  the 
fecond  ;  nor  could  he,  after  a  third  and  fourth  pro- 
cefs, render  more  than  one -fourth  immifcible  with  wa- 
ter. In  two  experiments,  the  reliduum  was  inflam- 
mable, and  burned  with  a  blue  Hame.  ^  , 

With  regard  to  the  quantity  of  fixed  air  which  may  Ouantityof 
be  expelled  from  different  fubflances,  Dr  Prietlley  ob-  fijcdairex- 
fcrves,  that  from  fevcn  ounces  of  whiting,  thepureft  pelledfrom 
calcareous  fubdancewe  arc  acquainted  with,  he  expel-  different 
led  by  heat  650  ounee-meafures  of  air  ;  by  which '^"''''*""'" 
means  the  whiting  was  reduced  to  four  ounces.  One 
third  of  this  was  fomewhat  phlogillicated  ;  the  fiand- 
ard being  1.36  and  1.58.  Repeating  the  exj'eriment, 
he  obtained  440ounce-meafurcs  of  air  from  fix  ounces 
of  whiting;  about  one-half  of  which  was  fixed  air,  and 
the  remainderof  the  fiandard  of  1.4.  On  nioiflening 
fome  calcined  whitingwithwaterimpregnated  with  vi- 
triolic acid  air,  he  obtained  90  ounce-meafures ;  of 
which  the firft portions  were  three-fourtlis  fixed  air, 
and  the  fiandard  of  the  reliduum  i.jjthe  htterhadlefs 
fixedair.andtheflandardofthereliduum was  1.44.  'I'he 
whiting  was  rendered  blackand  hard,  bntbccame  foft 
and  white  with  fpirit  of  fait.  Three  ounces  and  a 
quarter  of  lime  fallen  in  the  air,  yielded  375  ounce- 
meafures  ;  of  which  about  one-fifth  was  fixed  air,  and 
the  llandard  of  the  reliduum  1.4.  Four  ounces  of  white 
lead  had  yielded  240  meafures  of  air  when  the  retort 
melted.  The  rciiduum  of  the  firll  procefs  was  one- 
third,  the  fiandard  1.36  ;  and  of  the  lafl  the  fiandard 
was  1. 28,  that  with  the  common  atmofphere  being 
1.23.  Two  ounces  and  three  quarters  of  wood-a(hes 
yielded,  in  a  very  flrong  heat,  4'o  ounce-meafures  of 
air  jofthefirft  portion  of  which  one-tenth,  of  the  fe- 
cond one-third,  and  of  the  third  cne-half,  was  fixed 

air 


Sea.  VI. 


A 


R       O 


.  air.  1  he  llandard  of  tlic  rdiJuum  of  the  rirll  portion 
■  was  1.6,  and  of"  the  fccoiid  1.7.  It  cxtinguilhcd  a 
candle  ;  fo  that  the  air  came  properly  fron)  thealhcs, 
and  not  from  any  remaining;  particles  of  the  charcoal 
mixed  with  them.  After  theprocefs,  the  alhcs  weigh- 
ed 839  grains  ;  but  by  expofiirc  to  the  air  for  one  day, 
tlic  weight  Wis  iucrcafed  to  S42  grains  ;  and,  perhaps 
with  more  heat  than  before,  y  ielued  50  ounce-mcafures 
of  air  ;  of  which  about  onc-cigluh  was  fixed  air,  and 
the  flaudard  of  the  reuduam  1.38  and  1.41.  A  can- 
dle burned  in  this  reliduum,  and  the  alhes  were  redu- 
ced to  739;  grains.  Two  ouncc-meafures  of  Hom- 
berg's  pyrophorus  burned  in  the  open  air,  and  then 
diflilled  in  a  retort,  yielded  144  ouncc-meafarcs  of 
air;  of  whichone-iulf  at  firit  was  fixed  air,  but  at  the 
lall  very  little.  The  refiduum  of  the  firit  portion  cx- 
tinguiflied  a  candle,  but  that  of  the  lad  burned  with 
a  blue  lambent  liame.  The  flandards  of  both  with  ni- 
trous air  were  about  i.8.  The  pyrophorus  was  then 
kept  two  days  in  the  retort,  with  the  mouth  immerfed 
in  mercury  ;  after  which,  on  being  taken  out,  it  burn- 
ed as  flrong  as  ever.  Immediately  before  the  burning, 
it  weighed  428  grains  ;  immediately  after  it,  449  ; 
but  being  fpread  thin  and  expofed  to  the  atmofplierc 
for  a  night,  the  weight  was  incrcafed  to  828  grains  ; 
though,  on  being  well  dried,  it  was  again  reduced  to 
486.  Subje(^ting  it  to  a  greater  heat  than  before,  the 
matter  yielded  no  ounce-meafures  of  air  ;  the  tirft 
portions  of  which  were  half  lixed  air,  but  thelaft  con- 
tained very  little,  and  burned  with  a  blue  lambent 
flame.  It  was  then  reduced  to  396  grains.  The  ex- 
periment was  then  repeated  with  a  quantity  of  pyro- 
phorus, which  would  not  take  lire  in  the  open  air  ; 
and  on  heating  thisfubrtance  inan  earthen  retort,  rivc- 
fcvenths  of  the  firll  part  of  the  produce  was  tixcd  air  : 
but  this  proportion  gradually  diminiflied  ;  till  at  laft 
nine-tenths  of  the  whole  was  inflammable  air,  burning 
with  a  lambent  blue  Jiame.  This  inflammable  air  be- 
ing decompofed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  dephlogi/li- 
cated  air,  yielded  0.86  of  a  meafure  of  lixed  air.  A- 
nother  quantity  of  pyrophorus,  which  burned  very  well, 
and  which  by  expofure  to  the  atniofphere  had  gained 
132  grains,  being  again  expofed  to  heat  in  an  earthen 
retort,  gave  rSoounce-mcafuresof  air  ;  thrce-fevenths 
of  the  flrfl  portion  of  which  was  lixed,  and  the  rcll 
phlogillicated  air  ;  but  afterwards  only  one-half  was 
fixed  and  the  reft  inflammable,  burning  with  a  lambent 
blue  flame  ;  and  at  laft  it  was  wholly  inflammable. 
This  pyrophorus  took  lire  again  after  being  poured 
out  of  the  retort,  but  not  without  the  alTiftance  of  ex- 
icrnal  heat.  It  had  been  red-hot  through  the  whole 
mafs  at  the  firfl  burning,  and  the  furfacc  was  covered 
with  white  adics  ;  but  all  the  inlide  was  as  black  as 
Cirerithid  been.  Kour  ounces  of  dry  ox-b!ood  yield- 
ed I2C0  ounce-mcafures  of  air,  and  it  was  coHJectured 
that  not  lefs  tlun  20omeafures  had  efcaped.  It  con- 
tained no  lixed  air.  The  flrft  portii  :i  burned  with  a 
large  lambent  white  liame,  the  middle  portion  f.iinter, 
and  the  laft  was  liardly  inflammable  at  all.  The  re- 
maining coal  weio;hcd  255  grains,  and  was  a  good  con- 
duftor  of  electricity. 

Sect.  VI.  Irfiainwai/i  Air. 

We  owe  the  knowledge  of  the  txiftence,  and  of  fome 
remarkable  properties,  oftbisiir,  10  MrCavendilh,  by 


LOG       Y.  171 

whom  they  were  tir(!  pnbl'r.ud  in  17^7.     Its  c!Fc.'"!s,  Ii.il-nm.s- 
however,  had  long  befure  been  fatally  expcrieliceJ  by    "is  -•'-^- 
ininers  ;  in  whofc  fubterraneous  habitations  it  is  often  ' 

collected  ill  fuch  quantities  as  to  produce  llie  moft  ino'mma 
dreadful  eficcts.     It  is  produced  in  abuadancc  from  bU  air  pr.i- 
putrid  animal  a'nd  vegetable  fubftances  ;  aiid,  in  gene-  daced  iu 
ral,  by  all  thole  which  part  with  tlitir  phlogiftoa  ca-  n>iiie«rr..i« 
lily.     Being  much  lighter  than  common  air,  it  always  P""'"'  *** 
riics  to  the  top  of  thofc  places  where  it  is  generated  ;  '"'"  *" 
fo  that  it  cannot  be  confined  except  in  fome  vajltcd 
place,  but  always  ftrives  to  afcend  and  n.ix  with  the 
atmofpherc.     By  itfelt  it  is  very  noxious,|and  will  in- 
ftantly  put  an  end  to  animal  life ;  but  when  mixed 
with  atmofpherical  air,   may  be  breathed  in  much 
greater  quantity  than  fixed  air.     Its  great  inflamma- 
bility in  th:s  Hate,  however,  renders  it  very  dangerous 
to  bring  any  lights,  or  even  to  ftrikc  a  flint  with  ftcel, 
ill  thofe  places  where  it  abounds.     But  this  only  takes 
jilace  when  the  inflammable  air  is  mixed  with  common 
atmofpherical  or  with  dephlogifticated  air  ;  in  which 
cafe,  the  explolion  is  mudi  more  violent  than  the  for- 
mer ;  for  pure  inflammable  air  extinguilhes  flame  as 
ericctnally  as  fixed  or  phlogifticated  air. 

Befides  the  fubterraneous  phccsalreadymentioncd, 
this  kind  of  air  is  found  in  ditches  i  over  tiie  furfacc  of 
putrid  waters,  oat  of  which  it  efcapes  ;  in  buryir.g- 
placcs ;  in  houfcs  of  office  w  here  putrid  animal  and  vege- 
table matters  are  accumulated  ;  and  may,  by  Handing 
or  boiling,  be  extradcd  from  the  waters  of  moft  lakes 
aiid  rivers,  cfpecially  thofc  in  which  great  quantiticS" 
of  fermenting  and  putrefying  matters  are  thrown  :  and 
as  putrefaction  thus  fceins  to  be  the  principal  fourcc  of 
inflammable  air,  it  thence  happens,  that  much  more       „g 
of  it  is  produced  in  warm  than  in  cold  climates.     In  Great 
thofe  countries,  we  are  informed  by  Dr  Franklin,  that  quantitlci 
if  the  mud  at  the  Iwttom  of  a  pond  be  well  ftirrcJ,  and  produced 
a  lighted  candle  brought  near  to  the  furface  of  the  wa-  '"  ^' ' '''" 
ter  immediately  after,  a  flame  will  inftantly  fpread  a  """*■ 
conliderable  way  over  the  water,  from  the  accclSon  of 
the  inflammable  air,  affl)rding  a  very  curious  fpei-^aclc 
in  thcnighttime.     In  colder  climates,  the  generation 
of  inflammable  air  is  not  fo  plentiful  as  to  produce  this 
phenomenon  ;  ncverthclefsJ\IrCavalloinformsus,thac 
it  may  be  plentifully  procured  in  the  following  manner,        j, 
in  all  the  ponds  about  London.    "  Fill  a  wide-mouthed  Mr  Ca'aU 
bottle  with  the  water  of  the  pond,  and  keep  it  invert-  iVsmtthoi 
cd  therein;  then,  with  a  ftick,  ftir  the  mud  at  the"fc"ll«<- 
bottora  of  the  pond,  juft  under  the  inverted  bottle,  fo  '"?  '"fl^in- 
as  to  let  the  bubbles  of  air  which  come  out  of  it  enter  f'"'' ""; 
into  the  bottle  ;  which  air  is  inflammable.     When  by  '"""P""'^'- 
thus  ftirring  the  mud  in  various  places,  and  catching 
the  air  in  the  bottle  until  this  is  filled,  a  cork  or  glafs 
floppcr  nuift  be  put  over  it  whilft  l^anding  in  water  ; 
and  then   the  bottle  may  be  taken  homcj^in  order  to 
examine  the  contained  inflammable  fluid  at  leifurc." 

The  2;re..t  quantity  of  inflammable  air  produced  in  \fc'(.or» 
warm  climates  has  given  occafion  to  fome  philofophers  thi^ught  t« 
to  fuppofe,  that  it  may  poflihiy  have  fome  Jhare  in  proceed 
producing  certain  atmofpherical  meteors.     The  weak  fft""  ■'• 
lightnings  without  any  explolion,  which  are  fome- 
timcs  perceived  near  the  hori/.on  in  fercue  weather, 
are  by  them  co::ieClured  to  proceed  from  inflammable' 
air  fired  by   eleciric  cxploiions  in    the  atmofnlxre. 
Mr  Volta  fuppofes  that  the  igufs  foiul  arc  occalioncd 
by  ihc  iu.lammable  air  which  proceeds  from  marlhy 
^    2  grounds. 


A      E       R 


O 


O 


Y. 


Se(fr.  VI. 


Ill 

Differences 
anion;^  in- 
fiamniable 
airs. 


Ill 
TxtriOled 
frum  v<tri- 
OU6  fuh- 
flaiicci  by 
licat. 


"3 

Marc  air 
prucurctl 
by  a  fud- 
den  thjii 
gradual 
hoat. 


gniunus,  a:iJ  is  ftt  on  lire  by  clcclric  f]'arks;  bat  thtlc 
piienoracna  cm  be  ^ccutintcd  for  in  a  niv>rc  probable 
iiun;ur  troni  the  action  olliie  electric  Jhiiil  ilfclt. 

1  hii  kind  ot"  air  is  more  common  than  any  of  ihe 
other  noxious  airs  ;  lor  there  is  hardly  any  intlamniiblc 
liibllancc  on  ear.Ii,  oiu  of  which  it  iniy  not  be  ex- 
tracted by  one  incaissor  oiher.  The  fluids,  however, 
which  p;oby  ihcgcncral  na;ne  o( inf.aiin/iabl: air,  have 
fcarce  ai:y  other  jiropcriy  ia  common  to  them  all,  bc- 
fuies  thole  of  inriamniability,  and  being  lpcciiic;illy 
liglucr  than  the  common  atmofphcricalair.  In  other 
rcfpccis,  the  ditfcrences  between  them  are  very  conli- 
dcrablc.  'Ihcfmell,  wciglil,  power  of  burning,  of 
prcfcrving  their propcrtic!^, and  the  phenonienar.ticnd- 
ing  their  combiUViun,  are  by  no  means  ilie  fame  in 
them  all  ;  fomc  burning  ia  an  cxjnolive  nianutTi  o- 
thers  rjuictly,  and  with  a  lambent  tlanic  of  a  white  or 
bine  colour,  his,  however,  necciliiry  to  make  a  pro- 
per diltincUjn  between  an  iafiamniablc  chllic  fluid  or 
inrtiuiaisblc  gas,  whi;h  may  be  properly  called  fo,  and 
that  \vhich  is  evidently  made  by  combining  an  iniiam- 
niab'.e  fub!tance  with  common  air  ;  whi.h  being  cilily 
leparable  from  the  air,  leaves  that  fiiiid  in  the  Itate 
11  was  before.  Th'is  a  drop  of  ether,  pji  inii)  a  quan- 
tity of  coiBnion  air,  mixes  itfclf  with  it,  and  takes  lire 
on  the  approach  of  flame,  like  a  mixture  of  intlamnia- 
blc  and  common  air  j  Li.i  if  the  air  to  which  ether  is 
added  be  walhed  in  water,  the  latter  is  foon  fcpar.ited 
from  it.  Common  air  becomes  ajf')  iuflammablc  by 
being  tranfr.iiited  through  f  veral  tilential  oils  ;  and 
thus  the  air  contiguous  to  the  plant  called  \rux\milla 
becomes  inflammable  in  calm  and  hot  weather,  by  the 
emiinon  of  its  inflammable  air, 

liy  heat  alone,  a  conlidcrablc  quantity  of  thi%  kind 
of  air  may  be  extrailcd  from  moll  inilaninuble  fub- 
flances,  and  even  from  fome  of  the  met  lis.  Dr  Hales 
obtained  inflammable  air  by  limply  diililling  wax, 
pitch,  amber,  coals,  peafc,  and  cylter  flulls  ;  and  Mr 
Fontana  informs  us,  that  he  obtained  a  conlidcrab'e 
quantity  of  inflammable  air  from  fpathofe  iron,  by  the 
action  of  fire  only  applied  to  it  in  a  matrafs.  Dr 
PrieP.ley,  however  obtained  it  from  a  vaft  number  of 
other  fubllances,  by  diililling  them  in  a  gun-barrel ;  to 
the  extremity  of  which  was  luted  a  tobacco  pipe,  or 
fmall  glafs  tube,  with  a  flaccid  bladder  tied  on  the 
end.  He  obferves,  that  the  heat  mull  bf  fuddcnly 
applied,  in  order  to  get  a  conliJerablc  quantity  of  air 
from  thefe  fub/lances.  «'  Notwithllniiding  (fays  hr) 
the  fame  care  be  taken  in  luting,  and  in  every  other 
refpecl,  fix,  or  even  ten,  times  n:ore  air  may  be  got 
by  a  fudden  heat  than  by  a  (low  one,  thongli  the  licat 
that  is  lad  applied  be  as  inienfe  as  that  which  was  ap- 
plied fuddcnly.  A  bit  of  dry  o:'.k,  weighing  about 
ivvclve  grains,  will  generally  yiti.ta  flie:  p's  bladder 
full  of  inrlammable  air  with  a  briik  heat,  when  it  will 
orily  yield  two  or  three  ouncc-meafurcs  if  the  fame 
heat  be  applied  gradually."  When  he  wanted  to  ex- 
tract inflammable  air  from  metals,  a  glafs  was  ufcd,  the 
focus  of  which  aiforded  a  more  intenfe  heat  than  ar.y 
furnace  he  could  apply  :  and  in  this  w.iy  he  obtained 
inflammable  air  from  fcveral  metals  ;  as  iron,  brafs, 
and  tin  ;  but  with  the  metallic  calces  he  had  no  fuc- 
cefs. 

In  the  infancy  of  his  experiments,  and  even  after 
very  couliJcrable  praiflicc,  the  Doctor  itnaj"'^^;  ih''t 


the  infianimable  air  produced  in  this  way  cai.ic  only  InJlamnu- 
from  the  mct.il,  without  attending  to  the  fliarc  which    ble  Air. 
water  had  in  the  production.     Some  l.itc  experiments  '     p.'T     ' 
of  Mr  Lavuilier,  howcvir,  U.owcd,  tliat  water  had  a  Howiiro- 
grcat  fliare  in  the  production  of  iiiflammaMc  air  ,  inlo-  cured  from 
much   that  it  gave  occalion  lo  a  fupp(  lition,  that  the  water  and 
wutcrwas  the  only  fourcelrom  whence  it  was  derived,  "tl'cr  fluid 
This  millakc,  however,  was  dete    cd  by  iJr  I'ritliley  ;  ""''/"''d 

lltlltlillCCft 

who,  by  his  nun-.crous  awA  accurate  experiments,  leems 
in  a  manner  to  have  exhaulied  the  iiityttt.  Tiic  me- 
thod which  Mr  Lavoilitr  had  followed,  s\asto  feml 
the  lleam  of  boiling  water  through  a  red-hot  iron 
tube;  in  doing  which,  the  intenfe  heat  acquired  by 
the  water  oeealioncd  the  production  of  a  great  quan- 
tity of  iuflammable  air.  Dr  PritlUcy  repeated  his  ex- 
perimct;ts  not  only  with  water,  but  with  other  fluids. 
Sending  the  vapour  of  two  ounces  of  fj^irit  of  wine 
through  a  red-hot  earthen  tube,  he  obt^iiiied  1900 
ouncenKafuresof  in  flammable  air,  which  burned  v  iih 
a  white  lambent  flame.  It  contained  no  (ixcd  air  ; 
and  30  ounce-meafures  of  it  weiglicd  eight  graias  Icf.? 
than  an  equal  quantity  of  common  air.  He  colkaed 
ylfoo.jjof  an  ounce-mcafurc  of  water.  In  thistxpcri- 
nicnt,thc  weight  of  the  water  eolletttd  wcs  1 63  grains, 
of  the  inflammable  air  633  grains,  and  tlutof  the  fpirit 
of  wine  originally  was  821  grains,  {ii  that  as  little  was 
loft  in  the  procefsas  could  beexpccled. — Repeating  the 
experiment  with  vitriolic  ether,  an  ounce  of  it  treated 
in  the  fame  manner  in  an  earthen  tube  almoft  fllled 
with  pieces  of  broken  earthen  retorts  and  crucibles, 
one-tenth  part  of  an  ounce  of  water  was  collcilied, 
and  7<}Oouuce-ineafures  of  inflamsnable  air  were  pro- 
cured, without  any  mixture  of  lixcd  air,  burning 
witli  a  white  lambent  flame  like  that  of  wood,  anj 
not  exploding  with  dcpiilogillicated  air.  Tweiuy- 
ninc  ounce-nieafurcs  of  this  w  eighed  five  grains  Icfs 
than  an  equal  quantity  of  common  air.  Vapour  of 
fpirit  of  turpentine  yielded  inflammable  air  mixed  with 
much  black  fmoke,  which  foon  collected  on  the  fur- 
face  of  the  water  in  the  receiver.  The  fnull  of  this 
air  w.is  ixceedingly  olfenlivc,  and  its  flame  was  nnich 
lef?  biniinous  than  that  of  the  former.  Its  fpecific 
gravity  was  the  fame  with  that  of  the  air  procured 
from  fpirit  of  wine.  Oiive  oil  yielded  a  conlidcrable 
quantity  of  airon  beingmixed  with  calcined  whiting  ; 
thefirlt  portions  burning  with  a  Urge  white  flame,  and 
the  lalt  with  a  lambent  blue  one. 

In  cxtrading  air  from  folid  fubftances,  the  fleam 
of  water  was  always  necellary  ;  and  tlius  inflammable 
air  was  produced  from  a  great  number  of  ditt<:rent 
ones.  From  fulplutr  treated  in  this  manner  in  an 
earthen  tube,  inflammable  air  was  obtained  of  a  nature 
fiir.ilar  to  that  from  oil  of  vitriol  and  iron.  From  ar- 
fcnic,  the  produce  was  onc-fevci:tii  of  fixed  air  ;  but 
all  the  reft  ilrongly  inflammable,  with  a  fmcll  fcarccly 
Ciftinguifhable  from  th.it  of  phofphorus.  Twenty 
ouncc-meafurcs  of  this  air  weighed  4,  grains  lefs  than 
an  equal  quantity  of  common  air.  Both  thefe  experi- 
ments, however,  were  very  iroublefoine,  on  account  of 
the  volatility  of  the  matters,  which  fublinieil  and 
choakcd  up  the  tubes.  From  two  ounces  of  the 
fealcs  of  iron  or  fining  cinder,  which  he  has  found  to 
be  the  fame  thing,  Dr  Prietlley  obtained  jfio  ouncc- 
mcafures  of  air;  one-tenth  of  the  nrfi  part  of  whicfi 
was  f.::cd  air,  but  afterwards  it  was  all  iniiammablc. 

Forty 


Sea.  V!. 


A 


R      C) 


T. 


O 


'73 


Inflamini-  Forty  ounce  mcafurcs  of  this  air  wci^Licd  two  jr.iiius 
l>ic  Air.    jr.orc  than  an  equal  quantity  of  common  uir.     r'rora 

* ■' —    charcoal  expofcd  to  the  red- hot  lltan:  ot  water,  i:i- 

iiammahlc  air  was  procured  in  great  quantities,  i  torn' 
nincty-fcur  grains  of  pcrlc-a charcoal, that  li,  prepared 
v.ith  a  Jtrong  heat  fo  as  to  expel  all  hxed  air  from  it, 
and  140  ounces  of  water,  84c  our.cc-mcafurcs  of  air 
were  elit.iiiicd,  onc-iifth  part  of  wJiich  was  fixed  air  ; 
and  the  inflamniaUe  part  appeared  likewifc,  by  dccom- 
politiou,  to  have  a  quantity  of  fixed  air  intimately 
combined  withit. — Threeounccs  of  bones  burnt  black, 
and  treated  in  this  manner  in  a  copper  tabc,  yielded 
340ounce-nieafiircsof  air  ;  the  water  cxpenUcd  being 
28<J  grains,  and  tlic  bones  loiiug  110  grains  of  their 
Weight.  This  air,  he  obfcrves,  differs  conlidcrably 
from  that  of  any  other  kind  of  inH.unmablc  air  ;  being 
in  feveral  rcfpcds  a  medium  betwixt  the  air  procured 
from  charcoal  and  thai  from  iron.  It  coiitaius  about 
one-fourth  of  its  bulk  of  uncombined  fixed  air,  but 
not  quite  one-tenth  intimately  combined  with  the  re- 
mainder. The  water  that  came  over  was  blue,  and 
■*  pretty  flrongly  alkaline  ;  ov.iiig  to  the  volatile  alkali 
not  having  been  totally  expelled  by  the  heat  which  had 
reduced  the  bones  to  blackuefs. 

A  variety  of  fubdances,  faid  not  to  eont.iin  any 
pLlogillon,  were  fubjecicd  to  tl:c  fame  procefs,  but 
without  yielding  any  inilamraable  air.  The  cxpe;i- 
meiitswiih  iron,  however,  were  the  moll  fatisfadory 
as  being  fubjeef  to  lefs  variation  than  thofc  with  char- 
coal ;  and  clearly  evincing,  that  the  air  in  the  proccls 
docs  not  come  from  the  water  alone,  but  from  the 
iron  alio  ;  or,  as  Dr  Pricflley  fays,  "  only  from  the 
iron  ;  the  weight  of  water  expended,  deducting  the 
v/cight  of  air  produced,  being  found  in  the  addition 
of  weight  in  the  iron  as  nearly  as  could  be  expcclcdin 
experiments  of  this  kind.  And  though  the  inliam- 
luable  air  procured  in  the  procefs  is  between  one- 
third  and  one-half  more  than  can  be  procured  from 
iron  by  folution  in  acids,  the  rcafon  may  be,  that 
much  phlogi;ion  is  retained  in  the  folutions  ;  and 
therefore  much  move  may  be  expelled  from  iron  when 
pure  water,  without  any  acid,  takes  place  of  it.  The 
produce  of  air,  and  likewifc  the  addition  of  weii^ut 
gained  by  the  iron,  arc  alfo  much  more  eafily  afccr- 
tainedin  thcfe  experiments  than  thequantiiy  of  water 
expended  in  them  ;  on  account  of  the  great  length  of 
the  veirds  ufed  in  the  proccls,  and  ihediiTereni  quan- 
tifies that  may  perhaps  be  retained  in  the  worm  01  the 
tube. 
iij  The  following  are  the  rtfults  of  fome  of  the  Doc- 

Propbr-      tor'ie.\|  c/inients Two  hundred  and  llxty-fevcn 

tioiis  of  ill-  grains,  ad  icd  to  the  weight  of  a  quantity  of  iron,  pro- 
flimniablc  jUicf  J  j  lofs  of  3  ;6  grains  of  Wuler,  and  an  emiiiion 
ajro.itaiiieJ^^g      ouu  T-nuafurcs  of  air  ;  and  in  another  exptri- 

ironi  iron  ^  i    1  t  •    1        i-     1        • 

mcnt,    140  grains  aided  to  the  veightot  the  iron 

piodnccd  a  lofs  of  240  grains  of  water,  and  the  emif- 

lion  of  4Jooiuicc-nicalures  of  air.  "The  intiamuiiblc 


ron 
of  ftcam. 


air  prod. iced  in  this  manner  (fays  he)  isof  tlie  lightefi  luflamnn- 
kind,  and  free  iTfom  that  very  orfcntivc  fmcU  which  is  ^''  ''^"' 
generally  occufsoned  by  the  ra;id  ful.iiion  of  metals  in  '       ' 

"oil  of  vitriol;  and  it  is  extricated  in  as  litilc  time  i.i 
this  way  as  it  is  pn'hule  to  do  it  by  any  mode  ot  folu- 
tion. The  folI</wi::g  expcrinxiit  was  in  rte  wi:h  a 
view  to  afccrtain  the  quantity  of  infiaT.nable  ;ir  that 
may  be  procured  iu  this  manner  from  any  give;,  quan- 
tity of  iron.  Nine  hundred  and  iixty  grains  of  iron, 
when  diiTolvcd  in  acids,  will  yield  about  fooouucc- 
mcafures  of  air  ;  but,  treated  in  this  manner,  it  yield- 
ed 10J4  iRcifares,  and  then  the  iron  had  gained  329 
grains  ill  weight  (a)."  116 

laflammablc  air  having  been  at  firft  proJuccd  only  Ofti.econ, 
from  nut^li  by  nicai.s  of  acids,  it  was  then  fuppolcu  il""*-'!" 
that  part  of  thcacid  r.eceiFarily  enters  iao  its  compo-  '"J"' .f'*-' 
fition  ;    but  this  hypothclis  is  now  found  to  be  ill  "  '11,1"^ 
grounded.     "  That  no  acid  (fays  Ur  rucU'cy),  IS  nc-         ,,. 
ceilarily  contained,  or  atleait  in  any  fenfibli;  Ljuantity,  No  acid 
either  in  inflammable  air,  though  produceil  by  means  contained 
of  acids,  or  in  the  depblogifncated  air  of  the  atmo-  >"  't- 
ff  here, is  e  vide;:  I  from  the  follow  ingcxpcrir.ie::t,  which 
1  made  with  the  greateil  c.irc  :  Takiiigabafon  which 
contained  a  fmall  quantity  of  water  tinged  blue  with 
the  juice  of  turnlblc,   I  placed  it  in  a  bent  tube  of 
glafs,  which  came  from  a  vcliel  cortair.iiig  iron  and 
diluted  oil  of  vitriol  ;   and  lighting  the  current  of  in- 
flammable air  as  it  iiTucd  fVon  this  tub;,  fo  that  it 
burned  exactly  like  a  candle,  1  placed  over  it  an   in- 
verted glafs  jar,  fo  that  the  i.TO'ith  of  it  was  plunged 
in  the  liquor.   Under  this  jar  the  inrfammable  air  burn- 
ed as  long  as  it  could;  and   when  extinguilhed   for 
want  of  more  pure  air,  1  fulfcrcd  the  liquor  to  rife  as 
high  as  it  could  within  the  jar,  that  it  might  imbibe 
whatever  fhould  be  depoiitcd  from  the  decompofition 
of  either  of  the  two  kinds  of  air.     I   then  took  off 
the  jar,  changed  the  air  in  it,  and  lighting  the  flrcasi 
of  inilanimablc  air,  replaced  the  jar  as  before.     This 
I  did  till  I  had  decompofcd   a  very  great  quantity  of 
the  two  kinds  uf  air,  without  perceiving  the  leall 
change  in  the  colour  of  the  liquor,  which  mart  have 
been  the  cafe  if  any  acid  had  entered  as  a  ncceflary 
conlbtuent  part  into  viiher  of  the  two  kinds  of  air. 
I  alfo  found  no  acid  whatever  iu  the  water,  which  was 
procured  by  keeping  a  ftream  of  inflammable  air  con- 
fUntly  burning  in  a  large  glafs  balloon,  through  which 
the  air  could  circulate,  fo  that  the  tiar.ie  did  not  go 
out.     Neither  was  there  any  acid  produced  in  the  dc- 
compoiition  of  ia:lamniablc  and  dcphlogilticatcd  air 
in  a  ftron_^  elofe  glafs  velfcl. 

"  With  refpecf  to  indammable  air,  I  haveobferved, 
that  when  futficicnt  care  is  taken  to  free  it  from  any 
acid  vapour  that  may  be  accidentally  contained  in  it, 
it  is  not  iu  the  fmallcil  degree  atle.-led  by  a  mixture  of 
alkaline  air.  On  the  whole,  thcrclbrc,  1  haveatpre- 
fcnt  no  doubt,  but  that  pure  inrtammable  air,  though  it 
certainly  contains  ti'ater,  does  not  nccclfarily  contain 

any 


(a)  In  thcfe experiments,  the  Doctor  feems  r.ot  to  have  fuppofed  that  ar.y  particular  kind  of  water  was  ne- 
celfiry  for  this  produiition  of  intlanirasble  air  :  but  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Philofophical  Society  at  Ilaer'em,  it 
is  alliTted  by  Dr.  Deiiiian  and  M.  I'aets  Van  Trooilv./k,  that  the  experiment  will  notTiTcced  when  boiUd  or 
dillillcd  waiCr,  or  any  oiher  than  that  contai.iing  fixed  air,  is  made  ufc  of;  and  to  this  air  they  attrilmie  the 
c..:  nation  of  the  iron,  and  produdinnof  iniiammable  air.  This  affcrtion,  however,  ii  contrary  to  what  wc  nnd 
rtl.i-cd  by  Mr  Kirwan.     Sec  n"  1 53. 


«74 

ble  Air. 


128 

Water  ne- 
ccffary  to 
its  produc- 
tiuii. 


129 

Charco;il 
totally  cin 
■vertible  in- 
to inflara- 
luabie  .Ur, 


130 
Weight  of 
aflics  deri- 
veJ  from 
the  air. 


*3i 

Experi- 
ment fliow 
iiij;  tlie  nc- 
ceflit}  of 
water  to 
the  produc- 
tion of  in- 
flamnialilc 
sir. 


AERO 

any  .itid  :  yet  .111  aiiJ  vai'oiir  may  be  cifily  liitfiilcj 
through  it,  and  may  pirhaps  in  mai»y  cal'es  be  oblli- 
natcly  retained  by  it,  as  no  kind  of  air  fccms  lobe  ca- 
pable of  fo  great  a  variety  of  impregnations  as  inllam- 
niable  air  is." 

Mr  Cavendilh  firft  perceived  the  ncceflity  of  nioi- 
fliirc  to  the  production  of  iullanimable  air  ;  but  it  was 
not  until  after  making  fcvcral  experiments  that  l)r 
PrielUey  coulJ adopt  ihclanie  idea.  He  had  obftrved 
fome  very  remarl^able  circumllanccs  relating  to  the 
production  of  inlianimablc  air  from  charcoal,  by  which 
he  war.  induced  to  fuppofe  thai  the  former  was  pure 
phlogifton  in  a  volatile  Hate  without  any  moillurc 
whatever.  The  Doelor  obfcrves,  that  "  charcoal  is 
generally  faid  to  be  indellrucliblc,  except  by  a  red 
heat  in  contact  with  air.  Hut  1  lind  (fays  lie),  that  it 
is  perfectly  Jellrui5tiblc,  or  dccompofed,  /'.'  vacwi,  and, 
by  tlic  heat  of  a  burning  lens,  almoll  convertible  into 
inllammable  air  ;  lb  that  nothing  remains  beildcs  an 
exceedingly  fniall  quantity  of  white  allies,  which  are 
feldom  vifible,  except  when  in  very  fmall  particles  th  cy 
happen  to  crofs  the  fun-beains  as  they  tiy  about  tlie 
receiver.  It  would  be  be  impollible  to  collect  or  weigh 
them  i  but  according  to  appearance,  the  afnes  thus 
produced,  from  many  pounds  of  wood,  could  not  be 
fuppofedto  weigh  a  grain.  The  great  weight  ofalhes 
produced  by  burning  wood  in  open  air  arifes  from 
whatisattracfted  by  them  from  the  air.  The  air  which 
I  get  in  this  manner  is  wholly  inflammable,  without 
the  leaft  particle  of  fixed  air  in  it.  But  in  order  to 
this,  the  charcoal  muft  be  perfectly  well  made,  or  with 
fuch  a  heat  as  would  expel  all  the  fixed  air  which  the 
wood  contains  ;  and  it  nuilt  be  continued  till  it  yields 
inllinimable  air  only,  which  in  an  earthen  retort,  is 
foon  produced. 

"  Wood  or  charcoal  is  even  perfedly  deftruCliblc, 
that  is,  refolvable  into  inflammable  air,  in  a  good 
earthen  retort,  and  a  (ire  that  would  about  melt  iron. 
In  thcfe  circuniftances,  after  all  the  fixed  air  had  come 
over,  I  Icvcral  times  cor.tinued  the  proccfs  during  a 
whole  day  ;  in  all  which  time  inilammablc  air  has 
been  produced  equably,  and  without  any  appearance 
of  a  termination.  Nor  did  I  wonder  at  this,  after 
f;.eing  it  wholly  vanifii  into  inflammable  air;«  vacuo. 
A  quantity  of  charcoal  made  from  oak,  and  weighing 
about  an  ounce,  generally  gave  me  about  five  ouncc- 
meafures  of  inflammable  air  in  twelve  minutes." 

Although  from  thcfe  experiments  it  did  not  appear 
that  water  was  in  any  waysclTcntially  necelfary  to  the 
produftionofthiskindof  inflammable  air,  it  appeared 
manifeftly  to  be  fo  in  the  following  :  "  At  the  time 
(fays  he) when!  difperfedanyquantityof  charcoal  with 
a  burning  lrns/«  vacuo,  and  thereby  filled  ray  receiver 
with  nothing  but  inflamniablc  air,  I  had  no  fufpicion 
that  the  wet  leather  on  which  my  receiver  llood  could 
have  any  influence  in  the  cafe,  while  the  piece  of  char- 
coal was  fubjcft  to  the  intenfe  heat  of  the  lens,  a;:d 
placed  feveral  inches  above  the  leather.  I  had  alio 
procured  inflammable  air  from  charcoal  in  a  glazed 
earthen  retort  for  tsvo  whole  days luccellivcly,  during 
which  it  continued  to  yield  it  without  intermiilion. 
Alfo  iron-tilings  in  a  gun-barrel,  and  a  gun-barrel  it- 
fclf,had  always  given  inflammable  air  whenever!  tiied 


O      G      Y. 


Sedl.  V[. 


tlictxperiment.     Thcfucircumflanccs,  hov.-cver,  de-  Inflamma- 
ceivcd  me,  and  perhaps  would  have  deceived  any  other    Ijle  Air. 
ptrlon  i  for  I  did  nit  know,  and  could  not  have  be-       TVr"** 
1  it  vcd,  the  powerful  ail  raclion  between  water  and  char-  p.xccflive 
coal  or  iron,  when  thelatler  arc  intenfely  hot.  They  attraAion 
will  lind,  and  attra(;b  ii,  in  the  niidlt  of  the  hottcll  betwixt 
fire,  and  through  any  pores  that  may  be  left  open  in  t'larcoal.oi 
a  retort ;  and  iron  filings  arc  felJom  fo  dry  as  not  to  "^''"  ''"'^ 
have  as  much  moiflure  adhering  to  them  as  is  capable 
of  enabling  them  to  giveaconliderable  quantity  of  in- 
Hammable   air.     But  my  attention  being  now  fuliy 
awakened  to  the  fuljert,   I  prclently  found  that  the 
ciremnltances  abovementioned  had  actually  milled  nic; 
I  mean  with  refpccl  to  the  concluflon  which  I  dre\r 
from  the  experiments,  and  not  with  refpcft  to  the  ex- 
periments thenifclves,  every  one   of  which  will,  I 
doubt  not,  be  found  to  anfwer,  when  properly  tried. 

"  Being  thus  apprifed  of  the  inlluence  of  unper- 
ceivcd  moillure  in  the  production  of  intlammaLlc  air, 
and  willing  to  afcenaia  it  to  my  perfect  faiisfaction, 
I  began  with  filling  a  gun-barrel  with  iron  tilings  in 
their  common  flate,without  taking  any  particular  pre- 
caution to  dry  them,  and  I  found  that  they  gave  air 
as  they  had  been  uled  to  do,  and  continued  10  do  fo 
many  hours  :  I  even  got  ten  ounce-meafures  of  inllam- 
mable air  from  two  ounces  of  iron  filings  in  a  coated 
glafs  retort  :  At  length,  however,  the  production  of 
iniiammablc  air  from  the  gun-barrel  ceafed  ;  but,  on 
putting  water  to  it,  the  air  was  produced  again  ;  and  j 
a  few  repetitions  of  the  experiment  convinced  nic  that  fnflamnia- 
I  had  been  too  precipitate  in  concluding  that  inflam-  i,leairi»ii"t 
mable  air  is  pure  phlogiflon.  I  then  repeated  the  ex-  pure  phlo- 
periment  with  the  charcoal,  making  the  receiver,  the  ijifon. 
Itand  on  which  I  placed  the  charcoal, and  the  charcoal 
itfclf,  as  dry  and  hot  as  poUiblc,  and  uling  cement  in- 
Jlead  of  wet  leather,  in  order  to  exclude  the  air.  In 
thcfe  circumflances  I  was  not  able,  with  the  advantage 
of  a  good  fun  and  an  excellent  burning  lens,  to  dccom- 
pofc  <iiiite  {^  much  as  two  grains  of  the  piece  of  char- 
coal which  gave  me  ten  ounee-nieafurcs  of  inflamma- 
ble air;  and  this,  1  imagine,  was  efFeCtcd  by  means 
of  l"o  much  moifturc  as  was  depofited  from  the  air  in 
its  flate  of  rarefacTion,  and  before  it  could  be  drawn 
from  the  receiver.  To  theprodudion  of  this  kind  of 
inflammable  air,  therefore,  I  was  now  convinced  that 
water  is  as  e.flcntial  as  to  that  from  iron."  j^ . 

In  his  analyfis  of  different  kinds  of  inflammable  air,  Priell'lty'* 
the  Doctor  obfcrves,  that  the  difference  molt  com-  analyfis  of 
monly  perceived  is,  that  fome  of  them  burn  with  a  dilTcrcnt 
lambent  flame,  fometiines  white,  fometimes  yellow, '1'"'^'°^"'" 
and  fometimes  blue  ;  whileanotherkindalways  burns    *°"^**  "^ 
with  an  explolion,  making  more  or  lefs  of  a  report 
when  a  lighted  candle  is  dipped  into  a  jar  filled  with 
it.     The  inflammable  air  extrafted  from  metals   by 
means  of  acids  is  of  this  lafl  kind  ;  and  that  from  wood, 
coal,  or  other  inflammable  fubftances  by  means  of  heat, 
belongs  to  the  former.     It  has  alfo  been  obferved,  that 
thefe  kinds  of  inflammahle  air  have  different  fpecific 
gra\itics;  the,  pureft,  or  that  which  is  extracted  from 
iron,  &c.  being  about   ten  times  as  light  as  common 
air  ;  but  fome  of  the  other  kinds  not  more  than  twice 
as  light  (a). 

'I  his  difl'ercnce  was  fer  fome  time  attributed  to  a 

quantity 


(  A )  Here  the  Dodor's  calculaticat  differs  fomewhat  from  that  of  Mr  Kirwan ;  v.  ho,  in  his  Treatife  on  Phlo- 

giilon. 


VI. 


R      O 


O 


Y. 


Iiiflammj-    qtiantiiy  of  fixed  air  intimartly  combined  with  the 
bic  Air.     heavier  kinds,  f.)  that  it  could  not  be  difcovcrcd  by 

' ^ lime-water,  while  the  lightclt  contained  no  fixed  air  at 

all.     In  order  to  aktrt  .in  this  point,  he  had  rccourrc 
to  dcconipoiition  ;   which   was  performed  by  nii.xing 
with  the  inrianiiiiablc  air  to  be  tried  an  equal  quantity 
of  common  or  depiilo^ifticated  air,  and  thcncontiniiig 
ihiiiiina  ftrongglafs  vclfel  previoiilly  tilledcithcrwith 
water  or  mercury  ;  makingaftcrwards  an  electric  fpark 
in  fonic  part  ot  the  mixture  by  means  of  wires  infertcd 
through  the  fidesof  the  veflcl,and  nearly  meeting  with- 
in it.     Thus  he  fuppofed  that  he  might  be  able  to  de- 
termine the  quaiitity  of  c'j>uIii/i f  J iixcd  air,  and  likcwife 
the  relative  quantity  of  phlogifton  contained  in  each 
of  them.     The  former  appeared   by  wafliing  the  air 
with  lime-water  after  the   cxplolion,  and  obfcrving 
how  much   of  them  was  abforbcd  ;  and  the  latter  by 
examining  the  refiduum  with  the  teft  of  nitrous  air, 
and  obfcrving  the  purity  of  it.     Kinding,  however, 
that,  In  fome  cafes,  more  fixed  air  was  found  after  the 
cxplolion  than  could  have  been  contaiutdm  the  inflam- 
mable air,  he  was  thence  led  tooblcrvcthe^fn!Ta//»«of 
fixed  air  from  t  he  princplcs  mentioned  in  thclaflfcJlion. 
In  profecuting  this  fubjcct,  it  was  found,  that  one 
nieafure  of  inrlammable  air  produced  by  fteam  from 
metals,  and  one  of  ilcphlogillicated  air,  f  ich  as  by 
mixture  with  two  raeafures  of  nitrous  air  was  reduced 
to  0.72  of  a  meafure,   were  reduced  by  explofion  to 
0.6  ot  a  meafure  ;  the  refiduum,  by  an  equal  quantity 
of  nitrous  air,  was  reduced  to  0.87.     With  the  fame 
dcphlogillicatcd  air,  the  inflammable  air  from  fining- 
cinder  and  charcoal  was  reduced  only  to  1. 8 J  of  a 
meafure  ;  but  by  waQiing  in  lime-water,  to  1.2.     The 
rcliduura  examined  by  nitrous  air  appeared  to  be  of  the 
flandardofo.9.  In  another  procefs,  the  diminution  after 
the  cxplolion  was  to  i.  5  j, and  that  after  wafliing  in  lime- 
water  to  o.6y,  of  a  meafure  ;  in  a  third,  by  explofion  to 
1.6,  and  by  wafliing  to  0.66  ;  and  in  a  fourth,  the  tirlt 
diminution  was  to  1.6,  and  the  fecond  to  0.9.     In  this 
lad  experiment  there  was  n.  generation  of  an  entire 
meafure  of  fixed  air  ;  and  that  this  had  not  been  con- 
tained originally  in  any  latent  llate  in  the  original 
fluid,  was  evident  from  the  fpecific  gravity  of  the  in- 
flammable air  made  ufe  of.     This,  indeed,  was  one  of 
the  heavieft  kinds  of  the  fluid  :  but  40  ouncc-meafures 
of  it  weighed  only  two  grains  more  than  an  equal  bulk 
of  common  air  ;  whereas,  had  all  the  fixed  air  found 
in  the  refiduum  been  cmitaiuei  in  the  original  air,  it 
muft  h.ive  been  at  lealt  one  half  heavier.     "  Indeed 
(fays  the  Doctor)  if  any  quantity  of  inflammable  air, 
of  about  the  funic  fpecific  gravity  with  common  air 
(which  is  the  cafe  with   that  fpecies  of  it  1  am  now 
conlidcrinn;),  yield  fo  much  as  feven-trnthsof  its  bulk 
of  fixed  air  in  confequence  of  its  explofion  with  de- 
phlogifticatcd  air,  it  is  a  proof  that  at  Icafl  part  of 
that  fixed  air  was  generated  in  the  procefs,  becaufc 
feven-tenths  of  fuch  fixed  air  would  weigh  more  than 
the  whole  meafure  of  inflammable  air." 


'75 


Equal  parts  of  dcphlogifiicated  air  and  the  inflam-  Infiamn-.a- 
mablc  kind  produced  from  fpirit  of  wine,  were  redu-  bic  Air. 
ced  to  one  mealure,  and  by  wafliing  in  lime-water  to  ^""^ 
0.6  of  a  meafure.  The  ftandard  ot  the  refiduum  was 
1.7. — In  another  cxptrimcnt^  in  which  the  vapour  of 
the  fpirit  of  wine  had  palled  tiirough  a  tube  tilled  with 
bits  of  crucibles,  the  ririt  diuiiuution  was  to  1.6,  the 
fecond  to  1.4,  and  the  Itandar J  of  the  reliduuin  was  to 
1.84:  but  in  a  third,  the  firlt  Jirr.iiiution  was  to  1.2, 
the  fecond  to  0.9. — Air  procured  by  Iteam  from  red- 
hot  platina  was  reduced  to  0.72  of  a  meafure,  and  the 
ftandard  of  the  refiduum  was  0.9.  It  contained  no 
fixed  air. — t\\r  from  brimltonc,  with  an  equal  part  of 
dcphlogifticatcd  air,  was  diniinilhcd  to  0.6,  and  ho 
fixed  air  was  found  in  the  refiduum.  Its  ftandard  was 
0.95 — With  inflammable  air  from  arfcnic,  the  nrfl  re- 
duction was  to  I.I  J,  tlu-  fecond  to  0.95.  The  ftand- 
ard was  0.82 With  the  inflammable  air  procured  bv 

adccompofition  of  alkali. le  air,  the  diminution  by  ex- 
plofion was  to  0.96,  and  no  fixed  air  was  contained  in 
the  refiduum;  the  ftandard  of  which  was  0.8 — In- 
flammable air  from  ether  refcmbles  that  from  fpirit  of 
wine.  The  firll  diminution  was  to  1.36,  the  fecond  to 
1.2  ;   and  the  ftandard  was  1.9. 

Inflammable  air  procured  by  means  of  fteam  from 
charcoal  of  metals  produces  a  confidcrable  quantity  of 
fixed  air  ;  the  firll  diminution  being  to  1.12,  the  fe- 
cond to  0.8,  and  the  ftandard  of  the  refiduum  1.9. 
This  analylis  was  of  the  firft  portion  that  came  over, 
the  fecond  was  fomewhat  different :  the  firft  diminu- 
tion being  to  i.o,  the  fecond  to  0.75,  and  the  ftand- 
ard of  the  refiduum  1.9. — From  conk,  or  the  charcoal 
of  pitcoal.the  rirfl  diniiiiution  was  to  t.15,  the  fecond 
to  0.9 J,  and  the  ftandard  7.9;  but  the  dephlogiflica- 
tcd  air  in  this  experiment  was  by  no  means  pure. 

With  inflammable  air  from  f'pirit  of  turpentine,  the 
firft  diminution  was  to  1.7,  the  fecond  to  1.6,  and  the 
ftandard  1.9 — From  bones,  the  firft  diminution  was 

to  0.67,  the  fecond   to  o.j8;   the  ftandard  1.47 

From  common  charcoal,  the  firft  diminution  was  to 
1.5,  the  fecond  to  o  74,  and  the  ftandard  1.7.  In  ano- 
ther experiment,  the  firft  diminution  was  to  0.82,  the 
fecond  to  0.63,  and  the  ftandard  of  the  refiduum 
1.37. 

Inflammable  air  procured  by  diftilling  fome  rich 
mould  in  a  gun-barrel  had  a  ycry  otfenfivc  fmell,  like 
thatprocurcd  from  putrid  vegetables  ;  itcontained  one- 
twentieth  part  of  uncombincd  fixed  air.  When  this 
was  fcparated  from  it,  and  the  remainder  decompofcd 
with  dephlogiflicated  air,  the  firft  diminution  was  to 
1.4,  the  fecund  to  0.67,  and  the  ftandard  of  the  refi- 
duum was  0.6. — The  air  procured  from  caft  iron  has 
likcwife  a  peculiarly  oflcnfive  fmell ;  and,  on  this  ac- 
count, the  Doctor  imagined,  that  it  might  contain 
more  phlogiftoii  than  couimon  inflammable  air,  fo  as 
to  abforb  more  dephlojrifticatcd  air  than  the  other. 
But  this  conjecture  did  not  appear  to  be  well  founded  ; 
for  on  exploding  it  with  dephlogiflicated  air  in  the 

proportions 


inrianiniablc  air  cxtradcd  from  clean  ne  wly-nia>!e  filinfj 

nd  obtained  over 


gifton,  informs  us,  that  in  hiscxperimeius  he  uicd  ••  .._ ,..„>.^  ....,■.> 

of  foft  iron,  in  the  temperifirc  of  59",  by  vitriolic  acid  whofc  fpecific  gravity  was  1.097?,  and  obtained  over 

mercury,  having  very  little  fmell,  and  what  it  had  being  very  unlike  the  ufu.il  fmell  of  inrlimmab'.e  .lir." 

The  weight  of  this  air,  when  the  biromctcr  flood  at  29.9,  and  the  tlicrmomcter  at  60°,  was  foaud  to  be  to 
that  of  common  air  as  84.3  to  loooj  and,  confcquently,  near  12  times  lighter. 


176 


E       R       O       L       O       G 


Scc"t.  Vf 


lna«inn:a-  pi'ojwrii^iis  ahm^Jy  ii:c!in:>ncd,  the  dlininuiiori  wms 
Me  .Mr.  iixe  liUiC  as  wiih  i.i.limi'.iublc  air  produccj  iVom  liic 
"      "^       '  iiv;llia!>le  kiuii,  vli.  1.56. 

In  tlKfcixpcriiueius,  itfcemed  evident,  that  at  leaft 
pan  ot'tiic  lixcJ  ail-  fmiuJ  alter  the  exploiioii  was  pro- 
diiccJ  bj'  its  means ;  but  the  ibllowiiig  iccui  no  Ids  con- 
vincing proofs,  thattixcd  airniay  lie  converted  into  the 
iiiflammable  kind,  or  ailealltiiat  the  elements  of  fixed 
air  may  remain  in  inrfamniablc  air  in  fuch  a  manner  as 
,,6       to  be  impcrccpiiblc.     On  healing  in  an  cartheni  re- 
flxtj  ;.ir    tort  a  ijnaiitity  of  llai<cd  lime,  which  had  long  been 
convertible  kept  cUifc  corked  in  a  bottle,  it  gave  air,  of  whidi  ohe- 
iiuo  in-       j^fti)  \vas  generally  fixed  air  ;  but  in  the  gvin-barrei  the 
flammable  ^^^^^  jj^.^j.  ^.jt-iJcj  no  hxcdair/at  all,  but  a  great  quan- 
'^'^'  lay  of  inrlaminablc  air  of  the  cxplolivc  kind,  like  tluc 

which  is  got  from  iion  alone  by  means  of  water.  As 
this  total  difjppearance  of  the  fixed  air  appeared  ex- 
tra-ordinary, the  Doftor  was  induced  to  repeat  it  fcve- 
ral  limes  v.  ith  all  poliiule  care ;  and  the  follov.ing  v/as 
the  refiilt  of  his  experiments:  Three  ounces  oFllakcd 
lime,  which  liad  for  fomc  time  been  cxpofed  to  the 
open  air,  heated  in  an  earthen  tube,  yiildcd  i4ounce- 
incafaresof  air,  of  which  only  two  and  an  half  rcmajn- 
fd  niiabfoibed  by  water;  the  refiduum  was  ilightly  in- 
flaraniablc,  but  not  perfcdly  phlogillicatcd.  Ihree 
ounces  of  tlie  fame  lime,  heated  in  a  gun-barrel,  gave 
20  ounce-mcafures  of  air,  all  of  which  was  inrtam- 
mable,  and  no  part  fixed.  It  was  expected,  however, 
ibat  the  fixed  air  would  have  appeared  on  the  dcc.im- 
polition  of  this  inrtammablc  air  with  the  deplilogidi- 
eatcd  kind  :  but  after  this  procefs,  it  appeared  to  be 
exaftly  fuch  inllamnublcairas  isprocured  from  metals 
by  the  mineral  acids,  or  by  fleam  ;  the  diminution  of 
the  two  kinds  of  air  being  exaflly  the  fame  :  and  tho' 
fome  fixed  air  was  found  in  the  reliduum,  it  was  no 
more  than  is  nfually  met  with  in  t'le  decompofition  of 
indammablc  air  procured  by  means  of  fpirit  of  fait. — 
SuppoUn^  tiiatihc  two  kinds  of  air  might  incorporate, 
when  one  of  tliem  vjas  generated  within  the  other,  a 
gun-barrel  was  filled  with  fixed  air,  and  the  clofed  end 
of  it  put  into  a  hot  fire.  InfiarnmaHc  air  was  inilant- 
ly  produced  ;  but  when  the  fixed  air  wjs  feparated 
from  it,  it  burned  like  in.*lammablc  air  with  which  no 
other  kind  had  ever  been  mixed. 

On  heating  iron-turnings  in  fiveonnce-meafurcs  of 
fixed  air,  the  quan:iiy  of  it  was  incrcafed  about  one 
ounce-meafure,  and  there  remained  one  and  three- 
fonnlis  unabforbcd  by  water.  The  experiment  was  re- 
peated with  ihc  fame  rcfult;  and  itwas  farther obferv- 
ed,  that  though  the  inflammable  air  procured  in  this 
•  manner  did  not  appear  by  the  tell  of  lime-water  to  con- 

tain any  fixed  air,  yet  when  it  was  decompofcd  by  fir- 
ing it  with  an  equal  quantity  of  dephlogiilica  ted  air,  the 
reliduum  contained  one-third  of  fixed  air.  The  dimi- 
nutioi;  was  to  1.4J.  Hence  the  Doctor  conjecture?, 
ihat  though,  in  fome  cafes,  the  fixed  air  appears  to  be 
gtmratid  by  the  dccompolition  of  dcphlu;;iltic!ttd  and 
inrtamniiblc  air,  yet  that  inrtammable  air,  when  LJiiis 
produced  in  contact  with  fixed  air,  may  combine  with 
it,  fo  as  to  be  properly  tontjimd  in  it,  and  in  fach  a 
manner  that  it  cannot  be  difcoyered  by  lime  water. 

Indaminable  air,  when  produced  in  the  driell  way 
poiTiblc,  is  exceedingly  lii^ht,  as  has  been  already  ob- 
fcrved  :  but  Dr  I'rie.lley  has  found,  ihat  by  Handing 


on  water,  a  very  confuityablc  incrc-.fo  is  mr.de  in  its  lpflav»:r;.- 
(pccinc  gravity  ;  fothai  from  bciiigtcnor  twelve  times    We  Air. 
lighter  than  atmolpherical  air,  it  foon  becomes  only  '       ^       ' 
fiveu  times  lighter.     This  great  propenfiiy  to  unite  creat'V"- 
vith  water  is  alio  taken  notice  of  by  Mr  Kirwan  ;  who  pcnlity  ol 
tells  us,  that  the  bulk  of  inllammable  air  obtained  o-  inffamma- 
ver  water  with  the  afliiiancc  of  heat  towards  ihe  end,  l'''^  »'>■ '" 
was  one-eighth  greater  than  when  produced  over  mcr-  ""'"  ^^'"'* 
cury  ;   but  that  the  weight  of  it  in  the  former  cafe  was  '^■'■'"''" 

only  eight  or  nine  times  lefs  than  common  air 

"  From  8j  cubic  inclies  ol  intiammablc  air  obtained 
over  watrr,l  extracHed,"  fays  he,  "  by  oil  of  vitriol  cx- 
pofed to  it  for  5)  hours,  two  grains  of  water;  and, 
though  undoubtedly  there  is  an  error  in  all  ihefe  cxpc- 
rinieuis,  yet  ijierc  can  be  littic  ilo.ibt  but  this  infiara- 
nable  air  contained  one-half  its  weight  of  water.  The 
inrianimable  air,  by  the  fubtraetion  of  its  water,  loll  its 
fmell,  but  continued  as  inliaramabic  as  ever ;  and  there- 
fore there  is  norcafon  to  think  that  it  was  decompofcd, 
or  thjt  water  is  any  way  elfential  to  it." 

The  coacluiio.i  is  dircftly  contrary  to  that  of  Dr 
Pricfllcy,  that  -water  is  an  elfential  ingredient  in  the 
compoliiion  of  inrtammable  air  ;  nor  do  ilic  experi- 
ments of  the  latter,  already  recited,  fccm  to  have  had 
any  weight  with  him,  as  he  concludes  his  Trcatife  on       j,g 
Phiogifton  in  thcfe  words.     <•   lo  the  proofs  I  have  Mr  Kir- 
hcretofore  given,  that  inllammable  air  and  phlogillon  wan's  conJ 
are  the  fame  fubdance,  jull  as  ice  and  the  vapour  of  c'ufinn con- 
water  are  called  the  f.»me  fubdance,  no  objcLtion  of '^'^'^""['C '*'* 
any  wcii^-ht  has  fincc  b:cn  made.    Some  have  thought  P''""'?''^' 

1         I   A       1  1  1  -1111  r  1  "^       ol  inflam- 

tnat  1  ihould  liave  included  tlie  matter  of  heat  or  ele-  n,j(,lc  air. 
nicntary  fire  in  tliedcfiaiiionof  inrtammable  air:  butas 
fire  is  contained  in  all  corporeal  fubftances,  it  is  per- 
fectly necdlefs,  except  where  bodies  difier  in  the  quan- 
tity of  it  they  contain  ;  and  in  this  refpcft  I  cxprefsly 
mentioned  its  ditTcrence  with  phlogilton  to  conlift. — 
Others,  attending  to  the  quantity  of  water  contained 
in  inrtammable  air,  have  fuppofcd  it  to  be  an  tlFcntial 
ingredient  in  the  compofitionof  this  air,and  have  call- 
ed \x.  ph:'jgij}icnt;d  -water;  but  they  may  as  well  fup- 
l)ofc  water  to  be  an  efleniial  ingredient  in  common  air, 
or  fixed  air,  and  call  this  lafl  acidulated -water  :  for  in- 
rtammable air,equally  as  other  airs,  maybe  deprived  of 
its  water  without  any  limitation,  and  yet  preferve  all 
its  properties  unaltered  ,  which  Ihows  the  prcfcnceof 
water  to  be  no  way  ellcniial  to  it.  Laftly,  others  have 
thought,  that  it  clfentially  requires  an  acid  oran  alkali, 
or  fomc  falinc  fiibltance,  for  its  bafis  ;  as  if  there  were 
any  more  repugnance  in  the  natureof  things  that  phlo- 
girton  (liould  exifl  in  an  aerial  ftate  without  any  balls, 
than  marine  air,  alkaline  air,  or  dephlogidicatcd  air; 
when  it  is  evident,  than  an  aerial  flate  requires  no  more 
than  a  certain  proportion  of  latent  heat  :  but  the  pro- 
duction of  inflammable  air  from  iron  by  means  of  di- 
flilled  water,  without  any  acid  or  fait,  has  effcdlually 
done  away  any  fufpicion  of  that  fort."  j,. 

On  the  other  Iiand,  Dr  Pricllley  informs  us,  thatprPricd- 
"  inflammable  air  fccmsnowtoconiift  of  water  and  in-  leys  con- 
flammable  air  :  which,  however,  feems  extraordinary,  cluCon. 
as  the  two  fubfiances  are  hereby  made  to  involve  eacli 
other  ;  one  of  the  conftituent  pans  of  water  being  ir.- 
flammablc  air,  and  one  of  the  confiitutiit  parts  of  in- 
flammable airbeingwater  ;  and  therefore,  if  the  expe- 
riments would  favour  it  (but  I  do  not  fee  that  flicvdo 

io). 


Sea.  vr. 


E       K       O 


O      G     Y, 


ky  water. 


),  it  would  be  more  iiauiral  to  fuppofc,  tlu:  water, 
like  fixed  air,  conlilts  of  phlogiftim  and  dcplilogillica- 
tcJair,  ill  feme  difierciit  inodt  of  conibiiiiiioii. 

"  There  is  an  aftonilhiiig  variety  i:i  the  different 
kindsof  inflaniinableair,thccaiifcof  whichis  very  im- 
per!c(^y  known.  Thcli^htcft,  and  tlicrciore  probably 
the  piircll  kind,  fetms  toco^liflof  phlugiiton  and  wa- 
ter only.  But  it  is  probable  that  oi/,  and  that  of  dif- 
ferent kinds,  may  be  held  in  foluiion  in  fevcral  of 
them,  and  be  the  reafon  of  their  burning  with  a  lam- 
bent flame,  and  alfo  of  their  being  fo  readily  refolvtd 
into  fixed  air  when  they  arc  decompofcd  by  dephlo- 
gillicatcd  air  ;  though  why  this  Ihould  be  tlic  cat'c,  I 
cannot  imagine. 

"  When  inflammable  and  dcphlogifticated  air  arc 
burned  together,  the  weight  of  the  water  produced  is 
never,  I  believe,  found  quite  equal  to  that  of  both  kinds 
of  air.  May  not  the  /ig/'t,  therefore,  emitted  from  the 
flame,  be  partof  the  phlugillonof  the  iiirt.immablc  air 
united  to  the  principle  of  heat  ?  And  as  light  accom- 
panies the  clcBricfpark,  may  not  this  alfo  be  the  real 
accenfim  of  fome  phlogiflic  matter,  tliough  it  is  not  eafy 
to  find  the  fource  of  it." 

The  French  chemifts,  who  deny  the  cxiftencc  of 
phlogifton,  are  of  opinion,  that  iurianiniable  air  is  a 
iimplc  uncompo'inded  element;   but  lor  a  more  full 
140       difcullionof  this  fubject,  fee  tlic  article  Phlogiston. 
Abforpcion      Inflammable  air  is  abforbcd  by  water  in  ronfidcrablc 
ofinflam-    quantity,  but  by  the  application  of  heat  may  be  expel- 
mable  air    Jcjagjjn  ju  equal 'quantity.   By  agitation  in  water  Dr 
Prieltky  was  formerly  of  opinion  that  this  kind  of  air 
might  be  rendered  as  good  as  common  air ;  but  this 
undoubtedly  proceeds  from  the  atmofpherical  air  tranf- 
mitted  bythe  water,  as  is  the  cafe  witU  pMogilUcated 
air  mentioned  in  the  kill  fcetion.     After  a  quantity  of 
water,  which  had  abforbed  as  much  inflammable  airas 
it  could,  had  been  futfercdto  lland  a  month,  it  was  ex- 
pelled by  heat,  and  found  to  be  asllrongly  inflammable 
as  ever.     The  water  after  the  procefs,  depofited  a 
kind  of  filmy  matter  ;  which  he  fuppofed  to  be   the 
earth  of  the  metal  that  had  keen  employed  in  produ- 
cing it. 

Plants  in  general  grow  tolerably  well  in  inflammable 
on  vegeta-  3]^^  j„j  [],j  billow  plant  has  been  obferved  to  abforb 
tioii  and  great  q;uiuitics  of  it.  Its  inflammability  is  not  di- 
minilhed  by  the  putrefaflion  of  animal  fubllanccs,  nor 
does  their  putrefadi  nfcem  to  be  retarded  byit.  Ani- 
mals confined  in  it  are  killed  almo.1  as-foon  as  in  fixed 
air:  but  infecls,  which  can  live  a  conliderable  timcia 
phlogirticated  air,  live  alfo  a  conliderable  time  in  this 
kindofair;  but  at  lafl  they  become  torpid,  and  appear 
to  be  dea<',  though  they  will  ftill  recover  if  removed 
into  the  open  air.  Mr  Cavallo  relates,  that  the  Abbe 
Fontana,  having  filled  aUrgc  bladder  with  inflammable 
air,  began  to  breathe  it  in  hi^  prefcnec  ;  after  having 
made  a  very  violent  expiration,  in  which  cafe  the  ef- 
fects arc  moft  powcrfid.  The firft  infpiration  produced 
a  great  opprclTion  in  hishmg.i,  the  fccond  mailc  him 
look  very  pale,  the  third  was  fcarce  acconipliihed 
when  heVcll  on  his  knees  through  weakricfs.  birdsand 
fniall  quadruped-.,  inciofcd  in  fmall  velfels  of  this  air, 
died  afttrvcry  fewinfpiritions.  Laftly, inflammable 
air  appears  to  have  a  fmalltr  fnare  of  refrsiTive  power 
than  common  air  ;  for  Mr  \\'avUi;e  inforwis  us,  thit 
hiving  placed  an  hollow ividBgubrprifni,  of  Vvhichiht 
Vol.  I. 


»77 


141 

Its  tStdii 


142 

Has  lictle 
rcira<5tive 
power. 


angle  was  72  degrees,  fo  as  tohalfjovera  iargeoSj-(!l.  Tiiflimma- 
glals  in  one  of  Air  DoUond's  ])crfp<  dives,  aiidfo  tnrn-    Vic  Air. 
td  round  as  to  make  the  frame  of  a  uindow,  at  ihcdi-    '      "'       ' 
Hanccof  i23ofeet,  fceu  partly  through  the  prifiifand 
partly  through  common  air,  appear  undivided.     'I'he 
inflaniniiblc  air  was  then  blown  out  of  the  prifm,  boi 
no  part  of  the  apparatus  was  moved  ;  when  the  frame 
of    the   window    leen    through  the  object  glafs  and 
the  prifm  as  before,  fecmed  to  feparatc  about  four  iii- 

*''"•     .   „  .  144 

I  he  inflammability  of  this  fpecies  of  air  lias  given  Schcmnt* 

occalion  to  various  projctts  concerning  it ;  fuch  as  that  emploj-  it 
of  employingit  togifrc  Rght  andheat :  and  lamps  have  forvsrioM 
b^.i  defcribcd,  v.'hich  may  be  lighted  by  the  electric  1>"''P°'<«' 
fpaik  in  the  night  lime.  By  its  means  alfo  very  pret- 
ty artihci.1l  tires  are  made,  with  glals  tubes  tjciit  in  va- 
rious dirciflions,  and  pierced  with  a  great  number  of 
finall  apertures.  The  inflammable  gas  is  introduced 
into  thcfc  tubes,  from  a  bladder  filled  with  that  (laid, 
and  fitted  with  a  copper  cock.  When  the  bladder  is 
prefled,  the  inflammable  air,  being  made  to  pafs  into, 
the  tube,  i:liics  out  of  all  the  fraall  apertures,  and  is  let 
on  Arc  by  a  lighted  taper.  None  of  thefc  contrivances, 
however,  have  ever  been  applied  to  any  ufe  ;  and  the 
fcheme  of  Mr  V'olta,  who  propofed  to  fubftitutc  its  ex- 
plolive  force  inllead  of  gun-powder,  is  found  infufli- 
cient,  onaccount  of  ihe  weaknefs  of  the  cxplofion,  ex- 
cept when  the  two  airs  arc  fired  in  very  great  quan- 
tity, which  would  be  incompatible  with  the  fmall  bidk 
neccffary  for  warlike  engines. 

Sect.  VII.  Sulphurated  JujlammabU  Air. 

This  was  difcovered  by  Dr  Prieftley  at  the  timt 
when  he  was  engaged  in  the  experiment  of  which  I'orac 
account  has  been  given  in  thclallfection,  of  tranf'mit- 
ting  the  fleam  of  water  and  other  fluids  through  red-  -  . 
hoi  tubes  containing  fomefoliJ  material.  H3\ing,  a-  nrU  prc- 
mong  others,  treated  manganefc  in  this  manner,  by  cured  from 
flopping  one  end  of  the  heated  tube  with  a  cork  be- mangiuieft. 
fore  the  lleam  was  applied,  he  received  forty  ouacc- 
meafures  of  air,  of  which  one  fixth  was  fixed  air,  aiid 
the  refl  of  the  llandard  of  1.7,  lambeiitly  iunammablc. 
Having  then  opened  the  other  end  of  the  tube  ia  or- 
der to  admit  the  ftcam,  air  was  procured  more  co- 
pioufly  than  before.  Of  50  ounces  of  thli  air,  o.ic/. 
fcventh  was  fixed,  and  the  reft,  of  thellandard  of  1.8, 
cxjloilvcly  inflammable.  The  lafl  portions  were  vcr/ 
turbid  ;  and  the  fmell,  cfpecially  that  of  the  hll  por- 
tion, was  very  f  ilpUurcoiis,  liuging  the  water  of  a  ve- 
ry  dark  colour,  by  drpofitingia  it  a  quantity  of  blackilh 
water.  However,  thcair  itfclfbccimcprefcnily  tranl-  « 
parent,  and  had  no  oiher  appearance  than  that  of  any 
other  kind  of  air.  On  looking  ai  the  jar  in  about  ten 
minutes  after,  it  was  quite  black  and  opaque;  fo  that 
Kothi'ig  could  befcen  in  theinfidcof  it.  Filling  after- 
wards another  jar  wiih  the  lame  kind  of  air,  in  order 
to  obfervc  1  he  progrcfs  of  this  uncommon  p'oenome  no>i, 
he  found,  that  when  the  water  was  ^^■cUl'l;^;ided,  black 
fpecks  began  to  apptar  in  dificrent  places,  and,  cx^ 
tending  thcmfclvcs  ia  all  directions,  at  length  joined 
each  other,  till  the  whole  jar  w:is  become  perfev'tly 
black,  and  the  gl  ifs opaque.  When  this  w  as  doiiC,  he 
transferred  the  air  into  anoihcr  jar  ;  and  it  toon  pro- 
tUiced  a  liiuilarcficclui'xm  this,  tiiougbi;  never  became 


vjtriolic 
acid  air. 


iyH  A       li       R       O 

inlluminar  fo  black  as  tlic  jar  in  wliicli  it  had  been  firft  rccci- 
i)Ie  Air.     ye  J,     Italfo  rrcqucmly  luipjoicd,  that  only  the  lower 
'■'""'  part  of  tlic  jar  would  become  blick,  as  it  the  iiiaitcr 
with  which  it  was  loaded  had  kept  fubiidiiig,  tliough 
invilibly,  in  tke  iiiafs  of  air,  and  occupied  aiily  the 
Jowcrrcgioiis,  kavingthc  upper  pan  entirely  free  from 
••  it.     On  cspoling  to  the  open  air  tlic  vcll'els  thus  turn- 

ed blr.ck,  the  colour  prefcnily  ilifa|'pcarcd,  .ind  a  yel- 
low or  brown  incnillation  wa;.  leli  upon  ii.  The  fame 
change  took  place  when  the  vellcls  were  inverted  ij 
water,  in  order  to.obferve  the  alteration  of  thcairwitli- 
in  them  ;  but  on  examining  this  air,  no  fenfiblc  change 
was  perceived.  In  fume  cafes,  indeed,  he  thought  the 
air  wis  injured,  but  it  was  mucli  lefs  fo  than  he  Tfad 
expected.  After  dcpofiting  the  black  matter,  the  air 
ftill  retained  its  fulpluircous  fmell,  and  he  did  not 
imagine  that  would  ever  leave  it  entirely. 
Procured  On  trying  other  fpecimcns  of  manganefc,  no  air  of 
from  ivory  this  kind  was  obtained  ;  bi'.t  fonit  time  after,  having 
melteil  in  occafion  to  make  a  large  quantity  of  inriamni.ilde  air, 
he  ufcd,  inllcad  of  frelh  iron,  foine  that  had  been  al- 
ready melted  in  vitriolic  acid  air.  Dillolvinj;  ihiswiih 
a  coniidcrable  quantity  of  frelh  metal  in  diluted  vitrio- 
Jic  acid,  he  found  that  the  water  in  which  the  air  was 
received  became  very  black,  and  depolitcd  more  fedi- 
nient  than  had  appeared  in  the  experiment  with  the 
manganefe.  The  jars  were  as  black  as  ink,  but  be- 
came yellow  on  expofure  to  the  air  as  before  ;  fo  that 
there  could  be  no  doubt  of  its  being  the  fame  thing 
he  had  got  before.  On  burning  a  quantity  ot  it,  this 
kind  of  air  appeared  to  contain  fonie  vitriolic  acid,  the 
balloon  being  tilled  with  a  very  denfe  white  fume,  which 
rendered  the  water  fenfibly  acid  to  the  talle.  On  de- 
compofing  it  w'th  Jephlogifticatcd  air,  however,  he 
found  the  dimiuution  exactly  the  fame  as  when  com- 
mon in:iamnTable  and  dephlogifticated  air  were  ufcd  ;  fo 
that  it  appeared  to  contain  neither  more  nor  lefs  phlo- 
gillon  than  the  other  ;  only  there  was  afniall  quantity 
of  lixcd  air  produced,  which  is  never  the  cafe  with 
common  intiammable  air  from  vitriolic  acid  and  iron. 
Whcnthc  fulphuratedinllammableairisrcceivcd  o- 
ver  mercujy,  very  little  black  matter  is  produced  on 
the  jars;  and  it  is  remarkable,  that  though  the  black 
tiiaticrcollcdedon  theiii,when  the  air-is  taken  through 
water,  foon  grows  yellow  upon  expofmg  it  to  tlic  air, 
it  is  not  the  cafe  v»ith  that  which  remains  in  the  wa- 
ter; it  adheres  to  the  evaporating  vell'cl  in  form  of  a 
black  incrullation,  which  does  not  burn  blue  until  it 
has  been  digelled  in  the  niirousjicid,  which  deprives 
it  of  its  fuperriuous  phlogillon,  aud  leaves  it  both  of 
the  colour  and  fmell  of  fulphur. 

Sect.  VIII.     Of  ^Ikalhie  Air. 

This  was  procured  by  Dr  Pricftley,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  his  experiments,  from  common  fpirit  of  fal- 
.inimoniacwith  quicklime,  or  the  materials  from  which 
it  is  made.  He  did  not  at  that  time  profecute  tl:e 
difcovcry  fartherthan  by  imprcgnatingwater  with  it ; 
ky  whif-li  means  he  couhI  make  a  much  llronger  alka- 
line fpirit  than  any  to  be  met  with  in  the  (hops.  His 
method  of  procuring  it  was  by  mixing  one  part  oi 
poundcdfal-ammoniac  with  three  pans  of  Hacked  lime; 
and  forconimoit  experiments  the  fame  quantity  of  ma- 
terials would  lall  a  coniidcrable  tiuie. 


L      O 


Y. 


Seft.Vin. 


This  kind  of  air,  w  hen  jiure,  i.siiiAantly  fatal  to  aiii-    Alkaline 
mal  life,  and  extinguilhcs  liame  ;  though,  when  riiixed       '^■'"• 
with  common  atmofpheiical  air,  it  is  llightly  iiuiam-  '       ^— ' 
mable,  and  alfo  medicinal  in  faintings  and  other  cafes       »46 
of  debility.     A  candle  dipped  into  a  jar  of  this  air  l^"?'^'''.'" 
is  extinguillicd  ;  but  jull  before  the  .tlame  goes  out,  it  "f  ^'kahne 
is  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  auother  /lame  of  a  palc^'  * 
yellow  colour,  and  fometinus  a  weak  tiame  fpreads  for 
a  confiderablc  way,  or  even  through  the  whole  body  of 
the  alkaline  air.     The  electric  (park  taken  in  it  ap- 
pears of  a  red  colour.     Every  fpark  taken  in  it  aug- 
ments its  bulk,  and  by  degrees  turns  the  whole  into 
inriammable  air.     It  is  readily  abforbcd  by  water,  as 
has  been  already  obferved,  and  dillolvcs  ice  alniofl  as 
lalt  as  an  hot  lire.     On  confining  (bme  w  atcr  iiupreg- 
jiated  with  alkaline  air  in  a  glafs  tube,  and  thus  expo- 
fmg it  to  a  ftronghcat  in  a  faiid-fi:rnacc  forfome  days, 
he  obferved  that  a  white  fediment  or  incrullation  waj  . 
formed  on  the  fiirlacc.     The    Dr   remarked,    that 
bits  of  linen,  charcoal,  and  fpongc,  admitted  into  a 
quantity  of  alkaline  air,  diiniiiilhed  it,  and  acquired  a 
very  pungeut  fmell;  cfpecially  the  fuonge,  a  bit  of 
which,  about  the  fiice  of  an  hazle-nut,  abfoj-bed  ca 
ounce-meafure.     It  is  remarkable  that  copper,  which 
is  fo  ealily  corroded  by  the  common  volatile  alkalis, 
is  not  affected  by  alkaline  air.     The  fpecilic  gravity  of 
this  kind  of  air  is,  by  Mr  Kirwan,  determined  to  be 
to  that  of  common  air  as  600  to  loco  ;  though,  as  he 
jullly  obfervcs,  this  niufl  differ  very  confidcrably  ac- 
cording to  the  quantity  of  moidure  it  contains.  j^j 

In  profccutiug  his  experiments  on  alkaline  air,  Dr  Proofs  of 
PrieRlcy  conluded  that  it  contains  phlogiflon,  both  its  contain- 
from  its  being convertibleiiito  iiillammableair  by  dec-  ";P  P'^''-'" 
trie  explollous,  and  likcwUt  from  its  reviving  thecal-  e'"""" 
ces  of  metals.  In  attempting  to  afcertain  the  quan- 
tity of  lead  revived  in  alkaline  air  he  met  with  two 
dithculties  ;  the  firff,  on  account  of  foinc  part  of  ilic 
calx  being  blackened  and  imperfectly  revived  ;  thefc- 
cond,  that  the  lead  completely  revived  wasdillblvedby 
the  mercury  employed  to  confine  the  air.  To  prevent 
this  lall  inconvenience,  he  put  the  powdered  maflicot 
(tiic  fubffance  he  chofe  toemployon  thisoccafion)  in- 
to fmall  cirthen  cups,  contriving  to  place  them  with 
their  mouths  upwards,  in  fuch  a  manner,  that  wlicn 
the  lead  was  revived  by  means  of  a  buriiing  lens,  it 
would  remain  in  the  cup,  and  not  nii.K  with  the  mer- 
cury which  fupported  it.  The  proportions  of  metal 
then  revived,  w  ere  fix  grains  ol  lead  in  three  ounce- 
meafures,  16;  in  three mcafures  and  an  half,  13  in  two 
and  an  half,  and  1 2  in  three  and  three-fourths  ;  but  the 
experiment  on  w'hich  he  laid  the  greatefl  llrefs,  was 
that  in  which  26;  grains  of  lead  were  revived  in  7; 
ounce-meafures  of  alkaline  air.  In  this  proportion, 
100  ounce-mcafures  of  alkaline  air,  would  revive  552 
grainsoflead  ;  butan  equal  quantity  of  intiammable  air 
from  iron  would  have  revived  4?o  grains  ofmetnl. 
This  deficiency  appeared  fomewhat  furpriling  to  the 
Doctor,  confidcring  that  alkaline  air  refolvcd  into 
more  than  twice  its  bulk  of  the  inflammable  kind; 
though  it  is  pollible,  that  inflammable  air  from  iron 
may  contain  more  phlogiflon  than  that  into  which  al- 
kaline air  is  refolvable. 

On  heating  red  precipitate  in  alkaline  air,  the  mer- 
cury was  revived  as  in  other  cafes,  and  a  conliderable 
quantity  of  water  was  produced,  though  none  appears 

«n 


.sedt.vm. 


E      R       O 


O 


Y, 


Alkaline  oil  reviving  it  ■with  common  inflammable  air.  "  It  has 
/4ir.      even  (lays  lie)  run  down  in  drops  in  the  inlidcola 
*■      "       '  vclli'l  which  coalaiiicd  live  ouncc-mcaftires  olthc  air  ; 
and  a  conliderable  qiiaiiiity  of  dcphlogilticatcdair  was 
found  in  the  rcfuloum."  On  throwing  the  locus  of  the 
lens  on  red  precijiitatc,  inckifcd  in  tllis  kind  of  air,  till 
three  nicafiircs  I'f  it  were  reduced  to  two,  water  was 
produced  as  ul'iul,  and  ihc  llandard  of  the  reliduuin 
V7as  r.y.     In  another  experiment,  a  violent  explofion 
took  place  before  he  could  obferve  whether  any  water 
148       ^^•'"'  produced  or  not. 
Convrrfion      In  examining  the  phenomena  which  attend  the  con- 
of  alkaline  verlion  of  alkaline  air  into  the  inflammable  kind,  the 
iiitoinflam-Dotrlor  was  induced  to  believe  that  it  was  ocealioned 
niablc  uir.   [j^  licataloivc,  without  the  concurrence  of  light.     The 
citccls  of  the  former  were  iirll  perceived  on  heating 
ome  ochi  c  of  iron  in  alkaline  air;  when,  though  the 
matter  turned  black,  as  in  an  incipient  redii.Sion  of  the 
metal,  he  Ibund  a  conliderable  increafe  of  quantity  in- 
llcad  of  decreafein  the  air,  as  he  had  expected  ;  and, 
on  examining  the  quality  of  it,  he  found  that  it  con- 
tained no  fixed  air,  but  was  entirely  inrtammablc.  With 
fcales  of  iron  a  limilarenlargement  was  perceived  ;  but 
in  this  way  he  could  never  increafe  the  quantity  to  more 
than  double  that  which  had  been  originally  employed, 
and  even  after  thi,s  the  w  hole  fmelled  flrongly  of  vola- 
tile alkali ;  and  the  iron  had  undergone  no  change. 

The  Dodor  now, concluding  from  thefe  experiments 
that  the  cliangc  of  alkaline  into  inrtammablc  air  was 
produced  by  this  caufc  alone,  proceeded  to  repeat  the 
experiment,  by  heating  in  the  alkaline  air  bits  of  dry 
crucibles,  or  of  earthen  retorts,  which  had  been  jult 
before  expofed  to  very  great  heats,  fo  that  they  could 
not  be  fuppofcd  to  give  out  any  air  tliemfelves,  and 
therefore  could  only  fervc  to  communicate  a  Ilrong 
heat  to  the  alkaline  air  ;  and  in  thefe  experiments  the 
rcfult  was  the  fame  as  wh.cn  ochre  and  iron  were  made 
ufe  of.  The  bits  of  white  earthen  ware  were  always 
turned  black  ;  but  finding  the  fame  cfFeft  of  augmcnt- 
rngthe  airand  giving  it  an  inriammable  quality,  though 
lie  ufed  the  bit  of  crucible  over  and  over  again,  he  was 
thoroughly  convinced  that  the  change  was  effecJted  by 
heat  alone. 

In  all  thefe  experiments,  however,  with  a  burning- 
glafs,  as  a  ftrong  light  was  alfo  concerned,  he  heated  a 
quantity  of  alkaline  air  in  a  green  glafs  retort,  receiving 
inaglafs  tube,  filled  with  water,  all  the  air  that  could 
be  expelled  from  it  by  heat.  At  firft  it  was  all  abforb- 
cd  by  the  water,  being  merely  alkaline  air  expelled  by 
the  rarefaction  ;  but  when  the  bulb  of  the  retort  be- 
came red-hot,  he  found  tliat  the  bubbles  driven  out 
were  not  wholly  abforbed,  and  at  tail  none  of  them 
were  fo  Tiiefe  were  altogethrr  intiamniable  ;  fotliat 
no  doubt  remained  of  the  change  being  produced  by 
heat  alone,  without  any  intervention  of  light. 

It  was  farther  obferved,  that  whenever  thealkaline 
air  was  changed  into  inliammable  by  means  of  tiits  of 
retorts  or  rrncibles  containing  clay,  they  always  be- 
came black  during  the  procefs.  He  inclined  therefore 
to  fuppof*,  that  foinelliiug  raiglit  be  depofitcd  from 
the  air  which  might  attach  itftlf  to  the  clay-  "  In- 
deed, (fays  he)  if  ihis  was  not  the  cafe,  I  do  not  Ice 
why  tile  clay  ihouUI  become  blark  ;  though,  perhaps, 
part  of  the  fame  phlogiftoii  which  fornij  the  intlam- 
fliablc  air  may  be  attracted  by  the  red-hot  clay,  with- 


79 


f>u>  air 
aud  iron. 


out  there  being  any  proper  decomporuioa  of  the  air.    N>r.u« 
That  this  is  the  caie  f<cms  prob.iblc  from  an  cxperi-       Air. 
r.icnt  in  v/hich  I  ufed   porcelain  iiillcad  of  common  "       ' 

earthen  ware  ;  which  did  not  become  black  in  the  pro- 
cefs, though  inflammable  air  was  produced."  i^j 

In  fonic  of  Ur  Pricftley's  ixperiments,  he  had  ob-  V<l.i  le  al- 
ferved  that  iron,  which  had  long  rullcd  in  nitrous  air,  kuji  produ- 
gave  out  a  (Irong  fmcll  of  v<'latilc  alkali.  This  extra-  '';''  "■  "'. 
ordinary  piienoincnon,  however,  v.as  only  perceived  "  '' 
where  the  nitrous  airand  iron  had  been  in  contact  for  ^" 
a  very  long  time  ;  but  he  found  that  it  was  much  foon- 
tr  produced  by  niaking  ufe  of  a  weak  foUuiou  of  cop- 
per ;  by  putting  iron  into  which  he  obtained  that  fjic- 
cies  of  nitrous  air  called  d.-fhtn^ifticated.  A  phial  oii- 
taining  (one  of  this  iron,  which  liad  been  iiled  only 
once  tor  the  purpofe  jull  mentioned,  having  been  kept 
clofe  corked  for  about  two  mouths,  was  accidentally 
broken  ;  wlien  fomc  piectsof  the  iron  were  found  co- 
vered with  a  green  crull,  and  thefe  had  a  ftiong  (mcll 
of  volatile  alkali.  On  making  fome  more  experiments 
on  this  fubjcft,  he  found  tiiat  two  months  flanding  was 
reqiulite  to  produce  the  alkaline  fmcll  delircd. 


Sect.  IX.     OfNttrmts  Air. 


I5» 


This  kind  of  air  is  plentifully  obtained  in  all  cafes  Howpro» 
where  the  nitrous  acid  is  combined  with  phlogifton:  duccd. 
Thus,  when  it  is  mixed  with  metals,  or  animal  or  ve- 
getable fubftances,  nitrous  air  is  produced  in  great 
quantities  ;  but  very  fparingly  when  treated  with  me- 
tallic calces,  earths,  or  other  matters  which  arc  faid  to 
contain  little  or  no  phlogifton.  All  the  metals,  ex- 
cepting gold,  platina,  and  regulus  of  antimony,  which 
are  not  folublc  in  the  pure  nitrous  acid,  yield  nitrous 
air  on  being  treated  with  it;  and  even  from  thefe, 
when  dilfolved  in  aqua  rcgia,  fome  quantity  of  this  air 
may  be  obtained.  Every  metal,  however,  does  not 
yield  it  in  equal  quantity,  with  equal  facility,  or  c- 
qually  good.  Silver,  copper,  iron,  brafs,  bifmuth  or 
nickel,  when  put  into  nitrous  acid,  yield  this  air  in 
confiderablc  quantity  :  Mercury  yields  it  but  llowly 
without  the  application  of  heat,  tiiough  no  great  de- 
gree of  it  is  necelfary.  Copper  and  iron,  efperially  t  ic 
latter,  require  the  acid  to  be  cautioufly  applied  on  ac- 
count of  the  violent  emiilion  of  fumes.  Gold,  platina, 
and  regulus  of  antimony,  when  put  in  aqua  rcgia,  yield 
nitrous  air  pretty  readily  ;  but  lead  yields  it  in  fniall- 
er  proportion  than  any  other  metal,  and  zinc  docs  the 
fame  among  the  fcmimctals,  the  clafttc  fluid-produced 
from  it  being  moltly  phh-gifticated  air. 

In  the  production  ot  this  kind  of  air,  great  differen- 
ces are  perceived  by  a  divcrlity  in  the  llrcngth  of  the 
acid.     Thus,  if  we  dillblvccopper  in  (Irouij  nitrous  a- 
cid,  no  nitrons  air  is  produced,   though  the  fame  ma- 
terials will  yield  air  in  great  quantity  by  the  mere  af- 
fulioii  of  water  to  liilutc  the  scid.     This  is  very  pro-  whyftranr 
perly  explained  by  Doctor  Prieflley,  from  the  proper-  nitruusccid 
ty  that  the  nitrous  acid  has  of  aitratting  ph'op^il'on,  yield*  .t> 
which  is  evident  from  what  happens  in  the  l"i-lution  o\  niirou*  air. 
mercury.     W  hen  flrong  fpirit  of  nitre  is  poured  upon 
this  metal,  the  lolution  f  on  bcj^ins,  and  is  very  rapid, 
yet  not  a  linsrlc  bubble  of  clallic  (jnid  is  produced  ;  but 
in  a  (liort  time  the  acid  n<xl  to  the  mercury  is  chan- 
ged into  an  orange  colour,  which  is  an  indication  of  its 
having  acquired  phlogifloii,  probably  from  the  nitrous 
Z  a  air 


i3o 

jMitroiii 


E       R 


O 


L     O 


Y. 


Scft.  IX. 


Properties 
of  nitrous 
air. 


'13 

J»t^\  to  a- 
nimal  and 
vegetable 
life. 


air  wliicli  is  dccompofcd  tlit  nioinciu  it  is  t'ormcd,  AUyi 
before  itspaiiitlcsaic  dividcJ into viliblc bubbles.  The 
bubbles  ol  air  indeed  break  througli  tlie  coloured  acid, 
bin  tlicy  dil'appcar  tiic  moment  tlicy  come  in  contact 
with  the  pale-colonrcd  acid.  As  ioou  as  the  whole 
quantity  ot  acid  has  allumeil  the  orange  colour,  nitrous 
air  efcapcs  Croni  it  in  couiidcrabie  quantity  ;  but  the 
p.ixtiirc  «f  water  deprives  the  acid  ol  its  power  ot'de- 
roni poling  nitrous  air.  The  Itrong  and  pale-coloured 
nitrous  acid  ought  to  be  diluled  with  at  leall  two  or 
three  pans  ot  viatcr  to  one  ol"  the  acid,  for  the  ea- 
fy  production  of  nitrous  air  lioni  copper  and  nicrcu- 

In  coninion  experiments  no  other  degree  fit  heat  is 
iiccdfary  iluiii  that  produced  by  the  eltervef.encc  it- 
felf,(Xeept  ncicnry  be  iifed,  which  retjuires  theappU- 
catioii  of  loi-.-.e  degree  of  heat ;  biii  when  the  metal  ex- 
pofes  a  very  great  furface  to  the  aeUl,  as  is  the  cafe 
when  the  tilings  of  the  metal  arc  uled,  the  eitcrvcf- 
cencc  and  produdion  of  nitrous  air  are  oiien  much 
quicker  than  c.in  be  con  venicntjy  managed.  The  uioll 
proper  u.ethod  of  prod::cing  nitrous  air,  however,  is 
explained  in  the  iall  fec^ion  of  tkis  trentifc. 

Nitrous  air  by  itfclfis  equally  tranfparcnt  and  in- 
vilible  with  common  air,  excepting  at  itsfjrll  produc- 
tion, when  it  is  foincwhat  cobured,  owing  to  a  liitle 
fupcrfiuous  nitrous  acid,  or  to  fonic  earthy  particles 
which  arc  carried  uuw  iih  ir.  Its  fmcll  rtfcmbles  that 
gf  jiitrous  acid,* or  indeed  is  the  very  fsir.e  ;  bccaufe, 
in  pafiing  through  the  common  air  to  our  nodrils,  it 
is  deconipofed,  and  converted  into  nitrous  acid.  The 
fame  is  to  be  laid  of  its  talle  ;  thougli  Mr  F'ontana, 
who  tailed  it  without  any  coiitart  of  external  air,  af- 
iirms  that  it  has  no  ta(le  whatever.  Tiie  nu  thod  in 
wliich  he  afcertained  this fde^  was  as  follows.  Having 
lirrt  introduced  the  nitrous  air  into  a  bottle  of  clallic 
gum  i'.i  water,  as  is  done  with  glafs  bottles,  he  brought 
his  mouth,  (hut,  while  the  neck  of  the  elailic  gum 
bottle  was  under  water,  near  the  neck  of  it ;  and  then, 
by  prclliu'T  the  bottle,  introduced  the  nitrous  air  into 
his  mouth.  I'hc  experiment,  however,  is  by  no  means 
Void  of  danger;  for  if  the  perfon  happens  to  draw  any 
quantity  of  this  air  into  the  lungs,  he  may  be  nearly 
fuffocated,  as  nitrous  air  is  exceedingly  noxious.  In 
performing  of  it,  he  recommends  to  exhauft  the  mouth 
entirely  of  common  air,  though  he  does  not  inform  us 
how  this  can  be  done  ;  nor  indeed  is  it  eafy  to  con- 
ceive the  poifibility  of  doing  To. 

Though  nitrous  air  cxtinguilhcs  flame,  it  may  by" 
certain  procefl'es  be  brought  into  fuch  a  Hate  that  a 
candle  will  burn  in  it  with  an  enlarged  flame  ;  and  it 
becomes  wliat  Dr  Pricfllcy  calls  defhUj^i/fUiiUd /Jitror/s 
a  r,  which  is  treated  of  in  the  next  fecflion.  It  is 
remarkable,  however,  that  when  a  candle  is  extin- 
gaiflied,  as  it  never  fails  to  be  in  conimon  nitrous  air, 
the  flame  feems  to  be  a  little  enlarged  about  its  edges 
by  the  addition  of  another  bluilh  flame  before  the  for- 
mer goes  out. 

Nitrous  air  feems  to  be  the  mod  fatal  to  animal  life 
of  any.  Kven  infects,  \sliich  can  bear  phlogillicated 
and  inflammable  ?ir,  generally  die  the  moment  they 
are  put  into  it.  F'rogs,  fnail,;,  and  other  animals 
which  do  not  rcfpirc  very  frequently,  die  in  a  few  mi- 
nutes, and  generally  do  not  recover  even  when  taken 
cut'of  this  noxious  fluid  before  they  are  dead.     Plants 


periili  very  foon  in  nitrous  air,  and  even  in  conimon 
air  faturated  with  nitrous  air;  but  iJri'rielllcy  informs 
us,  that  "  though  in  general  plants  die  almoU  iuiine- 
diately  in  water  impregnated  with  nitrous  air,  yet  in 
one  cal'eof  this  kind,  w  hen  the  fuperfluous  nitrous  air 
was  let  out  under  water,  fo  that  no  part  of  it  was  de- 
conipofed in  contad  with  the  water,  the  plant  grew 
in  it  remarkably  well." 

\\ater,  by  agitation  in  nitrous  air,  may  be  inide  to 
imbibe  one- tenth  par  tot  it:;  bulk;  and  after  wards  the  ni- 
trous air  may  be  e.\pellcd  again  by  boiling,  thoiigh  not 
'%\  the  fame  qiar.tity  as  it  was  abforbed  ;  but  lor  this 
purpofe  the  water  lliould  be  previoufly  depiived  of  its 
air.  Dr  Prieilley  informs  us,  that  having  carefully 
pumped  all  the  air  out  of  a  quantity  of  rain-water, 
letting  it  ilaiid  24  hours  in  a  good  vacuum,  and  then 
impregnating  it  witlmitrousair,  he  inftantly  expelled 
it  again  by  b--iling,  v.'hen  he  obtained  only  about  one 
fourth  part  of  it,  though  fjlficiently  pure,  and  with- 
out any  mixture  of  fixed  air.  Water  may  alfo  be  de- 
prived of  the  nitrous  air  it  contains,  though  it  does  not 
irce/e  quite  fo  readily  whenimpregnateu  with  this  air 
as  in  its  natural  (laic. 

Nitrons  air  isablorbed  by  ftrong  oil  of  vitriol  nearly 
in  tlie  fame  quantity  as  by  water  ;  the  acid  acquiring 
a  purple  colt>ur,  b_y  rcafon  of  the  phlogifton  contained 
in  the  nitrous  air.  The  Arong  nitrous  acid  abforbs  it 
in  great  quantity  ;  and  becomes  fmokiiig,  orange  co- 
loured, and  afterwards  green,  on  account  of  the  phlo- 
gillon  contained  in  it.  Marine  acid  imbibes  but  a 
fmall  quantity,  and  very  llowly,  acquiring  at  tlie  fame 
lime  a  light-blue  colour.  Both  nitrous  air  and  com- 
mon air  jihlogilUcated  by  it  are  meliorated  by  agita- 
tion in  nitrous  acid. 

Nitrous  air  is  abforbed  in  confiderable  quantity  by 

radical  vinegar,  and  the  concentrated  vegetable  acid 

Solution  of  green  vitriol  imbibes  it  in  much  greater 
quantity  than  water,  and  acquires  a  black  colour  ; 
which,  liowever,  foon  goes  off  by  expofurc  to  the 
common  air.  Its  talle  alio  becomes  acid. — Very  little 
is  abforbed  by  caullic  alkalis.  Oil-olive  flowiy  ab- 
forbs a  conlidcrable  quantity,  but  oil  of  turpentine 
abforbs  much  more.  By  a  little  agitation,  it  will 
imbibe  more  than  ten  times  its  quantity  of  nitrous 
air  ;  acquiring  at  the  fame  time  ayellowilh  or  orange 
colour,  and  becoming  a  little  glutinous.  The  part 
which  is  not  abforbed  appears  to  be  converted  into 
plilogillicated  air. — Ether  and  fpirit  of  wine  abforb 
it  very  quickly,  but  no  nitrons  air  is  obtained  by  the 
apjdication  of  heat  after  they  have  abforbed  it.  .It  is 
greatly  dimini;hcd  by  oil  of  turpentine,  liver  of  ful- 
phar,  and  pyrophorus  ;  all  of  which  leave  it  in  a  phlo- 
gillicated  Hate.  It  is  alfo  diminifiicdand  phlogillica- 
tcd  by  being  kept  in  a  bladder,  alternately  expofctl  to 
moillure  and  drynefs.  Nitrous  acidair  has  the  fame 
efFe<5l. 

One  ofthemofl  remarkable  properties  of  nitrons  Diminlftcs 
air,  is  its  diminution  with  dcphlogillicated  air  ;  by  dephli.jjil- 
which  means  it  becomes  a  reft  of  the  quantity  of  tliai  ''"tid  air. 
kind  of  air  contained  in  the  atmofphere.  W  ith  pure 
dephlogirticatcd  air,  the  diminution  is  aliiioft  to  no- 
thing, at  the  fame  time  that  fomc  quantity  of  nitrous 
acid  is  reproduced  by  the  derompofition  ot  the  nitrous 
air  ;  but  as  our  atn;ofpbcrc  is  always  mixed  with  a 
confiderable  quantity  of  phlogifticated  air,  on  which 

nitrous 


IJ4 


E      R      O 


led.  IX.  ^v       It       1^ 

Nitrouj    nitrous  air  has  no  tiFtcl,  '.he  diininiuion  in  this  cafe  is 

Air. 


o 


Y. 


i8i 


J5< 


never  Co  ctnlidcrablc.     Upon  liiis  principle  the  Eu- 
diometer is  conliruclcd. 
■  r  Anoihir  very  rcniarkablc  property  of  nitrous  air  is 

,c  power.  Its  Itro'iganiifc-piic  power;  inlomuchtiiat  animal  mat- 
ters may,  by  its  means,  bcpreltrvtd  for  many  months 
wiihout  corruption.  Tliis  property,  it  was  thought, 
iiiif^ht  have  been  extremely  ufcful  on  many  occuiions  ; 
but  Dr  I'ricflUy,  after  a  number  of  expcri.Ticnts  on 
the  f  ibjfd  coiicludesin  the  following  manner.  "  Ni- 
trous air  will  indeed  prcfcrvc  meat  from  putref.i(^lion  ; 
but  after  long  Kccpinj;,  it  becomes  very  oifenlive  Loth 
to  tlic  nolhils  and  palate,  though  the  fSr.ell  ii  nor  alto- 
gether that  of  putrefaclion  ;  and  indeed  the  fubllancc 
toiuinuingquiLc  firm,  it  could  not  be  properly  putrid. 
— Having  formerly  experienced  the  remarkable  anii- 
kplic  power  of  nitrous  air,  I  propofcd  an  attempt  to 
prcftve  anatomical  preparations,  &c.  by  means  of  it ; 
but  Mr  Key,  wh<>  made  the  trial,  foiuul,  tiiat,  after 
fome  mon'.Iis,  variou-  animal  fubllances  were  (hrivel- 
led,  and  did  not  prcfcrvc  their  forms  in  this  kind  of 
155  air." 
picific  The  fpecific  gravity  of  nitrous  air,  as  well  as  of 

ravity  of  other  kinds,  ha^  Uuiw  afcertaincd  by  Mr  Kirwan.  As 
itrous  sir.  ^  corrodes  metals,  he  endeavoured  to  fiiul  its  weight 
by  comparing  t!ie  lofs  fullaincd  by  the  materials  which 
produce  it.  Thus  lie  fo'ind,  that  14  grains  of  the 
materials  produced  38.74  inches  of  nitrous  air  ;  and, 
confcqucntly,  by  proper  calculation,  that  the  fpecilic 
gravity  of  nitrous  air  is  to  that  of  atmofphcric  air  as 
119J  to  tooo. — "  If  this  air  (fays  he)  had  been  ob- 
tained over  water,  or  in  ftrong  heat,  its  weight  would 
probable  have  been  very  ditfcrcut  ;  as  it  is  liable  to  be 
mixed  witli  phlogillicaied  air,  nitrous  vapour,  and  a 
variable  quantity  of  water.  Nitrous  vapour  would 
render  it  heavier,  and  phlogifticatcd  air  or  water  pro- 
bably lighter." 

With  regard  to  the  conftitucnt  principles,  or  ele- 
ments of  nitrous  air,  all  thofe  who  louk  upon  phlogi- 
fton  to  be  a  dillintl  fiibftance,  have  believed  that  the 
former  is  a  compound  of  nitrous  acid  and  phlogiflon. 
By  the  oppofitc  party,  it  is  fuppofcd  to  be  a  fubilance 
entirely  fimplc,  and  one  of  the  conlHtuent  partsof  the 
nitrous  acid.  This  opinion  fcenis  in  part  now  to  be 
entertained  by  Dr  Prieftlcy  hiinfclf,  noiwithllan>!ing' 
his  former  fcntiments  on  the  fubjedt.  "  I  had  no 
doubt  on  the  fubjcct  (lays  he)  until  I  read  the  worlc 
of  Mr  Mcthcric  ;  whoalierts,  that  nitrons  air  contains 
no  proper  nitrous  acid,  but  only  one  of  the  elements 
of  it;  the  other  being  dcphlogifticaied  air,  which  had 
before  been  confidcrcd  by  Mr  Lavoificr  as  the  prin- 
ciple of  all  acidity Among  other  olif^rvations  in 

fupport  of  his  alTertion,  Mr  Methcrie  has  the  follow- 
ing. I.  Nitrous  air  burnt  together  with  inflammable 
air,  produces  no  nitrous  acid.  2.  Thoui;;h  nitrous  air 
be  obtained  from  a  folution  of  cierciny  in  the  nitrous 
acid,  alnioll  all  the  acid  is  found  in  the  folution.  3. 
Nitrous  air,  abforbed  by  r.:arlac  acid,  docs  not  make 
aqua  rcgia.  4.  \\c  is  of  opinion,  that  a  fmall  poi  tioii 
of  the  nitrous  acid  being  dccompofcd,  furniihcs.i  pure 
air,  fo  altered,  that,  uniting  with  inrtammable  air,  it 
chan^jcs  it  into  nitrous.air. 

"  In  reviewing  the  experiments  I  had  ffirmcrly 
made  on  this  kind  of  air,  I  could  not  recollect  any  of 
thciu  in  which  tie  pure  nitrous  aci  J  was  produced,  ex- 


>37 
'oiupo- 
cnt  p.:>rts 
r  nitrous 


cepting  tint  with  dcphlogidicstcd  air,  bcfides  the  ex- 
periment in  which  it  was  decompoftd  by  the  electric 
ipark  ;  which  fiirni;!ies  a  (Irong  objection  to  this  hy- 
pothciis."  To  afcertain  the  matter  more  full/,  the 
following  experiments  were  made. 

"  When  nitrous  air  is  dcconipofcd  by  iron,  or  by  a 
mixtureof  iron  and  fulphur,  the  water, over  which  the 
proccfs  is  condutted,  acquires  no  acidity  ;  but  1  had 
iuppofcd  that  all  the  acid  was  abforbed  by  the  iron. 
Having  by  me  a  quantity  of  this  iron  which  had  been 
reduced  toperfeiJtnifl  in  nitrous  air,and  which,!  knew, 
iwil  have  imbibed  more  tjian  its  wti'^ht  of  the  air, 
{thought  that  the  acid  might  be  obtained  from  it  by 
diftiUation  ;  bjt  a  quantity  of  this  ruft  of  iron,  dillili- 
cd  i:i  an  earthen  retort,  yielded  neither  nitrous  air 
nor  nitrous  acid,  at  lead  in  any  quantity  that  could  fa- 
vour the  common  hypothefis. 

"  1  then  endeavoured  to  decompnfe  nitrous  air  by 
heating  iron  in  it  with  a  burning  lens  ;  and  in  this 
proccfs  1  fuccecded  farbeyoiidmy  expectation:  for  tlic 
air  was  prefently  diminillied  in  quantity,  while  the 
iron  became  of  a  darker  colour,  was  fometinics  melted 
into  balls,  and  gathered  co;;riderablc  weiglit,  though 

it  had  no  appearance  of  coutainiiig any  nit-.ous  acid 

In  :lte  lirii  experiment,  the  original  quantity  of  ni- 
trous air  was  diminillied  to  about  oac-third  ;  and  after 
this,  it  was  increafed."  The  increafe  was  found  to 
arife  from  a  production  of  inriammable  and  dephlogi- 
llicated  nitrous  air. 

The  Doctor  proceeded  to  try  various  other  experi- 
ments on  the  decompofition  of  nitrous  air,  particularly 
that  of  burning  Homberg's  pyrophorus  ;  but  without 
any  fuccefs,  or  obtaining  tlie  fmallcll  particle  of  ni- 
trous acid.  His  concluiions  from  the  whole  are  the 
following.  15S 

"  Water  feems  to  be  a  nrceflary  ingredient  in  r.i-  Nitrou-iair 
trons  as  well  as  intlamniable  air;   at  lea  II  without  a  *<'""!'"''"^ 
quantity  of  water,  nitrous  air  cannot  be  formed.   For",'  ['"'"(f')- 

1  Ml  1  i-,r  1        1    •        /I  tl^atcd  ni- 

example,  copper  will  be    diliolved  in   Itroiig  mtrous  jj.^yjjjj;j 
acid  without  producing  any  nitrous  air,  jult  as    iron  3^4  water. 
may  be  dilFolved  in  concentrated  vitriolic  acid  without 
producing  inriammable  air. 

"  That  nothing  is  nrcclfary  to  the  formation  of  ni- 
trous air  belidcs  phlogillicaied  nitrous  acid  and  water, 
is  evident  from  the  production  of  it  by  the  impregna- 
tion of  pure  water  with  phlogillic.itcd  nitrous  vapour 
formed  by  the  rapid  folution  of  bifmuth  ;  an  experi- 
ment which  I  mentioned  before.  However,  to  make 
it  in  a  more  unexceptionable  manner,  I  interpofed  a 
glafs  vell'el  between  that  in  which  the  folution  was 
made  and  that  in  which  the  water  to  be  impregnated 
with  the  phlogillicaied  vapour  was  contained,  iliac 
whatever  was  diftilled  over  by  the  heat  of  tlic  procefs 
might  be  prevented  from  reacliing  tlie  water.  l;i 
thcfc  circu'n (lances,  however,  when  nothing  but  the 
dry  phlojillicated  vapour  could  enter  the  water,  it  be- 
gan to  fparkic  and  yield  nitrous  air  very  copioully  as 
foon  as  it  had  received  a  bUicr  tinge  from  tiie  impreg- 
nation  Nitrons  air  is   alfo  produced  by  pouring  a 

highly  coloured  or  phlngiiticutcd  nitrous  acid  isto 
pure  wntcr,  in  whicli  no  metal  or  earthy  matter  is 
any  wav  concerned.  159 

"  I  have  foiincrly  obfcrved,  howreidily  nitrous  air  Effea->  of 
is  diminithed  by  taking  the  electric  fpark  in  it.  This  ''"=  e''>Sf'>; 
experiment  I  have  frequently  repeated,  inordermort  ff*r!""i°'- 

particulaily 


lS2 


A      E 


R 


O 


Nitrous  particiiliily  toalct-naiii  the  quantity  and  cjuality  ofilic 
-^""'  rcliJiiam.  In  one  expcrimcni  lialt  an  ounce  ofniirous 
a^l•^\asl•cJl!ccd,  inlclsthan  half  an  hour,  to  one  quar- 
ter of  its  bulic.  One-fourth  of  LJic  reiidinini  was  Hill 
nitrous,  and  the  rcll  phlogiiHcated.  raking  the  tlcc- 
tric  fj'urkiu  a  quantity  ol  nitrous  air  till  it  was  dimi- 
uillicd  loonc-third,  the  whole  was  cuniplctcly  phlo>;i- 
llicatcd,  notalfcctin;;comniouairatall,andcxtiiiguifh- 
iiig  a  caudle,  A  wiiitc  matter  was  formed  with  the 
mercury  over  whith  the  fpark  was  taken,  which  made 
the  water  admitted  to  it  extremely  turbid.  In  another 
proccl's,  the  electric  fpark  was  taken  in  a  quantity.of 
nitrous  air  till  it  could  I'o  more  be  diminilhcd,  w  hen  it 
was  reduced  in  bulk  in  the  proportion  of  lo;  to  24. 
Letting  it  ftand  all  night  upon  the  mercury,  it  was  in- 
crc.ifcd  in  the  proportion  of  1 1 ',  to  24  ;  feemingly  by 
•  the  acid  uniting  to  the  mercury  and  generating  more 
nitrous  air,  llncc  it  had  that  fmell.  No  water  appear- 
ed after  the  proccis  j  and  the  water  admitted  to  it  ac- 
quired no  acid  ta(le,butan  allringcnt  one  like  that  of 
water  impregnated  with  iiiiroui  air.  There  was  a 
white  powdcrformcd,asin  the  former  ex))erimcnts. — 
To  try  if  it  were  podibk  to  make  water  imbibe  the  a- 
cid  from  the  nitrous  air,  the  electric  fpark  was  taken 
in  it,  with  a  fmallquantity  of  water  over  the  mercury. 
But  even  this  water  did  not  acquire  any  acid  talle,  but 
ojily  an  ailringent  one." 

The  Doftor  concludes  his  experiments  on  this  fub- 
]t6i  with  a  conjedure,  that  the  phlogirton,  and  nei- 
ther the  heat  nor  light  of  the  eletlric,  contributes  to 
the  decompolition  of  nitrous  air.  As  his  final  fcnti- 
luentson  the  matter,  however,  are  merely  conjefture, 
without  any  certain  experiments  to  confirm  them,  we 
Iliallliere  refcrthe  reader  to  his  Section  on  Theory,  at 
.the  end  of  his  lixth  vohime  of  experiments,  &c. 

Sect.    X.    Defh/ogi/ficated  Nitrous  At-. 

This  fpeeics  differs  from  common  nitrous  air  in  be- 

160       ingable  to  fupport  fiame,  though  it  llill  continues  fatal 

How  pro-    to  animal  lite.  Common  nitrous  air  may  be  converted 

•rured.  jj^^^  ^j^^.  Jcphlogillicatcd  kind  by  particular  procelfcs  ; 

though,  wk..n  zinc  isdilfolvcd  in  the  nitrous  acid,  if 

the  air  be  taken  at  ditFerent  times,  that  which  comes 

about  the  middle,  or  rather  the  latter  end  of  the  pro- 

cefs,  will  be  of  this  kind  ;  in  which  it  not  only   fup- 

.  ports  the  burning  of  a  candle,  but  the  flame  is  enlarged 
(lomctiraes  to  four  or  five  times  its  original  bulk)  by 
the   addition   of  a  weaker   and  bluifli   tiame  round 

-  the  former  ;  ,ind  this  burning  is  fometimes  accompa- 
nied with  a  crackling  noifc,  as  if  the  candle  was  burn- 
ing in  deplilogillitaled  air.  It  may  alfo  be  obtained 
in  fome  part  of  the  proccfs  of  procuring  nitrous  air 
from  iron,  though  with  this  metal  the  fuccefs  is  uncer- 
tain; but  tin  yields  a  confidcrablc  quantity  of  it.  By 
cxpofing  iron  to  nitrous  air,  it  may  be  fo  far  dcplilo- 
gifticated  as  to  admit  a  candle  to  bi;rn  in  ir.  Dr  I'riert- 
ley  filled  an  eight-ounce  pliial  with  nails,  and  then  with 
mercury  ;  and  difplacing  the  mercury  with  nitrous  air, 
left  the  phial  inverted  iu  a  quantity  of  the  fame  fluid. 
Two  months  after,  the  nitrous  air  was  found  to  be 
changed  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  admit  a  candle  to  burn 
ia  it  with  its  natural  flame  ;  and  by  continuing  fiill 
longer  in  contael  with  the  iron,  a  candle  would  burn 

iinitwith  anenlargcUiiame.  TJiefc  changes,  however, 


LOG      Y.  Scdl.X. 

arc  very  irregular,  fo  that  they  feldom  product  the  like  ncphlopif- 
etteds  with  the  regularity  one  might  expect.     Dr  tuatcd  Ni- 
Prielllcy  once  found,   that  by  the  contad  of  iron  in  "•""»  '^^J- _ 
qtiicklilvcr,  it  was  fo  changed  as  to  be  tired  with  an 
CKplofion  like  a  weak  inflammable  air  ;  wliilll  another 
quantity  of  nitious  air,  which  liad  been  treated  in  like 
manner  for  about  the  fame  length  of  time,  only  ad- 
mitted a  candle  to  burn  in  it  with  an  enlarged  tiame.       f  j. 
In  that  fedion  of  his  lall  volume  in  which  tlic  Doc-  Compo- 
tor  treats  of  this  kind  Lif  air,  he  obfcrvrs,  tliat  water  is  nsnt  parts 
abfolutely  neceliary  to  its  conipolition,  or  rather  to  the  ^\  'I'l'hlo- 
decompolitiou  uf  rhe  common  nitrous  air  by  iron.     He  f?'''""''^". 
had  dccompofcd  it  before,  either  by  previoully  tilling  '"  """"'  ^   ' 
the  veifels  that  were  to  contain  the  nitrous  air  with 
water  or  with  mercury  ;   though  it  had  always  requi- 
red a  much  longer  time  when  the  latter  was  made  ufc 
of.     The  rcafon  of  its  being  formed  at  all  in  this  lad 
way,  was  a  fmat!  quantity  of  moillure  adhering  to  the 
infide  of  the  velFcl  containing  the  mercury.  jfii 

To  try  the  influence  of  water  in  this  cafe,  he  now  JSficifts  of 
procured  a  number  of  very  clean  fmall  needles  ;  and  ^^'»t<:'■  on 
having  made  a  phial,  and  likewife  a  proper  quantity  of  "'"*»•  '"■• 
mercury,  quire  clean  and  dry,  he  put  the  needles  into 
the  phial,  and,  filling  it  up  with  mercury,  introduced 
the  nitrous  air  :  but  it  continued  in  this  way  for  lix  or 
eight  months  without  the  fmallcit  alteration.  Intro- 
ducing a  few  drops  of  water,  a  diminution  cf  about 
one-third  of  the  air  took  place,  and  the  remainder  ap- 
peared tobe  phlogiflicated.  On  the  26th  of  May  1782, 
lie  examined  a  quantity  of  nitrous  air,  which  had  been 
confined  with  iron-lhavings  from  the  27th  of  Augufl 
preceding,  when  he  found  one-half  of  itabforbed  ;  the 
remainder  fupported  the  flame  of  a  candle  better  than 
common  air,  though  a  moufe  died  in  it ;  and  yet  this 
air  had  continued  feveral  months  in  the  fame  flate  with 
regard  to  quantity,  nor  was  it  at  all  probable  that  its 
quality  would  have  been  altered  by  any  Icngtli  of 
time.  ffij 

Though  this  kind  of  air  is  produced  by  the  contaft  BcTl  me- 
of  iron  and  nitrous  air,  the  Dodor  has  never  been  able  '''o**  °f 
to  afcertain  tlie  quantity  of  nitrous  air  which  a  given  foc^r'^E 
quantity  of  iron  can  decompofe;  and  though  ironfoon  "" 
becomes  fo  much  afleded  by  this  proccfs  that  it  crum- 
bles into  powder,  it  llill  feems  equally  capable  of  dc- 
compofing  a  frelh  quantity.     Having  made  a  compa- 
rative experiment,  by  putting  together  one  quantity  of 
nitrous  air  with  frefli  iron  and  another  with  ruil,  he 
found  that  in  both  the  air  was  dirainillied  to  about  one- 
third,  and  a  candle  burned  in  both  equally  well ;  but 
neither  of  them  had  the  properties  of  frcfn  nitrous  ai^ 
in  any  degree. 

As  the  proccfs  forobtaiuing  dephlogifticated  nitrous 
air  by  means  of  iron  is  very  tedious,  the  Doctor  en- 
deavoured to  find  another  which  might  be  attended 
with  lefsinconvcnience.  This  heaccomplilhed  by  dif- 
folving  turnings  of  iron  in  a  dilute  folution  of  copper 
in  nitrous  acid  (the  fame  that  remains  after  the  pro- 
dudion  of  nitrous  air),  mixing  it  again  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  water.  V/ithout  this  precniion,  he  tells 
us,  that  though  the  iron  will  at  firfl  be  adcd  upon  very 
flowly,  yet  the  mixture  will  at  length  grow  fo  hot  as 
adiially  to  boil,  and  the  procefs  will  be  exceedingly 
troublefomc  ;  however  it  will  be  necelfary  previous  to 
any  attentpt  to  difTolve  the  iron,  to  heat  the  folution  of 
cojpper,  ill  order  to  expel  all  tJie  nitrous.air  and  fuper- 

fluous 


ft.  XI. 


A       E       R 


O 


O 


Y, 


•5^3 


jlilngif- 
ted  Ni- 
ls Air. 


164 
idc  to 
jroachto 
;  nature 
itmof- 
icrical 


i<5i 
ow  pro- 
red. 


fl  joiis  nitrt5us  aciJ.     Without  this  precaution  a  quan- 
tity of  common  nitrous  air  will  be  produce  J. 

Dcphlogifticattd  nitrous  air  is  abfurbed  by  water  al- 
inofl  as  readily  as  fixed  air,  and  in  conddcrable  quan- 
tity  ;  the  liquid  taking  up  about  one-halt"  its  bulk  of 
air.  After  being  thus  faturated,  the  whole  quantity 
of  dcphloj^irticatcd  nitrous  air  may  be  expelled  pure  by 
heat,  anil  iscallly  received  in  velkls  containing  mer- 
cury. It  was  lil>cuirc  obfcrvcd,  that  as  this  kind  of 
air  mucli  rcftniblcs  fixed  air  in  its  properties  of  being 
imbibed  by  water,  and  expelled  again  by  heat,  it  rc- 
fcmblcs  it  alfo  in  this  farther  properly,  that  all  the  air 
which  ha.s  been  actually  incorporated  with  the  waier 
will  not  be  imbibed  by  water  again.  But  the  propor- 
tion of  this  part  is  three  or  four  times  greater  than  the 
corrcfponding  part  of  fixed  air  ;  it  is  alfo  conlicierably 
more  phlogidicaccd.  Water  impregnated  with  it  very 
foon  parts  with  it  again  on  being  expofcd  to  the  atmo- 
fphere. — It  difcovcrs  not  the  fmallefl  trace  of  contain- 
ing cither  acid  or  alkali.  Its  fpecific  gravity  is  lefs 
than  that  of  common  air.  On  heating  red  precipitate 
in  this  kind  of  air,  pure  phlogillicaled  air  was  pro- 
duced without  afFecHing,  or  being  affcfted  by,  the  ni- 
trous air.  Repeating  the  experiment  with  malleable 
iron,  the  quantity  of  it  was  enlarged,  and  the  whole 
phlogilUcated,  without  any  mixture  of  fixeii  air.  By 
healing  bits  of  clean  crucibles  or  retorts  in  this  kind  of 
air,  it  fecmeJ  to  approach  in  quality  to  common  atmo- 
fpherical  air  ;  and  the  effects  were  always  found  to  be 
the  more  conlidcrable  the  longer  the  procelswas  con- 
tinued. On  attempting,  however,  to  determine  whe» 
ther  this  change  in  the  conflitution  of  dcphlogifticaied 
nitrous  air  was  occafioned  by  means  of  heat  or  liglit, 
he  heated  it  in  earthen  tubes  ;  but  found,  that  though 
thcie  were  glazed  both  011  the  outlide  and  infidc,  and 
feemcd  per^ftly  air-tight  both  before  and  after  the  ex- 
periment, ihe  air  had  efcaped.  By  the  elejlric  fpark 
it  was  rendered  wholly  imniifcible  with  water,  and 
brought  to  the  llandard  of  1.45;  fo  that  the  Doctor 
had  no  doubt  of  iis  being  re fpirable.  Yet  this  kind  of 
air,  though  it  admits  a  candle  to  burn  fo  well  in  it,  will 
not  kindle  pyroplrorus,  though  the  nitrous  air  from 
which  it  is  produced  would  inilantly  fet  it  on  fire. 

Sect.  XI.  Of  Vitriolic,  Nitrous,  Mariiif,  and 
other  AciJ  Airs, 

\  I.  Vitriolic aci:i Air This  is  always  a  combina- 
tion of  vitriolic  acid  with  phtogifton,  and  conlVijuently 
may  be  procured  from  any  mixture  of  that  acid  in  its 
higlilyconcentratcdflate  with  phlogi  (lie  matters. Hence 
it  is  obtained  from  all  the  metals,  gold  and  platina  ex- 
cepted, on  boiling  them  willi  (Irong  oil  of  vitriol.  It 
is'alfo  procurable  from  the  fame  acid  rendered  black  by 
any  phlogiftic  matter.  No  greater  heat  is  required  to 
expel  this  kind  of  air  than  ihat  produced  by  the  flame 
of  a  candle.  It  is  the  heavieftof  all  aerial  fluids,  next 
to  fluor  acid  air,  being  to  comnicwi  air  as  2265  to  icoo. 
Dr  Prieftley  informs  us,  that  a  quantity  of  vitriolic 
acid  thusimpregnatcd  with  phlogilton,  will  yield  many 
times  more  air  than  an  equal  quantity  of  the  il:  on  jcII 
fpirit  of  fait — When  the  vitriolic  acid  air  is  produced 
jngreatplenty,the  topof  the  phialin  which  it  is  gene- 
rated is  commonly  filled  with  white  vapours.  The  air 
has  alio  thefamc  appearance  asit  is  tranfmiticd  through 

3 


the  glafs  tube  ;  and  it  is  fometimes  difcovcrablc  in  the  Nitroi!^ 
recipient.  When  fuch  fubflanccs  arc  put  to  the  oil  of  '^^ '^  '^^r- 
viiriol  ascaufeagreat  cftervefccncc  with  that  acid, care  ''  ' 
Ihould  be  taken  to  a. Id  them  by  very  fmall  quantities 
at  a  lime,  and  likewife  toapply  the  heat  by  very  (low 
degrees,  left  the  rapid  pro<luetion  of  air,  and  the  heat 
attending  it,  Ihould  brrak  the  vcdcls.  It  is  moil  equa- 
bly produced  by  uling  (Irong  oil  of  vitriol  and  char- 
coal ;  but  in  mod  cafes  the  produftion  of  vitriolic  acid 
airii attended  wuh  thatof  inilammablc,  and  fomctiiiics 
fixed  or  phlogiflicated  air.  With  ether  about  one- 
half  of  the  fint  produce  is  inflammable  ;  but  the  quan- 
tity leifens  as  the  proccfs  goes  on.  The  Doftor  ob- 
fcrved,  th.at,  when  quickfilvcr  was  ufcd,  the  acid  was  - 
not  turned  black,  as  in  other  experiments  of  the  like 
nature.  He  alfo  obferved,  that  icon  yielded  a  little  in- 
flammable air  together  with  the  acid  gas  ;  but  that  the 
elalHc  fluid  produced  when  zinc  was  ufed,  contained 
about  two  parts  of  inflammable  and  one  of  acid  air. 
Copper,  lilver,  and  lead,  when  heated  in  vitriolic  acid, 
yield  the  purefl  vitriolic  acid  air  without  any  mixture 
of  inflammable  air  ;  but  the  lead  yields  only  a  very 
fmall  quantity,  and  requires  a  great  degree  of  heat.  It. 
is  procured  in  the  greatefl  abundance  from  the  fumes 
of  burning  fulphur,  and  is  then  called  the  volatile  vi- 
triolic,ux/iitj'kurcoKs  acid ;  for  an  account  of  the  pro- 
perties of  which,  fee  Chemistrv,  (7';.Vf.v).  j56 

\  2.  Of  Nitrous  Ar.id  Air. — Tills  is  the  pure  nitrons  How  ob- 
acid  by  itfelf,  without  any  addition  of  phlogillon.     It  taincd. 
IS  procured  by  heatincr  the  llrong  fpirit  of  nitre  in  a 
phial,and  then  receiving  the  vapour  inglafsvclfelsfillid 
with  quickfilvcr.   It  is,  however,  extremely  difficult, 
or  rather  inipolfible,  to  prcfcve  it  for  a  length  of  time        j^- 
by  means  of  any  fluid  hitherto  known,  ^^■aterabforbs  CaHnotbe 
it  immediately,  and  quicklilver  is  corroded,  and  pro-  prefcrved 
duces  nitrous  air.    "  But  (fays  DrPriefllcy)  tho'  the  by  nieaot 
acid  vapour  very  foon  unites  with  the  qvricklilver,yct,  "f  fl"'***- 
thejar  in  which  it  was  received  being  narrow,  the  fa- 
line  crufl  which  was  formcdon  the  furtaceof  the  quick- 
lilver, impeded  the  adlionofthe  acid  upon  it  till  I 
had  an  opportunity  of  admitting  water  to  the  air  I 
had  produced,  and  of  fatisfyiug  myfclf,  by  its  abforp- 
tion,  of  its  being  a  real  acid  air,  having  an  altinity  with 
water  limilar  to  other  acid  airs."  ,, 

The  niofl  remarkable  property  of  this  vapour  is,  that  AfTumesa 
its  colour  may  be  made  more  or  Icls  intcnfe  by  the  rtd  colour 
mere  circumilance  of  heat.  It  may  be  confined  in  by  being 
glafs  velfcls  with  ground-lloppers,  orin  tubes  hcrmeti-  te«<ed- 
cally  fealcd,  and  thus  expofcd  to  the  aflion  of  heat  : 
in  which  cafe  it  will  be  found,  that  the  colour  of  the 
vspour  becomes  confulerably  more  intcnfe  in  propor- 
tion as  the  glafs  vcllel  coittaining  it  is  more  or  lefs 
heated  ;  and  that,  on  ihe  contrary,  the  intenlity  of 
the  colour  diminillies  as  it  is  cooled.  "  It  feems  pro- 
bable ^fays  Dr  Pritftley),  that  if  this  vapour  was  not 
confined,  but  had  room  to  expand  itfelf,  it  would  be- 
come colourlels  with  heat.  This  at  leaft  is  the  cafe 
when  it  is  combined  with  water.  The  phenomena  I 
refer  to  arc  very  common  in  the  procefs  for  making 
dcphlogillicated  air,  in  which  I  firft  obferved  them. 
But  the  f-ime  things  are  obfcrvablc  in  the  procefs  for 
producing  any  other  kind  of  air  in  which  much  fpirit  of 
nitre  is  made  ufe  of  ;  and  likewife  conflantly  in  the 
cimimon  prorefs  for  making  fpirit  of  nitre  itfelf.  I: 
is,  that  when  the  heat  is  wodcrate,  the  vapour  within 

ihr. 


184 

Marine 
Acid  Air. 

1 61; 

Its  zSfc&t 
oiircd-lcail 


A 


E       R       O       L      O      C       V. 


Sea.  XI r 


170 

How  ob- 
tiinetl. 


17' 

Its  proper- 
ties. 


the  j;lil'5  v-ihe  or  rriort  is  iti! ;  bit  that,  as  tlic  htat 
iiicrtafcs,  i:  brcoiiics  Maiilpiiicni."  The  Doclor  ha- 
ving obltvvcJ  ilu:  rcJlcad,  impregnated  with  iiiiious 
vapour,  may  he  prtfcrvtj  a  long  lime  wiihoat  dcli- 
.qiicfcing  or  hiling  its  aci>i,  made  life  of' a  compulitioii 
oMiiis  kind  for  procuring  the  nitrous  vapour  with 
W'liich  he.  lilled  his  tubes.  By  imbibing  this  vapour 
tlic  minium  loll  its  red  colour  and  became  white.  ''  I 
put  (lays  he)  a  fmall  qiianiiiy  of  this  white  minium 
into  a  glafs  tube  clofcd  at  one  end  ;  then  holding  it  to 
llic  fire,  make  it  emit  the  red  vapour  till  tlic  whole 
tub'.-  is  lilled  with  it  ;  and  having  llic  other  end  of  the 
tube  drawn  out  ready  for  doling,  ai  foon  js  the  vapour 
begins  to  illlic  out  of  that  end,  J  apply  my  blowpipe 
and  feal  it.  By  tliis  means  I  conclude  that  the  tube 
is  filled  with  a  pure  red  vapour,  without  any  juixture 
of  nitrous  air,  and  pcri;aps  common  air  alio."  For  a 
further  account  of  the  properties  of  nitrous  acid  air, 
fee  Chemistry,  {^Ir.dix.) 

\  5;     Of  Alari/ic  Ac;f  yjir The  marine  acid,  by 

Vat,  may  be  refolvcd  into  a  permanently  claiHc  and 
tranfparent  inviublc  vapour,  which,  however,  is  more 
calily  preferved  in  itsacrial  Hate  than  nitrousacid  air, 
as  the  former  has  no  effect  upon  cjuicklilver.  An  eafy, 
and  cheap  method  of  obtaining  this  kind  of  air  is  by 
filling  a  phial,  litted  with  a  glafs  tube  and  Hopper, 
with  common  fait,  and  then  pouring  a  fmall  quantity 
of  oil  of  vitriol  upon  it  ;  which,  by  the  alfillance  of 
heat,  will  difengage  the  acid  principle,  or  the  marine 
acid  air,  from  the  fait.  "  A  phial  (lays  Dr  Pricltley  ) 
prepared  in  this  manner  will  fufRcc,  for  common  cx- 
periinents,  many  weeks  ;  efpecially  if  fomc  niore  oil 
of  vitriol  l)e  occalionally  put  to  it.  It  only  requires  a 
little  more  heat  at  the  lall  tlian  at  the  firft.  Indeed, 
at  firfl,  the  heat  of  a  pcrfon's  hand  will  often  befuf- 
ficieni  to  make  it  throw  out  the  vapour.  In  warm 
wcatiicr  it  will  even  keep  fmokiug  many  days  williout 
the  application  of  any  other  heat.  On  tl)is  account 
it  Ihould  be  placed  where  there  arc  no  metallic  uten- 
lils  which  it  can  corrode  ;  and  it  may  ealily  be  prr- 
ceiveil  when  the  phial  is  throwingout  thisacid  vapour, 
as  it  always  appears  in  the  open  air  in  form  of  a  light 
white  cloud." 

After  the  marine  acid  has  yielded  all  the  air  that 
can  be  expelled  from  i:,  it  is  extremely  v/eak,  fo  that 
it  can  but  barely  corrode  iron.  The  gas  itfelf  is  con- 
liderably  heavier  than  common  air,  the  fpecilicgraviiy 
of  the  two  being  in  the  proportion  of  five  to  three  ; 
.1  cubic  inch  weighing  0.654  grains.  It  is  very  fatal 
to  animal  life,  but  leYs  fo  tlu'n  pure  nitrous  air  ;  for 
flies  and  fpiders  live  longer  in  marine  acid  than  in  ni- 
trous air.  In  dipping  a  candle  into  ajar  of  this  air 
the  flame  is  extiiiguillied  ;  but  the  moment  before  it 
goes  out,  and  alfo  when  it  is  afterwards  firfl  lighted 
again,  i:  burns  with  a  green  or  light-blue  fiame,  like 
that  of  conimou  fait  thrown  inta  a  fire.  Its  diminu- 
tion by  the  eledlric  fpark  is  barely  perceptible,  ice 
is  dilfolved  by  it  as  fall  as  if  it  touched  a  red-hot  iron. 
It  is  partly  abfjrbcd  by  ahno'l  every  fubllance  con- 
taining phlogifton.  and  the  remaining  part  becomes 
inHammablc.  Oilof  olives  abforbs  it  very  (lowly,  and 
oil  of  turpentine  very  fill  ;  by  which  ihcy  both  be- 
come almoll  black,  and  the  remainder  of  the  air  is  in- 
fiauMnablc.  ElVential  oil  of  mint  abforbs  marine  air 
pretty  fad,  becoming  brown,  conliflcnt,  aad  fo  heavy 


as  to  link  in  water  ;  and  its  fmcll  is  in  great  mcafurc  Fluor  Aci 
altered.  Kther  abforbs  it  very  fall,  and  has  its  colour  Air,  &c. 
ahtjcd  by  the   impregnation,  beeoniing   tirll  lurbid,  "' 

then  yellow, and  at  lalt  brown.  The  air  over  the  ether        ,-, 
is  llrougly   inllammablc.     A  fmall  bit   of  phofpl'orus  changed 
fmokcd  and  gave  light  in  this  acid  air  ;  and  the  elallic  i"to  in- 
fluid  was  but  little  dimiuifliedin  twelve  hours.     On  */""'"^l'l< 
the  admillion  of  water,  about  four-fil'ths  of  the  gas""'" 
were  abforbed,  and  tlte  refl  was  inflammable.     This 
change  was  alfo  cfl'eded  by  a  great  number  of  other 
fubAanccs  :    fomc  of  whi:h,  however,  require  acon- 
fidcrable  time  to  produce  their  efFefl  ;    fuch  as  crulls 
of  bread  not  burned,  dry  wood,  dry  flefli,  roalled  pieces 
of  beef,  ivory,  and  even  Hints.   beeCtiEMisi  kv,  (//i- 
^..•..) 

§  4.  Of  ill! or  Acid  jlir The  difcovcry  of  fluor  a- 

cid  air  was  made  by  Mr  Schcele,  who  obtained  it  by  di- 
Hilling  the  fpar  called  ihior  with  vitriolic  acid.     Dr 
Priellley,  W'homade  feveral  experiments  upon  the  fub-        175 
JC(51,  was  of  opinion  that  this  new  acid  was  only  the  lliffcrcrt 
vitriolic  difguifed  by  its  connexion  with  the  fluor.  f™"' ^■"" 
He  even  fuppofed  that  he  liaJ  produced  it  by  pouring 


elio  acid 
air. 


vitriolic  acid  on  other  phofplioric  fpars  :  both  thcfc  ' 
opinions,  however,  he  has  now  retracted,  and  believes 
the  tluor  acid  to  be  one  of  a  peculiar  kind.  Its  moH 
remarKablc  property  is  the  great  attraction  it  has  for 
liliceous  earth,  fo  that  it  even  corrodes  and  makes 
holesin  the  retorts  in  which  it  is  diHilled.  See  Che- 
mistry, {hiJex). 

§  5.  Of  the   Vegetable    atij   other  Acid  Air By- 
means  of  heat  alone,  the  concentrated  vegetable  acid 
emitsapernianently  elallic  and  aerial  fluid.     This  has 
the  properties  of  the  acid  of  vinegar  ;   but,  like  it,  is 
weaker  than  the  rcH  of  the  miueral  acid  airs,  tlibugh 
it  agrees  with  theui  iu  its  general  characters.     Water 
imbibes  it  as  readily  as  any  of  the  other  acid  airs  ,  oil- 
olive  readily  abforbs  it,  and  in  confiderable  quantity, 
loliug  at  the  fame  time  its  yellowilli  colour,  and  be-        j 
coming  quite  tranfparent.     Common  air  is  phlogilli-  phloirifti- 
cated  by  it,  as  it  is  alfo  by  the  liquid  vegetable  acid,  cates  conv 
As  the  vegetable  acid,  however,  from  which  this  air  moii  air. 
had  been  obtained,  was  diitillcd  by  oil  of  vitriol,   the 
Doctor  fufpecled  that  what  he  had  examined  might 
derive  mollof  iis  properties  from  the  oil  of  vitriol,  and 


rather  be  vitriolic  than  vegetable  acid  air. 


175 


An  acid  air,  fomcwhat  difTcrent  from  any  hitherto  Air  from 
defcribed,  was  obtained  by  Dr  Prieflley  from  the  va-  folutiou  a 
pour  arillng  on  diltilling  to  dryncls  a  folution  of  gold  R°'''' 
in  marine  acid  impregnated  with  nitrous  acid  vapour, 
which  makes  the  bell  kind  of  aqua  regis.  <'  The 
produce  (fays  hel  was  an  .icid  air  of  a  very  peculiar 
kind,  partaking  both  of  the  nature  of  the  nitrous  and 
marine  acids  ;  but  more  of  the  latter  than  of  the  for- 
mer, as  it  extinguiflied  a  candle  ;  but  it  was  both  ex- 
tinguillied  and  lighted  again  with  a  mofl  beautiful  deep 
blueHame.  A  candle  dij>pcd  into  the  fame  jar  with  this 
kind  of  air  went  out  more  tjian  20  times  fncceffivety, 
making  a  very  plcaling  experiment.  The  quantity  of 
this  acid  air  is  very  great  ;  and  the  refiduum  I  have 
fjinetimes  found  to  be  dcphlogiflicated,  fometdraes 
phlogiftjcated,  and  at  other  limes  nitrous  air." 

IJect.   XII.     Of  Hepatic  Air. 

This  fperies  of  air,  firfl  particularly  taken  notice 
of  by  Wr  Bergman,  who  obtained  it  from  an  orr  cf 

zinc 


Sed.  XIII.  AERO 

Atniofphc-  z.in:   ca'.led  TfnihgaLua  nigra  Dafimuiorenfis,  a:id 
rkkl  Air.  svjiicli  was  fouiiH  to  comaiii  29  parts  0}  fulphur,  oac 

— — '  of  rc;jiilu'5  of  arfcnic,  fix  of  water,  lixoflead,  nine 

..    '.'     ,    of  iron,  4J  of  zinc,  aiiJ  four  of  iiiiccous  c;;rtli.    Tlic 
Trft  rr,>,r,     hcp.u:c  air  was  proJitcca  1)U  m  fmall  iimmiiy  by 


i[iniiiiiy   by 
fpiri:  of  iAi 


far  fulphu 


fuftfrom    "cp,u:c  air  was  p 

«n  ore  of     ptuiiiiig  oil  of  vitiifil  on  this  mine 

zinc.  produced  u  in  niiich  larj^er  quantity  ;  but  iiitroas  a-jid 

177       produccc!  only  iiiti'ous  air.     The  moll  projier  method 

neflobtain-  q^-  obtaining  iiiis  air  is  by  poiu-iiig  marine  .Hid  o;i  he- 

ei<  froir.  lic-  fulphuris,  which  extricates  ii  in  vaft  quantity.  It 
IS  faid  alfo  to  be  for.ictimes  produced  natariiiy  Irom 
putrefying  matters.  It  is  the  characlerillic  of  all  li- 
vers of  fulphur,  whether  they  b^  made  with  alkalis  or 
earths.  The  Imcll  of  the  pure  gas  is  intolerable;  and 
the  vapour  has  a  difa:irceabl"  citcclou  many  metallic 
fabltances,  particularly  filver,  lead,  copper,  S:c.  dc- 
llroying  their  colour,  and  rendering  them  quite  black. 
It  is  luddeiily  fatal  to  animal  lii'c,  renders  fyrup  of 
violets  green,  and  is  i.iflamiuablc,  burning  with  a  very 
light  blue  ti.iuic.  It  is  dccompofcd  by  vitriolic  and 
nitrous  air,  by  dephlogiliicated  air,  and  by  the  contaft 
of  atniofphc  ical  air,  in  which  cafe  it  dcpolils  a  fm;>!l 
quantity  of  fi-lphur  ;  being  indeed,  as  is  fuppofcd  by 
IVIr  Ucrgman  and  Mr  Kirwan,  no  other  than  fulphur 
kcjit  in  an  aerial  form.  Its  fptcitic  gravity,  compared 
*'  with  that  of  atniofpherical  air,  is  as  1106  to  \ooo. 
It  combines  readily  with  water,  and  gives  the  fmcll 
totlie  fulphurcous  medicinal  waters.  Its  great  atf  ac- 
tion for  fome  of  the  metals  and  their  calces  makes  it 
the  bafis  of  fomc  Sympathetic  IsKS.     Sec  alfo  Che- 

WISTH.Y,    t^hldix.) 

S  E  c  T .  X I  II .     Oj  Jt.iiofi'hincal  Air. 

The  two  component  parts  of  our  atniofphere,  viz. 
deplilogillicatcd  and  phlogiflicatcd  air,  have  been  lb 
fully  treated  of  under  their  refpc."^ive  feftions,  that 
little  remains  to  be  faid  in  this  place,  excepting  to  de- 
j  %       tcrminc  the  proportion  in  which  they  are  ufually  met 
Proportion  with  in  the  common  air.     The  only  regular  fct  of  cx- 
ol'tlii;  two  perimeats  which  have  been  made  on  this  fubjedt  are 
ingredicnti  [hofc  of  Mr  Schcclc.     lie  conllrufted  an  eudiometer, 
of  whicli  It  confilUnK  of  a  srlafs  receiver,  which  could  contain  %i, 
fed  ouncci  ol  water,  and  agl.ils  cup  contauung  a  mixture 

of  one  pound  of  iron-filings,  and  an  eqnal  weight  of 
flowers  of  fulphur  moiilencd  ;  which  cup  Handing  up- 
on a  glafs  fupponer,  was  infcrteJ  in  the  former  re- 
ceiver, which,  when  this  was  in  it,  could  contain  35 
ounces  of  water.  To  the  outliJe  of  the  glafs  tube  or 
receiver,  was  atilxcd  a  !lip  of  paper,  to  the  heiv  ht  of  a 
third  of  the  tube,  containing  1 1  divllions,  each  currc- 
fponding  10  one  ounce  of  water.  This  paper  was  var- 
nilhcd  over  with  oil  varnilh,  to  prevent  its  being  fpoil- 
cd  by  water.  The  whole  then  was  placed  in  water, 
which  gradually  rofe  as  the  air  was  diminilhed.  This 
mixture  would  fcrvc  four  times  before  the  power  of  di- 
miniihing  air  was  loll.  lie  carefully  compared  the 
height  of  the  air  tliercin  with  the  i)ari>uietcr  and  ther- 
mometer, both  before  and  after  the  experiment ;  in 
tight  hours  the  experiment  was  completed.  With 
this  inllrunient  he  cxaniined  the  goodncfs  of  the  eoui- 
iJion  air  in  Stoekholni  every  day  for  a  whole  year,  and 
found  the  diminution  never  to  exceed  5:,  nor  to  fall 
(liortof  ,'j  ;  fo  that  upon  a  n-.clium  it  may  be  e(linia:cd 
at  ,"- .     During  the  months  of  January  aad  February  it 

\'0L.    1. 


LOG      Y. 

was  /, .  'liic  23d  of  >;arcij  it  v.zt  ,%,  though  the 
cold  iiicreafed,  and  ihc  baromeiLr  P.ooJ  hi-'her  tliaif 
before.  The  19  of  April  in  v/as  5 ;,  tliojgh  the  bj- 
ro;neter  and  ihermomc'.er  did  not  vary,  and  ioliuod  tiil 
the  2ilt.  In  May  and  {unc  it  flood  between  /,  ajd 
,'j.  The  30th  uf  July  it  Hood  at  ::.  From  the  ji 
I J  the  15th  of  September  at  ,",.  'I'he  6th  of  Octo- 
ber at  J  J,  during  a  high  (torniV  but  after  it  flood  be- 
tween ,',  and  /.,  till  the  4rh  of  November,  when  ic 
fell  to  '/j,  and  continued  between  ,',  and  ,%  lo  tl.o 
20th,  when  it  role  t"  ',].  The  2 til  it  fell  to  3,  and 
Hood  between  ,",  and  \\  till  the  Sth  of  December, 
when  it  rofc  to  Jj  ;  and  from  thence  to  the  3 ill  it 
ftood  between  -".  and",';. 

As  it  has  already  been  Ciown  that  the  pure  depiilo- 
gillicaied  part  of  the  ar.mofplierc  is  entirely  confunicd 
by  phlogidic  proceifes,  fuch  as  that  of  fer.T.cating 
brimllone  and  iron-tilings,  this  eudiometer  muit  hi 
coniidcred  as  an  exacl  tell  of  the  proportion  of  i!t- 
phlogillicated  air  contained  in  the  atniofphere.  The 
fmall  variation  in  the  quantity  Ihows,  that  the  procef- 
fes  in  nature  which  dellroy  this  air,  are  nearly  balanceti 
by  thofe  which  produce  it  ;  tiiough  it  mnfl  appear  fur- 
prifing,  that  both  tliefe  fluiJs,  fo  extremely  diiTerenr, 
lliould  be  produced  at  all  feafons  of  tiie  year  in  a  pro- 
portion nearly  equal ;  nor  is  it  lefs  furpriang  that  two 
fluids  of  unequal  fpecific  gravity  fhould  remain  incor- 
porated together  without  any  tendency  to  fepcrate, 
which  it  is  certain  they  never  do,  cither  in  the  atnio- 
fphere itfclf,  or  when  confinedinveirds  in  any  quanti- 
ty whatever — As  phlogilUcated  air  is  fomc  what  light- 
er than  dcphlogillicaied,  it  might  be  fuppofcd  that  the 
former  would  occupy  the  higher  regions  of  the  atnio- 
fphere in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  render  them  conlider- 
ahly  more  unwliolfome  than  the  lower  pans;  but  this 
fecms  not  to  be  the  cafe  :  On  the  contrary,  h  appe.irs 
by  experiments  with  the  eudiometer,  that  the  upper 
parts  of  the  air  contain  a  greater  proportion  of  dephlo- 
gillicated  air  than  thofc  near  the  earth.  Sec  Eudio- 
meter. 

Sect.  XIV.  Of  the  artificial  rrodtiClion  tf.iirs  of  dif- 
ferent Kinds. 

\  I.  Fixf.n  Air,  or  Aerial  Acid.  The  artificial  nic- 
thods  of  producing  this  are  principally  three,  viz.  by 
fermentation,  by  heat,  and  by  acids. 

(1)  By  ferment atiou.  When  vegetable  or  animal 
fubllances,  efpccially  theforn<er,  arc  fermented,  they 
yield  a  great  quantity  of  lixeu  air.  In  brew  cries,  on 
the  Inrfare  of  die  fermenting  liquor,  there  is  always  a 
flratum  of  lixcd  air  reaching  ns  high  as  the  edge  of  the 
vats  ;  fothat  ifthel'e  veilcls  are  deep,  and  the  ferment- 
ing li.]uor  much  below  their  edges,  thcabovcmention- 
cd  flratum  may  be  fome  fee:  in  ihicknefs.  The  fame 
phenomenon  isobfervablc  in  the  fermentation  of  wines 
in  general ;  .and  it  is  owing  to  the  produftiouand  cla- 
ftiatyoflixed  air,  that  fernunting  liquors,  whc«  put 
intoclofe  vellcls  often  burll  them  with  great  violence. 
'I'he  cafe  is  the  fiiiie  whatever  fiibllanrf  it  is  tint  un- 
dergoes tile  vinous  fermentation,  though  the  qianiiiy 
of  fixed  air  produced  is  not  the  fame  in  all  fubllances, 
noreven  in  liie  fame  fubllance  at  f'ilfcrent  times.  Frorn 
42  cubic  inches  of  beer  Dr  Hales  obtained  <S?9  cubic 
inches  of  air  in  13  days.  From  a  quantity  of  figar 
A  J  undcrgoiug 


.85 


AtrnfifiUe. 
ri.'il  Air. 


>7» 

Upper  rf- 
pionsof  ih{ 
air  more 
falu^^ou$ 
tlian  ihd 
lower. 


i86 


E      R      O      L      O 


Y. 


Seft.  XIV. 


of  Artifi.  undergoing  the  vinousfcrmciua:ion,  MrCavcndifli  ob- 
cial  Air».  taincd  fo  much  lixcd  air,  ihat  out  of  loo  parts  of  the 
"""^■^       '  former  57  appeared  to  have  been  volatilized  and  con- 
verted into  fixed  air.  . 

But  though  a  vaft  quantity  of  fixed  air  cfcapcs  du- 
ring this  proccfs  of  fermentation,  a  very  conlidcrablc 
portion  ilill  remains  united  with  the  fermented  liquor, 
and  to  this  it  owes  all  its  brilkncfs  and  agreeable  pun- 
gent acidulous  tallc  ;  for  wlien  the  fixed  air  is  totally 
evaporated,  the  liquor  becomes  entirely  vapid  anil  Hat. 
Hence  aUo  we  are  furnillied  with  a  mcthodof  rcftoring 
the  brifknefs  tothefe  liquors  after  they  have  loll  it  in 
confcqucnce  of  being  cxpofcd  to  the  aimofphere.  Viz. 
by  imprcjinating  them  again  with  tixed  air,  either  na- 
turally or  artiticially  produced. 

Dr  Pricftley  has  made  feveral  experiments  in  order 
to  determine  the  quantity  of  fixed  air  contained  in  fe- 
veral forts  of  wine.  His  method  was  to  take  a  glafs 
phial  (fitted  with  aground  flopple  and  tubcj,  capable 
of  containing  11  ouncc-meafurc.  This  he  filled  with 
wine,  plunged  it  into  a  proper  vcllel  of  water.  The 
.  whole  was  Uien  put  over  the  fire,  and  the  water,  into 
•  which  the  phial  was  plunged,  fullered  to  boil.     The 

end  of  the  tube  being  placed  under  the  mouth  of  an 
inverted  receiver  filled  with  quickfilvcr,  the  heat  ex- 
pellcdthe  fixed  airfroui  the  wine, which  entering  into 
the  receiver,  afccndcd  in  bubbles  through  the  quick- 
lilver  to  the  top,  pufliing  out  part  of  the  metal  and  ta- 
king its  place.  The  refult  of  his  experiments  was  as 
follows  : 

C  Madeira 
Port  of  iix  years  old 
Hock  of  ti\c  years 
Barrelled  claret 
i  Tokay  of  16  years 


i^oz. 
nieaf. 
t.f 


j  Champagncoftwoyears 
(_Bottledcydcrof  ijycars  |_  g 


Oh 


I     T»T     I 
I        ,'.         I 


of  an 
ounce 
meaf. 


I  2  oz.  meaf. 
J  3;  ditto. 


During  the  acetous  fermentation  alfo,  liquors  emit 
a.  vapour,  great  part  of  which  is  fixed  air,  though  the 
nature  of  its  otJicr  component  parts  has  not  yet  been 
ihorov.ghly  afcertained. 

"  Fixed  air  is  likewife  produced,  though  in  no  great 
qua!!tity,  by  putrtfaJlion.  In  this  cafe,  however,  a 
great  part  of  the  elaftic  fluid  conlilTs  of  infianunable 
and  phlogiflicatcd  air,  and  the  fixed  air  iifclf  fecms  to 
be  intimately  connet^tcd  with  a  putrid  otfcnfivc  efiluvi- 
\\m.  It  fcemed  to  Dr  Pricftley  to  "  depend  in  fome 
nicafure  upon  the  time  and  other  circumllancts  in  the 
(dilibhuion  of  animal  or  vegetable  fubilances,  whctlicr 
they  yield  the  proper  putrid  diluvium,  or  fixed  or  in- 
f.amnublc  air." 

The  elaftic  fluid  produced  by  putrefying  vegetables, 
when  kept  in  a  moderate  degree  of  heat,  is  almoft  all 
liscd  air  ;  while  that  from  animal  I'ubftances  contains 
feveral  times  more  inflammable  than  fixed  air.  Vege- 
table fubftances  yield  almo/l  all  the  permanently  elallic 
fluid  in  a  few  days,  but  animal  bodies  continue  to  emit 
it  for  feveral  weeks.  When  the  tlaftic  fluid  yielded 
by  animal  fubftances  is  abforbcd  by  water,  and  that 
water  boiled,  the  fixed  air  may  then  be  obtained  with- 
out any  mixture  of  the  putrid  cflluvium.  It  is  alfo  to 
be  obfervcu,  that  the  quantity  of  elaftic  fluid  produ- 
cible from  animal  fubftances  is  various  according  to 
*the  nature  of  the  partsof  the  animal  employed.  Thus 
the  mafcular  parts  will  vicldlcfs  elaftic  fluid,  and  alio 


Icfs  mixed  with  any  putrid  or  offenfivc  eflluvium,  than  Of  Artifi- 
a  whole  animal,  or  than  the  liver,  &c.     Thcpropor-    cial  Airs. 

tion  of  inflammable  and  of  fixed  air  is  alfo  various,  ac-  ""^ ' 

cording  to  the  various  pans  employed. 

(2.)  By  hcut.  In  every  combullion,  except  that  of 
fulpluir  or  of  metals,  a  quantity  of  fixed  air  is  genera- 
ted. This  may  be  obferved  by  fixing  a  lightetl  candle 
in  an  iuvcrtcd  receiver  overa  bafon  of  lime-water,  for 
a  precipitation  of  ilic  lime  \\ill  prefently  cnfuc  ;  and 
the  fame  precipitation  (which  is  one  of  the  charaflc- 
riftics  of  fixed  air)  will  always  cnfue,  whether  a  candlcj 
a  burning  piece  of  wood,  or,  in  Ihort,  any  other  com- 
buftible  fubftance,  ejj^ccpt  fulphur  or  metals,  be  made 
ufe  of. 

During  this  production  or  extrication  of  fixed  from 
atmofphcrical  air,  the  latter  is  commonly  fuppofcd  to 
be  conlidcrably  diminilhed,  though  M.  Lavoificr  and 
Mr  Scheele  have  now  rendered  that  opinion  doubt- 
ful. If  a  piece  of  charcoal  be  burned  by  tlirowing 
the  focus  of  a  lens  upon  it  when  contained  in  a  glafs- 
recciver  inverted  in  water,  after  the  apparatus  is  cool- 
ed, the  water  will  have  mounted  a  fmall  way  into  the 
receiver.  The  diminution,  however,  is  limited,  and 
depends  on  feveral  circuniftances.  Dr  Hales  has  ob- 
ferved, that,  in  equal  receivers,  theairfuflers  a  greater 
diminution  Ijy  burning  large  candles  than  fmall  ones;  ** 
and  likewife  iliat,  when  equal  candles  arc  made  ufe  of 
the  diminution  is  greater  in  fmall  than  in  large  recei- 
vers. The  caufe  of  this  phenomenon  probably  is,  that 
the  air  contained  in  the  receiver  cannot  all  come  into 
contad  with  the  flame  of  the  candle  ;  whence,  as  fooa 
as  the  air  which  is  nearcft  the  flame  becomes  conta- 
minated, the  candle  is  extinguiflied.  Thus  the  author 
of  a  Concife  Trcaiife  on  tlie  Various  kinds  of  Perma- 
nently Elaftic  fluids,  has  diminilhed  the  air  of  an  in- 
verted receiver  one  fixih  part,  by  moving  the  candle 
whilft  it  burned  through  the  different  parts  of  the  vef- 
fel,  fo  that  the  flame  was  brought  into  contact  with  a 
greater  quantity  of  the  confined  air  than  if  it  had  re- 
mained in  one  fituation  till  it  became  cxtinft.  Dr 
Mayow  obferved,  that  by  the  burning  of  a  candle  the 
air  was  diminilhed  of  one  thirtieth  only;  Dr  Hales 
found  it  to  be  diminifiied  of  erne  twenty  fixth  part ;  and 
Dr  Pricftley  found  it  to  be  diraini.htd  of  one  fifteenth 
or  lixtcenth.  Mr  Cavcndifli  obferved,  that  air  fuf- 
fercd  adiminutionof  one-tentii  of  ihc  whole  quantity, 
by  palling  through  an  iron-tube  filled  with  red-hot 
powder  of  charcoal.  A  candle,  or  any  other  combuf- 
tiblebody,  willceafe  to  barn  by  iifclf,  and  confequeiuly 
to  contaminate  a  quantity  of  confined  air  much  Iboner 
than  when  it  is,  in  fome  manner,  forced  to  burn  by  the 
external  application  of  heat.  "  The  focus  of  a  burn- 
ing mirror,"  fays  Dr  Pricftley,  "  thrown  for  a  fuffi- 
cicnt  time  either  upon  brimftone  or  wood,  after  it  has 
ccafed  to  burn  of  its  own  accord,  and  has  become 
charcoal,  will  have  a  much  greater  effect  of  the  fame 
kind,  diminilhing  the  air  to  its  utmoft  extent,  and 
making  it  thoroughly  noxious."  The  combuftion  of 
the  phofphorus  of  urine  diminilTies  air  in  a  great  de- 
gree. Mr  Lavoifier  has  obferved,  that  by  the  com- 
buftion of  phofphorus,  air  may  be  diminilhed  of  about 
one-fifth  or  onc-fixth .  This  accurate  philofopher  has 
alfo  obferved,  that  the  acid  of  phofphorus  thus  formed, 
acquires  the  weight  loft  by  thediminiflicdair  ;  finding 
that  about  three  inches  of  air  were  abforbed  by  every 

one 


XIV. 


A 


R      O 


one  grain  of  phofphorus,  when  the  experiment  was 
tried  with  a  receiver  inverted  in  water,  upon  the  fur- 
ficc  of  which  a  I'mall  quantity  of  oil  had  been  intro- 
duced !  but  when  the  receiver  was  inverted  in  quick- 
filver,  the  abforption  wasconftantly  between  twoone- 
fourth  and  two  three-fourth  inches  for  each  grain.  Mr 
Cavallo  mentions  his  having  often  repeated  ihe  expe- 
riment of  burning  phofphorus  in  a  glafs  tube  inverted 
in  water,  by  applying  the  clofcd  part  of  the  tube, 
wherein  the  pliofphorns  was  contained,  to  a  pretty 
ftrong  fire,  when  he  always  obfcrvcd  that  the  utmoft 
diminution  of  the  inclofcd  air  cffedled  by  this  means 
was  full  one-fifth.  • 

Dr  Hales  remarked,  that  after  the  extinftion  of 
candles  in  a  receiver,  the  air  continued  todiminilh  for 
fcveral  days  after.  This  may  be  owing  to  the  gradual 
abforption  of  part  of  it  by  the  water  ;  it  having  been 
remarked  by  Dr  PriclUey,  "  that  this  diminution  of 
air  by  burning  is  not  always  immediately  apparent,  till 
the  air  has  palled  fcveral  times  through  water ;  and  that 
when  the  experinientwasmadewithveirds  Aandingin 
quicklilverinftead  of  water,  the  diniinutionwasgent  ral- 
ly inconfiderable  till  the  air  had  palled  through  water." 
In  thefe  experiments  of  burning  conibullible  bodies 
in  a  quantity  of  air,  and  meafuring  the  diminution,  we 
fhould  always  remark  two  caufes  of  miftake,  viz.  the 
abforption  of  air  by  the  coaly  rcfiduum  of  the  burned 
matter,  which  fometimes  is  very  conlldcrable,  or  by 
the  fluid  in  which  the  receiver  is  inverted,  and  the 
produdion  of  elallic  fluid  from  the  burning  fubftan- 
ces ;  thus  gunpowder  generates  a  great  quantity  of 
claflic  fluid  when  inflamed,  &c. 

Even  the  eleftric  fpark  feparates  fixed  air  t'rom  com- 
mon atmofpherical  air  ;  for  when  a  number  of  thefe 
fparks  arc  taken  in  a  fmall  quantity  of  common  air 
over  lime-water, a  diminution-will  take  place,  the  lime 
will  be  precipitated,  and  if  we  put  a  blue  vegetable 
juice  inftead  of  the  lime-water,  it  will  be  turned  red 
by  the  acidity  of  the  fixed  air  depolitcd  upon  it.  Dr 
Prieftley  having  cemented  a  wire  into  one  endof  a  glafs 
tube,  the  diameter  of  which  was  about  one-tenth  of  an 
inch,  and  having  fixed  a  brafs  ball  to  that  extremity 
of  the  wire  which  was  out  of  the  tube,  filled  the  lower 
part  of  it  with  the  juice  of  turnfole  or  archil,  fo  that  a 
quantity  of  common  air  was  contained  in  the  tube  be- 
tween the  extremity  of  the  wire  and  the  furfacc  of  the 
liquor.  Then  takingthceleclricfparksbetweenthe  laid 
wire  and  liquor  for  about  one  minute,  the  upper  part 
of  the  liquor  began  to  look  red,  and  in  about  two  mi- 
nutes it  was  manifelUy  fo.  The  air  at  the  fame  time, 
was  diuiinidied  in  proponionas  the  liquor becamered  ; 
but  when  the  diminution  arrived  to  be  one-fifth  of  the 
quantity  of  the  air  contained,  then  a  longer  elciflriza- 
tion  produced  no  fenfiblc  effed.  "  To  determine," 
fays  the  doctor,  •'  whether  the  caufc  of  the  change  of 
colour  W'as  in  the  air  or  in  the  eledric  matter,  I  ex- 
panded the  air  which  had  been  diminifhed  in  the  tube 
by  means  of  anair-jnniip,  till  it  expelled  all  the  liquor, 
and  admitted  frclh  bLie  liquor  in  its  place  ;  but  after 
that,  eledricity  produced  no  fenfiblc  cfFeft,  cither  on 
the  air  or  on  the  liquor  ;  fo  that  it  was  evident  that  the 
rlcftric  matter  had  dccompofed  the  air,  and  had  made 
it  depofit  fomething  that  was  of  an  acid  nature." 

The  calcination  of  metals,  as  already  obfcrvcd,  phlo- 
gifticaics,  and  confcqucntly  diminidies  common  air  ; 


LOGY.  18.7 

but  dots  not  produce  any  fixed  air,fince  the  limc-Witer,  Of  Artifi- 

over  which  the  cakii-.ation  is  made,  dots  not  become   c'pl  Air». 

turbid  ;  and  when  metallic  calxcS  arc  expofed  to  a  fuf-         '       ' 

ficiently  ftrong  heat,  they  in  gtncral  yield  fomc  fixed 

air  :  fo  that  it  fecms  that  the  fixed  air  v.  hich  is  formed 

in  the  act  of  the  calcination  of  metals  is  abforhed  by 

the  calx.     Some  fixed  air  may  be  obtained  from  red 

lead,  by  no  greater  degree  of  h  eat  than  that  0}  the  dame 

of  a-candle  applied  to  the  phial  that  contains  it.  igo 

The  calcareous  earths,  v/hich,  when  arted  on  by  Obuii.ci! 
acids,  yield  a  vaft  quantity  of  fixed  airj  produce  a  very  fronieirkt 
fmall  quantity  of  it  when  expofed  to  a  ftrong  heat  by  ^J ''Y*°* 
themfelves,in  aproperveircl,cven  when  expofed  to  the  " 
focus  of  a  lens.     Dr  Pricftlcy,  in  his  expcrin;ents  re- 
lating to  the  production  of  dephlogifticctcd  air  from  va- 
rious fubftanccs,whcnnioiftcUcJ  with  nitrousacid,aud 
afterwards  expofed  to  a  fuflicicnt  degree  of  heat,  gene- 
rally found  that  fome  fixed  air  was  produced  together 
with  the  dephlogifticated  air  ;  butofttn  obtained  fixed 
air  only,  without  any  dephlogifticated  air  being  mixed 
with  it,  or  fixed  and  nitrous  air  together.  From  half  in 
ounceof  ruft  of  iron,  moiftened  with  fpirit  of  nitre,  and  ' 
dried,  he  obtained  about  a  quart  of  elaftic  fluid,  about 
one-third  of  which  was  fixed  and  the  reft  nitrous  air. 
From  alhes  of  pit-coal,  treated  in  the  fame  manner,  he 
obtained  nearly  the  like  refult.     But  in  thofe  experi- 
ments, the  Doftor  moftly  ufed  a  gun-barrel,  into  which 
he  introduced  thefubftancestobe  tried ;  fo  that  it  ii  very 
probable,  as  hejuftly  obfcrves,  that  the  iron  might  have 
contributed  to  the  formation  of  the  fixed  air.     In  facl', 
when  he  tried  lubftances  of  the  fame  fort,firft  in  a  gun- 
barrel  and  then  in  glafs  vcflcls,  he  obtained  much  more 
fixed  air  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter  cafe.     One 
of  thofe  experiments  he  made  with  tobacco-pipe  clay, 
which,  after  being  moiftened  with  fpirit  of  nitre,  was 
when  dry  expofed  to  the  fire  in  a  gun-barrel7  and  yield- 
ed fome  elaftic  fluid,  which  appeared  to  be  wholly  fix- 
ed air  ;  but  repeating  the  experiment  in  a  glafs  phial 
with  a  ground  ftopple,  and  taking  the  produced  ela- 
ftic fluid  at  eight  diflerent  times,  found  that  on  the 
beginning  fomc  fixed  air  was  produced,  but  afterwards 
the  produce  was  dephlogifticated  air.     He  made  a 
fimilar  experiment  with  flints  carefully  calcined  in 
clofc  velFcls,  and  obtained  a  fmiilar  refult.  ,^, 

Moft  minerals  contain  fixed  air,  which  may  be  ex-  From  diffc- 
tradlcd  to  a  certain  degree  by  means  of  heat.     Mr  rem  mine- 
Krenger,  diftilling  a  greenifli  fulihle  fpar,  which  was  '■^• 
luminous  in  the  dark,  obtained  from  it  fomc  per.-ua- 
nently  elaftic  fluid,  which,  like  fixed  air,  cryftallizcd  a 
folutionof  fixed  alkali.     Mr  Fontana  in  hisanalyiisof 
the  malachite,  finds  that  that  mineral  contains  a  vaft 
quantity  of  fixed  air,  as  pure  as  that  whici'.  is  extracl- 
cd  from  chalk  by  means  of  vitriolic  acid. 

From  almoft  every  metallic  ore  and  earthy  mineral 
fome  fixed  air  may  be  obtained,  as  well  as  from  chalk, 
lime-ftone,  marble,  marine  fliells,  fixed  and  volatile  al- 
kali, and  from  maguclia  alba,  by  means  of  a  violent  fire, 
or  of  acids. 

In  Mr  Boyle's,  Dr  Boerhaave's  and  Dr  K;'.lcs"j 
works,  and  in  other  books,  the  quantities  of  elaftic 
fluid  generated  in  various  procclTcs,  and  by  divers  fub- 
ftances,  are  mentioned  with  dilUnclion,  but  as  thofe 
writers  are  not  acquainted  with  thecharatHereftic  pro- 
perties of  fixed  air,  we  do  not  know  whether  the  elaftic 
fluid  mentioned  by  them  was  pure  fixed  air  or  not. 

A  a  3  From 


J  S3  A      ]L      K      O 

Of  Artifi-  From  niiinial  fiibll?.!iccE,  niixcil  ^^  itli  fj-irit  of  nitre, 
ci.il  !\ite.  and  Ibuiciinits  h<alcda  lilllf,  in  onlir  to  tacilh.uc;  tlic 
'  "'  '  prodiiciion  ofclullic  fluid,  Dr  I'lici^j^ obtained,  in 
general,  fixed  air  ;  biitVhcrcas  ilic  tixt  J  air  produced 
by  a  liniil;(rproctfs  with  vegetable  liibltanccs  ismollly 
inixcd  ^^■ilh  nitrous  air,  this  is  mixed  with  an  claliic 
fluid,  which  is  ftldom  .litroits  in  a  very  llij;ht  degree, 
bin  is  ol'ten  phlogifliciind  :;ir,  viz.  in  Inch  a  ihite  as 
cxtinj^ui flies  a  candle,  docs  not  diniinifli  comrnon  air, 
nor  is  iiTelf  diniinilhcd  by  nitrons  air.  Towards  the 
end  of  the  iiroccfs,  the  Doilor  remarks,  "  that  when 
by  means  of  a  llrong  heat,  the  pro. luce  of  air  is  very 
raj-id,  and  the  air  full  of  clouds,  it  is,  like  air,  produ- 
ced from  \egctal>lc  fubitanccs  in  the  fame  circnniftan- 
ces,  llii!,litly  inJiamnir.bic,  buruin;;  with  a  hnibent, 
grcenini,  or  bluiih  tlanie." 

(3.)  By  achh.  Calcareous  fubflaiices  in  general  pro- 


O      G       Y. 


Sea.  XIV. 


Altundant- 

lyrfo''""'' duce  abundance  of  fixed  air  when  at'lcd  iii'on  by  any 

I'rom  calca- 
reous fub- 
ftanccs. 


■  acid,  only  the  llrongcfl  acids  will  expel  jVoju  them 
more  fixed  air  than  the  wcakcll ;  and  it  happpens  to  be 
peculiarly  advantageous  for  thole  who  want  to  proJiicc 
a  great  quantity  of  iixcd  air,  th«l  the  vitriolic  acid  is 
both  the  clicapcft  .ind  llrongcfl  acid,  and,  upon  the 
whole,  the  fittcll  for  this  purpofe.  The  phenomena 
attending  the  produflion  of  fixed  air  from  caLartoas 
fublUncis,  &c.  arc  themrtlvcs  very  remarkable,  and 
furnilh  the  fubjec'l  of  much  fpcculation  in  phiKilophy. 
— The  principal  fads  arc  the  following,  i.  Wlicn 
calcareous  earths,  alkalis,  andinannefia,  in  thtir  ufual 
ftate,arc  mixed  with  acids, they  caufcancftcrvcrccnce; 
and  confciiutntly  the  production  of  a  permanently  ela- 
flic  fluid,  namely,  fixed  air.  2.  Thefc  iubflanccs  re- 
tain the  fixed  air  very  obfliuatcly  ;  fo  that  a  ftrong  fire 
is  nccefTary  toexpcl  it  from niagnelia, and  il.e  ilron^eil 
is  not  fiifficicnt  to  expel  it  entirely  from  feed  alkalis, 
and  efpecially  from  calcareous  earths  (a).  V«'hcn  tliefe 
fubflanccs  are  treated  with  acids,  they  yield  the  fixed 
air,  bccaufe  they  have  a  flrongcr  attraclion  to  thofe 
acids  than  to  the  fixed  air.  3.  The  calcareous  earths 
which  are  infoUible  in  water,  when  dcj'iivcd  of  the 
fixed  air  becotnc  fohible  in  it.  Thus  linic-Aonc  is  not 
foluble  in  water,  but  lime  (viz.  limc-flone  deprived  of 
its  fixed  air  (is  foluble  in  water.  And  if  thofe  fub- 
Aanecs,  deprived  of  their  fixed  air,  are  put  in  a  fitua- 
tion  proper  to  recover  their  lofl  fixed  air,  tlicy  lofe 
the  property  of  being  foluble  in  water.  Thus,  when 
lime-water  is  expofcd  to  fixed  air,  the  lime  abforbs  the 
•fixed  air  ;  and,  lofing  at  the  fame  time  its  property  of 
being  foluble  in  water,  is  precipitated  from  it  in  the 
llate  it  was  before  calcination,  vi/..  of  a  ralcarcous 
earth  infoluble  in  w'ater,  and  capable  of  cfiervcfcing 
with  acids.  4.  Alkalis,  both  fixed  and  volatile,  when 
deprived  of  their  fixed  air,  become  more  raullic,  and 
more  powerful  folvcnts,  incapable  of  crylhllization, 
and  of  efiervefcing  with  acids.  But  if  to  thofe  alkalis, 
and  alfo  e?rihs  rendered  more  cauflic,  their  fixed  air 
be  reftorcd,  they  acquire  at  once  all  the  properties 
they  had  before  they  were  deprived  of  the  fixcvi  air, 
viz^  they  become  more  mild,  eiTervefce  with  acids,  rc- 
coven  their  weight,  8:c. 


Thofe  properties  of  calcareous  earths  .Tnd  alkalis  OfiXn.fi- 
wcre  afcertaiued  by  the  learned  Dr  I  l„ck,  wii(>  ptr-    cial  Air?. 

formed  a  variety  of  decifive  and  w  ell-contrived  exi  cri-  "       "^ ' 

iiients,  upon  which  he  formed  a  juli  theory,  vi/..  that 
the  caufticiiy,  Iharpncfs,  loliibiliiy,  &c.  of  thofe  fnb- 
Itances,  wasowing  to  the  fixed  air  being  expelled  from 
them  ;  and  that  when  they  were  coniLii^ed  v.iih  a  pro- 
per quantity  of  fixed  air,  they  were  mild.  See.  The 
Uottor  gives  the  epithet  of  wii.i  10  thofe  fnbrianccs 
when  they  arc  combined  with  air,  and  of  i:^////,-c  when 
deprived ol'it;  ascanftic  calcareous  earth,  caufiicfixtii 
alkali, &c.  Among  the  other  experiments,  he  connec- 
ted two  phials  by  means  of  a  bent  tube  ;  in  one  of  which 
he  pi.t  fomc  caiiJiic  i'pirit  of  fal  ammoniac,  and  iji  the 
other  fomc  luild  alkali,  or  mild  calcareous  earth  ;  then 
pouring,  through  a  hole  made  in  the  lidc  of  the  latter 
piiial,  fonie  .-.cid  upon  the  mild  alkali,  fo  as  to  produce 
fome  fixed  air,  which,  lulling  tlirouj^h  the  tube  into 
theother  phial,  combined  with  the  fpirit  of  fal  ammo- 
iiiar,  and  rendered  it  mild. 

Eufy  7i:cthods  of  oituhi'mg  F'^xablc  /-llr  for  oicaf  vital 
Expdinicutj,  Sic. 

( I .)  By  Fcrnjciitiitioii.  Mix  together  equal  parts  of 
bfov.  n  fiigar  and  good  ycft  cf  beer,  to  v.  hich  add  about 
tw  ice  the  bulk  of  water.  This  mixture  being  put  in- 
to a  phial,  to  which  a  bent  tube  with  a  cork  nay  be 
adapted,  w  ill  yield  a  confiderablc  quantity  of  fixed  air, 
which  may  be  received  into  a  phial  filled  with  qnick- 
lilvcr  or  water,  as  in  the  following  proccfs. 

(2.)  By  ^^cids.  Let  a  glafs  tube,  open  at  both  ends, 
be  bent,  by  means  of  a  blow-pipe  and  the  flame  of  a 
candle,  nearly  into  the  Ihape  of  an  S,  as  it  is  rcpre- 
fenicd  by  Ali,  and  fix  a  cork  D  to  one' of  its  extre- Plate  X. 
mities,  fo  ns  10  fit  the  neck  of  a  common  phial,  that  fig.  i. 
may  hold  about  four  or  live  ounce-  nicafiires.  The  hole 
through  the  cork  may  be  made  with  an  iron  wire  red- 
hot,  and  the  tube  ntay  be  laflened  in  it  with  a  bit  of 
fofi  wax,  fo  as  not  to  let  any  air  go  through.  Fill  a 
fimilar  phial,  or  any  glafs  receiver  X,with  water,  and  Cavaiu  «» 
invert  it  after  the  manner  (hown  above,  in  a  bafon  Hi,  Air. 
about  half  iilled  with  water.  Now  put  fome  chalk  or 
marble,  grofsly  powdered,  itito  the  bottle  E,  fo  as  to 
fill  about  a  foarth  or  fit'th  part  of  it,  and  itpoil  it  pour 
fome  water,  juft  enough  to  cover  the  chalky  then  add 
fomc  oil  of  vitriol  to  it,  which  needs  not  be  more  than 
about  the  fourth  or  fifth  part  of  the  water.  Imnte- 
diatcly  after,  apply  the  cork  D,  with  the  tube  AB, 
to  the  bottle,  and  putting  it  in  the  litaation  KG,  Jet 
the  extremity  B  of  the  tubepafs  through  the  water  of 
the  bafon  into  the  neck  of  the  bottle  K,  which  now 
mufl  be  kept  up  with  t/.c  hand,  or  other  convenient 
fiipport,  as  it  cannot  reil  npen  the  bottom  of  the  ba- 
fon. The  mixture  of  chalk,  &c.  in  the  bottle  FG, 
will  immediately  begin  to  cfTervcfcc,  fiiowing  a  froth- 
ing, and  an  intcfline  motion  accompanied  with  heat, 
that  may  be  felt  by  applying  the  hand  to  the  outfidc 
of  the  fluid.  The  elaitic  fluid  called  fixed  air  is  co- 
I'ioully  emitted  from  this  mixture,  and  I'affing  through 
the  bent  tube,  will  go  into  the  bottle  K,  as  appears 
by  the  bubbles  wliich  come  out  of  the  tube,  and,  pal- 
ling 


(a)  Chalk,  limc-ftone,  £<c.  after  being  kept  in  a  very  flrong  fire  for  many  hours,  if  they 
ids,  yield  a  conlidcrable  quantity  of  fixed  ajr  ;   wliich  Ihows  that  the  pnrefl  quick-lime  c 


aci 
fixed  air 


are  ptit  into 
contains  fomc 


Seel.  XIV. 


A 


E       R      O      L       O      G      Y. 


Of/^rtifi-  (ing  throui^h  the  water,"  aP  ciul  to  tlie  top  of  tlic  in- 
cial  Air».  vciicJ  bottle.  Ill  jToporikm  as  ilic  clallic  riuiJ  tills 
^  thcb)t'lf.  K,  the  w:Ucr  gradually  defccncis,  aiidat  lalt 
is  quite  cxixllcd  from  ic ;  the  bot^e  K  then  is  rilled 
with  fixed  air,  and  being  corked  under  water,  may  be 
removed  from  the  bnloii,  and  kept  for  ufe.  Another 
boirlcniay  tlien  It  lilled  with  water,  and  nny  be  in- 
verted over  the  extremity  of  the  bent  tube  in  the  place 
ofK,  which  other  bottle  may  be  lilled  ia  a  limilar  man- 
ner, and  fo  on  tiU  the  niixttire  in  KG  has  linilhtj  to 
yield  nny  fixed  air. 

If  one  of  thcfe  bottles  filled  with  fixed  air  be  un- 
corked, and,  holding  it  with  the  mouth  upwards,  a 
lighted  wax  taper,  bent  like  L,  or  a  fiiiall  piece  of  it 
affixed  to  the  cxireniiiy  ofa\vi;-e,  be  immcJiately  let 
down  in  it,  the  ilaine  will  be  inllaatly  extin^uiihcd. 
The  fame  thing  wiil  ha;jK-u  if  a  lighted  piece  of  wood 
islet  down  in  it. 

Take  a  clean  bowl,  and  p'jtting  the  mouth  of  a  bot- 
tle, filled  witli  fiXcd  air,  in  it,  uncork  it,  and  keej)  it  in 
that  fituation  for  about  a  miiuitc.  The  fixed  air  be- 
ing fpcciiically  heavier  tl:an  common  air,  will  come  out 
of  the  bottle,  and  will  rcr.iain  at  the  bottom  of  the 
bowl,  whilit  common  air  enters  into  the  bottle  ;  which 
bottle  may  now  by  removed  ;  and,  in  order  to  Ihow  the 
rcalf  iiflenceofthe  fixed  air,  which  will  immediately 
Cdvalh  an  fliow  its  being  jieavicr  than  common  air,  put  a  lighted 
ylir.  wax-taperiutotbc  bowl,  pretty  near  its  bottom,  which 

taj'er  will  be  extinguilhcd  immediately.  The  air  in 
this  experiment  muit  be  agitated  as  little  as  it  is  pof- 
fible.  That  theflamcof  the  wax  taperwas  really  cx- 
tinguidicdby  the  lixcJair,  may  be  calily  proved  in  the 
lollovviHg  uiancr  : — Ulow  once  or  twice  into  the  bowl, 
by  which  means  the  iixc  J  air  will  be  expelled  from  it ; 
and  then,  on  letting  doivn  alighted  wax-taper  in  it  as 
before,  it  will  be  found  that  itisiiolonger  extinguilh- 
cd, but  will  burn  very  well,  the  bovvl  being  now  tilled 
with  common  air.  This  experiment  never  fails  of  fur- 
prilingthcfpetlators,  as  it  clearly  cxliibits  two  remark- 
able properties  of  a  fluid,  which  they  can  neither  lee 
Jior  difliiiguilh  by  the  feeling. 

When  the  bottle  K  is  about  half  filled  with  fixed 
air,  put  a  mark  with  a  bit  of  foft  wax  on  the  outlide 
of  it,  jiifl  coiiiciJing  with  the  level  of  the  water  in  it, 
and  immediately  after  lliake  the  bottle  ;  but  taking 
care  that  its  mouth  be  not  lifted  above  the  furface  of 
the  water  in  the  bafon.  After  having  fhaken  it  for 
about  a  minute,  on  intermitting  the  agitation,  it  will 
be  found  that  the  wafr  is  above  the  mark  ;  which 
fhows  that  fome  of  the  fixed  air  has  been  abforbed  by 
it.  Let  this  abforption  be  carried  on  as  far  as  pof- 
fiblc,  by  agitating  the  bottle  repeatedly,  and  allowing 
time  to  let  more  rixed  air  be  produced  and  cuter  into 
the  bottle  in  proportion  as  the  water  abforbs  it.  Then 
apply  the  hand,  ora  finger,  to  the  niouthof  the  b'tile 
whiiil:  under  water  ;  bring  the  bottle  out,  and  turn  it 
with  the  mouth  upwards.  The  water  then  will  be 
found  to  have.icquired  a  pleafant  acidulous  taile,  Ti\e 
water  th  isimpregiiated  withfixedairchaugcs  the  blue 
infuliou  of  Ibmc  vegetable  fubflances  into  red  ;  lb  that 
if  a  weak  folution  of  heliotrope  is  mixed  with  it,  or 
indeed  if  it  is  limply  cxpofed  to  lixcd  air,  the  liquor 
acquires  a  reddilh  appearance.  It  alio  corrodes  iron, 
and  fome  other  metals,  mn^nTore  calily  than  commoi 
water.     But  the  grcatcll  and  inoil  ufcful  property  of 


1S9, 

this  acidulated  water,  or  water  impregnated  with  fix-  Of  Artifi- 
ed  air,  is  its  being  a  powerful  a:'.tifcptic.  As  the  moft    ciJ  Airs, 
ufed  mineral  waters  arc  medicinal  ]>rLicipaily  on  at-   — — v^— ' 
count  of  their  being 'mpregnatc^  with  fixed  air,  bclidcs 
wliich  they  generally  ^on  tain  fume  tmall  portion  of  me- 
tal or  fait  dillblvcd  ;  they  may  be  imitated  by  imprig-  , 
nating  water  with  iixed  airund  then  adding  ilui  quan- 
tify of  lalt  or  of  mct,il,  that  by  analylis  the  original 
mineral  waters  arc  found  to  contain. 

It  is  for  its  grcatpropertyof  hindtringputrefaiflion,  Ufcful  pro- 
tliat  fixed  air  by  itlclf,  or  incorporated  with  various  pcrticsof 
fluids,  cfpeci.illy  with  water,  and  that  vegctabUs,  •'"J  ^"■• 
fugar,  and  ctlitr  ftibdances  which  abound  with  hxtd 
air,  are  very  powerful  remedies  i.i  putrid  dilVafts.  Sir 
John  I'ringlc  fuppofcs,  with  great  i)robabitity,  that 
thefrtquent  ufe  of  fugar  and  vc^ctanl-s,  wiiich  at  this 
time  make  up  a  conlidcrable  part  of  the  diet  of  the 
European  n.-ttions,  prevents  thole  putrid  dilc.iles  and 
plagues  which  formerly  were  rather  frequent. — Or 
IV'acbride,  Ihowing  experimentally  that  fixed  air  is 
dilchargcd  by  fuch  fubllanccs  as  form  our  couimou 
food,  afcribcs  the  preft  rvation  of  the  body  from  putre- 
faition  in  great  mcafure  to  the  fixed  air,  which  in  the 
ordinary  procels  of  digeftion  is  difeiigajed  from  the  a- 
liment,  and  incorporates  with  the  Huids  of  the  body. 

From  tire  fame  property  it  may  be  alio  ufcfully  ap- 
plied to  fcveral  oeconomital  purpofcs.  Mr  Ktnry 
found,  that  fixed  air  can  preferve  fruit  for  a  conlidcr- 
able time.  He  tried  a  bunch  of  Italian  grapes,  which 
being  fufpended  in  the  middle  part  of  Or  Nooth's  ap- 
paratus, and  being  fupi-licd  with  plentiful  f^reanij  of' 
fixed  air  every  day,  was  prcfervcd  without  any  ligns  of 
decay  for  about  one  month  longer  than  a  limilar  buucli 
fufpended  in  a  decanter  containing  common  air.  Straw- 
berries and  cherries  he  alfo  found  to  be  prcl'irveJ 
without  decay  fome  days  longer  in  fixed  thin  in 
common  air.  Indeed  tlxcd  air  prefcrvcs  not  only  fruit, 
but  refills  putrefaction  in  general.  Dr  Macbridc, 
in  his  elegant  ellays  on  Medical  and  Philofophieal 
Subjccis,has  pubtilhed  various  experiments  wliich  ic- 
rrsonflr.-.te  this  property  of  fixed  air.  He  found,  that 
not  only  good  meat  was  preferved  incorrupt  for  a  con- 
fiderable  tiiue,  when  c.xpofed  to  fixed  air  ;  but  that 
the  putrcfudion  of  fubftances  aftually  putrid  was  im- 
peded by  this  means,  and  even  that  thofc  fubtlances 
were  reftorcd  from  the  putrefcent  to  a  found  Hate.  lij^ 
Tliat  putrefaftion  was  cheeked  by  fermentation,  was  Refills  pu- 
difeovcrd  by  Sir  John  Pringle  ;  and  l)r  M.iebride  ob-  trtfailion- 
fervcd.  that  tliis  c<feCt  was  owingto  the  fixed  air  pro- 
duced in  the  a6t  of  fermentation.  But  it  mull  be 
obfervcd,  that  when  the  fbiiiid,  or  even  putrid  fub- 
flances, expofe  a  very  great  furface  to  the  fixed  air,  as 
is  the  'afe  with  milk,  bile,  and  other  iluids  imprc^'-.a- 
ted  with  fixed  air,  and  alfo  with  finall  liits  of  meat, 
then  tiicy  arc  preferved  for  a  conlidcrable  time  :  but 
large  pieces  of  ("olid  animil  liddla  ices,  as  for  influucc 
roundilh  pieces  of  flelli  of  about  half  a  pouf.d  weight, 
do  not  feeni  to  remain  incorrupt  niurii  longer  in  fixed 
than  in  comnum  lir  ;  at  Icail  the  difference  is  inconli- 
(Icrablc,  Sir  WiMam  Lrc,  baroi'et,  in  tWo  nf  his  let- 
ters to  Dr  I'riclilcy,  informs  him  of  his  having  found, 
that  tiolh-meat,  even  in  t'le  iiot  fealon,  could  be  pre- 
fcrved^v-liolefonie  tor  fcvcial  days,  by  only  wi.hir.g  ic 
two  or  three  limes  a-dsy  in  water  impregnated  with 

dxcd 


190 

of  Artifi. 
cial  Airs 


185 
PrnduClion 
of  inliaiu- 

axMe  air* 


186 
Pheno- 
mena. 


AERO 

(ixcJ  air.  "  W'c  have  been  enabled,"  dys  he,  "  to 
prelervc  meat  as  perfectly  fweet  anJ  good  to*  the  ex- 
tent of  ten  days,  as  at  the  lirll  killing  :  and  there  I'eenis 
no  doubt  it  might  be  preferved  much  longer."  He 
]ias  even  recovered  Ibme  meat  that  had  begun  to 
change.  This  iifetul  difcovery,  Sir  William  jaltly  ob- 
ferves,  may  be  very  beneficial  to  the  public,  efpe- 
cially  to  butchers.  "  Particularly  a  butcher,"  fays 
he,"  who  deals  pretty  largely,  alhires  me  he  found 
the  grtatcll  fuccefs  from  it,  and  only  objects  that  the 
veal  was  a  little  difcoloarcd  though  kept  perfedly 
fweet." 

Fixed  air,  as  it  combines  with  water,  fo  it  may  be 
combined  with  other  liquors.  Beer,  wine,  and  other 
fermented  liquors,  may  be  impregnated  with  fixed  air, 
and  by  this  means  their  Iharpirtfs  may  be  reilored, 
when  they  are  becom(fvapid,  or  as  it  is  commonly  fai  J, 
dead.  Tlie  acidulous  tafte  communicated  by  the  im- 
pregnation of  fixed  air,  cannot  be  difcovered  in  beer, 
wines,  and,  in  Ihort,  in  fuch  liquors  which  have  much 
tafte  of  their  own.  Milk  acquires  an  acidulous  tafte 
by  being  impregnated  with  fixed  air,  and  is  tliereby 
preferved  incorrupt  for  fome  days ;  which  affords  a 
very  eafy  expedient  of  prcierviug  milk  in  thofe  pla- 
ces where  it  cannot  be  had  new  very  often. 

5  2.  To  produce  IsFLAMM^BLE  Air — The  procefs 
for  making  this  fort  of  gas  is  the  fame  as  that  for  nia- 
Jiing  tixed  air:  one  ot^the  materials  only  muft  be  dif- 
ferent, viz.  iron-filings,  or  grof»ly  powdered  zinc, 
muft  be  ufed  inftcad  of  chalk  ;  to  which  filings  fome 
oil  of  vitriol  and  water  mull  be  added,  in  the  fame  pro- 
portion as  in  the  fixed  air,  or  rather  a  little  more  of 
oil  of  vitriol. 

N.  B.  Inftead  of  the  filings  of  iron,  fmall  nails,  or 
fmallbits  of  iron-wire,  anfwer  equally  well. 

The  inflammable  elaftic  fluid  produced  by  this  mix- 
ture has  a  diiplcaling  fmell,  even  when  mixed  with  a 
very  large  quantity  of  common  air ;  lb  that  if  any 
conliderable  quantity  of  it  comes  out  of  the  bottle, 
before  the  cork  with  the  bent  tube  be  applied  to  it,  &c. 
its  fmell  may  be  perceived  all  over  the  room  in  which 
the  experiment  is  made,  but  this  fmtll  is  not  particu- 
larly otFenfive. 

When  a  bottle  has  been  filled  tvith  this  elaftic  fluid, 
flop  the  mouth  of  it  with  your  thumb,  or  any  ftopper, 
and  taking  it  out  of  the  bafon,  bring  it  near  the  liame 
of  a  candle  ;  and  when  the  mouth  of  the  botileis  very 
near  it,  remove  the  ftopper,  and  the  cl.iftic  fluid  con- 
tained in  the  bottle  will  be  immediately  inflamed  ;  and 
if  the  capacity  of  the  bottle  is  nearly  equal  to  four 
ounce-meafures,  it  will  continue  burning  quietly  for 
about  half  a  minute,  the  flame  gradually  defccnding 
lower  and  lower,  as  far  as  about  the  middle  of  the  bot- 
tle, in  propotiion  as  the  inflammable  gas  is  confumed. 

In  this  experiment  we  fee,  that  inflammable  air  fol- 
lows the  general  rule  of  all  other  combuftible  fuh- 
flances,  namely,  that  of  burning  only  vvhen  in  eontad 
with  common  air  :  thus  the  flame  of  this  gas,  whilfl 
burning,  is  obfcrvable  only  on  that  furface  of  it  wliich 
is  contiguous  to  the  common  air  ;  fo  that  if  the  bottle 
be  clofcti,  the  flame  is  put  out  immediately,  becaufe 
the  air  is  intercepted  from  it.  But  if  the  inflammable 
air  were  put  in  fuch  a  fituation  as  to  expofc  a  very 
great  furface  to  the  common  air,  it  is  plain,  that  by 


o 


Y. 


Sc<a.  xiv. 


this  iiieaus  its  combuftion  would  be  accelerated,  fo  as 
to  let  it  burn  iiiilantly,  and  go  oft' with  an  explofion, 
caufed  by  the  Hidden  rarcfaclion  of  the  air.  In  facl, 
this  efFetl;  may  be  eaiily  obferved  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  When  the  bottle  is  to  be  inverted  into  the  baton, 
in  order  to  let  rt  be  rilled  with  the  intiammablc  gas, 
inftead  of  filling  it  entirely  with  water,  let  half  of  it 
remain  filled  with  common  air  ;  then  invert  it,  and  let 
theoiherhalf,  which  is  nov/ filled  with  water,  be  filled 
withiniiammablc  air  after  tlieufual  manner  ;and  when 
the  bottle  is  full,  remove  it  in  the  manner  fliown  above, 
and  approach  it  to  the  flame  of  the  candle,  by  which 
means  the  inflammable  air  takes  fire  ;  but  now  it  ex- 
plodes all  at  once  with  a  large  flame  and  a  conlider- 
able report,  fometimes  breaking  the  boiile  in  which  it 
is  contained.  In  this  cafe,  ihe  bottle  being  filled  with 
equal  parts  of  inflammable  and  common  air,  tliefe  two 
elaftic  fluids  wercmixcd  together,  fothat  abnoll  every 
particle  of  the  one  touched  every  particle  of  the  other, 
and  hence  the  fuddcn  combuftion  was  occafioned.  The 
force  of  this  explolion  isfo  veryconfiderable,  that  foinc 
piftols  have  been  contrived,  which  are  charged  with  a 
mixture  of  air  and  inrtammable  gas,  and  being  fired 
by  means  of  an  eleclric  fpark,  are  capable  to  drive  a 
leaden  bullet  with  great  violence.  Sometimes  thofc 
piftols  are  made  of  glafs  (but  in  this  cafe  they  are  not 
charged  with  a  bullet),  and  it  is  very  diverting  to  Ihow 
that  piftolsarc  charged  and  explode  by  the  combaftioa 
of  an  invillblc  fubftancc. 

When  a  (lender  pipe  is  tied  to  the  neck  of  a  blad- 
der, and  the  bladder  is  filled  with  inflammable  air, 
after  the  manner  defcribcd  in  the  preceding  experi- 
ment (viz.  when  the  bladder  was  required  to  be  filled 
with  fixed  air),  two  V4»jy  plcaling  experiments  may  be 
performed  with  it.  P'irli:,  the  inrtammable  gas  may  be 
inflamed  by  applying  the  flame  of  the  candle  to  the 
extremity  of  the  pipe  ;  and  fqueczingat  the  fame  time 
the  bladder,  a  ftream  of  fire  will  be  formed  in  the  air, 
which  will  laft  a&  long  as  the  bladder  contains  any  in- 
flammable air  ;  for  this  gas  coming  out  of  the  pipe 
with  violence,  will  coiui  Hue  in  flamed  for  a  conliderable 
way  in  the  air.  Secondly,  the  extremity  of  the  pipe 
may  be  dipped  into  a  fohuion  of  Ibap,  then  removing 
it  from  the  folution,  and  fqueczing  the  bladder  very 
gently,  a  ball  of  foap-water  may  be  fornud,  including 
in.iainmable  air  :  v.'hieh  ball,  onacconntof  the  inflam- 
mable gas  being  much  lighter  than  common  air,  asfoon 
as  it  is  detached  from  the  pipe  will  afcend  upwards, 
and  will  break  by  dalhing  agaiuft  the  ceiling,  contrary 
to  thofc  commonly  made  by  children,  whicji  in  ftillair 
go  downwards. — Whilll  the  ball  is  afcendjng,  if  the 
flame  of  the  candle  be  approached  to  it,  the  film  of 
foap-water  will  be  inftantly  broke,  and  the  inflam- 
mable air  will  take  fire  ;  thus  a  flame  may  be  lltowu 
to  be  feeiningly  produced  from  a  foap-ball. 

By  taking  cledric  fparks  in  any  kind  of  oil,  fpirit 
of  wiue,  ether,  or  fpirit  of  fal  ammoniac,  Dr  Pricft- 
ley  obtained  inflammable  air.  The  oil,  or  other  li- 
quor, was  confined  in  a  glafs  tube  by  quickfilver,  and 
■A  wire  was  cemented  in  the  upper  part  of  the  tube, 
through  which  ihe  fparks  being  fent,  went  to  the 
quickfilver  through  the  oil ;  but  after  that  a  few  fparks 
had  been  taken,  a  cpianiity  of  iuflammable  air  was 
generated.  Sec.  Left>tlflj  production  of  inflammable 
air  Ihould  be  attributed  to  the  cement  which  faftened 

the 


Of 


Artifi. 


cial  Airs. 


187 

Inflamma- 
ble air  ob- 
taincdfroDi 
varioukfiib- 
flaiiccs. 


5e6t.  XIV.  AERO 

Of  Artifi-  ihs  wire,  the  Dofbor  repeated  the  experiment  with 

cul  Airs,    ether  in  aglafs  fyphon  ;  but  the  iuhanmialile  air  was 

— ~^ — ~  generated  as  before.     This  cluflic  Hiiid  does  not  loie 

its  inllaiuniabiliiy  by  being  palled  fcveral  times  from 

one  vclltl  intoaiiotlitr  through  water. 

Alkaline  air,  by  takinj;;  eltiilric  cxploiions  in  it,  is 
changed  into  inflammable  air. 

By  means  of  acids,  inflammable  air  is  obtained  in 
greater  abundance,  and  more  readily.  Iron,  zinc,  or 
tin,  yield  plenty  of  intlammable  air  when  aCted  on  by 
diluted  vitriolic  or  marine  acids. 

Jfiron  is  put  into  ilrong  vitriolic  acid,  (he  quan- 
tity of  claflic  liuid  that  is  produced  is  very  liitlc,  ex- 
cept heat  be  applied  to  the  phial,  for  then  the  pro- 
duction of  elaltic  fluid  is  more  copious;  but  this  cla- 
flic fluid  is  vitriolic  acid  air,  mixed  with  a  fmall  por- 
tion of  inflammable  air,  the  proportional  quantity  of 
it  being  lefs  when  the  acid  is  more  concentrated. 

Zinc  treated  after  the  fame  manner,produees  the  like 
trfFet^s,  except  that  it  gi\cs  more  elatfic  fluid,  without 
the  application  of  heat,  than  iron  does  j  and  the  great- 
cll  part  of  the  pioducedelallic  fluid  is  inriamjnablc. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  greaiefl  quaniity  of  inflam- 
mable air  from  iron  or  zinc,  the  vitriolic  acid  mull  be 
diluted  with  much  water,  as  about  one  part  of  flrong 
oil  of  vitriol  to  live  or  fix  parts  of  water.  Dr  Priefl- 
ley  found,  that  li  grains  of  iron  yielded  8^  ounce- 
lucafures  of  inflammable  air.  According  ;o  Mr  Ca- 
vendilh,  one  ounce  of  zinc,  dilfolved  either  in  the  vi- 
triolic or  marine  acid,  yields  a  quantity  of  inflamma- 
ble air  equal  to  the  bulk  of  356  ounces  of  water  ;  one 
ounce  of  iron,  dilli)lvcd  by  means  of  vitriolic  acid, 
yields  a  quantity  of  inflammable  air  equal  to  the  bulk 
of  412  ounces  of  water  ;  and  one  ounce  of  tin  yields 
half  as  much  inflammable  air  as  iron  docs. 

The  folutions  of  iron,  tin  copper,  lead  and  zinc, 
in  the  marine  acid,  produce  marine  acid  air,  and  in- 
flammable air,  but  in  various  quantities.  The  propor- 
tion of  the  former  to  the  latter  is  as  one  to  eight  in 
iron,  as  one  to  fix  in  tin,  as  three  to  one  in  copper 
and  lead,  and  as  one  to  10  in  zinc.  Regulus  of  anti- 
mony, diiiolved  in  marine  acid,  with  the  application 
of  heat,  yields  a  fmall  quantity  of  elaflic  fluid,  which 
is  weakly  infiammablc. 

Dr  Prielllcy  obtained  infiammnble  air,  not  only  by 
difTolvii'g  various  fubflances  in  marine  acid,  but  alio  by 
expoling  divers  bodies  to  marine  acid  air,  which  is 
probably  tlie  purefl  part  of  the  marine  acid.  Having 
admitted  iron-filings  to  this  acid  air,  they  were  diffol- 
ved  by  it  pretty  fall  ;  half  of  the  elaflic  fiuid  difap- 
l)eared,aud  the  reft  was  rendered  unabforbable  bywa- 
ler,  and  inflammable.  The  fame  effeCit  was  produced 
by  almoll  every  fubflance  which  contains  phlogillon, 
as  by  fpirit  of  wine,  oil  of  olives,  fpirit  of  turpentine, 
charcoal,  phofphorus,  bees  wax,  fulphur,  dry-cork- 
wood, pieces  of  oak,  ivory,  pieces  of  roaftcd  beef,  and 
even  fome  i)ieccs  of  a  whitifli  kind  of  flint. 

A  greater  or  fmaller  portion  of  the  aei.l  air  was  ab- 
forbcd,  and  the  reft  fonietimes  was  all  inflammable, 
and  oficn  was  partly  acid  air,  which  w  as  foon  abforbcd 
on  the  admilfion  of  water,  and  partly  inflammable. 
In  Ihort,  it  feems  as  if  this  acid  air,  having  a  great 
atiiuity  witk  phlogiRon,  fcp.-irates  it  from  all  thole  fub- 
flances which  contain  it  even  in  fmall  quantity,  and 
I'rom  that  combination  becomes  inllauunablc. 


LOGY.  191 

By  means  of  nitrous  acid,  inflammable  air  may  be  rtfArtifi- 
obtained  from  various  fubflances  containing  phlogillon;   cul  Airs. 

but  it  is  always  mixed  with  nitrous  air,  and  fonietimes   *- ' 

alio  with  flxed  and  common  or  phlogiflicated  air.  If 
two  parts  of  fpirit  of  wine,  mixed  with  one  part  of 
nitrous  acid,  are  put  into  a  phial  with  a ground-llopplc 
and  tube,  and  the  flame  of  a  candle  be  applied  to  it,  fo 
as  to  heat  it  gradually,  the  inflammable  air  will  be  pro- 
duced very  readily  ;  the  inflammability  of  which  is, 
however,  not  very  permanent,  for  by  a  little  walhing 
in  water  it  may  be  annihilated.  In  the  folution  of 
mofl  fubftances  in  nitrous  acid,  it  generally  happens, 
that  the  claflic  fluid,  which  is  obtained  towards  the 
latter  end  of  the  procefs,  poflelfcs  the  property  of  be- 
ing inflammable  :  thus  iron,  dilfolved  in  nitrous  acid, 
yields  nitrous  air  ;  but  when  the  nitrous  air  ccafes  to 
be  produced,  if  the  heat  of  a  cindle  be  applied  to  the 
folution,  more  elaflic  fluid  will  be  produced  which  is 
inflammable.  "  The  nitrous  acid  (fays  Dr  Irigen- 
houz)  when  mixed  with  iron-fllings  in  a  very  diluted 
ftate,  gives,  by  the  aflillance  of  a  moderate  degree  of 
heat,  a  mixture  of  different  airs,  partly  fixed,  partly 
common  air,  and  partly  phlogiflicated  air.  See  further 
the  article  Aerostatkin. 

53.  To  produce  NiTRovs  Air — This  permanently 
elaflic  fluid  is  never  found  naturally,  like  fixed  or  in- 
flammable air,  but  is  entirely  artiflcial.  igg 

Either  filvcr,  copper,  brafs,  iron  mercury,  bifmuth.  Nitrous  air 
or  nickel,  whesi  mixed  with  nitrous  acid,  yield  nitrous  's  nuirely 
airin  great  quantities.    Some  of  thcin,  efpecially  mcr-  ^rtificuU 
cy,  require  tlie  aid  of  heat  in  order  to  produce  the 
elaflic  fluid  ;   the  flame  of  a  candle  applied  to  the  phial 
is  fufficient  :   but  others,  efpecially  copper  and  iron, 
do  not  want  the  application  of  any  heat.     Gold  pla- 
tina,  and  the  regulus  of  antimony,  when  put  in  aqua 
regia,  yield  nitrous  air  pretty  readily.     Among  the 
metals,  lead  yields  nitrous  air  in  the  fmallell  quantity. 
"  I  poured  (fays  Dr.  Pricitly)  fmoking  fpirit  of  nitre 
into  a  phial  with  a  ground-flopple  and  tube,  contain- 
ing U  ounce-meafure  fllled  with  fmall  leaden  flior, 
fo  as  to  leave  no  common  air  at  all,    either  in  the 
phial  or   in  the   tube  ;     and   I    placed    it  fo  as    to 
receive  the  air  that  might  come  from   it  in  water.       i8<; 
After  waiting  an  hour,  in  w  hich  little  or  no  air  was  From  what 
produced,   I  ap])lied  the  flame  of  a   candle,  though  fuMfance* 
not  very  near,  to  it  :  and  in  thcfe  circumftances  I  got  pr-Ju""!- 
about  an  ouncc-nieaiure  of  air:  but  upon  fome  water 
rufhingintothc  phial  while  the  candle  was  withdrawn, 
air  was  produced  very  plentifully.     I  colleded  in  all 
about  a  quarter  of  a  pint  ;  and  might  probably  have 
got  much  more,  but  that  the  fait  formed  by  the  folu- 
tion of  the  lead  had  fo  nearly  clofed  up  the  tube,  that 
I  thought  propertodifconiinue  the  procefs.     The  air, 
both  of  the  flrfl  and  of  the  lafl  produce,  was  of  ihc 
fame  quantity  ;  and  fo  far  nitrous,  that  two  meafurcs 
of  common  air,  and  one  of  this,  occupied  the  fpacc 
of  two  meafures  only  ;  excepting  that  the  very  rirll 
and  very  lafl  produce,  mixed  with  common  air,  took 
up  a  little  more  room  than  that  which  I  got  in  the 
middle  of  the  procefs.     When  the  air  was  produced 
very  fall,  it  was  exceedingly  turbid,  as  if  it  had  been 
filled  with  a  white  powder." 

Among  the  lemi-metals,  zinc  gives  the  wcakefl  ni- 
trous air,  V,  hcu  dilfolved  in  nitroui  acid.     The  claiHc 

fluid 


l()2 

Of  Artifi- 
cial A;rj. 


E      R 


O 


O 


Y. 


Sed.  XIV. 


floiJ  produccJ  from  ii  is  niotlly  plilo^illicated  air. 
Kroni  tour  pennyweights  and  i  7  j^rainsi't  zinc,  diill)I- 
vcJ  ir.  Ipirii  of  aiire  dilated  wilii  an  equal  qaantiiy  of 
water,  l>r  PriclUcy  obiaiucd  about  1 2  ouiicc-nicarnrcs 
of  very  weak  nitrous  air.  It  occafi'-'.ed  a  very  I'.iglit 
cifervcfcencc  wlicn wi.\cd  with  common  air.  the 
Dov^or  obtained  nitrous  air  even  from  fome  fiowcrsof 
zinc.  "  Having  (fays  he)  mixed  a  quantity  of  bhic 
fjiirit  of  iiitrc  with  Howcrs  of  zinc,  which  were  of  a 
dull  colonr,  and  appeared  from  fevcral  experiments  to 
contain  a  portion  of  phlo-jillon,  it  yielded,  with  the 
heat  of  a  candle  applied  to  the  piiial  wliich  contained 
jt,  llrong  nitrous,  air ;  when  the  common  fpirit  of  nitre, 
applied  111  the  fame  manner,  tjavc  only  phloj^illicated 
air;  the  phlogidon  of  which  came  probably  from  the 
calx  itfclf,  though  a  fmsU  portion  ofit  might  have  been 
in  the  nitrons  acid,  vviiich  1  believe  is  never  entirely 
free  from  it." 

Thp  quantity  of  nitrous  air  that  may  be  obtained 
from  various  metals,  is  diflicult  to  be  afcertaincd,  ou 
account  of  the  divcrfity  occalioned  by  the  llrcngtli  of 
the  acid,  the  virions  nature  of  the  metallic  fubltance, 
and  the  method  of  performing  the  experiments.  The 
iollowing  is  a  tabic  of  the  produce  of  nitrous  air  from 
various  metals,  cxtrieled  from  Dr  I'rieftley's  firll  vo- 
lume of  Kxpcrimcnts  and  obfervations  ;  but  wliich, 
as  the  anilior  bimfclf  intimates,  is  far  from  being  very 
accurate. 

of  filver  yielded  1 7i  ounce-meafures. 

of  qiiickfilver,       4i 

of  copper,  14V 

of  brais,  21 

of  iron, 

ofbifmuth,  6 

of  nickel,  4 

The  various  flrcngth  of  the  nitrous  acid  produces 
great  diverlity  in  the  productiim  of  nitrous  air.  Thus, 
if  copper  is  didblved  in  ftrong  nitrous  acid,  it  will  not 
produce  tlic  Icaft quantity  of  nitrous  air  ;  but  when  dif- 
folved  indihiicd  nitrous  aci  J,  it  produces  a  great  quan- 
tity of  thatclartic  fluid.  The  ftrong  and  pale-coloured 
nitrous  acid  lliould  be  dilutcdwiih  at  Icalt  twoorthree 
parts  of  water  to  one  of  the  acid,  for  the  esfy  pro- 
duction of  nitrous  air  from  copper  and  mercury. 

The  brilkncfsof  thceffcrvcfccnce,and  the  produc- 
tion of  niiious  air,  are  promoted  by  heat,  and  alfo  by 
letting  the  metallic  fubllance  prefcnt  a  great  quantity 
of  furt'acc  to  the  aciJs. 

Kur  the  generality  of  experiments,  no  other  Ccgrec 
of  heat  is  required  than  that  produced  by  the  etier- 
vcfccncc  itfclf,  except  mercury  be  ufed.which  requires 
liic  application  of  fouie  he.at.  When  the  metal  exhi- 
bits a  very  great  furfacc  to  the  acid,  as  is  the  cafe  when 
Jiliugs  arc  ufed,  the  cfiervcfcence  and  production  of 
jiitrous  £ir  are  often  much  quicker  than  can  be  con- 
veniently managed. 

Cojipcr  or  brais,  when  clipped  into  flat  bits,  each 
about  two  or  three  grains  in  weight,  and  about  a 
quarter  of  a  fquarc  inch  in  furfacc,  and  when  difl'olved 
in  nitrous  acid  properly  diluted,  yield  nitrous  air  VLvy 
equably  ;  but  if  iron  be  ufed,  the  pieces  of  it  feould 
be  l.irger  and  I'ewcr  ;  in  fhort,  it  iho.ild  prefeni  a  much 
Icfs  furfacc  to  the  diluted  acid  ;  otherwife  the  incrcafe 
ofhca:  in  the  proccfs,   and  the  rapid  produaion  of 


dwt. 

grs 

6 

0 

5 

19 

I 

^ ' 

^2 

0 

0 

20 

t 

J 

0 

12 

chllic  fluid,  render  the  operation  both  dilEcalt.and  Of  Artlfi- 
dangcroui  for  the  operator.  '•=.!  Aic». 

As  the  nitrous  air  is  moftly  ncccfTary  to  try   the  '""''      ' 
goodncfs  of  refpirablc  air,  it  is  of  great  confcqucnce  i»ure  mer- 
to  make  it  aUvay   of  one  conflant  degree  of  goodntfs  ;  curyyielj*. 
but  this  object  is  anfwcred  by  dill'olving  fubltances  i:f  titcbcll. 
a  very  homologous  nature  i:t  the  nitrous  acid  ;  there- 
fore it  is  pl.iin,  that  the  metals  w'hofc  nature  is  more 
uniform  muft  be  prefcrreil  for  this  purpofc.     Accord- 
ingly,brafs  yicldsnitrous  air  of  a  more  uniform  nature 
than  iron  :  copper  is  fuperior  to  brafs  ;  bit  pure  mer- 
cury is  lliU  fuperior  to  copper  :  and  indeed  this  is  the 
metal  which,  conlidering  its  nature,  uniformity  of  fub- 
fcance,  and  cufy  folution,  is  upon  the  whole  the  moll 
ufcful  for  tliispurpofe. 

It  h.is  been  generally  obfervc J,  that  folid  vegetable 
fubllanccs,  when  dillolvcd  in  nitrous  acid,  yield  more 
nitrous  air  than  the  animal  fubllanccs,  though  this  ni- 
trous air  is  not  fo  pure  as  that  obtained  from  metals. 

Sometimes  it  contains  fome  ii.xcd  air,  and  a  good 
deal  of  inHainmablc  air  which  is  inoftly  produced  to- 
wards the  endoftiie  procefs.  On  ilic  other  hand,  the 
nitrous  air,  extracted  from  animal  fubllanccs  generally 
contains  a  good  deal  of  phlogillicatcd  air,  and  fowt- 
times  lonie  Hxed  air.  In  order  to  obtain  nitrons  air 
from  the  folution  of  animal  and  vegetable  fubllanccs 
in  nitrous  acid,  often  fome  degree  of  heat  muft  be  ap- 
plied to  tile  phial.  The  acid  alfo  fomeiinies  muft  be 
very  concentrated,  and  in  other  cafes  it  mult  be  dilu^ 
ted  ,  but  it  is  hardly  worth  while,  or  practicable,  to 
determine  w  ith  exacf  nefs  all  thofe  particular  cafes. 

To  make  NitKiut  Air. — The  metal,  viz.  copper, 
brafs  or  mercury,  is  iirft  put  into  the  bottle  (which, 
as  well  as  the  whole  procefs,  is  tlie  fame  as  that  dc- 
fcribed  for  fixed  An),  fo  as  to  (ill  about  one-third  of 
the  fame  ;  then  fome  water  is  poured  into  the  bott)e, 
fo  as  juft  to  cover  the  metal-filings  J  and  laftly,  the  ni- 
trous acidisadded,lhequaiitityof  which,  when  ftrong, 
fhould  be  about  one-ihird  or  half  the  quantity  of  the 
water.  The  fmell  of  the  nitrous  gas  is  very  penetra- 
ting and  oJilntive,  and  occalions  a  red  fmoke  as  foon 
as  it  comes  i'lto  contact  with  the  common  air;  hence 
whenever  any  of  it  efcapcs  from  the  bottle,  it  may  be 
obfcrved  not  only  by  the  fmell,  but  alfo  by  the  llight 
re<l  colour. 

In  order  to  obfervc  tiie  principal  property  of  this 
elaftic  rtuid,  which  is  that  of  diminilhing  the  bulk  of 
common  air,  let  a  glafs  tube,  clofcd  at  one  end,  and 
about  nine  inches  long,  and  half  or  three  quarters  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  be  iillcd  with  water,  and  inverted 
in  water  ;  then  take  a  fmall  phial,  of  about  half  an 
onncc-meafure,  filled  with  commonair,  and  plunging 
it  under  the  water  contained  in  the  fame  bafon  where 
tjie  inverted  tube  is  kept,  let  that  quantity  of  air  en- 
ter into  the  tube,  which  will  go  to  the  top  of  it,  the 
water  fubliding  accordingly.  Let,  a  mark  be  made, 
either  with  a  file  or  by  fticking  foft  w.ix  on  the  tube, 
jnft  oppolite  to  the  furface  of  the  water  in  it,  which 
will  mark  how  much  the  tube  is  filled  by  that  given 
meafurc  of  air.  After  the  fame  manner,  till  the  fame  , 
fmall  phiai  ( whi«h  we  ihall  call  the  »;<•«/«;•£■)  again  with 
air  ;  throw  that  air  into  the  tube,  and  put  a  mark  on 
the  tube  coinciding-  with  the  level  of  the  water  in  ir. 
In  this  manner,  let  four  or  live  meafurcs  be  marked  on 
the  tube.     Now,  if  three  meafurcs  of  common  air  are 

pat 


Sect.  XIV.  AERO 

Of  .\rtifi-  put  inio  this  tube,  when  filled  with  water  and  inverted, 
cial  Airs,  they  will  fill  a  fpacc  of  it  as  Car  as  the  third  mark. 
■ ' The  fame  thing  will  happen  if  three  incafurcs  of  ni- 
trous in&ead  of  common  air  be  put  iii  it  ;  but  if  two 
fneafjr9s  of  common  air  and  one  mcafure  of  nitrous 
air,  or  one  meafurc  of  the  former  and  two  of  the  lat- 
ter, be  introduced  i,i  it,  they  will  lill  a  fpacc  much 
f.iorcer  than  the  third  mark.     On  the  moment  that 
thefe  two  kinds  of  elatlic  fluids  come  into  contact,  a 
reddilh  appearance  is  perceived,  which  foon  vanilhcs, 
and  the  water,  which  at  lirft  nearly  reaches  the  third 
mark,  rifcs  gradually  into  the  tube,  and  becomes  near- 
,ly  Aationaryafter'abont  two  or  three  minutes  ;  which 
Ihows  that  the  diminution  is  effected  gradually.     See 

El/DIOMETER. 

§  4.  To  procure  Dephlooisticated  Air This  is 

no  otiier  than  exceedingly  pure  atniofpiierical  air,  en- 
tirelyfree  from  thofe  heterogeneous  vapours  which  con- 
taminate the  air  we  commonly  breathe.  The  cafieft 
method  of  procuring  this  air  is  to  put  fome  red-lead  into 
the  bottle,  together  with  fome  good  (Irong  oil  of  vi- 
triol, but  without  any  w-ater.  Let  the  red-lead  fill 
aboQt  a  quarter  of  the  bottle,  and  the  vitriolic  acid  be 
about  the  fame  quantity  or  very  little  Icfs  ;  then  ap- 
ply the  bent  tube  to  the  bottle,  and  proceed  in  the 
fame  manner  as  above.  But  it  mull  be  remarked,  that 
without  beat  this  mixture  of  red-lead  and  vitriolic  acid 
will  not  give  any  dephlogiilicated  air,  or  it  yields  an 
inconliderable  quantity  of  it ;  for  which  reafon  the  flame 
of  a  candle  (that  of  a  wax  taper  is  fuificient)  muft  be 
applied  under  the  bottom  of  tlie  bottle  ;  which  for  this 
purpofc  mult  be  rather  thin,  oiherwifc  it  will  be  ealily 
cracked  (a).  In  this  manner  the  red-lead  will  yield 
a  good  quantity  of  eLiftic  fluid,  the  grcateil  part  of 
which  is  dephlogiilicated  air  ;  but  not  the  whole  quan- 
tity of  it,  for  a  good  portion  of  fixed  air  comes  out 
with  it.  Inordertofcparatc  the  fixed  air  from  the  de- 
phlogi  Aicated  air,  the  inverted  bottle,  when  filled  with 
the  compound  of  both,  as  it  is  emitted  from  the  red- 
lead,  muft  be  Hiook  in  the  bafon  for  impregnating 
water  with  fixed  air  ;  by  which  means  the  water  w  ill 
abforb  the  whole  quantity  of  fixed  air,  and  leave  the 
dephlogiilicated  air  by  itfclf. 

From  every  experiment  it  appears,  that  dephlogiili- 
cated air,  if  it  could  readily  be  obtained,  and  at  a  cheap 
rate,  would  be  a  mofl  valuable  manufacture.  The 
heat  communicated  by  means  of  it  to  burning  fuel  is 
incredible. 

Thefc  are  not  the  only  advantages  which  might  be 
expefled  fromdcphlogiflicated  air.  It  has  been  found 
by  experience,  that  animals  will  live  much  longer  in 
this  kind  of  air  than  in  an  equal  quantity  of  common 
air  ;  whenccitis  fuppofed,  that  the  breathing ofit  muft 
be  much  more  healthy,  and  contribute  to  longevity 
much  more  than  the  common  atmofphcrc.  Nay,  there 
arc  not  wanting  fome  who  attribute  the  longevity  of 
Vol.  I. 


LOGY.  T93 

the  Antediluvians  to  the  great  purity  of  the  atmcfplierc  Of.Vn  fi- 
at that  time  ;  the.v.  hole  mafs  being  afterwards  tainted  clal  Air«. 
by  the  deluge,  in  fuch  a  manner  that  it  could  never  '  ' 
regain  its  former  purity  and  falubrity.  But  all  this  as 
yet  is  mere  conjecture  ;  and  excepting  the  linglc  fa:}, 
that  animals  live  much  longer  in  a  quantity  of  dephlo- 
gifticated  than  of  common  air,  diere  1=  no  cviJcnce 
that  the  former  contributes  more  to  longevity  than  the 
latter.  DrFrieflleyeven  throwsouta  conjecture,  that 
the  wii:.  of  dephlogiilicated  air  might  perhaps  wear  out 
the  fyllem  much  fooncr  thin  common  air,  in  the  fame 
manner  as  it  confumes  fuel  much  fafler  than  common 
air.  The  great  quantity,  however,  even  of  the  purefl 
air,  which  is  rcquifitc  to  fupport  animal  life,  and  the 
expcnce  and  trouble  of  the  nioft  ready  methods  of 
procuring  it,  have  hitherto  prevented  any  fair  trial 
from  being  made.  Yet  phiU'fophers,  conlidering  the 
probability  there  is  of  this  kind  of  air  being  falutary 
in  many  difeafcs,  having  bellowed  fome  pains  in  at- 
tempting to  find  out  methods  of  procuring  it  eafily 
and  in  large  quantity ;  concerning  which  we  have 
the  following  obfervations  in  Cavallo's  Treatife  on 
Air. 

"  A  man  makes  in  general  about  15  infpirations  in 
a  minute,  and  takes  in  about  30  cubic  inches  of  aerial 
fluid.  But  the  air  which  has  Ijcen  once  infpired  is  not 
thereby  much  injured,  and  it  may  be  refpired  agaiu 
and  again  ;  fo  that  upon  a  very  moderate  calculation, 
and  as  appears  from  adual  experiments  often  repeated, 
we  may  fafely  affert,  that  a  perfon  can  breathe  400 
cubic  inches  of  good  ordinary  atraofplieric  air,  at  Icaft 
30  times,  without  any  inconvenience,  i.  e.  it  would 
lerve  for  two  minutes  j  after  v.'hich  that  air,  though 
much  depraved,  is  flill  in  a  flatc  of  being  breathed, 
but  then  it  would  occallon  fome  unealinefs.  Now, 
fuppoling  the  dephlogiflicated  air  employed  to  be  four 
times  more  pure  thaH  common  air,  400  cubic  inches 
of  dephlogiilicated  air  would  fervc  for  at  lead  1 20  re- 
fpiraiions  or  eight  minutes. 

"  But  fuppoiing  that  30  inches  of  common  air  are 
completely  phlogiilicated  by  a  lingle  infpiration,  and 
changed  for  fuch  as  is  quite  frcfh,  which  indeed  is  the 
cafe  in  common  refpiration,  then  450  cubic  inches  of 
common  air  will  be  requilite  for  one  minute's  refpira- 
tion, and  27,coo  for  one  hour;  and  as  dephlogiilica- 
ted air  is  fuppofed  to  be  four  times  as  good,  the  fame 
quantity  of  it  willferve  for  four  hours.  Indeed,  if  we 
could  depend  on  the  allertions  of  Mr  Kontana,  that 
by  adding  lime-water  to  abforb  the  fixed  air  produced 
by  refpiration,  an  animal  can  live  ;o  times  as  long  as 
without  it,  no  doubt  a  much  fmaller  quantity  would 
ferve." 

But  it  is  certain  fiirh  alTertions  cannot  be  true;  bc- 
caufe,  though  the  fixed  air  fliould  be  abforbcd  as  foon 
as  produced,  the  remaining  quantity  would  flill  be 
contaminated  by  phlogiilon.  Nay,  we  arc  informed 
by  Dr  FriclUcy,  who  repeated  Foatana's  experiments, 
B  b  that 


(a)  In  this  operation  the  flame  of  the  candle,  when  once  applied,  mu/l  be  kept  continually  near  it ;  and 
when  the  mixture  does  not  produce  any  more  cladic  fluid,  or  the  opcr.iiion  is  required  to  be  intermitted,  care 
Jhould  be  taken  to  remove  the  extremity  of  the  bent  tube  from  the  water  lirll,  and  then  to  take  oil  the  liamc  of 
the  candle  from  under  the  bottle  ;  othcrwife,  if  the  flame  of  the  candle  be  firll  removed,  the  materials  within 
the  bottle  condeuliiig  by  cold,  the  water  immediately  enters,  wliich  in  an  iiiA  ant  fills  the  bottle,  and  gcaerally 
breaks  it. 


194  AERO 

Of  Artifi-  that  animals  iv'ill  not  live  longer  in  a  quantity  of  de- 
cial  Airs,  phlogillicatcd  air  when  it  Hands  in  contaft  with  limc- 
'  "  water,  than  they  will  when  no  lime-water  is  ufed. 
In  what  manner  a  dittbrcncc  fo  enormous  can  take 
place,  between  pbilofophers  in  other  rcfpeds  fo  accu- 
rate, wc  can  by  no  means  determine.  It  is  plain, 
however,  that  if  27,000  inches  of  common  air  are  ne- 
ccdiiry  for  a  perfon  in  one  hour,  the  fame  quantity  of 
dcplilogiPLicated  air  cannot  be  breathed  loiij^er  than 
four  hours,  nor  even  fo  long  with  any  real  advantage, 
Mr  Cavallo  indeed  allows  only  12,000  inches  for  four 
hours  ;  but  though  this  miglit  no  doubt  fullain  life  for 
that  time,  the  perfun  muft  ai  bell  expert  nothing  from 
it  fuperior  to  ilic  common  atmofphcre,  if  he  was  not 
materially  injured  by  it. 

A  very  ready  method  of  procuring  dephlogifticatcd  air 
in  large  quaniiiy,  is  by  means  of  nitre  ;  and  on  the  fup- 
pofuion  that  i2,oooinches  are  fufficient  for  four  hours, 
(or  for  40  hours,  as  he  limits  the  Abbe  Kon tana's  fuppo- 
lilion),  MrCavallo  proceeds  in  the  following  maniier  : 
"  The  inllruments  necclfary  for  the  production  of  dc- 
phlogilUcatcd  air  from  nitre  are  the  following;  viz. 
earthen  retorts,  or  earthen  velFels  with  a  ftraight  neck, 
fomewhat  in  the  Ihapc  of  Florence  flalks,  but  with  a 
longer  neck,  tiicfc  being  clieaper  than  the  retorts,  and 
anfwcring  as  well ; — a  finall  furnace,  in  which  the 
earthen  retort  mult  be  kept  red-hot  ;  a  common 
chimney  tire  is  not  futficicnt.  Thefc  furnaces  may  be 
very  ealily  made  out  of  large  black  lead  crucibles. 
The  nitre  mull  be  put  into  the  retort  or  other  velfel, 
fo  as  to  fill  half  or  nearly  three  quarters  of  its  belly; 
then  a  bent  glafs  tube  is  luted  to  the  neck  of  the  ear- 
then veli'el,  in  fuch  a  manner  as  not  to  let  any  clallic 
tluid  cfcape  into  the  open  air.  The  bcfl  lute  or  ce- 
ment for  this  or  limilar  jnirpol'cs  ic  made  by  mixing  to- 
gether whiting  and  drying  oil.  Tiie  retort  being  put 
into  the  furnace,  muft  be  furrounded  with  lighted 
charcoal,  which  is  to  be  fupplied  according  as  it  walles: 
in  Ihort,  the  belly  of  the  retort  muft  be  kept  quite 
red-hot,  or  rather  white-hot,  for  about  three  hours  at 
Icaft.  If,  infteadof  the  retort,  the  other  defcribed 
earthen  vefl'el  be  ufed,  care  (hould  be  had  to  place  it 
with  the  neck  as  little  inclined  to  the  horizon  as  pof- 
liblc,  left  the  nitre  ihould  ftop  ihe  neck  and  break  it." 
The  air  is  then  to  be  received  into  large  glafs  jars,  as 
is  nfual  in  other  experiments  on  air. 

'<  The  retort  or  other  earthen  velfel  that  i^s  ufed  for 
this  purpofe  cannot  fervc  for  more  than  once,  becaufe 
it  generally  breaks  in  cooling;  and  befules,  the  de- 
conipofed  nitre  cannot  ealily  be  taken  out  of  it.  The 
retort  capable  of  holding  a  pound  of  nitre  (the  quan- 
tity necflfary  for  producing  12,000  cubic  inches  of 
dephlogifticatcd  air)  for  this  operation,  cofts  at  leaft 
half-a-crown  ;  the  other  earthen  velfels  in  the  (liapeof 
Florence  fialks,  but  with  longer  necks,  coft  ab'iut 
l8d.  a-picce,  or  2S.  ;  fo  that  the  price  of  thefe  velfels 
forms  a  conliderable  part  of  the  expcnce.  If  glafs 
veffcls  arc  employed,  the  nitre  will  not  yield  near  fo 
much  air,  though  of  a  purer  fort,  becaufe  the  glafs 
velfels  cannot  endure  fuch  a  great  tire  as  the  earthen 
ones.  The  retorts  of  metal,  or  at  Icafl  of  thefe  metals 
which  aremoft  ufually  employed  for  this  purpofe,  viz. 
iron  and  copper,  phlogillicate  in  a  great  meafurc  the 
air  as  foon.as  produced.  Confidcring,  then,  all  thefe 
circumflances,  it  appears,  that  when  a  perfon  has  all  the 


LOGY.  Sect.  XIV. 

ufual  apparatus  and  furnace,  the  expences  at  prcfcnt  Of  Artifi- 
necellbry  in  London  for  rtie  produi.'tion  of  :  2,000  cu-  cial  Airs, 
bic  inches  o/dcphlogifticatcdair,  (vi/..  thepriceofonc  *~~*^~~' 
pound  ofnitre,  of  an  cart  hen  retort  orother  vcll'el,  and 
of  charcoal),  amount  to  about  4s.  or  4s.  6d." 

Another  method  of  preparing  dephlogifticatcd  air 
is,  by  blowing  that  of  the  common  atmofphej-e  lino' 
melted  nitre.  In  this  procefs  the  phlogiftou  contained 
in  the  atmofphere  is  gradually  confumcJ,  by  detonating 
with  the  acid  of  the  nitre,  and  therefore  ilfues  much 
more  pure  than  licforc.  This  method  has  the  appear- 
ance at  firft  of  being  much  catier  and  more  commodious 
than  the  former  ;  but  as  it  is  impotlible  to  mix  the  at- 
mofphcric  air  fo  exaclly  with  the  melted  nitre  that  every 
particle  of  the  one  may  come  in  contaiit  with  every 
particle  of  the  other,  it  is  plain  that  the  former  me- 
thod muft  be  preferable  ;  not  to  mention  that  it  will 
be  found  exceedingly  troublefome  to  blow  the  air 
through  the  nitre,  as  the  latter  will  be  perpetually  apt 
to  cool  and  concrete  into  lumps  by  the  cold  blaft. 

5  J.  To  procure  VimioLic  Acid  ^ir — Thisconfiftsof 
the  vitriolic acid.united  with fomcphlogifton,wliich  vo- 
latilizes and  renders  it  capable  of  allliming  the  form  of 
a  permanently  clallic  fluid.  To  obtain  it,  fome  ftrong 
concentrated  vitriolic  acid  muft  be  put  into  the  ufual 
bottle,  together  with  fome  fubftancc  capable  of  fur- 
nifliing  piilogillon.  01i\c  oil  anfwers  very  well.  The 
oil  of  vitriol  lliould  be  about  three  or  four  times  as 
much  as  the  fwcet  oil,  and  both  together  fliould  fill 
about  one-third  or  half  the  bottle.  A  gentle  degree 
of  heat  is  then  required,  in  order  to  let  thefe  materials 
yield  any  elaftic  tluid  ;  \\  hich  may  be  done  by  apply- 
ing the  riamc  of  a  wax  taper,  as  dircftcd  above  for  the 
produdion  of  dephlogifticatcd  air. 

\  6.  To  procure  Makise  Acid  Air,  which  is  no  o- 
ther  than  the  marineacid  itfelf,and  which  without  any 
addition  becomes  a  permanently  elaftic  fluid  ;  put  fome 
fea-falt,  or  common  kitchen  fait,  into  the  ufual  bottle 
in  which  the  materials  for  producing  elaftic  fluids  are 
generally  put,  fo  as  to  fill  about  a  fourth  part  of  it, 
and  upon  this  fait  pour  a  fmall  quantity  of  good  con- 
centrated vitriolic  acid  ;  then  apply  the  bent  tube  to 
the  bottle,  and  introdsce  it  through  the  quickfdvcr 
into  the  receiver,  filled  with  an  din  verted  in  quicklilver 
after  the  ufual  method,  and  the  elaftic  fluid  is  copi- 
oully  produced. 

§  7.  To  procure  Nitrous  Acid  Air This  may  be 

obtained  from  heated  nitrous  acid,  the  vapourof  which 
acquires  a  permanent  clafticity,  and  it  has  been  found 
to  remain  uncondenfed  into  a  vilible  fluid  by  any  cold 
to  which  it  has  been  hitherto  expofed.  The  great  dif- 
ficulty is  to  find  a  fluid  capable  of  confining  this  acid 
air  ;  becaufe  it  is  ealily  and  abundantly  abforbed  by 
water,  which  is  one  of  its  properties  by  which  it  differs 
from  nitrous  air.  It  ads  upon  quicklilver,  and  alfo  up- 
on oils  :  hence  its  examination  cannot  be  made  but 
wtry  imperfedlly  ;  for  fubftances  muft  be  expofed  to  it, 
or  mixing  with  it,  whilft  it  is  adually  changing  its  na- 
ture by  acting  on  the  mercury  or  other  fluid  rhat  con- 
fines it. 

When  water  has  abforbed  a  good  quantity  of  this 
elaftic  fluid,  it  acquires  the  properties  of  nitrous  acid  ; 
and  when  heated,  it  yields  a  large  quantity  of  nitrous 


Sea.  XIV. 


E       R       O 


Of  Artifi-  air,  viz.  aquaniity  many  times  greater  than  that  which 
cial  Air,    vvatcr  is  wont  to  imbibe  of  it  by  agitation,  or  by  any 
*         known  means. 

When  the  nitrous  acid  air  is  combintd  with  cfTcn- 
tialoils,  a  conliJcrablc  cttcrvefcence  and  heat  arc  pro- 
duced,  nearly  in  the  fame  manner  as  when  the  nitrous 
acid  itfelf  is  poured  upon  thofc  oils. 

§  8.  Fluor  Acid  Air. — ^Put  fomc  of  thofe  minerals 
called /«orj,  ox  jiijlbU  fpan,  pulverized  into  the  ufual 
bottle,  and  upon  it  pour  fome  concentrated  oil  of  vi- 
triol J  then  adapt  the  bent  tube,  &c.     The  fiuor  acid 


I 


N 


D 


Aerial  acid,  a  name  for  fixed 
air,  n"  io6. 

Air,  fuppofcd  anciently  to  be 
homogeneous,  i .     Not  fo  in 
reality,  2.  Has  fome  way  of 
purifying  itfelf,  3.  Halley's 
calculationof  thequantity  of 
water  evaporated  into  it  from 
the  fca,  4.    Dr  Watfon'sof 
themoiilure  evaporated  from 
dry  ground,  ibid.    How  it  is 
purified  from  the  aqueous  va- 
pour, 4.  From  phlogiftic  va- 
pours, J.     Why  a  dry  air  is 
always    wholcfomc,    but  a 
moifl  one  is  not,  ibid.     Con- 
taminated in  certain  placesby 
various  kinds  of  vapours, /W. 
How  purified  from  vapours 
heavier  than  itfelf,  ibid.  Its 
fpecitic    gravity    compared 
with  water,  6.  Itsprclfurcas 
a  gravitating  fluid,  7.  Effects 
of  its  gravity  on  vegetables 
and  animals,  ibid.    Of  its  e- 
la{licity,8.  Whether  this  can 
be  impaired,  9.  Its  clallicity 
is  always  in  proportion  to  its 
dcnfity,    ibid.     How    far  a 
quantity  of  air  may  be  com- 
prclfcd,    10.     Is  capable  of 
vail  dilatation  by  its  elaftic 
force,  //).'./.  In  wliat  propor- 
tion it  is  expanded  by  heat, 
II.   Its  elallicily  fuppofeil  to 
be  the  caufc  of  earthqu.ikfs, 
ibid.    Effeds  of  its  clallicity 
on  various  bodies,  12.  Grc.'.t 
folvent  powe-r  of  the  air,  i  ?. 
Its  chemical  cflefts,  15.  Air 
contained  in  mineral  waters, 
19,    20.     DccompounJtd  in 
tlic  calcination  of  metals, 29. 
Is  not  diminii'ied  in  common 
cafes  ofcombullion,  58.     A 

,  kind  of  air  procured  frora  fo- 
lutioii  of  gold,  17;. 


Alkaline  air :    Its   properties, 

146.  Contains  phlogillon, 

147.  Converted  into  inflam- 
mable air,   148. 

AnihiaU  :  Caufe  of  their  death 
in  dephlogillicated  air,  61. 
Eff'eiits  of  i  nflammable  air  on 
them,  141. 
Arfcnic :  Inflammable  air  pro- 
duced from  it  by  the  red-hot 
fleam  of  water,  124. 
AJhes  gain  moll  of  their  weight 
byabforptionfrom  theatmo- 
fphcre,  122, 
Atmofphers  confiAs  of  two  very 
different  kindsof  fluids,  24, 
93.  The  proportions  of 
thefe,  178.  The  upper  parts 
of  it  more  falubrious  than  the 
lower,  179. 

B. 
Black's  (Dr)  difcoverics,   21. 
His  theory  concerning  fixed 
air  attacked  at  firll,  but  now 
univcrfally  received,  23. 
By/if's  difcoverics,  17. 

C. 
Calcination  of  metals  :   Mr  La- 
voilicr's  experiments  on  it, 
92.     His  conclulions  there- 
from   with  regard    to  the 
conipolition  of  atmofphcrical 
air,  93. 
Cajt  iroi:  :  Remarkable  pheno- 
menon attending  its  calcina- 
tion with  a  burning-glufs,  70. 
Cavallo's  conchiiious  from  Dr 
Iiigcuhouf/.'s  experiments, 
3S.   His  method    of  collcc- 
tiiig  inilammable  air    from 
ponds,  1 19. 
Cavitidijh' s     experiments   on 
water,     75.     On    the  pro- 
dui^iou  of  nitrous  acid,  loi, 
102.  "" 

C/;</;-<r'/i'/yiclds  a  great  quantity 
of  ;-.xcdair,i6. — totally  con- 
vertible iiuoinflammable  air, 


LOGY.  -  '95 

air  is  at  firfl  produced  without  the  help  of  hcit :  b'.it  in  Of  .Vrtifi- 
a  fhort  time  it  will  be  ncceffary  to  apply  the  flame  of  cial  .-^in. 
a  candle  to  the  bottle,  by  which  means  a  conlidcrablc        ^      ' 
quantity  of  this  elaftic  fluid  is  obtained. 

\  9.  Alkause  Air — Let  the  ufuil  bottle  be  about 
half  rilled  with  volatile  fpiriiof  fal  ammo)iiac;  and  after 
applying  the  bent  tube,  &c.  let  the  flame  of  a  candle 
be  brought  under  the  bottle,  by  which  means  the  al- 
kaline air  will  be  produced  copioully. 

Hepatic  Air.     Sec  SclI.  XX.fupra. 


E        X. 

129.  Its  exceJIive  atiratflion 
for  water,  132. 

Coiiibufiion,  whether  common 
air  is  diminillicd  by  it,  j8, 
183. 

Contagion  of  the  plague,o(i\\ca.- 
vy  fluggifli  nature,  j. 

Copper  :  Dr  Prieflley's  experi- 
ments toproduce  water  by  its 
means,  73.  Is  not  affeclcd 
by  alkaline  air,  146. 

Cotton-wool:  Qiiantity  of  de- 
phlogillicated air  produced 
by  its  means  from  water  45. 

Cn'taciorii  acid  .•  An  improper 

name  for  fixed  air,  107. 

D 

Darknefs  :  Its  cffedls  on  the 
produiSion  of  air,  42. 

Dephlogiflicatcd  air  difcovered 
by  Dr  Prieflley,  24.  Firrt. 
obtained  by  means  of  a  burn- 
ing-glafs  from  precipitate 
pi:rJ'e,2S.  Whycalleddcphlo. 
gillicated,26.  Produced  from 
a  great  variety  of  fubflances, 
Hid.  Difcovered  by  Mr 
Scheele,  28.  May  be  ob- 
tained without  the  ufe  of  ni- 
trous acid,  29.  Produced  in 
greatell  quantities  by  a  fud- 
den  and  violent  heat,  30. 
Method  of  procuring  it  from 
different fubftances,3 1.  How 
it  is  produced  by  nature,  32. 
Method  of  obtaining  it  from 
water,  36.  From  the  leaves 
of  plants,  37.  By  means  of 
raw  lilk,  41.  From  various 
other  lubllanccs,  4J.  Qiiaii- 
tity  of  it  produced  from  wa- 
ter, 46.  Of  the  caufe  of  its 
prodiiftion,  47.  At  what 
times  it  is  produced  of  the 
bell  quality,  48.  Found  in 
fea-water,  $3.  How  to  prc- 
fervc  it  inlargequaniity,  54. 
It  produces  iuicnfc  heat,  j  j. 
Bb 


Explodes  violently  with  in- 
flammable air,  56.  Burns 
violcnily  with  pyrophorus, 
57.  Is  diminilhcd  by  corn- 
bullion,  59, — and  by  nitrous 
air,  60,  I J  4.  In  what  man- 
ner it  maybe  contaminated, 
61.  Docs  not  fupport  vege- 
tation, 62.  Of  its  compo- 
nent parts,  63.  Does  not 
contain  earth,  65.  Whether 
it  contains  any  nitrous  acid, 
66.  Imbibed  by  calces  of 
metals,  67.  By  iron,  68. 
Mr  Cavcndilli's  experiments 
on  its  conipolition,  75.  Ni- 
trous acid  produced  from  a 
mixture  of  it  and  inflamma- 
ble air,  77.  Suppofedtobc 
one  of  the  component  parts 
of  water,  81,  82,  83.  El'- 
fcclsof  the  electric  fpark  on 
it  when  inclofed  bet  ween  dif- 
ferent liquors,  105.  Dr 
Pricllley's  experiments  oti 
the  production  of  fixed  air 
from  it,  I  ro. 

DephlogiJIicated nitrous  air,  how 
procured,  160.  Its  compo- 
nent parts,  161.  Bert  me- 
thod Of  procuring  it,  163. 
Made  to  approach  to  the  na- 
ture of  atmofphcrical  air, 
164. 

DimmutioK  of  air,  fuppofcd  to 
be  owing  to  phlogifton  emit- 
ted into  it,  89. 
£. 

Earth  is  not  a  component  part 
of  dephlogillicated  air,  6j. 

/yc/r;/lv/;<rf  bet  ween  acids  and 
alkalis  occalloncd  by  fixed 
air  in  the  latter,  21. 

Eider •d:,'d.'n  .•  Dephlogillicated 
air  produced  by  its  means 
from  water,  4;. 

Elellric  fpark:  Its  etTedson  de- 
phlogillicated air  inclofed  bc- 

2  twecn 


I  (y6 

twcciidiflcreiu  liquors,  105. 
On  fixed  air,  11;.  On  nitrous 
air,  ijcf. 

K 

Fiiniental'ton  :  Why  it  will  not 
go  on  in  vacuo,  12. 

Fen/jeiiht/ lijiioi ircdond  from 
a  vapid  ftatc  by  adding  lixcJ 
air  to  theni,  180. 
t'i'ifiy-cindir,  tbe  fame  with 
fcales  of  iron,  confiftsof  tlic 
metal  united  with  dephlogi- 
iHcated  air,  124. 

Fire  fuppofed  10  be  the  caufc  of 
the  air's  ekllicity,  11. 

Fix: A  a':r  contained  in  abfor- 
btnt  earths  and  alkaline  falls, 
21.  Its  proportion  in  thefe 
fubftanccs,2  2.Ktrcrvcfccncc 
of thefc  lubftanccs  with  acids 
occalioned  by  rixed  air,  21. 
Incrcafcs  the  weight  of  me- 
tallic precipitates,  21.  Sitp- 
pofed  to  be  the  principal  of 
union  in  terrellrial  bodies, 
ibid.  Separated  from  fernitn- 

.  ting  and  putrifyiiig  fubftan- 
ccs,2i.  Diirolvcs  cartlisanj 
metals,  22.  Formed  by  thc_ 
union  of  phlogiilon  with  de- 
phlogiilicatedair,67.  Found 
in  a  great  variety  of  fubftan- 
ces,  106.  Specific  gravity, 
and  other  properii^s  of  this 
kind  of  air,  107,  108.  Its 
conllituent  principles,  109. 
Dr  Priellley's  experiments 
onitscompofition,  no.  Pro- 
portion ofit  produced  from 
dcphlogifticatedair,ii2.  Ef- 
fc(Sls  of  the  eledric  fpark  on 
it,  115.  Of  a  ftrong  heat  on 
it»  II5-  Qiiantity  of  it  ex- 
pelled from  different  fubftan- 
ces,  116.  Ge^ierated  in  the 
dccompofiliono;  inflammable 
air,  ijs-  Convertible  into 
inflammable  air,  136.  Great 
quantities  produced  by  fer- 
menting fubflances,  180. 
Proportions  contained  in  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  wine,  181. 
Emitted  by  putrefying  mat- 
ters, 182. 

Foiitana,  Abbe  :  Effects  of  his 
breathing  inflammabJe  air, 
141. 

French  phihfophers,  their  cxpe- 
rimentson  the  compofition  of 
water,  82. 

Fur  of  a  Rzijfian  barf  produces 
dephlogifticated  air  with 
water,  45. 

G 

Cdld :  A  peculiar  kind  of  air 


A 


E      R      O 


O 


Y. 


produced  from  its  folntlon, 

I  75.  A  bcautitiil  experiment 
with  it,  it.  Green  matter 
obtcrvcd  by  Dr  Priefllcy  in 
glafs  jars  producing  dcphlo- 
gitlicated  air,  proved  to  b«- 
i"f  an  animal  nature,  40. 

H 
Hala,  Dr,  hisdifcovcries,  iS, 

19. 
H,at ;  Its  tffefls  on  fixed  air, 

I I  J. 

Hiputx  air,  produced  from  an 

ore  of  /.inc,  176. 
Bcj\  obtained  from  liver  of  ful- 

phur,  177.  lis  properties,/^. 
H'jt  Climata  :   Great  quantity 

of  inflammable  air  produced 

in  them,  1 18. 
liuiiian   hair  produces  dephlo- 

gifiieatcd  air  with  water,  4J, 

Ice  diflblvcd  very  fall  by  alka- 
line air,  146.  And  by  ma- 
rine acid  air,  i  71. 

hicouditijiblc  vap  ourz  ri  flngfrom 
water,  86.  Priefileys  con- 
jcfturcs  concerning  it,  87. 
Attempts  to  collciit  it,  88. 

hifiamviuble  air :  Method  of 
burning  it  in  the  dcphlogi- 
flicaled  kind,  59.  Water 
produced  from  a  mixture  of 
inflammable  and  dcphlogi- 
flicatedair,  77.  Qiianiityof 
it  ncccffary  to  phlogiflicate 
common  air,  78.  This  kind 
of  :iir  produced  in  mines, 
from  putrid  waters,  &c.  11  7. 
Great  quantitiesgenerated  in 
hot  climates,  118.  MrCa- 
vallo's  method  of  collciirling 
it  from  ponds,  119.  Me- 
teors thought  to  be  produced 
by  it  120.  Different  kinds 
of inflanimableair,i2l.  Ex- 
trafled  from  various  fubflan- 
ces  by  heat,  122.  More  air 
procured  by  a  fudden  and 
violent  than  by  a  gradual 
heat,  125.  How  procured 
from  water  and  other  fluid 
and  folid  fubflances,  124. 
Proportions  of  inflammable 
air  procured  from  iron  by 
means  of  fleam,  125.  Of 
the  confliiuent  parts  of  in- 
flammable air,  126.  No  acid 
contained  in  it,  127.  Water 
nccclTary  to  its  produflion 
according  to  Dr  Prieflky, 
128.  Denied  by  Mr  Kir- 
wan,  I  ;8.  Charcoal  totally 
convertibleintoit,  729.  Ex- 
periment Ihowing  the  uecef- 


tity  of  water  for  the  produc- 
tion of  inflammable  air,  131. 
Is  not  pure  plilogifton,  135. 
PricfUey's.anaiylis  of  diffe- 
rent kinds  ofit,  i  34.  Fixed 
air  gencr.itcd  in  its  decom- 
petition,  1 3  J.  Fixed  air 
conveniblcintoit,  I  36.  Has 
a  great  propcnfity  to  uniic 
with  water,  137.  Dr  Priell- 
ley's conclulion  with  regard 
to  its  component  parts,  139. 
Itsabforption  by  water,  140. 
Its  effects  on  vegetation  and 
animal  life,  141.  Has  little 
refractive  power,  142. 
Schemes  to  employ  it  for 
various  purpofes,  143. 

higtr.houfz,  Dr,  his  experi- 
ments in  the  melioration  of 
air  by  vegetation, 35.  Produ- 
ces dephlogitlicatcd  air  from 
water  by  means  of  the  leaves 
of  plants,  37.  Conclufions 
from  his  experiments,  38. 
His  theory  difputed,  51. 

hdi:  fomctimesdiirolved  by  the 
air,  13.  Yields  depjilogifli- 
cated  air  with  oil  of  vitriol, 
3 1 .  Imbibes  depbJogiflicated 
air,  68.  Takes  it  from  the 
atmofphere,  69.  May  be 
madetoimbibcdephlogiiiica- 
ted  air  as  often  as\vc  pkafe, 
74.  Properties  of  the  iu- 
flammabie  air  obtained  from 
it  by  means  of  fleain,  125. 
K. 

Kir-man's  condufion  concern- 
ing the  aniticial  production 
of  water,  83.  Obfervcs  the 
propenlity  of  inflammable  air 
to  unite  with  water,  137. 
His  opinion  concerning  the 
conflitucnt  principles  of  in- 
flammable air.  138. 
L. 

Lavoifier  corrects  a  procefs  of 
Dr  Priefllcy,  31.  His  ex- 
periments on  tlie  diminution 
of  air  by  burning,  58,  59. 
Differences  betwixt  him  and 
Dr  Pricftley,  64.  Denies 
the  exiflence  of  plilogiflon, 
91.  His  experiments  on  the 
calcination  of  metals  and  re- 
fpiration,  92,  93,  94. 

Lead:  Proponioiis  of  it  re- 
vived in  alkaline  air,  147. 

J.eavii  of  plants  fcparate  de- 
phlogiflicated  air  from  wa- 
ter, 37.  1' (.fume  this  pro- 
perty aftertheyfecm  to  have 
loft  it,   J2. 

Light  •  Effcfls  ofit  ia  the  pro- 


Index. 

dufljon   of  dephlogillicatcd. 
air,     36.     Eltects   of   light 
without  heat,  43.     Ofuiti- 
Hcial  light,  44. 

Li/:i  produces  dcpblogifticatcd 
air,  4J. 

Litmuj,  its  folution  decom- 
pounded by  t.iking  the  elec- 
tric fpark  in  dtphlogiflicated 
air  confined  over  it,  loj. 

Liver  oj  fulphtir  abforbs  dephlo- 
giflicatcd  air,    95.     Yields 
hepatic  air  in  plenty,    177, 
M. 

Mai:gaiicp  :  Sulphurated  in- 
flammable air  jiril  produced 
from  it,  144. 

jMarb/e,  why  it  fometimea 
burlls  with  troll,  5. 
Alari/jv  j4cid  yi/ir,how  iiroca- 
red, I  70.  Its  properties,  1 71. 
Changed  into  inflammable 
air,  172. 

Mediterranean  fea  :    Qiiantity 
of  water  evaporated  from  it&- 
furface,  4. 

Metallic  vaponn^  their  poifon- 
ous  qualities,  j. 

Metallic  calces  imbibe  dephlo- 
gillicatcd air,  67. 

Mercury  yields  dephlogiftica- 
ted  air  cither  with  nitrous  or 
vitriolic  acid,  31. 

Mineral  "waters  contain  air, 
19,  20. 

Mint  reilores  noxious  air  to  a 
/late  of  falubrity  by  its  vege- 
tation, 32.  33. 

Mojetesy  their  nature,  5. 

Mujlard,  its  cfteds  on  air,  35. 
N. 

Nitre  yields  a  great  quantity  of 
dcphlogiflicaiedair,  28. 

Nitrous  air  diminillies  dephlo- 
giflicatedair,6o,i54.  Y'ields 
nitrous  acid  when  decompo- 
fed,  76.  How  procured,  150. 
Why  ftrong  nitrous  acid 
yields  none,  151.  Properties 
ofit,  1 52.  Extremely  fatal  to 
vegetable  and  animal  life, 
153.  Has  a  ftrong  antifeptic 
power,  15J.  Its  fpecific  gra- 
vity,  156.  Its  component 
parts,  IJ7.  Compofed  of 
phlogillicated  nitrous  acid 
and  water,  r  58.  Effefls  of 
the  electric  fpark  on  it,  159. 

Nitrous  acid,  whether  or  not 
it  enters  the  compofition  of 
nitrous  air,  66.  Produced 
from  dephlogifticated  and 
inflammable  air,  77. 

Nitrous  acid  air,   how  procu- 
red,   166.     Cannot  be  pre- 
ferved 


Tnoex. 

fcrvcd  by  means  of  any  fluid, 
167.  Ail'iiines  a  red  colour 
by  being  htatcd,  168.  Its 
clFccts  on  red  lead,  169. 

Noxious  air,  {low  puriticd  by 
agitation  in  water,  97. 
O. 

Oi/j  and  Sirits,  why  tlicy  fcpa- 
ratc  in  vacuo,  7. 

0,'rv  oil,  with  whiting,  yields 
irianimabk  air,  124. 
P. 

Phhgiflicated  ail-  ,'ni^Yo^cn\es, 
99.  Nitroas  acid  procured 
by  means  of  it,  100.  Mr 
Cavcndilh's  opinions  on  its 
nature,  103. 

Phlogijiicalioii  of  air,  whether 
it  contains  any  vitriolic  acid, 
76.     Kxplaincd,  89. 

PhlogiJIon,  too  great  powers  at- 
tributed to  It,  90.  Its  ex- 
iftence  denied  by  the  foreign 
chemilH,  91.  Whether  in- 
flammable air  is  pure  phlo- 
gifton  or  not,-  ij,-},  i  ;8. 
Contained  in  alkaline  air, 
147. 

Plaiiu  purify  air  by  their  ve- 
getation, 58. 

Poptilns  nigra,  dephlogifticated 
air  plentifully  produced  from 
water  by  means  of  its  cotton- 
like fubflancc,  46,  47. 

Prccifitjtc  per  /;,  yields  no 
water  on  being  revived  into 
a  metal,  7?. 

PriefUey,  Dr,  difcoversdephlo- 
gifticated  air,  24.  His  firll 
hypothefis  concerning  the 
component  parts  of  dephlo- 
gifticatcd  air,  6;.  DifFcr- 
encc  betwixt  fomc  of  his  ex- 
periments and  tjiofe  of  La- 
voificr,64.  His  opinion  con- 


AERO 

cerning  the  non-exiftcncc  of 
nitrousacid  indephlogillica- 
tcd  air,  66.  Oiliicukies  a- 
riling  from  fome  of  his  ex- 
periments concerning  the 
generation  of  water  in  derta- 
grating  dcphlogiflicatcd  and 
inriamraabic  air,  8j.  Kis 
conjectures  concerning  the 
incondcnfible  vapour  of  wa- 
ter, 87.  His  experiments  on 
the  rompolition  of  fixed  air, 
no.  His  opinion  concern- 
ing the  compolition  of  phlo- 
gillicated  air.  III.  Experi- 
ment in  favour  of  his  hypo- 
thefis concerning  phlogilli- 
cated  air,   114. 

Putrefying  fubjlances  emit  fix- 
ed air,   182. 
R. 

Raw-filk  produces  dephlogilti- 
cated  air  by  means  of  water, 
41.  Various  fubflanccsfub- 
fiituted  forit,  45.  Compa- 
rifon  between  itsfurfacc  and 
that  of  the  cotton-like  fub- 
ftancc  of  the  Popuiui  nigra, 
47- 

Jied-Zead  yields  no  dephlogifli- 
catedairwhenfirfl  prepared, 
and  but  little  for  fome  time 
after,  29.  Gives  a  greater 
quantity  by  a  faddcn  than  a 
flow  heat,  30. 

Refpiraf.on,  Mr Lavoilier's ex- 
periments on  it,  91. 

Retorts  with  long  necks  proper 
for  diftilling  dephlogilHca- 
ted  air,  31. 
S. 

Scales  of  iron  the  fame  with 
finery-cinder,  124. 

5t/'fc-/ifdilcoversdcphlogiflica- 
tedair, 28.  Hiscxperimcnts 


LOGY. 

on  its  din:i:iution  by  com- 
buftion,  59.  On  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  the  atmo- 
fphcre,  24. 

Sea-'iOaler  co\:V.ms^arc  a.\r  ,^l. 

Seltzer-water  imitated  by  ^lr 
Vencl,  20.    , 

Sheep'}  -.U6s/feparates  dcphlogi- 
flicatcd air  from  water,  45. 

Soot  yields  pure  air  by  dillilla- 
tion,  87. 

Sponge  imbibes  a  great  quantity 
of  alkaline  air,  146. 

Spuu-glafsy  unfuccefsful  at- 
tempt to  procure  dcphlogif- 
ticated  air  from  water  by  its 
means,  49. 

5/;a,v/,proportionsof  inflamma- 
ble air  obtained  by  its  means 
from  dirfcrcnt  fubflanccs, 
1 2 J.  Its  inlhicnce  on  the 
production  of  inflammable 
air  from  charcoal,  "n2. 

Stones  fometimes  diilolved  by 
the  air,  14. 

Sulphureous  vapnurs,  ih  eir  per- 
nicious effe^is,  5. 

Sulphur  yields  inflammable  air 

with  ftead,  124. 

Sulphur  ate  din fianwia'ole  air  pro. 
cured  from  manganefe,  144. 
and  from  iron  melted  in  vi- 
triolic acid  air,  145. 
T. 

Thou  foil,  Sir  Benjamin,  his  ex- 
periments on  tlie  production 
of  dephlogifticated  air,  39 
etfeq. 

Turpentine  c/V  yields  inflamma- 
ble air,   124. 
V. 

Vegetation  will  not  go  on  in 
vacuo,  iwd  why ,  12.  Pro- 
duces dephlogifticated  air, 
32.     Improves  noxious  air, 


35.  Experiments fcemingly 
contradictory,  34.  Dr  la- 
genhoufi's  experiments  on 
tliis  fubjcd,  3  J. 

Van  Heh/iiint's  difcovcries,  16. 

Vegetable  acid  air  phlogillicates 
common  air,  i  74. 

Vitriolic  acid  ar,  16;. 

Volatile   alkali  produced  from 

nitrous  acid  and  iron,  149. 

W  . 

Water,  quantity  of  it  evapo- 
rated from  the  Mediterrane- 
an, 4.  From  an  acre  01 
ground,  ibid.  Why  it  boils 
violently  in  vacuo,  7.  Pro- 
duces dephlogifticated   air, 

36.  Qiiantityofairyieldcd 
by  it,  with  the  mixture  of 
various  fnbftaiiccs,  46.  By 
water  alone,  50.  Formed  by 
the  deflagration  of  inflam- 
mable and  dephlogifticated 
air,  71.  Qiiantity  produced 
in  this  manner,  72,  73.  Ca- 
vcndilh's experimentson  this 
fubjcct,  7j.  Dr  Prieftley's 
experiments  on  the  fame, 80, 
81.  Experiments  of  the 
French  philofophersand  Mr 
Kirwan,82,  83.  Waterpcr- 
vious  to  air,  98.  Method  of 
procuringinriammablc  airby 
its  means,  124.  Always  ne- 
cclfary  to  the  production  of 
this  kind  of  air,  12S,  i;i. 
Atira^ion  betwixt  it  and 
buriiingchareoaloriron,i32. 
Great  propenfity  of  inflam- 
mable air  to  unite  with  it, 
137,  140.  Its  effc(5ls  on  ni- 
trous air,   162. 

Wines,  proportions  <^(  fixed  air 
ill  dirtcrcut  kinds  of  liicm, 
182. 


A  E  R 

AEROMANCY,  a  fpeciesof  divination  performed 
by  means  of  air,  wind,  &c.    See  Divination,  u°  5. 

AEROMETRY,  the  fcience  of  mcafuring  the  air. 
It  comprehends  not  only  the  doctrine  of  the  air  itfelf , 
conlidered  as  a  fluid  body  ;  but  alfo  its  prclfure,  elafti- 
city,  rarefaction,  and  condenfation.  But  the  term  is 
at  prefent  not  much  in  ufc,  this  branch  of  natural  phi- 
lofophy being  more  frequcntlycallcd  Pneumatics.  See 
Pneumatics. 

AERONAUT,  a  perfon  who  attends  and  guides 
an  air-balloon.  See  Aerostation  and  AiR-BalUon. 

AERONAUTICA,  from  nno^  and  vai,T(«oc,  derived 
from  roiic,  (hip ;  the  iriof  failing  in  a\cflcl  or  machine 


A  E  R'        . 

through  the  atmofphere,  fuftained  as  a  /hip  in  the  fea.  Atropl.j-. 
Sec  Aerostation.  hcea. 

AEROPHYLACEA,  a  term  ufed  by  naturalifts 

for  caverns  or  refervoirs  of  air,  fuppofcd  to  cxift  in  the 
bowels  of  the  earth.  Kircher  fpcaks  much  of  acro- 
phylacea,  or  huge  caverns,  replete  with  air,  difpo- 
fed  under  ground  ;  from  whence,  through  numerous 
occult  palVages,  that  element  is  conveyed  cither  to 
fubterraneoiis  receptacles  of  water,  which,  according 
to  him,  are  hereby  raifed  into  fpringsor  rivers,  or  in- 
to the  funds  of  fubterraneous  fire,  which  ai-c  hereby 
fed  and  kept  alive  for  the  preparation  oftnetais,  mine-  • 
rals,  M\\  the  like. 


'lEROSTATlON 


19B 


AEROSTATION 


r 


iiical 
Kicans 


[S  a  fcicnce  newly  iiitroJaced  into  the  Kncyclojiocdia. 
Tlieworil,  in  its  priniiiivc  i'en(V, denotes  the  fcicnce 
olTufpcnJing  wciglits  in  the  air  ;  but  in  its  modern  ac- 
ceptation, it  lignilies  aerial  navigation,  or  the  art  of  na- 
vigating through  ihc  atniofphcre.  Hence  alfo  the  ma- 
chines which  arc  employed  for  this  purpofe  are  called 
iierojlals,  or  aerojiatic  machines  ;  and  from  their  glo- 
bular Ihapc,  air-litlloon!. 

The  romances  of  almofl every  nation  have  recorded 
inflances  of  pcrfons  being  carried  through  the  air,  both 
J         by  the  agency  of  fpiritsand  by  mechanical  inventions  ; 
Lord  riac-   but  till  the  time  of  the  celebrated  Lord  Bacon,  no  ra- 
onfirftpub- tional  principle  appears   to  have  been  thought  of  by 
lifhcd  the    \vhich  tliis  might  be  accomplillied.   Before  that  time, 
true  prin-    i,ij(.gj^  Friar  Bacon  had  written  upon  the  fubjed  ;  and 
ftation      JTisny  had  been  of  opinion,  that,  by  means  of  artificial 
wings,  lixcd  to  the  arms  or  legs,  a  man  might  rty  as 
well  as  a  bird  :  but  thefe  opinions  were  thoroughly 
Itnponitiili-  refuted  by  BorcUi  in  his  irealife  /Ji-  Motii  Anhnaltuiii , 
ty  of  flying  where,  from  a  eomparifon  between  the  power  of  the 
by  incchi-  mufclcs  which  move  the  wings  of  a  bird,  and  thofe 
which  move  the  arms  of  a  man,  lie  dcmonftrates  that 
the  latter  arc  utterly  infiifRcicnt  to  flrike  the  air  with 
fuch  force  as  to  raife  him  f;om  the  ground,     ft  can- 
not be  denied,  however,  that  wings  of  this  kind,    if 
properly  conftrui^tcd,  and  dcxieroully  managed,  might 
be  fulHcicnt  to  break  the  fall  of  a  human  body  from  an 
high  place,  fo  that  fonie  adventurers  in  this  way  might 
poliibly  come  olt  with  fafety  ;  though  by  far  the  grcat- 
cft  number  of  thofe  who  ha%  rafhly  adopted  fuch 
fchertes,  have  either  loll  their  lives  or  liaibs  in  the 
,        attempt. 
Scheme  of       In  the  year  1672,  Bidtop  Wilkins  publillied  a  trca- 
iJiihi.pWil-  tifc,  intillcd,  the  Difcovcry  of  the  New  World  ;  in 
Miiiand      which  he  mentions,  though  in  a  very  indiftinft  and 
Albertusdc  confufcd  ni,-.nner,  the  true  principle  on  which  thcair 
is  navigable  ;  quoting,  from  /Ubertus  de  Saxonia  and 
Francis  Mcndoca,  "  that  the  air  is  in  fomc  part  of  it 
navigable  :  and  upon  tliis  Aatic  princij>lr,  any  brafsor 
ironveirel  (fuppofe  a  kettle),  whofe  fubftance  is  much 
heavier  than  that  of  water,  yet  being  filled  with  the 
lighter  air,  it  will  fwim  upon  it  and  r.otlink.     So  fup- 
pofe a  cup  or  wooden  veflel  ujjonthe  outward  borders 
of  this  elementary  air,  the  capacity  of  it  being  filled 
with  fire,  orrather  ethereal  air,  itmullncceffarily,  up- 
on the  fame  ground,  remain  fwimming  there,  and  of 
itfelf  can  no  more  fall  than  an  empty  fliip  can   fink." 
This  idea,  however,  he  did  not  l>y  any  means  purfue, 
butrefted  his  hopes  eiuircly  upon  mechanical  motions, 
to  be  actomplill'.ed  by  the  mere  llrengih  of  a  man,  or 
by  fprings,  &c.  and  which  have  been  demonftratcd  in- 
capable of  anfwering  any  uftfd  purpofc. 
liifliop  La-      The  only  pcrfon  who  brought  his  fchemc  of  flying 
na'sfchciiii:.  to  any  kind  of  rational  principle  was  the  Jcfiiit  Francis 
Lana,  cotemporary  with  Bifliop  W'ilkius.  lie,  being- 
acquainted  V.  i:h  the  real  weight  of  the  atmofphere, 
juftly  concluded,  that  if  a  globular  vefTcl  wereexhauft- 
cd  of  air,  it  would  weigh  lefs  ihan  before  ;"and  conli- 


Saikonia. 


dering  that  the  folid  contents  of  vcfTcIs  increafe  in 
much  greater  proportion  tlian  their  furfaces  ;  he  I'uppo- 
fed  that  a  metalline  veliel  might  be  made  fo  large, 
that,  when  emptied  of  its  air,  it  would  be  able  not 
only  to  raifc  iifelf  in  the  atmofphere,  but  to  carry  up 
pallengcrs  along  with  it  ;  and  he  made  a  number  of 
calculations  necclfary  for  putting  the  project  in  execu- 
tion. But  though  the  theory  was  here  unexception- 
able, the  means  propoled  were  certainly  infufficient  to 
accomplifh  the  end  :  for  a  vefTcl  of  copper,  made  fo 
thin  as  was  necclfary  to  make  it  float  in  tlie  atmo- 
fphere, would  be  utterly  unable  to  refill  the  external 
preliurc  ;  which  being  dcmonflrated  by  thofe  Ikilledin 
mechanics,  no  attempt  was  made  on  that  principle. 

In  the  year  r  709,  however,  as  we  were  informed  by 
a  letter  publilhcd  in  France  in  1784,  a  Portuguefe 
projedor.  Friar  Gufman,  applied  to  the  king  for  en- 
couragement to  his  invention  of  a  Hying  machine.  The 
principle  on  which  this  was  conllruftcd,  if  indeed  it 
had  any  principle,  feenis  to  have  been  that  of  the  pa- 
per kite.  The  machine  was  conftrufted  in  form  of  a 
bird,  and  contained  feveral  tubes  through  which  the 
wind  was  to  pals,  in  order  to  fill  a  kind  of  fails,  which 
were  to  elevate  it  ;  and  when  the  wind  was  deficient, 
the  fame  efFei-l  was  to  be  performed  by  means  of  bel- 
lows concealed  within  the  body  of  the  machine.  The 
afcent  was  alfo  to  be  promoted  by  the  eleftric  attrac- 
tion of  pieces  of  amber  placed  in  the  top,  and  by  two 
fphtrcs  incloling  magnets  in  the  fame  lituation. 

Thefe  childilh  inventions  Ihow  the  low  ftate  of  fci- 
cnce at  that  time  in  Portugal,  efpecially  as  the  king, 
in  order  to  encourage  him  to  farther  exertions  in  fuch 
anufeful  invention,  granted  him  the  firll  vacant  place 
in  his  college  of  Barcelosor  Santarem,  with  the  firft 
profellbrfliip  in  the  Univcrllty  of  Coimbra,  and  an  an- 
nual penlion  of  600,000  reis  during  his  life.  Of  this 
De  Gufman,  it  is  alfo  related,  that  in  the  year  1756, 
he  made  a  wicker  bafkei  of  about  feven  or  eight  feet 
diameter,  and  covered  with  paper,  which  raifcd  itfelf 
about  2C0  feet  in  the  air,  and  the  efFedl  was  generally 
attributed  to  witchcraft. 

In  the  year  i  766,  Mr  Henry  Cavendilh  afcertained 
the  weigh t and  o: her  properties  of  inf.airiiTiable  air,  de- 
termining it  to  be  at  leaf!  feven  times  lighter  than 
common  air.  Soon  aUer  which,  it  occurred  to  Dr 
Black,  that  perhaps  a  thin  bag  filled  with  infiamniabic 
air  might  be  buoyed  up  by  the  common  atmofphere  ; 
and  lie  thought  of  having  the  allantois  of  a  calf  prcpa- 1 
red  for  this  jnirpofe  :  but  his  other  avocations  prevent- 
ed him  from  profecuting  the  experiment.  The  fame 
thought  occurred  fomeyearsafterwards  toMrCavalln  ; 
and  iic  has  the  honour  of  being  the  firll  who  maile  ex- 
periments on  the  fubjcct.  He firil  tried  bladders ;  hut 
the  thinne/l  of  tliefe,  however  well  fcraped  and  prepa- 
red, were  found  too  heavy.  He  then  tried  Chinefe 
jiaper  ;  but  that  piroved  fo  permeable,  that  the  vapour 
paflfed  through  it  like  water  thro  igh  a  fieve.  ITisex- 
periiuents,  therefore,  made  in  the  year  i  782,  proceed- 
ed 


5 
Strange 
propol'al  of 
Friar  Guf- 
man. 


PofTibillty 
of  bodies 
rilmjiinthe 
air  thouj:ht 
of  by  Dr 
Black  and 
MrCaval- 


Hiftory. 


AEROSTATION. 


Acroftation 
(tifcovcred 
liy  Monf. 
Montgol- 


Accouat  of 
his  expcri- 

lUCIlti. 


cd  no  farther  than  blowing  up  foap-bubbles  witli  in- 
iiammable  air,  which  afccndcd  rapidly  to  the  ceiling, 
ard  broke  againfl  it. 

But  while  the  difcovcry  of  the  art  of  acroftation 
feemcd  thus  on  the  point  of  being  made  in  Britain,  it 
was  all  at  once  announced  in  France,  and  that  from  a 
quarter  whence  nothing  of  the  kind  W;!S  to  have  been 
expccTied.  Two  brothers,  Stephen  and  John  i^ont- 
golfier,  natives  of  Annonay,  and  mailers  of  a  conlider- 
able  paper  manufactory  there, had  turned  their  thoughts 
towards  this  projcift  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  year 
1782.  The  idea  was  iirfl  fuggellcd  by  the  natural 
afccntof  the  Imokeand  clouds  in  the  atmofplicre  ;  and 
their  delign  was  to  form  an  artiliciai  cloud, by  iiicloling 
the  fmoke  in  a  bag,  and  making  it  carry  up  the  cover- 
ing along  with  it.  Touards  the  middle  of  November 
that  year,  the  experiment  was  made  at  Avignon  with 
a  tine  lilk  bag  of  a  parallelopipcd  Ihape.  By  applying 
burning  paper  to  the  lower  aperture,  the  air  was  rare- 
lied,  and  the  bag  afcended  in  the  atniofphere,  and 
flruck  rapidly  againfl  the  ceiling.  On  repeating  the 
experiment  in  the  open  air,  it  rofe  to  the  heiglit  of 
about  70  feet. 

An  experiment  on  a  more  enlarged  fcalc  was  now 
projcfbed  ;  and  a  new  machine,  containing  about  650 
cubic  feet,  was  made,  which  broke  the  cords  that  con- 
fined it,  and  rofe  to  the  licight  of  about  600  feet.  A- 
nother  of  ^5  feet  in  diameter  rofe  aliouc  1000  feet 
high,  and  fell  to  the  ground  three  quirters  of  a  nule 
fromtheplacc  whereitafccndcd.  A  public  exhibition 
was  next  madeon  the  fifth  of  June  178^,  at  Annonay, 
where  a  vafl  number  of  fpcO-lat'>rs  ademblcd.  An  im- 
mcnfe  bag  of  linen,  lined  with  paper,  and  c-ont.iining 
upwards  of  2^,000  cubic  feet,  was  found  to  have  a 
power  of  lifting  about  joo  pounds,  iiuludinglts  own 
weight.  The  operation  was  begun  by  burning  chop- 
ped draw  and  wool  under  the  aperture  of  the  machine, 
wiiicli  immediately  began  to  I'well  ;  and  after  being  fct 
at  liberty,  afcended  into  the  atmofphcre.  In  ten  mi- 
nutes it  had  afcended  6000  feet  ;  and  when  its  force 
wasexhaufted,  it  fell  to  the  ground  at  the  dillance  of 
7668  feet  from  the  place  from  whence  it  fet  out. 

Soon  after  this,  one  of  the  brothers  arrived  at  Paris, 
where  he  was  invited  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  to 
repeat  his  experiments  at  their  cxpence.  In  confe- 
qucnccof  this  invitation,  he  conftrucfed,  in  a  garden 
in  the  Kauxbourgof  St  Germain,  a  large  balloon  of  an 
elliptical  form.  In  a  preliminary  experiment,  this  ma- 
chine lifted  up  from  the  ground  ciglit  perfons  who  held 
it,  and  would  have  carried  them  all  orf  if  more  had  not 
quickly  come  to  their  afiiftance.  Next  day  the  expe- 
riment was  repeated  in  prcfenceof  theniembersof  the 
academy  ;  the  machine  was  filled  by  thecombullion  of 
50  pounds  of  ftraw  made  up  in  fniall  bundles,  upon 
which  about  12  pounds  of  chopped  wool  were  thrown 
at  intervals.  Tlie  ufual  fuccefs  attended  tliis  exhibi- 
tion :  The  machine  loon  fwelled  ;  endeavoured  to  a- 
fcend  ;  and  immediately  after  fuftained  itfelf  in  the 
air,  together  with  the  charge  of  between  4  and  joo 
pounds  weight.  It  was  evident  that  it  would  have 
afcended  to  a  greater  height  ;  but  as  it  was  defigncd 
to  repeat  the  experiment  before  the  king  and  royal 
family  at  Verfailles,  the  cords  by  which  it  was  tied 
down  was  not  cut.  Butinconfequcncc  of  aviolcntrain 
and  wind  whichhappened  at  this  timc,thc  machine  was 


fo  far  damaged,  that  it  became  neccfTary  to  prepare  a 
new  one  for  tlie  time  that  it  had  been  determined  to 
honour  the  experiment  with  the  royal  prcfcnce  ;  and 
fuch  expedition  was  ufcd,  that  this  valt  machine,  of 
near  60  feet  in  height  and  43  in  diameter,  was  made, 
painted  with  water-colours  both  within  and  without, 
and  finely  decorated,  in  uo  more  than  four  days  and 
four  nights.  Along  with  this  machine  was  fcnt  a 
wicker  cage,  contaiuing  a  Ihecp,  a  cock,  and  a  duck, 
whicli  were  the  firft  animals  ever  fcnt  through  the  atr 
mofphere.  The  full  fucceisof  the  experiment  was  pre- 
vented by  a  violent  gull  of  wind  wiiich  tore  the  cloth 
in  two  places  near  tlie  top  before  it  afcended  :  How- 
ever, it  rofe  to  the  height  of  1 440  feet ;  and,  after  re- 
maining in  the  air  about  eight  minutes,  fell  to  the 
ground  at  the  dillancc  of  10,200  feet  from  the  place 
of  its  letting  out.  The  animals  were  not  in  the  lead 
hurt. 

Tlie  great  power  of  thefc  aeroftatic  machines,  and 
their  very  gradual  defcent  in  falling  to  the  ground,  had 
originally  Ihowed  that  they  were  capable  of  tranfport- 
ing  people  through  the  air  with  all  imaginable  fafety  ; 
and  this  was  further  confirmed  by  the  experimental- 
ready  mentioned.  As  Mr  MoutgoKitr,  therclorc, 
propofed  tom.ikeancwaeroflatic  machine,  of  a  firmer 
and  better  conllruc^tion  than  the  former,  Mr  Pilatrc  dc 
Ilozicr  offered  hinifelf  to  be  the  firft  aerial  adventu- 
rer. 

This  new  machine  was  conftru<ifcd  in  a  garden  in 
the  Fauxbourgof  St  Antoine.  It  wasof  an  oval  fliapc, 
abo\it  48  feet  in  diameter  and  74  in  height ;  elegantly- 
painted  on  the  ouifide  with  the  ligns  of  the  zodiac, 
ciphers  of  the  king's  name,  and  other  ornaments.  A 
proper  gallery,  grate,  &c.,  were  appended  in  the  hian- 
ncr  afterwards  deferibed  ;  fo  that  it  was  eify  for  the 
perfon  who  afcended  to  fupplv  the  fire  with  Jiicl,  and 
thus  keep  up  the  machine  ai  lorig  as  he  pkafeif.  The 
weight  of  the  whole  apparatus  was  upwards  of  i/ico 
pounds.  The  experiment  was  performed  on  the  15th 
of  Oflober  1783.  Mr  Pilatre  having  placed  hinifelf 
in  the  gallery,  the  machine  was  inflated,  and  pcrmit- 
cd  to  afcend  to  the  height  of  84  feet,  where  he  kept 
it  afioat  for  about  four  minutes  and  a  half;  after 
which  it  defcendcd  very  gently :  and  fuch  was  its 
tendency  to  afcend,  that  it  rebounded  to  a  conliderable 
height  after  touching  the  ground.  Two  diiys  after, 
he  repeated  the  experiment  with  the  fame  fuccefs  as 
before;  b)it  the  wind  being  ftrong,  the  machine  diJ 
not  fuftain  itfelf  fo  well  as  formerly.  On  repeating 
the  experiment  in  calmer  weather,  he  afcended  to 
the  height  of  210  feet.  His  next  al'ccnt  was  262 
feet ;  and  in  the  defcent,  a  gurt  of  wind  having 
blown  the  machine  over  fome  large  trees  of  an  adjoin- 
ing garden,  Mr  Pil.itre  fuddenty  extricated  himfclf 
from  fo  dangerous  a  (ituation,  by  throwing  fome  ftraw 
and  chopped  wool  on  the  fire,  which  railed  him  at 
once  to  a  fulKoient  height.  On  defceiiding  again,  he 
once  more  raifed  hinifelf  to  a  proper  height  by  throw- 
ing ftraw  on  the  fire.  Some  time  after,  he  afcended 
in  company  with  Mr  Girond  dc  \illcttc  to  the  height 
of  330  feet ;  hoveringover  Paris  at  leall  nine  minutes 
in  light  of  all  the  inhabitants,  and  the  machine  keep- 
ing all  the  while  perfedly  ileady. 

Thefc  experiments  had  Ihown,  that  the  aeroftatio 

machines  might  be  raifed  orlowcredat  tlic  plcafureof 

'  iba 


99 


9 

Some  ani- 
nnU  I'afciy 
fcnt  thru' 
the  ail. 


10 
Mr  rilatre 
dc  Ro7,icr 
the  tiril  ae- 
rial naviga- 
tor. 


II 

Accr.uiit  of 
h!»  diffcr- 
rcnt  voya- 

gCi. 


zoo 


AEROSTATION. 


the  iv:n'o;,s  v.";  j  afcendtvi :  ihcy  had  likcwifc  difcovcr- 
cd,  tint  the  keeping  them  fait  witli  ropes  was  no 
aiivamnge  ;  but,  oa  tlic  contrary,  thai  this  was  attend- 
ed witliliKonvcuiencc  and  hazard.     Onihezillot 
November  1785,  therefore,  M.  I'ilairc  determined  to 
undtrtakcan  aerial  voyage  in  whic!i  ihc  machine  ihould 
be  fully  ftt  at  liberty.     tLvcry  thing  being  got  in  rci- 
dincfs,  the  balloon  was  filled  in  a  lew  minutes  :  and 
M.  Pilatrc  placed  himfclf  in  the  gallery,  counterpoiJcd 
by  the  Marquis  d'.-^rlandcs,  who  occupied  the  other 
fide.     U  was  intended  to  make  fome  preliminary  ex- 
periments on  the  afcending  power  of  the  machine: 
hut  the  violenceof  the  wind  prevented  this  from  being 
done,  and  even  damaged  the  balloon  eil'entially  :  lo 
tiiat  it  would  have  been  entirely  dtllroyed  had  not 
timely  aflillance  been  given,.    The  extraordinary  ex- 
cnioas  of  the  workmen,  however,  repaired  it  again  in 
two  hoars,  and  the  adventurers  fet  out.     They  met 
with  no  inconveiiitiice  during  their  voyage,  \'.hich 
lallcd  about   25  minutes  ;  during  which  time  they 
had  pRfled  over  a  fpace  of  above  live  miles — From 
the  account  given  by  the  Marquis  d'Arlandcs,  it  ap- 
pears that  they  met  with  feveral  ditierent  currents  of 
air  ;  the  eltccl  of  which  was,  to  give  a  very  fcnlible 
Ihock  to  the  machine,  and  the  dircaiou  of  the  motion 
fecmcd  to  be  frowi  the  upper  part  downwards.     It  ap- 
pears alfo  that  they  were  in  fome  danger  of  having  the 
balloon  burnt  altogether  ;  as  the  Marquis  obfervcd  ie- 
veral  round  holes  made  by  the  fire  in  the  lower  part 
ofit,  which  alarmed  him  con  fiderably,  and  indeed  not 
without  reafon.     However  the  progrefs  of  the  tire 
was  ealily  Hopped  by  the  application  of  a  wet  fpun^e, 
and  all  appearance  of  danger  cealtd  in  a  very  Ihort 
li        time.  . 

Monfgol-  This  voyage  of  M.  Pilatrc  and  the  Marquis  d  Ar- 
ficr'sm.v  lauJcs  maybe  faid  to  conclude  the  hillory  of  thole 
chiBcs  fii-  aeroftatifc  machines  which  are  elevated  by  means  of 
•^r'c^l^^\  fire  ;  for  though  many  other  attempts  have  been  made 
„°h  In!  upon  the  fame  principle,  moft  of  them  have  either 
flammable  provedunfuccefsfulor  wereof little confequcnce.  They 
air.  have  therefore  given  place  to  the  other  kind, filled  v/ith 

inilammablc  air  ;  which,  by  reafon  of  its  fmaller  fpe- 
citic  gravity,  is  both  more  manageable,  and  capable  of 
performing  voyages  of  greater  length,  as  it  docs  not 
require  to  be  fupplicd  with  fuel  like  the  others.  This 
was  invented  a  very  Ihort  time  after  the  difcovery  had 
been  made  by  M.  IMonigolfier.  This  gentleman  had 
ihdeed  dcligned  to  keep  his  method  in  fome  degree  a 
fecret  from  the  woild  ;  but  as  it  could  not  be  conceal- 
ed, that  a  bag  filled  with  any  kind  of  fluid  lighter  than 
the  common  atmofphere  would  raifc  in  it,  intlaKmable 
air  was  naturally  ihouijht  of  as  a  proper  fucce<lancum 
for  the  rarefied  air  of  M.  MontgoUier.  The  firll  ex- 
periment was  made  by  two  brothers  iMeffrs  Roberts, 
and  K;.  Charles  a  profefTor  of  experimental  philolb- 
Charlcsand  phy.  The  bag  which  contained  the  gas  was  compo- 
Roberts.  f^jj  „f  inLcftring,  varnilhcd  over  with  a  folution  of  the 
clalUcgura  caUed  catutchoic;  and  that  wiih  which 
they  made  their  firft  cliay  was  only  ai.out  13  Englilli 
feet  in  diameter.  Many  dilficulties  occured  in  filling 
it  wi:h  the  inflammable  air,  chiefly  owing  to  their  ig- 
norance of  the  proper  apparatus  ;  infoniuch,  that,  al- 
ter a  whole  day's  labour  from  nine  in  the  morning, 
they  had  got  the  biUoon  only  one  third  part  full. 
Next  morning  they  were  furprifcd  to  find  that  it  had 
3 


13 
Expt-Ti- 
mcnt  of 
McCTri 


Hiftory. 

fully  inflated  of  Ltfelf  during  the  night  :  but  upon  in-        14 
quiry,  it  was  fiiund,  that  they  had  inadvertently  left  I"  v/n^t 
open  a  llop-cockconnecled  \\iih  the  balloon,  by  which  ">»■■"<='■  a 
the  common  air  gaining acccfs,  had  mixed  itftlf  wiih        ."c,,  . 

11  11        •         P  in-iii-    1  partly  tilled 

the  innammablc  air;  forming  a  compound  ftill  lighter  |j^i„(jjjj 
than  thecommon  atmofphere,  but  not  fufliciently  light  ahM. 
to  anfwcr  the  purpofes  of  acroflaiion.  Thus  they  were 
obliged  to  renew  their  operation  ;  and,  by  fix  o'clock 
in  the  evening  of  next  day,  they  found  tlie  machine 
confiderably  lighter  than  the  common  jiir  j  and,  in  an 
hour  after,  it  made  a  coiuidcrablc  effort  to  afccnd. 
The  public  exhibition,  however,  had  been  announced 
only  lor  the  third  day  after  ;  fo  that  the  balloon  was 
allowed  to  remain  in  aninllateJ  flate  for  a  whole  day  ;        15 
during  which  they  found  it  had  loll  a  power  of  afeent  Lofs  ol' 
equal  to  about  three  pounds,  being  one  feventh  part  power  in 
of  the  whole.     When  if  was  at  lall  fet  at  liberty,  after  J'^'"' ^'''' 
having  been  well  filled  with  inflainmable  air,  it  was  55  '"'"'■ 
pounds  lighter  than  an  equal  bulk  of  common  air.     It 
remained  in  the  atmofphere  only  three  quarters  of  an 
hour,   during  which  it  had  travcrfed  15  miles.     Its 
fudden  defcent  was  fuppofed  to  have  been  owing  to  a 
rupture  which  had  taken  place  when  it  had  afctjiidcd 
the  higher  regions  of  the  atmofphere.  j^ 

The  fucccfs  of  this  experiment,  and  tlie  aerial  yoy-  pirft  aerial 
age  made  by  Melfrs  Rozicr  and  Arlandes,  naturally  voy^e  »i 
fuggelled  the  idea  of  undertaking  fomething  of  the  Mellrs. 
fame  kind  with  a  balloon  filled  with  inilammable  air.  ^l"'''''*"''- 
The  machine  ufed  on  this  occafion  was  formed  of  gores  ^"l'""- 
of  lilk,  covered  over  witha  varuilh  midc  of  cjo'/tcktnc, 
of  a  fpherical  figure,  and  mealuring  27^  feet  in  dia- 
meter.    A  net  was  fpread  over  tlie  upper  hcmifphcre, 
and  was  fallened  to  an  hoop  which  palfed  round  the 
middle  of  the  balloon.     To  this  a  fort  of  car,  or  ra- 
ther boat,  was  fufpended  by  ropes,  in  fuch  a  manner 
as  to  hang  a  few  feet  below  the  lower  part  of  the  bal- 
loon ;  and,  in  order  to  prevent  the  burlling  of  the  ma- 
chine, a  valve  was  placed  in  it  ;  by  opening  of  which 
fome  of  the  iuHammable  air  might  be  occafionally  let 
out.     A  long  lilken  pipe  communicated  with  the  bal- 
loon, by  means  of  which  it  was  filled.     The  boat  was 
made  of  bafket  work,  covered  with  painted  linen,  and 
beautifully  ornamented  ;  being  8  feet  long,  4  broad, 
and  ji  deep;  it  weight  130  pounds.     At  this  time, 
however,  as  at  the  former,  they  met  with  great  diifieul- 
ticsin  filling  the  machine  with  inflammable  air,  owing 
to  their  ignorance  of  the  mod  proper  apparatus.     But 
at  laft,  all  obllacles  being  removed,  the  two  adventu- 
rers took  their  feats  at  three  quarters  after  one  in  ihc 
afternoon  of  the  firft  of  December  1783.     Perfons 
Ikillcd  in  mathematics  wereconveniently  ftationed  with 
jiroper  iuftruments  to  calculate  the  height,  velocity, 
Ccc.  of  the  balloon.     The  weight  of  the  w^holc  appa- 
ratus, including  that  of  the  two  adventurers,  was  found 
to  be  604I  pounds,  and  the  power  of  afeent  when  they 
fet  out  was  20  pounds  ;  fo  that  the  whole  difference 
betwixt  the  weight  of  tills  balloon  and  an  equal  bulk        tj 
of  common  air  was  624  pounds.     But  the  weight  of  Specific 
common  atmofphere  difplaccdby  the  in!iamniable  gas  E"".'''  °^ 
was  calculated  to  be  771  pounds,  fo  that  there  remains 'J^''"^"?" 
1 47  lor  the  weight  of  the  latter  ;  and  this  calculation  ^^^■^^  ^^^ 
makes  it  only  5^  times  lighter  than  common  air.  voyage. 

At  the  time  the  balloon  left  the  ground,  the  ther- 
mometer llood  at  9"  of  Fahrenheit's  fcale,  and  the 
quicklilvtr,in  the  barometer  at  30.18  i.ichcs ;  and,  by 


Hiftory. 


A     E     R     O     S     T     A     1'     1     O     X. 


201 


i8 
MrChirlcs 
afcrnds  by 
himrdt. 


Hai  a  pain 
in  his  ear 
aud  jaw 
when  in 
the  higher 
regions. 


30 

Various 
currents  of 
wind  and 
eddies  in 
thcfe  re- 
gions. 
II 
Strsamers 
of  his  ban- 
ners Hand 
upwards. 


means  of  the  power  of  afcc:u  with  which  they  left  the 
ground,  the  balloon  role  till  the  mercury  fell  to  27  in- 
ches, from  whence  tiiey  calculated  their  height  to  be 
about  6  JO  yards.  By  throwing  out  ballafl  occalion- 
allyas  they  found  the  machine  dcfccnding  by  the  e- 
fcapc  of  fomc  of  the  in.Hammable  air,  they  found  it 
practicable  to  keep  at  pretty  near  the  fame  dillance 
from  the  earth  during  the  reft  of  their  voyage  ;  the 
quickfilver  rtaduating  between  27  and  37.65  inches, 
and  the  thermometer  between  j?"  and  57',  the  whole 
lime.  They  continued  in  the  air  for  the  fpace  of  an 
hour  and  three  quarters,  when  they  alighted  at  the 
diftance  of  27  miles  from  Paris  ;  having  fufFcred  no 
inconvenience  during  their  voyage,  nor  experienced 
any  contrary  currents  of  air,  as  had  been  felt  by 
MtlTrs  Pilatre  and  Arlandes.  As  the  balloon  ftill  re- 
tained agrcat  quantity  of  inflammable  gas,  MrCharlts 
determined  to  take  another  voyage  by  himfelf.  Mr 
Robert  accordingly  got  out  of  the  boat,  which  was 
thus  lightened  by  I  30  pounds,  and  of  confequence  the 
aeroftatic  machine  now  had  nearly  as  much  power  of 
afcent.  Thus  he  was  carried  up  with  fuch  velocity, 
that  in  twenty  minutes  be  was  almofl  9000  feet  high, 
and  entirely  out  of  light  of  terrcllrial  oUjefts.  At  the 
moment  of  his  parting  with  the  ground,  the  globe  had 
been  rather  flaccid  ;  but  it  foon  began  to  fwell,  and 
the  inflammable  ai."  cfcaped  from  it  in  great  quantity 
through  the  lilken  tube.  He  alfo  frequently  drew 
the  valve  that  it  might  be  the  more  freely  emitted, 
and  the  balloon  efFeftually  prevented  from  burfting. 
The  inflammable  gas  being  confiderably  warmer  than 
the  external  air,  difFufed  itfelf  all  round,  and  was 
felt  like  a  warm  atmofphere  ;  but  in  ten  minutes  the 
thermometer  indicated  a  variation  of  temperature  as 
great  as  that  between  the  warmth  of  fpring  and  the 
ordinary  cold  of  winter.  His  fingers  were  benumbed 
by  the  cold,  and  he  felt  a  violent  pain  in  his  right 
car  and  jaw,  which  he  afcribed  to  the  dilatation  of 
the  air  in  thefe  organs  as  well  as  to  the  external  cold. 
The  beauty  of  the  profpecl  which  he  now  enjoyed, 
however,  made  amends  for  thcfe  inconveniences. 
At  his  departure  the  fun  was  fet  on  the  valleys  ;  but 
the  height  to  which  Mr  Charles  was  got  in  the  at- 
mofphere, rendered  him  again  vifible,  though  only 
for  alhort  time.  He  faw,  for  a  few  feconds  vapours 
riling  from  the  valleys  and  rivers.  The  clouds 
fcemed  to  afcend  from  the  earth,  and  collect  one  upon 
the  other,  ftill  prefcrving  their  ufual  form  ;  only  their 
colour  was  grey  and  monotonous  for  want  of  fufficient 
light  in  the  atmofphere.  By  the  light  of  the  moon, 
he  perceived  that  the  machine  was  turning  round  with 
him  in  the  air;  and  he  obfcrved  that  there  were  con- 
trary currents  which  brought  him  back  again.  He  ob- 
fervcd  alfo,  with  furprife,  the  effefts  of  the  wind,  and 
that  the  ftreamers  of  his  banners  pointed  upwards  ; 
which,  he  fays,  could  not  be  the  effcd  either  of  his 
afccnt  or  dcfcent,3she  was  moving  horizontally  at  the 
time.  At  hit,  recollecting  his  promife  of  returning 
to  his  friends  in  half  an  hour,  he  pulled  the  valve,  and 
accelerated  his  defcent.  When  within  200  feet  of  the 
earth,  he  threw  out  two  or  three  pounds  of  ballalt, 
which  rendered  the  balloon  again  ftationary:  but,  in  a 
little  time  afterwards,  he  gently  alighted  in  a  field  a- 
bout  three  miles  diilant  from  the  place  whence  he  fet 
oat;  though,  by  making  allowance  for  all  the  turii- 

VOL.  I. 


ings  and  windin^^s  of  the  voyage,  hefunpofcs  that  he 
had  gone  through  nincmilci  at  Icalt.  By  the  calcu- 
latioiisof  M.  de  Maunicr,  he  rofc  ai  this  time  not  Icfs 
than  io,joo  feet  high  ;  a  height  fomewhat  greater 
than  that  of  Mount  /ttna.  A  fmall  balloon,  which 
had  been  fcnt  off  before  the  two  brothers  fet  out  orl 
their  voyage,  took  a  direftiouKf  ppolite  to  that  of  the 
large  one,  having  met  with  an  i^pofite  current  of  air, 
probably  at  a  much  greater  height. 

The  fubfcqucnt  aerial  voyages  ditfer  fo  little  from 
that  juft  now  rehted,  that  any  particular  defcriptiou  of       11 
them  feems  to  be  fuperriuous.    It  had  occurred  to  Mr  .^ttcaii't* 
Charles,  however,  inhis  lafl  flight,  that  there  might  be  '"  »;"'''.= 
apolfibiliiy  of  directing  thcmathine  in  the  atmofphere;  »'^''''''»"= 
and  this  was  foon  attempted  by  Mr  Jean-Pierre  Blan-  ,"u"he"aV- 
cliard,  a  gentleman  who  had,  for  feveral  years  before,  mofphete. 
amufcd  himfelf  with  endeavours  to  fly  by  mechanical 
means,  though  he  had  never  fucceedcdin  theundcr- 
takiug.    As  foon  as  the  difcovcry  of  theaerollatic  ma- 
chines wasannounced,  however,  hcrefolved  to  add  the 
wings  of  his  former  machine  to  a  balloon,  and  made  no 
doubt  that  it  would  then  be  in  his  power  to  dired  him- 
felf through  the  air  at  pleafure.     In  his  firlt  attempt 
he  was  frullrated  by  the  impetuofity  of  a  young  gentle- 
man, who  inllfted,  right  or  wrong,  on  afcending  along 
with  him.     In  the  fcuftl^  which  enfued  on  this  occa- 
fi  )n,  the  wings  and  other  apparatus  were  entirely  de-       -, 
ftroyed  ;  fo  that  Mr  Blanchard  was  obliged  to  commit  Two  firft 
himfelf  to  the  dircdlion  of  the  wind  ;   and  in  another  ^oj-^^a  of 
attempt  it  was  found,  that  all  the  ftrength  he  could  ap-  ^'f  Blan- 
ply  to  the  wings  was  fcarce  fufficient  to  counteradtthe  ^'**^''" 
impreflionof  the  wind  in  any  degree.     In  hisvoyao-e, 
he  found  his'balloon,  at  a  certain  period,  aded  upon 
by  two  contrary  winds  ;  but,   on  throwing   out  four 
poundsof  ballad,  he  afcended  to  a  place  where  he  met 
with  the  fame  current  he  had  at  fctting  out  from  the       ,^ 
earth.     His  account  of  the  fenfations  he  felt  during  His  fcnfa- 
this  voyage,  was  fomewhat  ditferent  from  thai  of  Mr  tions  while 
Charles  ;    having,  in  one  part  of  it,  found  the  atmo-  '"  '*"  »'- 
fphere  very  warm,  in  another  cold  ;  and  having  once  "'"''?''"■=• 
found  himfelf  very  hungry,  and  at  another  time  almofl 
overcome  by  a  propcniity  10  flecp.     The   height  to 
which  he  arofe,asmeafiired  by  feveral  obftrvations  with 
mathematicalinftruments,was  thought  to  be  very  little 
lefs  than  ao,ooo  feet ;    and  he  remained  in  the  atmo- 
fphere an  hour  and  a  quarter. 

The  attcmptsof  Mr  Blanchardtodirei5t  his  machine  Vovage  of 
through  the  atmofphere,  were  repeated  in  the  month  Mcff  Mor- 
of  April  1784   by   Melfrs  Morveau  and  Berirand,  at  *""  "'"1 
Dijon,  whoraifed  themfelves  with  an  inflammable  air  ^"™'<1' 
balloon  to  the  heigh  t,  as  it  was  thought,  of  f  3,000  feet; 
palfing  through  a  fpace  of  18  miles  in  ajj  hour  and  2; 
minutes.     Mr  Morveau  h.id  prepared  a  kind  of  oars 
for  directing  the  machine  through  the  air  ;  but  they 
were  damaged  by  a  gult  of  wind,  fo  that  only  two  of 
them  remained  ferviceablc  ;  by  working  thefe,  howc- 
ever,  they  were  able  to  produce  a  fenfible  etfcd  on  the       j^, 
motion  of  the  machine.    In  a  third  aerial  voyage  per-  Third' vot- 
formcd  by  Mr  Blanchard,  he  fcemed  to  produce  forae  ace  of  Mr 
effcAby  the  agitation  •f  his  wings,  both  in  afcending,  lii»nch»rd. 
dcfccnding,  moving  lidcwifc,  and  even  in  fome  mea- 
fure  againfl  the  wind  ;  however,  this  is  fuppofed,  with 
fomc  probability,  to  have  been  a  millake,  as,  in  all  his 
fuccceding  voyages,  the  effcds  of  his  machinery  could 
not  be  perceived. 

Cc  The 


20  2 

Second 
voyage  of 
MclUeiirs 
Charles 
«adRobi:rt. 


AEROSTATION. 


78 

Are  inilan- 
gcr  of  ruii- 
nint;  into 
thunder- 
clouds. 


29 
Heat  of  the 
air  within 
their  bal- 
loon. 

30 
Effca  of 
their  oars 
in  moving 
the  ma- 
chine. 


The  fiicccTs  of  MelTrs  Charles  and  llobtrt  in  ihtir 
former  expcrinunts,  encouraged  them  foon  to  repeat 
thcni,  with  the  addition  of  funic  machinery  to  direct 
their  tourfc.  Ilavin;^  culaij^ed  ihtir  former  balloon  to 
to  the  liicof  an  oblong  fphcroid  46;  feet  long  and  2^'^ 
ia  diameter,  they  made  it  to  tloat  with  its  longcU  pare 
parallel  to  the  horizon.  The  wings  were  made  in  the 
fn.ipe  ofaii  nmbrcUa  (ritiiout  the  handle,  to  the  top  of 
which  a  llick  was  fafiened  parallel  to  the  aperture  of 
the  umbrella.  Five  of  thelc  were  difpofcd  round  the 
boat,  which  was  near  17  feet  in  length.  The  balloon 
was  tilled  i:l  :;  hours,  and,  with  ihc  addition  of  450 
pounds  ofballall,  remained //;  .r^«//.'^;70  with  the  at- 
nol'phcrc.  About  noon,  on  the  19th  of  September 
I  7S4,  they  began  to  afcend  very  gently  in  conlcqucncc 
of  throwing  out  24  pounds  of  ballalt,  but  were  foon 
obliged  to  throw  out  eight  pounds  more  in  order  to  a- 
void  running  againft  Ibuic  trees.  Thus  they  rofe  to 
the  height  of  1400  feet,  when  they  perceived  fome 
thunderclouds  near  the  horizon.  On  this  they  afccnd- 
ed  and  defcended,  to  avoid  the  danger,  as  the  wind 
blew  directly  towards  the  threatening  clouds  ;  but, 
from  the  height  of  600  feet  to  tliat  of  4200  above  the 
furface  of  the  earth,  the  current  was  quite  uniform  and 
in  one  dircdion.  During  their  voyage  they  loll  one, 
of  their  oars  ;  but,  found,  that  by  means  of  tiiofc  which 
remained,  they  confidcrably  accelerated  their  courfc. 
From  the  account  of  their  voyage,  it  svould  feeni  that 
they  had  palfed  fafcly  through  the  thunder-clouds  ;  as 
we  are  informed,  that,  about  40  minutes  after  three, 
they  heard  a  loud  clap  of  thunder  ;  and,  tiirce  minutes 
after,  another  much  louder  ;  at  which  time  the  ther- 
mometer funk  from  77  to  59  degrees.  This  fuddcn 
cold,  occalioned  by  the  approach  of  the  clouds,  con- 
denfed  the  inllaramablc  air  lb  that  the  balloon  defcend- 
ed very  low,  and  they  were  obliged  to  throw  out  40 
pounds  of  ballart  ;  yet  on  examining  the  heat  of  the  air 
within  the  balloon,  they  found  it  tobe  104°,  when  that 
of  the  external  atmofpiicre  was  only  65.  Mhen  they 
had  got  fo  high  that  the  mercury  in  the  barometer  Hood 
onlyat  23,94inches,they  founJthemfelves becalmed  ; 
fo  that  the  machine  did  not  go  even  at  the  rate  of  two 
feet  in  a  fecond,  though  it  had  before  gone  at  the  rate 
of  24  feet  in  a  fecond.  On  this  they  determined  to 
try  the  effect  of  ihcir  oars  to  the  utmofl  ;  and,  by 
working  them  for  35  minutes,  and  marking  the  Ihadow 
of  the  lialloon  on  the  ground,  they  found,  in  that  time, 
that  they  had  defcribcd  the  fegment  of  anellipfis  whofe 
longell  diameter  was  6000  feet.  After  having  tra- 
velled about  t  jomilcs,  they  defcended,  only  on  account 
of  the  approach  of  night,  having  llill  200  pounds  of 
ballaft  left. 

Their  conclufien,  with  regard  to  the  cfFeft  of  their 
wings,  is  as  follows  :  "  Thofc  experiments  lho\v,that 
far  from  going  againft  the  wind,  as  is  faid  by  fome 
perfons  to  be  polllble  in  a  certain  manner,  and  fome 
aeronauts  pretend  to  have  actually  done,  we  only  ob- 
tained, by  means  of  two  oars,  a  deviation  of  22  de- 
grees :  it  is  certain,  however,  that  if  we  could  have 
ufcd  our  four  oars,  we  might  have  deviated  about  40 
degrees  from  the  direflion  of  the  wind,  and  as  our  ma- 
chine would  have  been  capable  of  carrying  feven  per- 
fons, it  would  have  been  eafy  for  fve  perfons  10  hive 
gone,  and  10  have pu.  in  adion  eight  oars_,  by  means  of 


Hiftory. 


which  a  deviation  of  about  80  degrees  would  havcbccu 
obtained. 

"  We  had  already  obfcrved  (fay  tiicy),  that  if  we 
did  not  deviate  more  than  22  degrees,  it  was  bccaufc 
the  wind  carried  us  at  the  rate  of  24  miles  an  hour; 
and  it  is  natural  to  judge,  that,  if  the  wind  had  been 
twice  as  llrong  as  it  was,  we  ihould  not  have  deviated 
more  than  one-half  of  what  we  actually  did  ;  and,  on 
the  contrary,  if  the  wind  had  been  only  iiall'as  llrong, 
our  deviation  would  have  been  proportional)ly  great- 
er." 

Having  thus  related  all  that  has  been  done  with  re- 
gard to  tlie  conducting  of  aeroilatic  machines  tii rough 
the  atmofphere,  we  ihall  now  relate  the  attempts  that 
have  been  niadc  iokli'en  their  cxpcnce,  by  falling  upon 
fome  contrivance  to  afcend  without  throwing  out  bal- 
lall,  and  to  defcend  without  loling  any  of  the  inllam- 
mable  air.  The  fill  attempt  of  this  kind  was  made 
by  the  Duke  dc  Ciianres  ;  who,  on  the  i  Jih  of  July 
1784,  afceiu'.cd  with  the  two  brothers,  Charles  and  Ro- 
bert, from  the  Park  ot  St,<-loud.  Tlie  balloon  was 
of  an  oblong  form,  made  to  afcend  with  itslongelldia- 
meter  horizontally,  and  mcafured  55  feet  in  length 
and  24  in  breadlh.  U  containetl  within  it  a  fmaller 
balltjon  filled  with  common  air  ,  by  blowing  into  which 
with  a  pair  of  bellows,  and  thus  throwing  in  a  conli- 
derable  quantity  of  common  air,  it  was  fuppofed  that 
the  machine  would  become  fuilicicntly  heavy  todcfccnd, 
efpecially  as,  by  the  inllation  of  the  iiucrncl  bag,  the 
intlammable  air  in  the  external  one  wouldbccondcnfcd 
into  a  fmaller  fpace,  and  thus  become  fpecihcally  hea- 
vier. The  voyage,  however,  was  attended  withfuch 
circumllances  as  rendered  it  impofllble  to  know  what 
would  have  been  the  event  of  the  fehemc-  The  p  ivver 
of  afcentwith  which  they  fet  out,  feems  to  have  been 
very  great ;  as,  in  tliree  minutes  after  parting  with  the 
ground,  they  were  lofl  in  the  clouds,  and  involved  in 
fuch  a  dcnfe  vapour  that  they  could  fee  neither  the  (ky 
nor  the  earth.  In  this  lituation  tliey  fcemed  to  be 
attacked  by  a  whirlwind,  which,  belides  turning  the 
balloon  three  times  round  from  right  to  left,  Ihockcd, 
and  beat  it  fo  about,  that  they  were  rendered  incapable 
of  ufing  any  of  the  means  propofed  for  direeling  their 
courfc,  and  the  filk  llutf  of  which  the  helm  had  been 
compofed  was  even  torn  away.  No  fcenc  can  be  con- 
ceived more  terrible  than  that  in  which  they  were  now 
involved.  An  immenfc  ocean  of  Ihapelefs  clouds  rolled 
one  upon  another  below  them,  and  fcemed  to  prevent 
any  retnrnto  the  earth,  which  llill  continued  invilible, 
while  the  agitation  of  the  balloon  became  greater  every 
moment.  In  this  extremity  they  cut  the  cords  which 
lield  the  interior  balloon,  and  of  confcquence  it  fell 
down  upon  the  aperture  of  the  tube  that  came  from 
the  large  balloon  into  the  boat,  and  ilopped  it  up. 
They  were  then  driven  upvvardsbyagnfl  of  wind  from 
below,  which  carried  them  to  the  top  of  the  florniy 
vapour  in  which  they  had  been  involved.  They  now 
faw  the  fun  without  a  cloud  ;  but  ihe  heat  of  his  rays, 
w  ith  the  diminilhed  denlity  of  thcatmoi'pht  re,  had  fuch 
an  ffTtdt  on  the  inflammable  air,  that  the  balloon  fcem- 
ed every  moment  ready  to  burfl.  Toprevcnt  thisthey 
introduced  a  liick  through  the  tube,  in  order  to  pulh 
away  the  inner  balloon  from  its  aperture  ;  but  the  ex- 
panlion  of  the  ihiianimablc  air  pulbed  it  fo  clufc,  that 

all 


31 

Contrivan- 
ces ufed  to 
prevent  the 
waltc  of  in- 
flammable 
air. 

Voyage  of 
the  Wuke 
de  Chartrtt 


33 
Is  involved 
in  dar'> 
clouds  and 
attaikcil  by 
a  whirl- 
wind. 


Hiftory, 


AEROSTATION. 


203 


34 

Unfortu- 
natevoyage 
and  death 
of  Meffrs 
Rozicr  and 
Romainc. 


3J 
Voyage  of 
Mcn'.BIan- 
chard  and 
Jeffries 
acrofs  the 
Straits  uf 
Dover. 


all  attempts  of  this  kind  proved  inttFei.'Uial.  It  was 
now,  however,  bceome  abfohitely  neccd'ary  to  give  vent 
to  a  very  conlidcrablc  quantity  of  the  iiitlHrnmable  air  ; 
for  which  purpoft  the  Dukcdc  Chartres  himftlf  bored 
twoholes  in  the  balloon,  which  tore  open  for  the  length 
of  fcven  or  eight  feet.  On  this  they  defccnded  with 
great  rapidity  ;  and  would  have  falltn  into  a  lake,  had 
they  not  haflily  thrown  out  60  pounds  of  ballad,  which 
enabled  them  juft  to  reach  the  water's  edge. 

The  fuccefs  of  the  fchcmc  for  raifnig  or  lowering 
aeroftatic  machines  by  means  of  bags  filled  with  com- 
mon air  being  thus  rendered  dubious,  another  method 
was  thought  of.  This  was  to  put  a  fniall  aeroftatic 
machine  with  rarefied  air  under  an  inflammable  air- 
balloon,  but  at  fuch  a  diftance  that  the  iurtammable  air 
of  tlic  latter  r.iight  be  perfectly  out  of  the  reach  of  the 
fire  ufcd  for  inflating  the  former  ;  and  thus,  by  increa- 
fing  or  diminifliing  the  fire  in  the  fmall  machine,  the 
abfolutc  weight  of  the  whole  would  be  confiderably  di- 
minilhed  or  augmented.  This  fcheme  was  unhappily 
put  in  execution  by  the  celebrated  Mr  Pilatre  de  Ro- 
zier,  and  another  gentleman  named  Mr  Romainc. Their 
inflammable-air  balloon  was  about  157  feet  in  diameter, 
and  the  power  of  the  rarcficd-airone  was  equivalent  to 
about  60  pounds.  They  afcendcd  without  any  appear- 
ance of  danger  or  (iniller  accident ;  but  liad  not  been 
long  in  the  atmofphere  when  the  inflammable-air  bal- 
loon was  leen  to  fwell  very  conliderably,  at  the  fame 
time  that  the  aeronauts  were  obferved,  by  means  of  te- 
lefcopes,  very  axious  to  get  down,  and  bulled  in  pull- 
ing the  valve  and  opening  the  appendages  to  the  bal- 
loon, in  order  to  facilitate  the  efcapc  of  as  much  in- 
flammable air  as  poliible.  A  Ihort  time  after  this  the 
whole  machine  was  on  tire,when  they  had  then  attained 
the  height  of  about  three  quarters  of  a  mile  from  the 
ground.  No  cxplolion  was  heard  ;  and  the  filk  which 
compofed  the  air-balloon  continued  expanded,  and 
feemcd  to  refifl  the  atmofphere  for  about  a  minute  ; 
after  which  it  collapfed,  and  the  remains  of  the  appa- 
ratus defcended  along  with  the  two  unfortunate  travel- 
lers fo  rapidly,  that  both  of  them  were  killed.  Mr  Pi- 
latre fecmed  to  have  been  dead  before  he  came  to  the 
ground  ;  but  MrRomaine  was  alive  when  fome  perfons 
came  up  to  the  place  were  he  lay,  though  he  expired 
immediately  after. 

Thefe  are  the  mod  remarkable  attempts  that  have 
been  made  to  improve  the  fcience  of  aeroftation  ;  tho' 
a  great  number  of  other  expeditions  through  the  at- 
mofphere have  taken  place.  But  of  all  the  voyages 
which  had  been  hitherto  projerted  or  put  in  exe- 
cution, the  moll  daring  was  that  of  Mr  Blanchard 
and  Dr  Jeffries  acrofs  the  Straits  of  Dover  which 
feparatc  Britain  from  France.  This  took  place  on 
the  7th  of  January  nSs,  being  a  clear  frolty  mor- 
ning, with  a  wind,  barely  perceptible,  at  N.  N.  W. 
The  operation  of  filling  the  balloon  began  at  10 
o'clock,  and,  at  three  quarters  after  twelve,  every 
thing  was  ready  for  their  departure.  At  one  o'clock 
Mr  Blanchard  defired  the  boat  to  be  puflied  off,  which 
now  flood  only  two  feet  diftant  from  th.it  precipice  fo 
finely  dcfcribed  by  Shakefpeare  in  his  tragedy  of  King 


Lear.  As  the  balloon  was  fcarccly  fufEcient  to  carry 
two,  they  were  obliged  to  throw  out  all  their  baliait 
except  three  bags  of  ten  pounds  each  ;  when  they  at 
laft  rofe  gently  thoagh  making  very  little  way  on 
account  of  there  being  fo  lit.le  wind.  'At  a  quarter 
after  one  o'clock,  the  barometer,  which  on  the  clilF 
flood  at  29.7  inches,  was  now  fallen  to  27.3,  and  the 
weather  proved  tine  and  warm.  They  had  nowamofl 
beautiful  profpedt  of  the  fouth  coafl  of  England,  and 
were  able  to  count  37  villages  upon  it.  Alter  palhng 
over  feveral  vefl'els,  they  found  that  the  balloou,  at  50 
minutes  after  one, was  defcending,on  which  they  threw 
out  a  fack  and  an  half  of  ballad  ;  but  as  they  faw  that 
it  flill  defcended,  and  that  witii  much  greater  velocity 
than  before,  they  now  threw  out  all  the  ballad.  This 
dill  proving  inelfeiflual,  they  next  threw  out  aparcclof 
books  they  carried  along  with  them,  whi.h  made  the 
balloon  afcend,  when  they  were  about  midway  betwixt 
France  and  England.  At  a  quarter  pall  two,  finding 
themfclves  again  defcending,  they  threw  away  the  rc.>. 
mainder  of  their  books,  and,  ten  minutes  after,  they 
had  a  mod  enchanting  profpe<5t  of  the  French  coall. 
StUl,  however,  the  machine  defcended;  and  as  they  had 
now  no  more  ballad,  they  were  fain  to  throw  away 
their  proviiions  for  eating,  the  wings  of  their  boat,  and 
every  other  moveable  they  could  eafily  fparc.  "  Wc 
threw  away,  fays  Dr  Jeffries,  our  only  bottle,  which, 
in  its  defcent,  cad  out  a  fleam  like  fraoke,  with  a  rufli- 
ingnoifc  ;  and  when  it  ftruck  the  water,  wc  heard  and 
felt  the  (hock  very  perceptibly  on  our  car  and  balloon." 
All  this  proving  infufficient  to  dop  the  defcent  of  the 
balloon,  they  next  threw  out  their  anchors  and  cords, 
and  at  lad  dripped  off'their  clothes, fadcningthemfelvcs 
to  certain  drings,  and  intending  to  cut  away  the  boat 
as  their  lad  refource.  They  had  no:v  the  fatisfadion, 
however,  to  find  that  they  were  riling  ;  and  as  they 
palled  over  the  high  lands  between  Cape  Blanc  and 
Calais,  the  machine  rofe  very  fad,  and  carried  them  to 
a  greater  height  than  they  had  been  at  any  former 
part  of  their  voyage.  They  defcended  fafely  among 
fome  trees  in  theforedof  Guienncs,  where  there  was 
jud  opening  enough  to  admit  them. 

It  would  be  tedious  as  well  as  unneceflary  to  recount 
all  the  other  aerial  voyages  that  have  been  performed 
in  different  parts  of  Europe ;  It  appeared  fulKcient 
for  the  purpofe  of  this  article  to  notice  thofe  which 
were  mod  remarkable  and  intereding  ;  and  therefore 
an  account  of  the  ingenious  Mr  Baldwin's  cxcurlion 
from  Cheder,  alluded  to  above,  iliall  now  clofe  our 
enumeration. 

On  the  8ih  of  September  1785,  at  forty  minutes 
pad  one  P.  M.  Mr  Baldwin  afcendcd  from  Cheder  ia 
Mr  Lunardi's  (a  )  balloon.  Aftcrrraverfing  in  a  variety 
of  different  direi.iions,  he  rirll  aliguteJ,  at  2S  minutes 
after  three,  about  12  miles  from  Cheder,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Frodfham  j  then  reafcending  and 
purluing  his  excurfion,  he  finally  landed  at  Rixton 
raofs,  five  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Wavington,  and  25  miles 
from  Cheder.  Mr  Baldwin  has  publiihcJ  his  Obfcrva- 
tions  and  Remarks  made  during  his  voyage,  and  takcR 
from  minutes.  Our  limits  w  ill  not  admit  of  relating 
C  c  2  many 


(a)  Accounts  of  this  gentleman's  adventurous  cxcurfions  have  been  publilhed  in  all  the  Newfpapers  i  aad 
therefore  it  appeared  unnecelTary  to  take  up  room  with  an  account  of  them  iu  this  article. 


204  A     E     R     O     S 

k  many  of  his  obfervatioiis  ;  but  ihe  few  following  arc 
fume  of  the  molt  imporunt  and  curious.  '<  The  fen- 
fatiou  of  afcenJing  is  compared  to  »hat  of  a  llrong 
prcilurc  from  llic  bottom  of  the  car  upwards  againit 
the  folcsof  his  feet.  At  the  liillaiice  of v  hat  appeared 
lo  him  fev..ii  miles  from  the  earth,  though  by  the  ba- 
rometer fcarccly  a  mile  and  a  half,  he  had  a  granil  and 
moll  enchanting  view  of  the  city  of  Cheller  and  its 
adjacent  places  below.  The  river  Dec  appeared  of  a 
red  colour;  the  city  very  diminutive  ;  and  the  town 
entirely  blue.  The  whole  appeared  a  perfetf  plain, 
the  higheft  building  having  no  apparent  height,  but 
reduced  all  to  the  fame  level,  and  the  whole  tcrrcllrial 
profpeCf  appeared  like  a  coloured  map.  Ju(l  alter  hij 
tirll  afceni,  being  in  a  wcU-watered  and  maritime  part 
of  the  country,  he  obfcrved  a  remarkable  and  regular 
tendency  of  the  balloon  towards  the  lea  ;  but  iliorily 
after  riling  into  another  current  of  air,  he  efcapcd  the 
danger  :  this  upper  current,  he  fays,  was  vilible  to  him 
at  the  time  of  his  defccnt,  by  a  lofty  found  llratum  of 
clouds  flying  in  a  fafe  direction.  The  perfpeclivc  ap- 
pearance of  things  to  him  was  very  remarkable.  The 
lowell  bed  of  vapour  that  firft  appeared  as  cloud  was 
pure  white,  in  detached  fleeces,  increaling  as  they 
rofe :  they  prefently  coalefeed,  and  formed,  as  he 
exprclfes  it,  a  fea  of  cotton,  tufting  here  and  there  by 
the  aclion  of  the  air  in  the  undillurbed  part  of  the 
clouds.  The  whole  became  an  extended  white  floor 
of  cloud,  the  upper  furfacc  being  fmooth  and  even. 
Above  this  white  floor  he  obferved,  at  great  and  une- 
qual dillances,  a  valt  alfemblage  of  thunder-clouds, 
,  each  parcel  conlilling  of  whole  acres  in  the  denfeft 

form  :  he  compares  their  form  and  appearance  to  the 
fmoke  of  pieces  of  ordnance,  which  had  confolidated 
as  it  were  intomalfesof  fnow,  and  penetrated  thro'  the 
upper  furface  or  white  floor  of  common  clouds,  there 
remaining  vilible  and  at  reft.  Some  clouds  had  mo- 
tionsin  flow  and  various  dircftions,  forming  an  appear- 
ance truly  flupendous  and  majeftic.  He  endeavours 
to  convey  fome  idea  of  the  fcene  by  a  figure  ;  (and  from 
which  fig.  13  of  Plate  III.  is  copied),  vi/reprefents 
a  circular  view  he  had  from  thecar  of  the  balloon,  him- 
felfbeing  over  the  centre  of  the  view, looking  down  on 
the  white  floor  of  clouds  and  feeing  the  city  of  Chefler 
through  an  opening,  which  difcovered  the  landfcape 
below,  limited  by  furrounding  vapour,  to  lefs  than  two 
miles  in  dinmeter.  The  breadth  of  the  outer  margin  de- 
fines liis  apparent  heightin  the  balloon  (viz.  4  miles)  a-' 
bove  the  white  floor  of  clouds.  Mr  Baldwin  alfo  gives  a 
curious  defcription  of  his  tracing  the  fhadow  of  the 
balloon  over  tops  of  volumes  of  clouds.  At  firft  it 
was  fmall,  in  lize  and  fliape  like  an  egg  ;  but  foon  en- 
creafed  to  the  magnitude  of  the  fun's  difc,  ftill  grow- 
ing larger,  and  attended  with  a  mod  captivating  ap- 
pearance of  an  iris  encircling  the  whole  iliadow  at  fome 
diftance  round  it,  the  colours  of  which  were  remarkably 
brilliant.  The  regions  did  not  feel  colder,  but  rather 
warmer,  than  below.  The  fun  was  hotteft  to  him 
when  the  balloon  was  ftationary.  The  difcharge  of  a 
cannon  when  the  balloon  was  at  a  confiderable  height. 
Was  diftinftly  heard  by  the  aeronaut  ;  and  a  difcharge 
from  the  fame  piece,  when  at  tlic  height  of  30  yards, 
fo  difturbcd  him  as  to  oblige  him  for  fafety  to  lay  hold 
firmly  of  the  cords  of  the  balloon.     At  a  confiderable 


T     A     'J'     I     O     N.  Hillory. 

height  he  poured  down  apintboiilc  full  of  water;  and 
as  the  air  aid  not  oppofe  a  rciiftaiice  futficiciU  to  break 
the  llrcari  into  fmall  drops,  it  nioftly  fell  down  in  large 
drops.  In  the  courfc  of  the  balloon's  traiit  it  was 
found  much  atilcted  by  tiie  water  (a  circumltancc  ob- 
ferved in  former  aerial  voyages).  At  one  time  the 
direcliou  of  the  balloon  kept  coniinualiy  over  the  wa- 
ter, going  directly  towartls  the  fea,  fo  much  as  to  cu- 
(huigcr  the  aeronaut;  the  mouth  of  the  balloon  was 
opened,  and  he  in  two  minutes  defended  into  an  under 
current  blowing  from  the  fea  :  he  kept  defccnding,and 
landed  at  Bella  ir  farm  inRinllcy,  12  miles  from  Cheller. 
Mere  he  lightened  his  ear  by  31  pounds,  and  inflantly 
reafcending  was  carried  into  the  interior  par:  of  the 
country, performing  a  number  of  ditFerentmano'uvres. 
At  his  greatell  altitude  he  found  his  refpiration  free  and 
eafy.  Several  bladders  which  he  had  along  wiili  him 
crackled  and  expanded  very  conliderably.  Cloi  ds  and 
land,  as  before,  appeared  on  tiie  fame  level.  By  way 
of  experiment,  he  tried  the  upper  valve  two  or  three 
times,  the  neck  of  the  balloon  being  clofe  ;  and  re- 
marked, that  the  cfcapc  of  the  gas  was  attended  with  a 
growling  iioife  like  millftonc:-,  but  not  near  fo  loud. 
Again,  round  the  ihadow  of  the  balloon,  on  the  clouds 
heobferved  the  iris.  A  variety  of  othercircumilances 
and  appearances  he  met  \\  itii,  is  fancifully  defcribed  ; 
and  at  53  minutes  part  three  he  finally  landed. 

The  frequency  of  aerial  voyages,  accompanied  with 
particular  details  of  trifling  and  unintcrelling  circum- 
ilauces,  and  apparently  made  with  a  view  to  promote 
the  intcrcll  of  particular  perfons,  regardlefsof  any  ad- 
vancement in  knowledge,  have  now  funk  the  Iciencs 
of  aerollation  fo  low  in  the  opinion  of  moll  people,  that 
that  before  giving  any  account  of  the  niofl  proper  me- 
thod of  conitrufting  thefe  machines,  it  may  feem  ne- 
celfary  to  premife  fomething  concerning  the  ufes  to 
which  they  may  pofiibly  be  applied.  Thefe  according 
to  Mr  Cavallo  are  the  following.  . 

"The  fmall  balloons, efpecially  thofe  made  of  paper,  uf^s  of  al- 
and railed  by  means  of  fpirit  of  Mine,  may  ferve  to  ex-  roftation. 
plore  the  dirci^tion  of  the  winds  in  the  upper  regions 
of  the  atmofphere,  particularly  when  there  is  a  calm 
below  :  they  may  ferve  for  ligwals  in  various  circum- 
flances,  in  which  no  other  means  can  be  ufed  ;  and  let- 
ters or  other  fmall  things  may  be  ealily  fcnt  by  them, 
as  for  inftance  from  (hips  that  cannot  fafely  land  on 
account  of  llorms,  from  beiicged  places,  iflands,  or  the 
like.  The  larger  aeroftatic  machines  may  anfwerall 
the  abovementioiied  purpofes  in  a  better  manner ;  and 
they  may,  belidcs,  be  ufed  as  a  help  to  a  perfon  who 
wants  toafcend  a  mountain,  a  precipice,  or  to  crofs  a 
river ;  and  perhaps  one  of  thefe  machines  tied  to  a  boat 
by  a  long  rope,  may  be  in  fome  cafes,  a  better  fort  of 
fail  than  any  that  is  ufed  at  prefent.  The  largefl  fort 
of  machines,  which  can  take  uponeormoremen,  may 
eyidently  be  fubfcrvient  to  various  ceconomieal  and 
philofophical  purpofes.  Their  conveying  people  from 
place  to  place  with  great  fwiftnefs,  and  without  trouble, 
may  be  of  effential  ufc,  even  if  ihe  art  of  guiding  them 
in  a  diredion  different  from  that  of  the  wind  Ihould 
never  be  difcovered.  By  means  of  thofe  machines  the 
fhape  of  certain  feas  and  lands  may  be  better  afcer- 
tained  ;  men  may  afcend  to  the  tops  of  mountains  they 
never  viiitcd  before  ;  they  maybe  carried  over  marlhy 

and 


Principles.  A     L     R     O     S     T 

and  dangerous  grounds ;  they  may  by  that  means  come 
out  ofa  bciicgcd  I'licCjOrau  idand  ;  and  tlicy  may,  in 
hot  climates,  afcend  to  a  cold  region  of  the  atmofpherc, 
either  to  refrelh  themfclvcsjortoobfcrvc  the  itc  which 
is  never  fcen  below;  and,  in  Ihort,  they  may  be  thus 
taken  to  fcveral  places,  to  which  human  an  hitherto 
knew  of  no  conveyance. 

"  The  phUofophicalufes,  to  which  thefe  machines 
may  be  fibfervicnt,  are  numerous  indeed  ;  and  it  may 
be  fufilcient  to  fay,  that  hardly  any  thing  which  pallcs 
in  the  atmofpherc  is  known  with  preciiion,  and  that 
principally  for  want  of  a  method  of  afccnding  into  it. 
The  formation  of  rain,  of  thundcr-liorms,  of  vapours, 
hail,  lno\v,and  meteors  in  general,  require  to  be  atlen- 
tively  examined  and  afccnained.  The  action  of  the 
baromcter,therarefaftionand  temperature  of  the  air  in 
various  regions,  the  dcfcent  of  bodies,  the  propagation 
of  found,  &c.  are  fubjefts  which  all  require  a  feries  of 
obl'ervations  and  exjieriments,  the  performance  of 
which  could  never  have  been  properly  cxpeCled  be- 
fore the  difcovery  of  aeroftatic  machines." 

To  thofeufes  we  may  add  the  gratification  of  curiolity 
and  pleafureas  a  very  llrong  inducementtotlie  practice 
of  an  art,  in  which,  with  any  tolerable  degree  of  cau- 
tion, there  appears  not  to  be  the  fmalleft  danger. 
Everyone  who  has  tried  the  experiment  teilifies,  that 
the  beauty  of  tlie  profpefl  afforded  by  an  afcent,  or 
,  the  pleafure  of  being  conveyed  through  the  atmof- 
pherc, cannot  be  exceeded.  No  one  has  felt  the 
Icall  of  that  giddinefs  confcquent  upon  looking  from 
the  top  of  "a  very  high  building  or  of  a  precipice,  nor 
have  they  any  of  the  licknefs  ariling  from  the  motion 
of  a  vefl'cl  at  fca.  Many  have  been  carried  by  bal- 
loons at  the  rate  of  30,  40,  or  even  50  miles  an  hour, 
without  feeling  the  leaft  inconvenience,  or  even  agi- 
tation of  the  wind  ;  the  reafon  of  which  is,  that  as 
the  machine  moveswithnearlythevelocityof  thewind 
itfelf,  they  are  always  in  a  calm,  and  without  uneali- 
nefs.  Some  have  apprehended  danger  from  the  elec- 
tricity of  the  atmofpherc ;  and  have  thought  that  a 
flroke  of  lightning,  or  the  fmalleft  cleftric  fpark,  hap- 
pening near  a  balloon,  might  fet  fire  to  the  inflamma- 
ble air,  and  deftroy  both  the  machine  and  the  adven- 
turers. Mr  Cavalio  has  fuggefted  fcveral  conliderati- 
ons  for  diminifliing  apprehenlions  of  this  kind.  Bal- 
loons have  been  already  raifed  in  every  feafon  of  the 
year,  and  even  when  thunder  has  been  heard,  without  , 
injury.  In  cafe  of  danger,  the  aeronauts  may  either 
dcfcend  to  the  earth,  or  afcend  above  the  region  of  the 
clouds  and  thunder-ftorms.  Delides,  as  balloons  are 
formed  of  materials  that  are  not  conductors  of  eledri- 
city,  they  are  not  likely  to  receive  ftrokes,  efpccially 
as  by  being  encompalfed  with  air  they  itand  infulated. 
Mereover,  inflammable  air  by  itfelf,  or  unmixed  with 
a  certain  quantity  of  common  air,  will  not  burn  ;  fo 
that  if  an  clcrtric  fpark  (hould  happen  to  pafs  through 
the  balloon,  it  would  not  fet  fire  to  the  intiammable 
air,  unlcfs  a  hole  was  made  in  the  covering. 

The  general  principles  of  aerortation  arc  fo  liitlc 
different  from  thofe  of  hydroflatics,  that  it  may  fecui 
fuperrtuous  to  inlift  much  upon  them.  It  is  a  fac'l 
univerfally  known, That  when  a  body  is  immerfedin  any 
fluid,  if  its  weight  be  lefs  than  an  equal  bulk  of  that 
fluid,  it  will  rife  to  the  furface  ;  but  if  heavier,  it  will 
fink  ;  and  if  equal,  it  will  remain  in  the  place  where  it 


205 


A     T     1     O     N. 

is  left.      For  this  reafon  fmokc  afcends  into  ihc  atmo- 
fpherc, and  heated  air  in  that  which  is  colder.     The        ^% 
afcent  of  the  latter  is  fliown  in  a  very  eafy  auJ  fatis-  Eipcn- 
fadory  manner  by  bringing  a  red-hot  iron  under  one  !^<^nt> 
of  the  fcaksof  a  balance,  l.y  which  the  latter  is  in-  *^''"'''^,c 
flantl/  made  to  afcend  ;   for,  as  loon  as  the  red-hot  'rV".' j  ' 
iron  IS  brougiu  under  the  Icalc,  the  hot  air  being  light-  jjr. 
cr  than  that  which  is  colder,  afccnds,  and  ftriAC!,  the 
bottom,  which  is  thus  impelled  upwards,  and  the  op- 
pofite  fcale  defcends,  as  if  a  weight  had  been  put  in- 
to it. 

Upon  this  firaple  principle  depends  the  whole  theo- 
ry of  aeroftation  ,  for  it  is  the  fame  thinp;  whether  wc 
render  the  air  lighter  by  introducing  a  quantity  of 
heat  into  it,  or  incloling  a  quantity  of  gas  fpecifically 
lighter  than  the  common  atmofpherc  inacertainfpacc  ;  . 
both  will  afcend,  and  for  the  fame  reafon.  A  cubic 
foot  of  air,  by  the  moft  accurate  experiments,  has 
been  found  to  weigh  about  jJ4  grains,  and  to  be  ex- 
panded by  every  degree  of  heat,  marked  on  Fahren- 
heit's thermometer,  about  -J 5th  part  of  the  whole. 
By  heating  a  quantity  of  air,  therefore,  to  500  de- 
grees of  Fahrenheit,  we  will  juft  double  its  bulk  when 
the  thermometer  Hands  at  54  in  the  open  air,  and  in 
the  fame  proportion  we  will  dimiuillt  its  weight ;  and 
if  fuch  a  quantity  of  this  hot  air  be  inclofed  in  a  bag, 
that  the  excels  of  the  weight  of  an  equal  bulk  of  com- 
mon air  weighs  more  than  the  bag  with  the  air  con- 
tained in  it,  both  the  bag  and  air  will  rife  into  the  at- 
mofpherc, and  continue  to  do  fo  until  thej^arrivc  at  a 
place  where  the  external  air  is  naturally  fomucb  ra- 
refied that  the  weight  becomes  equal ;  and  here  the 
whole  will  float. 

The  power  of  hot  air  in  railing  weights,  or  rather 
that  by  which  it  is  itfelf  impelled  upwards,  may  be 
fliown  in  the  following  manner  :  Roll  up  a   Iheet  of 
paper  into  a  conical  form,  and,  by  thrufting  a  pin  in- 
to it  near  the  apex,  prevent  it  from  unrolling.  Fafltn 
it  then,  by  its  apex,  under  one  of  the  fcales  of  a  ba- 
lance by  means  of  a  thread,  and,  having  properly 
counterpoifed  it  by  weights,  put  it  into  the  oppofitc 
fcale  ;  apply  the  tjaine  of  a  candle  underneath,  yon 
will  inltantly  perceive  the  cone  to  arife,  and  it  will  not 
be  brought  into  equilibrium  with  the  other  but  by  a 
nmch  greater  weight  than  thofe  who  have  never  feen 
the  experiment  would  believe.    If  wc  try  this  experi- 
ment with  more  accuracy,  by  getting  proper  recep- 
tacles made  which  contain  determinate  quantities  of 
air,  wc  will  find  that  the  power  of  the  heat  depends 
much  more  on  the  capacity  of  the  big  which  contains 
it  than  could  be  well  fuppofcd.     Thus,  let  a  cubical 
receptacle  be  made  of  a  fmall  wooden  frame  covered 
with  paper  capable  of  containing  one  foot  of  air,  and 
let  the  power  of  a  candle  be  tried  with  this  as  above 
direded  for  the  paper  cone.    It  will  then  be  found  that        ^. 
a  certiin  weight  may  be  raifed  ;  but  a  much  greater  RarcVieii- 
one  will  be  raifed  by  having  a  receptacle  of  the  (ame  »>t  iailoout- 
kind  which  contains  two  cubic  feet;  a  ftill  greater  ""F**"" ''* 
by  one  of  three  feet ;  a  yet  greater  by  one  of  four  feet,  "'*     " 
&c.  and  this  even  though  the  very  fame  candle  be      ujjjj^^ 
made  ufe  of ;  nor  is  it  known  to  what  extent  even 
the  |jower  of  this  fmall  flame  might  be  carried. 

From  thefe  experiments  it  appears,  that  in  the  aero- 
ftatic  machines  conftrucled  on  Slontgolfier's  plan,  it 
mull  be  an  advantage  to  have  them  as  large  as  polGblc  ; 

bccaufc 


206 


AEROSTATION 


40 

How  bul- 


bcc;uife  afmaller  quantity  of  fire  will  then  liavea  great- 
er tifctl  in  railing  thtni,  and  tlic  danger  Irum  that 
clement,  which  in  thiskindot  machines  li  eh ietiy  to  be 
dreaded,  will  be  in  a  great  nicafure  avoided.  On  this 
Iuon?niij;ht  fubjett  it  may  be  reuiarked,  that  as  the  cubical  con- 
rile  Ly  the  tents  of  a  globe,  or  any  other  figure  of  w  liich  balloons 
common  a,-g  niadc,  incrcaic  much  more  rapidly  than  their  fur- 
."  r  J  faces,  there  mull  ultimately  be  a  degree  of  niairni- 
'  tudc  at  which  the  Imalleit  imaginable  heat  would  raiic 
any  weight  whatever.  Thus,  liippoliiig  any  acrollalic 
machine  capable  of  containing  500  cubic  feet,  and  the 
air  within  it  to  be  only  one  degree  hotter  than  the  ex- 
ternal atmof|i]icre  ;  the  tendency  of  this  machine  to 
rife,  even  without  the  application  of  artificial  heat, 
would  be  near  an  ounce.  Let  its  capacity  be  increafcd 
16  limes  ;  and  the  tendency  toarifc  will  be  equivalent 
10  a  pound,  though  this  may  be  done  without  making 
the  machine  16  times  heavier  than  before.  It  is  cer- 
tain, however, that  all  aerollatic  machines  have  a  ten- 
dency to  produce  or  preferve  heat  within  them,  which 
would  by  no  means  be  imagined  by  thoie  who  have 
netmaucthe  experiment.  When  Mell'rs  Charles  and 
Roberismade  their  longclT;  aerial  voyage  of  150  miles, 
they  had  the  curiolity  to  try  the  temperature  of  the 
air  w  iiliin  their  balloon,  in  comparifon  with  that  of 
the  external  atmofphere;  and  at  tiiis  time  they  found, 
that  when  the  external  atmofphere  was  63",  the  ther- 
juometer, within  the  balloon  lloodatr04''.Such  adiffer- 
enccof  temperature  mull  have  given  a  machine  of  the 
magnitude  w-hich  carried  them  a  conliderable  afcend- 
ing  powerindependent  of  any  other  caufe,  as  it  amount- 
ed to  41  grains  on  every  cubic  foot  ;  and  therefore  in 
a  machine  containing  50,000  fucli  feet  would  have 
been  alniofl  200  pounds.  Hence  we  may  ealily  ac- 
count for  what  happened  at  Dijon,  and  is  recorded  by 
Mr  Morveau.  "  A  balloon,  intended  to  be  liUcd  wiili 
inflammable  air,  being  completed,  was,  by  way  of 
trial,  filled  with  the  common  air,  and  in  that  flate  ex- 
iiuotheat-  pofed  to  ihc  atmofphere.  Kow  it  was  obfcrved,  and 
mofphcre.  indeed  a  limilar  obfcrvation  had  bc^n  made  before, 
that  the  air  witliin  the  balloon  was  much  hotter  than 
the  circumambient  air  :  the  ihermometerin  the  former 
floodat  120"  ;  whereasin  thclattcr,  even  when  the  fun 
(hone  upon  it,  the  thcrmomete-r  Hood  at  84c  This 
Ihowed  a  conliderable  degree  of  rarefaction  within  the 
balloon  ;  and  confequently  it  was  fufpeded,  that  by 
means  of  this  rarefadion  alone,  efpecially  if  it  were 
to  increafe  a  little,  the  balloon  miglit  afccnd.  On  the 
poth  of  May,  about  noon,  the  wind  being  rather 
flrong,  agitated  the  balloon  lb  that  two  men  were  em- 
ployed to  take  care  of  it  ;  but  notw^ith  (landing  all 
their  endeavours,  itefcaped  from  its  confinement,  and, 
lifting  up  about  65  pounds  weight  of  cords,  equato- 
rial circle,  &c.  role  many  feet  high,  and,  palfing  over 
fome  houfcs,  wenttothe  dillance  of  250  yards,  where 
at  length  it  was  properly  fecured." 

This  difference  between  the  external  and  internal 
lieat  of  ilie  heat  being  fo  very  conliderable,  mud  have  a  great  in- 
ballonnshai  fluence  upon  acrollalic  machines,  and  \\  ill  undoubtedly 
great  u;fiu-  influence  thofe  filled  with  inflammable  air  as  well  as  ihe 
"",*"       other  kind.     Nor  is  it  unlikely,  that  the  fhort  time 


41 
A  halloon 
at  Dijon 
rifcs  thus 


41 

Internal 


ages. 


w  hich  many  aerial  voyagershave  been  able  to  continue 
in  the  aniofpherc,  may  have  been  owing  to  the  want 
of  a  mtthod  of  picfcrving  this  internal  heat.  It  may 
naturally  be  fappofed,  and  indeed  it  has  always  been 


Principles. 

found,  that  balloons,  in  palling  through  thehighcr  re- 
gions of  tjic  aimofphere,  acquire  a  very  conliderable 
quantity  of  nioilturc,  not  only  trom  the  rain  or  fnow 
they  fomciimes  U)cet  w  ith,  but  even  from  tlie  dew  and 
vapour  which  condenfes  upon  them.     On  this  an  eva- 
poration will  inllaiilly  take  place  ;   and  as  it  is  the  pro- 
perty of  this  operation  to  produce  a  very  violent  cold, 
the  internal  heat  of  the  balloon  muil  befoon  cxhauftcd 
in  fuch  ainanner  as  to  make  it  become  fpccifically  hea- 
vier than  the  common  atmofphere,   and  confequently 
defcend  in  a  much  Ihortcrtime  than  it  would  have  done 
by  the  mere  lofs  of  air.     To  this,   in  all  probability,  orcal  ten- 
we  are  to  afcribe  the  defcentof  the  balloon  which  ear-  dtncy  of 
ried  MclfrsBlanchard  and  JcfFrics  ;  and  which  feemed  Mr  Khn- 
fo  extraordinary  to  mauy  people,  that  they  were  ob-  chard's  bal- 
liged  to  have  recourfe   to  an  imaginary   attraiflion  in  '"""  '°  "*'■ 

the  waiers  of  the  ocean  in  order  to  folvc  the  nheno-  '^'^"    ^?' 
-^L-     1  /-  •       •         ■    n    \  <      TL,   K-       .    counted 

nienon.     This   (uppolition  is  rejected  by  Mr  Caval- f^^ 

lo ;  who  explains  the  matter  by  remarking,  that  in 
two  former  voyages  made  with  the  fame  machine, 
it  could  not  long  fupport  two  men  in  the  atmofphere  ; 
fo  that  we  had  no  occafion  to  wonder  at  its  wcakncfs 
on  this  occafion..  '<  As  for  its  riling  higher  (fays  he) 
jufl  when  it  got  over  the  land,  that  maybe  ealily  ac- 
counted for.  In  the  firfl  place,  the  two  travellers 
threw  out  their  clothes  jull  about  that  time  ;  fecondly, 
in  conlequenceof  the  wind's  then  increafing, the  bal- 
loon travelled  at  a  much  greater  rate  than-it  had  done 
whilll  over  the  fea  ;  which  increafe  of  velocity  leil'ened 
its  tendency  to  defcend  :  bclidcs  which,  the  vicillitudes 
of  heat  and  cold  may  produce  a  very  conliderable  cf- 
fccl  ;  for  if  we  fuppofe,  that  the  air  over  the  land  was 
colder  than  that  over  the  fea,  the  balloon  coming  into 
the  latter  from  the  former,  continued  to  be  hotter  than 
the  circumambient  air  for  fome  time  after  ;  andcoafe- 
qucntly,  it  was  comparaiivcly  much  lighter  when  i:i 
the  cold  air  over  the  lanih,  than  when  in  the  hotter  air  . 
over  the  fea  ;  hence  it  floated  ealierin  the  former  than 
in  the  latter  cafe." 

It  fecnis  indeed  very  probable,  that  there  was  fome- 
thing  uncommon  in  the  cafe  of  Mr  Blanchard's  balloon 
while  palling  over  the  fea  ;  for,  asit  rofehighcr  after 
reaching  the  land  than  in  any  former  period  of  the 
voyage,  andlikcwife  carried  them  to  the  diflancc  over 
land  more  than  half  of  that  which  they  had  palled  over 
water,  we  can  fcarcc  avoid  fuppoling,  that  it  had  a 
tendency  to  defcend  when  over  the  water  more  than 
when  over  land,  independent  of  any  lofsof  air.  Isow, 
it  does  not  appear  that  the  air  over  the  fea  is  at  all 
warmer  than  that  above  land  ;  on  the  contrary,  there 
is  every  reafon  to  believe,  that  the  fuperior  refleclive 
power  of  the  land  renders  the  atmofphere  above  it 
warmer  than  the  fea  can  do  ;  but  it  is  very  natural  to 
fuppofe,  that  the  air  above  the  fea  is  more  moifl  than 
that  above  land  ,  and  confequently  by  letting  fall  its 
moifture  upon  the  balloon,  mull  have  occalioned  an  e- 
vaporation  that  would  deprive  the  machine  of  itsiiuer- 
nal  heat,  which  it  would  partly  recover  after  it  entered 
the  warmer  and  drier  atmofphere  over  land. 

We  Ihall  now  proceed  to  the  conflrudion  of  aero-  Co„a_ic. 
flatic  machines;  of  which  the  fmaller  are  only  fur  a-  tiouof  ae- 
mufcment,  or  fome  flight  experiments,  and  arc  very  roibticma- 
ealily  made.     As  in  all  of  them,  however,  it  is  of  the  chines, 
utmoll  cenfequence  to  have  the  W'tight  as  little  as  pof- 
fible,  the  Ihaps  becomes  anubjeft  of  great  conlidera- 

tion. 


Pradice. 


AEROSTATIC     N. 


45  tion.  For  tliis  purpofc  a  fphciical  lij^iire  has  been  ma- 
Of  their  theniaticall/  dtinoultratcd  to  be  the  btll  ;  as  capable  of 
fliape.  containing  a  greater  quantity  under  a  Imalkr  furface 

than  any  other.  Thus  a  ptrieit  fphcrc  contains  Icfs 
furface  in  proportion  to  its  lolidity  than  a  I'pheroid  ;  a 
fphcroid  Icfs  than  a  cylinder  ;  the  latter  Icfs  than  i 
cube  ;  and  a  cube  Uiil  lefs  than  a  paralUlopipcd.  In. 
all  cafes,  therciore,  where  wc  can  till  the  whole  capa- 
city of  the  balloon  with  air  equally  light,  thefphtrical 
figure  is  undoubtedly  to  be  preferred  ;  and  this  holds 
good  with  regard  to  all  inflammable  air-balioons,  whe- 
ther their  (iiie  be  great  or  fmall ;  but  in  the  rarefied 
-airones, where  the  under  part  niullnecellarily  be  much 
colder  than  the  upper,  the  globular  ihape  feems  not  fo 
"  proper.  An  inverted  cone,  or  tVuncatcd  pyramid,  with 
the  fmaller  part  undermolf,  feems  then  to  be  molt  pro- 
per, as  it  allows  the  heated  air  (which  has  a  great  ten- 
dency to  expand  as  well  as  to  afcend)  to  collect  in  the 
wide  part  at  the  top,  while  the  ufelefs  furface  in  the 
lower  part,  and  which, in  any  oliicrligurc,  would  con- 
tain only  the  colder  and  heavier  air,  is  thus  thrown 
alide.  in  fadt  it  has  been  founii,  that  aeroltatic  ma- 
chines, raifed  by  means  of  rarefied  air,  when  made  of 
the  <hapc  of  a  parallelepiped,  or  even  one  deviating 
fliUmore  from  the  Ihapcof  aglobe,  havcanfwered  the 
purpofe  as  well  as  they  could  have  been  luppofcd  to 
do,  had  ever  fo  much  care  been  taken  in  fcirming  them 
cxadly  to  that  ihapc.  The  very  hril  machine  made 
by  Mr  Montgollicr  was  in  form  ot  a  parallelopiped  ; 
and  though  it  contained  only  40  cuijic  feet,  Ihowed  a 
very  confiderable  power  of  afcent.  A  very  large  one, 
74  feet  high,  which  Mr  MontgoUier  had  dcligned  to 
exhibit  before  the  royal  family,  had  the  middle  part  of 
it  prifmaiic  for  about  the  height  of  2{  feet;  its  top 
was  a  pyramid  of  29  feet  :  and  its  lower  part  was  a 
truncated  cone  of  near  20  feet.  It  weighed  icoo 
pounds  ;  and,  notwithflanding  its  Ihape,  in  a  very  ihort 
lime  nianifelled  a  power  of  alcent  equal  to  joo  pounds. 
Another  aeroltatic  machine  of  a  fmaller  iVic,  but  of  the 
figure  of  a  parallelopiped,  being  futfered  to  afcend 
with  30  fliccts  of  oiled  paper  fixed  to  a  wire  frame, 
and  fet  on  fire,  role  to  a  great  height,  and  in  22  nn- 
nutes  could  not  be  fcen.  Ii  feems  therefore,  that,  w  itli 
regard  to  the  Ihape  of  thefe  machines,  it  is  by  no  means 
necellary  to  adhere  rigidly  to  that  of  a  fphere  ;  but 
,  that  any  oblong  form  anfwers  very  well. 
Materials.  ^'"^  experimental  purpofes,  both  tiie  inflammable 
and  rarefied  air-balloons  may  be  made  of  paper  ;  the 
former  being  made  of  that  kind  called  thm-poji,  var- 
nilhcd  over  with  linfecd-«il  ;  the  latter  either  of  that 
or  any  other  kind,  without  varnilh.  Inordir  to  avoid 
the  danger  of  burning,  however,  it  has  been  propi.)fed 
to  impregnate  the  paper  of  which  thefe  linall  rarefied 
air-balloons  are  made  with  folution  of  fal-ammoniac, 
alum,  or  fome  other  filt ;  but  this  does  not  feem  to  be 
neceirary.  rhofc  tilled  with  iiitiammablc  air  have  been 
made  of  gold-beater  (kin  or  peeled  bladders  ;  but  ihe 
^^  cheaper  muerial  of  paper  is  undoubtedly  preferable. 
13e(lvarni(h  Kor  aeroltatic  michiiiesof  a  larger  lize,  the  material 
for  li.nam-  uiiiverf  illy  employed  is  vamilhed  lilk  ;  and  for  thofeof 
mj|)k-air  the  rarefied-air  kind,  linen  painted  over  with  foiue  (Izc 
■m.rj'inff  f'"'"''  "^  •"^'^J  ^ith  paper.  The  bell  varnilh  for  an 
to  Mrde  '■ili-immable  air-balloon  is  that  made  with  bird-lime, 
St  I'oiiJ.  ^"J  recommended  by  Mr  Kaujas  de  Saim-Fond,  in  a 
treatilc  pablilhcd  on  the  fubjcct.  The  following  is  his 


207 


method  of  preparing  it :  "  Take  one  pound  of  bird- 
lime, put  it  into  a  new  proper  earthen  pot  that  can  re- 
lit! the  fire,  and  let  it  boil  gently  for  about  one  hour, 
viz.  till  it  ceafes  to  crackle  !  or,  which  is  the  fame 
thing,  till  it  is  fo  far  boiled,  as  that  a  drop  of  it  being 
let  fall  upon  the  fire  will  burn:  then  pour  upon  it  a 
pound  of  fpirits  of  turpentine,  ftirring  it  at  the  fame 
time  with  a  vvooden  fpatula,  and  keeping  the  pot  at  a 
good  diltance  from  the  fiame,  leaft  the  vapour  of  this 
cll'eniialoil  Ihould  take  fire.  After  this,  let  it  boil  lor 
about  lix  minutes  longer  ;  then  pour  upon  the  whole 
three  pounds  of  boiling  oil  of  nuts,  linfccd,  or  poppy 
rendered  drying  by  means  of  litharge  ;  llir  it  well,  let 
it  boil  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  longer,  and  the  varnilh 
is  made.  After  it  has  retted  for  24  hours,  and  the 
fediment  has  gone  to  the  bottom,  decant  it  into  ano- 
ther pot ;  and  when  you  want  to  ufe  it,  warm,  and  ap- 
ply it  with  a  fiat  brulh  upon  the  lilk  llutf,  whilll  that 
is  kept  well  flretched.  One  coatofitmay  be  futfi- 
cient  ;  but  if  two  arc  necellary,  it  will  be  proper  to 
give  one  on  each  tide  of  the  lilk,  and  to  let  them  dry 
in  the  open  air  while  the  tilk  remains  extended."  48 

Mr  Cavallo  gives  the  following  method  of  preparing  Mr  Caval- 
this  varnilh,  which  he  prefers  to  that  of  M.  d  St '"'*  "'"=" 
Fond — "  In  order  to  render  linleed-oil  drying,  boil  * 
it  with  two  ounces  of  faceharum  faturni  and  three 
ounces  of  litharge,  for  every  pint  of  oil,  till  the  oil 
has  dillblved  them,  which  will  beaccomi>lilhcd  in  half 
an  hour  ;  then  put  a  pound  of  birdlime  and  half  a 
pint  of  the  drying  oil  into  a  pot  (iron  or  copper  pots 
are  the  fafell  for  this  purpofe),  the  capacity  of  which 
may  be  equal  to  about  one  gallon,  and  let  it  boil  very 
gently  over  a  ilow  charcoal  fire  till  the  birdlime  ceafes 
to  crackle,  which  will  be  in  about  half  or  three  quar-  . 
ters  of  an  hour;  then  pour  upon  it  two  pints  and  a 
half  more  of  drying  oil,  and  let  it  boil  for  one  hour 
longer,  flirring  it  very  frequently  with  an  iron  or 
wooden  fpatula.  As  the  varnilh,  whilll  boiling,  and 
cfpecially  when  it  is  nearly  done,  fwells  very  much, 
care  ihould  be  had  to  remove,  in  thofe  cafes,  the  pot 
from  the  fire,  and  to  replace  it  when  the  variiillifub- 
lides,  otherwife  it  will  boil  over.  Whiltl  the  Ituffis 
boiling,  the  operator  Ihould,  from  lime  to  time,  ex- 
amine whether  the  varnilh  has  boiled  enough  ;  which 
is  thus  known: — Fake  fome  of  it  upon  the  blade  ofa 
knit'e,  and  then,  after  rubbing  the  blade  of  another 
knite  upon  it,  fcparate  the  knivts  ;  and  when  on  this 
feparation,thc  varnilh  begins  to  form  threads  between 
the  two,  you  may  conclude  that  it  is  done  ;  and, 
without l0')liuj;time,  ifmutl  be  removed  from  the  fire. 
When  it  isalmolt,  tliongh  not  quite,  cold,  add  about 
an  equal  quantity  of  fpirit  of  turpentine:  mix  it 
well  togcrher  and  let  it  rcil  till  the  next  day  ;  when, 
having  warmedit  a  little,  llrain  and  bottle  it.  It 
it  is  too  thick,  add  fome  more  fpirit  of  turpentine. 
When  this  varnilh  is  liid  upon  the  tilk,  the  il  iif 
fliould  be  made  perfectly  dry,  and  llretchcd  ;  fo  that 
the  varnilh,  which  ought  io  be  nfed  lukewarm,  may 
till  up  the  pores  of  the  llutf.  The  varnilh  Ihould  be 
laid  once  very  thin  upon  one  fide  of  the  ftulF.  anJ 
about  12  hours  after,  twoothcr  coats  of  it  ihould  be 
laid  on,  one  on  each  tide  ;  and,  24  hurs  after,  the 
lilk  maybe  iifed,  thouj;h  in  cold  weather,  it  m.ay  be 
left  to  .Iry  fome  time  longer." 

Much  has  becu  faidiu  France  of  their  elaltic  giun- 

\anmli. 


203 


AEROSTAT     ION. 


Practice. 


varniili,  and  its  compoCitioa  kept  a  ftcrct  ;  but  Mr 
Baldwin,  after  many  cxpcnlivc  iiials,  declares  to  the 
world  what  heconfidersas  the  fecrct;  and  ii  is  merely 
this:  "Take  any  quantity  oi"  caoutchouc,  as  two  ounces 
avcrJupois  ;   cut  it  into  fmall  bits  with  a  pair  of  fcif- 
fars  ;  put  a  flrong  iron  ladle  (like  that  ufcd  by  plum- 
bers)  over  a  common  pitcoal  or  other  (ire.     The  lire 
muft  be  gentle,  glowing,  and  without  fmokc.    \yhcii 
the  ladle  is  hot,  much  below  a  red  heat,  put  a  lingle 
bit  into  the  ladle.     If  h/ack  fmokc  ilfucs,  it  will  prc- 
fently  rtainc  and  difippear,  or  it  will  evaporate  with- 
out Uamc  :    the  ladle  is  then  too  hot.     When  the 
ladle  is  Icfs  hot,  put  in  a  fccond  bit,  which  will  pro- 
ilucc  a  'Jikiti  fmokc.     This  -white  fnioke  will  continue 
during  the  operation,  and  evaporate  the  caouthoac  : 
therefore  no  time  is  to  be  loll ;  but  little  bits  are  to 
be  put  in,  a  few  at  a  time,  till  the  whole  are  melted. 
It  Ihould  be  continually  and  gently  Ibrred  with  an 
iron  or  brafs   fpoon.     Two  pounds  or  one  quart  of 
the  bed  drying  oil  (or  of  raw  linfeed-oil,  which,   to- 
gether with  a  few  drops  of  ncats-foot  oil,    has  Hood  a 
month,  or   not  fo  long,  on  a  lump  of  quicklime,  to 
make  it  more  or  lefs  drying),  is  to  be  put  into  the 
melted  caoutchouc,  and  Itirred  till  hot,  and  the  whole 
poured  into  a  glazed  vcffel,  through  a  coarfe  guaze  or 
tins  fieve.     When  fettled  and  clear,  which  will  be  in 
afewminutes,  it  will  befit  for  ufe  either  hot  or  cold." 
Mr  Baldwin  is  not  at  liberty,  heobferves,  topublifli 
the  art  of  laying  on  the  vaniiih:  but  fays,  that  it  con- 
lirtsin  mik'mgnoJriteJItNe  m'ltioii  in  the  varnilh,  which 
■would  create  ni».ute  bubbles  ;   that  therefore  brulhes 
are  improper.MrBlanchard'smethodof  making  elalHc- 
gum  varnilh  for  the  lilk  of  a  balloon,  is  the  following. 
"  Diffolve  elaflic  gum  (caoutchouc)  cut  fmall  in  five 
times  its  weigh  t-cffpiriiof  turpentine, by  keeping  thera 
fomedays  together  ;  then  boil  on,c  ounce  oi  this  folu- 
tion  in  eight  ounces  of  drying  linfeed-oil  tor  a  few  mi- 
nutes J  lalUy,  ftrain  it.  It  mull  be  ufcd  warm."  The 
pieces  of  filk  for  the  balloon  mull  be  cut  out  of  a  pro- 
per fize,  according  to  the  dimenlions,  after  the  varnilh 
is  fufficicntly  dry.     They  may  be  joined  by  laying 
about  half  an  inch  of  the  edge  of  one  piece  over  the 
edge  of  the  other,  and  fewing  them  by  a  double  flitch- 
ing.     Mr  Blanchard  ufes  cxpeditioully  the  following 
method.     He  lays  about  half  an  inch  of  the  edge  of 
one  piece  flat  over  the  edge  of  the  other,  and  palfes  a 
hot  iron  over  it ;  in  doing  which  a  piece  of  paper 
ought  to  be  laid  both  under  and  over  the  lilk.     The 
joining  may  be  rendered  more  fecure  by  running  it 
with  a  filkthread,  and  flicking  a  ribband  over  it.  The 
ribbands  laid  over  feams  may  be  lluck  with  common 
glne,  provided  the  varnilh  of  the  lilk  is  properly  dried. 
When  the  glue  is  quite  dry,  the  ribbands  Ihould  be 
varniQied  over,  to  prevent  their  being  unglaed  by  the 
*9 .      rain. 
Of  cutting       .pjjg  ^g^  method  of  cuttingthe  pieces  of  filk  that  arc 
fcra^elobe.  '^  f"""™  ^  balldon,  is  to  defcribe  a  pattern  of  wood  orllitf 
card-paper,  and  then  to  cut  the  lilk  upon  it.     As  the 
edges  of  fuch  a  pattern  are  not  perfeft  circles,  they 
Plate  III.     cannot -be  dcfcribed  by  a  pair  of  compafles;  but  the 
fig.  j.  beftmethodofdrawingthcm  is  as  follows.  Firll,draw, 

on  a  dat  fjrface  two  right  lines  AE  and  BC,  per- 
pendicular to  each  other.  Secondly,  find  the  cir*uu- 
ference  anfwering  to  the  given  diameter  of  the  balloon 
in  feet  and  decimals  of  a  foot ;  and  make  AD  and  DE 


each  equal  to  a  quarter  of  the  circumference,  fothat 
the  whole  length  AE  of  the  pattern  may  be  equal  to 
half  the  circumference.  Thirdly,  divided  AD  into  i8 
equal  parts  ;  and  to  the  points  of  divilion  apply  the 
lines/<',  hi,  k/,Si.c.  parallel  to  each  other,  and  perpen- 
dicular to  AO.  Fourthly,  divide  the  whole  circum- 
ference in  twice  the  given  number  of  pieces,  and  make 
DC  and  BB  each  equal  to  the  quotient  of  this  divi- 
lion ;  fo  that  the  whole,  BC,  is  equal  to  thcgrcatelt 
breadth  of  oneof  ihefe  pieces.  Fifthly,  multiply  the 
abovemcntioned  quotient  by  the  decimals  annexed  to 
Ji^',  viz.  0.99619,  and  then  the  product  exprelfes  the 
length  ofy^  ;  again  multiply  the  fame  length  of  DE 
by  the  decimals  annexed  to  hi,  and  the  produ£l  cx- 
prelies  the  length  of  hi ;  and,  in  fliort,  the  produft 
ariling  from  the  multiplication  of  the  length  of  DC  by 
the  decimals  annexed  to  each  of  the  4)arallel  lines, 
gives  the  length  of  that  line.  Lallly,  having  found 
the  lengths  of  all  thefe  lines,  draw  by  hand  a  curve- 
line  palling  through  all  the  extremities  of  the  faid 
lines,  and  that  is  the  edge  of  one  quarter  of  the  pat- 
tern. The  other  quarters  may  be  ealily  dcfcribed,  by 
applying  to  them  apiece  of  paper  cut  according  to 

that  already  found Suppofe,  for  example,   that  the 

diameter  of  the  balloon  to  be  conllrucled  is  20  feet, 
and  that  it  is  required  to  make  it  of  1 2  pieces  :  then, 
in  order  to  draw  the  pattern  for  thofe  pieces,  find  the 
circumference  of  the  balloon,  which  is  62.83  feet,  and, 
dividing  it  by  four,  the  quotient  is  IJ.7  feet  ;  make 
therefore  AD  equal  to  15.7  feet,  and  DE  likewife  of 
the  fame  length.  Divide  the  circumference  63.8 3  by 
34,  which  is  double  the  number  of  pieces  that  are  to 
form  the  balloon,  and  the  quotient,  3.618  feet,  is  the 
length  of  DC  and  likewife  of  BD  ;  fo  that  BC  is 
equal  to  5.236  feet.  Then,  having  divided  the  line 
AD  into  18  equal  parts,  and  having  drawn  rhc  paral- 
lel lines  from  thofe  points  of  divifion,  find  the  length 
of  each  of  thofe  lines  by  multiplying  2.618  by  the  de- 
cimals annexed  to  that  line.  Thus,  2.618,  multiplied 
by  0.99619,  gives  2.608  feet  for  the  length  ofy^  ;  and 
again,  multiplying  2.618  by  0.98481,  gives  3.578 
feet  for  the  length  of  hi ;  and  fo  of  the  reil. — In  cut- 
ting the  pieces  after  fuch  a  pattern,  care  fhould  be 
taken  to  leave  them  about  three  quarters  of  an  inch  all 
round  larger  than  the  pattern,  which  will  be  taken  up 
by  the  feams. 

To  the  upper  part  of  the  balloon  there  (hould  be 
adapted,  and  well  fitted  in,  a  valve  opening  inwards  ; 
to  which  Ihould  be  faflened  a  firing  palhng  through 
a  hole  made  in  a  fmall  piece  of  round  wood  fixed  in 
the  lower  part  ot  the  balloon  oppollte  to  the  valve,  the 
end  of  this  llring  faftened  to  the  car  below,  fo  that  the 
aeronaut  may  open  the  valve  when  occafion  requires. 
The  action  of  this  valve  may  be  underflood  from  fig.  6. 
A  round  brafs  plate  AB  has  a  round  hole  CD,  about 
two  or  three  inches  diameter,  covered  on  both  fides 
with  ftrong  fraooth  leather.  On  the  inlide  there  is  a 
Ibutter  E,  alfa  of  brafs,  covered  with  leather,  which  is 
to  clofe  the  hole  CD  ;  being  about  two  inches  larger 
in  di  imeter  than  the  hole.  It  is  faftened  to  the  lea- 
ther of  the  plate  AB  ;  and  by  a  fpring,  which  need 
not  be  very  ilrong,  it  is  kept  againft  the  hole.  The 
elaflicity  of  the  gas  itfelf  will  help  to  keep  it  (hut. 
To  this  Clutter  the  firing  is  faftened,  by  which  it  is 
occAiionally  opened  for  the  efcape  of  gas.     A  fmall 

ftring 


y/a,/ 


•^^^ 


^^/c^ 


%> 


.frois'l'irs 


A£Ii  OS  TA  TJOK 


Plat  cm 


.  /to  ,j 


X 


'-"% 


% 


-0,087  1  ♦> 

-0.1 7,16 ; 

o.«588a 

0.34  a  oa 


-0.5 

■0.47  358 
-0.64  « -9 

o.  7  o  7  1  1 


"^1^ 


■\ 


i^ 


> 


\N 


)' 


/ 


Sv 


•ir 


""^^'"^-...,^,.^//,^■cvi""^•" 


..<•'" 


,  ^/y  Z^''      ?      D^ 


0.76^04 
.81  91  5 
,8660  J 


4"..  /.Vv  .  >n4/fi.  ^Ati/^f 


Practice.  A     E     P.     O     S 

firing  or  oilier  fecuriry  liio  lUI  l.t  fjxcjtoilic  (hnUcr 
and  the  platt,  fo  as  not  to  adirit  the  iiiuttcr  to  be  o- 
ptiicd  beyond  a  certain  fafe  dillaiice.  To  the  lower 
part  ot' the  balloon  two  pipes  fliould  be  fixed,  made  of 
the  fame  ftutf'as  the  envelope;  6  inches  disnicttr  for 
a  balloon  of  50  feet,  and  proportionally  lati;er  for  l)al- 
loonsof  a  greater  capacity.  1  hey  niufl  be  loi;g  enough 
for  the  car.  For  balloons  rf  t!J  feet  and  Icfs  diame- 
ter, one  neck  or  pipe  will  be  fiifiiciciit.  Thefe  pipes 
arc  the  apertures  through  which  die  inflammable  gas 
is  introduced  into  the  balloon. 

The  car  or  boat  is  bell  made  of  wicker-work,  cover- 
ed with  leather,  and  well  painted  or  varnilhed  over  ; 
and  the  proper  mcthcJ  of  fiifpending  it,  is  by  ropes 
proceeding  from  the  nee  which  goes  over  the  balloon. 
This  net  llionld  be  formed  to  the  fhapc  of  the  balloon, 
-and  fall  down  :o  the  middle  of  it,  with  various  cords 
proceeding  from  it  to  the  circumi'erencc  of  a  circle  a- 
bout  two  feet  below  the  balloon  ;  and  from  that  circle 
other  ropes  (liould  go  to  the  edge  of  the  boat.  This 
circle  may  be  made  of  wood,  or  of  fevcral  pieces  of 
flendcr  cane  bound  together.  The  melhes  of  the  net 
may  be  fmall  at  top,  again.t  which  part  of  the  bal- 
loon the  inflammable  air  exerts  the  greatell  force  ; 
and  increafc  in  lize  as  they  recede  fVoai  the  top.  A 
hoop  has  fometimes  been  applied  round  the  middle  of 
the  balloon  to  fallen  the  net.  This,  though  not  ab- 
folutely  nccellary,  is  bcfl  made  of  pieces  of  cane  bound 
together,  and  covered  with  leather. 

With  regard  to  the  narefied-air  machines,  Mr  Ca- 
vallo  recommends  firfl  to  foak  the  eloih  in  a  folution 
of  fal  ammoniac  and  common  lize,  ulingone  pound  of 
each  10  every  gallon  of  water  ;  and  when  the  cloth  'u 
quite  dry,  to  paint  it  over  in  the  iKiiJe  with  fomc 
earthy  colour,  and  flroiig  fize  or  glue.  M'hen  this 
paint  has  dried  perfcclly,  it  will  then  be  pr^iper  to 
varnifh  it  with  oily  varnilh,  which  miglu  dry  before  it 
could  penetrate  ipiite  through  the  cloth.  Simple  dry- 
ing linfced  oil  will  anfwer  the  purpofc  as  well  as  any,  ■ 
provided  it  be  nV)t  very  fluid. 

It  now  only  remains  to  give  fome  account  of  the 
method  by  which  aeroflatic  machines  may  be  tilled 
with  tluir  proper  gas,  in  order  to  give  them  their 
powtr  of  afcendinginio  the  atmofphere  ;  and  here  we 
are  enabled  to  determine  with  much  greater  preciflon 
conceri'.ing  the  inflannv.able-air  balloons  than  the  o- 
Methodsof  odiers.  \\  iih  regard  to  then,  a  primary  conlidcration 
procuring  jj^  iln;  mod  proper  mcthoJ  of  procuring  the  inflamma- 
ble air.  It  may  be  cbt.incd  in  various  ways,  as  has  been 
Ihown  under  the  article  Aerot-ocy  :  But  the  mofl 
advantageous  methods  are,  by  applying  acids  to  cer- 
tain metals ;  by  cxpofing  animal,  vi  getablc,  and  fonic 
niineral  fidiftances,  in  a  clofc  vcii'el  to  a  ftrong  fire  ; 
or  by  tranfmiitiugthcvapourof  certain  fluids  ihrough 
red-Slot  tubes. 

I.  In  the  firfl  of  thefe  methods,  iron,  zinc,  and 
vitriolic  acid,  are  the  materials  moll  generally  ufed. 
The  vitriolic  acid  mufl  be  dihiied  by  live  or  lix  parts 
of  water.  Iron  may  be  expected  to  yield  in  the  com- 
mon way  1700  times  its  own  bulkof  g.is  ;  or  one  cubic 
iootof  inflaniiiiable  air  to  be  produced  by  4;  ounces  of 
iron,  the  like  weight  of  oil  of  \itriii'.,  and  22;  oun 


T     A     T     I     O     N. 

proptr  to  ufc  thi  turnings  or  chipping?  of  great  piece » 
of  iron,  as  of  canno:i,  uc.  than  the  lilings  of  that 
metal,  becaufc  the  heat  atieadiji;;  the  ctfc:  vcictncc 
will  be  diuiinifiied  :  and  the  diluted  acid  will  pafs 
more  readily -through  tiic  intcrlticcs  of  tlic  turnings 
when  they  are  heaped  together,  than  through  the  fc- 
liiigs,  which  flick  clofcr  10  one  anot!-cr.  The  weight 
of  tlie  jnriamuiablc  air  thus  obtained  by  means  of  aciil 
of  vitriol,  is,  in  the  common  way  of  procuring  it,  ge- 
nerally one  fcventh  pari  of  the  weight  of  conin.on  air  ^ 
but  with  the  nccelliry  precautions  for  philofophical 
experiment.;,  Itls  tiian  o.'ic-tenih  of  the  weight  ot 
common  air.  Two  other  forts  of  elaftic  fluids  arc 
fometimes  generated  \\ith  the  intiammable  air.  Thcfc 
may  be  feparated  from  it  by  palling  the  inflammable 
air  through  water  in  which  quicklime  has  been  dillbl- 
ved.  The  water  will  abforb  thefc  tiuids,  cool  the  in- 
liammable  air,  and  prevent  its  over-heatiag  the  bal- 
loon v.hen  introduced  into  it. 

Fig.  7.  of  Plate  111.  rcprcfents  an  apparatus  dc- 
fcribcd  by  MrCavalloas  proper  for  tilling  balloons  of 
the  fize  of  two  or  three  feet  in  diameter  with  inflam- 
mable air,  after  palTing  it  through  water — A  is  the 
bottle  with  the  i:igredients  ;  ^CD  a  tube  fullencd  ia 
the  neck  at  B,  and  paiUng  through  C,  the  cork  of  the 
other  bottle,  in  which  there  is  another  hole  made  to 
receive  tl.e  ti'be  on  which  the  balloon  is  tied.  Thus  it 


209 


50 

Of  filling 
aeroliatic 
mschiiics. 


51 


iuflamma' 
ble  air. 


is  plain,  tJiat  the  inflammable  air  coming  oat  of  the 
tube  D  will  pafs  firft  through  the  water  of  the  bottle 
K  and  then  into  the  Ijalioon.  Two  finall  cdks  may 
be  ufed  initeadof  the  bottles  A  and  E. 

2.  Inflammable  air  may  be  obtained  at  a  much 
cheaper  rate  by  theaCflionof  tire  on  various  fubllances  ; 
but  the  gas  which  tlicle  yield  is  not  fo  light  as  that 
produced  by  the  effervefceucc  of  acids  and  metals.  The 
fubllances  proper  to  be  ufed  in  this  way  arc,  pit-coal, 
afphaltuni,  amber,  rock-oil,  and  other  minerals :  wood 
and  tfpecially  oak,  camphor-oil,  fpiriis  of  wine,  ctlier, 
and  animal  fubllances,  which  yield  air  in  dilferem  de- 
grees, and  of  various  fpecitic  gravities  ;  but  pit-coal  is 
the  preferable  fubitance.  A  pound  of  this  expofed  to 
a  red  heat,  yields  about  three  cubic  feet  of  inHaramaWe 
air,  wliich,  whether  it  be  palFcd  through  watcrornot. 
Weighs  about  one-fourth  of  the  weight  of  common  air. 
Dr  I'riefllcy  found,  as  we  have  clfcwhere  noticed, that 
animal  or  vegetable  fiibllances  will  yield  fix  or  fcvcn 
limes  more  inflammable  air  when  the  fire  is  fuddenlf 
iiic.eafed  than  when  it  is  gently  railed,  thou;;h  if  be 
afterwards  made  very  I'.rong.  Mr  Civaiio  oblerves, 
that  the  various  fubitanccs  nbove  enumerated  general- 
ly yield  all  their  inflammable  air  in  about  one  hour's 
lime.  The  general  method  is,  toinclofc  the  fubflances 
in  iron  or  earthen  vell'els,  and  thus  expofe  thcni  to  a 
flrong  lire  lafiicient  to  make  the  veifcls  red-hot :  the 
inHamiiiable  air  proceeding  from  the  aperture  of  the 
velfel  is  received  intoa  tube  or  rcfiigeraiory,and,pal8- 
ing  through  the  tube  or  worm,  is  at  lall  collc.itd  in  a 
balloon  or  other  veH'cl.  A  gun  barrel  has  often  l<eu 
nfed  for  elf.ys  of  this  kind.  The  fabUance  is  put  into 
it  fo  as  to  fill  fix  or  ci^rht  inches  of  its  loweft  part,  the 
remainder  tilled  with  ilry  fan  1  :  a  tube,  adapted  to 
the  mouth  of  the  barrel,  is  brouirht  i:iro  a  balou  of 


ccsofwa'cr.     Six  ounces  of  zinc,  an  equal  wtightof  water  under  an  inverted  reriivcr  ;  and  the  part  ot  ihc 

oil  of  vitriol,  and   ;o  ounces  of  water,  are  neciffary  barrel  containing  the   fcbllancc  i'eing  put  into  the 

for  producing  the  fatoe  quantiiy  of  gas.     It  is  more  fire  and  nmdc  red-hot,    the  inflammable  air  is  col- 

VoL.l.  Dd                                 lectcd 


2(0 


A     K     Tv     O     S     T     A     T     I     O    N. 


Pradice. 


lcii*c(l  ill  ilic  iuvcricd  receiver.  As  tlic  giiu-b.irrcl can- 
not fcrvc  tor  producing.'. lar^'ciiiiiiiitily  <)t"iiillai:imal>!c 
air,  Mr  Cavallorecoimncr.Js,  as  the  iiioil  advantageous 
fhape,  I  he  following  contrivance  : — Let  the  vcllel  be 
made  of  clay,  or  ra:hcr  of  iron,  in  the  Ihape  ot"  a  KJu- ' 
rciicc  tlalk,  fomcwhat  larger,  and  whole  neck  is  longer 
and  larger.   (Sec  ABC,  tig.  8.)  Put  the  fubllaiice  to  be 
ufed  into  this  vcflil,  foaito  till  about  fnur-iirths  or  Ids 
ot  its  cavity  ."^15.  If  the  fiibilaiice  is  of  fuch  a  nature 
as  to  fwell  much  by  the  a,Mion  of  the  fire,  lute  a  tube 
of  brafs,  or  iirft  a  bi  afs  and  tiun  a  leaden  tube,  to  the 
itct-k  C  of  the  vell'el;  and  let  the  cud  D  of  the  tube  be 
Jhapcdasin  the  ligurc,  fo  that  going  into  the  water  of  a 
tub  in,  it  may  ternii.iaiv;  under  a  fort  of  inverted  vcf- 
ftl  tl",  to  the  upper  aperture  of  which  the  balloon  Ci 
is  adapted.     Thinjs  thus  prepared,  if  the  part  Ali  of 
the  vclit-l  is  put  into  the  fire,  and  made  rt  d-liot,  the  in- 
flamiHHble  air  produced  will  come  out  of  the  lube  CD, 
and  palling  through  the  Water  willatlall  enter  into  the 
balloon  G.     Previous  to  the  operation,  as  a  conlider- 
ablc  quantity  of  common  ;  ir  remains  in  the  inverted 
vclicl  hF,  which  it  is  more  proper  to  expel,  tiic  vcH'tl 
EK  fliould  have  a  Itop-cock    K,  through   which   the 
common  air  may  be  funked  out,   and  the  water  afccnd 
as  high  as  the  (top-cock.      1  he  dimrnfions  of  fuch  an 
apparatus  Mr  Cavallo  gives  thus  :  Uian:cter  of  largelt 
part  of  the  velicl  ABC  fcven  inches,  length  of  whole 
vcllil  i6  inches;    diameter  of  its  aperture  one  inch, 
diameter  of  the  cavity  of  tube  CD  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  ;  lower  aperture  of  the  vclicl  EK  llx  inches,  leall 
height  of  the  vtlfcl  EK  2  ,  inches  ;  its  aperture  K  about 
tuo  inches.     The  aperture  of  the  veliil  EK  IhouUI  be 
atleaftone  foot  below  the  furface  of  the  water  in  Hi. 
Care  muft  be  taken  that  the  tire  ufed  in  tliis  procels  be 
at  a  fulllcient  dillancc,  othcrwife  it  \nay  happen  to  tire 
the  iiitiammablc  air  which  may  efcape  out  of  the  vcdVI 
EF. 

3.  The  laft  method  of  obtaining  inflammable  air  was 
lately  difcovcred  by  Mr  Lavoiliir,  and  alio  by  Dr 
PrielUey.  Mr  Lavoilier  made  the  lleam  of  boiling  wa- 
ter pafs  through  tlie  barrel  of  a  gun,  kept  red-hot  by 
burning  coals.  DrPricflley  ufcs,  inliead  ol  the  gun- 
barrel,  a  tube  of  red-hot  br^.fs,  ujion  which  the  Ilcani 
of  water  has  no  elFed:,  and  which  he  tills  with  the 
picccsof  iron  which  are  fcparatedin  the  borintj  of  can- 
non. By  this  method  he  obtains  an  inflammable  air, 
thefpccitic  grav'ty  of  which  is  to  that  of  coninion  air 
as  I  to  15.  In  this  method,  not  yet  indeed  reduced 
to  general  prafli.e,  a  tube,  about  three  quarters  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  and  about  three  feet  long,  is  tilled 
with  iron  turnings;  then  the  neck  of  a  retort,  or  clofe 
boiler,  i^  luted  to  one  of  its  ends,  and  the  worm  of  a 
rcfrigera'ory  is  adapted  toils  other  extremity.  The 
middle  part  of  the  tube  is  then  furroundcd  with  burn- 
ing coals,  fo  as  to  keep  about  one  foot  in  length  of  it 
red-hot,  and  a  tire  is  always  made  under  the  retort  or 
boiler  fiifficicjit  tonirike  the  water  boil  with  vehemence 
—  In  this  proccfsa  tonliderahle  quantity  of  inflamma- 
ble air  conies  out  of  ,he  worm  of  the  refrigeratory.  It 
is  faid  th"t  iron  yields  one  half  more  air  by  this  means 
than  b^  the  a.-lion  of  vitriolic  acid. 

For  tiling  large  balloons,  a  greater  apparatus  is  ne- 
cellbry  :  and  the  only  materials  that  can,  withany  cer- 
tainty of  fuccefs,  be  employed  for  producing  the  pro- 
per gas,  are,  oil  of  vitriol,  and  iioii filings  or.turnings . 


It  has  indeed  been  recommended  tonic  zinc  itiflead 
of  iron  hliugs,  bccaufc  white  vitriol,  the  fal:  produced 
by  the  union  of  the  vitriolic  acid  and  zinc,   is  much 
more  valuable  than  the  green  fort  produced  by  the  u- 
nion  of  the  fame  acid  with  iron.     But  though  this  is 
undoubtedly  the  cafe,  it  will  as  certainly  be  found,  up- 
on trial,  that  the  lupcriorpricc  of  the  zinc  will  be  more 
than  an  equivalent  for  all  the  advantage  that  can  be 
derived  from  the  additional  price  of  the  white  vitriol.       ji 
Kor  a  balloon  of  ^o  feet  diameter,  Mr  Cavallo  rccom-  Mr  Caval- 
mcnds  5900  pounds  of  iron  turnings,  as  much  oil  of  I"'' '■':<^'='P'' 
vitriol,  and  19,500  pounds  of  water.      Thcl'e  pro- 
portions, however,  appear  too  great  with  refpect  to 
the  acid  at'.d  metal,  and  too  little  v.itli  refpect  to  the 
water.     Oil  of  vitriol  will  not  exert  its  power  upon 
iron  unlcfsit  be  diluted  witii  five  or  (ix  times  its  quan- 
tity of  water  ;  in  which  cafe,  amuch  fmallcr  quantity       ^3 
of  lx)th  acid  and  metal  will  fervc.     JMr  Lunar^i,  who  ^t^  Lunar- 
from  the  number  ot  his  voyages  had  certainly  much  '^''^  •"'- 
practical  knowledge  in  aerolhition,  filled  his  balloon  t*^"''* 
at  Edinburgh  and  Glafgow  with  about  2000  pounds  of 
iron  (the  borings  of  cannon  procured  from  Carron), 
as  much  vitriolic  acid,   and  12,000  pounds   of  water. 
The  iron  was  placed  in  his  vcii'cls  in  layers,  with  Itraw 
between  them,  iti  order  to  incrcale  the  furface.     His 
apparatus  was  not  materially  dillcrent  from  that  of  Mr 
Cavallo,  reprcfcntcd  bottom  of  Plate  I.  fig.  3.  where 
AA    arc   two  tubs,  about  three  feet  in  diameter  and 
nearly  two  feet  deep,  inverted  in  large  tubs  BH  filled 
with  water.     In  the  bottom  of  each  of  the   inverted 
tubs  a  hole  is  made,  and  a  tube  E  of  tin  adapted,  which 
is  about  feven  inches  in  diameter,  and  feven  or  eight 
long.     To   thefe  tubes  the  lilken  ones  of  the  balloon 
are  to  be  tied.     Round  each  of  the  tubs  B,   five,  fix, 
or  more  Arong  calks  are  placed  ;  in   the  top  of  each 
two  holes  are  made,  and  to  one  of  thefe  holes  a  tin 
tube  is  adapted,  and  lb  fliaped,  that,  palling  over  the 
edge  of  the  tub  B,  and  through  tlie  water,  it  may  ter- 
minate with  its  aperture  under  the  inverted  tub  A. 
The  other  hole  of  thefe  calks  ferves  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  materials,  and  is  flopped  with  a  wooden  plug. 
When  the  balloon  is  to  be  tilled,  put  the  net  over  it, 
and  let  it  be  fufpenjed  as  Ihown  by  CDF  ;  and  having 
expelled  all  the  common  air  from  it,  let  the  filkenrabes 
be  laflencd  round  the  tin  ones  EE  ;  and  the  materials 
being  put  into  the  calks,  the  inflammable  air,  pafling 
into  the  balloon,  will  foon  diflend,   and  render  it  ca- 
pable of  fupporting  itfelf  ;    after  which   the  rope  GH 
may  be  flipped  off.     As   the   balloon  continues  to  be 
filled,  the  net  is  ailjufled  properly  round  it ;  the  cords 
that  furround  it  are  faflcned   to  the  hoop  MN  ;  then 
the  boat  IK   being   placed  between  the    two  fets  of  ' 
cafks,  is  faflcned  to  the  hoop  MN,  and  every  thing 
that  is  required  to  be  fen t  up,  as  ballafl,  intfrnmcnts, 
&c.  is  placed  in  it.     At  lad:,  when  the  balloon  is  little 
more  than  three  quarters  full,  ihc  (ilkcn  tubes  are  fe- 
paratedfroni  the  tin  ones  of  the  inverted  tubs,  and  their 
extremities  being  tied   up,  are   placed   in    the  boat. 
Laftly,  the  aeronauts  being  featcd  in  the  boit,  the  la- 
teral ropes  are  llipped  of},  and  the  machine  is  abando- 
ned to  the  air.      (See   Blanchard'i  bailooii,    Plate  II.) 
Tjiis  apparatuswas  at  lafl  reduced  by  Mr  Lunardi  to 
its  utmoli  limplicity,  by  uling  only  two  large  calks,, 
and  fuffering  the  vapour  to  go  into  the  balloon  with- 
out pafljng  through  water.  Thus  his  balloon  was  filled 

ia 


Practice.  AERO: 

in  led  than  half  an  hoarj  when,  before,  it  liail  requi- 
red two  iioui's  at  Icaft.  The  linking  of  his  cafks  in  the 
ground  was  alfo  an  additional  convenience,  as  it  created 
no  conftftion,  and  rendered  tlie  jiiatcrials  much  more 
calily  conveyed  intotiicni. 
orfiilin'T  %\'ith  regard  to  the  rarcficd-air  balloons,  the  method 
rarsficd-airof  iilling  tlicm  is  as  foUows.  A  fcafTold  ABCD,  tlic 
bjllooni.  lireadthof  whichisatlcaft  two-thirds ofthc  diameter  of 
ihc  machine,  is  elevated  about  lix  or  eight  feet  abo\e 
titcground.  From  the  middle  of  it  defcenda  a  well  E, 
riliiii^  abcJt  two  or  three  feet  above  it,  and  reaching 
to  the  ground,  farnillicd  with  a  door  or  two,  througli 
which  the  tire  in  the  well  is  fnpplied  with  fuel.  The 
Well  fliould  be  conflrufted  of  brick  or  of  piallcrcd  wood, 
and  its  diameter  fiiould  be  fomcwhat  Icfs  than  that  of 
ilic  machine.  On  each  fide  ofthc  fcaftuld  arc  ereftcd 
two  niaRs  HI,  KL,  each  of  which  has  a  pulley  at  the 
top,  and  rendered  firm  by  means  of  ropes  KG,  KP, 
HP,  HG.  Ths  machine  to  be  filled  is  to  be  placed 
<m  the  fcailold,  with  the  neck  round  the  aperture  of 
the  well.  The  rope  pafling  over  the  puUies  of  the 
two  mafls,  ferves,  by  pulling  its  two  ends,  to  lift  the 
balloon  about  15  feet  or  more  above  the  fcaff'old  ;  and 
the  refl  of  the  machine  is  reprefented  by  the  dotted 
lines  in  the  figure  MNO.  The  machine  is  kept  ftcady, 
and  held  down,  whilft  filling,  by  ropes  pafling  through 
loops  or  holes  about  its  equator  ;  and  thefe  ropes  may 
calily  be  difengagcd  from  the  machine,  by  dipping 
tlieni  througli  the  loops  when  it  is  able  to  fuftain  it- 
felf.  The  proper  combuflibles  to  be  lighted  in  the 
well,  are  thofe  wliich  burn  quick  and  clear,  rather  than 
fuch  as  produce  much  fmoke  ;  becaufe  it  is  hot  air, 
and  not  fmoke,  that  is  required  to  be  introduced  into 
the  machine.  Small  wood  and  flraw  have  been  fgund 
to  be  very  fit  for  thispurpofe.  MrCavalloobferves,  as 
therefult  of  many  experiments  withfmallmaehines,that 
fpirits  of  wine  are  npon  the  whole  thebeftcombuflible; 
but  its  price  may  prevent  its  being  ufed  for  large  ma- 
chines. As  the  enrrcutofhotair  afcends,the  machine 
will  foon  dilate,  and  lift  itfelf  above  the  fcafTold  and 
gallery  which  was  covered  by  it.  The  pellengers,  fu- 
el, inllruments,  &c.  are  then  placed  in  tlie  gallery. 
When  the  machine  mjkes  efforts  to  afcend,  its  aper- 
ture mud  be  brought,  by  means  of  the  ropes  annexed  to 
it,  towards  the  fide  of  the  well  a  little  above  the  fcaf- 
fold  ;  the  fire-placcisthcnfiifpcndedinit,  the  firelight- 
cd  in  the  grate,  and  the  lateral  ropes  being  Hipped  off 
the  machine  is  abandoned  to  the  air.  (See  Mongotfi- 
er'sballcon,  Platell.)  It  has  been  determined  by  accu- 
rate experiments,  that  only  one-third  of  the  common 
air  can  be  expelled  from  thefe  large  machines  ;  and 
therefore  the  nfcending  power  of  the  rarefied  air  in 
them  can  be  eftimated  as  only  equal  to  half  an  ounce 
avcrdupoife  for  every  cubic  foot. 

The  conduft  of  balloons,  when  conftruifled,  filled, 
and  aftually  afcending  in  the  atmofpherc,  is  an  objeifl 
of  great  importance  in  the  praifliceof  aeroftation.  The 
method  generally  ufed  for  elevating  or  lowering  the 
balloons  with  rarefied  air,  has  been  the  incrcafe  or  di- 
minution of  the  fir(  ;  and  this  is  entirely  at  the  com- 
mand of  the  aeronaut,  as  long  as  he  has  any  fiel  in  the 
gallery.  The  inrtammable-air  balloons  have  been  go- 
rally  raifed  or  lowered  by  diniinifliing  the  weiirht  in 
the  boat,  or  by  letting  out  foinc  of  the  gas  tlirnigh 
the  valve  :  but  the  alternate  cfcapc  of  the  air  in  de- 


T     A     T     I     O     N. 

fccnding,  and  difcliargc  of  the  balluft  for  ifccnding, 
will  by  degrees  render  tiic  maciiincincapbableof  float- 
ing ;  for  in  the  air  it  is  inipollible  tu  fupply  the  lofs  of 
ballaft,  auj!  very  dilficult  to  fuppiy  that  of  inriaiiimable 
air.  Thefe  balloons  will  ;.lib  riit  or  fall  by  means  of 
the  rarefaition  or  coiidcnfai  1.1  of  the  inclofcd  tir,  oc- 
cafioned  by  heat  and  cold.  It  lias  been  pru^iofej  to 
aid  a  balloon  in  its  alicrnaie  motion  of  afccni  I'ud  dc- 
fccnt,  by  annexing  to  it  a  veliciof  conni.0,1  aii  witich 
might  be  conJcafcd  for  lowering  the  machine,  and  ra- 
refied again,  by  expelling  part  of  it,  for  railing  the 
machine:  But  a  vcllel  ailapte.t  to  this  purpolc  mult 
be  veryltrong;  and,  aftt  rail,  the  aliillancc  afforded  by 
it  would  not  be  very  conlidcrable.  M.  Mounicr,  in  or- 
der to  attain  this  end,  propofes  to  inclofi  o.ic  bllon 
filled  with  common  air  in  another  filled  v.  ith  iniijiu- 
niable  air  :  as  the  balloon  afcends,  the  infiammaLlc  air 
is  dilated,  and  of  courfe  conir;;  clfes  the  internal  balloon 
containing  the  common  air  ;  and  by  diniinilhing  its 
quantity,  leflens  its  weight.  If  it  Ihonld  be  neceSary 
to  fuppiy  this  lofs,  he  fays  it  may  be  ealily  done  by  a 
pairof  bellows  fixed  in  the  gallery.  Others  have  pro- 
pofed  to  annex  a  fmall  machine  w  ith  rarefied  air  to  an 
in  flammable-air  balloon  by  ropcs,at  fnchadiftancc  that 
the  fire  ofthc  former  might  not  affccl  the  inflammable 
.Tir  of  the  latter:  the  whole  apparatus,  thus  combined, 
of  balloons  formed  on  the  two  principles  of  heated  and 
inflammable  air,  might  be  raifed  or  lowered  by  merely 
increalingor  diminilliing  the  fire  in  the  lower  balloon. 
Wings  or  oars  are  the  only  means  of  this  fort  that  have 
been  ufed  with  fome  fuccefs ;  and  as  Mr  Cavallo  ob- 
fervcs,  they  feem  to  be  capable  of  con  fiderable  improve- 
ment. Although  great  efi'eds  arc  not  to  be  expected 
from  them  when  the  machine  goes  at  a  great  rate,  the 
bell  methods  of  moving  thofe  wings  are  by  the  hu- 
man ftrength  applied  limilarly  to  the  oars  of  a  water- 
man. They  may  be  made  in  general  of  filk  llrctched 
between  wires,  tubes,  or  fticks  ;  and  when  ufed  muft 
be  turned  edgewife  when  they  arc  moved  ia  the  direc- 
tion in  which  the  machine  is  intended  to  be  impelled, 
but  flat  in  the  oppofue  dirciition.  Fig.  9.  Plate  III. 
is  the  reprefentation  of  one  of  Mr  Blanehard's  wings. 
Fig.  10.  is  one  of  thofe  ufed  by  Mr  Lunardi,  which 
conlills  of  many  lilk  Ihutters  or  valves,  ABCD,  DECK, 
&c.  every  one  of  which  opens  on  one  lide  only,  viz. 
ADEC  opens  upon  the  line  AB,  DKCF  opens  upon  the 
line  DC,  &c.  In  confequenceof  this  conftruclion,  this 
fort  of  oars  do  not  need  being  turned  edgewife.  Fig. 
ir.  reprefentb  one  of  the  wings  ufed  by  the  brothers 
Roberts  in  the  aerial  voyage  of  the  19th  September 
I  784;  and  fig.  1 2.  reprefentsone  of  the  wingsconftrud- 
ed  by  Count  Zambeccari,  which  confifts  of  a  piece  of 
lilk  ftretched  between  two  tin  tubes  fct  at  an  angle  ; 
but  ilitfe  wings  are  fo  contrived  as  to  turn  edgewife 
by  thcmfclves  when  they  go  on  one  direction.  Other 
conilvances  have  jcen  m^.'e  to  cirtft  aerollatic  ma- 
chines, but  they  ha»e  moftly  bee-  invented  to  effctl  a 
power  npon  them  as  upon  a  lliip.  It  appears,  however, 
that  they  can  have  no  cffeift  when  a  machine  is  only 
moved  by  the  wind  alone,  becaufe  the  circumambient 
air  isatrtfl  in  rcfpect  10  the  machine.  The  cafe  is 
quite  dilTercnt  with  a  vclFcl  at  fca,  becaufe  the  water  on 
whish  it  iloats  ftards  whilft  the  vtlTcl  goes  on  ;  but  it 
mull  be  lime  and  expcr"ence  that  can  reali/.e  the  ex- 
pcLlaiions  fuggeflcd  by  thefe  v;onirivances 

D  d  3  AERSHOT, 


21  I 


Aernio: 
I 


.'"E  3  C  [21 

AERSIiOT,  a  town  in  ihe  NcihcrlanJs,  in  tlic 
duchy  of  liral),iiu,  iiui  capital  ofthc  cUicliy  ot  .rttrlliot. 
It  is  ItatcJ  on  ihc  river  Ucnuir,  ten  miles  call  ot'Ma- 
'  lines  or  Mechlin,  and  eight  north  of  Louv;iin.  E, 
Loiii;.  J.  4.  N.  Lar.  51.  15. 

ytlVUGlNOOS,  an  epithet  gis'cn  to  fuch  things  as 
rcreniblc  or  partake  of  the  nature  ut  the  mil  of  copper. 

y£RUGO,  in  natural  liiliory,  pioperly  li^iiiiirs  the 
rnllofcopprr,  whether  natural  or  artiilci.il.  The  for- 
mer is  found  about  copper  Uiiiic:,  and  the  latter,  called 
verdcgris,  made  by  corroiling  coppir-platcs  with  atiJs. 

See  /'i.Vr/i'^'lW. 

ytKUSCATORES,  in  antiquity,  akinJofftrol- 
liiigbcg;;:irs,  not  unlikely  plies,  wiiudrcw  money  from 
the  creOidousby  fortune-icHing,&c.  It  was  alio  a  de- 
nomination given  to  griping  exaiilors,  or  colie<fiois  of 
tlie  revenue.  The  Galli,  or  priefts  of  Cybclr,  were 
cM.i:A  ^r II fu-toii;.!  v.a^inc  vmlns  ;  and  ynTfa^tfTot;,  oil 
account  of  tlieir  begging  or  colleciing  alms  in  tlic 
itreets  ;  to  which  end  tlicy  had  little  bells  whereby 
to  draw  people's  attention  to  tliem,  much  like  fomc  or- 
ders of  mendicants  in  fomc  parts  of  Jiurope. 

AERY,  or  Airy,  amonn;  fportfmcn.     See  Ainv. 

^£s  uxoRiUM,  in  ah  '  I'Jity,  a  lum  paid  by  bache- 
lors, as  a  penalty  for  li  .ng  (ingle  to  old  age.  1  his 
rax  for  not  marrying  f*"  11s  to  have  been  firit  inipofed 
in  the  year  of  Rome  ;50,  under  the  cenforiliip  of  M. 
Furius  Camillas  and  M.  Pollhumus.  At  the  cenfus, 
or  revicv/  of  the  people,  each  pcrfon  was  afked,  Ft  tu 
ex  aiihita  fcntcr.tia  uxorcm  h^xhis  tibcruin  ijuarenc'cir  tan 
caufa?  He  who  had  no  wife  was  hereupon  fined  af- 
ter  a  certain  rate,  called  irs  uxorinm. 

JEs  p<r  ct  I'ibraiii  was  a  formula  in  the  Roman  law, 
vhercby  purchafcs  and  falcs  arc  ratified.  Originally 
the  phrafe  feems  to  have  been  only  ufed  in  fpeaking 
of  things  fold  by  weight,  or  by  the  fcalcs  ;  but  it  after- 
v.-ards  was  uftd  on  other  occalions.  Hence  even  in  a- 
doptions,  as  there  was  a  kind  of  imaginary  purchafe  ; 
the  fornuila  whereof  expreircd,  that  the  perfon  adop- 
ted was  bought  per  irs  ct  librani. 

JEs  Finvutn,  yellow  copper,  among  the  Romans,  an 
tppcllation  given  to  the  coarfer  kinds  of  brafs. 

JEi  Calday'tum,  a  term  ufed  by  the  German  mincra- 
Vifls,  for  a  fubflance  whirh  fometimes  occurs  toiliofe 
wlio  work  upon  cobalt,  and  is  ufed  for  the  making  the 
fine  blue  colour  calld/zAv//. 

Ms  VJhnn,  a  chemical  preparation,  made  of  thin 
leaves  of  copper,  fulphur,  and  nitre,  fXiicKA  Jiratnm 
fufcr  Pratum  in  a  crucible,  and  fel  in  a  charcoal  fire 
till  all  the  fulphur  is  confumed  ;  after  which,  the  cop- 
per is  taken  out  of  the  crucible,  and  reduced  to  power. 
Some  quench  the  leaves  of  copper  ia  vinegar,  and  re- 
peat the  calcination. .^Its  principal  ufe  is  in  colouring 
glafs,  to  which  it  gives  a  beautiful  tindure.  The  fur- 
geons  ufe  it  as  a  detcrlive,  and  fomc  have  given  it  in- 
ternally ;  bu  it  is  certainly  a  very  dangerous  medi- 
fcine,  and  Ihoidd  be  avoided. 

jtSC'HINES,  a  Socratic  philofophcr,  the  fon  of 
Charinus  a  faufaTc-makcr.  He  was  continually  with 
Socra\cs  ;  which  occalioned  thisphilofophertofay,  that 
the  fauf.ige-makcr's  fnnwas  the  only  perion  who  knew 
how  to  pay  a  due  regard  to  him.  it  is  faid  that  po- 
verty obliged  him  to  go  to  Sicily  to  Dionylius  the  Ty- 
rant ;  and  that  he  met  with  great  conti  mpt  from  Plato, 
butwasextremely  well  received  byArilUppus ;  to  whom 


J 


yE  S  C 


he  Ihowed  fouicof  his  diiilogues,  and  received  from  him  ^fc!iylu». 

a  hauillomc  reward.     He  would  not  venture  toj-rofcls  ^ ^ ' 

I'liiiofophy  at  Athens,  Flaiu  and  Ai  illippus  being  in 
luch  liigli  clleeni  ;  lyit  he  fet  up  a  l.luxi  to'maintain 
hinilVlf.  He  afterwards  wrote  orations  for  ilie  Forum. 
I'hryiiicus,  ill  Photius,  ranks  iiim  among  the  bcft  ora- 
tors; an<!^mcniions  his  orations  as  the  Itandard  of  tlie 
pureAtticlivle-HennogcLttshasalfofpokcii  very  higb- 

l_y*of  him He  alio  wrote  fovcraJ,dialogiics,  of  wiiicii 

I  here  are  only  three  extant :  i.  concerning  V  irtue,  whe- 
ther it  can  be  taught.  2.  £ryxi.is,  or  Lruultrattis  j  con- 
cerning riches,  whctlitr  they  arc  good.  3.  .•ixioeiuis  j 
concerning  death,  whether  ii  is  to  be  feared.  ?.Jf  Lc 
Clerc  has  given  a  Latin  tranllation  of  them,  with  notes, 
and  I'cvcral  uid'crtations  iiuiiled  Sylvx  th'iloiogica-. 

ASCH  V  I. US,  the  tragic  poet,  was  born  at  Athens. 
Authors  diticr  in  regard  to  tiie  time  of  his  birth,  fonie 
placing  it  in  the  65th,  others  in  the  70th  Olympiad  ; 
but  according  to  Siaiilcy,  who  relics  on  tht  Arundc- 
lian  marbles,  he  was  born  in  the  6;d  Olympiad.     Ifo 
was  the  fou  of  Kuphorion,  ar.d  broiiier  to  Cyiieginis 
and  Aminias,  wliodillingiiiniedihcmielvesin.lhc  battle 
of  Marathon,  and  the  fca-light  of  Salaniis,  a:  which  tn- 
gigemcnts  Afchylus  waslikeuifcprcfciit.  In  thislalt 
action,  accori',i;ig  to  liiodorus  Siculus,  Arcinias,  tlic 
younger  of  the  three  brothers,  commanded  a  fquadron 
of  Ihips,  and  behaved  with  fo  much  conduij't  and  bra- 
very, that  he  funk  the  admiral  of  the  Periian  riett,  and 
fignalizcd  himfclf  above  all  the  Athenians.     To  this 
brother  our  poet  was,  upon  a  particular  occalion,  obli- 
ged for  faving  his  life  :  AA\ai\  relates,  that  ^fchylus 
being  charged  by  the  Athenians  with  certain  blalphe- 
mous  exprciiions  in  fomc  of  his  pieces,  v.'as  accufed  of 
impiety,  and  condemned  to  be  floned  to  death  :  they 
Were  juil  going  to  put  the  fentence  in  execution,  when 
Aminia  ,  wit  ha  happy  prcfenccofmind,ihrowingaliJe 
hiscloik,  Ihowed  his  arm  without  aliand,  which  he  IiaJ 
loll  at  the  battle  of  Salamis  in  defence  of  his  country. 
Tliis  iiglit  made  fuch  an  impreflion  on  the  judges,  that, 
toirchcd  with  the  remembrance  of  his  valour,  audwitli 
the  Iricndlliiji  he  Ihowed  for  his  brother,  they  pardoned 
A^fchylus.   Our  poet,  however,  refented  the  indignity 
of  thi.s  ptrlecutiou,  and  refolved  to  leave  a  place  where 
his  life  had  been  in  danger.     He  became  more  deter- 
mined in  his  relolution  when  he  found  his  pieces  Icfs 
pleafuig  totheAthenians  than  thofeof  Sophocle^,  tho' 
a  much  younger  writer.  Some  affirm,  that  /tifchylus  ne- 
ver fat  down  to  compofc  but  when  lie  had  drank  liberal- 
ly. Hew  rote  a  great  numberof  tragedies, of  which  there 
arcbut  fcven  remaining  :andnotwithflandingthe  iharp 
cenfurcs  of  fomc  critics,  he  mull  be  allowed  to  have 
been  the  father  of  the  tragic  art.  In  the  timeof  Thefpis, 
there  was  no  public  theatre  to  a.5t  upon  ;  the  flrollcrs 
driving  about  from  place  to  place  in  a  cart.     Aifchylus 
furnilhed   his  aftors  with  maiks,   and  drelFed    tlieni 
fuitably  to  their  characters.  ITelikewifeiniroduced  the 
butkin,  to  make  them  appear  more  like  heroes — The 
ancients  gave  A'fchyliis  alfo  the  praife  of  having  been 
the  hrll  who  removed  murders  and  fhocking  fights  from 
the  eyesof  the  fpec^ators.    He  is  fiid  likev.ife  to  have 
lelleiied  the  number  of  the  chorus.     M.   Le   Kevrc 
has  obferved,  that  Afehylus  never  reprcfented  women 
in  love  in  his  tragedies  ;  which,  he  fays,  was  not  fuited 
to  his  'renins  ;b>.it,iii  rcprcfen;inga  woman  tranfportcJ 
w  i,ih  fury,  he  was  incomparable.  Longinus  fliys,  that 

A,fchylus 


/ESC 


[     2'3     ] 


/ESC 


yBfchyno-  /Tlftiiylus  has  a  noble  bolcliiei'sof  cxprcflioii;  auii  that 
mcuc.     hisiiiiagiiiatioii  is  h>lly  and  hciciic.    h  niuftbc  owned, 

' >- ]iosvcvir,  that  hca.'Fc^tcd  pompous  words,  and  that  his 

fciifc  ij  too  ot'icn  o'ulcured  by  figures  :  this  gave  Sal- 
nialijs  o-calion  to  lliy,  that  he  wis  more  difficult  to 
be  underllooJ  il\m  the  fcripturc  itfclf.  But  notwith- 
Jlauding  the  fcinipcrffCtionijthi:-.  poet  was  htldiii great 
veneration  by  tlie  Athenians,  who  made  a  public  de- 
cree that  i:i5  tragedies  ihoiild  be  played  after  his  death. 
He  was  kiiltd  in  the  69th  year  ot  his  age,  by  an  ea^jle 
Jetting  tall  a  toi  toilc  uponhishcadashc  was  walking  in 
the  lields.  He  had  the  liouonr  of  a  pompous  funeral 
from  the  Si  Jlians,  who  buried  him  near  the  river  Ge- 
Ja^  and  the  tragedians  of  the  country  performed  plays 

and  theatrical  cxercifts  at  his  tomb I'hc  btfi;  edition 

i)f  Ills  pliiys  is  that  of  London,  1663,  fol.  with  a  La- 
tin tranllaiion,  and  a  learned  commentary  by  Thomas 
Stanley. 

yK!>CHYNOMENE,I3ASTARDSE:,iiTivE-p'.AKT: 
A  j.^cnus  of  the  dtcandiia  order,  belonging  to  the  dia- 
dtlphia  clafs  of  plants  ;  the  characters  of  wiiich  are  : 
The  ta/ji-isa  c-ne-leav'd  campanulatcd  hilabiatcd  pe- 
riaMihinm  ;•  the  lips  equal,  bat  the  fuperior  one  two- 
clef:,  the  inferior  trideatate.  The  corolla  is  papiliio- 
•  naeeoas  ;  liie  banner  co.-dattd  and  fubringcnt  j  the^j.'^ 
ovate,  obtufe,  and  Ihortcr  than  the  banner  ;  and  the 
carina  lunaicd,  pointed,  and  the  length  of  the  aljs. 
The  j-amu.ii  condll  of  10  liniplc  9-cleft  filaments  ; 
the  aiuhcrx  fmall.  1\\c piji.liutu  is  an  oblong  villous 
columnar  gcrnun  ;  tlie  (lyhisfubulated  and  ilcending, 
the  lliguii  (i'nplc  and  fomcwhat  obtufe.  The  pcricar- 
piuui  is  a  lo'ig  compreficd,  unilocular  jointed  poj. 
'J  he/,  .(.'j  are  k  i  hicy-lhapcd,  and  foliury  within  each 
joint.     Of  this  genus  there  are  reckoned  fix. 

Sffcus.  I.  The  afpcra  (as  well  as  the  re  (I  of  this  ge- 
nus) is  a  naiive  of  warmtountries.  It  rifes  tothc  lieight 
of  to  ir  01  iivc  fert,  having  a  lingle  herbaceous  ftalk, 
uhich  is  r«ugh  in  fomc  parts.  The  leaves  come  out  on 
every  fide  towari's  the  top,  forming  a  fort  of  head  ; 
the  lo'.vers  (onM;  out  l>ctwccn  the  leaves,  two  or  three 
togetSv  r  upon  long  footftalks  ;  they  are  yellow,  and 
flfapcd  like  thofe  ot  peas  :  after  the  rtower  is  part,  the 
gernu-n  bccouies  a  rtat  jointed  pod,  which,  when  ripe, 
parts  at  thcj<>inis,andin  eachdivifion  is  lodged  :  lingle 
kidnty-lhaped  feed.  2.  The  American,  fcldoui  riles 
more  than  two  feet  in  height.  The  iiovvcrs  cor.ic  out 
from  the  leaves  on  branching  footftalks,  five  or  fix  to- 
gether ;  thrfc  arc  much  Icfj  than  the  former,  and  of  a 
paler  yellow  coliir.  The  feed  is  lodged  in  pods  like  the 
»  other.  ^.  The  arborei,  grows  to  the  height  of  1;.\  or 
feven  feet,  with  '  fiiiglcftein  ;  the  flowers  come  out  two 
or  three  togethe",  of  a  copper  colour,  and  as  large  as 
thofcof  th'.  afpera.  4.  The  felban  hath  woody  l'tcms,an  J 
branches  garni!lu-d  with  fmooth  leaves.  The  ilowers 
are  fmall,  of  a  deep  yellow  colour,  and  come  out  on 
long  fjiikes  hangin<;  downward.  The  feed  is  contain- 
ed in  ii  fuKuitii  pod  not  jointed.  5.  The  pumila,  riles 
to  the  htitrbt  of  ab  ..'t  three  feet ;  has  dowers  of  a  pale 
yellow  cc'.our,  whici'  comes  out  fomctinics  fingle,  at  o- 
thertimestwoortiircr  upoicach  footftalk.  The  feeds 
are  -.-oniaiiied  in  a  l'^n<:  falcated  pod  having  i  ?  or  14 
divilions.  carli  of  which  lodges  a  fiitgle  feed.  6.  The 
grandiiora,  r;ft  s  fix  or  eight  fret  hijvh,  with  a  woody 
Hem,  frrr'i.ng  out  branches  towards  'he  top,  garniihed 
Wtih  obtufe  leaves.  The  flow<;rsarc  large,  yellow,  and 


fuccctdcJ  by  large   pods    coalaiiiing  kidfiCy-lhaped    yEfruU- 
fccds.  piui. 

Ciiltiirf.     Thefc  plants  arc  propagated  by  feeds,    ^'~~' 

which  ihoulJ  be  fown  early  in  tUe  fpriug,  on  a  hot- 
bed ;  and  when  the  plants  have  Itrength  cno:igli  to  be 
removed,  ihey  ihould  each  be  put  iuto  a  fcp„ratc  pot 
filled  with  light  earth,  aKd  plunged  into  a  hot-bed. 
As  they  increafc  in  li/.e,  they  mull  be  removed  into 
larger  pots  ;  but  if  thefc  are  too  large,  the  pLuts  ,vill 
not  thiive.  They  inuii  be  brought  forward  c^rly  in  the 
ycar,o£h':rwite  llic  fccond  kind  will  not  pcrfc.t  its  feed. 

AESCULAPIUS,  in  the  lleatiicii  mythology,  the 
god  of  phyiic,  was  the  fon  of  Apollo  and  the  nymph 
Coronis.  He  w.ts  educated  by  the  Centaur  Chiron, 
who  taught  hin  phytic  ;  by  which  means  /"Lf-iilapiiis 
cured  i  he  molt  dcfperaic  difcafcs.  But  jnpiier, enraged 
at  hisrcftoriiig  to  life  Hippoiitjs,  who  h:d  been  torn 
in  pieces  by  hisown  horfcs,  killed  himwiih  athuiider- 
bolt.  According  to  Cicero,  there  were  llir^e  deities 
of  this  name:  the  firft,  the  fm  of  .Apollo,  worihipped 
in  Arcadia,  who  i.ivcnted  the  probej  and  bandages  for 
wounds  ;  the  fecond,  hhc  brother  of  ^Jercllry,  killed 
by  lightning  ;  and  the  third,  the  fon  Arifippus  and 
Ar!ine>e,  who  lirll  taught  the  art  of  looih-drawin;; 
and  purging.  At  Epidaurus,  itfculapius's  llatue  was 
of  gold  and  ivory,  with  a  long  beard,  his  head  fnr- 
roundec!  with  rays,  juddiug  in  one  hand  a  knotty  (lick, 
and  the  other  cutwi.ied  with  a  ferpent ;  he  was  fcatcj 
on  a  throiie  of  the  fame  materials  as  his  llatue,  and 
had  a  dog  lying  in  liis  feet.  The  Romans  crowned  hini 
with  laurel,  to  rcprefeni  hfs  defcent  from  Aj'ollo  ;  anj 
t!ie  Philialinsrcprefcntedliiinaj  beardlefs.  The  cock, 
the  raven,  and  the  goat,  were  facrcd  tothisdeiiy.  His 
chief  temples  were  at  Perganuis,  Smyrna,  Trica  a  ci- 
ty in  lonii,  and  the  illc  of  Coos;  in  ail  which,  votive 
tablets  w-erc  hung  up,  fliowing  the  difcafes  cured  by 
hisafii.lance.  Buthismofb  famous  ihriue  was  at  Epidau- 
rus ;  where,  every  live  years,  games  were  inihtutei 
to  him,  nine  days  after  the  Illhmian  games  at  Corinth. 

/ESCULUS,  the  Horse-cii  esnut  :  A  genus  ot" 
the  monogyr.ia  order,  belonging  to  the  hcptandria 
clafs  of  plants  ;  and  ranking,  in  the  natural  method, 
under  the  ;9tii order,  7'r//i.7a/.r. — The  characters  are: 
The  ca/i.v  is  a  fmalhingle-lcaved,  bellied  pcrianihiu!;i, 
divided  into  five  fcgiiienrs.  The  corolla  (cxcfpt  in  the 
pavia,  where  it  is  four  petal'd  and  clofe)  con(i,is  ot 
five  roundiQi,  fiat  expanding  petals,  unequally"  co- 
loured,and  with  narrow  claws  infertcd  i:;to  the  csiyx. 
The y?fl////;/<i have  feven  fnbulatcd  dcclininT  tilamcnts, 
the  length  of  the  corolla  ;  thcantherseafccndiiig.  I  be 
pijliUt,mi%  a  roundilh  gerraen,  ending  in  a  fubal.-ted 
ftylus  ;  the  fUgma  pointed.  The  p.-ricarpiutii  is  a 
leathery,  roundifti,  trilocular,  thret-valved  capfule. 
The  f:eds  arc  two,  and  fubglobular.  In  this  genus 
Van  Rozcn  and  Miller  obfcrvc  both  male  and  herma- 
phrodite flowers.     There  arc  two 

S[':cics.  I.  The  hlppocaflanuTn, or  common  horfc- 
chefnut.  It  was  brought  from  the  northern  parts  of 
Afia  about  the  year  i  j>o,  and  fcr.t  to  Vienna  about 
158;?.  This  tree  makes  a  noble  appearance  all  the 
month  of  May,  the  extremiii'v  of  the  branches  being 
terminated  by  line  fpikes  of  flowers  fpotted  with  rofe 
colours,fothitt;ic  whole  tree  i"eems  covered  with  them. 
It  is  quickin  its  growth  ;  fothat  in  a  few  ycirs  it  ar- 
rives at  a  lizc  Urge  enough  to  alford  a  good  f.iade  in 

fummcr, 


/E.  S  C 


1      214     ] 


y^  S   C 


/FfL-ulu*.   Timiiicr,  as  ftH'iUoinoduce  plenty  of  flo.vtis.      I'licy 

' "^ Iiave,  however,  tliis  great  inconvenience,  that  their 

JvoiiJ  is  of  no  life,  being  unfit  even  for  burning  :  and 
tlicir  Icivcs  bcgmni! ■^;;  to  fall  in  July,  foon  deiirivc  the 
trec^iif  their  beanlj-.  There  is  loinctiiing  very  lingu- 
lar in  the  growth  uf  llicfr  trees  ;  w  hicli  is,  that  the 
whole  (lioot  is  pcrrinincdiulefs  than  three  wrtks  after 

the  buds  are  opened The  nuis  are  reckoned  good 

food  for  horfes.  In  J'nrkey,  thty  arc  ground,  and 
mixed  with  the  proven  Jer  for  ihefeanintalsjcfpeeially 
thofe.which.  arc  troubled  with  coughs, and  broken  wind- 
ed. Deer  arc  aUb  very  fond  of  the  fruit  ;  and  at  the 
time  of  their  ripening  keep  much  about  tlie  trees,  but 
cfpecially  in  flrong  winds,  when  the  nuts  are  blown 
■down,  which  they  carefully  watch,  and  greedily  de- 
vour as  they  fall. 

2.  The  pavia,  or  fcarlct-flowcring  horfe-clicfnnt,  a 
native  of  Carolina,  the  15ra/.ils,and  tlic  Kail.  It  grows 
to  al>onr  fifteen  or  lixtecn  feet  high  :  and  there  is  a 
delicacy  in  this  tree  that  makes  it  dcfirable.  The  bark 
of  the  young  (liootsis  quite  fmooth,  and  the  growing 
Ihoots  in  fummer  are  of  a  reddifli  hue.  The  leaves 
arc  palniatcd,  being  pretty  much  like  thofc  of  the 
horfc-chcfnut,  only  naich  fmallcr,  and  the  indentures 
at  the  edges  arc  deeper  and  much  more  acute.  The 
lobes  of  which  they  are  compofcd  are  fpear-fliaped  ; 
they  arc  five  in  number,  arc  united  at  their  bifc,  and 
Hand  on  a  long  red  footflalk.  The  leaves  grow  oppo- 
liteby  pairs  on  the  branches,  which  are  fpread  abroad 
on  every  fiJe.  The  flowers  come  out  from  the  ends 
of  the  branches.  The  firft  appearance  of  the  buds  is 
in  May  ;  though  they  w-ill  not  he  in  full  blow  till  the 
'  middle  of  June.     Tliey  are  of  a  l^right  red  colour,and 

confcqucntly  haveapleafingefteil:  among  the  vafl  tribe 
of  yellow-flowering  forts  which  fliow  thcmfclvcs  in 
bloom  at  that  feafon.  They  continue  in  fucccflion  for 
upwards  of  fix  weeks,  and  fometimcs  fucceeded  by 
ripe  feeds  in  our  gardens. 

Propagation  and  culture.  The  firft  fpecies  is  pro- 
pagated from  the  nuts.  In  autumn,  therefore,  when 
they  fall,  a  fuilicicnt  quantity  (liould  be  gathered. 
Thefe  fliculd  be  fown  foon  afterwards  in  drills,  about 
two  inches  afunder.  If  the  nuts  are  kept  till  fpring, 
many  of  thera  will  be  faulty  ;  but  where  thcfeminary- 
ground  cannot  be  got  ready  before,  and  they  are  kept 
lo  long,  it  may  be  proper  to  put  them  in  water,  to  try 
■their  goodnefs.  The  good  nuts  will  (ink,  whlirtthofe 
which  are  faulty  will  fwim  ;  fo  that  by  proving  them 
this  way  you  may  be  Aire  of  good  nuts,  and  have  more 
promifing  hopes  of  a  crop.  In  the  fpring  the  plants 
will  come  up  ;  and  when  they  have  ftood  one  year, 
they  may  be  taken  up,  their  top-roots  fliortened,  and 
afterwardsplantedin  the  nnrfery.  When  they  are  of 
fnflicicnt  lize  to  be  planted  out  finally,  they  muft  be 
taken outofthe  nurferywiih  care,  thegreat  (ide-flioots 
and  the  bruifcd  parts  of  the  roots  fliould  be  taken  off", 
and  then  planted  in  large  holes  level  with  thefurface 
of  the  ground,  at  the  top  of  their  roots  ;  the  fibres  be- 
ing all  fpread  and  lapped  in  the  fine  mold,  and  the 
turf  alfo  worked  to  the  bottom.  A  flake  Ihould  be 
placed  to  keep  them  fafr  from  the  winds  ;  and  they 
muft  be  fenced  from  the  cattle  till  they  are  of  a  fuffi- 
cient  fize  to  defend  thcmfclvcs.  The  beft  feafon  for  all 
this  work  is  Oiflober.  After  the  trees  are  pi  inted, 
neither  knife  nor  hatchet  ihould-  come  near  them ;  but 


they  fiiould  be  left  to  Nature  to  form  tlieir  beautiful   ^fmlm. 

parabolic  heads,  and  afliime  their  utmolt  beauty. — The  ' >' 

horfe-c)icfnut,  like  moll  other  trees,  delights  mofl  in 
good  fat  land  ;  but  it  will  grow  exceedingly  well  on 
clayey  and  m.irlcy  grounds. 

Wilier  fays,  "  When  thefe  tr;cs  are  tranfplanicd, 
their  roots  ihould  be  prcferved  as  entire  as  polfiblc,  for 
they  diO  not  fuccetd  well  when  torn  or  cut :  nor  fliould 
any  of  the  branches  be  fliortened,  for  there  is  fcarcc 
any  tree  thst  will  not  bear  amputation  better  than  this; 
fo  that  when  any  branciicsare  byaccidentbrokcn,  they 
fliould  be  cut  ort'  clofc  by  the  llem,  that  the  wound 
may  heal  over." 

Tiie  fecond  fpecies  is  propagated,  i.  By  budding 
it  upon  the  young  plants  of  the  horfc-ciicfnut.  Thffe 
ftocks  fliould  be  raifed  as  \'  as  diredcd  in  that  article. 
They  flioulil  be  planted  in  the  nurfcry  way,  one  foot 
afunder,  and  two  feet  diflant  in  the  rows^  which 
fliould  be  kept  clean  of  weeds,  and  muft  be  dug  be- 
tween every  winter  till  the  operation  is  tobc  pcrlorm- 
cd.  After  they  have  ftood  in  the  nurfery-ground 
about  two  years,  and  have  made  at  leaft  one  good 
fuinmcr's  flioot,  the  funimcr  following  is  the  time  for 
the  operation.  Then,  havingyour  cuttings  ready  foon 
after  midfummer,  the  evenings  and  cloudy  weather 
fliould  be  made  choice  of  for  the  work.  ^V■hocver  has 
a  great  number  of  trees  to  inoculate,  muft  regard  no 
weatlicr,  but  keep  working  on,  to  get  his  bufinefs  over 
before  the  feafon  ends  ;  and,  indeed,  a  good  hand  will 
be  always  pretty  fure  of  fucccfs  be  the  weather  what 
it  will.  If  the  ftocks  were  healthy,  the  fummer  fol- 
lowing they  will  make  pretty  good  flioots  ;  and  in  a 
year  or  two  after  that  will  flower.  This  is  one  me- 
thod of  propagating  this  tree  ;  and  thofc  plants  that 
are  propagated  this  way  will  grow  to  a  larger  lize  than 
thofc  raifed  inimediatcly  from  feeds — 2.  This  tree 
alio  may  be  propagated  by  feeds;  which  will  fome- 
timcs ripen  with  us,  and  may  be  obtained  out  of  our 
gardens.  The  manner  of  raiflng  them  this  way 
is  as  foUov.-s:  Let  a  warm  border  be  prepared  ;  and  if 
it  is  not  naturally  fandy,  left  drift-fand  be  mixed  with 
the  foil  ;  and  in  this  border  let  the  feeds  be  fown  in 
the  montli  of  March,  about  half  an  inch  deep.  After 
this,  conftant  weeding  muft  be  obferved  ;  and  when 
the  plants  are  come  up,  if  they  could  be  fhadedinthe 
heat  of  the  day,  it  would  be  much  better.  Thefe, 
with  now  and  then  a  gentle  W'atcring  in  a  dry  feafon, 
will  be  all  the  precautions  they  will  require  the  flrft 
fummer.  The  winter  following,  if  the  (ituation  is  not 
extremely  well  flieltered,  protection  muft  be  given  them 
from  the  hard  black  frofts,  which  will  othtrwife  often 
deftroy  them  ;  lb  that  it  will  be  the  fafeft  way  to  have 
the  bed  hooped,  to  cover  them  with  mats  in  fuch 
weather,  if  the  fituation  is  not  well  defended  :  if  it  is, 
this  trouble  may  be  faved  ;  for,  even  when  young, 
they  are  tolerably  hardy.  In  about  two  or  three  years 
they  may  be  removed  into  the  nnrfery,  or  planted 
where  they  are  to  remain,  and  they  will  flower  in  three 
or  four  years  after.  The  ufual  nurfery-care  muft  be 
taken  of  them  when  plantcdin  that  way  ;  and  the  beft 
time  for  planting  them  there,  or  where  they  arc  to  re- 
main, is  October  ;  though  they  will  grow  exceeding 
well  if  removed  in  any  ot  the  winter  ir.onihs  ;  but  if 
planted  late  in  the  fpring,  they  will  require  more 
watering,   as  the  ground    will   not  be  fo  regularly 

fettled 


^  s  o 


C    215    ] 


/E  r  H 


:£(op.     fettled  to  the  roots  as  if  they  had  been  planted  car- 

— ■^— '  IJcr. 

AliOP,  the  Phrygian,  lived  in  the  time  of  Solon, 
about  the  50"'  Olympiad,  under  the  reign  of  Cra-fiis 
the  iaft  king  of  Lydia.  As  to  genius  and  abilities,  lie 
was  greatly  indebted  to  nature  ;  but  in  other  refpctts 
not  lo  fortunate,  being  born  a  flavc  and  extremely  de- 
formed. St  Jerom,  fpeaking  of  him,  fays  he  was  un- 
fortunate in  liii  birth,  condition  in  life,  and  death  ; 
hinting  thereby  at  his  deformity,  icrvile  ftatc,  and 
tragical  end.  His  great  genius,  however,  enabled  him 
to  fupport  his  misfortunes  ;  and  in  order  to  alleviate  the 
hardihips  of  fcrvitude,  he  compofed  thofc  entertaining 
and  inllructive  fables  which  have  acquired  him  fo  much 
rcput;'.lion.  He  is  generally  fuppofed  to  have  been  the 
inventor  of  that  kind  of  writing  ;  but  this  is  conteile  J 
by  fevcral,  particularly  Qiiintilian,  whofeems  tothink 
that  Hcliod  was  the  firll  author  of  tables.  /Efop,  how- 
ever, certainly  improved  this  art  to  a  very  great  de- 
gree ;  and  hence  it  is  that  he  has  been  accounted  the 
author  of  this  fort  of  produftions  : 

u^fopus  autflor  quani  inateriam  rciicrit, 
Huiic  ego  pollivi  TcrCbrs  fenariis. 

PttJ.  I'rol.  aJ.  Ill),  i. 
"  If  any  thoughts  in  thcfc  iambics  fliine, 
Th'  invention's  .flil'op'.',  and  the  verfe  is  mine." 

The  firll  raaftcr  whom  ^fop  ferved,  was  one  Cara- 
fuis  Demarchus,  an  inhabitant  of  Athens  ;  and  there 
in  all  probability  he  acquired  his  purity  in  the  Greek 
tongue.  After  him  he  had  fcveral  mailers;  andat  length 
.  came  under  a  philofopher  named  Idmonorladmonwho 
enfranchifed  him.  After  he  had  recovered  his  liberty, 
be  foon  acquired  agrcatrcpuiationaraonglUhe  Greeks; 
fothat,  according  to  Meziriac,  the  report  of  his  wif- 
dom  having  reached  Croefus,  he  fent  to  inquire  after 
him,  and  engaged  him  in  his  I'ervice.  He  travelled 
through  Greece,  according  to  the  fame  author  :  whe- 
ther for  his  own  pleafure,or  upon  the  affairs  of  Croefus, 
is  uncertain  ;  and  palling  by  Athens  foon  after  Pili- 
ftratus  had  ulurped  the  fovercign  power,  and  finding 
that  the  Athenians  bore  the  yoke  very  impatiently,  he 
told  them  the  fable  of  the  frogs  who  petitioned  Jupiter 
for  a  king.  The  images  made  ufe  of  by  itfop  are  cer- 
tainly very  happy  inventions  to  inllruct  ntankind  ;  they 
polfel's  all  that  is  necelfary  to  perfect  a  precept,  having 
a  mixture  of  the  ufeful  with  the  agreeable.  "  /Efop 
the  fibuliil  (fays  .-^iilus  Gellius)  was  defervedly  e- 
flccmcd  wife,  lincc  he  did  not,  after  the  manner  of  ihc 
philofophers,rigidlyandimpcriou(lydi>:tatefucii  things 
as  were  proper  to  be  advifed  and  pcrfuadcd  ;  but,  fra- 
ming entertaining  and  agreeable  apologues,  lie  thereby 
charms  and  captivates  the  human  mind." — .tfopwas 
put  to  death  at  Delphi.  Plutarch  tells  us  that  he  came 
there  with  a  great  quantity  of  gold  and  filver,  being 
ordered  by  Croefus  to  offer  a  facrilice  to  Apollo,  and 
to  give  a  confiderable  fum  to  each  inhabitant :  but  a 
quarrel  ariling  betwixt  him  and  the  Uclphims,  he  fent 
back  the  money  to  Cra-fus  ;  for  he  thought  ihofe  fur 
whom  the  prince  defigncd  it,  had  rendered  thtmfilves 
unworthy  of  it.  The  inhabitants  of  Delphi  contrived 
an  accuiation  of  faerilege  againll  him  ;  and  pretending 
they  had  convicted  him,  threw  him  headlong  from  a 
rock.  Kor  this  cruelty  and  i'iif>ice,  we  are  told  they 
were  viiitcdwithfamincand  pc  ili  ice  ;  andconfulting 
the  oracle,  they  received  for  anfv\(.r,  that  the  god  de- 

3 


lignedthiiasapanillimcnt  forthcir  treatmentof  Alfop: 
they  endeavoured  to  make  an  atonement,  by  railing  a 
pyramid  to  his  honour. 

/KSOP  (Cludius),  a  celebrated  a,5lor,  whoflourilTicd 
about  th  670'''  year  of  Rome.  lie  cncl  Roftius  were 
cotemporai  ies,and  the  belt  performers  whoever  appear- 
ed upon  the  Roman  ftagc,  the  former  excelling  in  tr.i- 
gedy,  tiie  latter  in  comedy.  Cicero  put  himfclf  under 
their  direftion  topcrfed  his  action.  yEfop  lived  in  a 
moll  cxpcnfve  manner,  and  at  one  entertainment  is 
faid  to  have  had  a  dilh  which  coll  above  eight  hundred 
pounds  ;  this  difli,  we  arc  told,  was  filled  with  fmging 
and  fpeaking  birds,  fome  of  which  coll  near  50/.  The 
delight  which  ^tfop  took  in  thtfe  fortof  birds  proceed- 
ed, as  Mr  Baylc  obfervcs,  from  the  cxpencc.  He  did 
not  make  a  dilliof  them  becaufe  they  could  fpeak,  ac- 
cording to  the  refinement  of  Pliny  upon  this.cireuni- 
flance,  this  motive  beingonly  by  accident;  but  becaufe 
of  their  extraordinary  price.  If  their  had  been  any 
birds  that  could  not  fpeak,  and  yet  more  Icarcc  and 
dear  than  thefe,  he  would  have  procured  fuch  for  his 
table,  ytfop's  foil  was  no lefs  luxurious  than  the  father, 
for  he  diliblved  pearls  for  his  guells  tofwallow.  Some 
fpeak  of  this  as  a  common  practice  of  his  ;  but  others 
mention  his  falling  into  this  excels  only  on  a  particular 
day, when  hewas  trcatinghisfriends.  Horace*  fpeaks  '.f^[."' 
only  of  one  pearl  of  great  value,  which  he  dilfolvcdin  '  ^^^'' 
vinegar,  and  drank.  Aifop,  notwithllanding  his  ex- 
pences,  is  faid  to  liave  died  worth  above  160,000/. 
When  he  was  upon  the  llage,  he  entered  into  his  part 
to  fuch  a  degree,  as  fomctimes  to  be  fcized  with  a  per- 
fcdt  ecllafy  :  Plutarch  mentions  it  as  njiorted  of  him, 
tliat  wliilll  he  was  rcprcfciiting  Atrcus  deliberating 
how  he  ihould  revenge  himfclf  on  Thyeftts,  he  was  (ly 
tranfportcd  beyond  himfclt  in  the  heat  of  action,  that 
with  his  truncheon  he  fmotc  one  of  the  fervant  crof- 
ling  the  llagc,  and  laid  him  dead  on  the  fpot. 

A;ST1MATI0  capitis,  a  term  met  with  in  old 
law-books  for  a  fine  anciently  ordained  to  be  paid  for 
ortcnccs  committed  againll  perfons  of  quality,  accord- 
ing to  their  fcveral  degrees. 

-tSTIVAL,  in  a  general  fcnfc,  denotes  fomething 
connefted  with,  or  belonging  to,  funimer.  Hence 
scllival  lign,  a:llival  follHce,  &c. 

^STC  ARIA,  in  gcogra^diy,  denotes  an  arm  of  the   • 
fea,  which  runs  a  good  way  within  land.    Such  is  the 
Chefapcakbay,  &c. 

^•ESTU.-VRIKS,  in  ancient  baths,  were  fecret  paf- 
fages  from  the  hypocjuflum  into  the  chambers. 

yi^STU.ARY,  among  phylicians,  a  vapour-bath, 
or  any  other  inftnimcnt  for  conveying  heat  10  the 
body. 

^SYMNIUM,  in  antiquity,  a  monument  ere.5led  to 
the  memory  of  the  heroes,  by  .Lfymnusthe  Megarean. 
Kc  conff.lting  the  oracle  in  what  manner  the  Megare- 
ans  might  be  moft  happily  governed,  was  anfwered.  If 
thi^  /'£■/</  confulation  'Ji:!h  the  more  iiuii.ercus  .•  whom  he 
taking  for  the  dead,  built  the  faid  monument,  and  a 
fcnaie-houfc  that  took  within  its  compafs  the  monu- 
ment ;  imaginlnij,  that  thus  the  dead  would  alfill  in 
thiir  conf-.lations.    (i'aufanias.) 

A'.-TH,  or  ATH.allronglittle  town  in  the  Auflrian 
Netherlands  and  province  of  Hainaulr,  lituatcdon  the 
river  Dendcr,  about  tw;nty  miles  S.  VV.  of  Brullcls. 

Al'H.ALlA,  or  Ilua  ^anc.  gcog.)  now  E;oa;  an 

illauil 


/E  T  II 


r     ai6     ] 


M  T  H 


A'thflftio,ii^*nil  on  t^<^  coaft  of  Kiruri.i,  in  compafsan  haudrcii 
JilOicT.    niiUi,  aboLuiJii.o  iiiiron,  ss  I' Ibi  Itiil  dues.  S(«;|>liainiS 

* — "  calls  it  j^jth.tte.    Tilt  port  ot'Acthalia  \\as  called  ^r- 

^o:i.',  (DioiJ.  Si:\il.) 

yL  I'lIULb  TAN,  S;f  ArwEtsTAK. 
AETHER,  is  ui'iially  iindcrllooj  of  a  ihin,  fabtile 
Tii.iitcr,  or  medium,  m  irh  iiiirr  .mJ  rarer  ilian  air  ; 
wiiich  coiuincncing  fri)iu  tin  limits  of  our  atinofphcic 
podiilcs  the  whok  heavenly  fjMcc. — Tho  wi.r.l  is 
Greek,  "S"?,  fiippoftd  to  be  formed  from  the  \til> 
<«i6»f,  "  to  burn,  tu  fiame  ;"  forac  of  rhe  ancients,  ;'.'.r- 
ti.Lilarly  Aiuxugoras,  fiippoiing  itof  the  nature  of  nrc. 
iicc  Fire. 

The  philafophers  cannot  conceive  that  the  largcfl 
pan  of  t  lie  creation  llTJuld  be  ptrfc'.ly  vol  J  jaiul  there- 
fore they  fill  it  with  a  fpecies  of  niaittr  under  the  dc- 
Honiinjtion  ot'  a:.hcr.  But  thcyv<.ry  extremely  as  to 
tlie  nature  andcliaraiiler  of  thisctiher.  iionic  conceive 
it  as  a  body/iv  ?.-;/£  ?7J,.nppoiii  ted  only  to  fill  up  thcvacui- 
ties  between  tlie  heavenly  bodies  ;  and  therefore  con- 
fined to  ihc  regions  above  our  atmofphcre.  Others 
fiippofe  it  oi  fo  fubtile  and  penetrating  a  nature,  as  to 
pcj  vade  the  air, and  other  l>.).iies,and  poireifes  the  pores 
and  intervals  thereof.  Others  deny  the  exiitcncc  of  a- 
ny  fucli  fpcciric  matter;  and  think  tlicairitfelf,  by  that 
iinnienfe  tenuity  and  cxpanfion  it  is  found  capable  of, 
may  diffufe  itfelf  through  the  interllellar  fpaccs,  and 
be  the  only  matter  found  therein. 

In  eticd,  sether,  being  no  objefl:  of  our  fcnfe,  hat 
the  mere  workofiniagiiiali.in,  brought  only  upon  the 
ftage  for  the  fake  of  hypothefis,  or  to  folve  fonie  phe- 
nomenon, real  or  imaginary  ;  authors  take  the  liberty 
tn  modify  it  how  they  ple.if';.  Some  fuppofc  it  of  an 
elementary  nature,  like  other  bodies  ;  and  only  diftiu- 
guillicd  by  its  tenuity,  and  the  other  affeelionsconfe- 
qnent  thereon  :  whicli  is  tlie  philofophical  asther.  O- 
ihers  will  have  it  of  another  fpecics,  and  not  elemen- 
tary ;  but  rather  a  fort  of  fifth  tlemtnr,  of  a  purer, 
■more  refined,  and  fpirituous  nature, than  the  fublianccs 
about  our  earth  :  and  void  of  the  common  alFcitions 
thereof,  as  gravity,  &c.  The  heavenly  fpecics  being 
the  fuppofcd  r(gion  orrcddcnceof  amore  exalted  clafs 
of  beings,  the  medium  mud  be  more  exalted  in  pro- 
portion. Such  is  the  ancient  and  popular  idea  of  x- 
iher,  or  astherial  matter. 

The  term  ^:/kt  being  thus  embarrafTcd  with  a  va- 
riety of  ideas  and  arbitrarily  applied  to  lb  many  dif- 
ferent thin  2;'<,  the  liter  and  I'evcrerphilofopherschoofe 
10  let  ita!ide,and  in  lieu  tlicrcoff.ibllitute  other  more 
determinate  ones.  Thus,  the  C:irteriaus  ufe  the  term 
materia fublHit ;  which  is  their  aether:  and  Sir  Ifaac 
Newton,  fomciimes  afiit'.ile  fpirit,  as  in  the  clofe  of 
his  Pri'icifi'hi  ;  and  fometimes  ayi^///.'  or  iCthcrial  7ue- 
diuni,  as  in  his  Optics. 

The  truth  is,  there  are  abundance  of  con  fidcrations, 
which  feem  to  evince  the  cxirtcncc  of  fome  matter  in 
ihe  air,  much  tinerthan  the  air  itfelf.  There  isan  un- 
known fomcthing,  which  remains  behind  when  the  air 
is  taken  away  ;  as  appears  f'rom  certain  effcds  which 
we  fee  produced  in  iiacuo.  Heat,  Sir  Ifaac  Newton 
obferves,  communicated  through  a  vacuum  almott  as 
readily  as  through  air  :  but  fuch  communication  can- 
not be  without  fome  interjacent  body,  to  act  as  a  me- 
dium. And  fuch  body  may  be  fubtile  eno'igh  to  pe- 
nttratc  the  pores  of  ghfs  ;  and  may  be  very  well  con- 


( !  :>.t  J  to  permeate  thofc  of  all  other  bodic;,  and  con- 
:>:i;ii.;ly  l:e  uiiaifed  tlirough  all  the  parts  of  fpace 
wiiicfi  aufwcrs  to  the  full  cliaracter  of  an  sethcr.  Sec 
Heat. 

'J  he  cxiilcnccoffjch  an  xtlierial  medium  being  fet- 
tled, th.ar  author  proceeds  to  iis  properties  ;  infei  rinir 
it  to  Lc  Dot  only  rarer  and  more  liuid  lh:ui  air,  but  cx- 
ccfi^i'.igly  more  ilaftic  and  ailivc  :  in  virtue  of  which 
properties,  he  Ihows,  thatagrcat  pariof  thephcnome- 
;ia  of  nature  may  be  produced  by  it.  To  the  weight, 
e.g.  of  this  medium,  he  attributes  gravitation,  or  the 
weight  of  all  other  bodies;  anil  to  its  clallieity,  the 
el.iliic  force  of  the  air  and  of  nervous  fibres,  and  the 
cmiiiion,  refraction,  reflcilion,  and  other  phenomena 
of  light ;  as  alfo,  fcnfatinn,  mufcular  motion,  &c.  lii 
fine,  this  fame  matter  fecms  \.\\t  priintim  vttbile,  the 
liritfourcc  or  fpring  of  phylical  adion  in  the  raoderfi 
fydem. 

The  Cartelian  aether  is  fuppofednotonlytopcrvade, 
but  adequately  to  fill,  all  the  vacuities  of'^bodies  ;  and 
thus  to  make  an  abfolutc  plenum  in  the  univerfc. 

But  Sir  Ifaac  Newton  overturns  this  opinion,  from 
divers  conliderations  ;  by  Ihowing,  that  the  ctleflial 
("paces  are  void  of  all  fcnilble  rcfiilance  :  for,  hence  it 
follow  s,  that  the  matter  contained  therein  mull  be  im- 
mcnfcly  rare,  in  regard  the  re  lillanceof  bodies  is  chief- 
ly as  I  heir  dcniity  ;  fo  that  if  the  heavens  were  thus 
ailequatcly  filled  with  a  medium  or  matter,  how  fubiile 
focvcr,  tlu-y  would  refill  the  motion  of  the  planets  and 
comets  much  more  than  quicklllvcr  or  gold. 

The  late  difcoveriesin  electricity  have  thrown  great 
light  upon  this  fubjecf  ,and  rendered  it  extremely  pro- 
bable thai  the  irther  fo  often  talked  of  is  no  other  than 
the  tl'-iifric  fluid,  or  folar  light,  which  dillufes  itfelf 
throughout  the  whole  fyltcm  of  nature.  Sec  Elko- 
TRicJTV,  KiRE,  Heat,  Light,  &c. 

AETHER,  in  chcmiflry,  thelightefl,  mod  volatile, 
and  moll  inllanimable  of  all  liiiuids,  is  produced  by 
dillillation  of  acids  with  rciiticd  fpirit  i>f  wine.  See 
Chemistry  and  Pharmacy  (the  InJcxcs), 

itTHERIAL,  Etherius,  fomcthing  that  belongs 
to,  or  partakes  of",  the  nature  of  ^-ErH  er.     Thus  we 
'  fay,   the  atheriat fpace,  athcri.il  regions,  &c. 

Some  of  the  ancients  divided  the  univerfc,  with  rc- 
fpeit  to  the  mattcrcontaincd  thtrtin,  into  elementary 
and  asiherial. 

Under  the  .-Ethcrial  world  was  inchu'ed  all  that  fpace 
above  the  uppcnnnft  element,  \'n..  fire.  This  they 
fcippofcd  to  be  perfectly  horaogcneous,  incorruptible, 
unchangeable,  c;c.  Sec  CoRRuprioN.  ThcChaldccs 
placed  an  xtlierial  world  between  the  cmpyreum  and 
the  region  of  the  fixed  flars.  Bcfide  which,  they 
fonietimcs  alfofpeak  of  a  fecoud  a-tlierial  world,  mean- 
ing by  it  the  llarry  orb  ;  and  a  third  aelhcriai  world, 
by  which  is  meant  the  planc.ary  region. 
/ETHIOPIA.  See  J-.TKiuriA. 
j^TIilOPS,  Tn<.nrr,il,  Martmt,  and  Antimoiiial. 
See  Ph.'R-.iacy  {Judex). 

j^iTHUSA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  pentandrja 
digynia  clafs  ;  and,  in  i!ie  natural  method,  ranking 
under  the  45""  ortXcr, Uv/bcit.iij^  Tlie  chnrafters  are  : 
Thc«/>.^isan  onivcrfalnmbel  expanding, the  interior 
rays  fliortcr  by  degrees  ;  with  a  partijl  umbel,  fmall, 
and  expanding.  There  is  no  anivcrfalinvoluerum  ; 
the  partial  one  is  dimidiated,  with  three  or  five  leaf- 
lets. 


A  E  T 


[     217     ] 


JE  r  u 


Aeti»n3  lots,  and  pendulous;  the  proper  pcrianthiuin  fcarccly 
II  difccrniblt.  Tne  uiiivcri'al  orolla  is  uniform,  vvilii 
Actiiis.  fertile  florets  ;  tlie  partial  one  has  five  hc.irt-initcitcd 
'~~^  unequal  petals.  'Ihc  Jiar/iiua  conlillof  live  limplc  fila- 
ments, with  roinulilh  aiithcr.x.  \\\t[>i]liUum\%  ager- 
men  btnta:h  ;  with  two  rcftcdeJ  Ayli ;  the  (ligmata 
obtiifc.  There  is  wo  pi riuirp'vi fn;  the  fruit  is  ovate, 
ftriated,  and  tripartite.  The  feeds  are  two,  rounJiili 
and  ftriated.  There  is  bat  one  fpccies,  viz.  the  aetbufa 
fynapiam,  fools-parlley,  orleil'cr  hemlock  (a  native  of 
Britain),whi'.h grows  in  corn-fields  and  gardens.  This 
plant,  from  its  rclcmblance  to  common,  parlley,  hath 
foractimcs  been  miilaken  for  it ;  and  when  eaten,  it  oc- 
cadons  licknel's.  If  the  curled-leaved  parlley  only  was 
cultivated  in  our  gardens,  no  fuch  miftakes  would  hap- 
pen in  future.  Cows,  horfcs,  (hccp,  goats,  and  fwine, 
cat  it.     It  is  noxious  to  g'-cfe. 

AETIANS,  in  church-hiftory,  a  branch  of  Arians 
whom.iintained,  that  the  Son  and  Holy  Ghoftare  in 
all  things  diflimilar  to  the  Father.     SeeAETius. 

j^TlOLOGY,  is  that  part  of  Pathology  which  is 
employed  in  exploring  tlm  caufes  of  difeafes. 

AETION,  a  celebrated  painter,  who  has  left  us  an 
excellent  picture  of  Roxana  and  Alexander,  which  he 
exhibited  at  the  Olympic  Games  :  it  reprefents  a  mag- 
nificent chamber,  where  Roxana  is  fitting  on  a  bed  of 
a  moft  fplcndid  appearance,  which  is  rendered  ftill 
more  brilliant  by  her  beauty.  She  looks  downwards, 
in  a  kind  of  couiulion,  being  ftruck  with  the  prefencc 
of  Alexander  ftanding  before  her.  A  number  of  little 
Cupids  flutter  about,  fome  holding  up  the  curtain,  as 
if  to  (how  Roxana  to  the  prince,  whillt  others  are 
bufied  in  undrefling  the  lady  ;  fome  pull  Alexander  by 
rhc  cloak,  who  appears  like  a  young  balhful  bride- 
groom, and  prefeut  him  to  his  miftrcfs  ;  he  lays  his 
crown  at  her  feet,  being  accompanied  by  Epheftion, 
who  holds  a  torch  in  his  hand,  and  leans  upon  a  youth, 
who  reprefents  Hymen.  Several  other  little  Cupids 
are  reprefented  playing  with  his  arms  ;  fome  carry  his 
lance,  (looping  under  fo  heavy  a  weight ;  others  bear 
along  his  buckler,  upon  which  one  of  them  is  fcated, 
\vhom  the  red  carry  in  triumph  ;  another  lies  in  am- 
bulh  in  his  armour,  waitingto  frighten  the  reft  as  they 
pafs  by.  This  picture  gained  Action  fo  much  repu- 
tation, that  the  prclidcut  of  the  games  gave  him  his 
daughter  in  marriage. 

./ETITES,  or  Eagi-e-stone,  in  natural  hiftory,  a 
flinty  or  cruftatcd  Uone,  hollow  within,  and  contain- 
ing a  nucleus,  wlj^ich,  on  fliaking,  rattles  within.  It 
was  formerly  in  repute  for  fcveral  extraordinary  magi- 
cal as  well  as  medical  powers  ;  Inch  as  preventing  abor- 
tion, difcovering  thieves,  andother  ridiculouspropcr- 
ties.  The  word  is  formed  from  «it©„,  "  eagle  ;"  tlic 
popular  tradition  being,  that  it  is  found  in  the  eagle's 
iieft,  whether  it  is  fuppofed  to  be  carried  while  the  fe- 
male fits,  to  prevent  her  eggs  from  being  rotten.  It 
is  found  in  fevcral  parts:  near  Trevouxiu  France, one 
canfcarce  diga  lev/  feet,  without  finding  a  confidera- 
ble  ftrata  or  beds  of  the  coarfer  or  ferruginous  kind. 
Tlicy  are  originally  foft,  and  of  the  colour  of  yellow 
ochre.  But  the  finell  and  mofl  valued  of  all  the  cagle- 
ftones,  arc  accidental  (lutes  of  one  or  other  of  our 
common  pebbles. 

AETIUS,  one  of  the  moft  zealous  defenders  of 
Arianifm,  was  born  in  Syria,  and  flourillied  about  the 
year  :;^6.  After  being  fervant  to  a  grammarian,  of 
Vol.  I. 


whom  lie  learned  grammar  and  logic,  he  '.vas  ordained    Aetjtai, 
deacon,  and  at  length  bilhop,    by   EuJoxus  patriarch     il^tm- 
of  Conftantinoplc.  St  Ej  iphannis  has  prcferved  47  of         ' 
his  propofitions  againft  the  Trinity.     His  followers 
were  called  Aetians. 

Aetil's,  a  famous  phyfician,  born  at  Atnida  in  Mc- 
fopotamia,  and  the  author  of  a  work  intiilcd  Tetrabi- 
blos,  which  is  a  colledlion  from  the  writings  of  thofc 
phyficians  who  went  bel'orc  him.  He  .lived,  accor- 
ding to  Dr  Friend,  at  the  end  of  the  jth  or  tlic  begin- 
ning of  the  6th  century. 

Aetius,  governor  of  Gallia  Narbonenfis  in  the 
reign  of  Valentinian  III.  forced  tlie  Franks  who  were 
palling  into  Gaul  to  rcpafs  the  Rhine.  He  defeated 
the  Goths  ;  and  routed  Attila  king  of  the  Huns,  who 
invaded  Gaul  with  an  army  of  700,000  men.  But  the 
emperor,  jealous  of  the  merit  of  this  great  man,  kill- 
ed him  in  454  with  his  owa  hand,  under  the  pretence 
that  he  had  permitted  the  invafiou  of  the  Huns,  after 
Attila's  defeat. 

A'TNA,  (in  the  Itineraries  JEthna,  fuppofcd  from 
«i9a(,  "  to  burn  ;"  according  to  Bochart,  from  Atk:ii:a, 
a  furnace,  or  JEtuna,  darkncfs),  now  MonteCibclli :  a 
volcano  or  burning  mountain  of  Sicily,  (ituated  in 
lat.  38°.  N.  long.  15a.  E. 

This  mountain,  famous  from  the  remoteft  antiquity, 
both  for  its  bulk  and  terrible  eruptions,  ftanJs  in  the 
eaftern  part  of  thcilland,  in  a  very  extenlive  plain, 
called  Val  Detiioni,  from  the  notion  of  its  being  inha- 
bited by  devils,  who  torment  the  fpirits  of  the  damn- 
ed in  the  bowels  of  this  volcano. 

Concerning  the  dimenlions  of  mount /Etna,  we  can  Inconfift- 
fcarce  extrat^t  any  thing  confillent,  even  from  the  ac-  «"'  *'• 
counts  of  the  latell  and  moft  ingenious  travellers.  Pin-  """"'o"- 
dar,  who  lived  about  43  j  years  before  Chrift,  calls  it  ^j!!'n"ifud/ 
the  Pillar  of  heaven,  on  account  of  its  great  height,  gf  ^{na. 
All  modern  writers likewifc  agree,  that  this  mountain 
is  very  high,  and  very  large;  but  differ  excclFively  both 
as  to  its  height  and  magnitude  :  fome  making  it  no  lefs 
than  twelve  miles  high,  others  eight,  others  fix, fome 
four,  while  Mr  Brydone,  and  Sir  VNilliam  Hamilton, 
who  lately  afcended  to  its  higheft  fummit,  reduce  its 
height  to  little  more  than  two  miles  ;   nay,  by  fome  it 
is  reduced  to  10,036  feet,  fomewhjit  Icfs    than    two 
miles.  Nolefs  remarkable  are  the  differences  concern- 
ing its  circumference  :  fome  making  it  only  60  miles 
round,  others  100;  andSigniorRecupero,  from  whom 
Mr  Brydone  had  his  information  in  this  rcfpcifl,  affirms 
it  to  be  no  Icfs  than  183  miles  in  circuit. 

Wc  arc  forry  to  detrart  from  the  merit  oi  Mr  Bry- 
done, or  to  involve  in  obfcurity  what  he  hath  been  at 
fo  much  pains  to  elucidate  ;  but  every  perfon  who  com- 
pares the  account  of  mount  jttna's  circumfcre.iicc,  gi- 
ven by  Signior  Recupero,  and  to  which  Mr  Brydone 
fecms to  have  alFented,  with  its  apparentcircumfcrence 
on  the  map  prefixed  to  that  pcntleman's  tour  through 
Sicily  and  Malta,  mull  at  once  be  Jlruck  with  the  pro- 
digious difparity.  Indeed,  it  is  plain,  that,  in  the  J'.iap, 
the  geographer  hath  not  left  room  for  any  fuch  moun- 
tain  ;  nor  can  we  help  thinking,  that,  by  comparing 
the  diftanccs  of  fome  of  the  Sicilian  towns  from  one  a- 
nother,  Signior  Recupcro's  dimenlions  will  be  found 

cnormoully  exaggerated Certain  it  is,  riiat  there  the 

geographer  hath  placed  Cat;cnia,  which  ftands  at  the 

foot  of  mount  yt^tna,   c-h  one  fide,  no  more  than  28 

miles  from  the  moft  dillant  point  of  the  river  Alcan- 

E  e  tara, 


Jl^tnft. 


JE  T  N  [     ai 

tara,  which  forms  the  bouiulary  on  the  oppofitc  fide  ; 

""— ^-^ fo  that  a  cirtk,  whofc  radius  is  14  or  15  miles,  mull 

ciicoir,;>afs  as  much  fpacc  aswc  can  pollibly  think  isoc- 
cupicil  by  the  bafis  oi"Mo\iiu  Atna.  Thus  we  will  re- 
duce the  circumftrcnce  of  this  famous  mountain  to  be- 
tween 80  and  90  miles  ;  and  even  when  we  do  fo,  it 
mull  Hill  be  acknowledged  tube  very  great. 

But  if  we  arc  embarralled  with  the  circumference 
of  A.tna,  we  arc  much  more  fo  with  the  accounts  rela- 
ting to  its  height ;  and  one  circumftancc,  particular- 
ly, creates  alinoll  inlurmountablc  difliculties.  It  is  a- 
greed  upon  by  all  travellers,  and  among  the  rcll;  by  Sir 
William  Hamilton,  that  from  Catania,  where  the  af- 
ccnt  firll  begins,  to  the  fummit,  is  no  lefs  than  30 
miles.  The  dcfctnt  on  the  other  fide  we  have  no  ac- 
count of;  but,  whatever  fvippolition  we  make,  the 
height  of  tlie  mountain  nuift  be  prodigious.  If  we  fup- 
pofc  it  likewifc  to  be  30  miles,  and  that  mount  ^Etna 
can  be  rcprefented  by  an  equilateral  triangle,  each  of 
whofe  lidcs  is  50  miles,  we  will  have  an  amazing  ele- 
vation indeed,  no  lefs  than  26  miles  perpendicular  ! — 
Such  a  height  being  beyond  all  credibility,  we  mull 
contrad  the  lldes  of  our  triangle,  in  proportion  to  its 
balls.  \Vc  iliall  begin  with  allowing  10  miles  for  the 
difference  between  a  llraight  line  from  Catania  to  the 
fummit,  and  the  length  of  the  road,  occalioned  by  the 
inequalities  of  the  mountain  ;  and  fuppoling  the  de- 
fceiit  on  the  other  fide  to  be  Ibmewhat  Ihoner,  we  may 
call  it  1  J  miles.  Mount  A^tna  will  now  be  rcprefented 
by  a  fcalene  triangle,  whofe  bafcis  30  miles,  its  long- 
clt  lidc  20,  and  its  lliortcfl  15  ;  from  which  propor- 
tions we  will  llill  lind  its  height  to  be  betwixt  eight 
Diinoifion*  i"J  nine  miles. — This  is  flill  incredible  ;  and  when 
miicrrtain.  all  the  various  relations  concerning  the  height  of  JEl- 
na  are  compared,  we  hope  it  will  not  be  thought  pre- 
fumptuousin  us  to  give  it  as  our  opinion,  that  the  true 
dimenlionsof  this  mountain  are  as  yet  unknown.  The 
following  mcafuresare  given  by  different  authors  : 

Height  above  the  furface  of  the  fca,  10,036  feet. 

One  linndred  and  eighty  miles  circumference  at  the 
bale. — I'.Tujas  de  S.  Kon  in  his  Volcans  du  Vivarais. 

Hciglit  12,000  feet. —  lirydonc.  Tour  to  Sicily. 

Height  2500  toifes. — La  PlatriOre,  faid  as  from 
R<cupcio. 

Height  1950  toifes — Diameter  30  miles. — Men- 
lelle  Geogr.  conip. 

Others  make  its  height  only  2000  toifes,  and  its 
fu)itrljc;s  300  fquare  miles. 

Concerning  the  products  and  general  appearance  of 
this  volcano,  authors  arc  much  better  agreed-. — 1  he 
journey  from  Catania  to  its  fummit  has  been  lately 
dcfcribcd  by  three  travellers,  M.  D'Orville,  MrBry- 
done,  and  Sir  William  Hamilton.  All  thefc  agree, 
that  this  fingle  mountain  affords  an  epitome  of  tlie  dif- 
ferent climates  throughout  the  whole  world  :  towards 
thcfoot,  it  is  vci-y  hot ;  farther  up,  more  temperate  ; 
and  grows  gradually  niore  and  more  cold  the  higher  we 
afcend.  At  the  very  top,  it  is  perpctuiUy  covered  with 
inow  :  fromthence  the  whole  illandisfuppliedwith  '.hat 
article,  fonecelfaryinahot  climate,  and  without  which 
the  natives  [ay  Si-ily  could  not  be  inhabited.  So  great 
is  the  demand  for  this  commodity,  that  thebilliop's  re- 
venues, which  arc  confidcrable,  arife  from  the  falcof 
mount  /Etna's  fnow  -,  and  he  is  faid  to  draw  1000/.  a- 
ytar  from  one  fnull  portion  lying  on  the  north  fide  of  the 
laountaiii.    Great  quauiitics  of  fnow  and  ice  arc  like- 


8     ] 


J£.  T  N 


Central  an- 

pcaraiict, 

&c. 


wile  exported  to  Malta  and  Italy,  nuking  a  confiderablc  ^tni. 
branch  ol  comnurtc.  On  the  north liuC  of  thisfnowy  *— v— ' 
rigicm,  MrBryduiic  was alTurcd,  thai  there  are  fcveral 
Imall  lakes  which  never  thaw;  and  that  the  fnow  mixed 
with  the  allies  and  fait  of  tlie  mountain  are  accumulated 
to  a  vail  depth.  1  he  quantity  of  falts  contained  in  this 
mountain,  he,  with  great  probability,  conjectures  to  be 
one  reafonofthe  prefervation  of  itslnows  ;  for  fakin- 
creafesthe  coldncfsof  fnuw  to  a  furprilingdcgree*.  '  See  Cold, 
In  the  middle  of  the  fnowy  regions  flaudsihe  great  anJCc^*- 
f/v7/f/-,  or  mouth  of  yKtna  ;  from  which,  though  con-  """• 
trary  to  the  ufual  meihod  of  travellers,  we  Ihall  begin 
our  particular  account  of  this  mountain.  Sir  William 
Hamilton  defcribes  the  crater  as  a  little  mountain  a- 
bout  a  quarter  of  a  mile  ]>erpendicular,  and  very  lleep, 
fitnated  in  the  middle  of  a  gently  inclining  plain,  of  Crater  de- 
about  nine  railesin  circumference.  Itis  entirely  formed  fcrU)cJ. 
of  Hones  and  allies  ;  and,  as  Mr  Hamilton  was  infor- 
med by  fcveral  people  of  Catania,  had  been  thrown 
up  about  2  J  or  joyearsbdore  the  time  (i  769)  he  vilit- 
ed  mount  /ttna.  Before  this  mountain  was  thrown 
up,  there  was  only  a  prodigious  large  chafm,orgulph, 
in  the  middle  of  the  abovementioned  plain  ;  and  it 
has  been  remarked,  that  about  once  in  100  years  the 
top  of  yEtna  falls  in  ;  which  undoubtedly  mull  be  the 
cafe  at  certain  periods,  or  the  mountain  behoved  con- 
tinually toincreafc  in  height.  As  this  little  mountain, 
though  emitting  fmokc  from  every  pore,  appeared  fo- 
lid  and  firm,  Mr  Hamilton  and  his  companions  went 
up  to  the  very  top.  In  the  middle  is  a  hollow,  about  two 
miles  and  a  half  in  circumference,  according  to  Mr 
Hamilton  ;  three  miles  and  a  half,  according  to  Mr 
Brydone  ;  and  three  or  four,  according  to  Mr  D'Or- 
ville. Theinlide  is  crufled  over  with  falts  and  fulphur 
of  different  colours.  It  goes  (helving  down,  from  the 
top,  like  an  inverted  cone;  the  depth,  in  Mr  Hamil- 
ton's opinion,  nearly  correfponding  to  the  height  of 
the  litilc  mountain.  From  many  places  of  this  fpace 
ilfue  volumes  of  fulphureous  fmokc,  whicli  being  much 
heavier  than  the  circumambient  air,  inftead  ofalcend- 
ing  in  it,  roll  down  the  fide  of  the  mountain,  till,  co- 
mingtoamore  dcnfe  atmofphcre,  it  Ihoots  off  horizon- 
tally, and  forms  a  large  trait  in  the  air,  according  to 
tlie  direction  of  thcwind  ;  whicli,  happily  for  our  tra- 
vellers, carried  it  cxaclly  to  the  lidc  oppofite  to  which 
they  wcreplaced.  In  the  middle  of  this  funnel  is  the 
trenicnduous  and  unfathomable  gulph,  fo  much  cele- 
brated in  all  ages,  both  as  the  terror  of  this  life,  and 
the  place  of  pnnilhment  in  the  next.  From  this  gulph 
continually  ill'ue  terrible  and  confuted  noifcs,  which  in 
eruptions  are  increafed  to  fuch  a  degree  as  to  be  heard 
at  a  prodigious  dilhince.  Its  diameter  is  probably  very 
different  at  different  times:  for  Mr  Hamilton  obfcr- 
vcd,  by  the  w'ind  clearing  away  the  fmokefrom  time 
to  time,  that  the  inverted  hoUov.'  cone  was  contracted, 
almofl  to  a  point  ;  while  Mr  D'Orville  and  Mr  Bry- 
done found  the  opening  very  large.  Both  Mr  Bry- 
done and  Mr  Hamilton  found  the  crater  too  hot  to 
defccnd  into  it  ;  but  Mr  D'Orville  was  bolder  :  and 
accordingly  he  and  his  fellow-traveller,  faflened  to 
ropes  which  two  or  three  nscn  held  at  a  dillanee  for 
fear  of  accidents,  defccnded  as  near  as  poluble  to  the 
brink  of  the  gulph  ;  but  tiic  fmall  flimes  and  fmoke 
which  ilfued  fro-,n  it  on  every  lii-e,  and  a  greeiiifli  ful- 
phur, and  puniice-lloiies,  quite  black,  which  covered 
the  margin,  would  uot  pciniit  ihciix  to  co;nc  fo  near 

as 


i?I  T  N 


r  219  ] 


y£  TN 


jEtna.     as  to  liave  a  full  .view.     They  only  faw  dlftinaiy  ia 

^-— V the  niiJJlc,  a  inafs  of  matter  u  hicli  fofc,  in  the  Ih.ipc 

of  a  cone,  to  the  heijjht  of  about  60  feet,  and  which 
towards  the  bafc,as  faras  their  light  could  reach, tni(;ht 
be  600  or  800.  While  they  were  obf^rving  this  fub- 
ftancc,  fome  motion  whs  perceived  on  the  north  fide, 
oppofite  to  that  whereon  tlicy  Hood  ;  and  immediately 
the  mountain  began  to  fend  forth  fmoke  and  allies. 
This  eruption  was  preceded  b/  a  fcniible  iucreafc  of 
its  internal  roarings  ;  which,  however,  did  not  conti- 
nue ;  but  after  a  moment's  dilatation,  as  if  10  give  it 
vent,  the  volcano  rcfunied  its  former  tranquillity  ;  but 
as  it  was  by  no  means  proper  to  make  a  longer  Hay  in 
fuch  a  place,  our  travellers  immediately  returned  to 
their  attendants. 

On  the  iummit  of  mount  ^■Etna,  Mr  Hamilton  ob- 
fcrves,  that  he  was  fcniible  of  adilliculty  in  refpiration 
from  the  too  great  fub;ility  of  the  air,  independent  of 
what  arofe  from  the  fulphureous  fmoke  of  the  moun- 
tain. Mr  Crydonc  takes  no  notice  of  this,  which  pro- 
bably arofe  from  the  air  being  in  a  more  rarelied  (late 
at  the  time  of  Mr  Hamilton's  obfcrvations  than  of  Mr 
Brydone's  ;  the  barometer,  asobfcrved  by  the  former, 
Handing  at  i3  inches  and  10  lines,  by  the  latter  at  19 
inches  6;  lines. 

In  thcie  hii^h  regions  there  is  generally  a  very  vio- 
lent wind,  wiiich,  as  all  our  travellers  found  it  con- 
(lantly  blowing  from  the  fouth,  may  polfibly  be  com- 
monly direfted  from  that  point.     Here  Mr  Brydone's 
thermometer  fell  to  27°. 
,  ,     .      ,      The  top  of  A^tua  beiuE  above  the  common  region 
the  ftars      of  vapours,  the  heavens  appear  with  excce<ling  great 
feen  from    fp'endor. — Mr  Brydonc  and  his  company  obfcrved,  as 
the  top  of    they  afcended  in  the  night,  that  the  number  of  liars 


£tna. 


Extcnfive 
profpcdt. 


fcemed  tobeintinitely  increafed,  and  the  light  of  ea-h 
of  them  appeared  brighter  thanufual;  the  whitenefs  of 
the  milky-way  was  like  a  pure  dame  which  lliot  acrofs 
the  heavens  ;  and,  with  the  naked  eye,  they  could  ob- 
fcrveclufters  of  ftars  that  were  invillble  from  below. 
Had  Jupiter  been  villblc,  he  is  of  opinion  that  fome  of 
his  fatellites  miglit  have  been  ilifcovcrcd  with  the  na- 
ked eye,  or  at  lead  with  a  very  fniall  pocket-glafs. 
He  likewife  took  notice  of  fcverul  of  thofe  meteors 
caXlcA  falling  ft  an  ;  which  appeared  a?  much  elevated 
as  when  viewed  from  the  plain  :  a  proof,  according 
to  Mr  Brvdone,  that  "  th'  fe  bodies  move  in  regions 
"  much  beyond  the  bounds  that  fome  philofophcrs 
"  have  aHigncd  to  our  atmofphcre." 

To  have  a  full  and  clear  profpetT;  from  the  fummit 
of  mount  /Ltna,  it  isneccll'iry  to  be  there  before  fun- 
rife  ;  as  the  vapours  railed  by  the  fun,  in  the  day-time, 
will  obfcurc every  obj ed  :  accordingly,  our  travellers 
took  care  to  arrive  tliere  early  enough  ;  and  all  agree, 
that  the  beauty  of  the  profpecl  from  thence  cannot  be 
cxprclFcd. —  Nerc  MrHrydone  and  Mr  Hamilton  had  a 
view  of  Calabria  in  Italy,  with  the  fea  beyond  it  ;  the 
Lipari  i  lands,  and  Stromboli  a  volcano  at  about  70 
Biiles  diftance,  appeared  jiill  under  tlieir  feet;  tlic 
whole  illandof  Si:ily,  with  its  rivers, towns,  harbours, 
Reappeared  Jiftin:^,  as  if  fccnonamap.  Ma;ra,a  Sici- 
lian author,  aflirms,  that  the  Afri -an  coaft,  as  well  as 
that  of  Naples,  with  m  iny  of  itsiilands  have  been  dif- 
covcred  from  the  top  of  iiCtna.  The  viable  hori/.on 
here  is  nut  Icfs  t'.ian  8  or  9C0 miles  in  diameter.  The 
pyramidal  (hadow  of  the  mountain  reaches  acrofs  the 


whole  illand,  and  far  into  the  fea  on  the  other  fi?c,  JF\At 
forming  a  vilible  tract  in  the  air,  which,  as  the  fun  '  ^'— ' 
rifcs  above  the  hori/.on,  is  ihortened,  and  at  hfl  con- 
fined to  the  ncighbourhoodof /Etna.  The  luoft  beautiful 
part  of  the  fccne,  however,  in  Mr  Brydone's  opinion, 
is  the  mountain  ilfelf,  the  illand  of  Sicily,  and  the  mi- 
mcrous  illands  lying  round  it.  Thefc  lall  fcem  to  be 
clofe  to  the  (kirts  of  A^iua  ;  the  diltanccs  appearing 
reduced  to  nothing. 

This  mountain  is  divided  into  three  zones,  which  Divifionio- 
might  properly  enough  be  difiinguiihcd  by  the  names '"'"  •'"■'•^ 
oi  torrid,  temperali,  and  frigid:  they  arc,  however,  ^'"'"" 
known  by  the  names  of  the  I'lcdmontefijOX  Ri-^iim  ail- 
ta,  the  cultivated  or  fertile  region  ;  the  S//:"j/^, woody, 
or  temperate  zone  ;  and  the  Kc^ii>ni  deftrta,  the  frigid, 
or  dcftrt  zoiK, or  region.  All  thcfe are  plainly  diltin- 
guilhed  from  the  iiinimit.The  Ri:g!(:iic dt:fertu\i\\\Ax)f.-  Rrpoti* 
edoutby  a  circle  of  fnow  and  ice,  which  extends  on  all  drferta- 
fides  to  the  diftance  of  about  eight  miles,  beginning  at 
the  foot  of  the  crater.  Greateft  part  of  this  region  is 
fmooth  and  even.  This  is  immediately  fucceedcd  by 
the  Syhofa,  orwoody  region  ;  which  forms  a  circle  of 
the  moftbeautiful  green,  furroundingthe  inountaiaon 
all  fides.  This  region  is  variegated  with  a  vaft  number 
of  mountains  of  a  conical  form,  throv,-n  up  by  .t^tiia  in 
thofc  eruptions  which  burft  out  from  its  lides.  Mr  Ha- 
milton counted  44  on  the  Catania  lide,  each  having  its 
crater,  many  with  large  trees  riouriftiing  both  within 
and  without  the  craters.  All  thefe  exceptafewof  late 
date, have  acquired  a  wonderful  degrccof  fertility. The 
circumference  of  this  zone,  or  great  circle,  according 
toRecupero,  is  not  lefs  than  70 or  80  miles.  It  is  every- 
where fucceeded  by  the  Repiom  ciilta:  which  is  mucii 
broader  than  the  reft,  and  extends  on  all  fides  to  llic 
foot  of  the  mountain.  Here  terrible  dcvaftations  arc 
fometimcs  committed  by  the  eruptions  ;  and  the  whole 
region  is  likewile  full  of  conical  mountains  thrown  up 
by  them.  The  circumference  of  this  region,  is,  by  Rc- 
cupcro,  reckoned  183  miles  ;  but  we  have  already  gi- 
ven our  reafons  for  rejecting  thefc  dimenfions This 

region  is  bounded  by  the  fea  to  the  foalh  and  fouth- 
eaft  ;  and  on  all  other  fides,  by  the  river  Sciuctus  and 
Alcantara,  which  form  the  boundaries  of  mount  /Kina. 

About  a  mile  below  the  foot  of  the  great  crater,  arc  U  Torre  del 
found  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  ftrui5ture,  called  ll  Torre  Fiiofofu. 
del  Filof'fo,  by  fome  fippofed  to  have  been  built  by  the 
philofopher  Empcdocles,  who  took  up  his  habitation 
here,  the  better  to  ftudy  the  nature  of  mount  .'I'^tna. 
By  others  they  are  fuppofed  to  be  r,iin«of  a  temple  of 
Vulcan.  They  areof  brick,  and  fecm  tohave  been  or- 
namented with  marble.  Somewhere  in  this  region  alfo, 
Mr  D'Orvillc  found  a  great  oblong  block  of  polifticj 
marble,  eight  or  ten  feet  high,  and  three  or  four  thick  ; 
though  how  it  came  there  was  quite  unaccountable  to 
him.  Kroni  Mr  D'Orville'sand  .Mr  Brydone'saccounts 
we  mufl  reckon  thispart  of  the  mountain  pretty  ftccp: 
but  Mrllamilion  fiys,  that  the  afcent  was  fo  gradual, 
as  not  lobe  in  the  Icall  fatiguing  ;  and  had  it  not  been 
for  the  fnows,  they  might  have  rode  on  their  mules  to 
the  very  foit  of  the  crater. 

The  woody  region  dcfcends  eight  or  n"ne  miles  be-  Rcgione 
low  the  Rtrgidtif  ihfurta,  but  differs  greatly  in  the  teni-  sjlvofi. 
perature  ofthe  climaie.     Mr  Hamilton  obfcrved  a  gra- 
dual decrcafc  ofthe  vegetation  as  he  advanced  ;  the 
under  part  being  covered  with  large  timber  trees,  which 
Ee  a  firc'.T 


M  T  N 


[      220      ] 


M  T  -N 


^tna.     grew  graJually  Icfs  as  he  approached  the  t'liril  region, 

■* • '  at  l.ilt  they  Jegciieratcd  iiiio  tlic  I'mall  plants  ot  the 

northern  climates.  He  airooblervcd  qiiantititsof  ju- 
niper and  tanfey  ;  and  was  informed  by  his  guide,  that 
later  in  the  real'on(hc  vilited/ttnain  June  i  769)therc 
arc  a  great  many  curious  plants,  and  in  lomc  places 
rhubarb  and  fatt'ron  in  great  plenty.  In  Carrcra's  hi- 
llory  of  Catania,  there  is  a  lill  of  all  the  plants  and 
herbs  of /Etna,  in  alpliabetical  order. 

Tliis  region  is  extolled  by  Mr.  Brydone  as  one  of  the 
moll  dclighful  fpots  on  earth.  He  lodged  for  a  nigiit 
in  a  large  cave  near  the  middle,  formed  by  one  of  the 
uioll  ancient  lavas.  It  is  called  La  Spi:h?icadet  Capri- 
ole, or  the  goats  cavern  ;  becaufe  it  is  frequented  by 
thofc  animals,  which  take  refuge  there  in  bad  weather. 
Here  his  rcfl  was  difturbed  by  a  mountain  thrown  up 
in  the  eruption  i  766.  It  difcharged  great  quantities 
of  fnioke,  and  made  feveral  explolions  like  heavy  can- 
non fired  at  a  dillance  ;  but  they  could  obfcrve  no  ap- 
pearance of  fire. 

This  gentleman  likcwifc  vifitcd  the  eaftcrn  fide  of 
\\cReghni  fylvofa,  intending  to  have  afcended  that  way 
to  the  fummit,  and  dcfcended  again  on  the  fouth  fide 
to  Catania  ;  but  found  it  impracticable;  though  what 
the  infurmountable  diihcullics  were,  hedoesnotmen- 
JEniptionof  ^-^^^^  qj^  ^j^j^  jiJ^.^  ^^^^^  ^f  ^^  woody  region  was  dc- 
bmling\va-  j^^y^^j^  j„  j  ^^j^  (jy  3,,  immcnfc  torrent  ot  boiling  wa- 
ter which  iirucd  from  the  great  crater.  Its  traces  were 
flill  very  vifible,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  broad,  and 
in  fome  places  more.  The  foil  was  then  only  begin- 
ning 10  recover  its  vegetative  power,  which  it  fecnis  this 
torrent  had  dcfiroyed  for  1 4years — Near  this  place  are 
I'omc  beautiful  woods  of  cork,  and  evergreen  oak,grow- 
ing  abfolutcly  out  of  the  lava,  the  foil  having  hardly 
filled  the  crevices,  and  not  far  off  our  traveller  obfer- 
ved  7  little  mountains  that  feemed  10  have  been  form- 
ed by  a  late  eruption.  Kach  of  thcfe  had  a  regular  cup, 
or  crater,  on  the  top  ;  and,  in  fome,  the  middle  gulph, 
ox  Voragtua,^%\.\\K.  Sicilians  call  it,  was  flill  open. 
Into  thcfe  gulphs  Mr  Brydone  tumbled  down  floucs, 
and  heard  the  noifc  for  a  long  time  after.  All  the 
fields  round,  to  a  conliJcrable  dillance,  were  covered 
with  large  burnt  floncs  difcharged  from  thcfe  little 
volcanoes. 

The  woody  region,  efpecially  the  eafl  fide,  called 
Ca;-;'/«..-.'/(i,  abounds  with  very  large  chcfnut-trecs;  the 
moilremarkableof  which  hasbcen  called, from  itsfize, 
Cajhgnndi  Coilo  Cavalli,  or  chcfnut-trcc  of  .in  hun- 
dred liorfe.  M.  Brydone  was  greatly  difappointcd  at 
the  light  of  this  tree,  as  it  is  only  a  bulli  of  five  large 
ones  growing  together :  but  hisguides  aluired  him, that 
all  thcfe  five  were  once  united  into  one  Hem  ;  andSig- 
nior  Recupero  told  him,  that  he  himfclf  had  been  at 
the  cxpencc  of  carrying  up  peafants  with  tools  to  dig 
round  thisbulh  of  trees,  and  found  all  the  ilems  united 
below  ground  in  one  root.  The  circumference,  asmea- 
fured  byMelfrs  Brydone  and  Glover,  who  accompanied 
him,  amounted  to  204  feet.  Another  of  thefe,  about  a 
Biileand  a  halfliighcron  the  mountain, is  called /7<»^<?f- 
iia  dilCat:a  :  it  rifes  from  onefolid  Hem  to  a  conlide- 
rable  height ;  after  which  it  branches  out,and  is  a  much 
6ncr  object  than  the  other  :  this  was  meafured  two  feet 
above  the  ground,  and  found  to  be  76  feet  in  circum- 
ference. A  third,  called  Caflngrta  del  Nave,  is  pretty 
nearly  of  the  fame  fize  ;  and  Maffa,  one  of  the  moll 


Over- 
grown* 
chirnut'- 
trees. 


cilccmcd  Sicilian  authors,  afiirms  that  hchas  feen  folid 
oaks  there  upwards  of  40  leet  round.  All  tlielegrow 
on  a  thick  rich  foil,  which  fccms  origin.:lly  to  have 
been  formed  of  alhes  thrown  out  by  the  u.ountain. 
Here  the  barometer  flood  at  26  inches  5  lines  and  an 
half,  indicating  an  elevation  of  near  4CC0  feet. 

The  Piedmontcfediflricl  is  covered  with  towns,  vil- 
lages, monalleries,  &c.  and  is  well  peopled,  notwith- 
flanding  the  danger  of  fuch  a  fituation  :  but  the  ferti- 
lity of  the  foil  tempts  people  to  inhabit  that  country  ; 
and  their  fupcrflitious  confidence  in  their  faints,  with 
the  propenfity  mankind  have  to  defpifc  danger  which 
they  do  not  ice,  render  them  as  fecurc  there  as  in  any 
otherplace.  Here,SirW  illiam  Hamilton  obferves,thcy 
keep  their  vines  low,  contrary  to  the  cuflom  of  thofc 
who  inhabit  mount  Vefuvius  ;  and  they  produces 
flrongcr  wine,  but  not  in  fuch  abundance  :  here  alio 
many  terrible  eruptions  have  burfl  forth  ;  particularly 
one  in  1669.  At  the  foot  of  the  mountain  railed  by 
that  eruption,  is  a  hole,  through  which  Sir  William 
Hamilton  dcfcended,  by  means  of  a  rope,  into  feveral 
fubterrancous  caverns,  branching  out  and  extending 
much  farther  than  he  chofe  to  venture,  the  cold  there 
being  exccllive,  and  a  violent  wind  extinguifhing  fome 
of  the  torches.  Many  othercaverns  are  known  in  this 
and  the  other  regions  of  ittna;  particularly  one  near 
this  place  called  La  Spehuca  delta  I'alomba,  (from  the 
wild  pidgcons  building  their  nefls  there.)  Here  Mr 
Brydone  was  told  that  fome  people  had  lofl  their  fenfes, 
from  having  advanced  too  far,  imagining  they  faw  de- 
vils and  damned  fpirits. — Some  of  thefe  caverns  are 
made  ufe  of  as  magazines  for  fnow  ;  which  they  arc 
well  adapted  for,  on  account  of  their  extreme  cold. 
Thefe  arc  with  great  probability  fuppofed  by  Sir  Wil- 
liam Hamilton  to  be  the  hollows  made  by  the  iffuing 
of  the  lava  in  eruptions. 

In  this  region  the  river  /^c'n,  fo  much  celebrated  by 
the  poets,  in  the  fable  of  Acis  and  Galatea,  takes  its 
rife.  It  burfls  out  of  the  earth  at  once  in  a  large  flream, 
nms  with  great  rapidity,  and  about  a  mile  from  its 
fource  throws  itfelf  into  ilie  fca.  Its  water  is  remark- 
ably clear;  and  fo  extremely  cold,  that  it  is  reckoned 
dangerous  to  drink  it  :  It  is  faid,  however  to  have  a 
poifonous  quality, from  being  impregnated  with  vitriol; 
in  confequcncc  of  which  cattle  have  becnkilled  by  it. 
It  never  freezes,  bat  is  faid  often  to  contracfl  a  greater 
degree  of  cold  than  ice. 

Having  thus  given  an  account  of  tliis  mountain  in 
its  quiet  and  peaceable  Hate,  wc  mufl  now  defcribe 
the  appearance  it  puts  on  during  the  time  of  an  erup- 
tion, when  it  fpreads  dellrui^ionfor  many  miles  round, 
and  is  capable  of  flriking  the  boldell  with  terror. 

Sir  William  Hamilton,  who  has  examined  both  Ve- 
fuvius and  /t'tna  in  a  very  accurate  manner,  never  had 
anopportunity  of  feeing  an  eruption  of  the  latter  ;  but 
as  he  is  of  opinion  that  the  two  volcanoes  agree  per- 
fectly in  all  refpeils,  only  that  the  latter  is  on  a  much 
larger  fcalc  than  the  former,  we  hope  it  will  not  be 
unacceptable  to  our  readers  to  give  an  account  of  fonic 
of  the  general  appearances  of  Vefuvius  when  in  aflatc 
of  eruption,  the  better  to  help  their  ideas  concerning 
ittna.     ■ 

It  has  been  alrc.-idy  obfcrved,  that  a  fmoke  con- 
flantly  ilfucs  from  the  top  of  Atna,  andthat  iisintcr- 
nal  noil'es  never  ccafc.  The  cafe  is  the  fame  with  Vefu- 
vius i 


lt\.n\. 


Rfgione 
Culta. 


Subterra- 
neous c»- 
vcrns. 


KivcrAcit; 


Appearan- 
CC5  during 
an  erup- 
tion. 


/li  T  N 


[       221       ] 


JE  T  N 


^tna. 


Signs  of  an 
approach- 
ing erup- 
tion. 

Hamilton's 
Obfcrva- 
tioiis,  p.  4. 


Thunder  & 
lightnhig 
from  the 


vius  :  and  Sir  Williasu  Hamilton  obfcrvcd,  that  in  bad 
weather  the  fiiiokc  was  more  confidcrable,  as  well  as 
rlic  nolle  miicii  louder,  than  when  it  was  fair  ;  fo  that 
in  bad  weather  he  hadfVeqiienily  iieard  the  inward  ex- 
plolions  of  the  mountain  at  Naples  lix  miles  dii'lant  from 
Vcfuviiis.  He  alio  obftrved  the  fmoke  that  illued 
from  the  mountain  in  bad  weather  to  be  very  white, 
inoift,and  notncar  foofFeiiliveas  thef.iliihurcoiisitcams 
from  various  cracks  in  the  lidc  of  the  mountain. 

The  firft  fymptom  of  an  approaching  eruption  is  an 
increale  of  the  Inioke  in  fair  weather  :  after  fomc  time, 
a  piifFof  black  fmokc  is  frcquenily  feen  to  flioot  up  in 
themidflof  the  white  to  aeonlidtrable  height!  Thcfc 
puffs  are  attended  with  confiderable  explufions  :  for 
while  Vefuvius  was  in  this  Hate,  Sir  William  Hamilton 
went  up  to  its  top,  which  was  covered  with  fnow  ;  and 
perceiving  a  little  liillock  of  fiilphur,  about  lix  feet 
high,  which  had  been  lately  thrown  up,  and  burnt  with 
a  bine  riamcat  tlie  top,  he  was  examining  this  pheno- 
menon, when  fuddcnly  a  violent  report  was  heard,  a 
columuof  black  fmoke  Ihot  up  with  violence,  and  was 
followed  by  areddifli  flame.  Immediately  a  fliowcr  of 
/tones  fell  ;  upon  which  he  thought  j'ropcr  to  retire. 
Phenomena  of  this  kind,  in  all  probability,  precede  the 
eruptions  of  /Etna  in  a  much  greater  degree. — The 
finoke  at  length  appears  wholly  black  in  the  day-time, 
and  in  the  night  has  the  appearance  of  flame  ;  Ihowers 
of  allies  are  Cent  forth,  earthi]uakes  are  produced,  the 
mountain  difchargcs  volley  s  of  red-hot  flones  to  a  great 
height  in  the  air.  The  force  by  which  thefe  flones 
are  projeftcd,  as  well  as  their  magnitudes,  fecnis  to  be 
in  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  the  mountain.  Signior 
Recupcro  affwrcd  Mr  Brydone,  that  he  had  feen  im- 
nicnfely  large  ones  thrown  perpendicularly  upwards 
to  the  height  of  7000  feet,  as  he  calculated  from  the 
time  they  took  to  arrive  at  the  earth  after  beginning 
to  dcfcend  from  their  grcatell  elevation.  The  largelt 
ftonc,  or  rather  rock,  that  was  ever  known  to  be  emit- 
ted by  Vefuvius,  was  12  feet  long  and  45  in  circum- 
ference. This  was  thro.wn  a  quarter  of  a  mile  ;  but 
mucii  larger  ones  have  been  thrown  out  by  mount  /Kt- 
na.almoflin  the  proportion  in  which  the  latter  exceeds 
Vefuvius  in  bulk.  Along  with  thcfc  terrible  fymp- 
toms,  the  fmoke  that  ill'ues  from  the  crater  is  fome- 
timcs  in  a  highly  electrified  Itaic.  In  this  cafe,  the 
finall  afhcs  which  are  continually  emitted  from  the  cra- 
ter, arc  attra<5ted  by  the  fmokc,  and  rife  with  it  to  a 
great  height,  forming  a  vall  black,  and  to  appearance 
denfe,  column  ;  from  tliis  column  continual  tlalhes  of 
forked  or  zig-zag  lightning  illiic,  fometimes  attended 
with  thunder,  and  fometimes  not,  but  equally  powerful 
with  ordinary  lightning.  This  phenomenon  was  ob- 
ferved  by  Sir  William  Hamilton  in  the  fmoke  of  Vefu- 
vius, and  has  alfo  been  taken  notice  of  in  that  oi li'x- 
na ;  and  where  this  electrified  fmokc  hath  fprcad  over 
a  traft  of  land,  much  mifchief  haili  been  done  by  the 
lightning  proceeding  from  it. 

When  ihele  dreadful  appearances  have  continued 
fometimes  four  or  live  months,  the /./crt  begins  to  make 
its  appearance.  This  is  a  ftream  of  melted  mineral 
matters,  which  in  V'efuviiis  commonly  boils  over  the 
top,  but  very  feUIom  docs  fo  in  Altna  :  owing  to  the 
preat  weight  of  the  lava,  which  long  before  il  can  be 
nifed  to  the  vaft  height  of  mount* .4!tna,  burfis  our 
iiirough  foinc  weak  place  in  its  lidc.     Upon  the  ap- 


pearance of  the  lava,  the  violent  eruptions  of  the  moun-     j^ina. 

tain  generally,  though  not  always,  ceafe  ;  for  if  this  * ' 

burning  matter  gets  not  fuflieient  vent,  the  commo- 
tions incrcafe  to  a  prodigious  degree. — In  the  night- 
time the  lava  appears  like  a  fircani  of  fire,  accompanied 
with  Maine  :  but  in  the  day  time  it  has  no  fuch  appear- 
ance ;  its  progrcfs  is  marked  by  a  white  fmoke,  svhich 
by  the  reflection  of  the  red-hot  matter  in  the  night  af- 
fumes  the  appearance  of  flame. 

Alltheabovementioned  fymptoms  preceded  the  great  Eruption  i» 
eruption  of /Etna  in  1669.  For  feveral  months  before  i('(")- 
the  lava  broke  forth,  the  old  mouth,  or  great  crater  on 
the  fummit,  wasobfcrved  tofend  forth  great  quantities 
of  fmokc  and  flame  ;  the  top  had  fallen  in,  fo  that  the 
mountain  was  much  lowered  ;  the  illandsalfoof  Volcan 
and  Stromboli,  two  volcanoes  to  the  weft  ward  of  Sicily, 
wcreobfcrved  toragemorethan  ufual. — Eightcendays 
before  the  eruption,  the  fky  was  very  thick  and  dark, 
with  thunder,  lightning,  frequent  concuflions  of  the 
earth,  and  dreadful  fubterraneous  bellowings.  On 
the  iitji  of  March,  fomc  time  before  thelavagot  vent, 
a  rent  was  opened  in  the  mountain  twelve  miles  in 
length,  into  which,  when  ftones  were  thrown  down, 
they  could  not  be  heard  to  Itrike  the  bottom.  Burning 
rocks,  60  palms  ( i  5of  our  feet)  in  length,  were  thrown 
to  the  dillancc  of  a  mile  ;  others  of  a  lelfer  lizc  were 
carriedihrcemilesoff;  the  internal  noifes  of  the  moun- 
tain were  exceedingly  dreadful,  and  the  thunder  and 
lightning  from  the  fmoke  fcarce  lefs  terrible  than 
they.  When  the  lava  at  laft  gqt  vent,  it  burfl  out  of 
a  vineyard,  20  miles  below-  the  great  crater,  andfprung 
upintotheairtoaconrKierableheight.'  Hcrcil  formed 
a  mountain  of  ftones  and  allies,  not  lefs,  .as  Sir  \\"^ 
Hamilton  conjectures,  than  half  a  mile  perpendicular 
in  height,  and  three  miles  in  circumference.  Kor  54- 
days  neither  fun  nor  flars  had  appeared  :  but  foon  af- 
ter the  lava  got  vent,  the  mountain  became  very  quiet. 
The  terrible  effeftsofthis  fiery  Itream  may  be  imagined 
from  its  amazing  extent ,  being,  as  Sir  W"'  Hamilton 
obfervcs,  no  lefs  than  14  miles  long,  and  in  many  pla- 
ces fix  in  breadth.  In  its  courfe,  it  dcftroyed  the  ha- 
bitations of  near  ;o,ooo  perfons  ;  and  meeting  with  3 
lake  four  miles  in  conipafs,  it  not  onlv  tilled  it  up, 
though  feveral  fathom  deep,  but  made  a  mountain  in 
the  place  of  it.  Having  reached  Catanea,  it  deltroycd 
part  of  its  walls,  and  ran  for  a  conliderablc  length  into 
the  fea,  forminir  a  fafc  and  beautiful  harbour ;  w  hicb, 
however,  was  foon  lillcd  up  by  a  frelh  torrent  of  the 
fame  inflamed  matter. 

It  is  not  eal'y  for  ihofe  who  have  never  been  prefent  PhcDoni*- 
at  thole  terrible  operations  of  nature,  to  reprcfent  to  "^  *'  .'*"= 
their  minds  the  horrors  which  muft  attend  the  break-  1'"^^^^'"^ 
ing  forth  of  the  lava;  for  though  the  giving  vent  to,", 
this  burning  matter  generally  produces  a  cctlation  of 
the  violent  ctf()rts  of  the  internal  tire,  yet  at  the  very 
inflant  of  its  cxplollon  fcarce  any  thing  can  be  con- 
ceived lb  dreadful.     See  Vesuvius. 

When  the  lava  firft  ilfues,  it  appears  very  fluid,  and  Hamilton'j 
runs  with  the  rapidity  of  a  fwift  river;  but  even  then  it  obfcrva- 
furprilinglyrelillsthc  imprcflion  of  I'olid  bodies  :  for  Sir  tion»,  p  10- 
W™  Hamilton  could  not  pierccthat  of  Vefuvius  with  a 
flick  driven  againft  it  with  all  his  force  ;  nor  did  the 
largeft  flone  he  wasable  to  throw  upon  it  link,  but  made 
a  (light  imprefTion,  and  then  floated  along.     Tiiis  hap- 
peucJalmoftat  the  very  mouth,  when  thclava  appear- 
ed. 


^  T  N 


[      222 


y?L  T  N 


Mtwi. 


Lava  of 
1(169  de- 
scribed. 


cd  liquid  as  water,  and  wlu-n  he  faw  it  running  with  a 
rapiJity  tnual  to  the  river  Severn  at  the  pallagc  near 
briltol. — A  dtfcriiuioa  otikc  lava  ilfiiing  from  mount 
/i-tna  ill  1669  was  lent  to  the  court  ot  England  by 
Lord  \V  iMcheUea,  will)  at  that  -.inie  happened  to  be  at 
Catania  in  his  way  home  from  an  cmbaily  at  Conllanti- 
no,)lc.  His  account  is  not  now  to  be  procured  ;  but 
Mr  Hamilton  found  a  copy  in  Sicily,  and  hath  given 
an  extract,  part  of  whiih  follows.  "  When  it  was 
night,  1  went  upon  two  towers  in  diii'crcni  places  ;  and  I 
could  plainly  ice,  at  ten  miles  dillance,  as  wc  judged, 
the  lire  begin  to  rnn  from  the  mountain  in  a  direct  line, 
Llic  flame  to  afccnd  as  high  and  as  big  as  one  of  the 
greatelHlceples  in  your  Wajcily's  kingdoms,  and  to 
throw  up  great  iloncs  into  the  air  ;  I  could  difcern  the 
river  of  lire  todefcend  tiie  mountain  of  a  terrible  fiery 
or  red  colour,  and  Iloncs  of  a  paler  red  to  fwim  there- 
on, and  to  be  fomc  as  big  as  an  ordinary  table.  Wc 
could  fee  this  tire  to  move  in  fevcral  other  places,  and 
all  the  country  covered  with  fire,  afcending  with  great 
flames  in  many  places,  fmoking  like  to  a  violent  fur- 
nace of  iron  luclled,  making  a  noife  N\iih  the  great 
pieces  that  fell,  cfpecially  thole  that  fell  into  the  lea. 
A  cavalier  of  Malta,  who  lives  there,  and  attended  me 
told  me,  that  the  river  was  as  liquid,  where  it  iffucs 
out  of  the  mountain,  as  water,  and  came  out  like  a 
torrent  with  great  violence,  and  is  five  or  fix  fathom 
deep,  and  as  broad,  and  that  no  Itoues  fnik  therein." 

The  account  given  in  the  Philofophical  Tranfac- 
lious  is  to  the  fame  purpofe.  Wc  are  there  told,  that 
the  lava  is  "  iiotliing  clfe  than  divers  kinds  of  metals 
and  minerals,  rendered  liquid  by  the  hercenefs  of  the 
fire  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  boiling  up  and  gulhing 
forth  as  the  water  doth  at  tiie  head  of  fomc  great  ri- 
ver ;  and  having  run  in  a  full  body  for  a  Hone's  cait 
or  more,  began  to  crull  or  curdle,  becoming,  when 
cold,  thole  hard  porous  Iloncs  which  the  people  call 
Sciani."  Thofe,  tliough  cold  in  comparilbn  ot  what 
firft  ilfucs  from  the  mountain,  yet  retained  fo  much 
Jicat  as  to  rcfemblc  huge  cakes  of  lea-coal  (Ircngly  ig- 
nited, and  came  tumbling  over  one  another,  bearing 
down  or  burning  whatever  was  in  their  vvay — In  this 
manner  the  lava  proceeded  llowly  on  till  it  came  to  the 
lea,  when  a  moll  extraordinary  couriic'k  enfued  betwixt 
the  two  adverfe  elements.  The  nolle  was  vallly  more 
dreadful  than  the  loudtll  thunder,  being  heard  thro' 
the  whole  country  to  an  imnienfe  diftance  ;  the  water 
I'cenicd  to  retire  and  diminifli  before  the  lava,  while 
clouds  of  vapour  darkened  the  fun.  The  whole  tilh 
on  the  coafl  were  dtllroyed,  the  colour  of  the  fca  it- 
fclf  was  changed,  and  the  tranfparcncy  of  its  v\aters 
loft  for  msnv  months. 

While  this  lava  was  iiruingiii  fuch  prodigious  quan- 
tity, the  merchants,  whole  account  is  recorded  in  the 
Philof()phic:il  Traufaaions,  attempted  to  go  up  to  the 
mouth  itfelf ;  but  durll  not  come  nearer  than  a  furlong, 
led  they  (liould  have  bienoverwhclmcd  by  a  vail  pillar 
of  allies,  whi:h  to  their  apprehcniion  exceeded  twice 
thebignefs  of  St  Paul's  llecplc  in  London,  and  went 
up  into  the  air  10  a  far  greater  height ;  ar  the  mouth 
kfclf  was  a  continual  noife,  like  ihc  beating  of  jrreat 
wavesof  the  feaagainll  rocks,  or  like  dillant  thunder, 
which  fometimcs  was  fo  violent  as  to  be  heard  60,  or 
even  too  miles  ofT;  to  which  dillance  alio  part  of  the 
«fhcs  were  carried.   Some  lime  after,  having  gone  up, 


they  found  the  mouth  from  whence  this  terrible  deluge     ^tn». 
iiiiicd  to  be  only  a  hole  about  10  feet  diameter.     This    ~ —  "'"""' 
is  alio  confirmed  by  Mr  bryuouc  ;  and  is  probably  the  o{^^'.'"„]c 
fame  throiiuh  which  Mr  \V  '"  Hamilton  dclctndcd  iuio  whenttthc 
the  fubtcrrancan  caverns  already  mentioned.  lava  ilTucd. 

Mount  j-ttna,  as  wx-  have  already  remarked,  has  Antiquity 
been  a  celebrated  volcano  from  tlic  remotcll  antiquity,  ofthccrup- 
DioJorus  Siculus  mentions  eruptions  of  it  as  happening  "°"'' 
5ooycars  before  the  Trojan  war,  or  1693  years  before 
the  Lhrilliau  a:ra.  Krom  Homer's  lilentc  with  regard 
to  the  phenomenon  of  -itna,  it  is  to  be  prefunud  that 
the  volcano  had  been  many  ages  in  a  Hate  of  inactivity, 
and  that  no  tradition  of  its  burning  remained  among 
the  inhabitants  at  the  time  he  compofcd  his  Odyllcy  ; 
perhaps  it  never  had  emitted  tlaiues  lince  the  country 
was  peopled.    The  firft  eruption  taken  notice  of  by  an- 
cient, but  by  no  means  cotemporary  authors,  happcncil 
before  the  Greeks  landed  on  the  illand,  and  is  fuppofeH 
to  have  feared  the  Sicani  from  the  call  part  of  Sicily. 

Piudar,  quoted  above,  is  theoldeil  writer  extant  who 
fpcaks  of  Atnaasavolcano.  The  liril  recorded  erup- 
tion was  in  the  time  of  Pythagoras.  Plato  was  invited 
by  the  younger  Dionylius  to  examine  the  ft;'.lc  of  the 
mountain  after  the  fixtli.  It  threw  up  flames  and  lava 
near  an  hundred  times  between  that  period  and  the 
battle  of  Pharfalia  ;  it  w;s  particularly  furious  while 
Scxtus  Pompcius  was  adding  the  horrors  of  war  to  its 
dcvaftations.  Charlemagne  happen;  d  tobc  at  Catania 
during  one  of  the  eruptions  ;  and  from  his  reign  the 
chronicles  mention  fifteen  down  to  that  of  the  year 
1669,  the  moft  tcrribleof  them  all.  Since  1669  there 
have  been  fcveral  eruptions,  b\it  none  of  them  compa- 
rable to  it.  In  that  which  happened  in  i  766,  the  lava 
fprang  up  into  the  air  to  a  conlidcrable  height,  twelve 
miles  below  the  fitmmit  ;  but  formed  a  ftream  only  fix 
miles  in  length  and  one  mile  in  breadth. 

The  laft  eruption  happened  in  1 787.  From  the  ift  Account  of 
to  the  lOth  of  July,  there  were  ligns  of  its  approach.  '^^  1^'*  '" 
On  the  Tith,  aftera  little  calm,  there  was  a  fubterra-  j"'^''""' 
neous  noife,  like  the  found  of  a  drum  in  a  clofe  place, 
and  it  was  followed  by  a  copious  burft  of  black  fmoke. 
It  was  then  calm  till  tlic  i  5th,  when  the  fame  progno- 
llics  recurred.  On  the  i  7th,  the  fiibtcrraneous  noife 
was  heard  again  ;  the  fuioke  was  more  abundant,  flijjit 
Ihocksofau  earthquake  followed,  and  the  lava  flowed 
from  behind  one  of  the  two  little  mountains  which  form 
the  double  head  of  A'.tna.  On  the  iSth,  while  the 
fpec^ators  were  in  anxious  cxpe'lationofa  morcfcvcrc 
eruption,  all  was  quiet,  and  continued  fo  more  than 
)2  liours  :  f'lon  after  they  perceived  fomc  new  lliocks, 
accompanied  with  much  noife  ;  and  the  mciuntain  threw 
out  a  thick  fmoak,  which,  as  the  wind  was  weftcrly, 
foon  darkned  the  caftern  hori/.on  :  two  hours  afier- 
wards  a  Ihower  of  fine  black  brilliant  fand  dcfccnded  : 
on  the  eaft  fide  it  was  a  ftorm  of  floncs  ;  and,  at  ihc 
foot  of  the  mountain,  a  deluge  of  flalhes  of  fire,  of 
fcoria  and  lava. 

Thefe  appearances  corninucd  the  whole  day  ;  at  the 
fctting  of  the  fun  the  ficne  changed.  A  number  of 
co'iiciil  flaivcs  rofc  from  the  volcano  ;  oneon  ihc  north, 
another  on  the  fouth,  were  very  confpicuous,  and  rofc 
and  fell  alternately.  At  three  in  the  morning,  the 
mountain  appeared  cleft,  and  the  fummitficmed  a  burn- 
ing mafs.  The  ^♦oncs  of  lijjhi  which  arofe  from  the 
crater  were  of  animmcnfe  extent,  particularly  the  two 

juft 


JE  r  N 


[  225  } 


A  F  F 


JEtna,    juft  mentioned.  The  two  heads  fcemed  to  be  cut  away; 
Etna  fait,  and  at  their  Icparation  was  a  cone ot"  riam;,  feeiniiigly 

' '  compofcd  of  many  lellcr  cones.    The  riamc  lecmtdot' 

the  li eight  of  the  mountain  placed  on  the  mouinain  ; 
fo  tliat  it  was  probably  two  miles  high,  on  a  bafe  of  a 
mile  and  a  half  in  diameter.  This  cone  was  (till  co- 
vered with  a  very  thick  finoke,  in  which  there  appear- 
ed very  brilliant  tlalhcs  of  lightning,  a  phenomenon 
which  .'Ktna  had  not  before  attbrded.  At  limes,  founds 
like  thofe  from  the  cxplollon  of  a  large  cannon  were 
heard  feemingly  at  a  lefs  diitancc  than  the  moiintain. 
From  the  cone,  as  from  a  fountain,  a  jet  of  many  da- 
rning volcanic  matters  were  throu  n,  wlii-h  were  car- 
ried to  the  diftance  of  lix  or  feven  miles  :  from  the 
bafe  of  the  cone  a  thick  fmoke  arofe,  which,  for  a  mo- 
ment, obfcnred  fomc  parts  of  the  name,  at  the  time 
when  the  rivers  of  lava  broke  out.  This  beauliful  ap- 
])earance  continued  three  quarters  of  an  hour,  it  be- 
gan the  next  night  with  n;orc  force;  but  continued 
only  half  an  hour.  In  the  intervals,  however,  /i.tiia 
continued  to  throw  out  rianics,  fmoke,  llones  ignited, 
and  Ihowers  of  fand.  From  the  20lh  to  the  szd,  the 
appearances  gradually  ccafed.  The  llrc.imof  lava  v.as 
carried  towards  Bronte  and  the  plain  of  Lago. 

After  the  eruption,  the  top  of  the  mountain  on  the 
weftern  fide  was  found  covered  with  hardened  lava, 
fcoria,  and  flones.  The  travellers  were  annoyed  by 
fmoke,  by  fliowcrs  of  fand,  mephitic  vapours,  and  ex- 
ccflive  heat.  Tliey  faw  that  the  lava  which  came  from 
the  weftcrn  point  divided  into  two  branches,  one  of 
which  wasdireChedtowardsLibcccio;  iheother,  as  we 
have  already  faid,  towards  the  plain  of  Lago.  The  lava 
on  the  wellcrn  headof  the  mountain,  had  from  its  va- 
rious fliapcs  been  evidently  in  a  itate  of  fufion  :  from 
oneofihe  fpiracula,  the  odour  was  llrongly  thatof  li- 
ver of  fulphur.  The  thermometer,  in  defcending,  was 
at  40  degrees  of  Karcnluit's  fcale  ;  while  near  the 
lava,  in  the  plain  of  Lago,  it  was  140  degrees.  The 
lava  extended  two  miles  ;  its  width  was  from  13  Mo 
21  feet,  and  its  depth  13!  feet. 

Thefe  arc  the  moltreniarkablecircnm  fiances  we  have 
been  able  to  collect,  that  miijhi  ferve  to  give  an  ade- 
quate idea  of  this  famous  mountain. — Many  things, 
however,  concerninj;  the  extent,  antiquity,  ire.  of  the 
lavas,  remain  to  be  difculled,  as  well  as  the  opinions  of 
philofophers  concerning  the  origin  of  the  interna!  lire 
which  produces  fo  much  mifchief:  but  tlieconlideration 
of  thefe  belongs  to  the  j^cr.eral  article  Voicano,  to 
which  the  reader  is  referred. —  Phefateof  Cv/^/z/wand 
llyhia,  which  have  often  been  deftroyed  by  eruptions, 
will  be  mentioned  under  thefe  two  words. 

JErsAfait,  Sal  JEtine,  a  name  given  by  fomc  authors 
to  ilie  fil  ammoniac,  which  is  found  on  the  furface 
and  lides  of  the  openings  of  .^tna,  and  othir  burn- 
ing mountains  after  their  eruptions  ;  and  fometimcs 
on  the  furface  of  the  ferruginous  matter  which  they 
throw  out.  This  f.ilt  makes  a  very  various  ap- 
pearance in  many  cafes  ;  it  is  fomctimes  found  in  large 
and  thick  cakes,  fometinies  only  in  form  of  a  thick 
powder,  fcattered  over  the  furf.ice  of  the  earth  and 
llones.  Some  of  this  f.ilt  i>  yellow,  fome  white,  and 
fomc  grceniih.  This  fait  is  a  concrete  of  nitre,  fulphur, 
and  vitriol,  burnt  and  fublimcd  together ;  Borelli  found 
QUce  1  vali  ii^uuiuiiy  of  this  fait  on  mount  .-Etna,  and 


tried  many  experiments  on  it :  from  whence  he  con-  .^tolarcBa 
eluded,  that  tliiifalt  isfo  far  from  occafioning  the  ex-  I 

plolions  of  that  mountain,  as  lome  have  fuppofcd,  that  Aflc.ainn. 
it  does  not  exiit  in  it,  but  is  formed  during  the  burn-  '^  ' 
ing.     Phil.  Tranf.  N°  100. 

vtTOLARCHA,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  ihepHn- 
cipal  magillrate  or  governor  of  the  ytiolians. 

AFLK  (Uomitius),  a  famous  orator,  born  at  Nif- 
mes,  iiourilhed  under  Tiberius  and  the  three  fucceed- 
ing  emperors.  Qjiintilian  makesi'rcquent  mention  of 
him,  and  commends  his  pleadings.  But  he  difgraced 
his  talents, by  turning  informer  againft  fonie  of  the  mo/l 
dillinguilhed  perfonages  inRoine.  Qjiintilian,  in  his 
youth,  cultivated  the  friendlhipof  Domitius  very  a!ii- 
duoudy.  He  tells  us  that  his  pleadings  abounded  with 
pleafant  (lories,  and  that  there  were  public  collections 
of  his  witty  fayings,  fomc  of  which  he  quoies.  He  a  Kb 
mentionsiwobooksof  his  "  OnlVittiejf.t."  Domitius 
was  once  ingreat  danger  from  an  inferiptionhe  put  up- 
on a  (latue  erected  by  him  in  honour  of  Caligula,  wh  cre- 
in  he  declared  that  this  prince  was  a  fecond  time  a 
conful  at  the  age  of  27.  This  he  intended  asan  encom- 
ium, but  Caligula  taking  it  as  a  farcafmupon  hisyoutli, 
and  his  infringmentof  the  laws,  railed  a  proccfs  againll 
him,  and  pleaded  himfclf  in  perfon.  Domitius  inllead 
of  making  a  defence,  repeated  part  of  the  emperor's 
fpeech  with  the  highefl  marks  of  admiration  ;  at'ter 
which  he  fell  upon  his  knees,  and,  begging  pardon, 
declared,  that  he  dreaded  more  the  eloquence  of  Cali- 
gula than  his  imperial  power.  This  piece  of  rtattcry 
lucceeded  fowell,  iliat  the  emperor  not  only  pardon- 
ed, but  alfo  raifcd  him  to  ilie  confullhip.  Afer  died 
in  the  reign  of  Nero,  A.  D.  59. 

AKFA,  a  weiglit  ufcd  on  the  Gold  Coaft  of  Guinea. 
It  is  equal  to  an  ounce,  and  the  half  of  it  is  called 
tgg'^ba.  Moftof  theblacksou  the  Gold  Coaft  give  thefe 
names  to  thofe  weights. 

AFFECTION,  in  a  general  fenfc,  implies  an  at- 
tribute iiifcparablc  from  itsfubjecl.  Thus  magnitude, 
rignre,  weight,  &c.  are  alFeciions  of  all  bodies  ;  and 
love, fear,  hatred,  &c.  are  atfeclions  of  the  mind*.      'ScKMtrae 

Ai-FEcriON,ligiufyingrty":///t</if«/  oj  mi nd toward  Plilo/ifly, 
a  particular   being  or  thing,  occupies  a  middle  fpaec  P*"'''««-'« 
between  difpojition  on  the  one  hand,  znil pit Jjitn  on  the  ''• 
other  f .  It  is  diltinguii'nable  from  Difpolition,  which  t^"'^^ 
being  a  branch  of  one's  nature,  originally,  mull  exill  yjj^'^" 
before  there  can  be  an  opportunity  to  exert  it  upon  any 
particular  objecl  ;  whereas  Aifection  can  never  be  ori- 
ginal, becaufc,  having  a  fpecial  relation  to  a  particular 
object,  it  cannot  c.xill  till  the  objcCl  has  once  at  lead 
been  prefented.    It  is  aifodillinguilhable  from  Pallion, 
wliich,  depending  on  the  real  or  ideal  prcfcnee  of  its 
objeCl,  vanilhes  with  its  objctl :  whereas  Affeflion  is  a 
lallingcouueclion  ;  and, like  other  connctlions,  fubfills 
even  when  we  do  not  think  of  the  perfon.  A  familiar 
example  u  ill  illullrate  this.  There  may  be  in  one  pcr- 
fon's  mind  a  difpofnion  to  gratitude,  which,  throui'h 
want  of  an  obje.-t,  happens  never  to  be  exerted  ;  and 
which  therefore  is  ncvcrdifcovcrcd  even  by  the  perfon 
hinifclf.  Another,  who  has  the  famedifpolition,  meets 
wiihakiiidly  odice  I iiat  makes  him  grateful  to  his  bene- 
factoK  An  in  limateconncCtion  is  formed  between  them, 
termed  affiil:oii :  which,  like  other  connedions,  has  a 
permanent  cxJUence,  though  not  always  in  view.  The- 


A  F  F.  [     224 

affciflion,  for  the  molt  part,  lies  dormant,  till  an  oppor- 
tunity oticr  tor  cxcnin;^  it :  in  that  circumftancc,  it  is 
converted  into  the  paffion  of  gratitude  j  and  tlic  oppor- 
tunity is  eagerly  ftizcd  of  tellitying  gratitude  in  the 
wariucfl  manner. 

Akkection,  amon^  phyficians,  fignifics  the  fame 
as  difeafc.  Thus  the  hyllcric  ajfMion  is  the  fame 
with  till,  hyftcric  difeafe. 

AKb'EREKS,  orAKKERORS,  inlaw,  perfons  ap- 
pointed in  court-lects,  courts  baron,  &c.  to  fettle,  upon 
oath,  the  linisto  be  iuipofcdupon  thofc  who  have  been 
guilty  of  faults  arbitrarily  punilhablc. 

AKFETL'OSO,  or  Con  AttBTTo,  i<j  the  Italian 
niufic,intimatcs  that  the  part  to  which  it  is  added  ought 
to  be  played  in  a  tender  moving  way,  and  confcquently 
rather  llow  than  fal^ 

AFKIANCE,  in  law,  denotes  the  mutual  plight- 
ing of  troth  between  a  man  and  woman  to  marry  each 
other. 

AI'"KIDA\"IT,  fignifies  an  oath  in  writing,  fworn 
before  fomcpcrfon  who  isauthorifcd  to  take  the  fame. 

AKKI N  IT  Y,among  civilians,  implies  a  relation  con- 
iraiSed  by  marriage;  incontradilHnilion  loconfangui- 
nity,  or  relation  by  blood.  Affinity  does  not  found  any 
real  kinlhip;  it  is  no  more  than  a  kindof  lic^ion,  intro- 
duced on  account  of  the  clofe  relation  between  hulband 
and  wife.  It  is  even  faid  to  ceafe  when  the  caufeof  it 
ceafes  :  hence  a  woman  who  is  not  capable  of  being  a 
witncfs  for  her  hufbaud's  brother  during  his  lifetime, 
is  allowed  for  a  witnefs  when  a  widow,  by  reafon  the 
affinity  is  dilfolvcd.  Yet  with  regard  to  the  conttait- 
ing  marriage,  afllnity  is  not  diffolvcd  by  death,  though 
it  be  in  every  thing  clfe. 

There  are  fcveral  degrees  of  affinity,  whereiti  mar- 
riage was  prohibited  by  the  law  of  Mofes  :  thus,  the 
fon  could  not  marry  his  mother,  nor  his  father's  wife 
(Lev.  xviii.  7.  et.feq.)  :  the  brother  couldnot  marry 
his  filler,  whether  ftie  were  fo  by  the  father  only  or 
by  the  mother  only,  and  much  Icfs  if  file  washis  liller 
both  by  the  fame  fatherand  mother;  the  grandfather 
could  not  marry  his  grand-daughter,  either  by  his  fon 
or  daughter.  No  one  could  marry  the  daughter  of  his 
father's  wife  ;  nor  the  fiflcrof  his  father  or  mother. 
Nor  the  nncle  his  niece;  nor  the  aunt  her  nephew. 
Nor  the  nephew  the  wife  of  his  uncle  by  the  father's 
lide.  The  father-in-law  could  not  marry  his  daugh- 
ter-in-law :  nor  the  brother  the  wife  of  his  bro- 
ther, while  living;  nor  even  after  the  death  of  his 
brother,  if  he  left  children.  If  he  left  no  children, 
the  furviving  brother  was  to  raife  up  children  to  his 
deceafed  brother,  by  marrying  his  widow.  It  was  for- 
bidden to  marry  the  mother  and  the  daughter  at  one 
lime,  or  the  daughter  of  the  mother's  fon,  or  the 
daughter  of  her  daughter,  or  two  fillers  together.  It 
is  true  th«  patriarchs  before  the  law  married  their 
lifters, as  Abraham  married  Sarah.who  was  his  father's 
daughter  by  another  mother  ;  andtwo  fillers  together, 
as  Jacob  married  Rachel  and  Leah;  and  their  own 
lifters  by  both  father  and  mother,  as  Scth  and  Cain. 
But  thefc  cafes  are  not  to  be  jn-opofed  as  examples  : 
becaufe  in  fomc  they  were  authoril'ed  by  iieccllity  ;  in 
others  by  cuftom  ;  and  the  law  as  yet  was  not  in  being. 
If  fome  other  examples  may  be  found,  eillicr  before 
or  fmcc  the  law,  the  fcripture  exprefsly  difapprovcs  of 

I 


] 


A  F  F 


them,  as  Reuben's  inccft  with  Balah  his  f^ither's  con- 
cubine, and  the  atli-nof  Amnion  with  his  lifter  Ta- 
mar;  and  that  of  Hcrod-Antipas,  who  married  Hc- 
rodias  his  liltcr-in-la\\-,  his  brother  Philip's  wife, 
while  her  hufl^and  was  yet  living. 

An  I  NIT  V  is  alio  ulcd  to  denote  conformity  or  a- 
grcement :  Thus  wc  fay,  the  aiKnity  of  languages, 
the  affinity  of  words,  the  affinity  of  iounds,  ike. 

AniNiTY,  or  Elective  Attraction,  arcttrnix 
ufed  by  modern  chemifts  to  pxprefs  that  peculiar  pro- 
peiility  which  different  fpecics  of  matter  Jiave  to  unite 
and  combine  with  certain  other  bodies  exclulivtly,  or 
in  preference  to  any  other  connciiion. 

AKKIRMATION,  in  logic,  the  alfcrting  the  truth 
of  any  propolition. 

Akkirm  ATioN,in  law,denotes  an  indulgence  allow- 
ed to  the  people  called  ihuikers  ;  who,  in  cafes  where 
an  oath  is  required  from  others,  may  makeafolcmn  af- 
firmation that  what  tlicy  fay  is  true  ;  and  if  they  make 
a  falfc  aliirmatioii,  they  are  fubjeit  to  the  penalties  of 
perjury. 

Afkir  mation  is  alfo  ufed  for  the  ratifyingor  con- 
firming the  fentence  or  decree  of  fome  inferior  court : 
Thus,  iu  England,  tiicy  fay,  the  houfe  of  lords  affirm- 
ed the  decree  of  the  lord  chancellor,  or  the  decree  of 
the  lords  of  felfion. 

AFFIRMATIVE,  in  grammar.  Authors  diftin- 
guilli  affirmative  particles  ;  fuch  is,  yes.—  The  term 
affirmative  is  fometimes  alfo  ufed  fubllaniively.  Thus 
wc  fay,  the  affirmative  is  the  more  probable  lide  of  the 
quellion :  there  were  fo  many  votes,  or  voices,  for 
the  aflirmativc. 

AFFIX,  in  grammcr,  a  particle  added  at  the  clofe 
of  a  word,  either  to  diverlify  its  form  or  alter  its  ligni- 
fication.  We  meet  with  affixe-  in  the  Saxon,  the  Ger- 
man,andothcrnorthcrn  languages ;  butmorc efpccial- 
ly  in  the  Hebrew,  and  other  oriental  tongues.  The 
Hebrew  ^^"xtv  are  fingle  fyllables,  frequently  lingle 
letters,  fubjoined  to  nouns  and  verbs  ;  and  contribute 
not  a  little  to  the  brevity  of  that  language.  The  ori- 
ental languages  are  much  the  fame  as  to  the  radicals, 
and  differ  chiefly  from  each  other  as  to  affixes  and 
prefixes. 

AFFLATUS,  literally  denotes  a  blaft  of  wind, 
breath,  or  vapour,  ftriking  with  force  againft  another 
body.  The  word  is  Latin,  formed  from  «</"  to,"  and 
fiare  "  to  blow."  Naturalills  fometimes  fpcak  of  the 
afflatus  of  fcrpents.  Tully  ufcs  the  word  figuratively, 
for  a  divine  infpiration  ;  in  which  fenfe,  he  afcribes  all 
great  and  eminent  accomplilhments  toadivincalHatus. 
The  Pythian  prieftcfs  being  placed  on  a  tripod  or  per- 
forated ftool,  over  a  holy  cave,  received  the  divine 
afflatus,  as  a  late  author  cxpreires  it,  in  her  belly  ;  and 
being  thus  infpired,  fell  into  agitations,  like  a  phrene- 
tic ;  during  which  Ihe  pronounced,  in  hollow  groans 
and  broken  fentences,  the  will  of  the  deity.  This  af- 
flatus is  fuppofcd,  by  fome,  to  have  been  a  fubterra- 
neous  fume,  or  exhalation,  w  herewith  the  pricflefswas 
literally  infpired.  Accordingly,  i:  had  the  effects  of 
a  real  phyfical  difeafe  ;  the  paroxyfm  of  which  was  fo 
vehement,  that  Plutarch  obfcrves  it  fometimes  proved 
mortal.  Van  Dale  fuppofcs  the  pretended  euthuiiafra  of 
the  Pythia  to  have  arifcn  from  the  fumes  of  aromatics. 

AFFLICTION,  is  not  itfelf,  in  propriety  of  medi- 
cal 


Aflinit/ 

r 

Afflidioa. 


A  F  R 


[ 


] 


A  F  R 


Afforage  cal  fpccch,  a  difcafc,  but  it  produces  many  :  for  what- 
II         ever  excites  envy,  anger,  or  li.ured,  produces  diCcafts 
Africa.    {i;,u\  tcnl'c  fibres  ;  as  wliaicver  cxcilcs  fear,  grief,  joy, 
'      "        or  delight,  begets  difcafes  from  relaxation. 

Ahi'ORAGt;,  in  tiie  French  cuftoms,  a  duty  paid 
to  the  lord  of  a  dillrict,  for  pcrmiilion  to  fell  wine,  or 
others  liqu.irs,  within  his  feignory.  Aiforage  is  alfo 
ufed  forihc  rate  or  price  of  jjroviiions  laid  anil  rixcd  by 
the  pi  ovoll  or  Ihcriifs  of  Paris. 

Ar'FORtSl'ING,  Akfokestatio,  t!ie  tiirning 
ground  into  forcft.  The  Conqueror,  and  his  fuccc(- 
fors,  continued  atforelling  the  lands  of  the  iubjett  for 
many  reigns  ;  till  the  grievance  became  fo  notorious, 
thai  the  people  of  all  degrees  and  denoniinatious  were 
brought  10  fjc  for  relief;  which  was  as  length  obtain- 
ed, and  coniiuiifti  ns  were  granted  to  furvey  and  pc- 
rambulate  theforell,  andltpirateall  the  lujvv  aftbretled 
lands,  and  re-convert  them  to  the  ufcs  of  thtir  propri- 
,  ctors,  under  the  name  and  quality  of /larZ/Va  ax pouralle 

land. 

AFFRAY,  or  Affrayment,  in  law,  formerly  fig- 
nitied  the  crime  of  affrighting  other  perfoas,  by  ap- 
pearing in  unufual  armour,  branditliing  a  weapon,  ike. 
but,  at  prefent,  affray  denotes  a  Ikirmiih  or  tight  be- 
tween two  or  more. 

AFFRON  1  £E,  in  heraldry,  an  appellation  given 
to  animals  facingone  another  on  an  efcutchcon  ;  a  kind 
uf  bearing  which  is  othersvile  called  conjrQiito.,  and 
Hands  oppofed  to  adi,^'.c. 

AFFUSION,  the  aft  of  pouring  fome  fluid  fub- 
ftance  on  another  body.  Ur  Grew  gives  feveral  expe- 
riments of  the  luCtation  ariling  from  the  afFulion  of 
divers  menftruums  on  all  forts  of  bodies.  Diviuesand 
church  hillorians  fpcak  of  baplifm  by  atfulion  ;  which 
amounts  to  much  the  fame  with  what  wc  now  call 
fpriukimg. 

AFRANIUS,  a  Latin  poet,  who  wrote  comedies 
in  imitation  of  Mcnandcr,  commended  by  TuUy  and 
Qiiintilian  :  he  lived  in  the  I70lh  Olympiad. 

AFRICA  (according  to  Bochart,  from  a  Punic 
Word.fignifying /Tarj  of  Coru)  ;  one  of  the  four  great 
divifions,  by  the  moderns  called  j.v<3;7:'«,of  the  world, 
and  one  of  the  three  called  by  tne  Greeks  H)ri<pc/,  or 
eoiitliients.     By  them  it  was  alfo  called  Libya. 

'Africa  lies  fouih  of  Europe,  and  weft  of  Afia.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  uorth  by  the  Mediterranean,  which  fc- 
paratcs  it  from  the  former;  on  the  north-caft,  by  the 
Red  Sea,  which  divides  it  from  Afia,  and  to  which  it  is 
attached  by  a  neck  of  land  called  the  Iji  hunts  of  Suez, 
about  60 miles  over,fcparating  the  Mediterranean  from 
the  Red  Sea.  On  the  weft,  fouth,  and  eart,it  is  bound- 
ed by  the  main  ocean  :  fo  that  it  is  pro])erly  a  vart  pc- 
ninfula,  bearing  fome  faint  refemblance  of  a  pyramid, 
the  bale  of  which  is  the  northern  part,^  running  along 
the  Ihores  of  the  Mediterranean;  and  the  top  of  the 
pyramid  is  the  moft  fojiherly  point,  called  the  Cafe 
sf  Good  tiofe.  Its  greateftU  nifth  from  north  to  fouth  is 
4500  miles,  and  its  grcatcll  breadth  from  eaft  to  weft 
is  ^500  miles  ;  reaching  from  Lat.  37"  N.  to  35"  S. 
and  from  Long,  i  70  VV.  to  si**  E. 

Thougli  tlu  grcateft  p-irt  of  this  continent  hath  been 
in  all  ages  unknown  both  to  the  Kuropeaiisand  Afiatics, 
its  fiiuaiion  is  more  favourable  than  cither  F.urope  or 
Afia  for  maintaining  an  iniercourfe  with  other  na- 
tions. It  ftands,  as  it  were,  in  the  centre  of  the  thite 
Vol..  I. 


other  quarters  of  thegl'ibe;  afid  has  thereby  a  much     Afrrea 

nearer  communication  with  Eiirnpc,  Aii.i.,  and  .Ai.ic-   —  -  — 

riea,  than  any  oiicof  thefe  has  with  another.  For,(l.) 

It  isoppolitc  to  Europe  in  the  MeJiterranean,  for  al- 

nioll  looo  miles  in  a  line  from  eaft  to  weft  ;  the  dif- 

taiice  feldoin  too  miles,  never  ico  leagues,  and  fome- 

limcs  not  above  20  leagues.     (2)   It  is  o|)pofitc  to  A- 

fia  forali  thelength  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  diitancc  foinc- 

limcs  not  exceeding  five  leagues,  ftldom  fifty.   (?)  itj 

coaft  for  the  length  of  about  2000  miles  lie:;  oppo.ite 

to  America  at  ihe  diftanceof  from  5Q0  to  700  leagues, 

including  the  illands  :  whereas  America,  uulcfs  wiicrc 

it  may  be  a  terra  incngnita,  is  no  where  iicarcr  Europe 

than  1000  leagues  ;  and  Alia,  than  2500. 

As  the  equator  divides  tiiis  continent  almoft  in  the 
middle,  the  far  grcateft  part  of  it  is  within  the  tro- 
pics; audof  confequencc  the  heal  in  fome  places  is  al- 
moft jnfupportablc  by  Europeans,  it  being  there  great- 
ly increafed  by  vaft  dtferts  of  buri;ing  land. — It  can- 
not be  doubled,  however,  that,  were  tlie  country  well 
cultivated,  it  would  be  extremely  fertile;  ajid  would 
produce  in  great  abundance  not  only  the  neceiiaries, 
but  alfo  theluxuries,  of  life.  Ithasbten  alFerted,  that 
the  fugars  of  Barbadoes  and  Jamaica,  as  alfo  the  gin- 
ger, cotton,  rice,  pepper,  pimento,  cocoa,  indigo, 
6cc.  of  thefc  illands,  would  thrive  in  Africa  to  as  much 
perfcdion  as  where  they  arc  now  produced.  Nor  can 
it  be  doubted,  that  the  Eaft  Indian  fpices,  the  tea  of 
China  and  Japan,  the  cofl'ec  of  Mocha,  &c.  would  all 
thrive  in  fome  parts  of  the  African  coaft  ;  as  this  con- 
tinent has  the  advantage  of  feeling  no  cold,  the  climate 
beiiig  either  very  warm  or  very  temperate. 

Whatever  may  be  the  cafe  with  the  iiiLcrnal  parts  of 
Africa,  it  is  certain  that  its  coafts  are  well  watered 
with  many  very  conliderable  rivers.  The  Nile  and  the 
Niger  may  be  reckoned  among  the  largeft  in  any  part 
of  the  world,  AmcriL-a  excepted.  The  rirll  difcharges 
itfelf  into  the  Mediterranean,  after  a  prodigious  courfe 
from  its  fource  in  Abylfinia.  The  origin  neither  of 
the  Nilc,nor  of  the  Niger,  is  certainly  known;  but  that 
of  the  latter  is  fuppofed  to  run  through  a  t  ad  of  land 
little  lefs  than  5000  miles.  Botii  thefe  rivers  annually 
overflow  their  banks,  fertilizing  by  that  means  the 
countries  through  which  they  pafs.  The  Gambia  and 
Senegal  rivers  are  only  branches  of  the  Niger.  Many 
vaft  ridges  of  mountains  alfo  run  through  diffirrent  parts 
of  this  continent ;  but  their  extentis  very  little  known. 
Some  of  the  moft  remarkable  arc,  (i.)  Thofe  railed 
y/r/aj,  lying  between  the  2othand  asihdcgrecof  north 
latitude,  and  fuppofed  alnioJl  to  divide  the  eoniiiiciit 
from  eaft  to  weft.  (2.)  The  mountains  of  the  mo',n,  fo 
called  on  account  of  theirgrcat  height ;  fuppofed  tube 
the  boundaries  between  Abylfinia  and  fome  of  the  in- 
terior kingdoms.  (3.)  The  mountains  of  6";.-r;-<i /,^- 
ana,  fo  called  on  account  of  their  abounding  with  li- 
ons, and  likewifc  fuppofed  to  be  the  boundaries  of  fome 
of  the  nations.  (4)  Thofe  called  by  the  ancients  tiie 
moiinta'in  of  (joii,  on  accjnint  of  their  being  fubjcct  to 
perpetual  thunder  and  lightning.  Of  all  thefe,  how- 
ever, little  more  ii  known  than  their  names. 

To  what  we  have  already  fiid  concerning  the  pro- 
duce of  Africa,  wc  may  add,  that  no  part  of  the  world 
abounds  with  gold  and  tilvcr  in  a  greater  degree.  Here 
alfoarra  prodigious  number  of  elephants  ;  and  it  is 
furprifing,  that  neither  the  ancient  nor  modern  Euro- 
F  f  peans, 


A  F  R 


[     226 


A  F  R 


Africi.     pcans,  notwiihllaiuiing  Llicir  cxtravaga-.u  and  inlaii- 

able  lliiill  after  golJ  aiid  filvcr,    ihoulJ    have  cndta- 

vourcd  to  cilablilli  thcinrclvcs  ctteaiially  in  acouiiuy 
inucli  nearer  u>  them  than  cither  America  or  the  Edit 
'  Indies  ;  and  w  here  the  oljccls  olthcir  delirc  arc  found 
in  equal,  if  not  greater,  plenty. 

Next  to  gold  and  filver,  copper  is  the  moft  valuable 
metal ;  and  on  this  continent  is  found  in  great  plenty, 
inlbmuch  that  the  mountainsof  Atlas  above  mentioned 
arc  faid  all  to  be  eompofed  of  copper  ore.  In  ihort, 
Africa,  though  a  full  quarter  of  die  globe,  ftored  with 
aninexhaulUblc  treafure,  and  capable  of  producing  al- 
moft  every  neccllary,  convenicney,  and  luxury  ot  lite, 
within  itfelf,  fcenis  to  be  utterly  neglededboth  by  its 
own  inhabitants  and  all  other  nations  :  the  former, 
being  in  a  favage  Hate,  art  incapable  of  enjoying  the 
blcHings  offered  them  by  nature  ;  and  the  latter  taking 
no  farther  notice  of  the  inhabitants,  or  their  land,  than 
to  obtain  at  the  ealiell  rate  what  they  procurt_  with  as 
little  trouble  as  polliMe,  or  to  carry  them  off  for  Haves 
to  their  plaiitatioiis  in  America. 

Only  a  fniall  part  of  this  ecuitinent  was  known  to 
the  ancients,  viz.  the  kingdom  of  Egypt,  and  the  nor- 
thern coaft,  comprehending  little  more  than  what  is 
now  known  by  the  name  ui  Barbary.  It  was  divided 
into  Africa  [  I  ol>iui,  and  JJiica  Iiitdrior.  Africa  Pro- 
pria comprehended  only  the  Carthaginian  territories. 
Africa  Interior  comprehended  all  other  nations  to  the 
fouthward  of  thefe  territories,  or  thofe  at  a  greater  di- 
ftance  from  Rome.  The  only  kingdoms,  however, 
with  which  the  Romans  had  any  connection,  were  the 
Nuniidians,  the  Mauritanians,  and  the  Gsetuli.  All 
thefe,  as  w<;ll  as  Kgypt,  were  fwallowed  up  by  that 
enormous  power,  and  reduced  to  the  condition  of  Ro- 
man provinces.  But  the  Romans  never  feem  to  have 
penetrated  beyond  the  tropic  of  cancer. There  appears, 
indeed,  to  have  been  fomc  intercourfe  between  them 
and  the  Ethiopians  :  but  the  latter  always  preferved 
iheir  liberty  ;  and  we  find  their  queen  Candace  men- 
lioned  in  the  times  of  the  apoiUcs,  when  the  Roman 
power  was  at  its  highell  pitch. 

Ueiwecn  the  tropic  of  cancer  and  the  cquinoflial 
line,  amnliitiide  of  favage  nations  were  fuppoled  to 
have  their  relidcncc,  known  by  the  names  of  Melano- 
gaetuli,  Nigritx,  Blemmyes,  Dolopes,  Aftacuri,  Lo- 
tophagi,  Ichihyophagi,  Elcphantophagi,  &c.  (which 
are  taken  notice  of,  is  will  as  the  others  already  men- 
tioned, under  their  proper  names)  ;  but  tiiat  Africa 
vvasapeninfula,  ftems  to  have  been  totally  unknown 
both  to  the  Europeans  and  Afiatics  for  many  ages — 
It  is  probable  indeed,  that  fome  of  the  Phenicians,  and 
their  offspring  the  Carthaginians,  were  not  foignorant ; 
as  thry  carried  navigation  to  a  much  greater  Iieight 
t!ian  either  the  Greeks  or  Romans  :  but  their  difcove- 
ries  were  all  concealed  with  the  greatefl  care, left  other 
nations  (hould  reap  the  benctit  of  them  ;  and  accord- 
ingly we  can  now  find  no  authentic  accounts  concern- 
ing them.  The  navigation  round  Africa,  in  particular, 
is  recorded  by  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers  rather  as 
a  ftr.mge  amuling  tale  than  as  a  real  tranfadion  ;  and 
as  neither  the  progrcfsof  the  Phenician  and  Carthagi- 
nian difcoverics,  nor  the  extent  of  their  navigation, 
were  communicated  to  the  reft  of  mankind,  all  memo- 
rials of  their  extraordinary  Ikill  in  naval  affairs  feem 
jjia  great  mcolurc  to  have  peri:iied,  when  the  niari- 


liuie  I'ower  of  the  former  was  anniliilated  by  Alexan-    Africa. 

der's  eonqutft  of  Tyre,  and  the  empire  of  the  latter  '' — 

was  overturned  by  the  Romans. 

That  the  iieninlula  of  Africa,  however,  was  in  re- 
ality failed  round  by  the  Phtnidans,  we  have  on  in- 
difputablc  authority  ;  for  fomc  of  that  nation  under- 
took the  voyage,  at  the  command  of  Neciio  king  of  E- 
gypt,  about  604  years  bef  re  the  Chriftian  a;ra.  They 
lailcJ  iVom  a  port  in  the  Red  Sea,  and  after  three 
years  returned  by  tlic  Mediterranean  :  and  the  very 
objtttions  that  were  made  to  the  veracity  of  their 
accounts  at  that  time,  arc  unanfwcralle  proofs  to  us 
tiiai  tills  voyage  was  really  accomplilhed.  They  pre- 
tended, that,  having  failed  forfome  time,  the  fun  be- 
came more  and  more  vertical,  after  which  he  appeared 
in  the  north,  and  fecmed  to  recede  from  them  :  that 
as  they  returned,  the  fun  gradually  feemed  to  move 
fouthwards  ;  and,  after  becoming  vertical  once  more, 
appeared  then  in  the  fouih  fide  of  them  as  before  they 
fct  out.  This,  which  we  know  mull  certainly  have  been 
the  cafe,  was  deemed  incredible  at  that  lime,  and  uni- 
vcrfal  ignorance  concerning  the  extent  of  this  conti- 
nent prevailed  till  the  i5thcentnry.  Thefirftattempts 
towards  attaining  a  knowledge  of  Africa  was  made  by 
die  Portuguefe  in  1412.  Notwithftanding  their  vici- 
nity, they  had  never  ventured  beyond  Cape  No'i,  litu- 
attd  in  about  N.  lat.  27^.  :  it  had  received  its  name 
from  a  fuppofed  inipollibility  of  palFing  it.  This  year 
they  proceeded  160  miles  farther,  to  Cape  Bojador  ; 
which  ftretching  a  conllderable  way  into  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  with  rocky  clifts,  appeared  fo  dreadful  to  the 
navigators,  that  they  returned  without  any  attempt  to 
pafs  it.  In  an  attempt  to  double  this  formidable  cape, 
they  difcovcred  the  Madeira  illands  in  1419:  but  Cape 
Bojador  continued  to  be  the  boundary  of  their  conti- 
nental difcovcries  till  1433  ;  when  they  penetrated 
within  the  tropics,  and  in  a  few  years  difcovered  the 
river  Senegal,  Cape  de  Verd,  and  the  illands  which  lie 
off  that  promontory.  In  1449,  the  weftern  illands, 
called  the  Azores,  were  difcovered  :  and  in  1471,  they 
lirft  penetrated  beyond  the  line  ;  and  were  furprifed  to 
find,  that  the  torrid  zone,  contrary  to  the  opinion  of 
the  ancients,  who  imagined  it  to  be  burnt  up  with 
heat,  was  not  only  habitable,  but  fertile  and  populous. 
In  1 48 ij,  they  proceeded  1500  miles  beyond  the  line  ; 
fo  that  they  began  to  entertain  hopes  of  finding  that 
way  a  paffage  to  the  Eaft  Indies  :  and  two  years  after- 
wards, the  Cape  of  Goad  Hope  was  difcovered  by  Bar- 
tholomew de  Diaz  ;  but  it  was  not  lill  the  year  1497, 
that  the  Portuguefe,  uuilc  r  Vafquez  dc  Gama,  aftually 
doubled  this  cape,  and  difcovered  the  true  fliapc  of  the 
continent.  Thus  the  coafts  of  Afria  were  made  per- 
fectly known;  and  probably  the  knowledge  concerning 
its  interior  parts  would  have  been  much  greater  than 
it  is,  had  not  the  general  attention  been  called  off  from 
this  continent  by  the  difcovery  of  America  in  1492. 

The  Romans  for  along  time  maintained  their  power 
in  Africa  :  but  in  the  ye  ir  426,  Bonifacius,  fupreme 
governor  of  all  the  Roman  dominions  in  this  quarter, 
being  compelled  to  revolt  by  the  treachery  of  another 
general  called  Aitins,  and  finding  himfclf  unable  to 
CMiitend  with  the  whole  ftrength  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, called  in  Gcnfericking  of  the  Vandals  to  his  aid  ; 
who  thereupon  abandoned  the  provinces  he  had  feized 
in  Europe,  and  pallcJ  uver  into  AfriLa.     Bonifacius, 

however,. 


A  F  R 


[     227     ] 


A  F  R 


Tiowever,  being  foon  after  reconciled  to  his  cmprcfs 
'  Placidia,  endeavoured  in  vain  to  perfuadc  the  Vandals 
to  retire.  Hereupon  a  war  cnfiitd,  in  wliich  the  bar- 
barians proved  victorious,  and  qiii.kly  over-ran  all  the 
Roman  provinces  in  Africa.  In  the  year  4 55,  a  peace 
was  concluded  ;  when  Nuniidiaand  lo;nc  other  coun- 
tries were  ceded  to  the  Vandals,  wlio  foon  after  fci^ed 
all  the  reft.  Thefc  b  irbari.ins  aid  not  long  enjoy  their 
ill-gotten  poirciiioas  :  for,  aL)o  it  the  year  53;,  Be- 
lifarius  drove  iheni  out,  annexin;r  the  provinces  to 
the  caftern  empire  ;  and  in  647,  the  Saracens,  having 
conquered  Mcfopotaniia,  I'gypt  ^which  anciently  was 
not  included  in  the  meaning  of  the  word  Ajr.cu), 
Phcaicii,  Arabia,  and  Palcftine,  broke  like  a  torrent 
into  Africa,  which  they  quickly  fubducd.  Their  vaft 
empire  bci.ig  in  9^,6  div  led  into  feven  kingdoms, the 
Atrican  ilaes  retained  ihcir  independency  long  after 
theothers  were  fUniaed  by  the  Turks  :  but  in  the  be- 

f  inning  of  the  i6th  century,  bfingafraid  of  falling  un- 
er  the  yoke  of  Spii.i,  they  invited  the  Turks  to  their 
alQftance  ;  whofirlt:protcctcd,andtheninllaved,them. 
They  ftill  continue  in  a  kind  of  dependence  on  the  Ot- 
toman empire.  They  arc  not.  however,  properly 
fpeaking,  the  fubjifis  of  the  grand  Signior,  but  call 
him  their  pnteflo',  paying  him  an  annual  tribute.  On 
the  coafts,  the  natives  are  aimoft  all  addicl.ed  to  pira- 
cy ;  and  with  fuch  faccefs  have  they  carried  on  their 
employment,  that  the  greateft  powers  in  Europe  are 
become  their  tributaries,  in  order  to  procure  liberty 
to  trade  on  the  Mediterranean. 

Concerning  even  thofc  ftates  which  arc  neareft  to 
Europe,  very  little  is  known  :  but  the  interior  nations 
are  fcarcc  known  by  name  ;  nor  do  aimoft  any  two  of 
the  moft  learned  moderns  agree  in  their  divili'm  of  A- 
frica  into  kingdoms  ;  and  the  rcafon  is,  that  fcarcely 
any  traveller  hath  ever  penetrated  into  ihefe  inhofpi- 
table  regions.  According  to  the  beft  accounts,  con- 
cerning thofc  regions  of  Africa  lying  beyond  Egypt 
and  Barbary,  they  are  divided  in  the  following  man- 
ner. On  the  weilern  coaft,  to  the  fouth  of  Barbary, 
lie  the  kingdoms  of  IJildulgerid,  Zaara,  Ncgroland, 
Loango,  Congo,  Ang  da,  Benguela,  and  Terra  de 
Netal.  On  the  eaftcrn  coaft  beyond  Egypt,  are  thofe 
of  Nubia,  Adal,  Ajan,  Zanguebar  (between  thefe  two 
ahugedcfart  isintcrpofcd),  Monomatapa,  and  Sofola. 
In  the  interior  parts,  the  kingdoms  of  Lower  Ethio- 
pia, Abex,  Monemuge,  and  Matanan,  are  made  men- 
tion of.  The  fouthermoft  part,  called  Cafraria,  is 
well  known  for  the  habitation  of  the  Hottentots. 

In  many  material  circumftances,  the  ialiib'tantsof 
this  extenlivecontineni  agree  with  each  other.  It  we 
exrept  the  people  of  Abyllinia,  who  are  tawny,  and 
profefs  a  mixture  of  Chriftianity,  Ju  iaifm,and  Fagan- 
ifm,  thry  are  all  of  a  black  conipWxinn.  In  their  re- 
ligion, except  on  the  fea-coifts,  which  have  been  vili- 
ted  and  fettled  by  fti  angers,  they  arc  pagans  ;  and  the 
form  of  government  isevtry  where  nionar-hical.  Few 
p'inres,  however,  po!refsavcryextfiilivejurifdi>fti<'n; 
lor  as  the  natives  of  this  part  of  Africa  are  grofsly  ig- 
norant in  all  the  arts  of  utility  or  refinement,  they 
.ire  little  arquiinted  with  one  another  ;  and  generally 
nnitid  in  f'  all  focicties,  each  govenu-d  by  its  own 
prince.  In  Aby'.finia.  indeed,  as  wrll  is  in  Congo, 
Loaago,  and  Ani;olo,  we  arc  told  of  powerful  n.o- 
Karchs  ;  but  on  examination,  it  is  found  th«t  the  au- 


thority of  thefe  princes  ftands  on  a  precarious  footing, 
each  tribe  or  fcparate  body  of  their  fubjects  being  un- 
der the  influence  of  a  petty  chieftain  of  their  own, 
flyled  Nigiii,  to  whofc  commands,  however  coBtrarjr 
to  thofe  of  the  Negafcha  Negafcht,  or  king  of  kings, 
they  are  always  ready  tofubmit. 

The  fertility  of  a  country  fo  proJigioufly  extenlive, 
might  be  fuppofed  more  various  than  wc  rind  it  is  :  in 
(id:,  there  is  no  medium  in  this  part  of  Atrica  witk 
regard  to  the  advantages  of  foil ;  it  is  cither  pcrfc.il/ 
barren  or  extremely  fertile.  This  arifcs  from  the  in- 
tenfe  heat  of  the  fun  ;  which,  where  it  meets -.vilh  fuf- 
ficient  moifture,  produces  the  utmoft  luxuriancy  ;  and 
in  thofe  countries  were  there  are  few  rivers,  reduces 
the  fnrface  of  the  earth  to  a  barren  fand.  Of  this  fort 
are  the  countries  of  Anian  and  Zaara  ;  which,  for 
want  of  water,  and  confequcntly  of  ail  other  ncceli'a- 
rits,  arc  reduced  toperfctl  deferts,as  the  name  of  the 
latter  denotes.  In  thofc  countries,  on  t!ie  other  hand, 
where  there  is  plenty  of  water  and  particularly  where 
the  rivers  ovcrrtow  the  land  part  oi  the  year  as  in  A- 
byflinia,  the  prodiitlions  of  nature,  both  of  the  animal 
and  vegetable  kinds,  arc  found  in  the  higheft  perfec- 
tion and  greateft  abundance.  The  countries  of  Jlan- 
dingo,  Ethiopia,  Congo,  Angola,  Batua,  Truiicui, 
Monomotapa,  Cafati,  and  Mehenemugi,  are  extreme- 
ly rich  in  gold  and  filver.  The  bafcr  metals,  like  wife, 
are  found  in  thefe  and  many  other  parts  of  rtfrica. 
But  the  perfonsof  the  natives  make  the  moft  confider- 
ablc  article  in  the  produce  and  traffic  of  this  miferable 
quarter  of  the  globe. 

On  the  Guinea  or  weftern  coaft,  the  EnglilTi  trade 
to  James  Kort,  and  other  fettlcmcnts  near  and  up  the 
river  Gambia;  where  they  exchange  their  woollen  and 
linen  manufactures,  their  hardware,  and  fpirituous  li- 
quors, for  the  perfons  of  the  natives.  By  the  treaty 
of  peace  in  1785,  the  river  of  Senegal,  with  its  de- 
pendencies, were  given  up  to  Krance.  Gold  and  ivory, 
next  to  the  llave  trade,  form  the  principal  branches  of 
African  commerce.  Thefc  are  carried  on  from  the 
fame  coaft,  where  the  Dutch  and  French,  as  well  as 
Englifh  have  their  fctilcments  for  this  purpofe. 

The  P.)rtiigucfe  are  in  poifcilion  of  the  call  and  weft 
coaft  of  Africa,  t'rom  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  to  the 
Equator;  which  iinmenfe  trad  thry  became  mafters 
of  by  their  fuccellivc  attempts  and  happy  difcovery  and 
navigation  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  From  the 
coaft  of  Zanguebar,  on  the  caftern  lide  they  trade  not 
only  for  the  articles  abovementioncd.  but  likcwife  for 
fcveral  others  ;  as  fcna,  aloes,  civet,  ambergris,  and 
frankincenfe.  The  Dutch  have  ftttlements  towards 
the  fouthcrn  part  of  the  continent,  in  the  country 
called  CafFraria,  or  the  land  of  the  Hottentots,  parti- 
cularly Cape  Town,  whichiswcll  fettled  and  fortitied  ; 
where  their  (liips  bound  to  India  ufually  put  in,  and 
trade  with  the  natives  for  their  cattle,  in  exchange  for 
which  thiy  give  them  fpirituous  liquors. 

The  Portuguefcbcingfovercignsof  the  greateft  part 
ofthccoaft,  have  a  number  of  black  princes  their  iii- 
bntaries.  There  arc  feme  independent  princes  who 
have  cxicnfivc  dominions  ;  particularly  the  kings  of 
Dahome  and  W'i  lah,  the  moft  noted  of  any  for  the 
infamous  llave  trade.  Upwards  of  200  years  have  the 
European  nations  traded  with  Africa  in  human  flclh  ; 
and  encouraged  in  the  Nrj^ro  couniiici,  wars,  rapine, 
Y  i  2  dcfolatioD, 


Africu. 


A  G  A  [22 

Affua  defolation,  and  murder,  that  the  Weft  India  idands 
II  miglu  be  fupplica  with  that  commodity.  The  annual 
^gg-  exportation  of  poor  creatures  from  Africa  for  (laves 
"^  '  hath  exceeded  ioo,coo;  numbers  of  whom  are  driven 
down  like  fliccp,  perhaps  a  looo  miles  from  the  fca- 
coall,  who  are  generally  inhabitants  of  villages  that 
have  been  furrounded  in  the  night  by  armed  force,  and 
carried  ott' to  be  fold  to  traders. — Nor  do  tiic  plan- 
ters, who  purchalc  them,  iile  any  pains  to  inllruift 
them  in  religion,  to  make  them  amends  for  the  oppref- 
lion  thus  exercifed  upon  them.  It  is  faid  they  are  un- 
naturally avcrfc  to  every  thing  that  tends  to  it  ;  yet 
thcFortugucfe,  French,  and  Spaniards,  in  their  fet- 
tlcmcnts,  fuccced  in  their  attempts  to  inftrutl:  them, 
as  much  to  the  advantage  of  the  commerce  as  of  reli- 
gion. It  is  for  the  fake  of  Chrillianity,  and  the  ad- 
vantages accompanying  it,  that  Englilh  (laves  embrace 
every  occafionofdei'ertingto  thefettlcmcnts  of  thcfe 
nations. — But  upon  this  fubjert  the  feelings  and  re- 
flexion of  that  nation  have  of  late  been  aljundaiitly 
roufed,  and  in  the  inveifigation  of  it  the  wifdom  of 
the  Icgillator  is  foon  to  be  employed. 

AKRlCANco.MPANY.a  fociety  of  merchants,  cfta- 
blillied  by  KingCharlcs  the  II.  for  trading  to  Africa; 
which  trade  is  now  laid  open  to  all  thcfubjccls,  paying 
lo per  ant.  for  maintaining  the  forts. 

AFRICANUS  (Julius),  an  excellent  hiftorian  of 
the  third  century,  the  author  of  a  chronicle  which 
was  greatly  t(kcmed,and  in  which  he  reckons  5500 
years  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  Julius  Csefar. 
This  work,  ofwliich  we  havenownomore  thanwhat 
is  to  be  found  in  tuftbius,  ended  at  the  22ill:yearof 
the  vulgar  xra.  Africanus  alfo  wrote  a  letter  to  Ori- 
gen  on  the  hillory  of  Sufanna,  which  he  reckoned 
fuppolititious  ;  and  vvc  havcflill  a  letter  of  his  to,Ari- 
Uides,  in  which  he  reconciles  the  feeming  contradic- 
tions in  the  two  genealogies  of  Chrift  recorded  by 
Sr  Mathew  and  St  Luke. 

AKSLAGERS,  pcrfons  appointed  by  the  burgo- 
mailers  of  Amftcrdam  to  prefide  over  the  public  falcs 
made  in  that  city.  They  muft  always  have  a  clerk  of 
tiie  fecretary's  office  with  them,  to  take  an  account  of 
the  fale.  They  corrcfpond  to  our  brokers,  or  auc- 
tioneers. 

AVT,  in  the  fea  language,  the  fame  with  abaft. 

AFTERBIRTH,  in  midwifery,  fignitics  the  mem- 
branes Mhicli  furrounded  the  infant  in  the  womb, 
jjencraHy  called  the  fecundines.    See  MidwIkerv. 

AFTERJMATH,  in  hultandry,  lignifies  the  grafs 
which  fprings  or  grows  up  after  mowing. 

AFTliRNOON,  the  latter  half  of  the  artificial  day, 
or  that  fpaee  between  noon  and  night. 

AFTER-PAINS,  in  midwifery,  exceflive  pains  felt 
in  the  groin,  loins,  &c.  after  the  woman  is  delivered. 

AFTER-SWARMS,  in  the  management  of  bees, 
;irc  thofe  which  leave  the  hive  fomc  time  after  the  firfl 
has  fwarmcd.     Sec  Bee. 

AFWESTAD,  a  large  copper-work  belonging  to 
the  crow-fi  of  Sweden,  which  lies  on  the  Dala,  in  the 
province  of  Dalecarlia,  in  Sweden.  It  looks  like  a 
town,  and  has  its  own  church.  Here  they  make  cop- 
per-platcs;  and  have  a  mint  forfmall  lilver  coin,  as  well 
asaroyal  poft-hoiifc.  W.l/ong.  (4.  to.N.  Lat.  j8.  ro. 

AGA,  in  the  t-jrkifh language,  fignifics  a  great  lord 
or  ■commaiMltfr.     Hence  the  aga  of  the  Janilfaries  is 


s    ] 


A  F  R 


the  commander  in  chief  of  that  corps  ;  at  the  general 
of  horic  is  denominaitd  Jpakcclar  oga.  'J'lie  aga  of 
the  Jauidarics  is  an  ofiicer  of  great  importance.  Me  is 
ihe  only  ptrfon  who  is  alhiwed  to  appear  before  the 
Grand  Siguior  witliout  his  arn.sacrofs  Jiis  brealt  in  the 
pofturc  of  a  flavc.  Eunuchs  at  Conftantinople  are  in 
pollcllion  of  moil  of  the  principal  pofts  of  the  feraglio  : 
The  title  «§^i/ is  given  tothcui  all,  whether  in  employ- 
ment or  not.  '1  his  title  is  alio  given  to  all  fuchincn 
without  employ,  and  tfpccially  to  wealthy  landholders. 
A\  c  (ind  alio  agtii  in  other  countries.  The  chief 
officers  under  the  Khan  of  Tartary  arc  called  by  this 
name.  And  among  the  Algerincs,  we  re.id  of  ajaj 
chofen  from  among  the  botuk  bnfliu  (the  firft  rank  of 
military  otHcers),  and  fent  to  govern  in  chief  the  towns 
and  garrifons  of  that  llatc,  Thc/!'^«  of  Algiers  is  the 
prelidcnt  of  the  divan,  or  fcnate.  For  fomeycars,  the 
aga  was  the  iupremc  ofiicer  ;  and  governed  the  ftate  in 
tlie  place  of  balhaw','whofe  power  dwindled  to  a  flia- 
dow.  But  the  foldier/  riling  againft  the  boluk  bejlns, 
or  agai,  maliacred  moll  of  them,  and  transferred  the 
fovereign  power  to  the  calif,  with  the  title  of  ZJt;^  or 
King. 

AGADES,  a  kingdom  and  city  of  Ncgroland  in  A- 
frica.  It  lies  nearly  under  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  be- 
tween Gubur  and  Cano.  The  town  fl.inds  on  a  river 
that  falls  into  the  Niger  ;  it  is  walled,  and  the  king's 
palace  is  in  the  midlt  of  it.  The  king  has  a  retinue, 
wlio  fcrve  as  a  guard.  The  inhabitants  are  not  fo 
black  as  other  negroes,  and  confift  of  merchants  and 
artificers.  Thofe  that  inhabit  the  fields  arc  Ihephcrds 
orherdfmen,  whole  cottages  are  made  of  Iwughs,  and 
arc  carried  about  from  place  to  place  on  the  back  of 
oxen.  They  arc  fixed  on  the  fpot  of  ground  where 
they  intend  to  feed  their  cattle.  The  houfes  in  the 
city  are  flately,  and  built  after  the  Barbary  fafliion. 
This  kingdom  was,  and  may  be  Hill,  tributary  to  the 
kingof  Tombut.  Itis  well  watered  ;  and  there  is  great 
plenty  of  grafs,  cattle,  fcuna,  and  manna.  The  pre- 
vailing religion  is  the  Mahometan,  but  very  loofely 
profclied.  N.  Lat.  26.  10.  E.  Long.  9.  10. 
AGALLOCHUM.  See  Xvlo  Aloes. 
AGALMATA,  in  antiquity,  a  term  originally 
ufed  to  fignify  any  kind  pf  ornaments  in  a  temple  ; 
but  aftcrw-ards  for  the  llatues only,  as  beingmoflcon- 
fpicuous. 

AGAMEMNON,  the  fonof  Atreus  by  Eropc,  was 
captain  gcneralof  the  Trojan  expedition.  It  was  fore- 
told to  him  by  Caflandra,  that  his  wife  Clytcmneftra 
would  be  his  deaih  :  yet  he  returned  to  her  ;  and  ac- 
cordingly he  was  llain  by  /Egillhus,who  had  gained  up- 
on his  wife  in  his  abfence,  and  by  her  means  got  the 
government  into  his  own  hands. 

AGANIPPIDES,  in  ancient  poetry,  a  defignation 
given  to  the  mufes,  from  a  fountain  of  mount  Helicon, 
called  yjganippe. 

AGANIPPE,  in  antiqity,  a  fountain  of  Bocotia 
at  mount  Helicon,  on  the  borders  between  Phocis  and 
Bocotia,  facrcd  to  the  mufes,  and  running  into  the  river 
Permcll'cus  ;  (Pliny,  Paufanias.)  Ovid  fcems  tomake 
yiganippe  and  Hippocrene  the  fame.  Solinus  more  tru- 
ly diftinguifhes  them,  and  afcribes  the  blending  thdm 
to  jioctical  licenfc. 

AGAPE,  in  ecckriaflical  hiftory,  the  love-feaft,  or 
fcaft  of  charji  V,  in  ufe  among  the  primitive  Chriftians  ; 

when 


A  G  A 


[     229     ] 


A  G  A 


Agapeta,  when  a  liberal  contribution  v.as  maJe  by  the  rich  to 
A^-ard.  feed  the  pour.  The  word  is  Greek,  and  ligjiilicsAf  1^. 
— ■^~  St  Cry  foilom  gives  the  following  account  of  the  fcaft, 
which  he  derives  from  the  apo.iolical  practice.  He 
lays,  "  the  firlt  Chriftians  had  all  things  in  common, 
as  wc  read  in  the  Acts  of  tjie  Apoillcs  ;  but  when  that 
equality  of  poffciuona  ccafcil,  as  it  did  even  in  the  A- 
poflles  time,  the  agape,  or  lovc-fcaft,  was  fubflituted 
in  the  room  of  it.  Upon  ccruin  days,  after  partaking 
of  the  Lord's  fupper,  they  met  at  a  common  fcaft ;  the 
rich  bringing  provifioas,  and  the  poor  who  had  nothing 
being  invited."  It  was  always  attended  with  receiving 
the  holy  facrainentibut  there  is  fomc  difference  bet  ween 
the  ancient  and  modern  interpreters  as  to  the  eircum- 
ftance  of  time,  viz.  \V  b  ether  this  fcad  v.as  held  before 
or  after  the  communion.  St  CryfoHoin  is  of  the  lat- 
tcropinion  ;  thelcarntd  Dr  Cave  of  the  former.  Thcfe 
lovc-feails,  during  the  three  firft  centuries,  were  iicld 
in  the  church  without  fcan  Jal  or  offence  ;  but,  in  after 
times,  the  heathens  began  to  tax  them  with  impurity. 
This  gave  occalion  to  a  reformation  of  thcfe  agapie. 
The  kifs  of  charily,  with  which  the  ceremony  ufcd  to 
end,  wasnolongcrgiven  between  different  fcxes  ;  and 
it  wasexprcfsly  forbidden  to  have  any  beds  or  couches, 
for  the  convcnieucy  of  thole  who  would  be  difpofcd  to 
eat  more  at  their  ctfe.  Notwithftanding  thcfe  precau- 
tions, the  abiifes  committed  in  them  became  fo  noto- 
rious, that  the  holding  of  them  (in  churches  at  Icafl) 
was  foleiniily  condemned,  at  tlie  council  of  Carthage, 
in  the  year  ^97. 

AGAPETyt,  in  ccclefiaftical  hiftory,  a  name  given 
to  certain  virgins  and  widows,  who,  in  the  ancient 
church,  aflbciated  thcmfelves  with,  and  attended  on, 
ecclefiaflics,  our  of  a  motive  of  piety  and  charity. 

In  the  primitive  days  th)[re  were  women  indituted 
De  A  co»JEsSEs,who,de  voting  thcmfelves  tothefervice 
of  riie church,  took  up  their  abode  with  the  minifteis, 
and  aflilled  them  in  their  functions.  In  the  fervour  of 
the  prijuiiive'picty.therc  was  nothing  fcaadalous  in  thcfe 
focietics:  but  they  afterwards  degenerated  intoliber- 
tiuifm  ;  infomuch,  that  St  Jeroni  alks,  with  indigna- 
tion, undc,  agapitaruvt  pejl's  i'l  ecclcfias  iiitroiit  ?  This 
gave  occafion  to  councils  to  fupprcfs  them. — St  Atha- 
nafius,  mentions  a  priell,  named  Leontius,  who,  to  re- 
move all  occafion  of  fufpicion,  offered  to  mutilate  him- 
fclf,  to  prefcrve  Iiis  beloved  companion. 

AGARD  (Arthur),  a  leirned  Englifli  antiquarian, 
born  at  Tcfton  in  Derby/hire  in  the  year  IJ40.  His 
fondncfs  for  Englifh  antiquities  induced  him  to  make 
many  large  collections  ;  and  his  ofRcc  as  deputy  cham- 
berlain ol  the  exchequer,  which  he  held  45  years,  gave 
him  great  opportunities  of  acquiring  (kill  in  that  (tudy. 
Similarity  of  tailc  brought  him  acquainted  w  ith  Sir 
Robert  Cotton,  and  other  learned  men,  who  aflbciated 
themfclvesunder  thenameofT/W5o«i'/y  of  Antiquarians , 
of  which  fociciy  Mr  Agard  wasaconfpicuous  member. 
He  made  the  doomfJay-book  his  ]ieculiar  ftudy  ;  and 
compofed  a  work  purpofely  to  explain  it,  under  the  title 
of  Ti  aflatns  de  t/fii  ct  obfciirioiibiii  verbis  libride Domef- 
day  :  he  alfo  compiled  a  book  for  the  fcrvicc  of  his  fuc- 
celTors  in  office,  which  he  dcpolited  with  the  officers 
of  the  king's  receipt,  as  a  proper  index  for  fuccecding 
officers.  All  the  red  of  his  collcilions,  containingat 
Icaft  twenty  volumes,  he  bequeathed  to  Sir  Robert 
Cotton;  and  died  in  1615. 


AGAR.IC.     Sec  Ac.^Ricf  s. 

Fi:male  AatRic.     See  Boletus. 

Mincr.-'l  /IcAtLic,  a  marlcy  earth  rcfcmbling  the 
vegetable  of  that  name  in  colour  and  texture.  It  is 
found  in  the  fiil'ures  of  rocks,  and  on  the  roofs  of  ca- 
verns i  and  is  fometimes  ufcd  as  an  aftringcnt  in  fluxes, 
hemorrhagies,  &c. 

AGARIC  US,  or  Mushroom,  a  genus  of  the  order 
of  fungi,  belonging  to  the  cryptogamia  clafs  of  plants^ 

Species  and uj'ii.  Botanical  writers  enumerate  JJ 
fpecics  belonging  to  this  geiius  ;  of  which  the  mod  re- 
markable arc  the  following. 

1.  The  campcllris,  or  common  mufhroom,  has  the 
top  or  cap  firft  of  a  dirty  cream  colour,  convex,  and, 
if  but  jud  expanding,  the  under  part,  or  what  is  called 
the  gi/ii,  is  of  a  bright  fle.Qi  red  :  this  colour  lads  but 
a  little  time  before  it  turns  darker ;  and  when  the 
plant  is  old,  or  has  been  fomc  time  cxpaudcd,  the  gills 
become  of  a  dark  brown,  the  cap  almod  rtat,  of  a 
dirty  colour,  and  often  a  little  fcaly.  It  differs  much 
in  fizc  in  different  plants,  it  being  from  an  inch  to 
Ceven  inches  broad.  The  general  ufe  of  it  is  well 
known,  it  is  found  in  woods,  old  paftures,  and  by 
ro.id-fides,  and  is  in  the  grcatcft  perfection  in  Sep- 
tember. There  is  a  variety  of  this  with  a  yellowini 
white  cap  and  white  gills  ;  this  is  very  firm,  but  feldora 
expands  fo  freely  as  the  true  fort,  and  when  broiled 
will  exude  a  yellowi/h  juice.  It  is  probable  this  fort 
is  not  pernicious,  though  it  is  always  rejedcd  by  fuch 
as  can  diftinguiih  it. 

2.  The  pratenfis,  or  champ'gnion,  is  very  common 
upon  heaths  and  dry  paftures.  A  number  of  them  ge- 
nerally come  up  in  a  place,  ranged  in  curved  lines  or 
circles.  The  cap  is  finall,  almod  flat,  from  one  to 
two  or  three  inches  diameter,  of  a  pak  buff  colour, 
often  crimplcd  at  the  edges,  and,  when  dry,  tough 
like  leather  or  a  thin  piece  of  fine  cork.  The  gills 
are  of  the  colour  of  the  cap  ;  are  thinly  placed  ;  with 
a  iliort  one,  and  fometimes  two,  coming  from  the  edge 
of  the  cap  between  each.  The  dalk  or  pillar  is  alfo 
of  the  colour  of  the  cap  ;  it  is  long,  flendcr,  and  aH 
the  way  of  a  thickncfs.  Tliis  plant  has  but  little  fmcll  j 
is  rather  dry  ;  and  yet,  when  broiled  or  dewed,  it 
communieatcs  a  good  flavour.  In  pcrfciflion  ai  the 
fame  time  with  the  former. 

3.  The  chaniarellus,  or  chantarelie  agaric,  is  rather 
a  fmallcr  fungus  than  the  former.  The  rap  is  yellow, 
of  different  hues  in  diflercnt  plants,  fome  being  of  a 
paleyellow,and  others  of  an  orange  colour.  It  is  gene- 
rally funk  in  the  middle,  fomewhat  rcfcmbling  a  tun- 
nel, and  its  edges  are  often  twided  and  contorted  fo  as 
to  form  finufes  or  angles.  The  gills  arc  of  a  deeper 
colour  than  the  outlide,  are  very  fine,  even,  numerous, 
and  beautifully  branched.  The  ramifications  begin  at 
the  dalk,  and  are  varioully  extended  towards  the  edge 
of  the  cap.  The  pillar  is  of  the  fame  colour  as  the 
cap,  is  fcldoni  infertcd  in  the  centre,  but  rather  fide* 
ways;  it  is  fliort,  thickilh  at  the  root,  and  the  gills 
modly  run  down  the  top,  which  make  it  appear  fmall- 
eft  in  the  middle.  This  plant  broiled  with  fait  an4 
pepper  has  much  the  flavour  of  a  roaded  cockle  ;  and 
is  edeemed  a  delicacy  by  the  French,  as  is  the  former. 
It  is  found  in  woods  and  high  padures,  and  is  in  per- 
fcftion  about  the  end  of  Seinember. 

4.  The  dcliciofus,  or  orange  agaric.     The  general 

fize 


A  G  A 


[     230     ] 


A  G  A 


,.  ■.  of  the  rip  of  ihis  ipccics  is  from  two  t  >  four 
inches  broid.  its  tonu  is  circular,  wiih  tLe  cdj;cs 
bent  inwards  J  convex  on  the  iipprr  liirface,  except 
in  the  cintrt-,  where  it  is  s  little  dcprelltd,  fo  as  near- 
ly toreicmlile  the  apex  of  a  fiiio,)th  apple.  The  co- 
lour is  a  fordid  yel.ow,  llreakcd  w  iih  afli  and  ycllow- 
ilh  Isrown,  Irciu  the  centre  to  the  edge,  and  when  It 
is  bro/icn  ii  emits  a  gold  colour  juice.  The  gills  are 
of  a  deep  ytUow,  and  a  few  ot  ilieiu  corae  out  by  p.iirs 
at  the  ftrilk,  but  divide  innncdijitly,  anJ  run  llraij;ht 
to  the  edge  of  the  cap.  The  llalk  or  pillar  is  thinncfl 
near  the  middle,  thickell  at  the  root,  and  when  cut 
traufverftly,  it  is  quite  white  in  the  centre,  with  a 
tine  yellow  ring  that  goes  to  the  edge.  The  fungus, 
well  fcafoiicd  and  then  broiled,  has  the  exact  flavour 
of  a  roalled  niufcle.  Its  prime  time  is  September,  and 
it  is  to  he  found  in  high  dry  woods. 

5.  The  cinnaniomcus,  or  brown  mufliroom,  has  a 
cap  the  colour  of  frelh-tanned  hides.  At  firft  it  is 
hemifphcrical,  firm,  even,  and  flefhy,  with  moilly  a 
fmall  rifing  in  the  centre  ;  but  when  old  it  is  quite  flat. 
The  gills  are  of  a  ycUowifli  brown,  not  very  dillant 
from  each  other,  bent  like  a  knee  at  the  pillar,  and 
have  a  fliort  one  or  two  run  from  the  edge  of  the  cap 
between  each.  The  pillar  is  near  the  length  of  a  fin- 
ger, firm,  rather  thick,  brown  at  the  bafc,  of  a  for- 
did yellow  upward,  and,  when  cut  tranfverfcly,  of  a 
fine  white  grain.  The  cap  in  different  plants  is  from 
two  to  five  inches  broad.  The  whole  plant  hasaplea- 
fant  fu'cU,  and  when  broiled  gives  a  good  flavour.  It 
is  found  in  woods  in  September  and  October. 

6.  The  violaceus,  or  violet  mufliroom.  Its  cap, 
when  firft  expanded,  is  fmooth,  hemilphcrical,  the 
main  furfaccof  a  livid  colour,  but  towards  the  margin 
it  is  of  a  better  blue.  When  full  grown  or  old,  it  be- 
comes corrugated,  and  of  a  rufty  brown.  The  gills 
of  a  young  plant  are  of  a  beautiful  violet  colour,  and 
regularly  placed.  The  pillar  is  of  the  colour  of  the 
gills,  iliort,  of  a  conical  form,  but  fwcUed  at  the  bale 
into  a  fort  of  bulb.  Its  upper  part  is  furrounded  with 
an  iron-coloured  wool,  which,  in  a  plant  jull  expand- 
ing, ftreiches  crofs  to  the  edge  of  the  cap  like  a  web. 
This  fpecies  requires  much  broiling;  but  when  fufhci- 
cntly  done  and  icafoned,  it  is  as  delicious  as  an  oyfler. 
It  is  found  in  woods  in  Oftobcr.  Hudfon's  bulbofus 
is  only  a  variety  of  this  plant. 

The  above  arc  the  only  fpecies  that  can  be  fafcly 
recommended  as  edible  :  though  tliere  are  fome  o- 
ther  forts  which  are  frequently  eaten  by  the  country 
people  !  and  it  is  probable  tiie  grcatefl  part  of  thofe 
with  firm  Hefhy  caps  might  be  eaten  with  fafety,  pro- 
vided they  were  chofcn  from  dry  grounds.  It  is 
well  known  that  foil  and  fituation  have  a  great  in- 
fluence upon  the  properties  of  plants;  and  thefe  be- 
ing of  a  lingular  nature,  and  abfolutely  between  that 
of  an  anin\al  and  vegetable,  mny  be  more  powerfully 
afFccled  than  a  complete  fpecic-s  of  either,  by  reafon 
they  iiave  ni  ither  leaves  nor  branches  to  carry  offthe 
noxious  damps  and  vapours  ofa  rtagnant  foil,  as  a  per- 
fect vesretable  has  ;  nor  have  they  any  grofs  excremen- 
tal  dif-hari'es,  like  thofe  of  living  animal.  The  gills 
iiodoubt  do  exh  le  fome  i)t  their  fuperfluous  moifturc  ; 
I)it  their  (itiaiion  is  fuch,  that  any  thick  (team  from 
the  earth  may  lodge  in  them,  and  by  cloguing  their 
excretory  ducts,  render  the  plants  morbid.  Thus  they 
foon  run  into  a  ftate  of  putrefaction,  and  become  a 


prey  to  worms,  f^ies,  and  other  infe(?ts.  The  common    ARarlcus 

nuilhroom, which  is  in  general  clleem  (though  we  have   v— — ' 

fevcral others  better)  is  not  fafely  eaten  when  produced 
upon  a  moiil  {oil.  I  liofe  w!io  gather  muflirooms  for 
fule  IhoulJ  therefore  have  particular  regard  to  the  lands 
they  collect  thtm  from,  efpeciaily  it  they  know  ihcy 
are  to  be  broiled  ;  but  if  they  be  intended  for  catchup, 
perhaps  they  may  be  lefs  cautious,  as  the  fait  and  fpices 
with  which  the  juice  is  boiled  may  correct  any  evil 
difpoiition  in  the  plants.  But,  even  in  this  cafe,  catch- 
up made  of  muflirooms  taken  from  a  dry  foil  has  a 
more  aromatic  and  pleafunt  flavour  than  that  which  is 
made  of  thofe  taken  from  a  moiit  one,  and  it  will  al- 
ways keep  a  great  deal  better. 

Of  the  poifonous  forts,  the  two  following  are  the 
molt  lingular  : 

7.  The  mufcarius,  orrcddiih  mulliroom,  has  a  large 
hat, almolt flat,  titherwhitc,red,orcrinifon,fonKtimes 
bcfet  with  angular  red  wans  ;  the  gills  are  white.flat.and 
invcrfely  fj>car-fliapcd  ;  the  pillar  is  hollow.thecaphxtd 
to  the  middle  of  the  pillar,  limber,  and  hanging  down. 
This  fpecies  grows  in  pallures,  and  is  laid  10  dcltroy 
bugs  effectually  if  ihcjuice  is  rubbed  upon  the  walls  and 
bed-pofls.  The  inhabitants  of  the  north  of  Europe, 
whole  houfesare  greatly  in  felled  with  flies  at  the  de- 
cline of  fummer,  intufc  it  in  milk,  and  fct  it  in  their 
windows,  and  the  flies  upon  tafting  the  Icaft  drop  arc 
inflantly  poifoned.  An  infulion  of  common  pepper  in 
milk  anfwers  the  fame  purpofc  :  but  the  flies  through 
time  become  wife  enough  not  to  talle  it  ;  and  though 
vaft  numbers  are  at  firll  deftroyed,  it  is  impoliible  to 

clear  a  houfe  of  thcfe  infeils  by  this  means This  is 

the  trioucho-7>:ore  of  the  Ruilians,  Kamtf.hadales,  and 
Koriacs,  who  ufe  it  as  an  inltrument  of  intoxication. 
They  fomctimes  cat  it  dry,  fometimes  immerfed  in  a 
fermented  liquor  made  with  the  cpilobium,  which  they 
drink  notwithftanding  the  dreadlul  eftefts.  They  arc 
firft  fcized  with  convullions  in  all  their  limbs,  then 
with  a  raving  fuch  as  attends  a  burning  fever.  A  thou- 
fand  phantoms,  gay  or  gloomy  (according  to  their  con- 
flitutions),  prefent  themfelves  to  their  imaginations  : 
fome  dance,  others  arc  fcized  with  unfpeakablc  hor- 
rors. They  pcrfonify  this  mufliroon  ;  and,  if  its  ef- 
fects urge  them  to  fuicide,  or  any  dreadful  crime,  they 
fay  they  obey  its  commands.  To  fit  themfelves  for 
preniiditated  alfaflinations,  they  take  the  moucho- 
more.  Such  is  the  fafcination  of  drunkcnnefs,  among 
thefe  people,  that  nothing  can  induce  them  to  forbear 
this  dreadful  potion  ! 

8.  The  clypcatos,  or  long-ftalked  mufliroom,  has 
'  an  hemifphcrical  hat  taperingto  a  point,andclaniiTiy  ; 
the  pillar  is  long,  cylindrical,  and  white  ;  the  gills  arc 
white,  and  not  concave,  dulled  with  a  fine  powdery 
fubflance  on  each  fide  ;  the  rout  is  bulbous,  longf,  and 
hooked  at  the  end.  It  is  found  in  September,  in 
woodlands  and  pafturcs.  This  fpecies  is  thought  to 
be  poifonous;  and  we  have  the  following  account  of 
the  fymptoms  produced  by  eating  it,  in  Dr  Pcrcival's 
Eifays.  "  Robert  U  flier  wood,  of  Middlctown,  near 
Manchefter,  aftrong  hedlihy  man,  a;;rd  ;o  years,  ear- 
ly in  the  morning  gathered  and  eat  what  he  fuppofed 
to  be  a  mufliroom.  He  felt  no  fymi;toms  of  indifpo- 
fition,  till  five  o'clock  in  the  evening  ;  when,  being 
very  thirfty,  he  drank  near  a  quart  of  talk -beer. 
Soon  afterwards  he  became  univerfally  fwoln,  was  (ilk, 
and  in  great  agonies.     A  fcvcrc  vomiting  and  purging 

fuccccded, 


A  G  A 


r  231  ] 


A  G  A 


Vgaricui.   fucceedcJ,  with  violent  cramps  in  his  legs  and  thighs. 

— ~ He  difch.irgcd  fcvcral  pieces  of  the  fungus,  but  with 

little  or  no  relief.  His  pains  and  cvacuationscontiaucd, 
almoA  \v  ithout  interniiilion,  tili  the  next  night ;  when 
he  fell  into  a  found  lleep,  and  awaked  in  the  morning 
perfedl/  cafy,  and  free  from  complaint." 

Many  of  the  dittercnt  fpccies  of  this  genus  grow  on 
cows  or  horfes  dung,  on  dungjiills,  on  rotten  wood,  in 
cellars,  or  on  the  trunks  of  trees  ;  of  which  the  moil 
remarkable  is, 

9.  The  qucrcinus,  or  agaric  of  the  oak.  This  is 
of  various  lizcs,  fonietimcs  not  exceeding  the  bignefs 
of  the  fifl,  fometimcs  as  large  as  a  man's  head.  It 
takes  at  leaft  a  year  or  two  to  grow  to  its  full  fize. 
It  is  dark  coloured,  hard,  heavy,  and  woody;  it  is 
fometimcs  ufcd  by  the  dyers,  as  an  ingredient  in  the 
black  dye.  It  taftesat  firll  fwcctifli  in  the  mouth,  but 
prcfcntly  becomes  very  bitter  and  naufcoiis.  It  was 
formerly  an  article  in  the  Materia  Mcdica  ;  but  is 
now  defcrvedly  rcjeiJltd  from  our  pharmacopoeias. 

Cultun.  Only  the  efculent  kinds  of  mu(hrooms  are 
cultivated  ;  and  the  following  method  is  ufed  by  the 
gardeners  who  raife  them  forfale. — Iftheyoungmulh- 
rooms  cannot  be  procured  from  gardens,  they  muft  be 
looked  for  in  rich  pafturcs  during  the  months  of  Au- 
guftand  September  :  the  ground  mufl  be  opened  about 
their  roots,  where  it  is  frequently  found  fulloffmall 
white  knots;  which  are  the  off-fcts,  or  young  mufli- 
rooms.  Thefe  mull  be  carefully  gat'iercd  in  lumps, 
with  the  earth  about  them  :  but  as  this  fpawn  cannot 
be  found  in  the  pallure,  except  at  that  feafon  when  the 
muflirooms  are  naturally  produced,  it  may  be  fearchcd 
for  at  any  time  in  old  dung-hins,efpecially  where  there 
has  been  much  litter,  and  it  hjth  not  been  penetrated 
by  wet  fo  as  to  rot  :  it  may  alfo  be  found  very  often 
in  old  hot-beds  ;  or  it  may  be  procured  by  mixing 
fomc  long  dung  from  the  liable,  which  has  not  been 
thrown  on  a  heap  to  ferment,  with  llrong  earth,  and 
put  under  cover  to  prevent  wet  getting  to  it.  The 
fpawn  commonly  appears  in  about  two  months  after 
the  mixture  is  made  :  but  proportionably  fooncr  the 
more  cff'edtually  the  air  is  excluded,  provided  the  mix- 
ture is  not  kept  fo  clofe  as  to  heat.  Old  thatch,  or 
litter  which  has  lain  long  abroad  fo  as  not  tofermcnt, 
is  the  bed  covering.  The  fpawn  has  the  appearanc, 
of  white  mould  Ihooiing  out  into  long  llriugs,  by  which 
it  may  bccalily  known  wherever  it  is  met  with. —  The 
beds  for  receiving  the  fpawn  are  now  to  be  prepared. 
Thefe  ihould  be  made  of  citing  in  which  there  is  plenty 
cf  litter,  but  which  (hould  not  be  thrown  on  a  heap  to 
ferment :  that  dung  which  has  lain  fprcadabroad  fora 
month  or  longer  isbeJl.  The  beds  ihould  be  made  on 
dry  ground,  and  the  dung  laid  on  the  furface  ;  the 
width  at  the  bottom  (hould  be  two  ;md  a  half  or  three 
feet,  the  length  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  mulli- 
rooms  dcfircd  ;  then  lay  the  dung  »bout  a  foot  thick, 
covering  it  with  ftrong  earth  about  four  inches  deep. 
Upon  this  lay  more  dung,  about  loinchcs  thick  ;  then 
another  layerof  earth,  (tilldrawing  inthe  ildesofthe 
bed,  foastoform  itlikc  the  roofof  ahoufe  ;  which  may 
be  done  by  three  laycrsof  dung,  and  as  many  of  carih. 
When  the  bed  is  finillied,  it  mull  be  covered  with  litter 
or  old  thatch,  both  to  prevent  its  drying  too  faft  and 
to  keep  out  wet.  In  this  fituation  it  ought  to  remain 
eight  or  ten  days,  whcu  it  will  be  in  a  proper  tempe- 


rature to  receive  the  fpawn;  for  this  is  dellroyed  by  Agarims,. 

too  much  heat ;  though,  before  planting,  it  may  be  kept  « ' 

very  dry,  not  only  without  detriment,  but  with  conli- 
derablc  advantage — The  bed  being  in  a  proper  tem- 
perature for  the  fpawn,  the  coveringof  litter  ihould  be 
taken  oft',  and  the  fides  of  the  bed  linoothcd  ;  then  z 
covering  of  light  rich  earth,  about  an  inch  thick, 
fliould  be  laid  all  over  the  bed  ;  but  this  fliould  :iot  be 
wet.  Upon  this  the  fpawn  rauft  be  thrull,  laying  the 
lumps  two  or  three  inches  afunder  j  then  gently  cover 
this  with  the  fame  light  earth,  above  half  an  inch 
thick;  and  put  the  covcringof  litter  over  the  bed,  lay- 
ing it  fo  thick  as  to  keep  out  wet,  and  prevent  the  bed 
from  drying.  In  fpring  or  autumn  the  mulhrooins 
will  begin  to  appear,  perhaps  in  a  month  after  making  j 
but  when  the  beds  are  made  in  fuminer  or  winter,  they 
are  much  longer  before  they  produce.  In  any  feafon,. 
however,  they  ought  not  to  be  hallily  dellroyed  ;  fincc 
mufliroom-bcds  have  been  known  to  produce  very 
plentifully,  even  after  the  fpawn  has  lain  in  them  live 
or  lix  months.  When  the  beds  arc  dellroyed,  the 
fpawn  fliould  be  carefuliy  prcfervcd,  and  laid  up  in  3. 
dry  place,  at  Icafl  five  or  fix  weeks  before  it  is  again 
planted — The  dilHculty  of  managing  muihroora-bcds 
is,  to  keep  them  always  in  a  proper  degree  of  inoiflurc. 
In  the  fummer  feafon  they  may  be  uncovered  to  re- 
ceive gentle  fhowers  of  rain  at  proper  times  ;  and  in 
long  dry  feafons  the  beds  Ihould  now  and  then  be 
watered,  but  much  wet  ought  by  no  means  to  be  fuf- 
fered  to  come  to  them.  During  the  winter  feafon  they 
muft  be  kept  as  dry  as  polfiblc,  and  fo  clofcly  covered 
as  to  keep  out  cold.  In  frolly,  or  very  cold  weather, 
if  fomewarm  litter,  (haken  out  of  a  dung-heap,  is  laid 
on,  the  growth  of  the  muflirooms  will  be  promoted  : 
but  betwixt  this  and  the  bed,  a  covering  of  dry  litter 
mud  be  interpofed  ;  which  Ihould  be  renewed  as  it  de- 
cays ;  and,  as  the  cold  increafcs,  the  covering  muft  be 
thickened.  By  attending  lothcfe  diretlions,  plenty  of 
muflirooms  may  be  produced  all  the  year  round.  One 
bed  will  continue  good  for  many  months.  Kor  a  pe- 
culiar, perhaps  fabulous,  method  of  producing  mulli- 
rooms,  fee  the  article  Lyncurius. 

Phyficians  have  difputed  much  about  the  qualities 
of  muflirooms  ;  fome  confidering  them  as  a  rich  nou- 
riihmcnt,  and  perfcclly  innocent,  when  prsperly  cho- 
fcn  ;  and  others  alltrting  them  to  be  extremely  dele- 
terious. Moll  of  the  fungi  arc  indeed  of  a  hurtful 
qnality  ;  and,  with  rcfpcd  to  the  whole  tribe,  the  ef- 
culent are  scry  few.  Kfculcnt  mulhrooms  are  very 
nutritive,  very  readily  alkalefccnt,  and  more  fo  with- 
out intermediate  accfcciuy  than  any  other  vegetable  : 
they  arc  therefore  a  rich  nourilhmcnt,  and  much  jkin 
to  animal  food  ;  on  which  account  they  may  be  in- 
dulged in  conliderablc  quantity  to  llrong  perfons.  It 
requires, howcver,lkill  to  diftinguifluhis efculent  kind; 
and  very  few,  cfpecially  of  thofc  who  arc  commonly 
employed  to  gather  them,  viz.  the  fcrvants,  have  ftu- 
dicd  Clufuis,  or  other  authors  who  have  been  at  the 
pains  to  dillinguilli  them.  Perhaps  efculent  mufli- 
rooms, if  old,  acquire  a  dangerous  acrimony  ;  and  for 
thefe  rcafons  Dr  CuUcn  is  of  opinion  that  it  is  for  i^e 
moft  part  prudent  to  avoid  them.  In  the  warm  cli- 
mates they  may  be  ufed  as  light  food  ;  but  here  it  is 
prepofterous  to  ufe  them  alo;,g  witli  animal  food,  as 
dicy  do  not  corrci,'l  its  alkaline  tciideucy. 

AGATE,, 


A  G  A  [     23 

Apart.         AGATE  or  Achat,  (among  the  Greeks  and  La- 

"         tins,  A;^aT»c,  ami  y^chdt^i,  tVoni  a  1  ivcr  iii  S  cily,oii  tlic 

banks  v)t  w  hieh  it  wasSrlt  K'iiiul),a  very  cxtcii(ivc  ge- 
nus ottlie  lcinij>cllacid  griiis. 

Thcle  Jloiics  arc  v.iritg  iicd  with  vti.is  and  clouds, 
but  iiave  no  zones  liivc  thofc  of  the  oiiyx.  'I  licy  are 
compofcd  01'  chrydal  Jtbafcd  by  a  lirge  quantity  of 
earth,  and  not  formed,  either  by  repcaitd  incrullaiions 
round  a  central  nucleus,  or  maiicupuf  pl.ucs  laid  even- 
ly on  one  another ;  but  are  nicrily  the  elfeCt  of  onciim- 
plc  concretion,  and  variegated  only  by  the  difpolitioa 
given,  by  the  HuiJ  they  were  formed  in,  to  their  dif- 
ferently coloured  veins  or  matters. 

Agates  arc  arranged  according  to  the  different  co- 
lours of  their  ground.  Of  thofc  with  a  ivhite  ground 
there  are  three  fpecies.  ( 1 . )  The  lieiidiachatei,  inocoa 
fione,  or  aborefcmt  agate.  This  fecms  to  be  the  fame 
with  what  fome  authors  call  the  achates  with  roiemary 
in  the  middle,  and  others  achates  with  little  branches 
of  black  leaves.  (2).  The  dull,  miiky-looking  agate. 
This,  though  greatly  inferior  to  the  former,  iiyet  a 
\ery  beautiful  ifone.  It  is  common  on  the  Ihorcs  of 
rivers  in  the  Ealt  Indies,  and  alfo  in  Germany  and 
fome  other  parts  of  Kuropc.  Our  lapidaries  cut  it  in- 
to counters  for  card-playing,  and  other  toys  of  fniall 
value.  (5.)  The  Uad-coUrtmd  agau,  called  the  fhaj/a- 
chatts  by  the  ancients. 

Ol  the  agates  with  a  reddijh  ground  there  arc  four 
fjjecics.  (i.)  An  impure  one  of  a  llefli-coloured  white, 
which  is  but  of  little  beauty  in  comparifon  with  other 
agates.  The  admixture  of  flelh-colour  is  but  very 
flight ;  and  it  is  often  found  without  any  clouds,  veins, 
or  other  variegations  ,  butfonietimes  it  is  prettily  vein- 
ed or  variegated  vtith  fjiots  of  irregular  figures,  ha- 
ving limbriated  edges.  It  is  found  in  Germany,  Italy, 
and  fome  other  parts  of  Europe  j  and  is  wrought  into 
toys  of  fmall  value,  and  often  into  the  German  gun- 
flints.  It  has  been  fome  times  found  with  evident  fpeci- 
liicnsof  the  perfeft  niolfcs  bedded  deep  in  it.  (2.) 
That  of  a  pure  blood  colour,  called  ha^niachatei,  or 
the  btootly  agate,  by  t)ic  ancients.  (?.)  The  clouded 
and  fpotted  agate,  of  a  pale  fielh  colour,  called  by  the 
ancients  the  carncluin  agate,  or fard achates.  4.  The 
red-lead  coloured  one,  variegated  with  yellow,  called 
the  coral  agate,  or  corutla-achates,  by  the  ancients. 

Of  the  agates  with  a >(7/^«)//Z»  ground  tliere  are  on- 
ly two  known  fpecies  ;  the  one  of  the  colour  of  yel- 
low wax,  called  cerachatcs  by  the  ancients  ;  the  other 
a  very  elegant  Hone,  of  a  yellow  ground,  variegated 
with  white,  black,  and  green,  called  the  le^niiia,  and 
■leciitcrfercs  by  the  ancients. 

Laflly,  Of  the  agates  with  a  greenijh  ground,  there 
is  only  one  known  fpecies,  called  by  the  ancicnis_/.//^- 
pachatei. 

Of  all  thefe  fpecies  there  are  a  great  many  varieties; 
fomcof  them  havingupon  them  natural  reprcfentations 
of  men  and  different  kinds  of  animals,  &c.  Thefe 
-ycprcfcntations  are  not  confined  to  the  agates  wliofe 
ground  is  of  any  particular  colour,  but  are  occalioual- 
■ly  found  on  all  the  different  fpecies.  Velchius  had  in 
his  cudody  a  fiefti-colonred  agate,  on  one  fide  of  which 
appeared  a  half-moon  in  great  pcrfcif  ion,  rcprcfentcd 
by  a  milky  femicircle  ;  on  the  other  fulc,  the  pjiafes  of 
•fi.;^.'iT,or  ihi-'  evcning-ftar  ;  whence  he  denominated  it 
axiaphiodifsaii  agate.     An  agate  is  mentioned  by  Kir- 

I 


J     ]  A  G  A 

ehcr  *,  on  which  was  the  rcprelcntation  of  a  heroine 
armed  ;  and  one  in  the  chu  cli  of  .St  Mark  ia  V  enicc 
has  tiie  rcprefcntation  of  a  king's  head  adorned  with  a 
di.idem.  On  another,  in  the  mufaeum  of  the  prince 
of  Gonzaga,  wai  rcprtfcnied  the  body  of  a  man  with 
all  his  cloilus  ill  a  running  poflnre.  A  ftill  more  cu- 
rious one  ismeiiiiontd  by  dc  Boot  f,  wherein  ajjpearsa 
circle  flruck  in  brown,  as  exactly  as  if  done  with  a  pair 
of  compalles,  a  id  in  the  niiJdlc  of  the  circle  the  exart 
ligurt  of  a  bilbop  with  a  mitre  on  :  but  inverting  the 
ffoiie  a  litile,  another  figure  appears  ;  and  if  it  is  turn- 
ed yet  further,  two  others  appear,  the  one  of  a  man, 
and  the  other  of  a  woman.  But  the  mod  celebrated 
agate  of  this  kiad  is  that  of  Pyrrhus,  wherein  were  rc- 
prefentcd  tJie  ninemuft.s,  each  with  their  proper  attri- 
butes, and  Apollo  in  the  middle  playing  on  the  harp  f. 
Ill  the  tiiipcror's  cabinet  isan  oriental  agate  of  a  lur- 
priling  bigntfs,  being  faihioncd  into  a  cup,  whole  dia- 
meter is  an  ell,  abating  two  inches.  In  tlic  cavity  is 
found  delineated  in  black  fpccks,  n.  xris  for.  s.  xxx. 
Other  agates  have  alfo  been  found,  reprcfcnting  the 
numbers^lyi,  181  :  whence  they  were  called  <»' ;//iwf- 
//1.V7/ agates,  as  thofe  reprcfcnting  men  or  women  have 
obtained  the  name  oi  anthropDmijrjyhous. 

Great  medicinal  virtues  were  formerly  attributed  to 
the  agate,  fuch  asrcliding  poilbns,  cfpecially  thofc  of 
the  viper,  fcorpion,  and  fpider ;  but  they  arc  now  very 
judly  rejected  from  medicinal  pradice.  The  oriental 
ones  are  all  faid  to  be  brought  from  the  river  Gambay. 
A  tiiine  of  agates  was  fome  time  ago  difcovered  in 
Tranfylvania,  of  divers  colours  ;  and  fome  of  a  large 
fize,   weighing  fcveral  pounds. 

Agates  may  be  daintd  artificially  with  folution  of 
filvcr  in  fpirit  of  nitre,  and  afterwards  expoling  the 
part  to  the  fun  ;  and  though  thefe  artificial  colours 
difappear  on  laying  the  done  for  a  night  in  aquafortis, 
yet  a  kno\\  ledge  of  the  pradicability  of  thus  daining 
agates,  mud  render  thofc  curious  figures  abovemen- 
tioned  flrongly  fufpeded  of  being  the  work  not  of  na- 
ture, but  of  art.  Some  account  for  thefe  phenome- 
na from  natural  caufes.  Thus,  Kirchcr,  who  had  fecn 
a  done  of  this  kind  in  v\'hich  were  dcpicfcd  the  four 
letters  ufually  incribed  on  crucifi.\es,  I.  N.  R.  I.  ap- 
prehends that  fome  real  crucifix  had  been  buried  un- 
der ground,  among  dones  and  other  rubbifli,  where 
the  infcription  happening  to  be  parted  from  the  crofs, 
and  to  be  received  among  a  foft  mould  or  clay  fufcepti- 
bleoftheimprellion  of  the  letters,  came  afterwards  to 
be  petrified.  In  the  fame  niifiucr  he  fuppofes  the  agate 
of  Pyrrhus  to  have  been  formed.  Others  rcfolve  much 
of  the  wonder  into  fancy,  and  fuppofe  thofe  dones 
formed  in  the  fame  manner  witli  the  Cam'teux  *  or  Flo- 
rentine dones. 

The  agate  is  ufcd  formaking  cups,  rings,  fcals, han- 
dles for  knives  and  forks, hilts  foriwords  and  hangers, 
beads  to  pray  with,  fnuUing  boxes,  patch-boxes,  &c, 
being  cut  or  fawed  withiiogreat  diiRculty.  At  PariSj 
none  have  a  right  todt.'.'iin  this  commodity  except  the 
wholcfale  mercers  andgoldfmiihs.  The  fword-cutler.s 
are  allowed  tofell  it,  but  only  when  n'.adeinto  handles 
forcoutcaiixdechalTe,  and  ready  to  fetin.  Tliccutlcrs 
have  the  fame  privilege  for  their  knives  and  forks. 

Condderable  quantities  of  thefe  dones  are  dill  found 
near  the  river  Achates  in  Sicily.  'Ihcrc  arc  found  in 
fome  of  thefe  the  furpriling  reprcfentations  above- 

iiicn- 


Agate. 

•  liphem. 
German, 
dec.  i  an.I, 
obf.  151. 

t  De  Oem. 
1.  ii.  C.9J. 


I   xxxvii. 
c.  3- 


*  See  C». 


A  G    A 


[     ^33     ] 


A  G  A 


'  Voyage 
Vital,  lorn, 
',  p.  1^6, 


lift.  AcaJ 
i.  Infcript, 
torn,  i,  p. 

i37>— 344 


nicntiop.cJ,  or  others  (iniilar  to  liiein.  I5y  a  dexterous 
iiiaiiagemciu  of  tlicfc natural  Ihiiiib,  iiicdah  have  bctii 
prodiictdjWlirch  I'cciii  r.iailcr-picccs  of  nature:  for  this 
Jtoiit  bears  the  graver  well  ;  and  as  j'icccs  of  all  niag- 
iiittidcs  arc  fotiiul  of  it,  they  make  all  forts  of  work  of 
it.  'rhehij^h  altar  of  thecaihedral  of  Mclliiia  is  a'.l  over 
Micruiled  with  it.  The  lapidaries  I'rcteiid  that  tiie  In- 
dian agates  arc  liner  than  the  Sicilia::  ;  but  Kather  La- 
bat"*  informs  us,  that  in  tlie  fame  qjarrics,  and  even  in 
the  faniebloek,  thtrcarc  foundpieccsmuch  finer  than 
others,  and  tliefe  line  pieces  are  fold  for  Indian  agates 
in  order  to  enhance  their  pvi;c. 

Ac  ATT.,  among  antiquaries,  denotes  a  floncof  this 
kind  cngravenby  art.  In  this  fcnfe,  agates  make  a  fpc- 
cics  of  antique  gems  ;  in  the  uorkmanihip  whereof  we 
findVniinent  proofs  of  the  great  (kill  and  dexterity  of 
the  fciilf^tors.  Several  agates  of  cxquiiite  beauty  arc 
prefcrvcd  in  the  cabinets  of  the  curious  ;  bat  the  facls 
or  hillories  reprelcniedon  tlicfe  antique  agates,  how- 
ever Well  cxceuted,  are  now  become  fo  obfcure,  and 
their  explications  fo  diliicult,  that  fevcral  diverting 
niillakes  and  difputts  havearifen  among  thofc  who  un- 
dertook to  give  their  true  mea:iing. 

The  great  agate  of  the  ajiotheolis  of  Augullus,  in 
the  treafury  ot  the  holy  ciiapel,  when  fen t  from  Con- 
flantinople  toSt  Lewis,  palfed  for  a  triumph  of  Jofeph. 
An  agate,  now'  in  the  French  king's  cabinet,  had  been 
kept  7ooycarswithgreat devotion,  in  the  Bencdifline 
abbey  of  St  Evrc  at  Toul,  where  it  palled  for  St  John 
the  Evangelill  carried  away  by  an  eagle,  and  crowned 
by  an  angel;  but  the  Heathcnifm  of  it  having  been 
^tely  detcded,  the  religio\is  would  no  longer  give  it 
a  place  among  their  relicts,  but  prefentcd  it  in  1684 
to  the  king.  The  antiquaries  found  it  to  be  the  apo- 
thfolis  of  Gcrmaiiicus.  In  like  manner  the  triumph 
of  Jofeph  was  found  to  be  a  rcprefcntation  of  Gcnna- 
nicus  and  Agrippina,  under  the  figures  of  Ceres  and 
Triptolcmus.  Another  was  preferved,  from  time  im- 
memorial, in  one  of  tlic  mofl  ancient  churches  of 
France,  where  it  had  palled  for  a  rcprefcntation  of  pa- 
radifeand  the  fall  of  man  ;  there  beingfound  on  it  two 
figures  repivfcntii'.g  Adam  and  Eve,  with  a  tree,  a  fer- 
pcnt,  and  a  Hebrew  infcription  round  it,  taken  from 
the  third  chapter  of  Genclis,  "  The  woman  faw  that 
tlie  tree  was  good,"  Sec.  The  French  acadcmitls,  in- 
flead  of  our  firll  parents,  found  Jupiter  and  Minerva 
reprefentcd  by  the  two  figures  :  the  infcription  was  of 
a  modern  date,  written  in  a  Rabbinical  cliarai5ler,  \c- 
ry  incorreft,  and  poorly  engraven.  The  prevailing 
opinion  was,  that  this  agate  reprefentcd  limply  tlie 
worlhip  of  Jupiter  and  Minerva  at  Alliens. 

Agate,  is  alfo  a  name  of  an  iiiftrunicnt  u fed  by 
goldwire-drawers;  fo  called  from  the  agate  in  the  hud- 
dle of  it,  which  forms  its  principal  part. 

AGATJIIAS,  or,  as  he  calls  himfclf  in  liis  epi- 
grams, Ao.^THlus,  diftinguillied  by  the  title  of  Str/'C- 
l.ipicta,  a  Greek  liiflorian  in  the  6th  century  under 
Jufliiiian.  He  was  born  at  Myrina,  a  colony  of  tliean- 
cient  yEolians,  in  Alia  the  lefs,  at  the  mouth  of  the  ri- 
ver Fhythicus.  He  was  an  advocate  at  Smyrna.  Tlio' 
hehadatallc  for  poetry,  lie  was  yet  more  famous  for 
his  hirtory,  which  begins  with  the  36th  year  of  julli- 
nian's  reign,  where  Procopius  cuds.  It  was  prinrcd 
in  Greek  and  Latin,  with  Bonaventurc  Vulcaiiius's,  at 
Vol..  I. 


Lcyiien,  IJ94,  in  410;  and  in  Paris  at  the  king's  prini- 
ing-houfc,  1660,  in  folio. 

AG.'VTHO,  a  tragic  and  comic  poet,  difciple  to 
Prodicus  and  Socrates,  applauded  in  Plato's  l>ialogacs 
for  his  virtue  and  beauty.  His  firJl  tragedy  cbtaiiiej 
the  ))rizc  ;  and  he  was  crowned  in  the  pVtfence  of 
upwards  of  5o,coo  men,  the  4tli  year  of  the  901I1 
Olympiad.  Jliere  is  nothing  now  extant  of  his,  cx- 
ce])t  a  few  quotations  in  Ariftotlc,  Athcnseus,  aiiJ 
others 

AG.'^THOCLES,  the  famous  tyrant  of  Sicily,  was 
fon  of  a  I'otier  at  Rcggio.  He  was  a  thief,  a  commoii 
foldier,  a  centurion,  a  general,  and  a  pirate,  all  in  a 
regular  fucceinon.  He  defeated  the  Carthaginians  fe- 
vcral times  in  Sicily,  and  was  once  defeated  himfclf. 
He  fird  made  himfelf  tyrant  of  Syracufc,  and  then  of 
all  Sicily  ;  after  which,  he  vanquiihed  the  Carthagi- 
nians ag.iin  botii  in  Sicily  and  Alrici.  But  at  length 
having  ill  facccfs,and  being  in  arrears  with  his  foldier";, 
they  mutinied,  forced  him  to  tiy  his  cftni]',  and  cut 
the  throats  of  his  children,  whom  he  left  behind.  Re- 
covering himfelf  again,  he  relieved  Corfou,  beliege.l 
by  CalFanJer  ;  burnt  the  Macedonian  fleet  ;  returned 
to  Sicily  ;  murdered  the  wives  and  children  of  thefc 
who  had  murdered  his  ;  afterwards  meeting  with  the 
foldicrs  themfelves,  he  put  them  all  to  the  iword  ;  and 
ravaging  the  fea-coalt  of  Italy,  took  the  city  of  Hip- 
ponium.  He  \\  as  at  length  poifoncd  by  his  graadfon  Ar- 
chagathus,  in  the  72d  yearofhisage,  290  years  before 
Chrift,  having  reigned  28  years. 

AGATHYRNA,  or  Ag  ath  vrnum,  Ac  ath  vr.-^a, 
or  AoATHYRsiJiM,  (anc.  gcog. ),  a  tovvn of  Sicily  ;  now 
S.  Marco  ;  as  old  as  the  war  of  Troy,  being  built  by 
Agathyrnus,  fon  of  v^^olus,  on  an  eminence.  The 
geiuilitious  name  is  Agathyrnaus  ;  or,  according  to  the 
Roman  idiom,  Agathyri:etij'is. 

AGAVE,  the  common  American  aloe  :  A  genus  of 
the  monogynia  order^  belonging  to  tlie  hexandria  clafs 
of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under 
the  loth order,  Corcn^irij-.  The  charaftcrsare  .-There 
is  no  calyx  :  The  corolla  is  nionopetalous  and  funnel- 
fliaped  ;  the  border  fix-parted,  with  lanced  ercift:  divi- 
lions  :  T\\t]la»ii>ia  cou lilt  ofli.xercrt  filaments, longer 
than  the  corolla  ;  the  anthers  arc  linear,  Ihorterthan 
the  filaments,  and  vcrfalile  :  The  ftjltllmu  is  an  oblong 
gennen  ;  the  ftylus  is  filiform,  the  length  of  the  flami- 
na,  and  triangular  ;  the  Aignia  headed  and  triangular: 
The  per'icarpiuvt  is  an  obloug  triangular  capfule,  tri- 
locularand  tiiree-valved  :  The  /^t-a'j  are  numerous.  Of 
thisgenus,  botanical  writers  enumerate  eight  fpecies. 

Of  the  Americana, or  great  American  aloe,  the  ftems 
generally  rife  upwardsof  20  feet  high,  and  branch  out 
on  every  lide  towards  ihe  top,  fo  as  to  form  a  kind  of 
pyramid:  t he  llcnderlhoots  being garnilhed with  green- 
ilh  yellow  flowers,  which  fland  crcd,  and  come  out  in 
thick  cluflers  at  every  joint  :  thefe  make  a  fine  ap- 
peara'.;ce,  and  continue  long  in  beauty  ;  a  fucccllionof 
new  flowers  being  produced  for  near  three  months  in 
favourable  feafons,  if  the  plant  is  protected  fVoni  the 
autumnal  colds.  The  feeds  do  not  ripen  in  England. 
It  has  been  generally  thought,  that  ll.cfe  plants  do  not 
flower  till  ihey  arc  100  years  old  :  but  this  is  a  mif- 
lake  ;  for  the  time  of  their  flowering  dcpendson  their 
growth  :  fo  tlui  in  hot  countries,  where  they  grow 
G  g  faff. 


AGE  .      [    2 

fafl,  and  expand  many  Uavcs  every  ftafon,  they  will 
tiowcr  in  a  lew  years  ;  but  in  colder  climates,  where 
llur  growth  is  (low,  it  will  be  nuicli  loajjer  before  they 
ihoot  up  their  ftcm.  There  is  a  variety  of  this  fpecics 
with  ftripcd  leaves,  which  arc  pretty  coniniun  iii  the 
Knglilh  gardens.  The  other  forts  arc  fo  tender,  tiiat 
they  nuill  conflantly  remain  in  the  Hove. 

ADGli,  a  city  of  France,  in  Lower  Laiigucdoc, 
in  the  territory  of  Agadez,  with  a  bilhop's  fee.  Tiic 
dioccfe  is  fmall,  bui  is  one  of  the  richcit  countries  in 
the  kingdom.  It  produces  fine  wool,  wine,  oil,  corn, 
and  lilk.  It  is  feated  on  the  river  Eraut,  a  mile  and  a 
quarter  from  its  mouth,  where  it  falls  into  the  gulpli 
of  Lyons,  and  where  there  is  a  fort  buih  to  guard  its 
entrance.  It  is  well  peopled  ;  the  honfes  arc  built  of 
black  llouc,  and  there  is  an  entrance  into  the  city  by 
four  gates.  The  greatefl  part  of  the  inhabitants  are 
merchants  or  fcamcn.  The  public  buildings  are  but 
mean  :  the  cathedral  is  fmall,  and  not  very  hanjfomc  : 
the  bilhop's  palace  is  an  old  building,  bur  convenient. 
The  city  is  extended  along  the  river,  where  it  forms 
a  little  port,  wherein  fmall  craft  may  enter.  There 
is  a  great  eoncourfe  of  pilgrims  and  other  devout  peo- 
ple to  the  cliajiel  of  Notre  Dame  de  Grace  It  is  a 
little  without  the  city,  between  which  and  the  chapel 
there  are  about  i ;;  or  14  oratories,  which  iluy  vilit 
with  naked  feet.  Theconvcnt  of  the  Capuchius  is  well 
built,  and  on  the  outlide  are  lo.igings  and  apartments 
for  the  pilgrims  who  come  to  perform  their  muvatue 
or  nine  days  devotion.  The  chapel,  which  contains 
the  image  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  is  dillinit  from  the 
covent.      E.  Long.  3.  20.  Lat.  4;.  19. 

AGE,  in  the  molt  general  fcnfcpf  the  word,  ligni- 
fies  the  duration  of  any  being,  from  its  nril  coming  in- 
to exillence  to  the  time  of  fpcaking  of  it,  if  it  Hill  con- 
tinues ;  or  10  its  dellruction,  if  it  has  ceafed  to  cxill 
fome  time  before  we  happen  to  mention  it. 

Among  the  ancient  poets,  this  word  wasufcdfor  the 
fpace  of  thirty  years  ;  in  which  fcnfc,  age  amounts  to 
much  the  fame  WwV  Pineratioii.  Thus,  Nellor  is  fiid 
to  have  lived  thra  ages  when  he  was  90  years  old. — 
By  ancient  Greek  hillorians,  the  time  clapfcd  lince  the 
beginning  of  the  world  is  divided  into  three  periods, 
which  they  called  aga.  The  firil  reaches  from  the  cre- 
ation to  the  deluge  which  happened  in  Greece  during 
ilie  reign  of  Ogyges  ;  this  they  called  the  obfcure  or 
i!i:ccrttii/i zgc,  bccaufe  the  hiflory  of  mankind  is  alto- 
gether uncertain  during  that  period.  Thefecond  they 
call  \.\icfabulo!'s  or  heroic  age,  beeaufe  it  is  the  peri- 
od in  which  the  fabulous  exploits  of  their  gods  and  he- 
roes arc  faid  to  have  been  pertornied.  It  begin  with 
ihcOgygian  deluge,  and  continued  to  the  firll  Olym- 
piad ;  where  the  third  or  hifloiical  age  commenced 

Thisdivilion,  however,  it  mnft  beobfcrved,  holds  good 
only  with  regard  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  who  had 
no  hillories  earlier  than  the  firfl  Olympiad  ;  the  Jews, 
Egyptians,  Phenicians,  andChaldees,  not  to  mention 
the  Indians  and  Chincfe,who  pretend  to  much  higlier 
antiquity,  are  not  included  in  it. 

'J  he  interval  lince  the  firit  formation  of  man  has  been 
divided  by  the  poets intofoura^'w,  diflinguiflied  by  the 
eyhheis  o( gc/i/cn, /i/ver,  irazen,  and  ire/i.  During 
the  go/de/i  age,  Saturn  reigned  in  heaven,  and  jufticc 
and  innocence  in  this  lower  world.     The  earth  then 


34     J  A  G  E 

yielded  her  produilions without  culture  ;  meiihcld  all 
[jiiiigs  in  common,  and  lived  in  perfect  fricndlhip.  ~ 
This  period  is  fuppofcd  to  have  hlled  till  the  cxpullion 
of  Saturn  from  his  kingdom.  The  Ji/ver  age  coninieu- 
ced  when  men  began  to  deviate  I'rom  the  paths  of  vir- 
tue ;  and  in  confequence  of  this  deviation,  iheir  lives 
became  lefs  happy.  The  ti  azcii  age  commenced  on  a 
farther  deviation,  and  the /re//  age  took  place  in confe- 

quenccof  one  Hill  greater A  late  author,  however, 

reilecling  on  the  barbarifm  of  the  lirll  ages,  will  have 
the  order  which  the  poets  allign  to  the  four  ages  invert- 
ed ;  the  lirll  being  a  time  ol  rudcnefs  and  ignorance, 
more  projicrly  denominated  an  //•()// than  a  golden  age. 
W  hen  cities  and  Hates  were  founded,  the  Jit'ver  age 
commenced  ;  and  (incc  arts  and  fcieiiccf,  navigation 
and  commerce,  have  been  cultivated,  the^o/i/f/;agelias 
taken  place. 

In  fonic  ancient  northern  monuments,  the  rociy  or 
/lo/.y  ao;e  correfponds  to  the  t>raze/i  age  of  the  Greeks. 
It  is  called  rocky,  on  account  of  Noah's  ark,  which 
rclted  on  mount  Ararat  ;  whence  men  were  faid  to  be 
defccndcd  or  fprung  from  mountains  :  or  froui  Deu- 
calion and  Pyrrha  relloring  the  race  of  mankind,  by 
throwing  Hones  over  their  heads.  The  northern  poets 
alio  tlyle  the  fourth  age  of  the  world  the  tijhe/:  age, 
from  a  Gothic  king  Madenis,  or  Mannus,  \\  ho  on  ac- 
count of  his  great  Hrength  was  faid  to  be  made  of  alh,, 
or  bccaufe  in  his  time  people  began  to  make  ufe  of 
weapons  made  of  that  wood. 

Among  the  Jews,  the  duration  of  the  world  is  alfo 
divided  into  three  ages.  i.'Xhe  feciilum  inane,  or 
void  age,  was  the  fpace  of  time  from  the  creation  to 
Mofcs.  2.  The  pre/eat  age,  denotes  all  the  fpace  of 
time  from  Mofes  to  the  coming  of  the  Mehiaii  ;  and, 
3.  The  age  to  conic,  denotes  the  time  from  the  com- 
ing of  the  Welliah  to  the  end  of  the  world. 

Various  other  divilions  of  the  duration  of  the  world 
into  ages  have  been  made  by  hillorians — Tlic  Sibyl- 
line oracles,  wrote,  according  to  fome,  by  Jews  ac- 
quainted with  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Tellament, 
divide  the  duration  of  tlic  world  into  ten  ages  ;  and  ac- 
cording to  Jofephus,  each  age  contained  lix  hundred 
years.  It  appears,  by  Virgil's  fourth  eclogue,  and  o-- 
thcr  tcftimonies,  that  the  age  of  AuguHus  was  repu- 
ted the  cud  of  thofe  ten  ages,  confcqucntly  as  the  peri- 
od of  the  world's  duration. 

By  foiTic,  the  fpace  of  time  commencing  from  Con- 
Hantine,  and  ending  with  the  taking  of  Conflanlinoplc 
by  the  Turks  in  the  15th  century,  is  called  the  tiiid- 
die  age  :  but  others  choofe  rather  to  date  the  middle 
age  from  the  divilion  of  the  empire  made  by  Thcodo- 
lius  at  the  clofc  of  the  4th  century,  and  extend  it  to 
the  time  of  the  emperor  Maximilian  I.  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  16th  century,  when  the  empire  was  HrH 
divided  into  circle. — The  middle  is  by  fome  denoted 
the  l/hrbaroiis  age,  and  the  latter  part  of  it  the  loiueP 
age.  Some  divide  it  into  the  nou-academical  and  aca- 
doiiical  Rge%.  The  firH  includes  the  fpace  of  time  from 
the  6th  to  the  9th  centuries,  during  which  fchools  or 
academies  were  loH  in  P'.urope.  The  ftcond  from  the 
9th  century,  when  fchools  were  rellored,  and  univer- 
iitics  eHablilhcd,  chiefly  by  the  care  of  Charlemagne. 

The  fevcral  ages  of  the  world  may  be  reduced  id  three 
grand  epochas,i//£.  thcrt^t'  of  the  law  of  nature,  called 


Age. 


AGE 


[     235     ] 


AGE 


by  tlic  Jews  the  void  age,  from  Adam  to  Moles  ;  the 
age  of  the  Jcwilh  law,  from  Mofcs  to  Chrill  ;  and 
the  agJ  of  grace,  from  thrill  to  the  prcfent  year. 

Age  is  alfo  frequently  ufed  in  the  fame  fenfe  with 
century,  to  denominate  a  duration  of  IGO  years. 

Age  likewife  figniiies  a  certain  period  of  the  du- 
ration of  hunianlife,  by  foine  divided  into  four  ftages, 
namely,  infancy,  youth,  manhood,  and  old  age  ;  the 
firil  extending  to  the  14th  year,  the  fecond  to  tJic 
251!),  the  third  to  the  50th,  and  the  fourth  to  the  end 
of  life  ;  l^y  others  divided  into  infancy,  childjiood, 
youth,  manhood,  and  old  age. 

Ac  F.,  in  law,  fignitics  a  certain  period  of  life,  when 
pcrfons  of  both  fexes  arc  enabled  to  do  certains  afts. 
Thus,  one  at  twelve  years  of  age  ought  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  king  in  a  leet  ;  at  fourteen 
he  may  marry,  chuli  his  guardian,  and  claim  his  lands 
held  in  Ibccigc.  Twenty-one  is  called  fii,'l age,  a  man 
or  woman  being  then  capable  of  acting  for  ihenifclves, 
of  managing  their  affairs,  nvaking  contrails,  difpoling 
of  tJieir  ellatcs,  and  the  like. 

Age  oJ  a  Horfe.     See  Ho  rs  e  . 

Aqe  of  Tries,  Thcfe  after  a  certain  age  wafte. 
An  oak  at  an  hundred  years  old  ceafes  to  grow.  The 
ufual  rule  for  judging  of  the  age  of  wood,  is  by  the 
number  of  circles  which  appear  in  the  fubltancc  of  a 
trunk  or  flock  cue  perpendicularly,  each  circle  being 
fuppofed  the  growth  of  a  year  :  though  fonic  reject 
this  method  as  precarious,  alledging  that  a  limple  cir- 
cle is  fometimes  the  produce  of  feveral  years  :  belidcs, 
that,  after  a  certain  age,  no  new  circles  are  formed. 

Act:- frier,  in  law,  is  when  an  action  being  brought 
againft  apcribn  underage,  for  lands  defcended  to  him, 
he,  by  motion  or  petition,  llicws  the  matter  to  the 
court,  praying  thcaftion  maybellaid  till  his  full  age, 
which  the  court  gener.illy  agrees  to.  , 

AGELNOTH,  EGELNOTH,0r  iETHELNOTH,in 

Latin  Achelnotus,  archbifhop  of  Canterbury,  in  the 
reign  of  Canute  the  Great,  fuccceded  Livingus  in  that 
fee  in  the  year  1020.  Thisprelatc  lirnamed  thcCtad', 
was  the  the  fon  of  Agilmer,  and,  at  the  time  of  his  elec- 
tion, dean  of  Canterbury.  After  his  promotion  he 
went  to  Rome,  and  received  his  pall  from  Pope  Bene- 
diifl  VIII.  In  his  way  thither,  as  he  palfed  through 
Pavia,  he  purchafed,  for  an  hundred  talents  of  lilvcr 
and  one  of  gold,  St  Auguflin's  arm,  which  was  kept 
there  as  a  relic  ;  and  fent  it  over  to  England  as  a  pre- 
fent  to  Leofric  earl  of  Coventry.  Upon  his  return,  he 
is  faid  to  h.ivc  raifed  the  fee  of  Canterbury  to  its  for- 
mer hidre.  He  was  much  in  favour  with  king  Ca- 
luitc,  and  employed  his  intcrcll  with  that  monarch  to 
good  purpofcs.  It  was  by  his  advice  the  king  lent 
ovcrlargc  funis  of  money  for  the  fupportof  the  foreign 
churches  ;  and  Malmlbury  obferves,  that  this  prince 
was  prompted  to  afts  of  piety,  and  retrained  from  ex- 
cefles,  by  the  regard  he  had  fortlic  archbilhop.  Agel- 
r.oth,  at"ter  he  had  fat  ty  years  in  the  fee  of  Can- 
cerbury,  departed  this  life  the  29th  of  Ot?tober,  1038, 
and  was  fuccceded  by  Eadlius,  king  Harold's  chap- 
lain— This  archbilhop  was  an  author,  having  written, 
i.  .\  Panegyric  on  the  blclfcd  Virgin  Mary.  2.  A 
Letter  to  Earl  Leofric  concerning  St  AugulUn.  3. 
Letters  to  feveral  pcrfons. 

AGEMA,  in  Macedonian  antiquity,  was  a  body  of 
foldicry,  not  unlike  the  Roman  legion. 


AGEMOGLANS,  Aciamoci-am?,  or  Azamo- 
GtANs,  in  thcTurkidi  polity,  arc  children  purchafed 
from  the  Tartars,  or  raifed  every  third  year,  by  way 
of  tribute,  from  the  Chrillians  tolerated  in  the  Turkilh 
empire.  Thefc, after  being  circumcifedar.dinftrucicd 
in  thereligion  and  languageof  their  tyrannical  malUrs, 
are  learnt  the  cxereifes  of  war,  till  iheyarcof  a  pro- 
ber  age  for  carrying  arms  ;  and  fror.i  thiseorps  the  Ja- 
nilfaries  arc  recruited.  With  regard  to  tliofe  who  arc 
thought  unfit  for  the  army,  they  are  employed  in  the 
lowelloihcesof  the  fer.ngiio.  Their appoiiitiuents  alfo 
arc  very  fmall,  not  exceeding fcvcn  ai'pers  and  a  half 
per  day,  which  amount  to  about  thrccpciice-hallpcnny 
Sterling. 

AGEN,  a  city  of  France,  on  the  river  Garonne,  the 
capital  of  Agenois  in  Guienne,  and  the  fee  of  a  bilbop. 
The  gates  and  old  walls,  which  arc  yet  remaining, ihow 
that  this  city  is  very  ancient,  and  that  its  former  cir- 
cuit was  not  fo  great  as  the  prelent.  The  palace, 
wherein  the  prelidial  holds  hi.-,  felfjons  at  this  day,  was 
heretofore  called  the  caftleof  Moniravcl,  and  is  fcated 
without  the  walls  of  the  old  city,  and  cm  the  fide  of 
the  folfc.  There  are  likewife  the  ruins  of  another 
caftlecallcdL<j5(jgn^, which  was  without  the  walls  clofc 
by  a  brook.  Though  the  fituation  of  Agen  is  very 
convenient  for  trade  and  commerce,  the  inhabitants 
are  fo  very  indolent  that  there  is  very  little  ;  of  w'hich 
the  neighbouring  cities  take  tlic  advantage.  It  is  feat- 
ed  on  the  bank  of  the  river  Garonne,  in  a  plcafant 
country:  but  is  itfelf  a  very  mean  and  difagrecablc  place, 
the  houfes  being  ill  built;  and  the  llreets  narrow,  crook- 
ed, and  dirty.     E.  Long.  o.  3©.  N.  Lat.  44. 12. 

AGENDA,  among  pliilofophcrs  and  divines,  figni- 
fics  the  duties  which  a  man  lies  under  an  obligation  to 
perform  :  liius,  we  meet  with  the  agenlaoi  a  Chri- 
llian,or  the  duties  he  ought  to  perform,  in  oppofuioa 
to  the  cr'.deiida,  or  things  he  is  to  believe. 

Agenda,  among  merchants, a  term  fometimes  ufed 
for  a  memorandum-book,  in  which  is  fct  down  all  the 
bufmefstobe  tranfacled  during  the  day,  either  at 
home  or  abroad. 

Agenda,  among  ecclefiaftical  writers  denote  the 
fcrvice  or  office  of  the  church.  W'cmet  with  agenda, 
inatutina  ir  vsffeilina,  "  morning  and  evening  pray- 
ers ;"  agenda  diei,  "  the  otTice  of  the  day,"  whether 
feall  or  fafld.ay  ;  agenda  mortuoruvi,  called  alfo  limply 
agenda,  "  the  fcrvice  of  the  dead." 

Agenda  is  alfo  applied  to  certain  ehnrch-books, 
compiled  by  public  authority,  prcferibing  the  order 
and  manner  to  be  obferved  by  the  ininillers  and  peo- 
ple in  the  principal  ceremonies  and  devotions  of  the 
church.  In  which  fenfe,  agenda  amounts  to  the  fame 
with  what  is  otherwife  called  ritual,  liturgy,  acatou- 
thia,  miffal,  for/niitary ,  direiiory,  &c. 

AGENHINE,  in  old  writers,  iignilies  a  giiefl 
that  has  lodged  at  an  inn  for  three  nights,  after 
which  lime  he  was  accounted  one  of  the  family  ;  and 
if  he  otrcndcd  the  king's  peace,  liis  holl  was  anfwcr- 
able    for  him.     It  is  alfo  written  hogenhine  and 

HOGENHYSE. 

AGENORIA,  in  mythology,  the  gooddefs  of  cou- 
rage and  indiillry,  as  I'actaiawis  of  indolence. 

AGENT,  in  a  general  fenfe,   denotes  any  a.:1ive 

power  or  caufc.     Agents  arc  either  natural  i r  moral. 

Natural  agents  are  fuch  inanimate  bodies  as  have  a 

G  g  2  power 


I, 
A;:cnt. 


AGE  f     23 

/^rtnt  po'.vcr  Lo  rH  upo',1  other  bodies  in  a  certain  anJ  ilcicr- 
I  iiiinatc  manner  ;  .;s,  grivity,  lire,  &c.  .Moral  agents,  on 
Agefilans.  iijg  contrary,  are  rational  creatures,  capable  oiregula- 
"       **       '  ting  their  actions  by  a  certain  rule. 

Agent,  is  alto  uled  to  denote  a  perfon  intrnfteJ  with 
thcnian.igcnicnt  ot  an  atr'air,  whether  belonging  to  a 
Jociety,  company,  or  private  pcrlon. 

j^GLSTt-S  in  liL'Ui,  one  ol'  the  ranks  of  officers  in  the 
conn  of  the  Conltantinopoliian  emperors,  whole  bii- 
linefs  was  to  collect  and  convey  the  corn  botli  for  the 
army  andhoufthoKI ;  to  carry  letters  and  nieilages  from 
court  to  all  p.irts  of  the  empire;  to  regulate  com  iers,and 
their  vehicles  ;  to  make  frequent  journeys  and  expedi- 
tions through  the  provinces,  in  order  to  iiifpeCt  any  mo- 
tions, diduibances,  or  machinations  tending  that  way, 
and  to  give  early  notice  thereof  to  the  cmpcrur. 

"YXxca'sntcs  u!  nhiis,  are  by  I'onie  made  fynonymous 
with  our  poll-malhrs,  but  their  fuuclions  were  ot  great 
extent.  They  correipond  to  what  the  Greeks  call 
«ri.f6ifcfo/,  and  tiie  Latins  v:r-:durii. 

There  were  various  orders  or  degrees  of  agcntei  in 
rebus  ;  a.s,liii;t/ii,  piimicerii,Jci!Moi\i,  duaitani,  hi- 
archi,  circiUns,  eqiiites,  tyrones,  &c.  through  all  which 
they  roic gr.uiat:v.\  Their  chief,  who  relided  at  Con- 
ftantinople,  was  denominated  pnncepi  ;  which  was  a 
poll  of  great  dignity,  being  reckoned  on  a  level  with 
that  of  proconful.  They  were  fettled  in  every  part  of 
the  empire  ;  and  are  alfo  faid  to  have  fervcd  as  inter- 
preters. 

AGEIl,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  certain  portion  of 
land  allowed  to  each  citizen.  Sec  .■^grari.^n  L.^w. 

AGKIl  PictNus,  or  Pid'niim,  (anc.  geog.)  a  ter- 
ritory of  Italy  to  the  fouih-calt  of  Umbria,  reaching 
from  thcApcnnine  to  the  Adriatic.  The  peoj'le  are 
called  iictiites  (Cicero,  Livy ),  diiUntH:  from  the  I'icen- 
tini  on  the  Tufcan  fca,  though  called  by  Greek  wiiters 
n;Ki»Tivo/.  This  name  is  faid  to  be  from  the  bird  Puns, 
under  whole  conduO^  they  removed  from  the  Sabines, 
of  whom  they  were  a  colony. 

AGKIIA  rUM,r.ASTARD-IlEMr-AGRIMONV:  A  gc- 

nus  of  tlie  polygamia  squalls  onlcr,  beh)nging  to  the 
fyngenciia  clifs  of  phuits  :  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  49th  order,  6"'o;/.'/'<///V.r  difioidcs.  The 
characters  are:  The  common  caiyr.  is  oblong,  with  ma- 
ny fcales.  The  compound  corolla  is  uniform  ;  the  co- 
rollets  hermaphrodite,  tubular  and  numerous  :  the 
proper  cor  jUa  is  funnel-lhapcd;  the  border  4-clcft,  and 
expanded.  The  Jlami/sa  conlilt  of  5  capillary  very  Ihort 
hlaments  ;  the  anthera  is  cylindric  and  tubular.  The 
piJIUlum  is  an  oblong  germen  ;  with  a  filiform  llyl.H, 
and  two  (lender  erect  iligmata.  There  is  no  pencar- 
pinm;  the  calyx  unchanged.  The  feeds  are  folitiry, 
oblong,  and  angular.  The  receptaculuni  is  naked,  con- 
vex, and  very  fniall.     Of  this  genus  there  are  three 

Species  ;  the  conyzoides,  the  houltonianum,  and  the 
altilfimum.  All  ihcfe  sre  natives  uf  warm  climates. 
The  two  tirll  are  annual  plants,  and  confeqnently  can 
be  propagated  oidy  by  feeds  ;  which,  however,  come 
to  perfection  in  EnjHand.  The  third  fpecies  vvill 
bear  the  fevcrell  cold  of  Britain,  but  its  feeds  do  not 
riper,  in  it. 

AOERATU.M,    or.MAUni.IM.       Sec  ACHILI.*. 

AGESILAUS,  king  of  the  Laced^ismonians,  the 
fonof  Archidimus,  was  railed  to  the  throne  notwith- 
ftanJing  the  fuf  erior  claim  of  Leotychidcs.     As  fooa 


6     J 


AGE 


as  he  came  to  the  throne,  he  advifcd  the  Laccdacino-  Avccfdau?; 
iiians  to  be  beforeh.iiid  with  the  king  of  Pcrlia,  who  -^ — v— ' 
was  making  great  preparations  forw^r,  and  to  attack 
him  ill  his  own  dominions.  He  was  himftlf  cliofen  for 
this  expcdirion  ;  and  gained  fo  many  advaiu.igcs  over 
ihe  enemy,  that  if  the  league  which  the  Athenians  and 
the  Thcbans  formed  againll  the  Lacedxinonians  had 
not  obliged  him  to  return  home,  he  would  l»ave  car- 
ried his  \  idorious  arms  into  the  very  heart  ol  tlie  Per- 
lian  empire.  He  gave  up,  however,  all  tJiefe  triumphs 
readily,  to  come  to  the  fuccour  of  his  conniry,  which 
he  happily  relieved  by  his  victory  over  ihe  allies  inBic- 
otii.  lie  obtained  another  near  Corinth  ;  but  to  his 
great  moriilication,  the  Thcbans  afterwards  gained  fe- 
ver.il  over  ihe  Lacedxmonians.  'I  hefe  mislortunes  at 
iirlt  raifed  lomewhat  of  a  clamour  againll  him.  HehaJ 
been  lick  during  the  lirll  advantages  which  the  enemy 
gained;  but  as  foon  as  he  was  able  to  aiJt  in  perfon, 
l>y  his  valoJr  and  prudence  he  pre\  ented  tlie  "1  hebaiis 
from  reapiiigtheadvantagtsoithcir  victories;  infomuch 
til  it  it  was  generally  believed,  had  he  been  in  lualth  at 
the  beginning, theLaceda'mouiaiiswoiild  have  fufl .lined 
no  lodes,  and  that  all  would  have  been  loll  had  it  not 
been  for  his  alHllance.  It  cannot  be  denied  but  he  loved 
war  more  than  the  iiitereil  of  hiscountry  required,  for 
if  he  could  have  lived  in  peace,  he  had  faved  the  Lacc- 
dasmonians  feveral  lolles,  and  they  would  not  have  been 
engaged  in  many  enterprifes  which  in  tlie  cud  contri- 
bated  much  to  weaken  their  power.  He  died  in  the 
third  year  of  the  104th  Olympiad, being  in  the  8  3th  year 
of  his  age,  and  4illycar  of  his  reign.  Agefilaus  would 
ncverfurtcr  any  picture  or  fculptiire  to  be  made  of  him, 
and  jn-ohihited  it  alio  by  his  will  :  this  he  is  fuppofed 
tohavedone  froni  a  confcioufnc fsof  his  own  deformity; 
for  he  was  of  a  lliovt  llature,  and  iame  of  one  foot,  ^o 
that  Grangers  ultd  todcfpife  him  at  the  tirll  light.  His 
fame  went  before  him  into  Kgypt,  and  there  they  had 
formed  the  liigheflidea  of  Agelilaus.  When  he  l.inded 
in  that  country,  the  people  ran  in  crouds  to  fee  him  ; 
butgreat  was  their  Aiprifc  when  they  fa  wan  ill-dreired, 
I'oveiily  mean-looking  little  fellow  lying  upon  the 
grafs  ;  they  could  not  forbcir  laughing,  and  applied  to 
liiiii  the  fable  of  the  mnuniain  in  labour.  He  was, 
however,  the  lirft  to  jell  upon  his  own  perfon  ;  andfuch 
was  the  gaieiy  of  his  temper,  and  the  llrcngth  with 
which  he  bore  the  roughell  exercifcs,  that  thefe  qua- 
lities made  amends  for  his  corporal  defce'is.  He  was 
extremely  remarkable  for  plainnefs  and  frugality  of  his 
di  cfsand  way  of  living.  "Tliis  (fays  Cornelius  Nepos) 
is  efpecially  to  be  admired  in  Agelilaus  :  when  very 
great  prefents  were  lent  him  by  kings,  governors,  and 
liates,  he  never  brought  any  of  them  to  his  own  houfe  ; 
hechanged  nothingof  the  diet,  nothing  of  ilie  apparel 
of  the  Lacedxmonians.  He  was  contented  with  the 
fime  houfe  in  which  Kuriflhencs  the  founder  of  his 
family  had  lived;  and  whoever  entered  there,  could  fee 
no  lign  of  debauchery  noneof  luxury;  but  out  lie  contra- 
ry, many  of  moderation  and  abflinencc  ;  for  it  was  fur- 
niilicd  in  fuch  anianncr,that  it  diflcrcd  in  nothing  from 
that  of  any  poor  or  private  perfon."  Upon  his  arrival 
in  Egypt,  all  kind  of  provifions  were  fcnt  to  him  ; 
but  he  cliofe  only  the  moll  common,  leaving  the  per- 
f.imes,  tlic  confections,  and  all  that  was  cfleemed  mod 
delicious,  to  his  fervants.  Agelilaus  was  extremely 
iondof  hischildren,  and  would  often  amufc  himfelfby 

joining 


A  G  G 


L     237 


1 

J 


A  G   H 


Agga,  joining  iii  tlicir  divcrfioiis  :  one  day  wlicn  he  was  fiir- 
jVggir.  priCed  lidinjv  upon  a  liick  with  tlitiii,  he  faid  ro  the 
"  perfon  who  had  lecn  in  liini  in  ihis  polhire,  "  t'orbcar 
ulXiiii^  ot'  it  till  you  arc  a  father." 

AGCjA,  or  AcGONNA,  a  iiritilli  fcitlcniciu  on  the 
gold-coall  of  Guinea.  It  is  lltiiatcd  under  the  meri- 
dian ot"  Loudon,  in  6  degrees  ot"  N.  Lai. 

AGGLK,  in  tlie  ancieiit  niililary  an,  a  work  of  for- 
tification, nCcd  botli  for  tiie  defence  and  tlic  attack  of 
towns,  camps,  &c.  In  wliich  fente  it  is  the  t"ame  with 
\\hatwasotiierwif"ecalledt':j//'/w,  and  in  later  times  i/g-- 
gej!u»i ;  and  among  the  moderns  lines,  fomctimcs  cavu- 
lifr<,  tcrrujj'cs  8cc.  '1  he  agger  was  iifnally  a  bank,  or 
elevation  of  earth  or  other  matter,  bound  and  fupport- 
cd  witli  timber  ;  having  fomelimes  turrets  on  the  top, 
wherein  the  workmen,  engineers,  and  foldicry,  were 
placed.  It  was  alfo  accom(ianicd  with  a  ditch,  wiiich 
I'crvcd  as  its  chief  defence.  The  ufnal  materials  of 
which  it  was  made  wereeart]i,bouglis,  fafcincs,  flakes, 
and  even  trunks  of  trees,  ropes,  &c.  varioully  crolled, 
and  interwoven  fbmcwhal  in  the  figure  of  liars ;  whence 
they  wcrecallcdyyf//<j.'/'<JAfi'j.  Where  thefe  were  want- 
ing, floncs,  bricks,  tiles,  fupplied  the  office  :  on  fomc 
occafions,  arms,  utenfils,  pack-faddles,  were  thrown  in 
to  till  it  up.  We  even  read  of  aggers  formed  of  the 
csrcafes  of  the  llalii  ;  fomciimcs  of  dead  bones  mix«d 
with  lime  ;  and  even  with  the  heads  of  llauglitercd  ci- 
tizens. For  want  of  due  binding,  or  folid  materials, 
aggers  have  fometimes  tumbled  down,  with  infinite 
luilchief  to  the  men.  The  beliegers  ufed  to  carry  on 
a  work  of  this  kind  nearer  and  nearer  towards  the 
place,  till  at  length  they  reached  the  very  wall.  The 
meti'.ods  t:iken,  on  the  other  fide,  to  defeat  them,  were 
by  fire,  efpecially  if  the  agger  were  of  wood  ;  by  fap- 
pingand  undermining,  ifof  earth  ;  and,  in  fomc  cafes, 
by  creeling  a  counter  agger. 

The  heigiitof  the  agger  was  frequently  equal  to  tliat 
of  the  wall  of  the  place.  Ca;l"ar  tells  us  of  one  he  made, 
that  was  50  t'ccl  higli  and  ^^o  feet  broad.  Belides 
the  ufc  of  aggers  before  towns,  the  generals  ufed  to 
fortify  their  camps  with  fuch  works  ;  for  want  of  this 
precaution,  armies  have  often  been  furprifed  aiij 
ruined. 

There  were  vaft  aggers  made  in  towns  and  places  on 
the  fea-lide,  fortified  with  towers,  caflles,  Stc.  Thofc 
maiie  by  Cxfar  and  Pompey  at  Brundulinm,  are  fa- 
mous-. Sometimes  aggers  were  even  buih  acrofs  arms 
of  the  fea,  lakes,  and  moralles  ;  as  was  done  by  Alex- 
der  bet'ore  Tyre,  and  b/  M.  Anthony  and  Calfius. — 
'1  he  wall  of  Sevtrus,  in  the  north  of  England,  may  be 
conlldercd  as  a  grand  agger,  to  which  belong  feveral 
lelicr  ones.     Sec  Sgi'KRUs'j  IVall. 

Agger,  in  ancient  writers,  likcwit"c  denotes  the 
middle  partof  amilitary_road,  railed  into  a  ridge,  with 
a  gentle  llopc  on  either  fide,  to  make  a  drain  for  the 
water,  and  keep  the  way  dry. 

The  term  is  alio  ul"ed  for  the  whole  road,  or  military 
way.  W  here  highways  were  to  be  made  in  low  grounds, 
as  between  two  hills,  the  Romans  ufed  to  rail'e  them 
above  the  adjacent  land,  fo  as  to  make  them  On  a  level 
M'ith  the  hills.  Tliefebanks  they  called  ^^i,vrc/.  Bcr- 
gier  jjicntions  l"evcral  in  Gallia  Belgica,  which  were 
thus  raifed  ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty  feet  above  ground. 
— They  arc  fomctimesalfo  called  >yi't7vj  ctLiati ;  a:id 


now  generally  known  by  the  name  chiujftei,  or  cau/c-  Aggerhuys 

AGGERHUYS,  a  city  of  Norway,  capital  of  the    Aglirim. 
province  of  tlie  fame  name.     It  is  fubjeet  to  Denmark,  '■       ^""^ 
and  fituated  in  E.  Long.  28.  ^  j.  and  N.  Lat.  $9.  50. 

AGGERS-HERRED,  a  diflrict  of  ChriltianfanJ, 
andadioecfeof  Norway.  It  conliils  of  three  juridical 
places  ;  namely,  Afcher,  Well  liarum,  and  ."^gcr. 

AGGLUTINANTS,  in  pharmacy,  agcncral  name 
for  all  medicines  of  a  glutijious  or  vifcid  nature  .  which, 
by  adhering  to  the  folids,  contribute  greatly  to  repair 
their  lofs. 

AGGLUTINATION,  in  a  general  fenfc,  denotes 
the  joining  two  or  more  things  together,  by  means  of  a 
proper  glue  or  cement. 

AaCGlutination,  amorfg  phyficians,  implies  the 
action  of  reuniiing  the  parts  of  a  body,  feparatcJ  by  a 
wound,  cut,  &c.  It  is  alfo  applied  to  the  action  of 
fuch  internal  medicines  as  are  of  an  aggluiinaiingqua- 
iity,  and  wliich,  by  giving  a  glutinous  conlillcnce  to 
theanimal-tiuids, render  them  more  proper  for  nouriili- 
ing  the  body. 

AGGREGATE,  in  a  general  fenfe,  denotes  the  Aim 
of  fcvcral  things  added  together,  or  the  collection  of 
them  into  one  whole.  Thus,  a  houfe  is  an  aggregate 
of  floncs,  wood,  mortar,  &c.  It  differs  from  a  mixed 
orcompoinid,inafmuch  as  the  union  of  thefe  laft  ismorc 
intimate  than  between  the  parts  of  an  aggregate. 

Aggregate,  in  bo; any,  is  a  term  ufed  to  cxprcfs 
thofe  flowers,  v.  hich  arc  compofed  of  pan*  or  florets, 
fo  united  by  means  either  of  the  receptacle  or  calyx, 
that  no  one  of  them  can  be  taken  away  w  ithoiA  dc- 
Ilroying  the  form  of  the  whole.  They  arc  oppofcd  to 
fimple  riowcrs,  wiiich  have  no  l"uch  common  part,  and 
arc  ufually  divided  into  fevcii  kinds,  viz.  the  aggreguli, 
properly  fo  called,  whofc  receptacle  is  dilated,  and 
whole  florets  arc  fuppo4-tcd  by  foot-llalks ;  fuch  arc 
the  blue  daily,  thrif't,  or  tea-pink,  &c.  ;  the  covtp'iund; 
\.\\c  umi'cilaii ;  the  cjwo/;f;  lh.c  amentaceous  ;  thc^/«- 
vioj'e  ;  and  \\\i:  fpaJiceotis. 

AGGREGATION,  in  phytics,  a  fpccics  of  union 
wliereby  feveral  things  wliich  have  no  natural  depen- 
dence or  connection  with  one  another  are  collected  to- 
gei'ier,  I'o  as  in  fome  fenfe  to  conllituc  one.  Thus,  a 
heapoffaiid,  or  a  mafs  of  ruins,  arc  bodies  by  aggre- 
gation. 

AGHER,  a  town  of  Ireland,  which  fends  two  mem- 
bers 10  parliament.  It  is  (ituatcd  in  the  fjuthera  part 
of  UllUr,  not  f'ar  from  Cloghcr. 

AGHRliM,  a  town  of  Inland,  in  the  county  of 
Wieklow,  and  province  of  Leinllcr,  fituated  about  i  ? 
miics  fouth  wcfl  of  M  icklow. 

Aghrim,  in  Gal  way;  a  fmall  village,  diflant  about 
21  miles  t"rom  Dublin,  and  rendered  memorable  by  a 
decilive  battle  fought  there,  and  at  Kilcommodon-hill, 
the  13th  of  July  169 1,  between  general  Ginckle  and 
Monfieur  St  Ruth,  the  commanders  under  king  Wil- 
liam 111.  and  Janes  II,  w  hen  St  Ruth,  the  general  of 
the  Irilh  army,  with  7ccoof  his  men,  were  llain  ;  but 
of  the  Engiilh  only  6co.  The  vioilory  was  the  more 
couliderable,  as  the  Englifli  army  ronfillcd  of  no  more 
than  18, coo  men;  wlicreasihc  Irilhwere  compiucd  at 
20,000  foot  and  fooo  horfe  and  dragoons.  They  loll 
likcwife  uinc  pieces  of  brafs  canuou  fall  their  ammuni- 
tion. 


A  G  I 


[     ^38     ] 


A  G  I 


ti-jn,  lents  aiul  b.iijgagc  ;  uiofl  of  ihcir  fmall  arms, 
which  they  ihrcw  away  to  cxptdiic  their  flight ;  with 
ri  /tanilards,  and  52  pair  of"  colours. 

AGIADKS,  in  ihc  Turkifli  armies, 'a  kind  of  pio- 
neers employed  in  fortifying  camps,  Inioothing  of 
roads,  and  the  like  oflices. 

AGILITY,  an  aptitude  of  the  feveral  parts  of  the 
body  to  motion — The  improvinj;;  of  agility  was  one  0/ 
tiic  chief  ohjeds  of  ilic  inlUtution  of  games  and  excr- 
cifcs.  Tlieathlei;t;  made  particular  profcllion  of  the 
fciencc  of  cultivating  and  improving  agiiity.  Agility 
of  body  is  often  fuppofed  peculiar  to  fomc  people  ;  yet 
it  feemslefs owing  to  any  tiling  peculiar  in  tlicir  frame 
and  flrudure,   than  to  pradice. 

AGINCOURT,  a  village  of  the  French  Nether- 
lands, fituatcd  in  E.  Long.  2.  10.  N.  Lat.  50.  35  ;  fa- 
uiou!'  on  account  of  the  victory  obtained  by  Henry  V. 
of  Kngland  over  the  French,  in  141 5. 

The  army  of  Henry,  after  landing  in  France,  was 
by  various  accidents  reduced  to  10,000  men,  of  whom 
not  a  few  were  fick,  or  llowJy  recovering  from  (ieknefsj 
— they  had  to  traverfe  a  long  trad  of  country,  inha- 
bited by  exafpcratcd  enemies,  from  whom  tlicy  were 
to  procure  provifions,  lodgings,  guides,  intelligence, 
and  every  thing  they  wanted  ; — that  country  was  de- 
fended by  many  ftrong  towns,  interfered  by  deep  ri- 
vers, and  guarded  by  an  army  of  100,000,  or  (accord- 
ing to  fomc  contemporary  writers)  140,000  men. 

Henry,  undaunted  by  all  thcfe  dangers  and  ditHcul- 
lies,  departed  from  Harfleur,  marching  his  army  in 
tJiree  lines,  with  bodies  of  cavalry  on  tlic  wings.  He 
proceeded  by  very  eafy  journeys,  that  he  miglunotfa- 
tiguc'his  troops,  or  difcourage  them  by  the  appearance 
of  a  flight !  obfcrving  the  llrideft  dil'cipline,  and  pay- 
ing gcneroudy  for  every  thing  he  received  ;  which  in- 
duced tlic  country  people  to  bring  provifions  to  his 
camp,  in  fpiteotall  the  commands  they  had  received 
to  llie  contrary.  To  keep  his  men  in  fpirits,  and  from 
repining,  the  king  fared  as  ill  as  the  meancll  foldier, 
always  appearing  with  a  chcarfiil  countenance,  and  ad- 
drefling  them  iu  tlie  moft  friendly  and  encouraging 
language.  They  arrived  at  ilie  village  of  Agincoart, 
in  the  county  of  St  Hoi,  on  the  evening  of  Odober 
34th  ;  and  there  bclicld  the  whole  French  army,  at  a 
fmall  diilance,  dire(^lly  in  their  route.  The  king  took 
an  attentive  view  of  it  from  an  eminence  ;  and  being 
fully  convinced  that  it  was  impoffible  to  proceed  any 
further  on  his  way  to  Calais  without  a  battle,  and  e- 
qually  impoffible  to  return  to  Harflcur  with  fo  great  an 
army  iii  his  rear,  he  refolved  to  hazard  an  adion  next 
morning,  as  the  only  means  of  preferving  himfclfand 
his  liiilc  army  from  deftrudion. 

The  Knglilh  army  lodged  that  night  in  the  villages 
of  Agincourt,  Maifoncclle,  and  fome  others;  where 
they  met  with  better  accommodaiion  than  they  had 
been  accuilomed  to  for  fome  time  palt,  and  fpent  part 
of  their  time  inlmitualexhortaiions  to  fight  bravely  in 
the  approachingbattle.  The  king, overhearing  fome 
of  his  nobles  cxprelling  a  wilh  that  the  many  brave 
men  who  were  idle  in  Kngland  were  prefcnt  to  adifl 
them,  is  laid  to  have  cried  oui — '<  No!  I  would  not 
have  one  man  more:  —  if  we  arc  defeated,  Ave  arc  too 
many — if  it  fliall  pleafe  God  to  give  us  the  vidory,  as 
I  trull  lie  will,  thcfmaller  our  number  the  greater  our 
glory."     The  moon  happening  to  thine  very  bright. 


Henry,  with  fomc  of  his  bell  officers,  carefully  cxa-  Aifinrourt. 

mined  the  ground,  and  pitched  upon  a  field  of  battle,  ■ y-'-^ 

admirably  calculated  to  prefcrvc  a  fmall  army  from  be- 
ing furrounded  by  a  great  one.  It  was  a  gentle  de- 
clivity from  the  village  of  Agincourt,  of  fjifiicient  ex- 
tent for  his  fmall  army,  dcfcndcdoii  each  lide  by  hedges, 
trees,  and  brulh-wood.  Having  placed  guards  and 
kindled  fires  on  all  fides,  the  king  and  liis  army  betook 
themfclvcs  to  reft  ;  except  I'uch  as  were  of  a  more  fc- 
rious  turn  of  mind,  and/  confidcring  that  as  the  lafl 
night  of  their  lives,  fpcnl  it  devotion. 

The  French,  exulting  in  their  numbers,  confident  of 
vidory,  and  abounding  in  provifions,  fpent  the  night 
in  noify  feflivity,  and  in  forming  fanciful  Ichemes  a- 
binit  the  difpofal  of  their  priloners  and  their  booty, 
it  was  in  general  refolved  to  put  all  the  Lnglifli  to  the 
fword,  except  the  king  and  the  chief  nobility,  who 
were  to  be  taken  prifoncrs  for  the  fake  of  their  ran- 
fonis. 

On  the  morning  of  Friday,  the  memorable  2jth  of 
October,  A.  D.  1 41 5,  the  day  of  Crifpin  and  Crifpia- 
nus,  the  Englifli  and  French  armies  were  ranged  in  or- 
der of  battle,  each  in  three  lines,with  bodies  of  cavalry 
on  each  wing.  The  Conflablc  D'Albert,  who  com- 
manded the  French  army,  fell  into  the  fnare  that  was 
laid  for  him,  by  drawing  up  his  army  in  the  narrow 
plain  between  the  two  woods.  This  deprived  him,  in 
a  great  meafure,  of  the  advantage  he  fliould  have  de- 
rived from  the  prodigious  fuperiority  of  his  numbers ; 
obliged  him  tomake  hislinesunnccelTarily  deep,  about 
50  men  in  file  ;  to  croud  his  troops,  particularly  his 
cavalry,  fo  clofe  together,  that  they  could  hardly  move 
or  ufe  their  arms  ;  and,  in  a  word,  was  the  chief  caufe 
of  all  the  difafters  that  followed.  The  French,  it  is 
fuid,  had  a  conliderable  number  of  cannon  of  different 
lizcs  in  the  field  ;  but  we  do  not  hear  that  they  did 
any  execution,  probably  for  want  of  room.  The  firfl 
lineof  the  French  army,  which conflfledofSooomen- 
at-arms  on  foot  mixed  wilh  4000  archers,  with  joo 
men-at-arms  mounted  on  each  wing,  was  commanded 
by  the  Conflable  D'Albert,  the  dukes  of  Orleans  and 
Bourbon,  and  many  other  nobles  ;  tlie  dukes  of  Alen- 
con,  Brabant,  and  Bar,  &c.  conducTied  the  fecond  line  ; 
and  the  carls  of  Marie,  Dainartine,  Fauconberg,  &c. 
M'creat  the  head  of  the  third  line.  The  kingof  Eng- 
land employed  various  arts  to  fupply  Ws  defeiit  of  num- 
bers. He  placed  200  of  his  beft  archers  in  ambuffi,  in 
a  low  meadow,  on  the  flank  of  the  firfl  line  of  the 
French.  His  own  firfl  line  confifled  wholly  of  archers, 
four  in  file  ;  each  of  whom,  bcfides  his  bow  and  ar- 
rows, had  a  battle-axe,  a  fword,  and  a  flake  pointed 
with  iron  at  both  ends,  which  he  fixed  before  him  in 
the  ground,  the  point  inclining  outwards,  to  protcd 
him  from  cavalry  ;  which  was  a  new  invention,  and  had 
a  happy  cflecT:.  That  he  might  not  be  incumbered,  he 
diimillcd  all  his  prifoncrs,  on  their  word  of  honour  to 
furrender  themfelvcs  at  Calais,  if  he  obtained  the  vic- 
tory ;  and  lodged  all  his  baggage  in  the  village  of  A- 
gincourt,  in  his  rear,  under  a  flendcr  guai-d  The 
command  of  the  firftline  was,  at  his  earncfl  rcqucft, 
committed  to  Edward  duke  of  York,  alliflcd  by  the 
lords  Beaumont,  Willoughby,  and  Fanhope ;  the  fecond 
was  condiided  by  tlie  king,  with  his  youngcft'brothcr 
Humphrey  duke  of  Glouccfler,  the  carls  of  Oxford, 
Marfhal,  and  Suffolk  ;  and  the  third  was  led  by  the 

duke 


A  G  I 


[     239     ] 


A  G  I 


\gincourt.  diikc  of  Excicr,  ihe  king's  uncle.     The  lines  being 

V. — ,,, formed,  the  king,  in  Ihiaing  armour,  with  a  crown  of 

gold  adorned  with  precious  ftones  on  his  helmet, mount- 
ed on  a  fine  white  horfe,  rode  along  them,  and  aJdref- 
fed  each  corps  with  a  cheerful  countenance  and  ani- 
mating fpecchcs.  To  inliame  their  refenimcnt  againll 
their  er.eniies,  he  told  them,  that  the  French  had  de- 
termiucd  to  cut  off  three  fingers  of  the  right  hand  of 
every  prifoncr  ;  and  to  roufe  their  love  of  honour,  he 
declared,  that  every  foldicrin  that  army  who  behaved 
well,  iliould  from  henceforth  be  deemed  a  gentleman, 
and  be  intitlcd  to  bear  coat-armour. 

When  tlic  two  armies  were  drawn  up  in  this  man- 
ner, they  flood  a  conliderablc  time  gazing  at  one  ano- 
ther in  folemn  fllence.  But  the  king,  dreading  that 
the  French  woulddifcover  the  dangcrofiheir  fituation 
and  decline  a  battle,  commanded  the  charge  to  be 
founded,  about  ten  o'clock  in  the  forenoon.  At  that 
inflant,  the  firff  line  of  the  Englilh  kneeled  down, 
and  killed  the  ground ;  and  then  flaning  up,  difchar- 
gcd  a  flight  of  arrows,  which  did  gteat  execution  a- 
jnong  the  crowded  ranks  of  the  French.  Immediate- 
ly after,  upon  a  fignal  being  given,  the  archers  in  am- 
bufh  arofc,  and  difcharged  their  arrows  on  the  flank  of 
the  French  line,  and  threw  it  into  fome  diforder.  The 
battle  now  became  general,  and  raged  with  uncommon 
fury.  The  Englilli  archers,  having  expended  alltlieir 
arrows,  threwaway  their  bows,  and,  rulhing  forward, 
made  dreadful  havoc  with  their fwords  and  battle-axes.. 
The  firfl  line  of  the  enemy  was,  by  thefc  means,  de- 
feated ;  i[S  leaders  being  either  killed  or  taken  prifou- 
crs.  The  fccond  line,  commanded  by  the  duke  D'A- 
lenfon,  (who  had  made  a  vow  either  to  kill  or  take  tlie 
king  ofEnglmd,  or  to  perifli  in  the  attempt),  now 
advanced  to  the  charge,  and  v/as  encountered  by  the 
fecond  line  of  the  Englilh,  conduced  by  the  king. 
This  conflict  was  moreclofe  and  furious  than  the  for- 
mer. The  duke  of  Gloucefler,  wounded  and  unhorfed, 
was  protedled  by  his  royal  brother  till  he  was  carried 
offthe  field.  The  duke  D'Alcnfon  forced  his  way  to 
the  king,  and  atTaulted  him  with  great  fury  ;  but  that 
prince  brought  him  to  the  ground,  where  he  was  in- 
flantly  difpatched.  Difcouraged  by  this  difaftcr,  the 
fecond  line  made  no  more  rcliftance ;  ami  the  third  fled 
without  flriking  a  blow  ;  yielding  a  complete  and  glo- 
rious victory  to  the  Englilh,  after  a  violent  ftrugglcof 
three  hours  duration. 

The  king  did  not  permit  his  men  to  purfue  the  fu- 
gitives to  a  great  diftance,  but  encouraijed  tlicni  to  take 
as  many  prifoners  as  they  could  on  or  near  the  field  ; 
in  which  they  were  fo  fuccefsful,  that,  in  a  litik  time, 
his  captives  were  more  numerous  than  his  foldiers.  A 
great  proportion  of  thefe  pt  ifoncrs  were  men  of  rank 
and  fortune  ;  for  many  of  the  French  noblelle  being 
on  foot,  and  loaded  v.  iih  their  heavy  armour,  could  not 
make  their  cf<  ape.  Among  thefc  were  tlic  dukes  of 
Orleansand  Bourbon,  the  martlial  Houcicaut, the  counts 
D'Eu,  Vcndoiiie,  Richemont,  and  Harcourt,and  7000 
barou',  knights,  and  gentlemen.  The  French  left  dead 
on  the  field  of  battle,  the  conllabtc  D'Albcrt.the  three 
tlukesof  Alenfon,  Bra'oant,  ai^d  Bar.  the  archlilhop  of 
Sens,  one  marlhal,  i;  earls,  92  barons,  tjooknighis, 
and  a  far  greater  numberof  genllen:cn,  b'  fides  fevcral 
ihoiifands  of  common  folJiers.  Even  the  French  lii- 
ftorians  acknowledge,  that  the  lofs  of  the  Englilli 


was  intonfidcrablc  :  thofe  of  Englilli  contemporary 
writers  who  make  it  the  grcatcll,  affirm,  that  it  did  not 
exceed  100,  and  that  the  duke  of  York  and  the  carl 
of  Suffolk  were  the  only  great  men  v^ho  fell  on  that 
fide  in  this  memorable  aclion. 

AGIO,  in  commerce,  is  a  term  chiefly  ufed  in  Hol- 
land, and  at  Venice,  tofignify  the  difference  between 
the  value  of  bank-ftock  and  the  current  coin.  The 
agio  in  Holland  is  generally  three  or  four  per  ceiif. 
and  at  Rome  it  is  from  15  to  2^  psr  ant.  but  it  Venice 
the  agio  is  fixed  at  20  per  cent, 

AGIOSYMANDRUM,  a  wooden  inftrumcnt  ufed 
by  the  Greek  and  other  churches,  under  the  dominion 
of  the  Tu^ks,  to  call  together  affeinblies  of  the  people. 
The  agiofyj/iaiidruf/i  was  introduced  in  the  place  of 
bells,  which  the  Turks  prohibited  their  Chriflian 
fubjedls  the  ufe  of',  left  they  Ihould  make  tlicm  fub- 
fervient  to  fedition. 

AGIS,  king  of  Lacediemon,  was  defcended  from 
Agefilaus  11.  in  a  right  line.  He  projcfted  the  re- 
formation of  his  kingdom,  by  the  reftoringof  the  laws 
of  Lycurgus  ;  but  he  fell  under  the  weight  of  an  en- 
lerprife  that  could  not  but  be  difagreeable  n»  all  thofe 
who  had  great  pollelTions,  and  had  beenlongaccuftom- 
ed  to  the  fweets  of  a  voluptuous  life.  Agis  being  in 
the  flower  of  his  age,  and  having  a  very  refined  dellre 
of  glory,  praelifed  the  ancient  difcipline  firll  iu  his 
own  perfon  :  liis  clothes  and  his  table  were  accord- 
ing to  the  manners  of  former  limes  j  which  is  fo 
much  the  more  to  be  admired,  beeaufe  Ageliflrata 
his  mother  and  -Archidamii  his  grandmother  had 
brought  him  up  voliipiuou'.ly.  When  he  founded 
his  people's  minds,  he  found  the  younger  fort  oppo- 
fed  his  projeft  lei's  than  thofe  who  had  enjoyevl  a 
relaxation  of  difcipline  fevcral  years.  The  greaicfl 
difficulty  was  expe.'fed  toarifcfroin  the  women.  They 
had  at  that  time  more  credit  than  ever  ;  for  their 
power  isnever  greater  than  whenluxury  is  in  fafhion. 
Agcfilaus's  mother  did  not  at  all  relilh  the  jiropo- 
led  reformation.  She  raufl  have  loft  her  riches,  which 
gave  her  a  fliarc  in  a  thoufand  forts  of  intrigues  ;  fo 
Ihe  oppofed  the  ddign  at  once,  and  treated  it  as  a 
chimera.  But  her  brother  Agelilaus,  whom  Agis  had 
engaged  in  his  iiiterefls,  knew  how  to  manage  her  in 
fuch  a  manner  that  (he  promifed  to  fecond  the  enter- 
prifc.  She  endeavoured  ro  gain  the  women  :  but  in- 
ftcad  of  fufFering  themfcl  ves  to  be  perfuaded,  they  ap- 
plied to  Lconidas  the  other  king  of  Laceda:mon,  and 
humbly  befought  Iiim  to  fruftrate  the  dellgns  of  his 
colleague.  Leonilas  durll  not  oppofe  it  openly,  for 
fear  of  irritating  the  people  ;  to  whom  the  reforma- 
tion was  agreeable,  beeaufe  they  found  their  .account 
in  it.  He  contented  hinifc  If  with  countermining  it  by- 
intrigues,  and  fou  ing  fufpicions  as  if  Agis  had  afpired 
to  tyranny,  by  pulling  dow  n  the  rich  and  raifnig  the 
p<K)r.  Agis  did  not  fail  to  propofe  his  new  laws  to 
the  fenate,  relating  to  the  difcharge  of  debts,  and  a 
newdlvil'ion  of  the  lands.  Leonid  is,  being  fupported 
by  the  rich,  oppofed  thisprojcd  fofbongly,  that  there 
was  one  voice  more  againfl  it  than  for  it.  He  paid 
dear  for  his  fuer(  fs  in  this  affair.  Lyfander,  one  ot 
the  Ephori,  who  had  been  the  grand  promoter  of  the 
reforniation,ca'Icd  him  to  account ;  alleged  the  celcfliul 
figns ;  and  putto  death  Cleoinbrotus, a  priKcc  of  the  royal 
blood  and  Iba-in-law  to  LcoiiiJas,  to  make  fure  of  the 

kJugdonj.. 


A  G  < 


[     240 


A  G  M 


.j^ifixci.t,  ki;;gJi)ni.  Lro;u.ias  Liiug  iVi^litcrcJ  at  ihii  tcok  rc- 
^V'rittor.  fiigc  ill  a  icnij-lc  ;  whitlitr  his  daughter,  the  wilt  of 
"  '  Ckonibrotus,  loilowtii  liim.  Hc\\es  i'liminoiKd  :  aad 
bccaiilt  he  oii  not  appear,  he  was  degraded  oi  his  dig- 
nity, which  was  eoiiCcrred  0:1  Cleoiiibrotus.  K'c  oj- 
laiiicukavc  to  retire  to 'i'ega:!.  The  New  ipliori  had 
Ly  finder  and  Man  JrocliJds  tried  for  innovation:  thefc 
pcrfjaded  the  two  kings  to  nniie  and  turn  out  thefc 
Kpiiori.  The  thing  was  brought  about ;  but  not  with- 
out a  grer.t  uproar  in  the  city.  Agciilaiis,  one  ot  the 
Ephori  that  luceeeded  thofe  who  wcrejiut  turned  out 
Would  liavc  caufed  LeoniJas  to  be  killed  on  the  Wi;y 
to  Tcga;a,  if  Agh  had  i;oi  ftiit  him  a  llrong  guarJ. 
The  refornialiJii  might  then  liavebecn  ellabiilhcd,  if 
Agelrlaus  had  1101  found  means  to  elude  thcgooj  in- 
teniioiis  of  tiic  two  kings.  WhiUl  this  was  tranfact- 
ing,  the  Achaians  alktd  afliltancc  ;  which  was  given 
thcni,  and  Agis  had  the  command  of  the  troops.  He 
acquired  a  good  deal  of  reputation  in  this  campaign. 
At  his  return,  he  found  his  atiairs  (o  embroiled  by 
the  ill  condud  of  Agelilaus,  that  ic  was  impolliblc 
for  him  to  niantain  liimfelf.  Lcoiiidas  was  recalled 
to  Laccdxmon  ;  Agis  retired  into  the  temple  and 
Cleoniencis  into  another.  The  wile  of  the  laiter  bc- 
]:avedherfclfinfuch  amanner  that  llie  became  thcad- 
jniration  of  every  body.  Leouidaswas  contented  with 
banilhing  hisfon-in-law  ;  after  which  heapplied  hini- 
fvlf  eniiitly  to  the  ruin  of  Agis.  One  of  the  Ephori, 
who  had  no  mind  to  return  what  Agcfiftrata  had  lent 
him,  was  the  principal  inflrument  of  the  misfortune 
of  this  family.  Agis  never  went  oat  of  his  fanctuary 
but  to  bathe.  One  day,  as  he  was  returning  from 
thence  to  the  temple,  he  was  feized  by  that  Ephorus 
and  carried  to  priibii.  Then  he  was  brought  to  his 
trial  and  condimned  to  death,  and  delivered  to  the 
executioner.  His  mother  and  grandmother  ufcd  all 
the  iutreaty  and  importunity  imaginable,  that,  as  he 
was  king  ot  I.aeedaKm.on,  he  might  at  leaft  be  perniit- 
I  ted  to  plead  his  canfe  before  the  people.     But  they 

wcreapprehcnfn  e  left  his  w'ords  would  make  too  great 
r.n  imprcflion,  and  therefore  they  ordered  him  to  be 
ftrangled  that  very  hour.  The  tphorus  who  was  in 
debt  to  Agcliflrata  permitted  that  princefs  to  go  into 
theprifon  ;  which  he  granted  likewife  to  Agis'sgraiid- 
jnother  ;  but  he  gave  orders  to  ftrangle  them  one  after 
another.  Agefiltrata  died  in  a  manner  that  was  ex- 
tremely to  her  honour.  The  wife  of  Agis,  who  was 
a  princefs  of  great  fortune  and  prudence,  and  one  of 
the  linefl  ladies  in  Greece,  was  forced  away  from  her 
apartment  by  king  Leonidas,  and  obliged  to  marry  his 
fon,  w-ho  was  then  very  young,  and  hardly  fit  for  mar- 
riage. 

AGISTMENT,  AcisTAGE,  or  Agistation,  in 
law,  the  taking  in  other  people's  cattle  to  graze  at  fo 
much  p.'r  week.  The  term  is  peculiarly  ufcd  for  the 
taking  cattle  ro  feed  in  the  king's  forells,  as  well  as 
for  the  profits  ariiing  from  that  pradice. — It  is  alfo 
'  ufcd,  in  a  mct.iphorical  fcnfc,  for  any  tax,  burden,  or 
change  ;  thus,  the  tax  levied'for  repairing  the  banks 
of  lto:uncy-marni  was  called  ag:l:uiui:iittn/i. 

AGISTOR,  or  Agistatok,  an  officer  belonging 
^o  forefts,  who  has  the  care  of  cattle  taken  in  to  be 
grazed,  and  levies  the  moneys  due  on  that  account. 
They  are  generally  called  /juejt-iaksrs  or gift-tnL-n, 


and  are  created  by  letters-patent.     Each  royal  forcfl 
has  four  agiltors. 

AG1SYMJ3A  (anc.  geog.),  a  difiria  of  Libya  In- 
terior, according  to  Agathemcrus,  lituaied  t?  the  I'outh- 
cad  of  the  jtthiopes  Anthropophagi ;  the  parallel  jaf- 
fingtiirough  which,  at  160  to  the  fouth  of  the  equator, 
wastheuimoft  extent  of  the  knowledge  of  thcaneicnis 
to  the  fouth  (Ptolemy). 

AGITATION,  theadoffhakingabody,  ortofiim.' 
it  baekw'ards  and  I'orwards. 

Ac  I T  A  T I  o  N ,  in  phy  lies,  is  often  u  fed  for  an  in  tcflinc 
commotion  of  the  parts  of  a  natural  body.  FcriBcn- 
tation  and  eti'ervefcencc  arc  attended  with  a  brilli  agi- 
tation of  the  particles. 

AciTATioNisoneofihechicf  caufcsorinftruments 
of  mixtion:  by  the  agitation  of  the  pans  of  the  blood 
and  chyle,  in  their  continual  circulation, fanguification 
is  in  a  good  meafure  cffctied.  Butter  is  made  out  of 
milk  by  the  fame  means  :  in  w  hich  operation,  a  fepa- 
ration  is  made  of  the  oleous  parts  from  the  ferous,  and 
a  conjunction  of  tlie  oleous  together.  Digcftionitfclf 
is  only  fuppofed  to  be  an  inftnlible  kind  of  agitation. 
AoirATioN  is  reputed  one  of  the  fymptomsof  in- 
fpiration.  Petit  informs  us*,  that,  in  the  laft  century, 
there  arofe  in  a  church  in  Italy,  for  the  fpace  of  a  year, 
a  vapour  of  an  extraordinary  kind,  which  put  all  the 
people  into  trembling  and  agitations,  and  unlefs  they 
got  away  betimes,  fct  them  a  dancing,  with  Arange 
contortions  and  gefticulations.  This  fcems  to  verify 
what  has  been  related  of  the  temple  of  Delphi. 

Agitation  is  alfo  nfed  in  medicine  for  a  fpecies 
of  cxercife  popularly  callcd/;w«^;//j.  Maurice  prince 
of  Orange  found  this  metliod  a  relief  againft  the  fevcre 
pains  of  the  gout  and  ftone.  Banlioline  mentions  lits 
of  the  toothach,  dcafncfs,  &c.  removed  by  vehement 
agitations  of  the  body. 

AGITATOR,  in  antiquity,  »  ternifojnetimes  ufcd 
for  a  charioteer,  efpecially  thofe  who  drove  in  the  cir- 
cus at  the  curule  games. 

Agitators,  in  the  Englilh  hiftory,  certain  olEcers 
fet  up  by  the  army  in  1647,  to  take  care  of  its  intc- 
refls. —  Cromwelljoined  theagitators,onIy  witha  view 
to  ferve  his  own  ends  ;  w  hich  beingonce  accoaiplifhcd, 
he  found  means  to  get  them  abolilhed. 

AGLAIA,  the  name  of  the  youngeft  of  the  three 
Graces,  efpoufed  to  Vulcan. 

AGLiONBY  (John),  an  Englilh  divine,  chaplain 
in  ordinary  to  king  James  I.  a  man  of  univerfal  learn- 
ing, who  had  a  very  confiderable  hand  in  the  tranlla- 
tion  of  the  New  Teflament  appointed  by  king  James  I. 
in  1604. 

AGMEN,  in  antiquity,  properly  denotes  a  Roman 
army  in  inarch :  in  which  fcnfe,  it  Hands  contradi- 
(linguifhed  from  acks,  w  hich  de;;oted  the  army  in  bat- 
lie  array  ;  though,  on  fome  occalions,  we  find  the  two 
words  ufcd  indilcrcntly  for  each  other.  The  Roman 
armies,  in  theirmarches,  were  divided  mio prh/mm ag- 
mci:,  anfwering  to  our  vanguard  ;  medium  agiian,  our 
main-battle  ;  and  /^oflrnunm  agmum,  the  rear-guard. 
The  order  of  their  march  was  thus:  After  the  firfl  fig- 
nal  with  ihctrunipets,  S:c.  the  tents  were  taken  down, 
and  the  baggage  packed  up  ;  at  the  ftcond  lignal,  the 
baggage  was  to  be  loadcnon  the  horfes  and  carriages; 
and  at  the  third  lignal,  they  were  tobegin  their  march. 

Eirft 


•  Petit.  i!e 
Sybilla,  I.  i. 
Nouv.  Rep. 
Lett,  toiii. 
viii.p.1113. 


A  G  N 


[     241     ] 


AGO 


gnate     Firft  came  the  extraorJinaiii ;  then  the  auxilliaritsuf 
I)         the  firll  wing,  with  their  baggage  j  thefc  wvrc  follow- 
gnus.     gj  ijy  the  Icgjoiis.     The  cavalry  marclied  either  on 
'^       '  Cich  liJc  or  behind. 

AGNATE,  in  law,  any  male  relation  by  the  fa- 
ther's lide. 

AGNEL,  an  ancient  French  gold  coin,  firft  llrack 
under  the  reign  of  St  Louii,  worth  about  twelve  fols 
fix  denicrs.  The  agnel  is  alfo  called  fometimes  moutoit 
d'ar,  and  agnel  ti'ar.  The  denomination  is  fuppofcd 
to  have  arifcn  from  the  figure  of  a  lamb,  agnus,  or 
flicep,  flnick  on  one  lide. 

AGNO,  a  river  of  Naples,  which,  taking  its  rife 
in  the  mountainous  parts  of  Terra  di  Lavoro,  wallics 
the  town  of  Acerra  ;  and,  pafling  between  Capua  and 
Averfa,  falls  into  the  Mediterranean,  about  fevcn  miles 
north  of  Puzzuoli. 

AGNOETtE  (from  ayitio,  to  be  ignoratit  of,)  in 
church-hiflory,  a  hSt  of  ancient  heretics,  who  main- 
tained that  Chrift,  confidercd  as  to  his  luiman  nature, 
was  ignorant  of  certain  things,  and  particularly  of  the 
time  of  the  day  of  judgment.  Eulogius,  patriarch  of 
Alexandria,  afcribcs  this  hcrefy  to  certain  folitarics  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Jerufalem,  who  built  their  opi- 
nion upon  the  text  Mark  xiii.  32  "  Of  that  day  and 
"  hour  knoweth  no  man,  no  not  the  angels  who  arc 
"  in  heaven,  neither  the  Son,  but  the  Father  only." — 
The  fame  paiFage  was  made  ufe  of  by  the  Arians  ;  and 
hence  the  orthodox  divines  of  thofe  days  were  induced 
10 give  various  explications  thereof.  Some  allege,  that 
our  Saviour  here  had  no  regard  to  his  divine  nature, 
but  only  fpoke  of  his  human.  Others  undcr.land  it 
thus.  That  the  knowledge  of  the  day  of  judgment 
does  not  concern  our  Saviour  confidercd  in  his  quality 
of  Mefliah,  but  God  only:  which  is  the  moll  natural 
foluiion. 

AGNOMEN,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  kind  of  fourth 
or  honorary  name,  given  to  a  perfon  on  account  of 
fome  extraordinary  action,  virtue,  or  other  accompli  fli- 
ment.  Thus  the  agnomen  Aj'vicanus  was  bellowed 
upon  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio,  on  account  of  his  great 
atchievements  in  Africa. — The  agnomen  was  the  third 
in  order  of  the  three  Roman  names  ;  thus,  in  Marcus 
TuUius  Cicero,  Marcus  is  the  praeuomen,  Tullius  the 
Bomen,  and  Cicero  the  agnomen. 

AGNUS,  or  Lamb,  in  zoology,  the  young  of  the 
ovis  or  Iheep.     See  Ovis. 

j4ckus  Cafltis,  in  botany,  the  trivial  name  of  a  fpc- 
cies  of  the  vitex.  See  Vitex.  The  Greeks  call  it 
«yf©.,  chaPi  ;  to  which  has  fince  been  added  the  re- 
duplicative cafli.'s,  q.  d.  chaflc  chaflc.  It  was  famous 
among  the  ancients  as  a  fpecih'c  for  the  prefcrvation  of 
chaAity.  The  Athenian  ladies,  who  made  profefiion 
of  challity,  lay  upon  leaves  of  a^^ww  f4'/7,v/  during  the 
feafls  of  Ceres. — Being  reputed  a  cooler,  and  parti- 
cularly of  the  genital  parts,  it  was  anciently  ufed  in 
phyfic  to  allay  thefc  inordinate  motions  ariling  from 
Icminal  turgefccnccs  :  but  it  is  out  of  the  prcfent 
practice. 

AcsvsDei,  in  the  church  of  Rome,  a  cake  of  wax 
flamped  with  the  figure  of  a  lamb  fupporting  the  ban- 
ner of  the  crofs.  Thefe  being  confccrated  by  ihe 
pope  with  great  folcmnity,  and  dillributcd  among  tlic 
people,  are  fuppofed  to  have  great  virtues  ;  as,  to  pre- 
icrve  thofc  who  carry  them  worthily,  and  with  faith, 
Vol..  I. 


from  all  manner  of  accidents  ;  to  expel  evil  fpirits,&c.  A^niut 
The  name  literally  fignifics  L^wi  '^  6'o</ J  this  being  I 
fuppofcd  an  image  or  reprefcntation  of  the  Lamb  of  Agunalit.^ 
God  who  took  away  the  fins  of  the  world.  Thty  co-  "  ' 
ver  it  up  with  a  piece  of  Hurt"  cut  in  form  of  a  heart, 
and  carry  it  very  devoutly  in  their  procellions. — The 
Rorailh  pricfts  and  religious  derive  confiderahle  pecu- 
niary advantage  from  felling  thefe  j4gnus  Deis  to  ibme, 
and  prefenting  them  to  others.  The  pope  provides  a 
regular  fupply,  by  confecrating  once  in  feven  years; 
they  arc  diftributcd  by  the  maftcr  of  the  wardrobe, 
and  received  by  the  cardinals  and  other  prelates,  with 
great  reverence,  in  their  caps  and  mitres This  cere- 
mony they  pretend  to  derive  from  an  ancient  eullom 
of  the  church,  wherein  part  of  the  pafchal  taper  con- 
fecrated  on  Holy  Thurfday  was  diftributed  among  the 
people,  to  perfume  their  houfes,  fields,  £cc.  in  order  tu 
drive  away  devils,  and  to  prcferve  them  from  florms 
and  tempclls.  The  Agnus  Dei  is  forbidden  to  be 
brought  into  England  under  pain  of  incurring  i  pri. 
tmmire  ;    1 3  Eliz.  cap.  2. 

Agsus  Dei  is  alio  a  popular  name  for  that  part  of 
the  mafs  wherein  the  prieft,  ftriking  his  bread  three 
times,  rehearfes,  with  a  loud  voice,  a  prayer  beginning 
with  the  words  Agnus  Dei. — The  Agnus  Dei  is  faid 
to  have  been  firft  brought  into  the  luidai  by  pope  Ser- 
gius  L 

Acxus  Scylhicus.     See  Scythian  Lamb. 
AGOGE,   among  ancient   mulicians,  a  fpecies   of 
modulation,  wherein  the  notes  proceed  by  contiguous 
degrees. 

AGON,  among  the  ancients,  implied  any  difpntc 
or  contefb,  whether  it  had  regard  to  bodily  exercifes 
or  the  accomplilhmcnts  of  the  mind  ;  aad  therefore 
poets,  mulicians,  painters,  &c.  had  their  agons,  as 
well  as  the  athleta;.  Games  of  this  kmJ  were  celebra- 
ted at  moflof  the  heathen  fe(livals,wiihgrcat  folcmnity, 
either  annually,  or  at  certain  periods  of  years.  Among 
the  latter  were  celebrated  at  Athens,  iheagongymnieus, 
the  agon  mineus  inflituted  by  the  Argives  in  the  J3d 
Olympiad,  and  ihe  agon  0/)Mpius  inllituted  by  Her- 
cules 430  years  before  the  rirll  Olympiad The  Ro- 
mans alfo,  in  imitation  of  the  Greeks,  inAitutedcontcfls 
of  this  kind.  The  emperor  Aurelian  cflablilhed  one 
under  the  name  of  agon  J'olis  the  contell  of  the  fun  ; 
Dioclefian  another,  which  he  called  agon  capitdinus, 
which  was  celebrated  every  fourth  year,  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  Olympic  games.  Hence  the  years,  iufleaJ 
oduflra,  are  fometimes  numbered  by  agones. 

Agon  alfo  lignified  one  of  the  niiniUcrs  employed  in 
the  Heathen  facrifices,  and  whole  bufinefs  it  was  to  llrikc 
the  vidim.  The  name  is  fuppofed  to  have  been  derived 
from  hence,  that  Handing  ready  to  give  the  Urokc  he 
alked,  Agon'  ?  or  Agone  ?  Shall  I  llrikc  ? 

AGONALES,  an  epithet  given  to   the  Salii. 
AGONALL'l,    in  Roman  antiquity,    fclliv.ils  ce- 
lebrated in  honour  of  Janus,    or   the  god   Agoiiius, 
whom  the  Romans  invoked  before  undertaking  any 
affair  of  importance. 

AGON.ALIS  CIRCUS,  now  La  Piazza  Njvora,  a 
long,  large,  beautiful  llrect  in  the  heart  of  Rome,  a- 
dorned  with  fountains,  and  the  obclilk  of  Caracalla,  ftill 
retaining  ihc  form  of  that  circus.  The  reafon  of  the 
name  Agonalis  is  eiiher  unknown  or  doubtful.  Ovid 
feems  to  derive  it  from  the  agones,  or  folemn  games, 
H  h  there 


AGO 


[     242     ] 


A  G  R 


Ag«nifhi«   there  celebratcJ  ;  fuppolcd  to  have  been  thcLudi  ^j-o/- 
I         /mans,  or  ^'cliaci,   iiiililiiicd   by   Auguftus  ;   whence 
the  circus  Was  called    JfoUinaris;  Mo  AlexaiiJnuui, 
from  the  emperor  Alexaiider  Scvcrus,   who  cither  ca- 
tlofcd  or  rcp;;ived  ihc  rircus. 

AGOiNlSMA,  in  aiuiqui:y,  denotes  the  prize  given 
to  the  victor  in  any  coi!  bat  or  dilpviic. 

AGOMSTARCHA,  troin  ajar  "  combat,"  and 
«»;(te  "  thief,"  in  antiquny,  Iccms  to  have  occn  much 
tlic  l.ime  with  agviiotkitu  j  though  Ionic  ("uggcll  a  dif- 
ference, making  it  ihc  office  ol  ihc  fiirnicr  to  prcfiilc 
at  anddirtd  the  private  cxcrcifcs  of  the  athletae,  which 
they  went  tlirough  .by  way  of  practice,  before  tliey 
made  ihtir  appearance  on  the  public  theatres  or  am- 
phitheatres. 

AGOMSTICI,  in  church-hiftory,  a  name  given  by 
Donatus  to  fuch  of  his  dilciplts  as  he  fent  to  fairs, 
jnarkets,  and  other  public  places,  to  propagate  his  doc- 
trine; for  which  rtalon  they  were  alio  cadcd  Circut' 
tores,  Circi/iiones,  Catropita,  Coiopitjr,  and  at  Rome 
Moutiiifes.  They  were  called  ^'0/.<///t/, from  ihcGrcek 
tiyvi  "  combat,"  in  regard  they  were  feat  as  it  were  10 
light  and  lubdue  t!ic  people  to  their  opinions. 

AGONIUiM,  in  Roman  antiquity,  was  ufed  for  the 
day  on  which  the  rex  ftaorum  facrificcd  a  vidini,  as 
well  as  for  the  place  where  the  games  were  celebrated, 
othcrwifc  calkd  agdti. 

AGONOTHEl'A,  or  Agon-otiietes,  in  Grecian 
antiquity,  was  the  prefidcm  or  fupcriatemiant  of  the 
fjcrcd  games  ;  who  not  only  defrayed  the  txpcnce  at- 
tending them,  butinfpcftcd  the  manners  and  ilifciplinc 
ef  the  aihlctx,  and  aJjiidged  the  prizes  to  the  viitors. 

AGONY,  any  extreme  pain.  It  is  alfo  ided  for 
the  pangs  of  death.  Much  of  the  terror  of  death  con- 
lids  in  tiic  pangs  and  convullions  wherewith  the  agony 
leems  attended  ;  though  we  havcreafon  to  believe  tliat 
the  pain  in  fuch  calts  is  ordinarily  not  extremely  acute; 
a  courlc  of  piin  and  ficknefs  having  ufually  Aupified 
and  iiidifpofed  the  nerves  for  any  quick  fcnfaiions — 
However,  various  means  have  been  thought  of  for  mi- 
tigating ilie  agony  of  diath.  Lord  Bacon  confiders 
this  as  part  of  the  province  of  a  phylician  ;  and  that 
not  only  when  fuch  a  mitigation  may  tend  to  a  recove- 
ry, but  alfo  when,  there  being  no  turihrr  hi  pes  of  a 
recovery,  ii  can  only  lend  to  make  the  pallage  out  of 
life  more  calm  and  eafy.  Complacency  in  death,  which 
Auguilus  fo  much  defired,  is  certainly  no  fniall  part  of 
haj'pinefs.  Accordingly  the  author  lall  cited  ranks 
lulhaiiafa,  or  the  art  of  dying  ealily,  among  the  de- 
fiderata  of  fcicncc  ;  ar.d  does  not  even  fccm  to  difap- 
provc  of  the  courfe  Epicurus  took  for  that  end, 

Htiic  jiy^iiis  cbriin  haujit  iiquas. 

Opium  has  been  applied  for  this  purpufe,  with  the  ap- 
plaufe  of  fomc,  but  ihc  condemnation  of  more. 

AGONYCLIT/E,  or  Agonyclites,  in  church- 
hiftory,  afeftof  Chriftians,  in  the  7th  century,  who 
prayed  always  flanding,  as  thinking  it  unlawful  to 
knee!. 

AGOR.^^US,  in  heathen  antiquity,  an  appellation 
given  to  fuch  deities  as  had  flatucs  in  the  market-place ; 
particularly  Mercury,  whole  flatue  was  to  be  fecn  in 
almort  every  public  place 

AGORANOMUS,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  a  m.igi- 
Aratc  of  Athens,  who  had  the  regulation  of  weights 
and  meafures,  the  prices  of  provifions,  &c. — The  ag^- 


ranomi,  at  Athens,  were  ten  in  number,  five  belong-     Agouti 
ing  to  ihe  city,  and  as  many  to  the  Piraeus  ;   tlioiigh         II 
otucis  make  them  iifitcn  in  all,  of  wlioiji  they  alhgn  A^ricoli. 
ten  to  i!ic  city.     Toincfc  accriaiu  toll  ortriliute  was  ' 

paid,    by  all  who  brouglit  any    tiling    to  lell  in  the 
market. 

AoOUTI,  or  Act-Ti.  Sec  Mus. 
AliKA,  ti.c  capital  town  of  a  province  of  the  fame 
name,  in  ludolla.i,  and  in  the  doiKiuions  of  the  Great 
Mogul.  It  is  luoked  upon  as  the  Urged  city  in  ilicfc 
pans,  and  is  in  the  form  of  a  half-mooii.  A  man  on 
jiorleback  can  haruly  riJc  round  it  m  a  vtay.  It  is  lur- 
rouiidcd  with  a  wall  of  red  lloi.c,  and  witli  a  ditch  too 
feet  wide.  The  palaee  is  prodigiuully  large,  and  the 
feraglio  commonly  contains  above  1000  women.  '1  here 
arc  upwards  ot  800  baths  in  tiiis  town;  bui  that  which 
travellers  moll  admire,  is  the  maululeum  of  one  of  the 
Mogul's  wives,  which  was  20  years  in  building.  The 
indigo  of  Agra  is  the  moll  valuable  of  all  tnai  comes 
from  the  Kait  ladies.  This  town  is  fcaied  on  the  river 
Jcmiiia,  about  50  miles  above  its  conrtiiencc  viih  the 
Tehcmel,  and  is  30c  miles  N.  £.  of  Sural.  E.  Long. 
79.  12.  N.  26.  29. 

AGRARIAN  laws,  among  the  Romans,  thofe 
relating  to  the  divuiuu  and  ditltibution  ol  lands  ;  of 
which  iherc  were  a  great  number  ;  but  thai  called  the 
Agrarian  Law,  iiy  way  ot  cmiaeuce,  was  pul)lilhed  by 
Spurius  Callius,  aliout  the  year  of  Rome  268,  lor  di- 
viding the  conquered  lands  equally  among  all  the  citi- 
zens, and  limning  the  nuailer  of  acres  whieh  each 
citizen  might  eiijuy. — Tke  Roman  lanes  were  of  fcve- 
ral  kinds;  fomc  cwnqicred  I lom  the  enemies,  and  not 
yet  brought  to  the  puolic  acciunt ;  others  brought  in- 
deed to  the  public,  but  clanucftinely  iiiiirped  by  pri- 
vate great  men  ;  laltly,  others  purchafcd  with  the 
public  money,  in  order  to  be  oividcd.  Agrarian  l.iws, 
cither  lor  dividing  lands  taken  from  the  enemy,  or  the 
public  lands,  or  ihofc  purthafcd  with  the  public  mo- 
ney, were  ealily  palled  with  dillurliance  ,  but  thofe 
whereby  privjitc  rich  men  were  to  betieprived  of  their 
lands,  and  tlic  cummcn  people  put  in  polielimii  tf 
what  had  been  held  by  the  nobility,  were  never  at- 
tempted v\iihoui  great  dillurbaiices. 

Several  ha\e  pleaded  tor  the  iiecefliiy  of  agrarian 
laws  in  England  :  but  no  author  has  entered  lb  detpiy 
into  the  ful)jccl  asMrtLrringioii  in  his  C'te-a//<j ;  which 
the  reader  who  choofes  may  coi.fuli. 

AGREDA;  a  town  of  Spain,  in  Old  CafiiJc,  n-^ar 
the  frontiers  of  Arragon,  and  about  three  leagues 
loulh-well  of  Taracon. 

AGRIA,  called  by  the  Germans  Fger,  is  a  fniall 
but  Itroiig  tow  n  in  Upper  Hungaiy,  aiui  is  a  billiop's 
fee.  It  is  I'ltuaied  on  a  river  of  the  fame  iiaue,  and 
has  a  citadel  called  Eriaw.  It  was  belitged  by  the 
Turks  in  1552,  with  70,000  men  :  but  they  lofl  8oco 
in  one  day  ;  and  were  obliged  to  raifc  the  fiege,  though 
the  garrilon  conlilled  only  of  2000  Kuiigarians,  afiilt- 
ed  by  the  won  en,  who  perlormed  wonders  on  this 
occalion.  However,  it  was  allerwards  taken  by  Ma- 
homet 111.  in  1596  ;  but  was  retaken  by  the  emperor 
in  16S7  ;  iince  which  time  it  has  continued  under  the 
domiaiun  of  the  houfe  of  Anltria.  It  is  47  miles  iiorih- 
eafl  of  Buda,  and  55  fouih-wellof  Caflbvia.  E.  Long. 
20.  10.  N.  Lat.  48.  10. 

AGRICOLA,  (Cneus  Junius),  born   at  Frejus  in 

Pro- 


A  G  R 


[     243     ] 


A  G  R 


Provence,  was,  in  Vcipaliiu's  time,  made  liciitenaiit  10 
\'ctiiui  iJolanus  in  Briuia;  and,  upon  his  return,  was 
rankcJ  by  that  cm ptror  among  the  patricians,  and  made 
goveniorof  Aqiiitaiiia.  rhis  po(t he  held  three  years; 
and  upon  his  return  he  was  citolen  conUil,  and  atter- 
warJs  appointed  g^jvcrnor  ot  Britain,  wlicre  he  grcauy 
diuinguilhed  himiclt.  He  relorincd  maiiy  abules  oc- 
Cilioijed  by  tiie  avarice  or  negligence  of  lorincr  gover- 
nors, put  a  ftop  to  txtortioii,  and  caufcd  ju.ii«;e  to  be 
imp.ir;ially  adininiftcred.  Vcfp.'.lian  dying  almut  this 
time,  his  fon  Titus,  kno.ving  the  great  lucni  ot  Agri- 
cola,  continued  hira  in  the  government.  In  the 
fpring,  he  marched  towards  the  north,  where  he  made 
f  jmc  ne\T  conqiiclls,  and  ordered  lorts  to  be  built  lor 
the  R<>nians  to  winter  in.  He  fpent  the  following  win- 
ter in  concerting  fchcmes  to  bring  the  Britons  to  con- 
form to  the  Roman  cuftoms.  He  thought  the  belt  way 
of  diverting  them  from  riling  and  taking  arms,  was  to 
foftcn  their  rough  maaners,  by  propoimg  to  thcra  new 
kinds  of  pleafiire,  and  infpiring  them  with  a  dcfire  of 
imitating  the  Roman  manners.  Soon  after  this,  the 
country  was  adorned  with  magnificent  temples,  porti- 
cos, baths,  and  many  other  fine  buildings.  The  Britilh 
nobles  hid  at  length  their  fons  educated  in  learning ;  and 
they  who  before  had  the  ntmod  avcrfion  to  the  Koinan 
language,  now  began  to  ftudy  it  with  great  alliduiiy  : 
they  wore  likcsvifc  the  Roman  habit ;  and,  as  Tacitus 
obfcrvs?,  they  were  brought  to  confidtr  thole  things  as 
marks  of  politenefs,  which  were  only  fo  many  badges 
of  flavcry.  Agricola,  in  his  third  camp.ugn,  advan- 
ced as  far  as  the  Tweed  ;.  and  in  his  lo^irth,  he  fub- 
dued  the  nations  betwixt  the  Tweed  and  tiie  friths  of 
Edinburgh  and  Uumbiitton,  into  which  the  rivers 
Gloita  and  Bodotria  difcliargc  theiiifelves  ;  and  here  he 
built  fortrcli'cs  to  (hut  up  the  nations  yet  uuconciuered. 
In  his  fifth,  he  marched  beyond  the  friths  ;  where  he 
made  fomc  new  acquiiiiions,  and  fixed  garrifons  along 
the  wcflern  cojfti,  over  againll  Ireland.  Inhislixih 
campaign  he  pall(:d  the  river  Bodotria,  ordering  his 
fleet,  the  firft  which  the  Romans  ever  had  in  thofc 
parts,  to  row  along  the  coafls,  and  take  a  view  of  the 
northern  parts.  In  the  following  fpring,  the  Britain* 
railed  an  army  of  30,000  men  ;  and  ihe  command  was 
given  to  Galgaciis,  who,  according  to  Taciius,  made 
an  excellent  fpccch  to  his  countrymen  on  thisoccafion. 
Agvicola  likev.ile  addrciird  his  men  in  very  flrong  and 
eloqjcnt  terms.  The  Romans  gained  the  victory,  and 
10,000  of  tiie  Briiains  are  faid  to  have  been  killed. 
This  happened  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Domitian  ; 
who,  growing  jealous  of  the  glory  of  Agiicola,  recal- 
led him,  under  pretence  of  making  him  governor  of 
Syria.  Agricola  died  foon  after;  and  his  death  is 
fufpcifted  to  have  been  orcaiioned  by  poifon  given  him 
by  that  emperor.  Taciius  the  hiftorian  married  his 
daughter,  wrote  his  life,  and  laments  bis  death  in  the 
moll  pathetic  manner. 


Agricola  (George),  a  Gcrmaii  phylician,  famous  AgricoU. 

for   I115  Ikill   in  meuls.      He  was  b->rn  at  Glaucha,  " >^ 

in  Mifnia,  the  24ih  of  March  1492.  The  difcovcrics 
which  he  njade  in  the  mountains  of  Bohemia,  gave 
bini  fo  great  a  dclire  of  examining  accurately  ii.io  e- 
very  thing  relating  to  metals,  that  though  he  bad  ea- 
gageil  in  the  practice  of  phyfic  at  Joachimftal  by  ad- 
vice of  his  ft-iends,  he  lliU  profecuted  his  fludy  of  Iwl- 
fils  with  grcit  alliduiiy  ;  and  at  length  removed  to 
Chemnitz,  where  he  entirely  devoted  bimfclf  to  this 
itudy.  He  fpcni  in  purluit  of  it  the  pcnfion  he  had  of 
Maurice  duke  of  Saxony,  and  part  ot  his  own  cllatc  ; 
fo  that  he  reaped  more  reputation  than  profit  from  his 
labours.  He  wrote  fcveral  pieces  upon  this  and  other 
fubjeds;  and  died  at  Chemnitz  the  21ft  of  November 
IS5J>  a  'cry  firm  I'apirt.  In  his  younger  years  he 
leemcd  not  averfe  to  tiic  Protcftant  dciflrine;  and  he 
highly  difapprovcd  of  the  fcandalous  traffic  of  indul- 
gences, and  feveral  other  things  in  the  church  of 
Rome.  The  following  lines  ot  his  were  poAcd  up  in 
iheflrtetsof  Zwickaw,  in  the  year  1719  • 

Si  not  injeBo  fslvehit  cijtttla  niimrtOf 
Htu  nitrtium  infcUx  tu  mihi,  pauper^  tr'it  ! 
m  noij  CBriJlc^iuaJcrvJtoj  morte  Icjjli, 
Tarn  nib'ttinfelix  tu  m'tl't, pauper^  trli. 

If  wealth  alone  fslvation  can  procure, 
How  fad  a  Uatc  for  ever  ^^ait^  the  poor! 
liutifthou,  Clirift,  our  only  faviuurbe, 
Thy  merits  ftill  may  bicfs  tv'n  poverty  I 

In  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  however,  be  had 
attacked  the  Proiellant  religion:  which  rendered  him 
fo  odious  to  the  Lutherans,  that  they  luffcred  hit 
body  to  remain  unburied  for  five  days  together ; 
fo  that  it  was  obliged  to  be  removed  from  Chem- 
nitz to  Zcits,  where  it  was  interred  in  the  principal 
church. 

Agricola  (John),  a  Saxon  divine  born  at  Iflebe 
in  1492.  He  went  as  chaplain  tocount  Mansfield,  when 
that  nobleman  attended  the  Eledor  of  Saxony  to  the 
diet  of  Spire  in  1526,  and  that  of  Augfburg,  in  IJ30. 
He  was  of  a  reillcfs  ambitious  temper,  rivalled  and 
wrote  againll  Mclancfhon,  and  gave  count  Mansfield 
occafion  to  reproach  him  fcvercly.  He  obtained  a  pro- 
fellbrlhip  at  Wittemberg,  where  he  taught  particular 
doctrines,  and  became  loundcr  of  the  fect  of  Antino- 
niians;  which  occailoncd  warm  difputes  between  him 
and  Luther,  who  had  before  been  his  very  good  friend. 
But  though  he  was  never  able  to  recover  the  favour  ei- 
ther of  the  elrftnr  of  Saxony  or  of  Luther,  he  recei- 
ved foDie  confolationfnim  the  fame  he  acquired  at  Ber- 
lin ;  when  he  became  preacher  at  court ,  and  was  cho- 
fen  in  1548,  in  conjunftion  with  Julius  Phlng  and 
Michael  Heldingus,  to  compofe  the  famous  Intcnm, 
which  made  fo  much  noife  in  the  world.  He  died  at 
Berlin  in  1566. 


AGRICULTURE 


DcfiuitloD 


MAY  be  defined.  The  art  of  difpofing  the  earth  in  by  thisdcfiniiion, agriculture,  ftriaiy  fpeaking,ineluJei 
fuch  a  manner  as  to  produce  whatever  vegetables  in  it  the  cultivation  of  every  fpecies  of  vegetable  wh.n- 
\ve  delire,  in  Urge  quantity,  and  in  the  greatelt  perfec-  ever,  ajid  confcquently  comprehends  all  that  is  undcr- 
tion  of  which  their  natures  are  capable— Bui  though     ftood  of  gardening  and  planting,  we  racaH  here  to  con- 

Hh   3  iiBC 


244 


A    G     R     I     C     U 

fine  oiufclvcs  to  ilie  cultivation  of  tliofe  fpecics  of  grain, 
(jrafs,  &c.  which  arc  generally  neceility  as  food  for 
men  and  bealls. 


lIisTORT.  The  antiquity  of  this  art  is  undoubtedly  beyond 
that  ol  all  others;  for  wc  are  informed  by  Scrip- 
ture, that  Adam  was  fcnt  from  the  garden  ot  Eden 
to  till  the  ground;  zniS,  this  being  the  cale,  he  certain- 
ly nuiit  have  known  how  to  do  fo. — It  would  be  ridi- 
culous, however,  to  imagine  that  he  was  acquainted 
with  all  the  methods  of  plougiiing,  harrowing,  fallow- 
ing, &c.  which  arc  now  made  ale  of ;  and  it  would  be 
equally  fo  to  fuppofc,  that  he  ufed  fuch  clumfy  and 
unartful  inftrnmcnis  as  wooden  hooks,  horns  of  oxen, 
&c.  to  dig  the  ground,  which  were  afterwards  employ- 
cd  for  tills  purpofc  by  certain  favages  :  but  as  we  know 
nothing  of  the  particular  circumllaiiccs  in  which  he  was 
litnatcd,  wc  can  know  as  little  concerning  his  method 
of  agriculture. 

The  prodigious  length  of  life  which  the  antedilu- 
vians enjoyed,  mull  have  been  very  favourable  to  the 
advancement  of  arts  and  fcicnccs,efpecially  agriculture, 
to  which  it  behoved  them  to  apply  thcmfelvcs  in  a  par- 
titular  manner,  in  order  to  procure  their  fubfillcnce.  It 
is  probable,  therefore,  that  even  in  the  antediluvian 
world,  arts  andfcicnces  had  made  great  progrefs,  nay, 
might  be  farther  advanced  in  fome  refpcfts  than  they  arc 
at  prcfent.  Of  this,  however,  we  can  form  no  judg- 
ment, as  there  are  no  hillories  of  thofc  times,  and  the 
fcripture  gives  us  but  very  llight  hints  concerning  thefc 
matters. 

No  doubt,  by  the  terrible  cataftrophe  of  the  flood, 
which  overwhelmed  the  whole  world,  many  fcicnces 
would  be  entirely  lofl,  and  agriculture  would  fufFcr  ;  as 
it  was  impoliible  that  Noah  or  his  children  could  put 
in  praclicc,  or  perhaps  know,  all  the  different  methods 
of  cultivating  the  ground  that  were  formerly  ufed.  The 
common  methods,  however,  wc  cannot  but  fiippofe  to 
have  been  known  to  him  and  his  children,  and  by  them 
tranfmitted  to  their  poderity:  fo  that  as  long  as  man- 
kind continued  in  one  body  without  being  difperfed  in- 
to different  nations,  thcarts, agriculture  efpecially,  would 
neceiFarily  advance  ;  and  that  they  did  fo,  is  evident  from 
the  undertaking  of  the  tower  of  Babel.  It  is  from  the 
difpcrfion  of  mankind  confequent  upon  the  confudon 
«>f  tongues,  that  we  mufl  date  the  origin  of  favage  na- 
tions. In  all  focieties  where  different  arts  arc  cultiva- 
ted, there  are  fome  perfons  who  have  a  kind  of  g<  nc- 
ral  knowledge  of  moJt  of  thofc  praclifcd  through  the 
whole  fociety,  while  others  arc  in  a  manner  ignorant 
of  every  one  of  them.  If  we  fuppofe  a  few  people  of 
undcrflanding  to  feparaie  from  the  reft,  and  become 
the  founders  of  a  nation,  it  will  probably  be  a  civilized 
one,  and  the  arts  will  begin  to  flouriih  from  its  very 
origin;  but,  if  a  nation  is  founded  by  others  whofe  in- 
tellects are  in  a  manner  callous  to  every  human  fcience 
(and  of  this  kind  there  arc  many  in  the  moft  learned 
countries),  the  little  knowledge  or  memory  of  arts  that 
were  among  the  original  founders  will  be  lofl:,  and  fuch 
a  people  will  continue  in  a  flate  of  barbarifm  for  many 
ai:;es,  unlefs  the  arts  be  brought  to  them  from  other 
nations. 

From  this,  or  fimilar  caufes,  all  nations  of  equal  an- 
tiquity have  no:  been  equally  favage,  nor  is  there  any 
fulid  reafons  for  ce.iclading  that  all  nations  were  ori;:i- 


L     T     U     R     E.  Hiftory. 

nally  unikillcd  in  agriculture  ;  though  as  wc  know  not 
the  original  inilrumeius  of  hulbandry  ufed  by  mankijul 
when  living  in  one  fociety,  wc  cannot  lix  the  daic  of 
the  improvements  in  this  art.  DifFcrcnt  nations  have 
always  been  in  a  liiticrcnt  ftate  of  civilization  ;  and 
agriculture,  as  well  as  other  arts,  has  always  been  ia 
different  degrees  of  improvement  among  diti'erent  na- 
tions at  the  Tame  time. 

Krom  theearlitfl  accounts  of  the  eaftcrn  nations,  we 
have  reafon  to  think,  that  agriculture  has  at  all  times 
been  undci  flood  by  them  in  conf:dcrablc  pciicctien; 
feting  ihcy  were  always  fupplied  not  only  with  the 
nccellaries,  but  the  greateft  luxuries  of  life. 

As  focn  as  the  dclctndauis  of  Abraham  were  fettled 
in  Paltllinc,  they  gcneially  became  hulbandmen,  from 
the  chiefs  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  to  the  lowcfl  branch  of 
the  family  of  Benjamin.  High  birth  or  rank  did 
not  at  that  lime  make  any  dillinction,  lor  agriculture 
was  conlidcrcd  as  the  ini>il  honourable  of  all  employ- 
ments; witnefs  the  illullrious  examples  of  Gideon, 
Saul,  and  David. 

The  Chaldeans,  who  inhabited  the  country  where 
agriculture  had  its  birth,  carried  that  valuable  art  to  a 
degree  of  excellence  unknown  in  former  times.  They 
cultivated  their  lands  with  great  afiiduiiy,  and  feem  to 
have  found  out  fome  means  of  relloring  fertility  to  an 
exhaufted  foil,  by  having  plentiful  harvclis  in  luccellion ; 
on  which  account  they  were  not  obliged,  as  their  pre- 
decefTors  had  been,  to  change  their  lituations,  in  order 
to  obtain  a  fufTiciency  for  themfelvcs  and  their  nume- 
rous flocks  and  herds. 

The  Egyptians,  who,  from  the  natural  fertility  of 
their  country  by  the  overflowing  of  the  ISiie,  raifcd 
every  year  vail  quantities  of  corn,  were  fo  fcnfiblc  of 
the  bleliitigs  refuliing  from  agriculture,  that  they  afcri- 
bed  the  invention  of  that  art  to  Ofiris.  They  alfo  re- 
garded Ills,  their  ftcond  deity,  as  the  difcovcrer  of 
the  ufe  of  wheat  and  barley,  which  before  grew  wild 
in  the  fields,  and  were  not  applied  by  that  people  to  the 
purpofes  of  food.  Their  fupcrftiiious  gratitude  was 
carried  fo  far,  as  to  worlhip  thofc  animals  which  were 
employed  in  tillage  ;  and  even  to  the  produce  of  their 
lands,  as  leeks,  onions,  &c. 

The  divine  honours  paid  to  Bacchus  in  India  were 
derived  from  the  fame  iburce,  he  being  conlidered  in 
that  country  as  the  inventor  of  planting  vineyards,  and 
the  other  arts  attendant  upon  agriculture. 

It  is  alio  related  of  the  anciejii  Ptrfians,  on  the  mo/l 
refpeclable  authority,  that  their  kings  laid  afide  their 
grandeur  once  every  month  to  cat  with  hufbandmcn. 
This  is  a  flriking  inflancc  of  the  high  eftimation  in 
which  they  held  agriculture;  for  at  that  time  arts  were 
prailifed  among  that  people  in  great  perfcdion,  parti- 
cularly thofe  of  weaving,  needle-work,  and  embroidery. 
The  precepts  of  the  religion  taught  by  their  ancient 
magi,  or  priefls,  included  the  practice  of  agriculture. 
The  yi//;;/ among  them  was  obliged  to  work  out  his 
falvation  by  purfuing  all  the  labours  of  agriculture: 
And  it  was  a  maxim  of  the  Zendavcfta,  that  he  who 
fuws  the  ground  with  care  and  diligence,  acquires  a 
greater  degree  of  religious  merit,  than  he  could  have 
gained  by  the  repetition  of  ten  thoufand  prayers. 

The  Pheaicians,  fo  well  known  in  fcripture  by  the 
name  of  Philifiiiics,  were  alio  remarkable  for  the  at- 
tention to,  and  fkill  in  agriculture.  But  finding  them- 
felvcs 


Hiftory.  A    G     R     I     C 

fclves  loo  much  didiubcd  and  confined  by  the  incur- 
fions  and  conqucilsof  the  IlVaelitcs,  they  fprcad  ihem- 
fclvcs  tliioiighoiit  the  grcateft  pan  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean ilknds,  and  carried  with  them  their  knowledge 
in  the  arts  of  cultivation. 

Mago,  a  famous  general  of  the  Carthaginians,  is  faid 
to  have  written  no  Icfs  than  28  books  on  the  fobjefl ; 
which  Columella  tells  us  were  tranllated  into  Latin  by 
the  exprcfs  order  of  the  Roman  fenate.  VVc  arc  in- 
formed by  the  ancient  writers,  that  Ceres  was  born  in 
Sicily,  where  flie  firfl  invented  the  arts  of  tillage  and 
of  fowing  corn.  For  this  ell'cntial  fervicc,  fhe  was, 
agreeably  to  the  fiiperllition  of  thofc  ages,  deiticd, 
and  worliiipped  as  the  goddefs  of  plenty.  The  truth 
of  this  is,  that  in  the  time  of  Ceres,  the  illand,  through 
her  endeavours  and  the  induftry  of  the  people,  became 
very  fruitful  in  corn  ;  and  agriculture  was  there  cftccin- 
ed  ib  honourable  an  employment,  that  even  their  kings 
did  not  difdain  to  practifc  it  with  their  own  hands. 
-  But  lime,  whicli  at  firft  gave  birth  to  arts,  often 
caufed  them  to  be  forgotten  when  they  were  removed 
Ironi  the  place  of  their  origin.  The  dcfcer.dants  of 
Noah,  who  fettled  in  Europe,  doubtlefs  carried  ihcir 
knowledge  of  agriculture  with  them  into  the  regions 
wliich  they  fucceffively  occupied.  But  thofe  who  took 
poii'cliion  of  Greece  w  ere  fuch  an  uncivilized  race,  that 
they  fed  on  roots,  herbs,  and  acorns,  after  the  man- 
ner of  beads.  Pelafgus  had  taught  them  the  culture 
of  the  oak,  and  the  ufe  of  acorns  as  food;  for  which 
fervicc,  we  are  told,  divine  honours  were  paid  him 
by  the  people. 

The  Athenians,  who  were  the  firft  people  that  ac- 
quired any  tinfture  of  politenefs,  taught  the  ufe  of  corn 
to  the  reft  cf  the  Greeks.  They  alio  inflrucled  them 
how  to  cultivate  the  ground,  and  to  prepare  it  for  the 
reception  of  tlie  feed.  This  art  we  arc  told,  was 
tauijht  them  by  Triptolemus.  The  Greeks  foon  per- 
ceived that  bread  was  more  wholefcme,  and  its  laftc 
Diorc  delicate  than  that  of  acorns  and  the  wild  roots  of 
the  fields  ;  accordingly  they  thanked  the  gods  for  fuch 
an  unexpefled  and  beneficial  prcfent,  and  honoured 
their  benefactor. 

As  the  arts  of  cultivation  increafed,  and  the  blcf- 
fings  they  afforded  became  generally  experienced,  the 
people  foon  preferred  them  to  whatever  the  ravages  of 
conqueft,  and  the  cruel  depredations  of  lavage  life, 
could  procure,  .^nd  accordingly  we  find,  that  the  A- 
thenian  kings,  thinking  it  more  glorious  to  govern  a 
fmall  ftate  wifely,  than  to  aggrandize  themftlvcs,  and 
enlarge  the  extent  of  their  dominions  by  foreign  con- 
quefts,  withdrew  their  fubjcdls  from  war,  and  moftly 
employed  them  in  cultivating  the  earth.  Thus,  by 
continued  application,  they  brought  agriculture  to  a 
confiderable  degree  of  perfcdion,  and  foon  reduced  it 
»o  an  art. 

Hcfiod  was  the  firft  we  know  of  among  the  Greeks 
who  wrote  on  this  interefting  fubject.  According  to 
the  cuftom  of  the  Oriental  authors,  he  wrote  in  poetry, 
and  cmbellilhed  his  poem  with  luxuriant  dcfcriptions 
and  fublime  imagery.  He  calls  his  poem  We.'ks  and 
Days,  bccaufe  agriculture  requires  exatl  obfcrvations 
on  times  and  feafons. 

Xetiophon  has  alfo,  in  his  Oecononiics,  remarked, 
that  a2,riculiure  is  the  nurfing  mother  of  the  arts,  Kor, 
fays  he,  "  where  agriculture  fuccccds  prufperouily. 


U     L    T     U     R     E. 

there  the  arts  thrive  ;  but  where  tlie  earth  i;cceflarily 
lies  uncultiyated,  there  the  other  arts  are  dtftroyed." 

Other  eminent  Greek  writers  upon  agriculture 
were,  Democriius  of  Abdera,  Socraticus,  Archytas, 
Tarentinus,  Ariftotle,  and  Theophrallus,  from  whoia 
the  art  received  confiderable  improvements. 

The  ancient  Romans  elUrmrd  agriculture  fo  honour- 
able an  employment,  that  the  moll  illuftrioui  fenators 
of  the  empire,  in  the  intervals  of  public  concerns,  ap- 
plied thcmfelves  to  this  profcflion  ;  and  fuch  was  the 
fiinplicity  of  thole  ages,  that  they  allDmed  no  appear- 
ance of  magnificence  aiid  fpiendor,  orof  majefly,  but 
when  they  appeared  in  public.  At  their  return  from 
the  toils  of  wsr,  the  taking  of  cities,  and  the  fuLduing 
of  hoflile  nations,  their  greateft  gener^ils  «crc  impa- 
tient till  they  were  again  employed  in  the  arts  of  cul- 
tivation. 

Regulus,  when  in  Africa,  reqnefted  of  the  fenate  to 
be  recalled,  left  his  farm  might  iuffer,  for  want  of  pro- 
per cultivation,  in  his  abfcnce  j  and  the  fenate  wrote 
him  for  anfwer,  that  it  fliouid  be  taken  care  of  at  the 
public  expence,  while  he  continued  to  lead  their  ar- 
mies. 

Cato  the  cenfor,  after  having  governed  cxtenfive 
provinces,  and  fubdued  many  warlike  nations,  did  not 
think  it  below  his  digniiy  to  write  a  Treaiife  on  Agri- 
culture. This  work  (as  we  are  told  by  Scrvius)  he 
dedicated  to  his  own  fon,  it  being  the  firft  Latin  trca- 
tife  written  on  this  important  fubjeft  ;  and  it  has  been 
handed  down  to  us  in  all  its  purity,  in  the  manner  that 
Cato  wrote  it. 

Varro  conipofed  a  trcatifc  on  the  fame  fubjcft,  and 
on  a  more  regular  plan.  This  work  is  embellifiird 
with  all  the  Greek  and  Latin  erudition  cf  that  learned 
author,  who  died  28  years  before  the  commencement 
of  the  Chriftian  £era.  Virgil,  who  lived  about  the 
fame  time,  has,  in  his  Gcorgics,  adorned  this  fub- 
jecl  v/ith  the  language  of  the  JMufcs,  and  finely  illuf- 
trated  the  precepts  and  rules  of  hulhandry  left  by  He- 
fiod,  Mago,  and  Varro. 

Columella,  who  flouriftied  in  the  reign  of  the  em- 
peror Claudius,  wrote  12  books  on  hufbandry,  replete 
with  important  inftrudion. 

From  this  period  to  that  of  the  reign  of  Conftaiitine 
Poganatus,  hufbandry  continued  in  a  declining  ftate  ; 
but  that  wife  emperor  caufed  a  large  colledion  of  the 
moft  ufcful  precepts  relating  to  agriculture  to  be  ex- 
trafled  from  the  belt  writers,  and  publilhcd  them  un- 
der the  title  of  Ccc/ni.ici.  It  has  been  airerted,  that  he 
made  this  colle(^ioii  with  his  own  hand;  and  the  truth 
of  the  aflertion  is  not  improbable,  as  it  is  well  known, 
that  after  he  had  conquered  the  Saracens  and  the  A- 
rabians,  he  not  only  pra<?lired  and  encouraged,  but  ftu- 
died  the  arts  of  peace,  fixing  his  principal  attention 
on  agriculture,  as  their  heft  foundation. 

After  the  death  of  Conftantine,  however,  the  in- 
ereafing  attention  of  the  people  to  comnierce,  and  the 
ignorance  and  groi's  fupcrliiiion  of  the  ages  which  fuc- 
cccded,  feems  to  have  rendered  agriculture  an  almoft  ne- 
glcdcd  fciencc.  The  irruptions  of  the  northern  na- 
tions foon  aboliflicd  any  improved  fyflem.  Thefc  innu- 
merable and  entcrprifing  barbarians,  who  over-ran  all 
Europe,  were  origirially  flitpherds  or  hunters,  like  the 
prcfent  Tartars  and  the  l'2v.i;',cs  of  America.  They  con- 
teuted  themfelvcs  with  peilcii;:.g  thofc  valldcfartsniidc 

by- 


245 


246  A     G     R     I     C     U 

by  their  own  ravages,  without  labour  or  trouble,  cul- 
livaiing  only  a  very  linall  Ipot  near  ihcir  habitations; 
aiul  la  litis  irilliuj;  hulbaiidry  only  the  nicancfl  llavcs 
were  cuiploytd  ;  lo  that  llif  art  itiilf,  which  formerly 
was  tho  ifjht  wunhy  of  tiie  iluily  of  kings,  was  now 
looked  u [Kin  as  mean  and  ignoble  ;  a  prejudice  which 
is  fcarccly  effaced  at  prtfiiii,  or  at  Icall  but  very  lately. 
—  During  this  period,  ihtrct'orc,  wc  liiut  no  vcuigts 
of  any  thing  tolerably  written  on  the  fubjcif..  No  new 
attempts  were  made  lo  revive  it,  or  to  improve  ii,  till 
the  year  147S,  when  Crtfcenzio  publilheda;i  excellent 
performance  on  the  liibjccl  at  Fiorencc.  This  rou/ed 
the  llumberinir  attention  of  his  countrymen,  levera!  of 
whom  foon  followed  his  eximplc.  Among  thcfc,  Tat- 
ti,  Stertano  Angullino  G.iUo,  Sanfovino,  Lauro,  and 
'l"arcllo,  defervc  panicular  notice. 

At  what  time  aj!;ricuhiirc  was  introduced  into  Bri- 
tain, is  uncertain.  When  Julius  Cjelarlirft  invaded  that 
illand,  it  was  no;  wholly  unknown.  That  conqueror 
was  of  opinion,  that  agriculture  was  firll  introduced  by 
Ibmeof  thofe  colonies  from  Gaul  which  had  fettled  in 
the  Ibuthcrn  pans  of  Britain,  .-\bout  100  ycrrs  beiore 
•  Cafar  de  the  Roman  invafion  *. 

Bell.  Gill.       It  js  „oj  to  be  expetlcd  that  we  can  now  be  acquaint- 
''''■•5''' **•  cd  with  many  of  the  praiflices  of  thefc   ancient  luif. 
bandmfn.     It  appears,  however,  that  they  were  not 
uajcq.iainted,  with  the  ufe  of  manures,  particularly 
+  Plin.       marie.   Thiswc  have  on  the  authority  of  Pliny  f,  who 
Nat.  Hift.    tgijj  „5^  that  it  was  peculiar  to  the  people  of  Gaul  and 
lib. 17. c  o.^j;  j3|.jt3i|i .    that  its  eftefts  continued  80  years  ;  and 
that  no  man  was  ever  known  to  marie  liisrield  twice, 
&c. —  It  is  highly  probable,  too,  that  lime  was  at  this 
time  alio  ufed  as  a  manure  in  Britain,  it  being  certain- 
ly made  ufe  of  in  Gaul  for  this  purpofe  at  the  time  of 
Julius  Cxfar's  invalion. 

The  ellablihmcnt  of  the  Romans  in  Britain  produ- 
ced (T/cat  improvements  in  agriculture,  infomuch  that 
prodigiou';  quantities  of  corn  were  anr.ually  exported 
from  the  illand;  but  when  th(  Roman  power  began  to 
decline,  this,  like  all  the  other  arts,  declined  alio,  and 
was  almoft  totally  dellroyed  by  the  departure  ot  that 
people.  The  unhappy  Britons  were  now  rxpofed  to 
Irrquent  inc  '.rlions  of  the  Scots  and  Pifls,  whodeftroy- 
cd  the  tr.iits  of  their  labours,  and  iiiterrupied  them  in 
the  exercife  of  their  an.  Alter  the  arrival  of  the  Sax- 
ons in  the  year  449,  they  were  involved  in  futh  long 
wars,  and  underwent  fo  many  calamities,  that  the  huf- 
b.indinen  gradually  loft  much  of  their  fkill,  and  were 
at  lail  driven  from  thofe  parts  of  the  country  which 
were  mo'l  proper  for  tuhivation. 

After  ihe  Britons  retired  into  \Valcs,  thoufji  it  ap- 
pears from  the  laws  made  relative  to  this  art,  that  aari- 
culture  was  thought  worthy  of  the  atiemion  of  ihe  le- 
giilature,  yet  their  inflroments  appear  to  havebeen  very 
unartful  It  was  ciiadcd  that  no  man  fliould  undertake 
t<i  guide  a  ploueh  who  could  not  make  one  ;  and  that 
ihc  driver  ihould  make  the  ropes  of  twilled  willows, 
with  which  it  was  drawn.  It  was  ufual  for  fix  or  eight 
p-rlo:is  to  lonn  ihemff  Ives  into  a  foeiety  for  lilting  out 
one  of  thcle  ploighs,  providing  it  with  oxen  and  every 
thing  nec'ffiry  for  plougliiiig  ;  and  iiiatiy  minuie  and 
curious  laws  were  made  for  the  regulation  of  fuch  (b- 
ciciies.  If  any  perlon  laid  dung  on  a  (ield  with  the 
coi'fent  of  the  proprietor,  he  was  by  law  allowed  the 
ufe  of  that  land  for  one  year.     If  the  dung  was  carried 


L    T     U     R     E.  Hiflory. 

out  in  a  cart  in  great  abbundaiicc,  he  was  to  have  the 
uf:  of  the  land  lor  three  y  ears.  W  liocver  cut  down  a. 
Wood,  and  converted  the  ground  into  arable,  with  the 
conicnt  of  the  owner,  was  to  have  the  ufe  of  it  lor  five 
years.  If  any  one  folded  his  cattle,  for  one  year,  up- 
on a  piece  ot  grouid  belonging  to  another,  with  the 
owner's  confent,  he  was  allowed  the  ulc  of  that  field 
for  four  years. 

Thus,  though  the  Britons  had  in  a  great  meafurc 
loll  the  Jiowledge  of  agriculture,  they  appear  to  have 
been  very  alliduous  in  giving  encouragement  to  fuch  as 
would  attempt  a  revival  of  it ;  but,  among  the  Anglo- 
.Saxons,  thini^s  were  not  at  prefent  in  fo  good  a  ftaie. 
Thcfe  relHefs  and  haughty  warriors,  having  contrac- 
ted a  dillafle  and  contempt  for  agriculture,  were  at 
pains  to  cnad  laws  to  prevent  its  being  followed  by  any 
other  than  women  and  llaves.  When  they  firfl  arri- 
ved  in  Britain,  they  had  no  occafion  for  this  art,  being 
fupplied  by  the  natives  v;iih  all  the  necclFarics  of 
life.  Afier  the  commencement  of  holtiliiies,  the  Sax- 
ons fublilled  c'r.icjiy  by  plunder:  but  havi;:g  driven 
out  or  extirpated  moll  ot  the  ancient  Britons,  and  di- 
vided their  lands  among  tliemfelves,  they  found  tbem- 
felves  in  danger  of  Ilar\ing,  there  being  now  no  ene- 
my to  plunder  ;  and  therefore  they  were  obliged  to 
apply  to  agriculture. 

The  Saxon  princes  and  great  men,  who,  in  the  divi- 

fion  of  the  lands,  had  received  the  greatell  Ihares,  arc 

laid  to  have   fubdivided   their  ellates  into    mo  parts, 

which  were  called  the  in-lamls  and  the  out  lands.  The 

ill-lands  were  th;fe  which  lay  moll  contiguous  to  the 

manliun-houfc  of  their  owner,  which  he  kept  in   his 

own  pollcfllon,  and  cultivated  by  his  llaves,  under  the 

direction  of  ab..ilift',  for  the  purpofe  of  railing  provi- 

lions  lor  th«  family.     The  out-lands  were  thofe  at  a 

greater  diflancc  from  the  houfe,  and  were  let  to  the 

ccorli^  or  farmers  of  thofe  times,  at   ^K.\y   moderate 

rents.     By  the  laws  of  Ina  king  of  the  weft  Saxons, 

who  reigned  in  the  end  of  the  feventh  and  beginning 

of  the  cijjhth  ccHtury,  a  farm  confilling  of  ten  hides, 

or  plough-lands,  w  as  to  pay  the  following  rent ;  "  Ten 

calks  of  honey  ;  three  hundred  loaves  of  bread  ;  twelve 

calks  of  llrong  ale;   thirty    cafks  of  fmall    ale;   two 

oxen  ;    ten  wedders  ;    ten  geefe  ;  twenty  hens  ;    ten 

clieefcs;  onecalkof  butter  ;  five falmon;  twenty  pounds 

of  forage  ;    and    one  hundred  eels."     From  this  low 

rent,   the   imperftiStion  of  agriculture    at  that  time  is 

eafily  difcovcrablc  ;  but  it  is  flill  more  fo  from  the  low 

prices  at  vi'hich  land  was  then  fold.     In  the  ancient 

hiflory  of  the  church  of  Ely,  publiflied  by   Dr  Gale, 

there  are  accoirits  of  many  piirchafts  of  lands  by  j^-Jdel- 

wold   the  founder  of  that  ehkreh,  and  by  oihcr  bcre- 

fatlors,  in  the  reign  of  Edgar  the  Peaceable,   in  tJie 

tenth   century.     By  a  comparifon  of  ihefe  accounts  it 

appears,  that  the  ordinary  price  of  an  acre  of  the  bell 

land  in  that  part  of  f^ngland,  in  thofe  times  was  no 

more  than  16  Saxon  pennies,  or  aboi;t   four  fliillings 

flerling:  a   very  trilling   price,  even    in  romparifon 

with  thatof  other  commodiiies  at  thcfsipc  time,  for,  by 

comparing oiher  accounts,  it  appears,  that  four  Iheep 

were  then  equal  in  value  to  rn  acre  of  the  btfl  lanci, 

and  one  horfe  of  the  fairc  value  wiih  thtee  acres.   1  he 

frequcntand  dcplorablefamineswhieh  afdiftcd  England 

alraur  this  time,  are  further  inftanccs  of  the  wrttclicd 

ftatc  of  agriculture.    In  1045,  a  quarter  of  wheat  fold 

for 


Hiftory.  A     G     R     I     C     U 

from  60  Saxon  pennies  (ij  fliilliiigs  ftcrling),  and  at 
thai  tirr.e  cqiijl  in  value  10  Icveii  or  ciglii  pounds 
llcrl  n^  at  prclciii. 

Tlic  luvulioa  oMlie  Noniuiis,  in  io65,  contribjtcd 
very  inin;li  to  tlic  iinpri.>vcment  of  agriculture  ;  for,  by 
thii  cvciii,  many  ihoufiiiijs  of  UulbaaJinca  from  Haii- 
dcrs,  France,  and  Noruiatui)',  Iculcd  iu  britain,  ob- 
laineJ  cllaics  or  farins,  and  cuitivaicd  tlitm  aficr  the 
manner  of  their  c  )untry.  The  iiiiplemcnis  ot  liuJban- 
dry,  ufcd  at  this  time,  were  of  thclainc  kind  wuliihoi'c 
employed  at  prcfenc  ;  but  foine  of  them  were  kfs  per- 
fect in  their  cop.itructijii.  The  ploagh,  fur  cxjmplc, 
had  but  one  Hilt  or  handle,  whicii  the  ploughman 
glided  with  one  hand,  having  in  his  other  hand  an  in- 
flruiHent  which  fcrveJ  b>ih  for  cleaning  and  mending 
ths  plouf^h,  as  well  aa  fur  breaking  tnc  clods.  The 
Norman  plough  had  two  wlicels  ;  aud  in  the  li^^ht  (oil 
of  Normandy  was  conimoaly  drawn  by  one  or  two 
oxen,  but,  ill  £;i^linJ,  a  ;4reatcr  ilumbtr  was  ouen 
necelfary.  in  Wale?,  the  perion  who  conducted  the 
oxen  in  (he  plougli  walked  backwards.  Their  cans, 
harrows,  fey tlies,  lit  klcs,  and  riaiis,  from  the  fij^urcs 
of  tliem  ilill  renuining,  appear  10  have  been  nearly  of 
the  fame  conllrudion  with  ihofc  that  are  now  ufcd.  In 
Wales,  they  did  not  ufe  a  fickle  fur  reaping  their  corn, 
but  an  inlliumcni  like  the  blade  of  a  knife,  with  a 
wooden  handle  at  each  end.---  Their  chief  manure,  next 
to  dang,  ftems  ilill  to  have  been  marie.  Summer  fal- 
lowing of  lands  dcfigned  tor  wheat,  and  ploughing 
them  fcveral  times,  appear  to  have  been  frequent  prac- 
tices of  the  Knglilli  farmers  iiithis  period. 

We  are,  aficr  all,  very  much  in  the  dark  wiih  refpett 
to  the  ttatc  and  progrefs  of  agriculairc  in  Great  Uri- 
lain  previous  to  the  fourteenth  century.  That  it  was 
pretty  g'-nerally  pradlifed,  cfpccially  in  the  callcrn, 
ibuth,  and  midland  pans  of  tnglaad,  is  certain  ;  bit 
of  the  mode,  and  tae  faccefs,  we  are  left  almolt  totally 
ignorant.  In  the  latter  end  of  the  hftecath  century, 
however,  it  fcems  to  IijVC  been  tuliwied  as  a  fciencc, 
and  received  very  great   improvenieat. 

At  this  tiuie  in  Kngland  b'u/lierbert.  Judge  of  the 
Common-Fleas,  fhinc  furth  with  di;-ingiiilheil  emi- 
nence in  the  pradical  pirts  of  hulbandry.  Heap- 
pears  to  have  been  the  firfb  Engliflinian  who  iludicd  the 
nature  of  foils,  aid  the  laws  of  ve^etation,  with  philo- 
fophical  attention.  On  ihefe  he  formed  a  theory  con- 
firmed by  experiments,  and  rendered  the  ftiidy  plcafing 
as  well  as  profitaSle,  by  realizing  the  principlesof  the 
iincieuts,  to  the  honour  and  advantage  of  his  country. 
Aceurdiiigly,  be  pubblhed  two  trcatiies  on  thisfubjefl : 
thefirll.in  MedT/a  Book  of  Nrijbn>/ii'-j,3\'f  cared  tS54; 
and  the  f'Tond,  called  Th^Beok  of  S^irvtying  and  Im- 
frouci?i;ritj,  in  I  S'g  Thefe  books,  being  written  at 
a  time  when  philofophy  and  fcicnce  were  but  jufl 
emcrijino  from  that  gloom  in  wliich  thry  had  long 
been  buried,  were  dnubtli  fs  replete  with  many  err  irs  j 
but  they  conniiied  the  ruibmmts  of  mie  knowledge, 
and  revived  the  Ihi  Iv  and  loveofan  art,  the  advanta^^es 
of  whi'-li  were  obvimis  to  men  of  the  Icall  rertcii^ion. 
We  therefore  fiiKJ  tint  Fitzherbert's  books  on  Agri- 
cnltiire  fooii  railed  a  fpirit  of  rmulatioii  in  his  coutitry- 
mcn,  and  many  trratifes  of  the  fame  kind  fuccellively 
ajipeired,  which  time  has  however  drprivcd  us  of,  or 
at  leaCt  ihev  arc  b.  come  fo  very  ftarcc  as  only  to  be 
found  in  the  libraries  of  the  curious. 


L    T     U     R     E. 

About  the  year  1600,  France  made  fome  confidtr- 
ablc  citbris  to  revive  the  arisof  hipdjanilry,  as  appears 
from  feveral  large  works,  particularly  Le/  jyiojcJ  de 
d.viiiir  R.chii  and  the  Cofm.ponie,  by  Beri.ard  dc 
Paliily,  a  poor  porter,  who  fccm>  to  have  been  placed 
by  toriunc  la  a  itation  for  whiib  nature  never  intended 
liim  ;  Lc  Thi-atre  d' Agrkulture,  by  UeferrcJ  ;  and 
U  Agriculture  et  Maifon  Rujiique,  by  Melfrs  tiicnut; 
Lieuauli,  &c. 

Nearly  in  the  fame  period,  the  pradice  of  hufbandry 
became  more  prevalent  among  this  people  and  the  Fic- 
miiigs  than  the  publilliiiig  of  books  on  the  luLjedl. 
Their  intention  Icemcd  tobe  that  of  carrying  on  a  pri- 
vate lucrative  cmpl.iymeni,  without  iiUtiuctiag  ilicir 
neighbours.  Whoever  therefore  became  delirous  of 
copying  their  method  of  agriculture,  was  obliged  tj 
viiit  that  coii..try,  and  make  hia  own  remarks  on  their 
praclice. 

The  principal  idea  they  had  of  hufoandry  was,  by 
keeping  die  lands  clean  and  in  line  iilih,  to  make  a 
farm  refcmblc  a  garden  as  nearly  as  pouiblc. 

Such  an  excellent  principle,  at  rirlt  letting  out,  led 
them  of  courfc  to  undertake  the  culture  of  fmall  farms 
only,  which  they  kept  free  from  weeds,  continually 
turning  the  ground,  and  manuring  it  plentifully  and 
juJicioully.  When  they  had  by  this  method  brought 
the  foil  to  a  proper  degree  of  cleanlineis,  health,  and 
fweetnefs,  they  chielly  cultivated  ihc  more  delicate 
grades,  as  the  furell  means  of  obtaining  a  certain  pro- 
fit upiu  af.aiil  cftaic,  without  the  expcnce  of  keep- 
ing many  draught  horlics  and  fervants.  A  few  years 
experience  was  fuificient  to  convince  them,  that  ten 
acres  of  the  bell  vegetables  lor  feeding  cattle,  properly 
cultivated  would  maintain  a  larger  llock  of  grazing 
animals  than  forty  acres  of  cominin  Jarm  gr.ifs  011 
land  badly  cultivated.  They  alfo  found,  the  befh 
vegetables  for  this  purpofe  were  lucerne,  faintfoin,  tre- 
foil i>t  all  kinds,  held  turnips,  &e. 

The  grand  political  fecrct  of  iheir  hufbandry,  there- 
fore, comilled  ia  letting  farms  on  improvement.  They 
are  faid  alio  to  have  difcovered  nine  furts  of  manure  ; 
but  what  they  all  were  we  are  not  panicularl}  in- 
formed. We  find,  however,  that  marie  was  one  of 
them  ;  the  ufe  and  virtues  cf  which  appear  alfo  to  have 
been  well  known  in  England  two  hundred  years 
ago,  although  it  was  afterwards  much  neglected.  They 
were  the  firlt  people  among  the  moderns  who  plough- 
ed in  green  crops  for  the  f.;ke  of  fertilizing  the  loil  ; 
and  who  confined  (heir  ftieep  at  night  in  large  fheds 
built  on  purpofe,  the  Hoors  of  which  were  covered 
with  find  or  virgin  earth,  &c.  whicli  the  ihephcrd 
caned  away  eath  morning  to  the  compoll  dunghill. 

In  England,  during  (he  civil  wars,  though  the  ope. 
rations  and  improvements  in  hulbandry  futtered  fomc 
temporary  checks,  there  fiourilhtd  feveral  excellent 
writers  on  (he  fubjeOt,  and  the  art  itfelf  received  con- 
fiderable  encouragement.  Sir  Hugh  Piatt  was  one  of 
the  mofl  ingenious  hulbandmen  of  the  age  in  which  lie 
lived  ;  yet  fo  great  was  his  modclly,  (hat  all  his  works, 
except  his  I'aradife  of  Flora,  fecm  to  be  poilhumous. 
He  held  a  correfpondence  with  mofl  of  (he  lovers  and 
patrons  of  agricuhure  and  gardcuirg  in  England;  and 
fuch  was  (he  jullicc  and  mojefty  of  his  (emper,  that  he 
alveays  named  the  author  of  every  difcovery  communica- 
ttd  to  him.  Perhaps  no  man  in  any  age  difcovered,  or  at 

leaH 


247 


248  A    G    R     I     C     U 

Icafl  brought  into  ufe,  fo  many  new  kinds  of  manure. 
This  will  lie  cviJent  to  tliofc  who  read  his  account  of 
the  conipofl  and  covered  dung-hills,  and  his  judicious 
obfervaiions  on  the  fertilizing  qualities  lodged  in  fait, 
ftrcet-dirt,  and  the  fullage  of  flrccts  in  great  cities, 
clay,  fuller's  earth,  muurilh  earths,  dung-hills  made  in 
layers,  fern,  hair,  calcination  of  all  vegetables,  malt- 
dull,  willow-tree  earth,  foapcr's  allies,  urine,  marie, 
and  broken  pilchards. 

Gabriel  Plattes  may  be  faid  to  have  been  an  origi- 
nal genius  in  hulbandry.  He  began  his  obftrvations 
at  an  earlier  period,  in  the  reign  of  Qiieen  Elizabeth, 
and  continued  thcni  duwn  to  ilic  Conunonwcallh.  But 
notwitkllaiuling  the  great  nieritof  this  writer,  and  the 
cil'ential  fcrvicehchail  rendered  his  country  by  his  wri- 
tings, the  public  ungratefully  fuffcred  him  to  llarve 
and  periQi  in  the  flrects  of  London ;  nor  had  he  a  (hirt 
on  his  back  when  he  died. 

Samuel  Hartlib,  a  celebrated  writer  on  agriculture 
in  the  laft  century,  was  highly  cflecmcd  and  beloved 
by  Milton,  and  other  great  men  of  his  time.  In  the 
prelace  to  his  work  intiilcd  His  Legacy,  he  laments 
that  no  public  dirtclor  of  ILifbandry  was  cllabliflied  in 
England  by  authority  ;  and  that  they  had  not  adopted 
the  Klcmilh  metjiodof  letting  farms  upon  improvement. 
This  remark  of  Hartlib's  procured  himapcnfion  of 
L.  100  a-year  from  Cromwell;  and  the  writer  after- 
wards, the  better  to  fulfil  the  intention  of  his  beac- 
fadtor,  procured  Dr  Beatti's  excellent  annotation  on 
the  Legacy,  with  other  valuable  papers  from  his  nu- 
merous corrcfpondcnts. 

Tiie  time  in  which  Hartlib  flourillicd  feems  to  have 
been  an  ccra  when  thcEnglilh  hulLandry  rofe  to  great 
pcrfci^lion,  compared  with  that  of  former  ages ;  for 
the  preceding  wars  had  impoverillied  the  country  gen- 
tlemen, and  of  courfe  made  them  induflrious.  They 
found  the  cultivation  of  their  own  lands  to  be  the  moft 
profitable  ftation  they  could  fill.  But  this  wife  turn 
was  m.  of  long  continuance.  At  the  reftoration, 
ihcy  generally  became  infected  with  that  intoxication 
and  love  of  pleafure  which  fucceeded.  All  their  in- 
duflry,  and  knowledge  were  exchanged  for  negleifland 
didipaiion;  and  hufbandry  defcended  alinoit  entirely 
into  the  hands  of  common  farmers. 

Evelyn  was  the  tiril  writer  who  infpired  his  country- 
men with  a  dcfire  of  reviving  the  fludy  of  agriculture  ; 
and  he  was  followed  by  the  famous  Jcthro  Tnll.  The 
lormer,  by  his  admirable  ireatifcs  on  earth  and  on 
planting,  and  the  latter,  by  fliowing  the  fuperior  advan- 
tages of  the  drillhufbandry,  excited  numbers  to  bring 
their  theory  to  the  tcft  of  fair  experiment. 

Many  valuable  and  capital  improvements  have,  fincc 
that  period,  been  made  in  Eiigli.li  hnfb.uidry  ;  and 
thefe  great  men  have  licen  fucceeded  by  a  variety  of 
writers,  many  of  whom  have  done  elfcntial  fervice,  by 
enlightening  the  minds  of  their  countrymen,  and  ex- 
citing them  to  emulation. 

About  the  middle  of  the  laft  century,  Ireland  be- 
gan to  make  a  confidcrabic  figure  in  the  art  of  huf- 
bandry. It  mud  indeed  be  confcflcd,  that  the  Iridi 
had  very  Arong  prejudices  in  favour  of  a  wretched  me- 
thodof  agriculture,  till  Blyth opened  their  eyes  by  his 
excellent  writings.  Since  that  time,  a  fpirit  of  im- 
provement has  more  or  lefs  been  promoted,  and  in 
many  inflanccs    carried  on  with  great  zeal,  by  the 


L     T     U     R     E. 


nobility,  clergy,  and  gentry  of  that  kingdom 
proof  of  this,  it  will  be  futHcient  to  obfervc,  that 
the  Tranfaitions  of  tlie  Dublin  Society  for  ciicourage- 
ing  Hufbandry  are  now  cited  by  all  foreigners  in  their 
memoirs  relating  to  that  fubjtct.  And  the  obftrva- 
tions of  that  diiccrniug  and  judicious  writer,  Arthur 
Young,  E(q ;  in  his  late  Tour  through  that  kingdom, 
fiiow,  that  ill  many  rcfpcds  improvements  there  have 
of  late  years  made  a  progrefs  nearly  as  rapid  as  in 
England. 

Mitv  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapcllc,  moft.  of  the  na- 
tions of  Europe,  by  a  fort  of  tacit  confcnt,  applied 
themftlvcs  to  the  lludy  of  agriculture,  and  continued 
to  do  fo,  more  or  Icfs,  amidlt  the  univcrlal  confufion 
tliat  fucceeded. 

The  Frtnch  found,  by  repeated  experience,  that 
they  could  never  maintain  a  long  war,  or  procure  a  to- 
lerable peace,  nnlcfs  they  could  raife  corn  enough  to 
fupport  thcmfelvcs  in  liich  a  manner  as  not  to  be  ob- 
liged to  liarlli  terms  on  the  one  hand,  or  to  perifli  by 
famine  on  the  other.  This  occafioned  the  king  to  give 
public  encouragement  to  agriculture,  and  even  to  be 
prefent  at  the  making  of  ftveral  experiments.  The 
great,  and  the  rich  o(  various  ranks  and  Aations,  fol- 
lowed his  example  ;  and  even  the  ladies  were  candi- 
dates for  a  fliarc  of  fame  in  this  public-fpiritcd  and 
commendable  undertaking. 

During  the  hurry  and  dill  relies  of  France  in  the  war 
of  1756,  confiderable  attention  was  paid  to  agricul- 
ture. Prize-quellions  were  annually  propofcd  in  their 
rural  academics,  particularly  thofc  of  Lyons  and  Cour- 
deaux  ;  and  many  judicious  obfervaiions  were  made  by 
the  Society  for  improving  agricLilture  in  Brittany. 

Since  the  concluhon  of  that  war  in  1765,  matters 
have  been  carried  on  there  with  great  vigour.  The 
univerfity  of  Amiens  made  various  propofals  for  the 
advancement  of  hulbandry;  and  the  NIarquis  de  Tour- 
billy  (a  writer  who  proceeded  chiefly  on  experience) 
liad  the  principal  direction  of  a  Georgical  fociety  efta- 
blilhcd  at  Tours. 

The  fociety  at  Rouen  alfodeferves  notice  ;  nor  have 
the  king  and  his  miniltcrs  thought  it  unworthy  their 
attention.  Thcreare  at  prefent  about  fifteen  focieties 
exifling  in  France,  cftabliflicd  by  royal  approbation, 
forthe  promotingof  agriculture;  and  ihtfe  have  twenty 
co-operating  focieties  belonging  to  them. 

About  this  time  vigorous  exertions  began  to  be 
made  in  Ruflia  to  introduce  the  mofl  approved  fyflem 
of  hulbandry  which  had  taken  place  in  other  parts  of 
Europe.  The  prefent  Emprcfs  has  fcnt  ftveral  gentle- 
men into  Britain  and  other  countries  to  lludy  agricul- 
ture,  and  is  giving  it  all  polfible  encouragement  in  her 
own  dominions. 

The  art  of  agriculture  has  alfo  been  for  near  30 
years  publicly  taught  in  the  Swedilh,  Danifli,  and 
German  univerfities,  where  the  profeflbrs  may  render 
effectual  fervice  to  their  rcfptctivc  countries,  if  they 
underfland  the  practical  as  well  as  the  fpceulative  part, 
and  can  converie  with  as  inuch  advantage  v/ith  the  far- 
mer as  with  Virgil  and  Columella. 

Even  Italy  has  not  been  totally  inaflivc.  ThcNea- 
politans  of  this  age  have  condefcended  to  recur  to  the 
firll  rudiments  of  revived  hufbandry,  and  begun  to  llu- 
dy anew  the  Agricultural  Syflein  of  Crefctnzio,  firfl 
publiflicd  iui478.     Tlie  people  of  Bergamo  have  pur- 

lued 


H  irtory 

In 


Hiftory.  A     G     R     I     C     U 

f.;id  the  fame  pljn^ar.J  given  a  r.cw  Cvli-inn  of  the  R.i- 
corJo d'Agriculture  de  Tanllo,  (irllpublillicd  in  1577. 
The  duchy  of  Tufcany  liave  imbibtd  ibe  fiinc  fpirit 
for  iinproveir.cnt.  A  privaiegentlcnian,  above  40)  ears 
fincc,  left  his  whole  fortune  10  endow  an  academy  of 
agriciilliirc.  The  tirfl  ecclcfiallic  in  the  duchy  is  pre- 
fidcnt  of  ihii  fociety,  and  many  of  the  chief  nobility 
arc  members. 

His  Sardir.im  Majei'ly  has  alfo  fent  pcrfons  to  learn 
the  different  modes  of  practice  in  foreign  countries  ;  and 
made  fume  fpiriicd  attempts  to  cftablifli  a  better  ine- 
tliod  of  agriculture  among  his  fubjtds. 

In  Poland,  alfo,  M.  De  Biclu/ki,  grand  marflial  of 
tlie  crown,  has  made  many  fuccel'sfu)  attempts  to  in- 
troduce the  new  hufbandry  among  his  countrymen  ; 
and  procured  the  bed  inrtruments  fi>r  that  purpofc  from 
France,  England,  and  other  prns  of  Europe. 

Tlic  Hollanders  arc  the  only  people  now  in  Europe 
who  fccm  to  look  upon  agriculture  with  indificrciice. 
Except  the  fiiigle  colUtcral  inHance  of  draining  their 
fens  and  inoralfes,  they  have  fcartely  paid  any  atten- 
tion to  it  ;  and  even  thislcems  to  have  proceeded  more 
from  ti\e  motive  of  fclf-prciervation  than  any  love  of, 
or  difpolition  to,  hufbandry. 

In  the  year  I  756,  a  few  ingenious  and  public-fpirit- 
ed  men  at  Berne  in  Switzerland  eftablifhed  a  fociety  for 
the  advancement  of  agriculture  and  rural  oeconomics. 
In  that  fociety  were  many  men  of  great  weight  in  the 
republic,  and  mofl  of  them  perfous  of  a  true  cart  for 
making  improvcmenis  in  hulbandry,  being  enabled  to 
join  the  praiJlicc  with  the  theory. 

Norniuft  we  here  omit  tomention,  that  the  juftly  cele- 
brated Linnaeus  and  his  difciples  have  performed  great 
things  in  the  north  of  Europe,  particularly  in  difcovcr- 
ing  new  kinds  of  profitable  and  wcU-tafled  food  for  cat- 
tle. About  the  fame  time,  Sweden  bcflowcd  fuccefsful 
labours  on  a  foil  which  had  before  been  looked  upon  as 
cold,  barren,  and  incapable  of  melioration.  Of  this 
the  Stockholm  Meinoirs  will  be  a  lalHng  m-mument. 

Denmark,  and  many  of  the  courts  in  Germany,  fol- 
lowed the  fame  example.  Woollen manufaftures  were 
encouraged,  and  his  Danifh  Majcfty  fent  three  perfons 
into  Arabia  Felix  to  make  remarks,  and  bring  over 
fuch  plants  and  trees  as  would  be  ufeful  i.n  hufbandry, 
building,  and  rural  affairs. 

The  duciiy  of  Wiriemburgh,  alfo,  a  country  by  no 
means  unfertile,  but  even  friendly  to  corn  and  pillurc- 
agc,  has  contributed  its  afTiflance  towards  the  improve- 
ment of  agriculture,  having  more  than  ;o  years  fincc 
publiflicd  14.  oeconomical  relations  at  Stutgard. 

Neither  mud  wc  forgtt  the  very  airiduous  attention 


L    T     U     R     E,  249 

of  the  learned  in  Leipfic  and  Hannvtr  to  this  import;  ::t 
objc(Jt.  During  the  r  jge  and  devall.iiion  of  a  long  war, 
they  cultivated  the  arts  of  peace  ;  v.itiiefs  the  Jiuriial 
d'^gricultiin  printed  at  Leiplic,  and  the  Rccueils  d' 
Haii',vir  printed  in  that  city. 

Even  Spain,  condiiutionaliy  and  habitually  inaftivc 
on  Aich  occafious,  in  fpiteof  all  their  natural  indolence, 
and  the  prejudices  of  bigotry,  invited  Linnaeus,  v.itli 
the  ofier  of  a  large  penfion,  to  fupcrintend  a  college 
founded  for  the  purpofe  of  ir.aking  new  entjuirics  into 
the  hiftory  of  Nature  and  the  art  of  agriculture. 

Among  the  Japanefe,  agriculture  is  in  great  repute  ; 
and  among  the  Chinefe  it  is  dillinguilhed  and  encou- 
raged by  the  court  beyond  all  other  fcicnets.  The 
Emperor  of  China  yearly,  at  the  beginning  of  fprirg, 
goes  to  plough  ill  perfon,  attended  by  ail  the  princes  and 
grandees  of  the  empire.  The  cercnieny  is  performed 
with  great  lolcmnity  ;  and  is  accompanied  with  a  la- 
crifice,  which  the  emperor,  as  bigli-priell,  otfcrs  to 
Chang-Ti,  to  enfure  a  plentiful  crop  in  favour  cf  bis 
people. 

But,  without  any  improper  partiality  we  arc 
fully  jufliticd  in  alferting,  that  Britain  alone  ex- 
ceeds all  modern  nations  in  hufbandry  ;  and  from 
the  fpirit  which  for  the  laft  twenty  years  has  ani- 
mated nuny  of  her  nobility  and  gentry,  to  be- 
come ilie  liberal  patrons  of  improvement,  there 
is  reafon  to  believe  that  this  inoft  ufeful  of  arts  will, 
in  a  few  years,  be  carried  to  a  greater  pitch  of  pcr- 
fe(5lion  than  it  has   ever  yet  attained    in  any  age  or 

country The  Royal  Society,    the  Bath  Society,  and 

the  Society  of  Arts,  &c.  in  particular,  have  been  fig- 
nally  ufeful  in  this  refpcct  ;  and  the  other  alTociations, 
which  arc  now  cAablifued  in  many  pans  of  the  king- 
dom, co-operate  with  them  in  forwarding  their  laudable 
defign. 

It  is  not,  however,  to  the  exertion  of  public  focie- 
ties,  excellent  and  honourable  as  they  arc,  that  all  the 
modern  improvements  in  agriculture  owe  tlieir  origin. 
To  the  natural  genius  of  the  people  have  been  added 
the  theory  and  praftice  of  all  nations  in  ancient  and 
modern  times.  This  accuiimlatcd  mal's  of  knowledge 
has  bctn  arranged,  divided,  and  fubdivided  ;  and  after 
pafTing  the  tcA  of  praAical  experiments,  tlic  eiTential 
and  mofl  valuable  parts  of  if  have  been  prefcrvcd,  im- 
proved, and  amply  diffufed  in  the  works  of  Lord 
Kamcs,  Mr  Young,  Siiliin«tlcci,  Dr  Hunter,  Ander- 
fon,  Dickfon,  Ellis,  Randal,  Liilc,  Marllial,  Mortimer, 
Duiumel,  Bradley,  Kent,  Mills,  and  a  fcwoiher  wri- 
ters upon  this  grand  art  of  rendering  mankind  happy, 
wealthy,  and  powerful. 


Part  I.      THEORY  of  A  G  R  1  C  U  L  T  U  R  E. 


Ignorance 
of  the  fooJ 
of  vegeta- 
bles, the 
reafon    of 
imperfec- 
tion In  the 
thciiry  of  a- 
griculturc. 


IN  an  art  focxtenfivcly  ufeful  to  mirkind,  and  which 
has  been  fo  univerfally  praftifcd  fincc  the  creation 
of  the  v.orld,  it  is  natural  to  expccl  the  molt  rxaft  and 
and  pcrfeift  theory.  But  in  tiiis  v/c  arc  totally  difjp- 
poinied. 

One  reafon  of  this  want  of  a  dilVind  theory  of  agri- 
culture is,  the  ignorance  of  what  'S  properly  tlic  food 
of  vegetables  ;  (o-  as  the  art  of  agriciilure  coi. fills 
principally  in  fupjilying  them  with  a  proper  quantity 
of  food,  ill  the  mofl  fav.virabie  circiimllancf  s,  it  is  evi- 
dent,   we   might    proceed  upon  a  miicii  furer  loun- 

VOL.    I. 


dation  if  we  could  afcertain  what  their  jropcr  nou- 
rilbmcnt  is,  than  we  can  do  v  ithout  this  knowledge. 
— The  reafon  of  the  great  differences  rer.ardii:,"  the 
prailice,  probably,  is  the  di/Rculty  of  makini'  expe- 
riments in  agriculture.  It  is  not  in  this  srt  as  in  Me- 
chanics, Chciniflry,  &c.  where  an  txptrin'int  can  be 
made  in  hour,  or  a  day  or  two  at  f.'.i;hcft  :  ^n  expe- 
riment in  agriculture  cannot  be  properly  n;ac'e  in  Icii 
than  (evcral  years.  Some  fivouraliic  unobrnvcd  cir- 
cumfianccs,  quite  foreign  to  the  experiment  itfelf,  n;aj 
concur  to  produce  plentiful  crops  for  a  year  or  two: 
I  i  and 


'i;lK'iry. 


AGRICULTURE. 


aid  iliiis  ilic  finiur  may  be  i  uliiccii  to  jmblilh  his 
la  :cic(l  iiuprovcnicnis  ;  wliich  falling  in  the  hands  of  o- 
thcrs,  or  pciliaps  even  in  liiso.vnon  a  rcpciiiion  of  ilic 
ixpcritneiii,  ihc  new  iinprovemenis  arc  totally  ucglcdl- 
cJ,  av.d  liiiiigs  contiaucin  their  oKI  way.  Were  he, 
Jiowever,  capable  of  feeing  and  lianJling  the  food  of 
v.getables,  as  well  as  he  can  do  that  of  a  lioifc  or  an 
ox,  and  procuring  it  in  any  imaginable  quamiiy,  it  is 
plain,  that  he  would  be  able  to  caiifc  vegeiabUs  grow 
in  their  luinoll  luxuria;icy,  or,  if  wc  may  be  allowed 
I'lc  txprcflioii,  filleii  iheui,  with  as  great  certainty  as 
he  can  fatten  a  horfc  or  an  ox,  when  he  haih  plenty  of 
])roper  food  to  give  them. — Toafcertain  what  this  luoj 
is,  therefore,  iniift  be  a  ftep  towards  the  pcrfeflion  of 
agriculture  ;  and  to  this  vvc  fliall  coniribiiic  our  endea- 
vour. 

Sect.  1.    Of  the  proper  Food  of  rianis. 

We  (lull  not  here  fpend  time  in  refuting  the  theo.ics 

of  thjfs  who  imigined  the  vegetable  food  to  conlifl  of 

oily   and   falinc  fuMlanccs.     A  more  probable  fuppo- 

ceriiiiiKtIiej-,iion    i,as   been.   That  Water  and  Air  arc  the  proper 


tlicy  lilvewifc  incrcafc  in  bulk  by  admitting  water  to 
tiitir  roots,  a:id  more  fo  when  the  water  contains  much 
of  that  kind  ofcffl.ivlum  tlian  when  it  contains  hfs: 
fj  wc  would  conclude,  that  the  nourilhmcnt  received 
by  the  roo;s  of  plants  is  of  the  fame  kind  with  that 
received  by  their  leaves  j  and  ihar  this  food  m.ay  be 
given  them  in  greater  plenty  than  ihcy  i;aturally  re- 
ceive it,  by  impregnating  the  air  which  lurrounds  tlicm, 
or  the  water  whicii  nioillcns  ihtin,  with  a  greater  quan- 
tity of  putrid  matter  than  what  they  contain  in  a  natu- 
ral ftatc. 

Sect.  II.  The  foregoing  Theory  confirmed  from  confi- 
deration)  o;i  the  nature  oj  vegit^tble  Mould,  and  the 
different  kinds  of  Manure  found  proper  for  jei  til- 
izing  the  Soil. 


Various 
fuppofi- 
tions  coli- 


food  of 
planet. 


Vcgct»l)lc3 
thrive  iu 
putrid  air. 


4 
Water  ca- 
pable of 
imbibing 
f>utrid  ef- 
fluvia. 


vegetable  fond,  to  which  alone  they  owe  their  incrcafe 
i'l  hulk  and  weight. — That  plants  cannot  be  fupportcd 
without  both  thefc  is  very  certain  ;  but  we  know,  that 
air  is  a  compoinj  fluid-,  and  water  is  never  without 
fome  impurities,  fo  may  alfo  be  confidercd  as  a  com- 
pound  Is  it  then  the  aqueoas,  the  earthy,  the  acid,  or 

the  phlogiilic  part  of  the  air,  which  nourifhcs  plants  ? 
In  like  manner,  is  it  the  pure  elementary  part  of  wa- 
ter which  nourilh'-s  them?  or  does  it  contribute  to  their 
grjwth  only  by  the  heterogeneous  fubftances  which  it 
contains  ? 

From  Dr  Prieftley's  experiments  on  different  kinds 
of  air,  it  appears  that  the  purcft  kind  of  that  fluid  is 
not  the  fittell  for  the  purpofes  of  vegetation.  On  the 
contrary,  vegetables  flourilhed  in  a  furprifing  degree 
when  confined  in  a  fmall  quantity  of  air  made  pcrfcclly 
noxiojs  by  the  putrid  effluvia  of  animal  bodies. — 
Hence  it  appears  probable,  that  fuch  cfduvii,  or,  in 
other  words,  the  cilence  of  corrupted  matter,  conftitute 
at  leafl  one  fpecies  pf  vegetable  food  j  and  when  vege- 
tables are  p  it  into  fuch  circumflanccs  that  the  fleams 
of  pu  refying  bodies  can  have  acccfs  to  ihcni,  wc  arc 
furc  they  will  thrive  the  better. 

The  Dodor  alfo  found,  that  by  agitating  putrid  air 
in  water,  pan  of  which  was  cxpofed  to  the  atmofphere, 
the  water  acquired  a  very  patrid  noxious  fmell ;  which 
fliows,  that  water,  as  well  as  air,  is  capable  of  abforbing 
thofe  effluvia  which  are  found  proper  food  for  vegetables. 
We  cannot  help  concluding,  therefore,  that  in  the  con- 
tinual afcent  of  water  in  vapour,  and  its  defccnt  again 
in  rain,  wliich  is  a  much  more  etTeftual  agitation  than 
could  be  made  by  Dr  Priefiley,  the  water  muff  be  very 
intimately  combined  with  the  ph/ogiftic  or  putrid  efflu- 
via which  arc  contained  in  the  air.  To  this  union  we 
are  led  flrongly  to  fufpcfl  that  rain-water  owes  its  fer- 
tilizing q  lalities  ;   for  the  purcfl  fpring  waters,  though 


mod  wholefome  for  animals,  are  not  found  to  be  fitteft 
for  promoting  the  growth  of  vegetables. — As,  there- 
fore, vegetables  evidently  receive  nourifhment  bothby 
propcrfooJ  iheirleavcs  and  roots,  and  increafe  remarkably  in  bulk 
«f  plants.    [j„  abforbing  ihe  putrid  cflluvia  from  the  air  ;  and  as 


5    , 

Putrid  ef- 
fluvia the 


Though  plants  will  grow  on   any  kind  of  earth.  All kindsof 

and  flourilh  vigoroufly,  if  jdentifully  fupplicd  \\illi  wa-  earth  mit 

tcr;  yet  fome  kil:ds  of  liiilsare  found  much  more  proper '^"°")'l"'''" 
/-      I-       1    -         1  -1  -n  1  1  t\-     rcrforiiou- 

for  fupplying  thim  with  nourylnncnt  thanothtis. — W  c  '-nii,     ^j. 

cannot,  indeed,  allow  the  inferences  to  be  quite  fair  „j,ji)i,;s. 
which  (bme  would   draw  from  experiments  on  plants 
fit  in  mere  faiid,  &c.  ;  viz.  that  the  earth  is  of  no  other 
nfe  to  vegetation  than  to  afford  a  proper  fupport  to  the 
plant,  that  it  be  not  cafily  moved  out  of  its  place  ;   bc- 
caufe  the  experiments  made  on  fmgle  vegetables  ai  e  al- 
ways performed  in  or  very  near  houfcs,  where  the  air 
is  by  no  means  fo  pure  as  in  the  open  fields,  and  cou- 
fcquently  where  they  have  an  opportunity  of  receiving 
as  much  nouriniment  from  the  air  as  may  compciifatc 
the  want  of  what    they  would  have  derived  from  the 
earth  if  planted  in  a  rich  foil.     Lord  Kamcs,  in  the 
Gentleman  Fanner,  meiitioiis  an  experiment  wherein  a 
pea  was  planted  on  fome  cotton  fpread  on  water,  in  a 
phial.     It  fprung,  and  puthed  routs  through  the  cotton 
into  the  water.     The  plant  grew  vigoroufly,  and,  at 
the  lime  of  his  writing  the  experiment,  carried   large 
pods  full    of  ripe    feed. — From  this  experiment,  or 
others  of  a  fimilar  kind,  however,  a  far'mer  would  not 
be  thought  to  3.A  very  j  idicioufly,  who  fliould  conclude 
that  nothing  more  was  requifite  to  produce  a  plentiful 
crop,  than  to  keep  his  fields  conflantly  foaking  with 
water,  and  apply  his  labour  only  for  that  purpofe,  with-     / 
out  regarding  either  tillage,  jtianurc,  or  the  difj'erence 
of  foils.     Experience   has  abundantly  Ihov.n,  that  by 
certain  operations  performed  on  the  earth  itfclf,  it  is 
rendered  much  more  capable  of  fupplying  vegetables 
with  plenty  of  nouridiment  than  if  fuch  operations  were 
omitted  ;  and   that  fome  kinds  of  foils  cannot  without 
certain  additions  be  rendered  fo  fit  for  this  purpofe  as 
others  ;  and  this  is  what  conflitutes  the  difference  be- 
tween a  rich  and  a  poor  foil.  j 

That  fpecies  of  earth  which  is  capable  of  fupply- Of  the  true 
ing  the   vegetable  kingdom  with  nourifliment  in  the  ^'?"*'''' 
greatefl  plenty,  is  found  bcft  in  well  cultivated  gar-  '""*• 
dens.     1;  is  not,  however,  even  in  thefc,  found  in  pcr- 
feft  purity  ;  being  conflantly  mixed  with  greater  or  kfs 
proportions  of  fand,    fmall  flones,  &c.     It  can  be  had 
by  itfclf,  and  entirely  feparatcdfrom  allotherfubflances, 
only  by  fuffering  vegetable  or  animal  bodies  to  putrefy. 
By  undergoing  this  operation,  they  are  at  lafl  refolved 
into  a  kind  of  earth,  whicli  appears  perfc(?tly  the  fame, 
from  whatever  fibflance  it  is  produced.     Of  this  earth 
Dr  Lewis  gives  us  the  following  charaiftcrs.     It  is  in- 

difFoluLle 


Part  I. 

Tlieory. 


AGRICULTU 


rhh  earth 
nii>rcgni- 
:ed  with 


in  prodigi- 
ous quikiiti 
tics. 


dilK>!iiblcin  iciJs,  foinewlut  cciiacious  when  moiftencj 
Willi  water,  friable  when  dry,  and  acquires  no  adJiiion- 
al  hardncis  in  the  fire. —  The  chcniiliry  of  nature,  ai:d 
that  ot'art,  however,  arc  I'o  very  dilliiiiilar,  thai  an  ac- 
count of  the  chemical  properties  of  tl. is  carih  can  be  but 
of  very  liitlc  itrvice  to  tlicpracliccwf  agriculture  ;  how- 
ever, to  thole  ahoveinentioni.d  we  may  add,  that  when 
it  is  diftilled  with  a  violent  tire,  a  volatile  alkaline  fpi- 
rit,  and  I'oetid  oil,  finiilar  to  ihofc  of  hartfliora  or  other 
annual  fubflanccs,  are  obtained. 

As  the  volatile  alkali  is  knov.'n  to  be  proihiccd  in 
great  plenty  by  didilling  putrid  fnbftanccs  either  ani- 
n)al  or  vegciablc,  the  obtaining  an  alkaline  fpirit  from 
putrid    cf-ihis  kind  of  earth  is  a  ftrong  argument  of  its  being 
luvia.         much  impregnated  wiih  the  putrid  tilluvium,  which  wc 
have  already  nieuiioncd   as  the  proper  vegetable  food 
contained  in  the  air  and  water.     Indeed,  confidtring 
that  this  kind  of  earth  is  produced  by  putrefadion,  it 
is  next  to  an  inipolfibility  that  it  Ihould  not  be  impreg- 
nated with  putrid  fleams,  as  much  as  earth  can  be  ;  and 
if  the  earth  which  is  molt  impregnated  with  thtfe  fleams 
is  found  to  afford   the  grcaicfl  quantity  of  nourilhnient 
to  vegetables,  wc  have  from  thence  an  additional  proof 
that  they  live  on  the  putrid  matter  emitted  from  dead 
g         animals  and  vegetables  like  themfelves. 
Earthisca-      That  WC  may  be  the  more  afcertained  of  this,  it 
pablcof  jb-  mud  be  conlidcred,  that  the  earth,  which  undoubtedly 
forbing  pu-  is  the  great  fource  of  nouriflimcnt  to  vegetables,  is  ca- 
irid  "«;'n"  pabie  of  abforbing  putrid  effluvia  more  powerfully,  or 
at  lealf  in  much  greater  quantity,  before  it  is  fatnraied, 
than  either  the  air  or  water.     The  practice  of  bury- 
ing dead  bodies  is  an  undeniable  proof  of  this.     They 
arc  laid  butafmall  depth  under  the  ground  ;  yet  the  abo- 
minable llcnch  emitted  by  the  carcafc  is  retained  in 
the  earth,  lb  that  it  never  penetrates  in  fuch  a  man- 
ner as  to  be  offenfive.     That  earth  may  be  faiurated 
with  this  putrid  matter,  as  well  as  air  or  water,  is  very 
certain;  and,  in  cafe  of  fuch  a  faturation,  no  doubt 
cither  of  thele  will  take  up  the  fuperlfuous  quantity, 
and  become  noxious ;  but  unlcfs  the  earth  is  fully  fa- 
iurated, both  of  them  will  dcpolit  part  of  what  iliey 
themfelves  contain  in  the  earth,  and  by  that  means  be- 
come more  laluiary  than  they  were  belbrc. 

That  earth  is  capable  of  at  tracing  putrid  effluvia  from 
od'ourcmit-  the  air,  perlups,  may  not  be  fo  readily  granted  ;  and  in- 
tcdbymoift  ilecd  WC  know  of  110  experiment  whereby  it  can  be 
cirth.  Ihown  that  putrid  air  is  made  falutary  by  having  any 

kind  of  carih  agitated  in  it :  but  if  we  conlidcr  the  ex- 
ceeding great  I'alubrity  of  the  air  in  tiie  country,  and 
the  hcalthinefs  of  thofc  who  follow  tlie  plough,  or  are 
employed  in  digging  the  ground,  wc  niufl  at  lead  al- 
low, that  when  the  ground  is  turiud  up,  it  communi- 
caics  no  kind  of  noxious  quality  to  the  air  ;  which  it 
would  certainly  do,  if  it  emitte<l  a  putrid  eflluvium. 
So  far  from  this,  the  fmell  of  moill  earth  is  always  a- 
greeablc  and  wholefomc;  and  here  we  have  the  fatis- 
fadion  to  find  our  ihtory  fomewhat  conlirnicd  by  the 
celebrated  Baron  van  Swieten,  late  phylician  to  the 
emprcfs  of  Hungary. 

"  Fhyliciaiis,"  fayshe,  "  nfually  advifellieir  patients 
to  ruflicaiion,  not  only  that  they  may  enjoy  a  pure  and 
freely  circulating  air;  but  that,  as  their  llrtngih  in- 
ereafes,  they  may,  difcngaged  from  all  care,  cxercifc 
their  body  by  the  (lighter  labours  of  agriculture,  and 
other  country  ainiifemems. 


10 

Agreeable 


E.  2jl 

"  There  n.ay  perh:p  be  another  coufc  whyrufica-  ihcotj. 
lion  will  be  of  btneht  to  coifumptiors.  It  is  wtll  "— ■^^-~' 
known,  tliai,  altrr  foire  days  drougin,  on  the  falling 
of  rain  that  moiftcns  tl.c  earth,  there  arifcs  a  grateful 
fmell,  which  we  are  all  fer.fiblc  of ;  and  this  is  common- 
ly attributed  to  the  vegetables,  whii.h  befose  laplefs,  but 
now  refrcfhed  by  rain,  pcrfpiie  n  ore  co^ioilly.  Bit 
Reaumur  obfcrvcd,  that  a  like  fra^irancy  is  alfo  per- 
ceptible alter  rain  when  the  corn  has  bem-cni  down  in 
the  fields,  where  there  only  reuiains  dry  luilblc  ;  and 
examining ihc  matter  more  jarticidaily,  he  found  that 
dry  earth  is  without  fmell,  but  as  foon  as  ii  is  moilleii- 
cd  to  the  degree  of  having  the  confluence  of  foftilh  p^p, 
it  then  diff'ufes  a  flrong  fmell  ;  but  if  more  water  is 
added,  the  fmell  is  diifiiiiiihed,  nay  even  quite  diffipatcd. 
Neiiherdocsit  feeni  an  cafy  matter  to  cxhauflihatpowcr 
of  producing  finclls  which  the  earth  is  pofrclUd  of.  Li- 
very day,  during  a  fortnight, he  irade  cake  stf  uoillencd 
earth  ;  and  having  dried  and  wetted  them  overagain,  he 
could  not  perceive  that  ihc  earth  was  lefs  fragrant  af;cr 
all  thefe  repeated  experiments,  if  it  was  again  vveitcd. 
He  further  oblerved,  that  this  fragranry  docs  not  diffufc 
itfelf  loany  thingat  a  great  diflance,  without  being  nii  ch 

diminiflK-d,  and  foon   entirely  gone It  has  been  cb- 

ferved,  that  iliis  expiration  of  the  earih  ceafes  if  thun- 
der and  .dorms  foon  follow  :  while  they  continue,  ii  be- 
gins to  return  ;  and  w  hen  over,  the  fame  fragrancy  of 
the  earth  for  fome  hours  affeifls  the  fmell  of  a  n:an  as 
he  walks  along  over  a  confidcrable  tradl  of  ground. 
There  is  no  one,  I  believe,  but  lias  fometimcs  made 
this  obfervation  ;  and  hence  the  ear:h,  when  moificned 
to  a  certain  degree,  fcems  to  exhale  fragrani  odours, 
and  indeed  various  in  various  places,  as  wc  are  fenliblc 
of  from  their  divcrfity.  They  are  for  the  mod  part  of 
a  fulubrious  quality ;  as  fome  perfons  quite  faiiu  and 
languid  in  the  fummcr-luats  perceive  themlelves  won- 
derfully refreflied,  whild,  after  rain,  they  fnuft  up  the 
fragrant  odour.  In  fome  places  thofc  effluvia  arc  per- 
lups bad,  and  may  be  the  caufes  of  difcafcs." 

This  property  of  emitting  a  fragrant  fmell  is  like- 
wife  taken  notice  of  by  Dr  Home  in  his  Principles  of 
Agriculture  and  Vegetation.  Soaic  phyflcians  have 
prcfcribed  a  bath  of  earth  for  the  cure  of  confump- 
tivc  patients  ;  and  Dr  Solano  de  Luqne  was  of  opinion, 
that  the  earth  had  the  property  of  abforbing  conta- 
gious miafmata  into  it :  but  whether  it  can  abforb  thefe 
miafmata  from  living  bodies  or  not,  it  certainly  can  ab- 
forb them  from  ilcad  ones;  for  a  piece  of  putrid  meat 
will  be  much  fweetcned  by  lying  for  a  lliort  time  in  the 
ground.  jj 

From  all  this  wc  cannot  indeed  infer,  that  putrid  Powcr  of 
air  is  fweetcned  by  niere  earth  ;  but  we  difcover  what  trmfmuta- 
is  perhaps  more  important,  namely,  that  though  earth  <'on  in  the 
is  the   common    receptacle  of  all  putrid  matters  both '*''''' '''^''■" 
animal  a:id  vegetable,  there  is  a  change  m.de  on  them  "^''' 
when  in  it,  which  cannot  be  made  either  by  ar  or  wa- 
ter.    Thus,  if  the  carcafc  of  a  fmall  animal  is  left  to 
putrefy  in   the  air,  it   be.  omes  exceedingly  ofllnfivc, 
and  contii  ues   fo  tromfiid   to  lafl.     The  lame  th'nir 
happens  if  it  is  left  to  putrefy  in  waier.     But,  in  e.irih° 
the  cafe   is  quite  diflcrcnt.     After  the  carcafc  is  con- 
fumed,    the  earth    which  has  imbibed  all  the  putrid 
fleams,  indcad  of  exhaling  an  otrciUive  odonr,  difllifes 
an  agreeable  one;  and  thus  wc  may  fee  that  it  is  en- 
dued with  a  power  no  lef'-  remarkable  than  that  of  jt- 
I  i  2  iraflion 


25- 

Theory. 


A     G 


I     C     U     L     T     U     R     E. 


Part  I. 


Attrailion 
infufliciciit 
to  folvc  the 
I'hcijomena 
of  vegeta- 
tion. 


13 
Confirma- 
tion of  the 
above  theo- 
ry from  the 
tlilTcrciit  o- 
peratiuiisof 
agriculture 


14 
Fallowing. 


15 

The  capaci- 
ty of  a  foil 
to  retain 
■water  not 
increafcdby 
fallowing. 


tiadiwi  or  rcpuliion,  unil  svliicli  \vc  may  ililliiigiiifn  by 
ilic  r.aiiic  of  ii aitjt.itttaitoii.  Willi  regard  10  water, 
llic  cal'c  is  niorccviJciii  :  lor  the  moll  piiirid  water  will 
be  Cwcciencd  by  percolation  throii^h  earth,  or  even 
ruiininj  in  a  channel  lor  fomc  time  on  its  lurl'ace ;  but 
if  it  contains  any  impurities  of  the  falinc  kind,  they 
will  not  be  fcpirattd,  or  at  leall  in  very  fmall  quan- 
tity. 

The  exigence  of  futh  a  power  as  that  of  tranfinuta- 
tion  we  will  be  obliged  to  own,  whatever  we  imagine 
ilic  vegetable  food  to  conlill  of;  for  it  is  inipolliblc  to 
folvc  the  phenomena  of  vegetation  by  attractions  and 
repullions.  If  we  fuppofe  the  vegetable  food  to  be 
fall,  kt  i!s  attack  and  repel  fait  as  wc  will,  it  remains 
fait  from  tird  to  laft.  Let  us  fuppofe  it  water,  the 
cafe  is  the  fame  ;  and,  by  mere  attradion,  nothing  but 
malFcs  of  fait,  or  pools  of  water,  could  be  produccJ. 
1  he  c  ;fe  is  the  fame  on  our  own  hypothclis  ;  for,  fup- 
poling  plants  compofed  of  the  putrid  eflluvia  ofolhcr.s, 
and  of  dead  animals,  if  nature  was  endued  wiihno 
ulhtr  power  than  attraclion  or  repullioii,  the  vcuciablc 
would  nccclfarily  be  .•'.  corrupted  mafs  like  that  of  which 
it  was  compoftd. — Thispower,  aswchavealrcady  feen, 
rclides  only  in  the  earth,  and  in  the  vegetables  tliein- 
Iclves;  air  and  water  can  indeed  atl  as  powerful  fol- 
venis,  but  cannot  iransform  or  compound. 

We  mull  next  conlidcr  the  nature  of  thofc  different 
operations,  which,  from  time  iinmcinorial,  have  been 
performed  on  the  earth,  in  order  to  caufc  it  produce 
the  greatell  crops  of  vegetables.  If  all  of  thcfc  Ihall 
be  found  confpiring  to  one  general  purpofe,  then  the 
fftortell  and  molt  eafy  method  of  aitaining  that  pur- 
pofe  is  undoubtedly  the  moll  proper  to  be  praftifcd  in 
agriculture,  whether  it  hath  been  as  yet  put  in  execu- 
tion or  not.     Thtfe  are, 

I.  Fnqtieiit  ploughing,  oijallowiii^.  The  imme- 
diate confeqiiences  of  this  is  to  expofe  different  quan- 
lities  of  the  fo;l  to  tlie  aifliOn  of  the  air  and  fun,  which 
will  not  fail  to  exert  their  folvcnt  powers  upon  it.  In 
confeqnenec  of  this  aclion,  the  earth  is  partly  reduced 
to  powder;  many  of  the  roots  of  vegetables,  witli  which 
it  always  abounds,  are  dillolved  and  putretied  ;  and  the 
earth  produced  from  thcni  mixes  with  the  reft,  as  well 
as  the  effluvia  they  emit  during  their  diirolutioii.  The 
earth  f.ion  begins  aj'.ain  to  exert  its  prolific  powers, 
and  a  crop  of  vegetables  is  produced.  By  a  repttiiiou 
of  the  ploughing,  thefe  are  turned  with  their  routs  up- 
vvards,  are  cxpofed  to  the  folveiu  powers  of  the  air  and 
light ;  in  coiifequence  of  which  they  die,  are  puiretied, 
and  more  of  the  native  foil  is  reduced  to  powder,  and 
mixed  wiih  iliem.  By  a  frequent  repetiiion  of  tl;is 
procefs,  the  foil  becomes  vaflly  more  tender,  and  ap- 
proaches to  the  nature  of  garden  mould,  and  its  ferti- 
lity is  confiderably  increafcd. 

Lord  Kames  is  of  opinion,  that  the  reafon  of  the 
fertility  of  any  foil  being  increafcd  by  fallowing,  is, 
that  its  capacity  of  retaining  water  is  increafcd.  E,it 
this  cannot  be  admitted;  for  fo  far  from  being  more 
difpofed  to  retain  water  by  its  pulverilation,  the  foil  is 
evidently  more  difpofed  to  part  with  it,  either  by  eva- 
poration, or  by  fiiffering  the  moiflure  to  percolate  tliro' 
it.  In  this  relped  it  is  far  inferior  to  clay  ;  for  though 
dry  garden-mould  abforbs  water  much  more  quickly 
than  clay,  it  alio  dries  much  fooner,  and  thus  all  the 
advantage  is  lull. 


To  tr.olc  who  reckon  the  food  of  vegctaLlcs  to  con-    Theory. 

fill  of  oils  or  falls,  tlie  operation  of  lalluwing  ground  ' ' 

inult  appear  an  iifclcfs  one,  as  it  can  tend   ncu.itr  to  o:i«and 
produce  oils  nor  lalis,  but  to  deltroy  ihtin.     As  its  (ai,.„otthe 
utility,  however,  cannot  be  denied,  the  favourers  oftrutvege- 
this  theory  inugiiic,  that  the  ground,  by  repeated  npe- tabic  food, 
rations  of  this  kind,  is  tilted  tor  aiiraeliiig  the  nitreus 
falts  (rum  the  air:   bi:t  it  is  lound,  that  ihcfc  falls  cuii> 
not  be  attradcd  by  earth,  or  any  other fubllancc,  evrn 
when  txpoled  fur  a  great  length  of  time  to   the  ;iir 
with  a  view  to  produce  fah-petrc;  v  hich  gives  a  llrong 
fiifpicion  aganul  their  exii.encc;  and  even  if  1  itrc  is 
mixed  with  the  ioil,  it  is  lound  to  le  deirimciiial,  and 
will  kill  or  poil'cn  plants  inlleadol  iiuuriihi'ig  them.  j. 

2.  OvirJiowii;g  tin  ground    -xiih    ■water. — This   is  Overflow- 
found   piooigiouily  to  iucreafe  the  fertility  of  any  foil,  irgthe  foil 
It  is  v,-(ll  known   how  much  Egypt  owes  to  the  annual  withwater. 
I'verflowing  of  the  Nile  ;    and  even  in  this  country  the 
overriowiug  of  any  ground  is  found  to  be  atttiiued  with 

great  advantage.  This  is  praclifed  by  Mr  Bakewell 
of  LeicelUrlhire,  famous  for  his  impiovciueiit  in  the 
breed  of  cattle;  aiul  he  finds  it  fully  to  anf.ver  an  an- 
nual manuring  of  any  other  fort.  It  is  alfo  recom- 
mended by  MrAnJcrfon  of  Monkfliill,  in  his  Allays  on 
Agriculture.  jg 

The  fertilizing  quality  of  water  willealily  be  ac-  Rcafontof 
counted  for  on  the  fame  principles.     W  hen  grown  ve-  theincrcafe 
gctables  are  covered  with  water,  their  growth,  how-  ^  fertility 
ever  vigorous  before,   is  immediately  ilopt,  unlcfs  they  ^^ '  e-o\cr- 
be  of  the  aquatic  kind  :  they  die,   are  dilTolvcd,   and    " 
putrefied;  in  which  cafe,  their  iincr  parts  are  undoubt- 
caly  abfoibed  by  the  earth:  and  thus  ihe  fiuattug,  as 
it  is  called,  of  fields  with  water,  anfwers  thi-purpofeof 
fallowing,  .vith  very  little  trouble.  This  is  not  all  :  for 
flagnating  water  always  depolites  a  fcdimciit,  which 
mixing  with  the  diii'oived  parts  of  the  vegciables  all 
over  the  field,  forms  an  excellent  manure  ;  and  when 
the  water  is  allowed  to  run  off,  the  heat  of  the  fan  foon 
brings  the  highcll  degree  of  puirefae^ion  on  the  dead 
vegetables  ;  the  tilluvia  of  which,  mixing  with  the  mud 
depolited  from  the  water,  makes  it  exceedin;;ly  rich.  19 

Upon  the  fuppofuion  of  oily  and  faline  food  for  ve-  Oils  &  fairs 
gctablcs,  this  operation  mufl  certainly  be  prejudicial  ;  cannot  he 
for  nothing  can  fu  eficftually  deprive  any  fiibllancc  of  J'j'^  ^'^f"" 
fill  as  llceping  It  in  water.    Neither  will  water  either 
depolit  oil  from  itfelf,  orfuffer  it  to  mix  with  the  ground 
if  accidentally  brought  to  it  ;   nay,  though  a  field  were 
previoully  impregnated  with  oil,  upon  overflowing  it 
with   water  great  part  of  the  oil   would    be  fcparaied, 
and  rife  to  the  top:   fo  that,  in  either  cafe,   this  opera- 
tion could  not  fail  to  impovcrifh  land  rather  than  enrich 
it ;  and  as  vegetables  are  found  to  be  fupplicd  with  food 
in  plenty  by  an  operation    which  mufl   undoubiedly 
tend  to  take  away  both  oils  and  falts  from  them,  we 
cannot  help  thinking  this  a  demonflration,  that   their 
food  is  compofed  neither  of  oil  nor  fait.  so 

3.  Manuring,  or  mixing  the  foil  with  different  fub- Of  manure* 
fiances— W'cftisll  here  confine  oiirfelves  to  thofc  which  ^^^  Hieiro- 
are  of  undoubted  efficacy,  and  have  their  credit  ella- P'""°°' 
blilhed  by  lung  experience.  Thefe  are,  i.  lime,  chalk, 

inarle,  (liells,  or  other  earths,  called  by  the  chemifts 
calcareous  earthi;  2.  foot;  ■}.  alhes:  4.  dung  of  dif- 
ferent kinds (i)  The  lime,  chalk,  ir.arle,  and  lliells, 

are  all  found  to  be  of  the  fame  nature.  The  marlc 
differs  from  the  reft,  only  in  having  a  mixture  of  clay 

abng 


I.  A     G     R     I     C 

■.    along  wiiii  i(s  calcareous  part,     Thtfe  contain  ntiilicr 
—  (alt  nor  oil  ot  any  kiiiJ ;  ihcy  rtaJily  imbibe  wjttr, 
and  as  rcaiiiiy  part  widi  it.  ^lickliuic,  indeed,  retaitis 
water  very  obltinattly  :   Li.i  fiich  lime  as  ii  laid  upon 
the  ground  ioon  rcluriis  to  the  fame  ilatc  in  whicii  it 
originally  was  ;  and  powdered  limcllone  is  found  lo 
ar.fwcr  as  wtU  for  the  purpofcs  of  manure  as  that  svhich 
has  been  burnt ;  fo  thai  iicre  v.c  may   conlider  iheia 
all  as  fubitances  of  the   f-imc   dafs.     If  any    of  ihtfc 
iubltanccs  arc  mixed  with  dead  animal  or  vegetable 
bodies,  ihcy  remarkably  quicken  their  dulo'iution  and 
corruption,  as  appears   froai  Sir  John  Priiiglc's  expe- 
riivci.tson  putrclact  oa.     X^htii  mixed  wiih  the  foil, 
therefore,  tlicy  moll  undoubtedly  exert  their  powersoii 
fuch  Kibllancesas  they  find  there,  in  the  fame  manner 
as  they  do  on  othira  ;  that  is,  they  muft  haften  their 
dilfoliition  and  putrcfaclion,  and  j^ivc  the  pure  vege- 
table mould  an   opportunity  of  abforbir.i;  their  putrid 
fleams,  and  confcquendy  of  being  fertilized  by   it  in 
t!ic  fame  manner  as  by  putrid  fu^rtanccs  of  any  kind. 
(2.)  Thofc  who  contend  for  oily  and  laline  principles 
in  the  vegetable  food,  avail  thenifclvesof  the  ufcfulncfs 
of  foot  as  a  manure  ;  which  is  not  only  oily  of  itfcif, 
but  affords  a  great  quai'.tity  of  volatile  ialt,  along  with 
fome  neutral  fal-ammoniac.     It  mult   be  remembered, 
however,  that  not  an  atom  either  of  volatile  fait  or  fal- 
ammoniac  can  be  extracted  from  foot  without  a  cotifi- 
dcrablc  heal,  which  no  foil  can  give,  nor  could  any 
vegetable  bear.     Neither  doth   its  oil  appear  without 
a  great  degree  of  heat  :  and  though  it  feels  fomewhat 
unc^tuons  to  the  touch,  this  is  but  a  mere  deception  ;  for 
no  true  oil,  capable  of  tloating  on  water,  can  be  ob- 
tained from   foot  witiiout  diflilUtion.     It  is  impoflibic, 
therefore,   that  foot  can  aft  upon  the  foil  either  as  an 
oily  or  a  faline  fubftancc  ;   how  lar  it  is  capable  of  dif- 
fbliition  by  putrefaccian,  or  being  otherwifc  converted 
into  an  earth,  hath  not  yet  been  determined  by  expe- 
riments ;  but  as  i:  yields,    on    diilillation,  the  fame 
principles  which  are  obtained  from  animal  or  putrefied 
vcgciablc  fnbftanccs,  it   is  probable  that  foot  enriches 
the  ground  in  the  fame  manner  that  they  do.   (5.)  'i  he 
ufc  of  allies  in  manure  is  likewife  urged  as  an  argument 
{Oi-  the  food  of  vegetables  being  of  a  filinc  nature  ;  as 
it  is  known,  that  the  common  alkaline  falts  arc  procured 
by  lixiviating  the  allies  of  wood  and  oiher  vegetables. 
Experience,  however,  ftiows  us,  that  aihes  arc  no  lefs 
fit  for  manure  after  ihcfaltis  extracted  from  them  than 
before.     Indeed,  if  there  be  any  difference,  it  is  in 
favour  of  the  wafhed  alhes.  The  alkali  itfelf,  though  in 
Sir  John  Pringlc's  experiments  it  was  found  to  be  auti- 
f:l>tic,  or  a  refilier  of  putrefaction,  is  ncverthelcfs  a 
powerful  dilTolvent ;  and  as  it  nmft  fooii  lofc  its  alkaline 
properties  when  mixed  with  the  earth,  in  confcqucncc 
of  the  univerfal  cxiltcnce  of  the  vitriolic  acid,  thofe 
fabllanccs  which  it  has  diilblved  will  be  more  d^fpofed 
to  putrefaction  than  before,  and  confequcntly  tend  10 
fertilize  the  ground  in  the  manner  we  have  already  de- 
fcribed.     The  walhed  alhes  arc  fiflici,  or  promoters 
of  putrefaction,  and  confequcntly  act  in  the  f.ime  man- 
ner as  chalk  or  limeftonc.      (4.)  All  kinds  of  dung  are 
fo  much  difpofcd  to  putrefaclion,  that  it   is  diihcult  to 
imagincany  otlier  way  in  wliich  they  can  befcrviccabic 
to  vegetation  iha'i  by  their  putrid  effluvia People  in- 
deed may  dream  of  imaginary  falts  in   dung;   but  if 
they  knew  or  coniidcrcd  the  diiHculty  of  procuring 


U     L     T     U     R     E. 

ialt  of  any  kind  Ironi  dung,  they  vvoi.lj  proLally 
tcr  their  lentimcius.  The  volatile  lilts  procured  from 
this  as  Well  as  oiher  animal  matters,  are  mere  creatures 
of  the  lire :  putrid  urine  produces  them  iiidced  v.  iihouc 
heat,  but  fcorce  any  other  animal  fubllance.  IScvcr- 
thclei's,  othcrputiiJ  fublUnces  will  fertilize  the  ground 
as  well  as  urii;c,  and  therefore  muft  aCt  in  fon:c  eihtr 
way  than  by  their  falts.  Though  Dr  Pritftly's  cxfc- 
rimtnts  haJ  never  been  made,  we  coi;lu  hive  termed  no 
oiher  rational  fuppcliiion  concerning  the  ir.anrtr  in 
which  putrid  fubliaiices  fertilize  tlie  earth,  than  what 
v^c  have  already  done  ;  Luc  as  he  has  ihown  that  \e- 
geiables  aie  prodigiouily  increafed  in  bulk  by  the  n;crc 
contaft  ot  theic  putrid  llrtams,  where  no  laline  fub- 
itances that  coulu  have  acccfs  to  them,  wc  cannot  help 
thinking  ibis  a  dccilivc  expcrimmt  concerning  the 
manner  in  which  the  ground  is  fcrtiiizcd  by  manuring 
wiih  dung  or  ither  putrid  fubftanccs.  j. 

We  fliall  conclude  this  part  of  the  iubjeft  with  in  ac-  Iffc(a«r.f 
count  of  ionic  txperinients  concerning  the  tfiefts  of  fa-  faline  fub. 
line  fubftanccs  on  the  growth  of  vegetables.    '1  he  fol-  lances  on 
lowing  arc  related  by  lord  Kames,  in  his  Gentleman  g™"";? 
Farmer. — .\  number  of  Jerulalcm  artichokes  were  fct  ""8"*   "• 
in  pots  filled  with  pure  fand.     One  plant  was  kept   as 
a  ftandard,  beir.g  nouriliicd  wi;h  water  only.     Other 
plants  ot  the  fame  kind  were  nouriihed  with  water  in 
which  fait  of  tartar,  a  tixcd    alkali,    was  diiTolvcd. 
Thcfc  grew  more  vigoroully  than   the  ftandard  plant  ; 
but,  by  reiterated  waterings,  there  came  to  be  luch  an 
accumiilatio:.  of  the  fixed  alkali  among  the  fand,  as  to 
make  the  plants  decay,  and  at  lall  to  die.     Some  plants 
were  r.ourilhcd  with  water  in  which  !al-aramoniac,  a 
volatile  alkali,  was  dilTolveJ.  Thel'e  grew  alio. well  for 
fome  time  ;  but,  like  the  former,  were  deftroyed  by 
frequent  reiterations  of  it.     Weak  lime-water  promo- 
ted (he  growth  ol  its  plants  more  than  common  water. 
But  v.ater  completely  faturated  wiih  quicklime,  pro- 
ved  more  .noxious  than  that  which  contained  a  fixed  al- 
kali, though  lefs   than  that  which  contained  a  folution 
of  volatile  alkali. — Urine  piomored,  for  a  lor.g  time, 
the  growth  of  its  planrs  ;  and  the  moj}  i^utrid  aj'p:eired 
lo  have  th:  ftroigejl  ifici  ;  but  at  laft  it  totally  ocftroy- 
thcm.      Wuti-r  iti.pregr.atid'<uith  futrid an'mat  end  vc- 
g.'tablcfitbftaiicis,  didmare  (ffedua/ij  frowttuhtgt  vailh 
oj  ill  plant  J  ihan  any  uhir  Joiuthii  ,-   and  in  everj  flagt 
of  thi  fnc^J's  appeand  to  be  fah.Ury."  jj 

With  regard  to  oiher  faline fubftanccs,  there  arc  not  Common 
many  experiments  which  can  be  depended  upon  ccn-  '^''  incffcc- 
cerning  their  qualities  as  manure.     Mr  Anderfon  re- '"*'"  * 
latcs  an  experiment  made  with  common  fait ;  the  fuc-  '°"""'** 
cefs  of  which,  wc  apprehend,  may  juftly  enough  be  ta- 
ken as  a  fpecimen  of  what  is  to  be  cxpeftcd  from  ma- 
nures of  a  liinilar  kind He  marked  out  a  circle  of  fix 

feet  diameter  in  the  middle  of  a  grafs-field,  which  he 
diftinguiihcd  by  driving  a  ftake  in  its  centre.  All  over 
this  circle  he  ftrewed  common  fait,  which,  abou:  the 
ftake,  lay  near  an  inch  thick  on  the  ground.  In  this 
ftatc  he  left  it  to  the  operations  of  nature.  Tlie  grafs 
fprung  upas  ufual,  neither  bei:cr  nor  worfe  about  the 
ftake  than  in  the  reft  of  the  field,  and  the  place  where 
the  circle  uas  could  be  dill  inguilhed  only  by  the  ftake, 
which  was  left  there  for  fome  years. 

Upon  ihcfe  experiments  we  need  make  very  fewob- 
fervations.  They  are  fo  mush  in  favour  of  our  theory, 
that   they  fccm  made  on  purpofe  to  confirm  it.     The 

fixed 


AGRICULTURE. 


Part  I. 


13 
End  to  be 
ktiit  in 
view  by  a 
farmer. 


»4 
Richcft 
foils  mud 
at  lad  be 
impo- 
TeriflieJ. 


fixcJ  alkilt  employ cJ  ia  Lord  Kamcs's  exiiciimcnts 
would  tint  cxcit  iis  folvcni  powers  on  f\icli  lieitrogc- 
neous  fiibRanccs  as  i[  nut  "Aiih  among  ihc  land  :  for  no 
find  an  be  I'uppolcd  lo  be  pcrlcdlly  Ircc  of  thcfc.  .As 
long  as  it  excncd  iis  Urtngih  on  thcfc  o-ily,  the  plant 
would  thrive,  for  the  realons  we  have  already  men- 
tioned; but  having  exhaulkd  thcfmall  quantity  of  liib- 
ftances  contained  in  the  (and,  it  would  next  attack  the 
phnl  itfclf,  which  confcqucntly  would  decay -and  die. 
The  lame  cHccls  would  luccH'arily  follow  in  a  greater 
degree  from  llrong  linic-watcr  which  contains  lime  in 
its  caullic  Hate  ;  for  this  is  a  more  powerful  fdvcnt 
than  fixed  alkali  itfdf,  and  would  not  fail  to  dcllroy 
every  thing  it  touched  ;  nor  is  it  at  all  improbable  ih.it 
the  plant  would  fecm  to  grow  vigoroully  by  tiic  dillb- 
hition  of  part  of  its  own  roots,  more  nourilhnient  be- 
ing by  this  means  given  to  thofc  which  remained  found. 
—  Volatile  alkali  is  likewife  a  powerful  folvciu  :  but, 
by  reafon  of  its  volatility  would  exert  its  caullic  power 
on  the  plant  fooncr  than  either  lime  or  fixed  alkali ; 
and  accordingly  itfcems  to  have  been  the  molldeflruc- 
tive  of  any  thing  that  was  tried.  It  fcems  owing  to  this, 
that  putrid  urine  at  lall  dellroyed  the  plants  whole 
growth  it  fo  long  promoted  ;  while  water  impregnated 
with  otlicr  puirid  matters,  which  yield  no  volatile  al- 
kali without  heat,  proved  always  falut.nry. 

From  all  this,  we  may  draw  the  following  general 
conclniion,  viz.  That  the  principal  eiul  which  a  far- 
mer ought  to  keep  in  view,  is  to  impregnate  his  ground 
as  much  as  poiFible,  with  f.ibilances  which  either  actually 
contain  putrid  matter,  or  whicli  are  in  their  own  na- 
li.\rcfi/>t}c,  or  promoters  of  putrcfaftion.  To  impreg- 
nate the  air  with  putrid  effluvia  is  impolfible  :  and  iho' 
it  could  be  done,  would  be  highly  dangerous  ;  for  how- 
ever lalutary  fuch  effluvia  may  be  to  vegetables,  nothing 
cm  be  more  fatal  to  mankind.  The  putrid  fubllanccs, 
therefore,  can  only  be  uled  by  mixing  them  with  the 
earth  ;  and  in  whatever  manner  they  can  be  mofl  pcr- 
feftly,  and  in  the  greatcil  quantity,  mixed  with  the 
foil,  there  ihc  befl  crops  may  be  expeded. 

Sect.  III.    Of  the   differtiit  Soils,  and  the  Ma;iurcj 
mo/t  proper  for  each. 

AccoRDiNo  to  the  theory  we  have  jurt  now  laid 
down,  the  richeft  foil  mud  be  that  which  contains  the 
greatcft  quantity  of  putrid  matter,  either  animal  or  ve- 
getable ;  and  fuch  is  the  earth  into  which  animal  and 
vegetable  fnbftancesrefolvc  ihcmfclvcs.  Was  this  earth 
to  be  had  in  perfe<flion,  it  is  evident  it  could  not  fland 
in  need  of  manure  of  any  kind,  or  be  the  lead  enrich- 
ed by  it ;  for  containing  an  immenfe  quantity  of  putrid 
matter,  it  would  freely  communicate  it  to  the  vegetables 
planted  in  it,  which  would  grow  in  the  mod  luxuriant 
manner,  witliout  requiring  any  other  care  than  that  of 
keeping  them  conftantly  fupplied  with  water.  If  we 
fuppofc  the  cr)plcft  upon  the  ground  to  putrefy  and 
mix  with  the  earth  as  before,  the  foil  will  contain  the 
fame  quantity  of  putrid  matter  the  iecond  year  that  it 
did  the  firfl,  and  be  equally  piolitjc:  but  if  the  crop 
is  removed  to  another  place,  and  nothing  is  brought 
back  to  enricli  the  ground  in  its  (lead,  it  is  evident, 
thit  it  will  contain  lefs  of  the  true  vegetable  food  the 
fccond  yeir  than  it  did  tlie  tirft,  and  confcqucntly  be 
Icfe  piolitic.    For  fome  time,  however,  the  diilcrencc 


will  not  be  pcrccpiibk  ;  and  people  who  are  in  poflcf-    Theory, 
iion  of  fuch  ground  may  imagine  that  tlicy  enjoy   a  *— -v— -^ 
foil  which   will    be  perpetually  fertile  ;   but   long  ex- 
perience has  taught  ut,  liiat  the  richeft  foils  will  at  lall 
be  cxhaudcd  by  repeated  cropping  without  manure,  as 
according  to  our  theory  they  ought  to  be. 

Where  the  ground  has  been  luffercd  to  remain  un- 
culiivated  for  formally  ages,  produing  all  that  lime  fuc- 
culcni  plants  which  are  calily  putrefied,  and  trees,  the 
leaves  of  which  likewife  conti  ibute  to  enrich  the  giound 
by  their  falling  off  and  mixing  with  it,  the  foil  will  in 
a  manner  be  totally  made  up  of  pure  vegetable  eanh, 
and  be  the  richelf,  when  cultivated,  that  can  be  ima- 
gined.   This  was  the  cafe  with  the  lands  of  America. 
They  had  remained  uncultivated  perhaps  fince  the  crea- 
tion, and  were  endowed  with  an  extraordinary  degree 
of  fertility  ;  it  is  ntvcrihelefs certain  that  fuch  grounds 
as  have  been  long  cultivated,  were  fo  much  cxhauftcd, 
as  to  be  not  much  better  than  the  generality  of  cuki-        j, 
vated  grourds  in  France  or  England.    Here,  then,  we  One  fpeclei 
have  an  example  of  one  fpccics  of  poor  foil  ;   namely,  of  poor  foil 
one  that  has  been  formerly    very    rich,    but  has  been  Jeftroyed 
deprived,    by    repeated    cropping,    of  great    part   of  "^  "™*' 
tile   vegetable   food   it  contained.     The  farmer    who 
is  in  polfclTion  of  fuch  ground,  would  no  doubt  willingly 
rellore  it  to  its  former  flate;   the  prefent  qucllion  is. 
What  mud  be  done  in  order  to  obtain  this  end  ?    We 
have  iTientioned  fcvcral  kinds  of  manures  which  long 
prat^licc  has  recommended  as  fcrviceable  for  improving 
ground  :  we  lliall   fuppofe  the  farmer  tries  lime,  or 
chalk  ;   for,   as  we  have  ,-lready  feen,  their  operations 
upon  the  foil  muft  beprccifcly  the  fame.  Thisfubdance, 
being  of  a  feptic  nature,  will  aft  upon  fuch  parts  of  the 
foil  as  are  not  putrefied,  or  but  imperfeiflly  fo  ;  in  confc- 
qucncc  of  which,  the   farmer  will  reap  a  better  crop 
than  formerly.  The  feptic  nature  of  the  lime  is  not  al- 
tered by  any  length  of  time.  In  ploughing  the  ground, 
tlie  lime  is  more  and  more  perfeftly  mixed  with  it,  and 
gradually  exerts  its  power  on  every  putrefcible  matter 
it  touches.    As  long  as  any  matter  of  this  kind  re- 
mains, the  farmer  will  reap  good  crops  :  but  when  the 
putrelcible    matter  is  all    exhauded,  the  ground  then 
becomes  pcrfeiftly  barren  ;   and  the  caudic  qualities  of 
the    lime   are   more  unjudly  blamed   for   burning  the 
ground,  and  reducing  it  to  a  caput  mortutim ;   while  it 
is  plain,  the  lime  has  only  done  its  office,  and  made 
the  foil  yield  all  tliat  it  was  capable  of  yielding.  i6 

Wlien  the  giound  has  been  longuncultivated, producing  A  fpcciei 
all  the  time  plants,  not  fuccnlent,  but  fuch  as  are  very  "'^P""'' 
difficultly  dillblved,  and  in  a  manner  incapable  of  pu-  '"'  j  ^ '°' 
trcfaftion  ;  tiicre  the  foil  will  be  cxceffively  barren,  and  );„,(_ 
yield  very  fcanty crops,  tho'  cultivatedwith  the  greateft 
care.     Of  this  kind  are  thofe  lands  covered  with  heath, 
whicli  are  found  to  be  the  mod  barren  of  any,  and  the 
mod  difficultly  brought  to  yield  good  crops.     In  this 
cafe  lime  will  be  as  fcrviceable,  as  it  was  detrimental 
in  the  other  :   for  by  its  feptic  qualities,  it  will  con- 
tinually reduce  more  and  more  of  the  foil  to  a  putrid 
date  !  and  thus  there  will  be  a  condant  fucccffion  of 
better  avjd  belter  crops,  by  the  continued  nfc  of  lime 
when  the  quantity  fird  laid  on  has  exerted  all  iis  force. 
By  a  contii>ued  ul'cof  this  manure  the  gronnd  will  be 
gradually  brought  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  nature  of  gar- 
den-mould ;  and,  no  doubt,  by  proper  care,  might  be 

made 


A     G    R    I     C     U     L     U     U     R     E. 


»7. 
jor  foiU, 
»\v  redo- 
d. 


s8 
ir  AndcF' 
jn's  opini 
1  concern' 
ig  lime. 


ir.aJe  as  gooJ  as  any  :  bm  ii  will  be  as  grca'.  a  iiiilUkc 
lo  imagine,  llial,  by  ll)c  ii(e  of  lime,  this  kind  of  f<'il 
may  he  rendered  ptrpcuuilly  fertile,  as  lo  iliiuk  that 
I'lic  oilier  was  naturally  lo  ;  for  thor.gh  lime  enriches 
this  foil,  it  does  fo,  not  by  adding  vcgctabl-  food  lo  it, 
bill  by  preparing  what  it  already  contains  »  anil  when 
all  is  properly  prepared,  it  niufl  as  certainly  be  cxisaafl- 
co  as  in  the  oilier  cafe. 

Here,  then,  wc  have  examples  of  two  kinds  of />«er 
foils  ;  one  of  which  is  totally  dcflroycd,  the  other 
greatly  improved,  by  lime,  and  whichlhtrtforc  rcqiire 
very  diti'crcnt  manures  ;  lime  bti.ig  more  p:o,ier  for  ihe 
lallihan  diing  ;  while  dung,  being  more  proper  to  reflorc 
an  exhaulkd  foil  tlian  lime,  ought  only  to  be  ufed  for 
the  firft.  Befides  dunging  lai.d  which  lias  been  ex- 
hiuftcd  by  lo:!g  cropping,  it  is  of  great  fcr\  ice  to  let  it 
lie  fallow  for  fonie  time  :  for  to  this  it  owed  its  ori- 
ginal fertility  ;  and  what  gave  the  fertility  originally 
cannot  fail  to  reAore  it  in  fome  degree. 

By  attending  to  ihe  diftinclion  between  the  rcafons 
for  the  poverty  of  the  two  foils  jaft  now  mentioned,  wc 
will  always  be  able  toji.idge  with  cenainiy  in  w  hat  cafes 
lime  is  to  be  ufcd,  and  when  dung  is  proper.  The 
mcrcpoverty  of  the  foil  is  not  a  criterion  whcrc'.iy  wecau 
judge  ;  we  mufl  confider  what  hath  made  it  poor.  If 
it  is  naturally  fo,  we  may  almofl  infallibly  conclude,  that 
it  will  become  better  by  being  manured  wiih  lime.  If 
it  is  arufiaall}  poor,  or  cxhauflcd  by  continual  crop- 
ping,  Wc  may  conclude  that  lin^c  will  entirely  de- 
ilroy  it. — Wc  apprehend,  tint  it  is  this  ;,'i7///r<7,' kind  of 
poverty  only  wh  ch  Mr  AnJerfon  fays  in  his  Eflays  on 
Agriculture,  may  be  remedied  by  lime  ;  for  we  can  fcarce 
think  that  experience  would  diree't  any  perfon  to  put 
lime  npou  land  already  cxhaufled.     His  words  arc, 

"  Calcareous  matters  a<5l  as  powerfully  upon  land 
that  is  naturally  poor,  as  upon  land  that  is  more 
richly  impicgnaied  with  thofc  fubrtanccs  that 
tend  to  produce  a  luxuriant  vegetation." 

"  Writers  on  .igriculuire  have  lung  been  in  the  cu- 
flom  of  dividing  manures  into  two  claflcs,  viz.  Ennckwg 
manures,  or  thofe  that  tended  dircftly  to  render  the 
foil  more  proHrtc,  however  fterile  it  may  be  ;  among  the 
foremoft  of  which  was  dung  :  £.vc///?jf  manures,  or  thofe 
that  were  fuppofed  to  have  a  tendency  to  render  the 
foil  more  prolific,  merely  by  afling  upon  thofe  enrich, 
jug  manures  that  had  been  formerly  in  the  fjil,  and 
giving  them  a  new  flimulns,  fj  as  to  enable  them  to 
operate  anew  upon  that  foil  which  they  had  formerly 
fertilized.  In  which  clafs  of  ftimulating  niannutes, 
ItiM  was  always  allowed  to  hold  the  foremoft  pi  ice. 

"  In  confeqiience  of  this  theory,  it  would  follow, 
t'nt  lime  could  only  be  of  ufe  as  a  manure  when  ap- 
plied to  rich  foils---3nd  when  applied  to  poor  foils, 
would  produce  hardly  any,  or  even  perhaps  hurtful, 
tffedls. 

"  I  will  frankly  acknowledge,  that  I  myfclf  was  fo 
far  impofed  upon  by  the  beauty  of  this  theory,  as  to 
be  hurried  along  wiih  the  general  current  of  mankind, 
i.i  the  firm  perfuafion  of  the  truth  of  this  obfervation, 
and  for  many  years  did  not  fufficiently  advert  to  thofe 
iiSli  that  were  daily  occuriug  to  contrsdicl  this 
theory."-!  am  now,  however,  firmly  convinced,  from 
r'peaied  obfcrvations,  that  lime,  and  other  calcareous 
m mures,  produce  a  much  greater  />ro/>or//oH<i/ improve- 
ment upon  poor  foils  ihau  fuch  as  are  richcr.--And 
3 


thailiinc  aloue,  upon  a  poor  foil,  will,  in  many  cafes, 
produce  a  much  gi  eater  and  more  lafticg  degree  of 
jcrtiliiy  than  dung  alone." 

Thus  far  Mr  Andcrfjn's  experience  is  exaftly  con- 
formable to  the  theory  we  have  Lid  down,  and  what 
ought  10  happen  avcording  to  our  principles.  He  men- 
tions, however,  fome  fads  w  hich  feem  very  ftrongly  lo 
militate  againll  it ;  and  indeed  he  hiuifclf  fecms  to 
proceed  upon  a  theory  aliogetlier  difiirrcnt. 

"  Calcareous  matter  alone  (fays  he)   is  not  capable 
of  rearing  plants  to  perfection  ;-■-  mould  is  necef- 
lary  to  be  mixed  with  it  in  certain   proportions, 
before    it  can    form  a   proper   foil.     It  remains, 
however,  to  be  determined,  what  is  the  due   pro- 
portion of  ihcfe  ingredicnis  for  forming  a  proper 
ioil. 
"  AVe  know  that  neither  chalk,  nor  marie,  nor  lime, 
can  be  made    to  nourifli   plants  alone  ;  and  foils  arc 
fometimes  found  tliat  abound  with  the  two  firft  ot  thcfe 
to  a  faulty  degree.     But    the  proportion  of  calcareous 
matter  in  theft  is  fo  much  larger  than  could    ever    be 
produced  by  art,  where  the  foil  v\ as  naturally  dcftitutc 
of  thcfe  fubftanccs,  that  there  fecms  to  be  no  danger  of 
erring  on  that  fide.     Probably  it  would  be  much  tafier 
to  coned  the  dtfeds  of  thefc  foils  in  which  calcareous 
matters  fuperabound,  by  driving  tarih  upon  them  as 
a  manure,  than  is  generally  imagined  ;  as  a  very  fmall 
proportionof  it  fometimes  affords  a    very  perfed  foil. 
1   fiiall  illuftratc  my  meaning  by  a  few  examples. 

"  Near  Sandfidc,  in  the  county  of  Caithnefs,  there 
is  a  pretty  extcniive  plain  on  ihe  fea-coaft,  endowed 
with  a  mort  fingular  degree  of  fertility.  In  all  feafons 
it  prod  ices  a  moft  luxuriant  herbage,  alihouj^h  it  never 
got  any  manure  fince  the  creation  ;  and  has  been  for 
lime  immemorial  fubjedeJ  lo  the  following  courfc  of 
crops. 

"  I.  Bear,  after  once  ploughing  from  grafs, 

ufn.tlly  a  good  crop. 
"  2.  Bear,  after  once  ploughing,  a  better  crop 

than  the  firfl. 
"   3.  Bear,  after  once  ploughing,  a  crop  equal 

to  the  firft. 
'•■  4.  5.  and  6.  Natural  grafs,  as  clofe  and  rich 
as  could  be  imagined,    might   be  cut,  if 
the  polfelFor  fo  inclined,  and  would  yield 
an  extraordinary  crop  of  hay  each  year. 
"  After  this  the  fame  courfc  of  cropping  is  renewed. 
The  foil  that  admits  of  this  fingular  mode  of  farming, 
appears  to  be  a  pure  incoherent  fand,  dcfiitute  of   the 
fnuUcft  particle  of  vegetable   mould;  but,  upon   cxa- 
minsiijn,  it  is  found  toconuil  almoft  entirely  of  broken 
fnells  :  ilie  fine  mould  here  bears  fuch    a  fmall  propor- 
tion 10  ihe  calcareous  matter,  as  to  be  fcarce  percep- 
tible, and  yet  it  lorms  the  moft  fertile  foil  that  ever  I 
yet  met  wiih. 

"  I  hivefeen  many  other  links  (downs)  n pen  ihe 
fca-Ihorc,  which  produced  the  moft  luxuriant  herbage, 
and  the  cU'fcft  and  fwecteft  pile  of  grafs,  where  ihcy 
coi'.fifted  of  flielly  fand  ;  which,  w'i;hoiit  doubt,  derive 
their  extraordinary  fertility  from  that  caufe. 

"  A  very  remarkable  plain  is  found  in  the  idand  of 
Jircye,  one  of  the  Hebrides.  It  has  been  lon»  cm- 
ployed  as  a  common ;  fo  tbii  it  has  never  been  difturb- 
cJ  by  ihe  plouph,  and  atiorJs  annually  the  moft  luxu- 
riant corp  of  herbage,  coafilling  of  white  clover,  and 

o;hcr 


»9 

Query  con- 
cerning the 
u:i:ure  of  a 
proper  foiL 


Examples 
ui  foil  per- 
perpetu- 
illy  fer- 
tile. 


256 


AGRICULTURE, 


I'hcorf.  Oilier  v.il'jablc  pafliirc-gralRs,  I'.iai  can  he  ni.'i  wiili 
— ^ '  anywhere.  The  I'oW  conliflsof  a  very  pure  (liclly  faiul. 

''  From  thtfc  f Xiiniplcs,  I  think  it  is  evi.lcnt,  ihata 
very  fiinll  proporiion  (il'vfjjciaLilc  iiioiild  is  ruliiciciu  to 
rciiJcr  calc.irtous  inalicr  a  very  rich  fuil.  Perhaps, 
liowevcr,  a  larger  proportion  may  be  neciirary  when  it 
is  mixed  with  clay  ih.in  wiih  land;  as  poor  chalky 
foils  lecin  to  be  of  the  nature  of  that  cuir.podiion. 

To  tlicfc  cximples  brought  by  Mr  Andcrfon,  we 
may  add  fome  of  the  fame  J.iiid  i;ic;uioncd  by  Lord 
Kames.  His  lordlhip  having;  endeavoured  to  cllablilh 
the  theory  of  wattr  bcinj'  the  only  food  of  plants,  tho' 
lie  hiiufcU  freq-iCnily  deviates  from  that  theory,  yet 
thinks  it  polFible,  upon  f;ich  a  princijilc,  to  make  a  (oil 
pcrpcfially  fertile. 

"  To  recruit  (fays he)  with  vegetable  food,  a  foil 
impaverillied  by  cropp;n;j,  has  hilhcrto  been  held  ihc 
only  objed  of  agriculture.  But  here  opens  a  grander 
objeiit,  worthy  to  employ  our  kcciiefl  inikiftry,  that  of 
making  a  foil  perpetually  fcriilc.  Such  foils  aflnally 
cxidj  and  why  lliould  it  be  thought,  that  imitation 
here  is  above  the  reach  of  art  ?  Many  arc  the  inllan- 
ccs  of  natnrc  being  imitated  wiih  fnccefs.  Let  us  not 
dcfpair,  while  any  hope  remains  ;  for  invention  never 
was  cxcrcifed  upon  a  fubje,^  of  greater  utility.  The 
attempt  may  fuggeft  proper  experiments  ;  it  may  open 
new  views  :  and  if  wc  fail  in  equalling  nature,  may  wc 
not,  however,  hope  to  approach  it  ?  A  Ibil  perpetually 
fertile  mufl  be  endowed  svitii  apowcr  10  retain  moiJhire 
fufficicnt  for  its  plants  ;  and  at  the  fame  time  mull  be 
of  a  nature  that  does  not  harden  by  moiiUire.  Cal- 
careous earth  proniifes  to  anfwer  both  ends  :  ii  prevents 
a  foil  from  being  hardened  by  water  ;  and  it  may  pro- 
bably alfo  invigorate  its  retentive  quality.  A  field 
that  got  a  fufficicnt  dofe  of  clay-marle,  carried  above 
qo  fuccelFive  rich  corps,  without  either  dung  or  fallow. 
Doth  not  a  foil  fj  inclioraied  draw  near  to  one  per- 
petually fertile?  Near  the  eaft  lide  of  Fife,  the  coaft 
for  a  mile  inward  is  covered  with  fca-fand,  a  foot  depth 
orfo  ;  which  is  extremely  fcitilc,  by  a  mixture  of  fea- 
Jliells  reduced  to  powdel-  by  attrition.  The  powdered 
fhclls,  being  the  fame  with  (liell-marle,  make  the  fand 
retentive  of  moiflure  ;  and  yet  no  quantity  of  nioiflurc 
will  unite  the  fand  into  a  folid  body.  A  foil  fo  mix- 
ed, feems  to  be  not  far  diltant  from  one  perpetually 
fertile.  Thefe,  it  is  true,  are  but  faint  cllays  ;  but 
what  will  not  perfcveranceaccoinplifli  inagood  caufe  ?" 

Having  ilms,  in  a  manner,  pofitively  dcierniincd 
with  Mr  Anderfon,  that  no  dofe  of  calcareous  m.iiter 
can  poffibly  be  too  great,  we  cannot  help  owning  our- 
felves  furprifcd  on  finding  his  Lordlhip  exprcCing  him- 
felf  as  f ollov.'s :  "  An  over-dofe  of  Ihell-marle,  laid  per- 
haps an  inch,  and  an  inch  and  a  half,  or  two  inches 
thick,  produces,  for  a  lime,  large  crops  ;  but  at  lafl  it 
renders  the  foil  a  cap/it  mortr/in//,  capable  of  neither 
cornuir  grafs;  of  which  there  are  t(jo  many  inllanccs 
in  Scodand  ;  the  fame  probably  would  follow  from  an 
over-dofe  of  clay-niarlc,  llone-inarle,  or  pounded  lime- 
ftone." — To  account  for  this,  he  is  obliged  to  make  a 
fuppofiiion  diredly  contrary  to  his  former  one;  name- 
ly, that  calcareous  matter  renders  the  foil  iitcapab/e  oi 
retaining  water.  This  phcnomenoi,  however,  we  think 
is  (olved  upon  the  principles  firfb  laid  down,  in  a  fa- 
tisfaftory  manner,  and  without  the  leal]  inconfifttncy. 

As  to  rendering  foils  perpcrually  fertile,  we  cannot 


Incoiifillcn- 
cy  in  Lord 
Karnes's 


Part  I. 

helpthinkingthcattciv.pl  altogether   chcmcrical  and   Theory, 
vain.     There  is  not  one  cx3nij)le  in  nature  of  a  foil  "" — •j—' 
pcrpeiually  tertile,  where  it  has  no  fupply  I'l't  from  the  p^^.  ;^^j_j|, 
air,  and  the  rain  which  falls  upon  it.     The  above  re- f/riliity^of 
cited  examples  can  by  no  means,  be  admitted  as  proofs  foils  chime- 
of  perptiualfcrtiii;y.    Wc  ki'.ow,  that  the  grafson  iht  rical. 
banks  of  a  river  is  much  more  luxuriant  than  what 
grows  at  a  diflancc  ;  the  rcafoji  is,  thai  the  water  is  :;- 
trailed  by  the  earth,  and  communicates  its   fertilizing 
qualities  to  it  j   but  was   the  river   lobe   dried  up  the 
grafs  Would  foon  become  like  the   rc(L     Why  iliould 
not  the  ocean  have  ihe  lainc  power  of  fertilizing  plains 
near  its  lliores,  that  rivers  have  of  fertilizing  fmall  fpois 
near  their  banks  .'  AVc  fee,  however,  that  it  hath  not  ; 
for  the  fea-(liores  are  generally  faiidy  and  barren.  The 
reafon  of  this  is,  that  the  waters  of  the   ocean  contain  i 
quantity  of  loofe  acid*;   and  this  acid  is  poifonous   10  •  scc  Wa- 
plants  ;  but  abflraeling  this  acid  part,  wc  liefitatc  net  z^,.. 
toaflirm,  that  fca-water  is  more  fertilizing  than  river- 
water.     It  is  impolTible  to  know  how  far  the  waters  of 
the   ocean  penetrate  under  ground   through   a  fandy 
foil.     Where  they  meei  with    nothing  to  ablbrb  their 
acid,  there  the  ground  is  quite  barren  ;  but    in  palling 
through  an  immenfe  quaniity   of  broken  (lulls,   the 
calcareous  matter  we  arc  very  certain,  willah.'brb  all  the 
acid  ;  and  thus  the  foil  will  be  continually  bcnclited  by 
its  vicinity  to  the  ocean.     All  the  above  fields,  there- 
fore, are  evidently  fupplied  with  nouriflimcnt  from  the 
ocean  :   for  if  the  falt-water  has   fufficicnt   efficacy  to 
render  fields  wliicharein  its  neighbourhood    barren, 
why  Ihould  it  not  render  them  fertile  when    the   caufe 
of  bairennefs  is  removed  from  its  waters  ? 

After  all,  the  field  in  Caithnefs,  mentioned  by  Mr 
Andcrfon,  feems  to  have  been  perpetually  fertile  only 
in  grafs  ;  for  though  the  fccoud  year  it  carried  a  better 
crop  of  bear  than  it  did  the  firrt,  yet  the  third  year 
the  crop  was  worfe  than  the  fccond,  and  only  equal  to 
the  firft.  Had  it  been  ploughed  a  fourth  time,  the  crop 
would  probably  have  been  worfe  than  the  firli.  Ground 
is  not  near  fo  much  exhaufted  by  grafs  as  corn,  even 
though  the  crop  be  cut,  and  carried  off';  and  Aill  Icfs, 
if  it  only  feeds  cattle,  and  is  manured  by  their  dung  ; 
which  appears  to  have  been  the  cafe  with  this  field. 
Lord  Kames,  indeed,  mentions  fields  iu  Scotland,  that, 
paft  memory,  have  carried  fucceffivc  crops  of  wheat, 
peafc,  barley,  oats,  without  a  fallow,  and  without  a  ma- 
nure ;  and  particularifcs  one  on  the  river  Carroii,  of 
nine  or  ten  acres,  which  had  carried  103  corps  of  oats 
without  intermillion,  and  without  manure  :  but  as  we 
are  not  acquainted  with  any  fuch  fields,  nor  know  any 
ihing  about  their  particular  fituaiion,  we  can  form  no 
judgement  concerning  them. 

Bcfidcs  the  two  kinds  of  foilsabovementioned,  'here  pj  "'j^^j 
are  others,  the  principal  ingrediei.t  of  which  is  clay  or  famiy  foils, 
fand.  The  firft  of  thefe  is  apt  to  be  hardened  by  ihc 
heat  ofthe  fim,  lb  that  the  vegetables  can  fcarcc  pe- 
netrate it  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  receive  proper  nou- 
riflimcnt. The  fecond,  it  it  is  no:  iituaicd  fo  as  to  re- 
ceive a  great  deal  of  moifture,  is  very  apt  to  be  parch- 
ed lip  in  fummcr,  and  the  crop  deHroyed  ;  nor  has  it 
fufficicnt  adhefion  to  fuppdrt  plants  ihat  have  few  roots 
and  grow  high.  From  thefe  oppofite  qualities,  it  is 
evident,  that  thefe  two  foils  would  br  a  proper  manure 
for  one  another  ;  the  clay  would  give  a  fuffieieiii  de- 
gree of  firnuiclsio  the  fand,  and  the  fand  would  break 

ihe 


»art  I. 

'1  hcory. 


A     G     R     I     C     U     L     T     U     11     E. 


257 


S4 

crtility  of 
le  cartli 
Hiked. 


3S 
oil  pulvc- 
izcd  by 
srtain  ve- 
ctabUs. 


the  too  great  tenacity  of  the  chy.     /^ccoiiliiia;  to  Ih'  ilic  wiiucr'i  fri.i(i  ;  but  tlufc  yWd^iuAgiy'u'i  1  no  cr^p   Tiiur)-. 

Hoiiic'scxpcriiiients^liov,  cvcfjlanci  is  thcwoi It  manure  as  long  as  the  fidi!  is  not  fuwii.     By  plai'iiiig  in  t'jc  "      *'"" 

for  clay  lliat  can  be  ulcit.  licrccoinnicnils  iiiarle  nio/t.  titld,  however,  tiiofc  vegetables  w  iiofe  roots  fwell  to  a 

To  rciliice  clay-groiintl  as  near  as-po.1ib!e  to  the  form  confider.ible  bulk,  the  ground  niuil  be  coiUlautly  aflcJ 

of  pure  vegetable  mould,  it  mull  tirfl  be  pulveri/.cd.  upon  by  thefwelliugot'theirrootsirialldircLiions;  auJ 

This  is  inoft  eftctlually  ptrtormcd  Ly  ploughir.g  and  thus  ilie  growing  ot  the  crop  itfclt' may  be  equal,  or  ia- 

Iiarrov.iiig ;  but  care  ro.ill  be  taken  not  to  plougli  it  pcrior,  in  clHcacy  to  fcvcral  ploughiJigs,  at  the  fame 

MJiillUoo  wet, otherwifeit  will  eoueretciiuohardclots  time  that  tlic  farmer  cnjo>s  the  bencfitofit.  'i  hrpljuc 

which  can  fcarccly  be  broken.  After  it  is  pulverized,  moll  rciiiarkabie  for  the  iVcUing  of  its  roots  is  the  po- 

howcver,  fome  means  mult  be  taken  to  keep  it  from  tato;  and  by  none  is  tlic  ground  meliorated  more,  or  c- 

concreting  again  into  the  fame  hard  malles  as  before,  ven  fo  much.   They  nre  not,  however,  equally  proper 

According  to  Lord  Karnes,  though  clay,  after  pulve-  for  all  foils.   In  clay  they  do  not  thrive,  nor  are  pala- 

li/.ation,  will  concrete  into  as  hard  a  mafs  as  bctorc,  if  tabic  ;  but  in  hard  gravelly  or  fandy  f  >i!s,  thcygrow  to 

mixed  with  water  ;  yet  if  mixed  with  duiigiiill  juice,  it  a  large  fize,  and  arc  of  an  excellent  quality.    Turnips 

willnotconcrctcany  more.  Lime  alfobrcaks  itstenaci-  lilttwife  contribute  to  meliorate  the  ground,   by  the 

ty,  and  is  very  ufefulasan:anurefortl;iskindoffoil.  fwciling  of  their  roots,  though  not  fo  much  as  potaiocs. 

The  co'iclulion  we  wilh  the  pradical  farmer  todraw  They  have  this  advantage,  however,  that  they  thrive 

from  our  theory  is.  That  there  is  a  certain  limit  to  the  inalmoilany  foil.  In  clay  ground,  peas  and  bea;is  thrive 

fertility  of  the  earth,  both  as  to  duration  and  to  dc-  exceedingly  well,  and  thcreforcare  propcrin  this  kind 

grce,  at  any  particular  lime  :  that  the  nearer  any  foil  of  foil  as  a  preparatory  fur  other  kinds  of  grain.  Thefe 

approaches  to  ilic  nature  of  p:ire  garden-mould,  the  pufli  their  roots  deep  into  the  ground,  and  cover  it 

nearer  it  is  to  the  moll  perfect  degree  i)f  fertility  ;  but  with  their  leaves  more  tlian  other  crops  ;    fo  that  the 

that  there  arcnohopcsof  keeping  it  perpetually  in  fuch  fun  has  not  fo  much  acccfs  as  when  it  is  covered  witli 

a  llatc,  or  in  any  degree  of  approximation  10  it,  but  other  kinds  of  grain.     Wiurcvcr  any  of  tliefc  kinds 

by  conllani  and  regular  manuring  witl;  dung.  Lime,  of  vegetables  arc  raifed,  it  is  obftrveable,  that  more  or 


chalk,  marie,  &c.  may  be  proper  to  bring  it  near  to 
this  Hate,  but  are  abfoliitcly  unfit  to  keep  it  continu- 
ally fo.  They  may  indeed  tor  feveral  years  produce 
large  corps;  but  the  more  they  incrcaCc  the  fertility 


lefs  blackncls  is  communicated  to  the  foil :   an  evident 
li,i!;n  of  its  melioration  ;    this  being  the  colour  of  the 
true  vegetable  mould,  ox  loamy  foil,  as  it  is  called. 
Befides  the  abovementioned  plants, carrots, parfiiips, 


for  fome  years,  the  fooncr  will  they  bring  on  an  abfo-  cabbages,  and   all  tliofe  vegetables  which  link  their 

lute  barrcnncfs;  wJiilc  regular  manuring  with  }ileiity  roots  deep  in  the  ground,  anfwcr  the  fame  purj'ofe  of 

of  dung  will  always  enfure  the  keeping  up  the  I'oil  in  ioofening  and  pulveriling  the  earth  ;   but  as  they  will 

good  condition,  without  any  occafion  for  fallow.  What  not  thrive  but  on  ground  already  well  cultivated,  they 

we  have  faid  concerning  the  ufe  of  lime,  Sec.  applies  cannot  be  raifed  to  any  advantage  for  the  purpofe  of 

likewile  to  the  prailice  of  frequent  ploughing,  though  meliorating  a  poor  foil. 

in  a  lefs  degree.  This  tends  to  meliorate  ground  that  It  hath  been  cullomary  in  many  places,  particular- 
is  naturally  poor,  by  giving  an  opportunity  to  the  ve-  ly  in  England,  to  fow  turnips,  peafe,  buck-wlicat,5:c. 
getable  parts  to  putrefy  ;  but  when  that  is  done,  it  and  then  to  plough  them  down  for  manuring  the  land, 
tends  to  cxhauft  though  not  fo  much  as  lime.  Aju-  This  being  fimilar  to  that  operation  of  nature  by 
dicious  farmer  will  eonflanily  ftrive  to  keep  his  lands  which  flic  renders  the  uncultivated  foils  fo  exceedingly 
always  in  good  condition,  rather  than  to  make  them  fertile,  cannot  fail  of  being  attended  with  lingular  ad- 
faddenly  much  better ;  lellafewyearsfliould  convince  vantages  ;  and  might  be  looked  upon  as  preferable  even 


him  that  he  was  in  reality  doingalmoll  irreparable  mif- 
chicf,  while  he  fancicdhimfelfmaking improvements. 
As  for  the  ridiculous  notions  of  ftinnilating  the  ground 
by  falinc  manures,  we  hope  they  will  never  enter  the 
brain  of  any  rational  practitioner  of  agriculture. 


to  driving  dung  on  the  land  to  fatten  it,  was  it  not 
attended  with  the  entire  lofsof  a  crop  for  that  year. 

Sect.  \  .     Of  de fir  tying  Weeds. 

What  we  have  already  faid  regarding  the  cultivation 

of  the  foil,  refpecls  only  tlvp  lifting  of  it  for  producing 

Sect.   IV.    Of  the  different  kinds  of  Vegetables  pro-  all  kinds  of  vegetables  indifcriniinately.   Kxperience, 

per  to  be  raifed  viith  a  view  to  the  Melioration  of  however,  fliows,  tiiat  the  ground  is  naturally   much 

Soil.  more  dii'pofed  to  produce  and  iiourifn   fome  kinds  of 

The  mctliods  of  meliorating  foils,  which  we  have  vegetables  than  others;    and  thofe  which  the  earth 

mentioned  above,  conlilting  of  tedious  and  laborious  feems  moll  to  delight  in,  arc  commonly  fuch  as  are  of 

operations  that  yield  no  return  at  firll,  it  is  natural  for  very  little  ufe  to  man  ;  but  if  negleded,  willincreafc 

a  farmer  towifli  for  fome  method  of  meliorating  his  tofuchadcgrec,ascniireIy  todeltroy  the  plantsintcnd- 

ground,  and  reaping  crops  at  the  fame  time.  One  very  cd  to  be  raifed,  or  at  leall  hinder  them  fromcomini;  to 

confiderable  Hep  towards  the  melioration  of  ground  is,  perfcclion,  by  depriving  them  of  nouri(hnicnt.     The 

its  pulverization.     This  is  aecomplilhed  by  repeated  clearing  the  ground  of  weeds,  tlicrefore,  is  an  aniclc 

ploughings(A),asalready  mentioned;  efpecially  if  per-  no  lefs  nccelfary  inagricullure,  than  thcdifpofr.ig  it  to 

formed  in  autumn,  that  the  ground  may  be  cxpoled  to  produce  vegetables  of  any  kind  in  plenty. 

Vol.  I.  Kk                                    The 


(a)  This,  however,  inull  be  anderllood  with  fome  limitation  :  for  it  appears  from  experience,  th:!t  many 
light  and  //'.•/;  foils  receive  detriment  rather  than  advantage  from  frequent  ploughings  ;  particularly  in  lunimcr 
wiicii  the  fun  exhales  the  imtritivc  particles  in  great  abundance. 


15  S 

Theory. 

Wetds  Ji- 
TiiJcd  into 
annual  and 
prrcnniil. 


37  . 
Perennial 
V.cei1s,huw 
4(flroycd. 


■Broom, 
furze,  &c. 
how  de- 
•ruvcd. 


A     G     R 

The  wecils  may  be  divided,  according  to  the  timcol' 
their  duration,  v.no  annual,  or  Inch  as  luring  trom  a 
fttd,  and  die  the  f.imc  year;  Aadp<T-tm/n/,  that  is,  Inch 
as  are  jiropagated  by  the  roots,  and  lull  tor  a  iiiiiuber  ot 
years.  The  hrll  kind  are  the  Icall  noxious,  and  moll 
calily  dcllroycd.  For  this  purpoie  it  will  be  lutficiciit 
to  let  them  fpringnpiill  near  ihclimcot  ripening thcir' 
Iced,  and  then  plough  them  down  before  it  comes  to 
maturity.  It  is  alio  of  iervicc  to  dellroy  fuch  weeds 
as  grow  in  borders,  or  neglected  corners,  and  frequent- 
ly I'cattcr  their  feeds  to  i  great  dilbnce  ;  fuch  as  the 
thilUe, dandelion, rag-weeu,  &c.  forihcfc  are  fulficient 
to  propagate  their  fpecies  through  a  deal  of  ground  j 
as  thcirftcds.iie  carried  about  wiih  the  wind  to  very 
conliderabledidanccr.  A  fanner  ought  jlfo  to  take 
care,  that  the  fniall  feeds  of  weeds,feparated  from  corn 
in  winnowing,  be  not  fown  again  upon  the  ground  ; 
for  this  ccrt.iinly  happens  when  they  arc  thrown  upon 
a  dunghill ;  bccaufe,  being  the  natural  otl'spring  of  the 
earth,  they  are  not  ealily  dcllroyed.  The  belt  method 
of  preventing  any  mifchicf  from  this  caufc,  would  be 
to  burn  them. 

l^ercnnial  weeds  cannot  be  effeelually  dcflroycd.bac 
by  removing  the  roots  from  the  gro.ind,  which  is  often 
a  matter  of  fome  difficulty.  Many  of  ihefe  roots  I'trike  , 
fodcep  in  the  ground,  that  they  can  fcarceiy  be  got 
out.  The  only  method  that  can  be  depended  upon  in 
this  cafe,  is  frequent  ploughing,  to  render  the  ground 
as  tender  as  pollible  ;  and  harrowing  with  a  particular 
kind  of  harrow,  w^hich  (hall  hereafter  bedelcribed,  in 
order  to  collect  thefc  pernicious  roots.  When  collec- 
ted, they  ought  to  be'  dried  and  burnt,  as  the  only 
ertcctual  method  of  iufuring  their  doing  no  further 
mifchicf. 

There  is  a  particular  fpecies  of  weed,  peculiar  only 
to  grafs-lands,  of  a  loft  fpongy  n.uure,  ca!led/c_^,  which 
it  is  found  very  difiicull  to  cxterminate.Wherc  thcland 
can  be  conveniently  tilled,  this  weed  may  be  dcllroycd 
by  covering  it  with  a  crop  of  pcafe,  potatoes,  &c.  or, 
palTing  a  heavy  roller  over  the  ground  will  beot  great 
fervicc  ;  for  tog  owcJits  origin  to  too  great  a  laxity  of 
the  foil,  and  will  no!  grow  upon  firm  ground. 

Belidcsihefekindsofweedswhicharcofan  herbace- 
ous nature,  tlicrc  are  others  which  are  woody,  and 
grow  to  a  very  conliderable  lizc  i  fuch  as  broom,  furze 
or  whins,  and  thorns.  Broof//  is  an  evergreen lluub, 
that  thrives  bell  in  fandy  foil ,  and  there  it  grows  lb  vi- 
goroully,  as  fcarce  to  admiwiny  grafs  under  it.  It  pro- 
pagatesby  feed  which  growsinpods;  and  thefe,  when 
fully  ripe,  break  with  violence,  fcatteringthe  feeds  all 
around.  Thus,  a  field  which  is  overgrown  with 
broom,  belides  the  old  plants,  always  contains  an  in- 
linite  number  of  young  ones  ;  fo  that  though  the  old 
plants  die  when  cut  over,  a  frelh  crop  conllantly  fprings 
up.  It  niay,liowcver,  be  dcllroycd  by  frequent  plough- 
ing and  harrow  ing,  in  the  fame  manner  as  other  peren- 
nial weeds  arc  ;  for  it  does  not  for  fome  time  carry  any 
feed,  and  the  frequent  ploughing  encourages  the  vcge- 
tationof  all  thofe  that  arcalready  in  the  ground,which 
cannot  fail  of  being  dcllroycd  by  frequent  repetitions  of 
the  operation.  Another  method  of  dellroying  broom, 
is  by  palluringthe  field  where  itgrows  with  ihccp.  A 
few  of  the  old  bulhes  may  be  left  as  a  (lielter,  and  thefe 
will  be  in  a  good  meafure  prevented  from  fpreading  by 
the  cropping  of  thclliccp.Thcfcajiunals  arc  very  fond 


I     C     U     L     T     U     R     E. 


of  broom,  and  greedily  devour  every  young  fiioot  ;  fo 
that  if  a)iy  remain  alfer  the  lirll  year,  there  will  not  be 
a  vcltige  the  lecond.  If  this  method  of  extirpating 
broom  is  equally  etfcdual  with  that  of  frequent  plough- 
ing, it  is  certainly  much  more  profitable,  as  there  is 
no  food  more  nourilliing  to  fheep  than  young  broom. 
Broom,  however,  is  laid  to  haf  e  a  lingular  effect  upon 
Iheep:  it  makes  them  drunk  fo  cftccliially,  that  when 
heated  with  a  little  driving,  they  tumble  over,  and  lie 
witliout  motion. 

ThcwA///  is  aline  evergreen flirub,carrying a  fwcct- 
fnulling  liowcrall  the  year  round.  It  propagates  both 
by  Iced  and  by  its  roots,  wiiich  fpread  lonietinies  to  the 
diilance  of  loor  12  feet ;  and  hence,  when  once  elhi- 
blilhcd,  it  is  with  difficulty  extirpated.  1  he  bell  mc- 
tiiod  is  to  let  fire  to  the  wiiins  in  frolly  weather  ;  for 
iVoil  has  the  efi'ecl  to  wither  whins,  and  make  ihcin 
burn  readily.  The  flumps  mull  then  be  cut  over  with 
a  hatchet  ;  and  when  the  ground  is  well  foftened  by 
r:iin,  it  may  be  ploughed  up,  and  the  roits  taken  out 
by  a  harrow  adapted  to  that  purpole.  If  tlic  field  is 
fooii  laid  down  to  grafs,  the  whins  will  again  fpring  up 
in  great  abundance,  fr(>m  tile  feeds,  and  finall  parts  of 
the  roots  left  in  the  ground.  In  this  cafe,  palluring 
V  ith  llieep  is  an  ctiectual  remedy  ;  as  they  are  no  lefs 
fond  of  young  whins  than  of  young  broom  ;  and  if 
there  arc  a  lutiicicnt  number,  tliey  will  not  leave  a 
lingle  plant  above  ground,  iiut  if  grafs  is  not  imme- 
diately w'anted,  the  moll  ctfectnal  method  of  clearing  a 
field  of  whins,  is  by  reiterated  ploughings. 

The  ih'jiii,  or  biaiiiblc,  fprcads  its  roots  very  w ide, 
and  at  the  fame  time  links  them  deep  in  the  eartii. 
Though  cut  in  the  winter,  it  rifcs,  and  comes  to  fuch 
perfection  as  to  cany  fruit  in  fummer.  It  can  only 
be  extirpated  by  ploughing  up  the  ground,  and  collec- 
ting the  roots. 

Sect.   VT.     Ofthmiojl  proper  kinds  r.fyegelnbles  to  h 
raifedjor  the  purpufes  oj  jeedtng  Cattte. 


Thoug  h  this  muft  be  an  article  of  tlie  utmofl  coii- 
fequcnccioevery  farmer,wedi)not  find  tliat  it  has  been 
niuchconlidcred.  Mr  Andcrfon  feems  to  have  been  tlie 
firll  writer  on  agriculture  who  hath  properly  attended 
to  this  fubjeft  ;  and   what  he  hath  wrote  upon  it,  ra- 
ther a  catalogue  of  dcliderata,    than  any  thing  tlfe  : 
and  indeed  tlie  delidcrata  on   this  fubjcci  are  fo  many 
and  lb  great,  that  we  mull  acknowledge  ourfclves  ve- 
ry unable  to  rill  thtm  up. — To  attain   to  a  competent 
knowledge  in  this  rtfpcet,  the  following  things  mufl        3^ 
be  taken  into  coiuidcration.   (i.)    The  wholefomcnefs  Qualitiej 
of  the  food   for    caillc,  with    regard    to  health    and  "'  the  foosl 
llrength,  or  fatnefs.  (2)  The  quantity  that  any  extent  "qu'l'te 
of  ground  is  capable  of  yielding.     (3.)   1  he  quantity   ""''"''=• 
nccelTary  to  feed  the  diti'erent  kinds  of  cattle.  (4.)  The 
labour  of  cultivation  ;  and,    (5)  The  foil  they  require 
to  bring  them  to  perfeclion,  and  the  efi'etl  tlicy  have 
upon  it. 

With  regard  to  the  wholefomencfs,  it  is  plain,  that 
as  the  natural  food  of  wild  cattle  is  the  green  fucculent 
plants  tlicy  meet  w  ith  all  the  year  round,  food  of  this 
kind,  could  it  be  had,  mufl  be  preferable  to  hay  ;  and 
accordingly  wc  find  that  cattle  will  always  prefer  fuc- 
culent vegetables  where  they  can  get  them.    To  find 

plants 


Part  T, 


AGRICULTURE. 


Tht.i 


40 
Cabbage  5, 
their  pro- 
perties. 


plants  of  thii  kiiiJ,  and  having  proper  qualities  in  o- 
'  ilicr  rcfpc.ls,  \vc  mud  fcarch  among  thole  which  con- 
tinue green  all  the  year  round,  or  conic  to  their  great- 
ell  perfection  in  the  winter  lime.— .Of  thefc,  cabbages 
bid  f.iir  for  holjing  the  tint  place  ;  both  as  being  very 
fucculciit,  and  a  very  large  ijuaiitity  of  them  growing 
upon  a  fniall  fpacc  of  ground.  In  Mr  Young's  Six 
Months  Tour,  wc  have  an  account  of  the  produce  of 
cabbages  in  many  diifcrent  places,  and  on  a  variety  of 
foils.  The  produce  by  Mr  Crow  at  Keplin,  on  a  clay 
foil,  was,  on  an  average  of  fix  years,  35  ton  per  acre  ; 
by  Mr  Smelt  at  the  Lcafes,  on  a  fandy  gravel,  38  :ons 


259 


giving  putrcfcent  food  to  his  cattle.  It  is  well  ktiowii,  Theciy. 
what  a  prodigious  dirfercnec  there  is  in  the  health  of  ^— ~— 
the  human  fpecies  when  fed  on  putrid  meats,  in  com- 
parifouof  what  they  enjoy  when  fuppliedwith  food  Oi' 
a  contrary  nature  ;  aiui  why  may  there  not  be  a  dif- 
ference in  the  health  of  beads,  as  well  as  of  men,  when 
in  limilar  circumllances  ?r— It  is  alio  very  probable, 
that  as  carrots  are  morcfUid  than  cabbagisor  turHijs, 
they  will  go  much  farther  in  feeding  cattle  than  ci- 
ther of  them.  The  aboveiucntioncd  example  of  the 
hog  feems  fome  kind  of  confirmation  of  this  ;  he  being 
fed,  for  ten  days  together,  with  21  lb.  Icfs  weight  of 


per  acre  ;  by  Mr  Scroop  at  Danhy ,  on  an  average  of     carrots  than  what  an  ox  devoured  of  cabbages  and  hay 


41 
Mr  render 
'.d  noxious 
>y  them. 


rurnijj- 
"ootcd  cab 


>agc. 


43 
fur  nips. 


44 

i^rrots. 


lix  years,  37  tons  per  acre  :  and  the  general  average 
of  all  the  accounts  given  by  Mr  Young,  is  36  tons  per 
acre. 

Cabbages,  however,  have  the  great  inconveniency 
of  fomctimcs  imparting  a  difagrecabic  riavour  to  the 
milk  of  cows  fed  with  them,  and  even  to  the  flcfii  of 
other  cattle.  Tiiis,  it  is  faid,  may  be  prevented  by 
carefully  picking  ofFihe  decayed  and  withered  leaves  : 
and  very  probably  this  is  the  cafe  ;  for  no  vegetable 
inclines  more  to  putrefaction  than  this  ;  and  therefore 
particular  care  ought  to  be  taken  to  pull  off  all  the 
leaves  that  have  any  fyinptonis  of  decay.  Dr  Priellley 
found  that  air  was  rendered  noxious  by  a  cabbage-leaf 
remaining  in  it  for  one  night,  though  the  leaf  did  not 
fliow  any  fymptom  of  putrefaftion. — For  milk-cows, 
probably  the  cabbages  might  be  rendered  more  proper 
food  by  boiling  them. 

The  culture  of  the  turnip-rooted  cabbage  has  lately 
,  been  much  pradifed,  and  greatly  recommended,  parti- 
cularly for  the  purpofe  of  a  late  fpring  feed  ;  and  icems 
indeed  to  be  a  moll  important  article  in  the  farming 
oecononiy,  as  will  be  fliown  in  its  proper  place. 

Turnips  likewifc  produce  very  bulky  crops,  though 
far  inferior  to  thofe  of  cabbages.  According  to  Mr 
Young's  calculation,  the  tinell  foil  does  not  produce 
above  five  tons  of  turnips  per  acre  ;  which  is  indeed  a 
very  great  difproportiou  :  but  pollibly  fuch  a  quantity 
of  turnips  may  not  be  confumed  by  cattle  as  of  cab- 
bages ;  an  ox,  of  80  (lone  weight,  eat  aiofc.  o{  cab- 
bages in  24  hours,  belides  feven  pound  of  hay. 

Carrots  arc  found  to  be  an  excellent  food  for  cattle 
of  all  kinds,  and  arc  greatly  relillied  by  them.  In  a 
rich  fand,  according  to  Mr  Young's  account,  the  pro- 
duce of  this  root  was  200  bufliels  per  acre.  In  a  liner 
foil,  it  was  640  bufhcls  per  acre.  A  lean  hog  was  fat- 
ted by  carrots  in  ten  days  time  :  he  eat  1961b.  ;  and 
his  fat  was  very  fine,  white,  firm,  and  did  not  boil  a- 
v.ay  in  the  drclfing.  They  were  preferred  to  turnips 
by  the  cattle  ;  which  having  tailed  the  carrots,  foon 
became  fo  fond  of  them,  as  difficultly  to  be  made  to 
eat  the  turnips  at  all.  It  is  probable,  indeed,  that 
carrots  will  make  a  more  wholefome  foo.l  for  cattle 
than  either  cabbages  or  turnips, as  they  are  llrongly  an- 
tifeptic  ;  infomuch  as  to  be  iifed  in  poultices  for  correc- 
ting the  fanics  of  cancers.  It  is  probably  owing  to 
this,  that  the  milk  of  cows  fed  on  carrots  is  never  found 
to  have  any  bad  t:u1e.  Six  horfeskept  on  them  thro' 
;iie  winter  without  oats, performed  their  work  asufual, 
:.7.d  looked  equally  well.  This  may  be  looked  upon 
ns  a  proof  of  their  falubrity  as  a  food  ;  and  it  certain- 
ly can  be  no  detriment  to  a  farmer  to  be  fo  much  vcr- 
fantin  medical  matters,  as  10  know  the  impropriety  of 


45 


n  one  day.  There  is  a  great  difproportion,  it  mull 
be  owned,  between  the  bulk  of  an  ox  and  that  of  a 
liog ;  but  we  can  fcarce  think  that  an  ox  will  eat  as 
much  at  a  time  as  ten  hogs.  At  Parlington  i.n  York- 
fliirc,  20  work  horfes,  four  bullocks,  and  lix  milk-cows, 
were  fed  on  the  carrots  ihatgrcwon  threeacres,  from 
the  end  of  September  till  the  beginning  of  May  ;  and 
the  animals  never  tailed  any  other  food  but  a  lit  tie  hay. 
The  milk  was  excellent,  and  30  hogs  were  fattened 
upon  what  was  left  by  the  other  cattle. 

Potatoes  likewife  appear  to  be  a  very  palatable  food  Poutoea. 
for  all  kinds  of  cattle  ;  and  not  only  oxen,  hogs,  &c. 
areealUy  fed  by  them,  but  even  poultry.  Thccheap- 
nefs  of  potatoes  compared  with  other  kinds  of  food  for 
cattle,  cannot  well  be  known,  as,  belides  the  advantage 
of  the  crop,  they  improve  the  ground  more  thin  any 
other  known  vegetable.  According  to  a  correfpondcnc 
of  the  Bath  Society*,  "  roalling  pork  is  never  fomoill  •Letters 
and  delicate  as  when  fed  w  iih  potatoes,  and  killed  from  m"/  Pafen 
the  barn-door  without  any  confinement.  For  bacon  ""  ■^g"'"'- 
and  hams,  two  bulhels  of  pea-meal  Ihould  be  well  in-  ''"'.f^^' 
corporatcd  with  four  bufliels  of  boiled  potatoes,  w  hich  V/' '"'  "^ 
quantity  will  fat  a  hog  of  twelve  ftonc  (fourteen  pounds 
to  the  ftone).  Cows  are  particularly  fond  of  them  : 
half  a  bulhel  at  night,  and  the  fame  proportion  in  the 
morning,  with  a  fmall  quantity  of  hay,  is  fufficient  to 
keep  three  cows  in  full  milk  ;  they  will  yield  as  much 
and  as  fweet  butter  as  the  beft  grafs.  In  fattening 
cattle,  I  allow  them  all  they  will  eat :  a  beaft  of  about 
35  flone  will  require  a  bufliel  per  day,  but  will  fatten 
one-third  fooncr  than  on  turnips.  The  potatoes  Ihould 
be  clean  walhed,  and  no.  given  until  they  arc  dry. 
They  do  not  require  boiling  for  any  purpofe  but  fat- 
tening hogs  for  bacon,  or  poultry ;  the  latter  eat  them 
greedily.  I  prefer  the  champion  potato  to  any  fort 
1  ever  cultivated.  They  do  not  anfwer  fo  well  for 
horfes  and  colts  as  I  expected  (at  lead  they  have  not 
with  me),  though  fome  other  gentlemen  have  appro- 
ved  of  thtm  as  fubllitutcs  for  oats." 

The  abov  ementioned  vegetables  have  all  of  them  the 
property  of  meliorating,  rather  than  exhaufiing  the 
foil ;  and  tliis  is  certainly  a  very  valuable  qualification : 
but  carrots  and  cabbages  %vill  not  thrive  except  in  foils 
that  arc  alre.uly  w  ell  cultivated  ;  while  potatoes  and 
turnips  may  be  uled  as  the  firfl  crops  of  a  foil  with 
great  advxnt.ige.  In  this  refpcel,  they  are  greatly  fu- 
perior  to  the  others  ;  as  it  may  be  difagrecable  to  take 
up  the  bell  groumds  of  a  farm  with  plants  dcfigned 
only  for  fwid  to  cattle.  , 

Buck-wheat  (f  olyganinn  fagopyrum)  has  been  lately  I'.uck- 
recommcnded  as  an  ufeful  article  in   the  prefent  as  wheat, 
well  as  other  rcfpccls.  It  has  been  chietly  applied  to  the 
K  k  2  feeding 


a6o 

Theory. 


A     G     R     I     C     U     L     T     U     R     E. 


A? 
Whins  an 
cxcclknt 
food  for 
liorl'cs. 


48 
liurnct. 


49 
Recom- 
mcndtd  b] 
Sir  Jauics 
Caldwell. 


fccdiii"'  lio  iS,  anil  crtcemtil  cqii.il  in  value  to  barify  ; 
it  is  niiicli  more  tiilily  ground  limn  barley,  as  a  lualt- 
niill  will  j;rinJ  it  completely.  Horles  arc  very  louil 
of  the  ;;ra;u  ;  poultry  of" all  forts  arc  fpeedily  fattened 
by  it ;  and  the  bottom  of  the  plant  affords  food  for  bees 
at  7.  very  opportune  feafun  ol  the  year,  Mhcn  the  mca- 
ilows  and  trees  are  niolU)Nftripped  of  their  flowers. 
Probably  the  grain  may  hereafter  be  even  found  a  ma- 
teiial  article  in  diliillation,  Ihould  a  fuihcient  quantity 
be  raifed  with  that  vitv/.  From  the  fuccel's  of  fonie 
experiments  detailed  in  the  Bath  Soeiciy  j'apcrs,  and 
lor  which  a  premium  was  bellowed,  it  has  been  infer- 
red, that  this  article  ought  in  nniiicrous  cafes  to  fupcr- 
eedc  the  practiee  of  funimer-faliowing. 

Whins  have  lately  been  recommended  as  a  very  pro- 
per food  for  cattle,  efpecially  horfes;  and  are  recom- 
mended by  Mr  Andcrfon  in  a  particular  manner. 
They  have  this  ad  vantage,  that  they  require  no  culture, 
and  grow  on  the  very  worll  foil ;  but  they  arc  troublc- 
fomc  to  cut,  and  require  to  be  bruifed  in  a  mill  con- 
Itruifled  for  this  purpofe  ;  neither  is  the  ground  at  all 
meliorated  by  let  ting  whins  grow  upon  it  for  any  length 
of  time.  Notwithllanding  tlieiV  difudvantages,  ho»v- 
ever,  as  whins  continue  green  all  the  year  round,  and 
when  bruifed  will  aftbrd  an  excellent  fucculent  food, 
which  fecmspollcHcd  of  ilrongly  invigorating  qualities, 
they  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  cheapcit  winter-food 
that  can  pollibly  be  given  to  cattle.  According  to  the 
calculations  of  Mr  Kddifon  of  Gatcford,  a  lingle  acre, 
veil  cropped  with  whims,  will  winter  fix  horfes  :  at 
three  or  four  years  growth,  the  whole  crop  lliould  be 
taken,  cut  dole  to  the  ground,  and  carried  to  the 
iTiill ;  in  which  the  whins  are  to  be  bruifed,  and  then 
given  to  the  horfes.  Four  acres  ought  to  be  planted, 
that  one  may  be  ufed  each  year,  at  the  proper  age  to 
be  cut ;  and  he  reckons  the  labour  of  one  man  fuflici- 
cnt  for  providing  food  to  this  number  of  horfes.  He 
fays  they  all  prcler  the  whins  to  hay  or  even  to  corn. 
The  herb  called  iiirmt  Iiath  likewifc  been  recom- 
mended as  proper  food  for  cattle,  on  account  of  its 
being  an  evergreen  ;  and  further  reeoramcndcd,  by 
growing  almoU  as  fad  in  wiiiter  as  in  fummcr.  Of  this 
herb,  however,  we  have  very  various  accounts.  ]n  a 
letter  addrelFcd  by  Sir  James  Caldwell,  t'.R.S.  to  the 
Dublin  Society,  the  culture  of  this  plant  is  ftrongly 
recommended  on  the  authority  of  one  Bartholomew 
Roequc,  farmer  at  W'alhani-Green,  a  village  about 
three  miles  fouth-wcfl;  of  London. 

What  gave  oceafion  to  the  recommendation  of  this 
plant,  was,  that  about  theyear  -760,  Mr  Wych,  chair- 
minof  the  committee  of  Agriculture  of  the  London 
Society  for  the  encouragement  of  arts,  manufac'hires, 
and  commerce,  came  to  Rocque  (who  was  become  very 
eminent  by  the  premiums  he  had  received  from  the  I'o- 
ciety),  and  told  him,  he  had  been  thinking,  that  as 
there  arc  many  animals  which  fubiill  wholly  upon  the 
fruits  of  the  earth,  there  muft;  certainly  be  fome  plant 
or  herb  fit  for  them  that  naturally  vegetates  in  winter  ; 
otherwifewe  mufl  believe  the  Creator,  infinitely  wife 
and  good,  to  have  made  creatures  without  providing 
for  their  fublirtence  ;  and  that  if  there  had  been  no 
fuch  plants  or  herbs,  many  fpccies  of  animals  would 
have  pcrilhed  before  we  took  them  out  of  the  hands  of 
nature,  and  provided  for  them  dry  meat  ai  a  feafon, 
■when,  indigenous  plants  having  been  iiidifcriminatcly 


excluded,  under  the  name  of  weeds,  from  cultivated    Theory 

fields  and  places  fet  apart  for  natural  grafs,  green  or  * ^ — 

t'r  111  ir.eat  was  no  Icngcr  to  be  fou;id. 

Rocque  allo\\  cd  thcforceof  this  reafoning  ;  but  faid, 
the  knowledge  of  a  graff,  or  artificial  p.illure,  that 
would  vegetate  in  winter,  and  producegrccnfodderfor 
cattle,  was  loll ;   at  lealt,  that  he  knew  of  no  fuch 

plant Mr  Wych,  however,  knowing  how  very  great 

the  advantage  would  be  of  dilcovering  a  green  fodder 
for  V.  inter  and  early  in  thcf/ring,  wrote  tu  Berne,  and 
alfo  to  fonie  eonliderable  places  in  Sweden,  lialing  the 
fame  argument,  and  alking  the  lame  quellion.  His  an- 
fwcrs  to  thefe  letters  were  the  fame  that  had  been  givetl 
by  Rocque.  They  .owned  there  mull  be  fuch  a  ;)Unt, 
but  declared  they  did  not  know  it. 

Mr  Wych  then  applied  again  to  Rocque  ;  and  deli- 
red  him  to  fearch  for  the  plant  fo  much  delircd,  and  fo 
certainly  exilHng.  Rocque  fet  about  this  fearch  with 
great  alliduiiy  ;  and  finding  that  a  pimpernel,  called 
biiriiet,  was  of  very  fpeedy  growth,  and  grew  near  as 
fad  in  winter  as  in  iummer,  he  took  a  handful  of  it. 
and  carried  it  into  h.is  liable,  where  tiierewere  five  hor- 
fes ;  every  one  of  which  eat  it  with  the  greatefl  eager- 
nefs  fnatching  it  even  without  firil  fmelling  it.  Upon 
the  fncccfs  of  this  experiment  he  went  to  London,  and 
bought  ::ll  the  burnct-fecd  he  could  get,  amounting  to 
no  more  than  eight  pounds,  it  having  been  only  ufed  in 
falads  ;  and  he  paid  for  it  at  the  rate  of  4s.  a  pound. 
Six  of  the  eight  poun.ds  of  feed  he  fewed  upon  half  an 
acre  of  ground,  in  March,  in  the  year  1761,  with  a 
quarter  of  a  peck  of  fpring-wheat,  both  by  hand.  The 
feed  bcingvery  bad,  it  came  upbut  thin.  However,  he 
fowed  the  other  two  pounds  in  the  beginning  of  June, 
upon  about  fix  rood  of  ground:  this  lie  luowcJ  in  the 
beginning  of  Augart  ;  and  at  Michaelmas  he  jdantcd 
ortilic  plants  on  about  20  rood  of  ground,  giving  each 
plant  a  foot  every  way,  and  taking  care  not  to  bury 
the  heart.  Thefe  plants  bore  two  crops  of  feed  the 
year  following  ;  the  firft  about  the  middle  of  June,  the 
fecond  about  the  middle  of  September;  but  the  June 
crop  was  the  bed.  ']  he  year  after,  it  grew  very  rank, 
and  produced  two  crops  of  feed,  both  very  good.  As 
it  ought  not  to  be  cut  after  September,  he  let  it-Aand 
till  the  next  year  ;  when  it  Ihcltered  iifelf,  and  grew 
yury  well  duringall  the  winter,  except  wlien  there  was 
a  hard  froll ;  and  even  during  the  fro.'l  it  continued 
green,  though  it  was  not  perceived  to  grow.  In  the 
-Slarch  following  it  covered  the  ground  very  well,  and 
was  fit  to  receive  cattle. 

If  the  winter  is  not  remarkably  fevere,  the  burner, 
iliough  cut  in  September,  will  be  iS  inches  long  in 
March  ;  and  it  may  be  fed  from  the  beginning  of  Fe- 
bruary till  May  :  if  the  cattle  are  taken  off  in  May, 
llicre  will  be  a  good  crop  of  feed  in  the  beginning  of 
July.  Five  weeks  r.ftcr  the  cattle  are  taken  off,  it  may 
he  removed,  ifthat  ispreferred  to  its /landing  for  feed  ; 
it  grows  at  the  rate  of  an  inch  a-day,  and  is  made  into 
hay  like  other  grafs.  It  maybe  mown  three  times  in 
one  fummer,  and  IhoulJ  be  cut  jull  before  it  begins  to 
flower.  Six  rood  of  ground  has  produced  1 1 50  pounds 
at  the  firlt  cutting  of  the  third  year  after  it  wasfc)wed  ; 
and,  in  autumn  1763,  Rocque  fold  no  lefs  than  300 
bufliels  of  the  feed. 

According  to  Rocque,  the  foil  in  which  burnct  fiou- 
riUies  bell,  is  a  dry  gravel ;  the  longcft  drought  never 

biiris 


A     G     R     I     C     U     L     r     U 


E. 


30 

liiirnct  rec- 
otK'cl  dn 
iniprojjcr 
food  by  Mr 
Millrrand 
Mr  i\ndcr- 
fun. 


51 

White  beet 
recom- 
mended. 


52 
Koot  of 
fcarcity. 


hiirtoit:  and  Sir  James  Caldwell  alFcrts,  that  lit  faw  a 
very  vigorous  and  exuberant  plant  of  this  kind, growing 
from  between  two  bricks  in  a  wall  in  PiocqucS  ground, 
without  any  communication  with  the  foil  ;  for  he  had 
cut  away  all  tlic  fibres  of  the  root  that  had  (iretchcd 
downward,  and  penetrated  the  earth,  long  before. 

Burnet  w.ts  found  equally  tit  for  feeding  cows, Ihccp, 
and  horfcs  ;  but  the  Iheep  mud  not  be  fulfercd  to  crop 
it  tooclofc.  Though  nofccd  was  left  among  the  hay, 
yet  it  proved  nourilhing  food  :  and  Roqnc  kept  a 
horfe,  upon  nothin>r,elfc,  who,  at  the  time  of  writing 
the  account,  Avas  in  good  heart,  and  looked  well.  He 
affirmed  alio,  that  it  cured  horfts  of  the  difteuiper  cal- 
led the  ^nafc,  and  that  by  its  means  he  cured  one 
which  was  thought  incurable  ;  bat  fays,  it  is  only  the 
filft  crop  which  has  this  efFeft. 

This  is  the  fubftanceof  Sir  James  Caldwell's  letter 
to  the  Dublin  S(*:iety,  at  lead  as  to  what  regards  the 
culture  of  Burnet ;  and  it  might  reafonably  be  expect- 
ed, that  a  plant,  whofe  ufe  was  recommended  to  the 
public  with  fo  much  parade,  would  foon  havecomt  into 
univerfalelleem.  Wearefurprifed  therefore, on  look- 
ing into  Mr  Miller's  Dictionary,  to  find  the  following 
words,  under  the  article  Poterium  : — "  This  plant  has 
of  late  been  recommended  by  ^fr/i5«j  of  little  Jkill,  tobe 
fownasa  winter  pabulum  for  cattle  :  but  wliocverwill 
give  themfelves  the  trouble  to  examine  the  grounds 
where  it  naturally  grows,  will  iind  the  plants  left  un- 
eaten by  the  cattle,  when  the  grafs  about  them  has  been 
cropped  to  the  roots  ;  belides,  in  w-ct  winters,  and  in 
flrong  land,  the  plants  are  of  fhort  duration,  and  there- 
fore very  unfit  for  that  purpofe  :  nor  is  the  produce 
fufficient  to  tempt  any  perfon  of  fkill  to  engage  in  its 
culture  ;  therefore  I  wilh  thoic  pcrfons  to  make  trial 
of  it  in  fmall  quantiiics,  before  they  embark  largely  in 
thefe  new  fchemcs." — Mr  Anderfon,  too,  in  his  Effays 
on  Agriculure,  mentions  the  produce  of  burnet  being 
fo  fmall,  as  not  to  be  worth  cultivating. 

Upon  the  authority  of  Mr  Rocque,  likcwife,  the 
white  beet  is  recommended  as  a  mod  excellent  food 
lor  cows  ;  that  it  vegetates  during  the  whole  winter, 
eonfrquently  is  very  forward  in  the  fpring  :  and  that 
themofl  profitable  way  of  fcedingcows  is,  to  mow  this 
herb,  and  give  it  to  them  green  all  the  iunimer.  It 
grew  inRocquc'sgarden,  duringa  very  great  drought, 
nolefs  than  four  feet  high,  from  the  50th  of  May  to 
the  5d  of  July  ;  which  is  no  more  than  otic  moitth  and 
four  days.  In  fiimmer  it  grows  more  than  an  inch  a- 
day,  and  is  bed  fown  in  March:  a  bulhcl  is  enough 
fur  an  acre,  and  will  not  cod  more  than  ten  Ihillings. 
It  thrives  bed  in  a  rich,  deep,  light  foil:  the  dalks 
are  very  thick  and  fucculent  ;  the  cows  fliould  there- 
fore c:'.t  them  grt  en. 

Another  fpecies  of  beet  {Beta  ciJ.i),  the  Mangel 
Wur7.el,or  Rod  of  Scarcity,  as  it  has  been  called,  has 
been  lately  extolled  as  food  for  both  man  and  cattle, 
but,  after  all,  ftcmsouly  to  defervc  attention  in  the 
latter  view.  It  is  a  biennial  plant  ;  the  root  is  large 
and  tlelhy ,  fomctimii  a  foot  in  diameter.  It  rifcs  above 
the  ground  feveral  inches,  is  thi.kcd  at  the  top,  taper- 
ing gradually  downward.  1  he  roots  are  of  various 
colours,  white,  yellow,  and  red  .  but  thefc  lad  are  al- 
ways of  a  much  paler  colour  tlr.in  beetrave.  It  is  good 
fodder  for  cows,  and  does  not  communicate  any  tadc 
to  the  milk.     It  produces  great  abundance  of  leaves 


in  Aimmer,  wiiicii  may  be  cut  three  or  foor  lii.-.tj 
wiuhout  injuring  the  plant.  ']  he  leaves  are  more  pa- 
latable to  cattle  tjian  mod  other  garden  plants,  and  are 
found  to  be  very  wholefome.  The  fanners  in  thofc 
parts  of  Germany  where  it  is  chieliy  cultivated,  v/c  arc 
told,  prefer  this  fpecies  of  beet,  for  feeding  cattle,  to 
cabbages,  principally  becaufe  they  are  not  ?j  Uabl:  to 
be  hurt  by  worms  or  infects  ;  but  they  think  they  ire 
not  fo  nourilhing  as  turnips,  potatoes,  cr  carrots,  and 
that  cattle  are  not  nearly  fo  foon  fattened  by  this  ro::t 
as  by  carrots,  parfiiips,  or  cabbages.  It  has  even  been 
alfertcd,  that  this  root  affords  lefs  nourilhment  than 
any  of  thofc  that  have  been  commonly  employed  for 
feeding  cattle.  This  does  not  corrcfpond  with  the 
pompous  accounts  with  which  the  public  have  been  en- 
tertained. Upon  the  whole,  however,  it  is  a  phnc 
which  fccms  to  defervc  the  attention  tif  fanners; 
as  on  fome  foils,  and  in  particular  circi;mdHnces,itniay 
prove  a  very  ufeful  article  for  the  above  purpofes. 

In  Mr  Anderfon's  edays,  we  find  it  recommended  to  sicntfcf- 
make  trial  of  fomc  kinds  of  gralies,  which  probably  cuegrai^ 
would  not  only  anfwcr  for  frefli  fodder  during  the  win- 
ter, but  might  alfo  be  cut  for  h.iy  in  fummer.  This 
is  particularly  the  cafe  with  that  fpecies  cMcA  Jh:(p's 
fifcue  grafs.  "  I  had  (fayshe^  a  fmall  patch  of  this 
grafs  in  winter  i  773  j  which,  having  been  cut  in  the 
month  of  Augud  or  September  preceding,  was  faved 
from  that  period,  and  had  advanced  before  winter  to 
the  length  of  five  or  lix  inches  ;  forming  the  clofed 
pile  that  could  be  imagined.  And  although  wc  had 
about  lix  weeks  of  very  intenfc  frod,  with  fuow  ;  and 
about  other  lix  weeks,  immediately  fuccceding  that, 
of  exceeding  keen  frod  every  night,  with  frequent 
thaws  in  the  day-time, withoutanyfnow,duringwhich 
time  almod  every  green  thing  was  dcdroycd  ;  yetthis 
little  patcli  continued  all  along  to  retain  as  fine  a  ver- 
dure as  any  meadow  in  the  month  of  May  ;  hardly  a 
point  of  a  leaf  having  been  withered  by  the  uncommon 
feverity  of  the  weather.  And  r.s  this  grafs  begins  to 
vegetate  very  early  in  the  fpring,  I  leave  the  reader  to 
jud^c  what  might  be  the  value  of  a  field  of  grafs  of 
this^kir.d  in  thefc  circumdauces." 

Of  another  kind  of  grafs,  cAleA  fmrple  fi/cue,  Mr  ,4 

Anderfon  gives  the  following  characler.     "  It  retain-  Purple  fef- 
ed  its  verdure  much  better  than  rye-grafs  duriniT  the  "»«• 
winter-feafon  :  but  it  had  more  of' its  points  killed  by 
the  weather  than  the  former.     It  likewife  rifes  in  the 
fpring,  at  lead  as  early  as  rye-grafs." 

This  ingenious  farmer  has  alfo  made  experiments 
on  the  culture  of  thefc  and  feveral  other  kinds  of  o-raf- 
fes  ;  which  being  very  well  worthy  of  attention7  wc 
ihall  here  infert. 

I.  Vurple  jefcuc-grafi.  "Although  this  grafs  is  very 
often  found  in'oldpadures,  yet  it  has  b.:t  a  few  riowcr- 
d.ilks,  and  as  it  isgrecdi:y  eat  by  all  domedic  animals, 
thefc  are  fddom  furt'ered  to  appear ;  fo  that  it  ufjclly 
remains  there  unpcrceived.  But  it  fecnis  to  be  better 
able  to  endure  the  peculiar  acrimony  of  the  dung  of 
dogs  than  almod  any  other  plant ;  and  i:>  therefore  of- 
ten to  be  met  with  in  dog-hilU,  as  I  cail  the  little  hills 
by  road-fidcs  where  dogs  ufually  pifs  and  dung  :  and 
as  it  is  allow  ed  to  grow  there  undidu;  bed,  the  farmer 
may  have  an  opportunity  of  examining  the  plant,  and 
becoming  acquainted  with  its  appearance. 

"  The  leaves  arc  long  and  fmall,  and  appear  to  be  ■ 

roaadifli^  , 


•zSz 


A    G 


R     I     C     U 


ss 

Appcar- 
aucc  in  its 


Throry,    roaiiili:li,  fometliing  like  a  wire  ;  biu,  upon  txuiiiina- 

'' lion,  llicy  arc  found  noc  to  be  tubulated  like  a  reed  or 

rulll :  the  lldcs  of  the  leaf  being  only  folded  to^cilitr 
Irom  the  middle  lil>,  exactly  like  the  llron;;  beiit-;j;rafs 
on  the  fta  ihore.  The  fiowcrllalkis  finall,andbrauciu-s 
out  ill  the  head,  a  little  rcfcmbliiig  the  wild-o.it  ;  only 
liie  grains  are  much  fnialler.aMd  the  car  does  not  fi>rtad 
foil  open,  bullies  bending  a  little  to  one  lidc.  I  he 
Jlalks  are  often  fpolicd  withrcddilh  freckles,  and  the 
tops  of  the  riKJts  are  uuially  tinged  with  the  lame  co- 
lour; from  whence  it  has  probably  obtained  its  dilliiic- 
tivc  name  of  t'cjlnca  rubra,  or  re,i  {purf'U)  f.fcuc. 

«'Il  is  often  to  be  met  wiih  in  old  garden-walks  ;  and 
as  its  leaves  advance  very  quickly  alter  cutting,  it  may 
ufually  be  difcovcrcd  above  the  other  gralfcs,  about  a 
week  or  fortnight  after  the  walks  arc  cut.  Nor  do 
tbcy  fcem  to  advance  only  ?.i  one  feafon,  and  then  Hop 
and  decay,  like  the  rye-grafs;  but  continue  to  advance 
during  thewholcofihcfummer^evcnwhere  they  arcnot 
cut ;  lb  that  they  fometimcs  attain  a  very  great  length. 
Lafl  feafon ,  ( i  7  74, )  1  mcafured  a  leaf  of  i  his  grafs,  that 
fprung  up  in  a  ncglefled  corner,  which  was  four  feet 
and  four  inches  in  length,  although  not  thicker  than 
a  finall  wire.  It  is  unnecelfary  to  add,  that  thefe  leaves 
naturally  trail  upon  the  ground,  unlefs  where  they  meet 
with  feme  accidental  fupport  ;  and  ilut  if  any  quan- 
lity  of  it  is  fuffercd  to  grow  for  a  whole  feafon,  with- 
out being  eat  down  or  cut,  the  roots  of  the  leaves  are 
alnioft  rotted,  by  the  ovcrlhadowing  of  the  tops  of  the 
other  leaves,  before  tliC  end  of  the  feafon. 

This  is  the  appearance  and  condition  of  the  plant 
in  its  native  filuation  ;  as  it  is  fcldom  that  it  is  difco- 
ruitivatcd    vcred  but  in  pretty  old  paftures,  and  as  in  that  ftate 
■ft'te-  it  carries  only  a  very  few  feed-ftalks,  it  was  with  fome 

dilHculty  that  I  could  collect  a  fmall  handful  of  the  feed, 
whicli  1  carefully  fowed  in  a  fmall  patch  of  garden- 
mould,  to  try  if  it  could  be  eafily  cultivated.  It  came 
upas  quickly  as  any  other  kind  of  grafs,  but  was  at 
lirfl  as  fmall  as  hairs:  the  leaves,  however,  advanced 
apace  ;  and  were, before  autumn,  when  thegraiii  with 
■which  they  had  been  lowed  was  cut  down,  about  16 
or  18  inches  in  length  :  but  having  been  fown  very 
thin,  it  was  necelfary  to  pick  out  fome  other  kinds  of 
grafs  that  came  up  amongll  it,  left  it  might  have 
been  choakcd  by  ihem.  Early  next  fpring  it  advanced 
with  prodigious  vigour,  and  the  tufts  that  were  form- 
ed from  every  feed  became  exceeding  large  ;  fo  i  hat  ii 
quickly  filled  the  whole  ground.  But  now  the  leaves 
were  almoll  as  broad  as  thofe  of  common  rye-grafs, 
and  the  two  fides  only  inclined  a  little  towards  one 
another  from  the  mid-rib,  without  any  appearance 
of  roundnefs.  In  due  time  a  great  many  fecd-ftalks 
fprung  out,  which  attained  very  nearly  to  the  height 
of  four  feet,  and  produced  feeds  in  abundance  ;  which 
may  be  .is  eafily  laved  as  ihofe  of  common  rye-grafs. 

"The  prodigious  diffcrcncebetweentliis  plant  in  its 
native  and  cultivated  ftate  amazed  me  ;  but  it  was  with 
a  good  deal  of  falisfacTion  that  1  found  there  would  be 
no  difficulty  of  procuring  feeds  from  it,  which  I  had 
much  doubted  of  at  firil.  It  would  feem,  that  nature 
hath  endowed  this  plant  with  a  (Irong  generative  power 
during  its  youth,  which  it  gradually  lofes  as  it  advan- 
ces in  age  (for  the  difference  perceived  in  this  cafe 
could  not  be  attributed  to  the  rirhncfs  of  the  foil); 
and  that,  on  the  contrary,  when  it  was  old,  the  leaves 


L    T     U     R     E. 

advanced  with  an  additional  vigour,  in  proportion  to 
the  declining  llrength  of  the  ilowcr-llalks :  for  the 
leaves  of  the  young  plant  fcldom  exceed  two  feet, 
w  hereas  numbers  ot' the  old  leaves  were  near  four  feet 
in  length. 

"  Krom  thcfe  peculiarities  in  the  growth  of  this  plant, 
ii  would  feeni  to  prouiife  to  be  of  great  ufc  to  the  far- 
mer; as  he  could  reap  from  a  field  01  it,  for  the  firft  two 
or  three  years,  as  great  a  weight  of  hay  as  he  could 
obtain  fiom  any  of  the  culmifcrous  graifes  (thefe  bear- 
ing a  long  jointed  ftalk);  and,  if  hq,meaiu afterwards  to 
pallurc  it,  he  would  fuller  no  inconveniences  from  the 
flower-ftalks  ;  andthc  fucculent  leaves  thatcontinueto 
vegetate  during  the  whole  fummer,  would  at  all  limes 
furnilli  his  cattle  with  abundance  of  wholefome  food. 
It  has  alfobeen  reuiarked,  that  this  grafs  rifes  as  early 
in  the  fpring  as  rye-grafs  ;  and  continues  green  for  the 
grcatell  part  of  winter,  which  the  other  does  not.  It 
is  moreoveran  abiding  plant,  asit  fecms  never  m  wear 
out  of  the  ground  where  it  has  once  been  eftablilhed. 
On  z'\\  which  accounts,  it  appears  to  me  highly  to  me- 
rit the  atlemion  of  the  farmer  ;  and  well  defervcs  to 
have  its  feveral  qualities,  andtheculturc  thatbeftagrecs 
with  it,  afcertained  by  accurate  experiments. 

2.  '^  Sheep s  fifcut  grafs,  or  f.'fluca  oviita,  is  much 
praifed  by  tl;eSwedilh  naturalifls  for  its  lingular  value 
as  a  pafture-grafs  for  flieep  ;  this  animal  being  repre- 
fcnied  as  fonder  of  it  than  of  any  other  grafs,  and  fat- 
tening upon  it  more  quickly  than  on  any  other  kind 
of  food  whatever.  And  indeed,  the  general  appearance 
of  the  plant,  and  its  peculiar  manner  of  growth,  feems 
very  much  tofavourthe  accounts  that  have  been  given 
us  of  it. 

"Thisplantisof  the  fame  family  with  the  former, 
and  agrees  with  it  in  feveral  refpecls;  although  they 
may  be  eafily  diftinguilhed  from  one  another.  Its 
leaves,  like  the  former,  in  its  natural  ftate,  are  always 
rounded,  but  much  fmaller  ;  being  little  bigger  than 
large  horfe-hairs,orfwines-briflles,  andfeldom  exceed 
fix  or  fcven  inches  in  length.  But  thcfe  fpring  out  of 
the  root  in  tut"ts,  fo  dole  upon  one  another,  that  they 
refemblc,  in  tliis  rel'pcct,  a  clofe  hair-brudi  more  than 
any  thing  clfe  1  know  :  fo  that  it  would  feem  natural- 
ly adapted  to  form  that  thick  fliort  pile  of  grafs  in 
which  Iheep  are  known  chiefly  to  delight.  ItsHower- 
flalks  are  numerous,  and  fometimes  attain  the  height 
of  two  feet  ;  but  are  more  ufually  about  12  or  1 5  inch- 
es high. 

"  Upon  gathering  the  feeds  of  this  plant,  and  fow- 
ing  them  as  the  former,  it  was  found  that  they  fprung 
up  as  quickly  as  any  other  kind  of  grafs  ;  but  the 
leaves  are  at  firft  no  bigger  than  a  human  hair.  Krom 
each  fide  fprings  up  one  or  two  of  thcfe  hair-liKe  fi- 
laments, that  in  a  fhort  time  fend  out  newoff-fets,  fo 
as  quickly  to  form  a  fort  of  tuft,  which  grows  larger 
and  larger,  till  it  at  length  attains  a  very  large  lize,  or 
till  all  tiie  intervals  are  clofed  up,  and  then  it  forms 
the  clofeft  pile  of  grafs  that  it  is  potTiblc  to  imagine. 
In  April  and  May  it  puflicd  forth  an  innumerable  quan- 
tity of  flower-ftalks,  that  afforded  an  immcnfc  quan- 
tity of  hay  ;  it  being  fo  clofe  throughout,  that  the 
fcythe  could  fcarcely  penetrate  it.  This  was  allowed 
to  ftand  till  the  feeds  ripened  ;  but  the  bottom  of  ihe 
ftalks  were  quite  blanched,  andalmoft  rotted  for  want 
of  air  before  that  time. 

<'Th)s 


Theory. 


56 
Slieeps  fef- 
cuc  defcri- 
bed. 


57 
Its  appear- 
ance when 
cultivated. 


AGRICULTURE. 


263 


"  This  was  the  appearance  that  it  made  the  lirllyear 
'  after  it  was  fowed  :  but  I  have  reafon  to  think,  that,  af- 
ter a  few  years,  it  likcwifc  produces  fewer  fced-ltalks, 
aiid  a  greater  quantity  of  leaves  than  at  firll.  But 
however  that  may  be,  it  is  certain,  that  if  thtfc  arc  cat 
down  in  the  fpring,  it  docs  not,  like  rye-grafs,  pcrlill 
in  a  continual  tendency  to  run  to  feed  ;  but  is  at  once 
determined  to  pulh  forth  a  quantity  of  leaves  without 
alniotl  any  ftalks  at  all  :  and  as  all  donieilic  animals, 
but  more  cfpecially  (heep,  are  extremely  fond  of  this 
grafs,  if  they  have  liberty  to  pallurc  where  it  grows, 
they  bite  it  fo  clofe  as  never  to  fufFeralmofl  a  linglc  feed- 
flalk  to  cfcape  them  ;  fo  that  the  botaiiift  will  often 
fearch  in  vain  for  it,  when  he  is  treading  nifon  it  w  iih 
his  feet.  The  bell  way  to  dilcover  it  in  any  pallurc, 
is  to  fearch  for  it  in  winter,  when  the  tufts  of  it  may 
be  ealily  dillinguilhed  from  every  other  kind  of  grafs, 
by  their  extraordinary  clofencfs,  and  the  deep  green 
colour  of  the  leaves. 

"  It  fcems  to  grow  in  alnioft  any  foil ;  altho'  it  is  ima- 
gined that  it  would  fiouvilh  bed  in  a  light  fandy  foil, 
as  it  can  evidently  live  with  Itfs  moiilnre  than  alnioA 
any  other  kind  of  grafs  ;  being  often  feen  to  remain  in 
the  fods  that  iiave  been  employed  in  coping  for  (lone- 
dykes,  after  all  the  other  grilles  that  grew  in  them 
have  dilappearcd.  It  is  likewife  found  in  poor  barren 
foils,  where  hardly  any  other  plant  can  be  made  to  grow 
at  all ;  and  on  the  i'urface  of  dry  worn-out  pcat-niofs, 
where  no  raoifhire  remains  fuflicicnt  to  fupport  any  o- 
ihcr  plant  whatever  :  but  in  neither  of  thefc  lituations 
does  it  thrive  ;  as  it  is  there  only  a  weak  and  unlighily 
plant,  very  unlike  what  it  is  when  it  has  the  good  for- 
tune to  be  ellabliflicd  upon  a  good  foil  ;  although  it  is 
feldomcr  met  with  in  this  laft  Hate  than  in  the  former. 

"  I  will  not  here  repeat  what  lias  been  already  faid 
about  the  particular  property  that  this  plant  polTclics  of 
continuing  all  winter  :  nor  point  out  the  benefits  that 

the  farmer  may  reap  from  this  valuable  quality He 

need  not,  however,  expect  to  find  any  verdure  in  win- 
ter on  fuch  plants  as  grow  upon  the  loofc  molTy  foil 
abovementioned  ;  for,  as  the  froft  in  winter  always 
hoves  up  the  furfaceof  this  foil,  therootsof  the  plants 
are  fo  lacerated  thereby,  as  to  make  it,  for  fome  tinie 
in  the  fpring,  to  all  appearance  dead.  Nor  will  he  of- 
ten perceive  much  verdure  in  winter  upon  thofe  plants 
that  grow  upon  poor  hungry  foils,  whichcannot  afford 
abundant  nourithment  to  keep  ihem  in  a  proper  ftate 
of  vegetation  at  all  limes  :  but  fuch  plants  as  grow 
on  earthen  dykes,  which  ufually  begin  to  vegetate  with 
vigour  when  the  autumnal  rains  come  on,  for  the  mod 
part  retain  their  verdure  at  that  leafon  almod  as  well 
as  if  they  were  in  good  garden-mould. 

"  I  liavebeen  very  particular  in  regard  to  this  plant ; 
becaufe,  in  as  far  as  my  obfervations  have  yet  gone,  it 
promifes  on  many  accounts  to  make  a  mofl  valuable  ac- 
quilition  to  the  farmer,  and  therefore  juftly  demands  a 
\ery  particular  fliare  of  his  attention." 

3.  Thth'jlcuslaiiatiis,  orcreepingfoft-grafsof  Hud- 
fon — Thi'-  is  confidered  by  our  author  as  one  of  the 
moft  valuable  kinds  of  ineadow-graifes  ;  its  pile  being 
exceedingly  clofe,  foft,  and  fucculent.  It  delights 
much  in  moiflure,  and  isfeldom  found  on  dry  ground, 
imlels  the  foil  is  exceedingly  rich.  It  is  often  found  on 
ihole  patches  near  fprings,  over  which  the  water  fre- 
quently flows  ;  and  may  be  known  by  the  uncommon 


foftncfs  and  lucculence  of  ihe  blade,  the  lively  light  Theory, 
green  colour  of  the  leaves,  and  the  matted  i.itertexturc  '  '■' 
ofiis  roots.  But,  notwithftanding  the  fofmefs  of  its 
tint  leaves, when  the  feed-llalks  advance,!  hey  arc  rou^^h 
to  the  tou^h,  fo  that  the  plant  then  alfumcs  a  very  dif- 
ferent appearance  from  what  we  wouldhavccxpecled. 
The  carisbranched  out  into  a  great  numberof  tine  ra- 
mifications fonicwhai  like  theoat,  butmuch  fmaller. — 
This  kind  of  grafs,  however,  would  not  be  eafily  culti- 
vated, on  account  of  a  kind  of  foft  membrane  that 
makes  thcfecds  adhere  toihe  (lalk,  andtooneanother, 
after  they  are  feparatcdfroniit,  as  if  they  were  inter- 
mixed «ith  cobweb,  fo  that  it  is  ditiicult  to  get  them 
feparated  from  the  rtalk,or  tofpread  readily  iu  fowing. 
It  fpreads,  however,  fo  fafl  by  its  running  roots,  that 
a  fmall  quantity  fowed  very  thin,  would  be  futScient  to 
Aock  a  large  field  in  a  fliort  time. 

Thefc  arc  the  kinds  oi^rajf^i,  properly  fo  called, 
which  have  not  as  yet  been  cultivated,  that  Mr  A\\- 
derfon  thinks  the  moft  likely  to  be  of  value  ;  but  be- 
fidcs  thefc  he  recommends  the  following,  of  the  pea- 
tribe.  60 
■  I.  Milk- vetch,  liquorice-vctch,  or n!ilk-'j;crt.  This^'"''*- 
plant,  in  fome  rcfpects,  very  much  refcmbles  the  com-  """• 
nion  white  clover  ;  from  the  top  of  the  root  a  great 
number  of  Ihoots  come  out  in  the  fpring,  fpreading  a- 
long  the  furface  of  tlie  ground  every  way  round  it  ; 
fromwhich  arife  a  great  many  chifters  of  bright  yel- 
low flowers,  exactly  refembling  thofe  of  the  common 
broom.  Thefc  are  fucceedcd  by  hard  round  pods,  fil- 
led with  fmall  kidr.cy-fliaped  feeds.  F'roma  fuppofed 
rcfemblanceof  a  clallcr  of  thefe  pods  to  the  fingers  of 
an  open  hand,  the  plant  has  been,  fometimes  called 
l^idies  fingers.  By  others  it  is  called  cro'ji-ton,  from  a 
fancied  refemblaiice  of  the  pods  to  the  toes  of  a  bird. 
Others,  from  the  appearance  of  the  bloiTum,  and  the 
part  where  the  plant  is  found,  have  called  it  ftal,  im- 
properly/WZ-irc',?//.  It  is  found  plentifully  alraoft  c- 
very  where  in  old  grafs-ficlds  ;  but  as  every  fpccics  of 
donieftic  animals  eat  it,  almoft  in  preference  to  any  o- 
thcr  plant,  it  is  feldora  allowed  to  come  to  the  flower 
in  pafture  grounds,  unlcfs  where  they  have  been  acci- 
dentally faved  from  the  cattle  for  fome  time  ;  fo  that 
it  is  only  about  the  borders  of  corn-fields,  or  the  fides 
of  inclofures  to  which  cattle  have  not  acctfs,  that  wc 
have  an  opportunity  of  obferving  i:.  A&  it  has  been 
imagined  that  the  cows  which  feed  on  thcfe  pallures, 
where  this  pi. '.n:  abounds,  yield  a  quantity  of  ri>.h  milk, 
the  plant  has  from  thatcircumftancc,  obtained  its  moft 
proper  EngliPn  name  o(  r:ilk-vetch,  gj 

One  of  liic  grcatcft  recommendatior.s  of  this  pladt  Its  pwd  . 
is,  that  it  grows  in  poor  barren  ground,  where  almofl  qualitict. 
no  other  plant  can  live.  It  has  been  obferved  in  ground 
fo  poor,  that  even  heath,  or  ling  {^trica  covn'iunis), 
would  fcarccly  grow;  and  upon  bare  obdurate  clays, 
where  no  other  plant  could  be  made  to  vegetate  ;  in- 
fomuch  that  the  furface  remained  entirely  uncovered, 
unlefs  where  a  plant  of  this  kind  chanced  to  be  ella- 
bliflicd ;  yet  even  in  thefe  unfavourable  circumilances, 
ic  riouriihcd  with  an  uncommon  degree  of  luxuriance, 
and  yielded  as  tender  and  fucculent,  though  not  fuch 
abundant  flioots,  as  if  reared  in  the  rlcheft  manured 
fields.     In  dry  barren  fands,  alfo,  where  almoll  no  o- 
ther  plant  could  be  made  to  live,  it  has  been  found  to   . 
feud  out  fuch  a  numberof  healthy  Ihoots  all  around,  as 


AGRICULTURE. 


Part  r. 


61 

Yellow 
Telchlin; 


to  cover  i!:c  canh  wjtii  ilic  clol'cfland  mofl  bcauiir.il 
carpet  tliat  csn  be  deliicd. 

The  ibilks  ot'tlic  milk-vetch  arc  weak  aiui  llcniicr, 
foihat  tlicy  fprcinl-wpon  the  furlacc  of  the  grcmiul,  iisi- 
Icfs  they  arc  fiipporicil  by  foiiic  other  vr<;ctiible.  In 
ordinary  Toils  they  do  not  gvuw  to  a  great  length,  nor 
prodiice  many  llovvcrs  ;  bm  in  richer  licKis  tlic  Italks 
grow  to  a  much  greater  lenj^jth,  branch  out  a  good 
deal,  but  carry  lew  or  no  llowtrs  or  (ceJs.  From  tiicfc 
finaliiicsour  author  did  not  attempt  at  lirft  to  cultivate 
it  witJi  any  other  view  than  tha;,of  palhirc  ;  and  with 
this  intention,  fowcd  it  with  his  ordinary  hay  feeds, 
txpefting  no  material  benelit  from  it  till  he  dcliltcd 
from  cutting  his  1'kKI.  In  this,  however,  he  was  a- 
greeably  difappointcd  ;  the  milk  vetcii  growing,  the 
firfl;  fcafon,as  t..ll  as  his  great  clover,  and  lot  iiiiiig  ex- 
ceeding line  hay  jbeing  fcarccdiltingiiilhable  from  lu- 
cerne, butby  the  llenderncfsof  the  llalk,  and  propor- 
tional fiiiallncfs  of  the  leaf. 

Another  reconimendatiou  to  this  plant  is,  that  it  is 
■perennial.  It  is  fevcral  years  afterit  is  fowcd  before 
it  attains  to  its  full  perfeclion  ;  but,  wheaonce  cfla- 
bliflu-d,  it  probably  remains  for  a  great  number  of 
years  in  full  vigour,  and  produces  aniially  a  great 
quantity  of  fodder.  In  autumn  1  773,  Mr  Anderfon 
cutthcflalk  from  an  old  plant  that  grew  on  a  very  in- 
ditfercnt  foil ;  and  after  havin;';  thoroughly  dried  it,  he 
found  that  it  weighed  14  ounces  and  a  half. 

The  Ilalksofthis  plant  die  down  entirely  in  winter, 
and  do  not  come  up  in  the  fi'ring  till  the  fame  time 
that  clover  begins  to  advance ;  nor  does  it  advance  ve- 
ry fall,  even  in  iVimmer,  when  once  cut  down  or  cat 
over  :  fo  that  it  fecms  much  inferior  to  the  abovemcn- 
tioned  grades  ;  but  might  be  of  ufe  to  cover  the  worlt 
parts  of  a  farm,  on  which  no  other  vegetable  could 
thrive. 

2-  The  c'>tiimi7iy^ll(iwvetchHtig,(L(ithynis pratiiifis) 
■  or  (vtr/u/li/ig  tare,  grows  with  great  luxuriance   in 
ftift'clay  foils,  and  continues  to  yield  annually  a  great 
weight  of  fodder,  of  the  very  bell  quality,  for  any 
length  of  time.     This  is  equally   lit  for  pallure,  or 
hay  ;   and  grows  with  equal  vigour  in  ihe  endof  funi- 
jncr  as  in  the  beginning  of  it :  fo  would  admit  being 
paftured  upon  in  the  fpring,  till  the  middle,  or  even 
the  endof  May,  without  endangering  the  lofs  of  the 
crop  of  hay.     This  is  an  advantage  which  no  other 
plant  except  clover  polTcfTes  ;  but  clover  is  equally  un- 
fit for  early  padure  or  for  hay.     Sain-foin  is  the  only 
plant  whofe  qualities  approach  to  it  inthisrcfpci.'t,and 
the  yellow  vctchling  will  grow  in  fuch  foils  as  are  ut- 
terly untit'/or  producing fain-foin  —  It  is  alfoa  peren- 
nial plant,  and  increafes  fo  fafl  by  its  running  roots, 
that  a  fmall  quantity  of  the  feed  would  produce  a  fuf- 
ilcient  number  of  plants  to  fill  a  whole  field  in  a  very 
fliort  time.     If  a  fmall  patch  of  good  ground  is  fowed 
with  the  feeds  of  this  plant  in  rows,  about  a  foot  di- 
Ilance  from  one  another,  and  the  intervals  kept  clear  of 
weeds  for  that  feafon,  the  roots  will  fpread  fo  much  as 
to  fill  up  the  whole  patch  next  year  ;  when  the  (lalks 
may  be  cut  for  green  fodder  or  hay.     And  if  tint 
patch  were  dug  over  the  fpring  following,    and  the 
roots  taken  out,  it  would   furnilh  a  great  quantity  of 
plants   which  might  be  planted  at  two  or  three  feet 
diftance  fromonc another,  where  tiiey  would  probably 
overfpreadthe  whole  field  in  a  fiiort  time. 


■}.  The   coijimin  Hue  larj  fecms  more  likely  than    Tlicory. 
the  firmer  to  produce  a  more  nourilaing  kind  of  hay,         . " ' '' 
as  it  abounds  much  more  in  feeds;  but  as  the  fialks  j,,     ^ 
come  up  more  thinly  from  the  root,  and  brancli  more 
above,  it  does  not  appear  to  be  fo  well  adapted  for  a 
pallure-grafs  as  the  other.     The  leaves  of  this  pl.int 
arc  much  fnialltr,  and  more  divided,  than  thofe  of  the 
other  i  the  Italks  are  likcwifc  fmallcr,  and  grow  to  a 
much   greater  length.     Though  it  produces  a  great 
quantity  of  feeds,  yet  the  fmall  birds  arc  fo  fond  of 
them,  that,  unltfs  the  field  was  carcfuly  guarded,  few 
of  fhein  would  be  allowed  to  ripen.  64 

4.  'X\\tV'tc'iafcf'i!im,pu:ptiivcrli>^ii!g,  or  b:iJJ)-Vilch.  Bulh- 
Our  author  gives  the  preference  to  this  plant  beyond  vetch, 
all  others  of  the  fame  tribe  for  pallure.  The  roots 
of  it  fpread  on  every  fide  a  little  below  the  furfaee 
of  the  ground,  from  which,  in  the  fpring,  inanyftcms 
arife  quite  clofc  by  one  another  ;  and  as  thefc  have  a 
broad  tufted  top  covered  with  many  leaves,  it  forms  as 
clofe  a  pile  as  could  be  delircd.  It  grows  very  quick- 
ly after  being  cut  or  cropt,  but  docs  not  arrive  at  any 
great  height ;  fo  that  it  .appears  more  proper  for  pafbu- 
ragethan  makinghay  ;  altho',  upon  a  good  foil,  it  will 
grow  fufficicntly  high  for  that  purpofe  ;  but  the  Aalks 
growfoelofe  uponone  another,  that  there  is  great  d.an- 
ger  of  having  it  rotted  at  the  root,  if  the  feafon  fliould 
prove  damp.     It  fecms  to  thrive  beft  in  a  clay  foil.  6j 

Bclides  ihefe, there  are  area  variety  of  others  of  the  EverlaUing 
fame  clafs,  which  he  thinks  might  be  ufeful  to  the  pca. 
farmer.  The  common  garden  everlallingpea,  culti- 
vated as  a  flowering  plant,  he  conjectures,  wouldyield 
a  prodigious  weight  of  hay  upon  an  acre  ;  as  it  growls 
to  the  height  of  ten  or  twelve  feet,  having  very  llrong 
llalks,  that  could  fupport  thcmfelves  without  rotting 
till  they  attained  a  great  height. 

Oncother  plant,  hitherto  unnoticed,  is  icconimend- 
ed  by  our  author  to  the  attention  of  the  farmer  ;  it  | 
\%x\\ccMinn<iity  arrow, (^AchilUamilUj  oliitiii'), ox  hutidrcd- 
kavid grtifs.  Concerning  this  plant,  he  remarks,  that, 
in  alniofl  every  fine  old  pallure,  a  great  proportion  of 
the  growing  vegetables  with  which  the  field  is  covered, 
eonlifts  of  it  ;  but  the  animals  which  feed  there  are  fo 
fond  of  the  yarrow,  as  never  to  allow  one  fecd-ftalk  of 
it  to  come  to  perfed:ion.  Hence  thefc  fced-llalks  are 
never  found  but  in  negle(5ted  corners,  by  the  fides  of  ' 
roads  ;  and  are  lb  difagreeable  to  cattle,  that  they  are 
never  tailed  ;  and  thus  it  has  been  erroneoully  thought 
thatthc  whole  plant  was  refufed  by  them. — The  leaves 
of  this  plant  have  a  great  tendency  to  grow  very  thick 
iipontme  another,  and  are  therefore  peculiarly  adapted 
for  paflurage.  It  arrives  at  its  greatefl  perfeftion  in 
rich  fields  that  are  naturally  fit  for  producing  a  large 
and  fucculcnt  crop  of  grafs.  It  grows  alfo  upon  clays  ; 
and  is  among  the  firll  plants  that  Urikc  root  in  any 
barren  clay  that  has  been  lately  dug  from  any  confi- 
derablc  depth  ;  fo  that  this  plant,  and  thiflles,  arc  ufual- 
ly  the  firfl  that  appear  on  the  banks  of  deep  ditches 
formed  in  a  clayey  foil.  All  animals  delight  to  eat  it  ; 
but,  from  the  dry  aromatic  tafte  it  polfelfcs,  it  would 
fecin  pe  uliarly  favourable  tothe  conllitution  of  (hcep. 
It  fecms  altogether  unfit  for  hay.  67 

Bclides  thefc  plants,    which  are  natives  of  Great  Lucerne- 
Britain  there  arc  others,  which,  though  natives  of 
other  countries,  are  found  to  thrive  very  well  in  Bri- 
tain ;  and  have  been  raifed  with  fuch  fncccfs  by  indi- 
viduals, 


66 

Achillxa 
millefo- 
lium. 


AGRICULTURE 


vidiials^as  highly  to  merit  the  attcntionofcv  cry  fanner. 
■  y^inoni];  thcfc  llic  /iift  place  is  claimed  by  lucerne. 

'1  his  is  the  I'lant  called  >,i:dica  by  the  aiicicius,  bc- 
caufe  it  came  criminally  from  Media,  and  on  the  culture 
of  which  they  beuowtd  fucli  great  care  and  pains.  It 
hath  a  perennial  ro3t,and  annual  ftalks,  \vhicli,in  good 
foil,  rile  to  three  fcct,or  fometimcs  more  in  height;  its 
leaves  grow  at  a  joint  like  t  hole  of  clover  ;  the  flowers 
which  appear  in  June,  arc  purple,  and  its  pods  of  a 
fcrew-likelhapc,  containing  feeds  which  ripen  in  Sep- 
tember. All  forts  of  doincllic  cattle  arc  i'ond  of  this 
plant,  efpecially  when  allowed  to  eat  it  green, and  black 
cattlcmay  be  fed  very  well  with  the  hay  made  from  it; 
but  an  excels  of  tiiis  food  is  faid  to  be  very  dangerous. 

Lucerne  has  the  property  of  growing  very  quickly 
after  it  is  cut  down,  iufomuch  that  Air  Rocijuc  has 
mowed  it  five  times  in  a  fcafon,  and  Mr  Andcrfon  af- 
tirins  he  has  cut  it  no  lefs  ihun  fi.\  times.  It  is,  how- 
cvcr,noiveryea(ily  cultivated;  in  confequcnceof which 
it  fomciiracsdocs  not  fucceed;  and  as  it  dies  entirely  in 
the  winter,  it  is  perhaps  inferior  to  the  fefcuc  gniUcs 
already  mentioned, wliich.tho'  defpifedand  negletlcd, 
might  pri)b:ib!y  yield  as  rich  a  crop  as  lucerne,  w  ith- 
out  any  danger  of  a  mifcarrijge. 

j^nothergrafs  was  brought  from  Virginia,  where  it 
J5  a  native,  and  fown  by  Rocquc  in  1 765.  This  grafs 
is  called  T/wc/A)',  from  its  being  brought  from  New- 
York  to  Carolina  by  one  Timothy  Hanfon.  Itgrows 
bell  in  a  wet  foil  ;  but  will  thrive  in  almoll  any.  If  it 
is  fown  in  Angnd,  it  will  be  lit  for  cutting  in  the  latter 
end  of  May  or  beginning  of  June.  HoriVs  are  very 
fond  of  it,  and  will  leave  lucerne  to  eat  it.  It  is  alfo 
preferred  by  black  cattle  and  Ihecp  ;  for  a  fquarc  piece 
of  land  having  been  divided  into  four  equal  parts,  and 
one  part  fowcd  with  lucerne,  another  with  fau-foin,  a 
third  with  clover,  and  the  fourth  with  timothy,  fome 
horfes,  black  cattle,  and  Ihecp,  were  turned  into  it, 
when  the  plants  were  all  in  a  condition  for  paflurage  ; 
and  the  timothy  was  eaten  quite  bare,  before  the  clover, 
lucerne,  or  fan-foin,  was  touched. 

One  valuable  property  of  this  grafs  is,  that  its  roots 
arc  fo  Ilrong  and  interwoven  with  one  anotlicr,  that 
they  render  the  wettefl  and  foftcll  land,  on  which  a 
horfe  could  not  find  fouling,  firm  enough  to  bear  the 
heavieftcart.  Wiihthe  view  of  improving  boggy  lands, 
therefore,  fo  as  to  prevent  their  being  poached  with  the 
feet  of  cattle,  Mr  Andcrfon  recommends  the  cultiva- 
tion of  this  kind  of  grafs,  from  which  he  has  little 
expcdation  in  other  refpefts. 

Sect.  VII.  Of  th.-  Difiafes  if  Plants. 

Th  ESE  r)re  divided  byTournefort  into  the  following 
clalTes.  i.  Thole  nhicharifc  from  too  great  an  abun- 
dance of  juice  ;  2.  Krom  having  too  little  ;  ?.  From  its 
bad  qualities  ;  4.  From  its  unequal  diftribuiion  ;  and 
5.  From  external  accidents. 

Too  great  an  abundance  of  juices  caufes  at  firft  a 
prodigious  luxuriant  growth  of  the  ves;etable  ;  fo  that 
it  does  not  come  to  the  rcquifite  pertedion  in  a  due 
time. Wheat  is  fubiect,iii  fome  climates,  toatUfeafe  of 
this  kind  ;  it  vegetates  cxcellively,  without  ever  car- 
rying ripe  grain  ;  and  the  fame  difeife  may  be  .iriiti- 
cially  produced  in  any  grain,  by  planting  it  in  too  rich 
a  foil.  Too  much  rain  is  apt  likewife  to  do  the  fame. 
Wlicn  a  vegetable  isfupplicd  too  abundantly  withjui- 

VOL.  I. 


70 


ces,  it  is  very  apt  10  rot ;  one  part  of  it  ovcrlliadowirg 
another  in  fucii  a  manner  as  to  prevent  the  accefs  of 
frclh  air  ;  upon  which  ]'utrcfaction  foontnfucs,  as  has 
been  already  obfcrved  uitli  regard  tothcftfcuc  graflcs. 

In  grafb,  or  any  herbaceous  pLr.t,  where  the  leaves  Smtt  i« 
are  only  wanted,  thisovcr  luxniiancy  cannot  bccaUcti  -rain, 
a  difcafc,  but  is  a  very  dclirablc  property  ;  but  in  any 
kind  of  grain,  it  isquite  otherwilc.  Dr  Home,  in  his 
Printiplcsol  Agriculture  and  Vcgetation,'jlairesthcy}/ia/ 
in  grain  among  the  difcafcs  ariliiigfrom  this  caufc.  He 
is  of  opinion,  that  too  great  an  abundanceof  j'liccs  in  a 
vcgctabld  will  produce  difcafcs  fimilar  to  ihofe  occa- 
lioned  by  repletion  in  animal  bodies  ;  viz.  Aag'.ialious, 
corruptions,  varices,  cariohties,  &c.  along  with  the  too 
great  luxuriancy  we  have  juit  now  mentioned,  which 
he  expreires  \)y  "  too  great  an  abundance  of  water- 
llioots."  Hence  he  is  induced  to  clafs  the  fniut  among 
difcafes  arifing  from  this  caufc  ;  it  being  a  corruption 
happening  moll  in  rainy  fcafons,  and  to  weak  grain. 
Like  other  contagious  difcafcs,  he  tells  us,  the  fmut 
may  be  communicated  from  the  infefled  to  healthful  :• 
grain.  As  a  preventative,  hereconnnends  (let)iing  the  How  prc- 
grainin  a  ilrong  pickle  of  fca-falt.  iielidcs  the  tftcft  """"*• 
which  this  has  upon  the  grain  itfclf,  it  is  ufefiil  for  fc- 
parating  the  good  from  the  bad  ;  the  bell  feed  falling  to 
the  bottom,  and  the  faulty  fwimming  on  the  top  of  the 
liquor.  For  the  fame  purpofe,  aley  of  wood-alhes  and 
quicklime  is  recommended  by  fome  ;  and, by  others,-.', 
folutionof  faltpetrc  orc<ipperas;  after  which  thcgrain 
is  to  be  dried  with  (lacked  lime,  or  dry  turf  afhcs.  This 
fulution,  however,  we  can  by  no  means  recommend,  as 
it  feenis  mod  likely  to  kill  the  grain  entirely.  71 

According  to  Dr  Home,  dung  is  a  preventative  of  Difeafe* 
difeafesarilingfrom  too  great  moillurc;  in  confirmation  '^'""  <°°  . 
ofwhich,hc  relates  the  foUowinjjexperiment.  "  Two  ^""  ,"""' 

c  1  u  •    t    1      I  ilurc,  how 

acres  of  poor  ground,  which  had  never  got  any  ma-  pi^venttd. 
nure,  were  fallowed  with  a  defign  to  be  fown  with 
wheat  ;  but  the  fchcme  being  altered,  fome  dung  was 
laid  on  a  fniall  part  of  it,  and  the  whole  fowed,  after  it 
had  got  five  furrows,  with  barley.  A  great  quantity 
of  rain  fell.  The  barley  on  that  part  which  was  dung- 
ed was  very  good  ;  but  what  was  on  the  reft  of  the 
field  turned  yellow  after  the  rains,  and  when  ripe  was 
not  worth  the  reaping."  -. 

The  want  of  nourilhmcnt   in  plants  may  be  cafily  DifL-aVe  pe- 
knovvn  by  their  decay  ;  in  which  cal"c,thc  only  remedy  culiir  to 
is,  to  fupply  them  with  food,  accordingto  the  methods  faffron, 
we  have  already  direded,or  to  remove  from  their  ncgh- 
bourhood  fuch  other  plants  as  may  draw  olFthe  nou- 
riihment  from  thofc  we  wilh  to  cultivate. — In  the  Me- 
moirs of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  for  172S,  Mr  Du 
Haniel  mentions  a  difcafe,  which  he  calls/,?  7nort,  that 
attacks  falfrcn  in  the  fpring.     It  is  owing  to  another 
plant,  a  fpecies  of  trefoil,  fixing  fome  violet-coloured 
thrcaos,  which  are  its  roots,  to  the  roots  of  the  fafFron, 
and  fucking  out  its  juice.     This  difcafe  is  prevented 
by  digging  a  trench,  whicii  favcs  all  the  uiiaflccled,  74 

The  bad  qualities,  or  unequal  diltributions,  of  the  Vcpcublet 
juiccsof  plants, arc  the  occafionof  fo  few  of  the  difcafcs  dcftroycd 
to  which  vegetables  in  every  country  are  fiibje.'l,  th.it  '')'"fe>-1s 
wc  ft>rbear  to  mention  tlicin  at  prcfent.     Moll  of  the 
difcafcs  of  plants  are  owing  to  external  accidents,  par- 
ticularly to  the  depredations  of  infcfts — The  inic  -Is 
by  which  the  grcatell  devaftations  are  comuiittcd  in 
Great  Britain  are,  fuails,caiicrpillars,  grubs,  and  files. 
Thefnailsand  catterpillarsfcedonthelcavcsandyoung 
L  1  Ihoots  ; 


266 


y\    G     R     I     C     U     L     T     U     R     E, 


Tart  I. 


Theory.    Ihooii  ;  by  vs  liicli  means  ihry  ol'itn  lotally  deftroy  the 

' — ""^ '  vcgttai  Ic.   Where  llic  plants  arc  oi  cai'y  accels,  ihclc 

Infcdsdc-  ^'^'''"''1  "'^y  be  dcAroycil  by  I'prinkling  the  vegetable 
(troyed  Uy  ^^''1^  liiiie-watcr  ;  lor  quitk-liine  is  mortal  poilon  to 
limcwatcr,  creatures  of  this  kind,  aiiJ  throws  ihem  into  the  great- 
c/\  agonies  the  moment  they  are  touched  with  it.  On 
trees,  however,  where  this  method  cannot  fo  well  be 
lollowcd,  fnmigaiion  is  the  moll  proper  ;  and,  for  tliis 
purpofc,  nothing  is  better  than  the  fmokc  of  vcge- 
t.'.bUs  not  perfectly  dry.  hi  fume  cafes  the  eggs  of 
thcfe  dellroying creatures  niay  be  obfcrved,  and  ought 
without  doubt  immediately  to  be  taken  away.  On  liic 
fruit  trees,  as  apples,  pear.s,  medlars,  on  feme  forell- 
trces,  the  oak  and  dwarf-maple  efpccially,  and  the 
white  and  blackthorn  in  hedges,  a  kind  of  little  tufts 
are  to  be  cjbftrvtd,  rtfenibling,  at  tirll  light,  withered 
leaves  twilUd,  by  cobweb,  about  the  uppermolt  twigs 
or  branches.  Ihefc  contain  a  vail  number  of  little  black 
eggs,  that  in  llie  fpring  produce  fwarnis  of  caterpillars 
which  devour  every  thing.  To  prevent  tliis,  all  tlie 
twigs  on  which  ihcfc  cobwebs  appear  Ihonld  be  taken 
off  and  burnt  as  foon  as  podible.  This  ought  to  be 
done  before  the  end  of  March,  that  none  of  the  eggs 

76  be  allowed  fufficient  time  for  hatching. 

Crabs.  1  he  grubo  arc  a  kind  of  worms  which  deflroy  the 

corn  by  feeding  upon  its  roots  ;  they  are  transformed 
every  fourth  year  into  the  beetles  called  cock-chaffen, 
iiiay'bugi,  &c.  they  arc  very  dellruclivc  when  in  their 
vermicular  Hate, and  cinuot  then  bedeflroycd  becaufe 
they  go  deep  in  the  ground.  When  become  beetles, 
theyconceal  themfelves  under  theleavesof  trecs,whcre 
they  feem  aileep  till  near  funfet,  when  they  take  their 
flight.  It  is  only  now  that  they  can  be  dellroyed,  and 
that  by  a\cry  laboriousnulhod  ;  namely, by  fprcading 
pack-llieets  below  the  trees  in  the  day-time  when  the 
I  beetles  are  in  their  torpid  /late,  then  ihaking  them  oft 

and  burning  them.  Some  time  ago,  they  made  fuch 
devaflationsiu  the  county  of  Norfolk,  that  feveral  far- 
mers were  entirely  ruined  by  them  ;  one  gathered  So 
buflrels  of  thel'e  inlefts  from  the  trees  which  grew  on 
hisfarni.  It  is  (aid  that,  in  i  574,  there  fell  fuch  a 
multitude  of  thefc  inlec'ls  into  tlic  ri\er  Severn,  that 
they  llopped  and  clogged  the  wheels  of  the  water- 

77  mills. 

Turnip  fly.      Turnips,  when  young,  are  apt  to  be  totally  dellroyed 
by  a  multitude  of  little  black  flies,  from  thence  called 
t\\cturiiif-fy.     As  a  preventative  of  thefe,  fome  ad- 
vifc  the  feed  to  be  mixed  with  brimllone  ;  but  this  is 
improper,  as  brimllone  is  found  to  be  poifonous  to  ve- 
getables.    The  bed  method  feems  to  be  the  fumiga- 
tion of  the  fields  wiih  fuioke  of  half-dried  vegetables. 
-8         For  this  purpofc  weeds  will  anfwer  as  well  as  any. 
Prevcntrd  This  fumugaion  mufl  no  doubt  be  often  repeated,  in 
byfumiga-  order  to  driveawrty  the  innumerable  nuillitudcsof  thtle 
tioii,  &c.    infecis  which  are  capable  of  dcAroyingalarge  field  of 
turnip. 

Some  h'vefuppofed  that  the  fly  is  either  engendered 
in  new  dung,  or  enticed  by  it  ;  and  have  therefore  ad- 
vifed  tlie  manure  to  be  laid  on  in  the  autumn  preced- 
ing, by  which  it  lofes  all  its  noxious  qualities,  v.hilc 
its  nutritive  ones  .ire  retained,  notwithflanding  thcfe 
mi';hi  be  fuppofcd  liable  in  fome  degree  to  be  exhaled 
by  the  fun.  This  method  is  faid  to  have  been  afcer- 
t;;ined  by  experiments  ;  and  it  is  added,  that  another 
material  advantage  accruing  from  autumn  manuring  for 


turnips  is,  that  all  the  feeds  contained  in  the  ilung,and    I'l'licory. 

w  hicli  of  courfc  arc  carried  onihe  laud  with  it,  vege- ' 

tate  almoil  immediately,  are  mollly  killed  by  the  fe- 
verity  of  the  winter,  and  the  few  that  remain  fcldom 
avoid  dcllrucUon  from  the  pKnigh-lharc.  79 

The  (oUowing  method  ot  lowing  has  alfo  been  re-  Various  re- 
commended as  a  preventative  of  the  (iy  : — "  About  "";^"^' ^^ 
^!idfumlncr,  take  the  lirll  opportunity  when  It  rairis,  t-'^'""  „ 
or  there  is  an  apparent  certaimy  ot  ram  approaching,  ' 
to  fow  your  turnip,  feed  ;  if  about  the  full  moon,  the 
better.  In  this  caie,  luiiher  h  ;rrow,  brulh,  nor  roll, 
after  fowiiig.  The  naiur.il  heat  of  the  ground  at  that 
feafon,  and  the  confequent  fermentation  occalioncd  by 
copious  rain,  will  give  an  allonilhin^ly  quick  vegeta- 
tion to  the  feed,  which  in  a  few  days  will  be  up  ami  out 
of  all  danger  from  the  rly.  .At  all  events,  fov.  not  till  it 
rains  ;  it  is  better  to  wait  a  month,  or  even  longer,  for 
rain,  than  to  low  (merely  for  the  fake  of  fowingabout 
the  uAial  time)when  the  ground  is  parched  witii  heat. 
By  the  fcorching  of  the  fun,  the  oil  and  vegetative 
quality  of  the  feed  arc  exhaufled  j  and  the  few  weak 
plants  ihat  come  up  w  ill  be  dellroyed  by  the  Hy  before 
theycan  attain  llrength  to  put  forth  their  rough  leaves. 
The  rly  infells  the  ground  abundanily  in  dry  hotwea- 
tlier,  but  docs  no  injury  in  rain.  The  falling  rain  will 
futlicicntly  walh  the  turnip-feed  into  the  ground  with- 
out harrowing  it  in  ;  which,  inllcad  of  merely  cover- 
ing, too  often  buries  thisfmall  leed  at  fo  great  a  depth, 
as  never  afterwards  to  get  above  ground." 

The  following  remedies  are  alfo  recommended  aj 
having  often  proved  fuccefsful : — Afmall  quantity  of 
foot  fown  over  the  land  at  their  firlt  appearance.  Bran- 
ches of  elder  witli  the  leaves  bruifed, drawn  in  a  grate 
over  them.  Mulk  mixed  with  the  feed  before  it  is 
fown.  And  fulpluir  burnt  under  it,  after  moiftcning 
it  wiih  water  in  which  tobacco  has  been  fleeped. 

But  Ihowcrs  on  the  plants  as  foon  as  they  appear  a- 
bove  ground, are  elleemed  the  bell  prefcrvativcs.  They 
enfeeble  and  kill  the  fly,  and  hallen  the  plants  into  the 
rough  leaf,  in  which  flaie  they  are  out  of  danger. 

The  fweet  fmellof  the  turnip  has  been  thought  to 
attract  the  fly  ;  upon  which  luppoliiion,  the  remedy 
appeared  to  conlill  in  overpowering  that  finell  by  one 
w  hich  is  lliong,  fetid,  and  difagreeable.  Hence  it  has 
been  recommended,  that  upon  an  acre  of  turnips  fown 
in  the  ufual  way,  a  peck  or  more  of  dry  foot  be 
thrown  after  the  ground  is  riniihed,  and  in  as  regular 
a  way  as  he  fows  the  feed.  „ 

Some  time  ago  an  infeiJl,  called  the  corii-biitterfiy,  q^^^^  (j^, 
committed  fuch  ravages  w  hile  in  its  vermicular  ftaie,  tcrfly. 
in  France,  that  upwards  of  200  pariflies  were  ruined 
by  it  ;  and  the  miuiftry  offered  a  reward  to  the  difco- 
verer  uf  an  effeclual  remedy  againll  this  dellroying 
worm.  The  cure  which  was  at  lall  difcoverej,  was 
to  heat  the  corn,  in  an  oven,  fo  much  as  not  to  de- 
flroy its  vegetative  power,  but  fufRciently  to  deflroy 
ihefmall  W'orms  which  made  their  nefl  in  the  fubflance 
of  the  grain,  and  at  lafl  cjt  out  the  fubflance  fo  com- 
pletely that  nothing  could  be  got  from  the  hulk,  even 
by  boiling  it  in  water.  It  is  certain,  that  though  in- 
fers can  bear  a  greai  deal  of  cold,  they  arc  ealily  de- 
flroyed  by  a  flight  degree  of  heat ;  nor  is  the  vegeta- 
tive power  of  corn  ealily  deflroy ed, even  when  kept  for 
a  long  time  in  a  pretty  llrong  heat.  This  method  muft 
therefore  be  very  effectual  for  dellroying  all  kinds  of 

infcds 


AGRICULTURE. 


8i 

The  curled 
difcarc  in 
potatoes. 


f.1 
Various 
methods  of 
prevention. 


infects  with  which  grain  iiapt  to  be  iiifcdcd  :  but  care 
niuft  be  taken  not  to  apply  too  great  a  heat  ;  and  the 
adjiiftingof  the  prccifc  degree  necclFary  to  Jfflroy  the 
infect,  wiih-iut  hurting thccorn,  will  be  attended  with 
fonic  difiicuity. 

The  curkd  difeafc  in  potatoes  has  long  been  a  fiib- 
jeft  of  invelUgatiou  and  experiment  among  farmers; 
and  the  knowledge  of  its  caiifc  and  cure  fcems  yet  to 
rcmai.T  a  defideratnni.  The  Agricultural  Society  at 
Mancheflcr,  a  few  years  ago,  oifcred  a  premium  for 
difcovcring  by  actual  experiment  the  ciufc  of  the  dif- 
eafc in  qucltion  ;  and  a  great  variety  of  letters  were, 
inconfequence,addrciredtoihcin  upon  the  fubjecl. — As 
thefe  contain  many  interedingobfcrvationsbothon  the 
difeafc  itfelfand  the  beil  methods  hitherto  adopted  for 
preventing  it,  the  following  abllra^.^  of  them  may  not 
improperly  be  introduced  in  this  place. 

I.  According  to  the  writer  of  the  iirft  letter,  this 
difeafc  is  caufcd  by  an  infect  produced  by  frofl  or  bad 
keeping  before  fctting  ;  and  the  newefl  kinds,  fuch  as 
have  been  raifed  within  thefe  nine  or  t^ii  years,  are 
moil  apt  to  curl,  becaufe  they  will  not  (land  to  be  kc;t 
in  winter  and  fpring  before  fetting,  as  the  old  kinds 
will.  In  autumn  1776,  he  got  up  a  bed  of  potatoes 
to  lay  by  in  winter,  leaving  plenty  in  the  ground  as 
regular  as  poflible  ;  and,  before  the  fevcriiy  of  winter 
came  on,  covered  part  of  the  bed  with  Qraw  and  peafe- 
haulm,  and  left  the  other  part  of  the  bed  uncovered. 
That  part  of  the  bed  which  was  covered  w.is  quite  free 
from  curled  ones  ;  but  the  uncovered  part  produced  a 
great  many  curled,  owing,  as  the  writer  fays,  to  froft 
and  fevcrity  of  the  weather. 

II.  This  writer  had  about  a  quarter  of  an  acre  of 
potatoes,  well  manured  with  cow  and  horfc  dung,  and 
took  thegreateft  care  in  picking  the  fine  fmooth-ikinned 
potatoes  for  fets  ;  yet  nine  out  often  parts  were  curled. 
He  attributes  the  caufe  of  this  difeafc  to  a  white  grub  or 
infect,  which  he  found  near  the  root,  about  half  an 
inch  long,  with  eight  or  ten  legs,  its  head  brown  and 
hard  ;  as  upon  examining  a  number  of  the  curled  roots, 
he  found  them  all  bitten,  chicriy  from  the  furface  to 
tlic  root,  which  of  courfe  flopped  the  progrefs  of  the 
lap,  and  threw  the  leaf  into  a  curl.  The  uncurled 
roots  were  not  bitten.  He  tried  a  few  experiments  as 
follow  : — Kirll,  he  put  foot  to  the  infects  in  the  rows 
for  two  days  ;  and  after  that,  he  put  lime  to  them  for 
the  fame  time,  but  they  (till  kept  lively  ;  next  he. put 
a  little  fait,  which  dellroyed  them  in  a  few  hours. 
From  which  he  infers,  that  if  coarfe  fait  were  put  into 
the  ground  at  the  time  the  land  is  preparing  for  pota- 
toes, it  would  eft'ectually  cure  this  diflemper. 

III.  In  this  letter,  the  caufe  of  the  difeafe  is  attri- 
buted to  the  method  of  earthing  the  Items  while  in  cul- 
tivation ;  and  the  branch,  ftriking  root  into  the  new 
earthcd-up  foil,  it  is  laid,  produces  potatoes  of  fuch  a 
nature  as  the  year  following  to  caufe  the  difeafc  com- 
plained of. 

.To  prevent  the  difeafe,  it  is  recommended  to  take 
the  fets  from  thofe  potatoes  that  have  not  bred  any 
from  the  branch  covered  ;  or  otherwifc,  to  dig  the 
part  the  fets  are  to  be  raifed  from. 

IV.  According  to  this  writer,  the  difordcr  proceeds 
from  potatoes  btingfctia  old-tilled  or  worn-out  ground; 
for  though  rhofc  potatoes  may  look  tolerably  well,  yet 
their  fets  will  moft,  if  not  all,  produce  curled  potatoes. 


Hence  he  is  convinced,  that  no  kn  otij/ht  to  bp  nied  The 
from  old-tilled  or  couch-grafs  land  ;  and  t[)at,  in  order 
to  have  good  lets,  they  Ihould  be  procured  from  land 
that  was  purpofely  fallowed  for  them  ;  from  frefli  Icy 
land,  where  tliey  arc  not  curled  ;  or  from  ley  land  that 
w-as  burnt  lall  fpring.  He  directs  to  plant  tlicm  on 
virgin  mould,  and  the  potatoes  w  ill  have  no  curled  one.^ 
amongft  them  ;  and  to  keep  them  fur  winter,  from  any 
other  kind. 

To  avoid  the  uncertainty  of  getting  good  fets,  lie 
recommends  crabs  to  be  gathered  trom  potatoes  grov,-- 
ing  this  year  on  frelli  land  free  from  curl,  and  the  next 
fpring  to  fow  them  on  frclh  ley  land  ;  and  continue  to 
plant  their  fets  on  freih  ley  lajid  yearly,  which  he  is 
convinced  will  prevent  the  curl. 

All  the  good  potatoes  he  faw  this  year,  eitlicr  on 
frelh  ley  land  or  on  old-tilkd  land,  were  raifed  from 
fets  that  grew  upon  fredi  ley  land  lad  year ;  and  where 
he  has  feen  curled  potatoes,  he  found,  upon  inq'.-iry, 
the  potato-fets  grew  upon  old-tilled  and  worn-out  land 
lall  year.  He  gives  as  a  general  reafon  for  the  difor- 
der,  that  the  land  is  oftener  cropt  than  it  had  ufed  to 
be,  much  more  corn  being  now  raifed  than  formerly. 

V.  In  1772)  this  writer  planted  forae  potatoes  by 
accident  full  nine  inches  deep  :  when  taken  up,  many 
of  the  plants  were  rotted,  and  a  few  curled.  He  kept 
the  whole  produce  for  feed,  and  planted  two  acres  with 
it  in  I  773,  not  quite  fix  inches  deep.  The  crop  was 
amazingly  great ;  and  he  did  not  obferve  any  curled 
plants  among  them.  In  1774,  many  of  thefe  were 
planted  in  dilferent  foils;  yet  they  were  fo  infefted 
with  the  curled  difeafe,  that  not  one  in  twenty  efcaped. 
In  I  77  J,  the  complaint  of  this  difeafe  became  general. 
In  1 776,  it  occurred  to  him  that  the  good  crop  of  1 773 
was  owing  to  tlic  accidental  deep  felting  of  i  772  ;  and 
that  the  reafon  why  the  fame  feed  became  curled  in 
1 774)  ^\'as  their  being  fet  fo  near  the  furface  in  i  773  ; 
and  attributes  the  difeafe  totlie  practice  of  cbb-fctting. 
In  1777)  he  took  fome  potatoes  from  a  crop  that  was 
curled  the  year  before,  and  after  cutting  the  fets,  lefc 
them  in  a  dry  room  for  a  month.  Half  were  planted 
in  ground  dug  fourteen  days  before  ;  the  other  half, 
having  been  lleeped  inabriue  madeofwhirilcr'salhes 
for  two  hours,  were  alfo  planted  in  the  fame  land  at 
the  fame  time.  The  ftceped  ones  came  up  ten  days 
before  the  others,  and  hardly  any  milFcd  or  were  curl- 
ed. The  unlleeped  ones  generally  failed,  and  thofe 
few  that  came  up  were  mollly  curled. 

He  therefore  .idvifed  as  a  remedy,  I.  That  the  po- 
tatoes intended  for  next  year's  fet5  be  planted  nine  in- 
ches deep.  2.  That  they  remain  in  the  ground  as  long 
as  the  feafon  will  permit.  3.  That  thefe  fets  be  well 
defended  from  froll  till  the  beginning  of  March.  4. 
That  the  lets  be  cut  a  fortnight  before  planting,  j. 
That  they  be  lleeped,  as  above,  two  hours  in  biine  or 
ley.  6.  That  the  dung  be  put  cvfr  the  fets.  And 
7-  Th:it  frelh  fets  be  got  every  year  from  fandy  foils 
near  the  coaft,  or  on  the  fliore. 

P.  S.  At  planting,  the  hard  dry  fets  fliould  be  cad 
afide,  for  they  will  probably  be  curled.  Curled  pota- 
toes always  proceed  from  fets  which  do  not  rot  or  pu- 
trefy in  the  ground. 

VI.  Tliis  writer  had  five  drills  of  the  old  red  pota- 
toes, and  four  of  the  wintrr  whites,  growing  at  :!ie 
fame  time  in  the  fame  field.     Thcdrills  were  prepared 

L  1  2  cxaflly 


267 


A    C;     R     1     C     U     L     T     U     R     E. 


Part.  I. 


cxacUy  alike.  Among  the  red  not  one  was  curled  ; 
the  winter  wiiitcs  were  nearly  all  curled.  He  fays  he 
has  t'oiiiid  by  experience,  that  the  re  1  never  curl. 

Vll.  Two  of  the  writer's  neighbours  had  their  fcts 
out  of  one  licap  of  potatoes.  Tlicy  botli  fet  with  the 
plough,  the  one  early,  and  the  other  late  in  thcfca- 
fon.  Mod  of  thofc  early  let  proved  curled,  and  moll 
of  ihofe  fet  late  fmooth  ;  the  latter  on  cl^y  land. 

A  few  roods  of  land  were  alfo  planted  with  fiiiall 
potatoes,  which  had  lain  I'prcad  on  a  chamber  lioor  all 
the  winter  and  fpring,  till  the  middle  of  May.  They 
were  foft  and  withered  ;  they  proved  fmooth  and  a 
.rood  cn-p.  Middlc-fizcd  potatoes,  withered  and  foft, 
which  had  been  kept  in  a  larg-c  dry  cellar,  and  the 
fproutb  of  w  hieh  had  been  broken  otl'tliree  times,  pro- 
d'jccd  alfo  a  fmooth  good  crop. 

Hence  he  was  led  to  think  a  fuperfluity  of  f.ip,  oc- 
cafioncd  by  the  feed  being  unripe,  might  caufe  the  dif- 
c;;fe.  To  be  fr.tistied  in  this,  he  alkcd  the  farmer  w  he- 
ihcr  he  had  fet  any  of  the  fame  potatoes  this  year,  and 
wiiat  was  the  nature  of  his  land  .'  He  told  him  "  he 
h:;d  :  that  they  had  been  feton  his  farm  fourtce.i  years, 
without  ever  curling  ;  that  his  foil  was  a  poor  whitiilt 
fand  of  little  depth  ;  that  he  let  thofc  he  defigned  for 
keeping  grow  till  they  were  fully  ripe." 

Hence  he  concludes,  the  only  fure  way  to  prevent 
the  curl  is,  to  let  potatoes  intended  for  feed  ftand  till 
they  are  fully  ripe,  and  to  keep  them  dry  all  winter. 

VIII.  This  writer  fet  a  quantity  of  the  red  potatoes, 
without  having  a  curled  one  amongft  them.  Hisme- 
thod  is,  when  the  fets  are  cut,  to  pick  out  fuch  as  are 
reddell  in  the  iulide.  On  digging  them  up  at  Mi- 
chaelmas, he  mixes  none  of  the  curled  feed  among  the 
others.  The  curled  are  eafily  dilVinguilhed,  by  their 
Italks  withering  two  months  before  the  refl  of  the 
crop. 

The  caufe  of  the  curled  difeafe  he  attributes  to  po- 
tatoes being  of  late  years  produced  from  feed  inllead 
of  roots,  as  formerly.  Such  will  not  Hand  good  mr.rc 
than  two  or  three  years,  ufe  what  method  you  pleafc. 
Laft  fpring,  he  fet  the  old  red  and  white  raflcLS,  and 
had  not  a  curled  potato  amongfl  them. 

On  the  lime-llone  hnd  about  Denbigh,  in  North 
Wales,  they  have  no  curled  potatoes.  If  this  be  ow- 
ing to  the  nature  of  that  land,  perhaps  lime  might 
prevent  tlie  difeafe. 

IX.  According  to  this  writer,  all  forts  of  grain 
wear  out  and  turn  wild  if  fown  too  long  on  the  fame 
land;  the  fame  will  hold  good  in  all  forts  of  pulfe, 
peafe,  beans,  and  (as  he  conceives)  potatoes.  It  ge- 
nerally happens,  that  thofe  who  have  moft  curled  po- 
tatoes plant  very  fmal!  fets. 

Eleven  years  ago  he  bought  a  parcel  of  frefh  fets,  of 
the  golden-dun  kind,  and  has  ufed  them  without  change 
to  the  prefcnt  year,  without  any  being  curled.  This 
he  principally  attributes  to  liis  having  always  planted 
good  large  fets. 

About  four  years  fince,  he  thought  of  changing  his 
fets,  as  his  potatoes  were  too  fmooth,  too  rourij,  and 
much  diminiflicd  in  fize.  But  the  curl  at  that  time 
begirning  to  be  very  alarming,  he  continued  his  fets 
till  part  of  his  crop  milTing  Ufl  year,  he  was  obliged  to 
buy  new  fets  this  fpring,  which,  being  linall,  were 
curled  like  other  peoples. 


He  allows,  that  the  curl  lias  frequently  happened  to    Theory. 

pcrfiins  who  have  ufed  large  potatoes  for  fets  ;  -for,  as   -' — 

all  roots  are  not  equally  attcCtcd,  fome  curled  ones  may 
be  mixed  with  tlic  rcll. 

To  prevent  the  evil,  cut  your  fets  from  clean  and 
niiddle-lizcd  potatoes,  gathered  from  places  as  clear  of 
the  curl  as  poliiblc  ;  preferve  ihcm  as  iifual  till  fpring. 
If  any  arc  harder  or  gralh  more  in  cutting  than  ufual, 
call  them  afide.  He  would  alfo  rccouiuicnd  the  railing 
a  frefh  fort  front  the  crab  produced  on  the  forts  Icalt 
alt'cdlcd,  which  in  Lancalhire  are  the  long-duns. 

X.  Set  potatoes  with  the  fprits  broke  ott',  and  they 
will  (fays  the  writer  ot  this  letter)  be  curled  ones  j  if 
fet  with  the  fprits  on,  they  W'ill  not  be  curled.  Again, 
take  a  potato  which  is  fprit,  and  cut  a  fet  off  with  two 
lights  :  break  one  fprit  oif,  and  let  the  other  Hay  on, 
and  fet  it  ;  the  former  will  be  curled,  and  the  la[ter 
will  not. 

AVhcn  yon  have  holed  your  potatoes,  take  them  out 
before  they  are  fprit,  and  lay  ihcm  dry  until  you  have 
fet  or  fown  them,  and  you  will  have  no  curled  pota- 
toes. 

XI.  This  writer  was  at  the  expence  of  procuring 
fets  at  fifty  miles  diflance,  and  where  this  difeafe  was 
not  known.  The  firll  year's  trial  was  fuccefsful  ;  the 
year  following  he  procured  fets  from  the  fame  place, 
but  one-fifth  of  his  crop  was  infefted.  By  way  of  ex- 
periment, he  planted  fets  from  roots  which  had  been  . 
infciSled  the  year  before,  and  fome  of  thefc  produced 
healthy  plants,  free  from  all  infeftion. 

As  every  cffcd  muft  have  a  caufe,  he  fuppofed  it 
might  be  fome  infect,  which,  living  on  the  leaves,  gave 
them  that  curled  and  lickly  appearance,  as  is  the  cafe 
in  the  leaves  of  many  flirubs  and  trees.  I5ut  whether 
the  infeil  is  lodged  in  the  old  fets,  and  to  be  dcflroyed 
at  the  time  of  planting,  or,  proceeding  from  fome  ex- 
ternal caufe,  can  only  be  dcllroyed  atterwards,  he  is 
not  yet  certain,  although  he  has  made  the  following 
cxpeiimcnts. 

On  a  piece  of  ground  tiat  had  not  been  dug  for  20 
years,  he  planted  four  rows  of  fcts,  which  he  knew  to 
be  perfectly  clear  ;  the  drills  were  two  feet  diflant,  the 
fets  one  foot  diflant  in  each  drill.  He  then  planted 
on  the  fame  ground  four  rows  with  fets  from  curled 
potatoes  at  equal  diflances  ;  in  each  row  were  about 
20  fets. 

Lot  ifl,  tlie  curled  fiate. 


N"  I. 


K°  3.  In  foot. 


4.  In  quicklime. 


N» 


Without  manure. 
In  fait. 

Lot  ;d,  the  clear  fcts. 
Without  manure,  I  N"  3.  In  foot, 
2.  In  fait,  I         4.  in  quicklime. 

Thofe  planted  in  fait  and  foot  in  both  lots  were  de- 
flroycd.  In  lot  I.  n°  I.  and  4.  all  curled.  Lotj.n"!. 
and  4.  quite  clear. 

This  experiment  was  made  on  a  fuppofition  that  the 
infeiS  lodged  in  the  fet,  and  niufl  be  deflroyed  by  plant- 
ing. But  of  that  he  is  not  fully  fatislied.  He  re- 
peated fait,  foot,  and  quicklime,  on  the  branches  of 
feveral  curled  potatoes.  Salt  deflroyed  all  he  touched 
with  it.  Lime  and  foot  had,  he  thought,  a  partial 
cffcift  on  the  plants.  After  fome  time,  they  appeared 
almofl  as  healthy  as  the  refl.  Thus,  although  he  had 
done  little  towards  the  cure,  te  flatters  himfclf  he  has 

pointed 


AGRICULTURE. 


pointed  ojt  the  caufe,  the  iiifcfls  on  the  cu:lcd  plants 
being  not  only  very  numerous,  but  viliblc  to  the  naked 

XII.  This  writer  afcribcs  the  caufc  ot  the  dilcafe 
to  the  froit,  and  bad  keeping  in  winter  and  Ipring  be- 
fore fetting.  They  arc  liable  to  be  damaged  by  ("roll 
aftcrlhey  arc  fct,  but  this  may  be  prevtntcd  by  cover- 
ing. If  it  be  aiked,  why  frolt  did  not  injure  them  for- 
merly ?  he  anfwcrs,  it  is  only  the  new  kinds  which 
are  apt  to  curl.  To  this  may  be  added,  that  Icfs  care  is 
now  taken  of  the  feed  than  formerly.  To  prevent  the 
latter,  let  them  remain  in  the  ground  covered  with 
haulm  or  litter,  till  the  time  they  arc  wanted  for  fet- 
ting ;  and,  in  cafe  no  fro  1 1  touches  them  afterwards, 
they  will  be  free  from  the  difcafc. 

XIII.  This  writer  fays,  the  red  potato  was  as  ge- 
nerally plan  ted  as  the  wintcr-whiteandthcLincolnlhirc 
kidney  are  now.  The  firfl,  being  a  later  potato,  did 
not  fprout  I'o  early  as  the  others.  The  white  fprout 
very  early,  and  therefore  Qiould  iirfl  be  moved  out  of 
the  place  where  they  have  been  prefcrved  in  the  winter. 
Inftcad  of  that,  they  are  often  let  remain  till  their 
roots  and  fprouts  are  matted  together.  On  feparating 
them,  thefe  fprouts  are  generally  rubbed  off,  and  they 
are  laid  by  till  the  ground  is  ready  ;  during  which  in- 
terval they  fprout  a  fecond  time  :  but  thcfc  fecond 
fprouts,  being  weak  and  languid,  will  Ihrink,  licken, 
and  die  ;  and  the  fruit  at  the  roots  will  be  fmall,  hard, 
ill  fliaped,  and  of  a  brown  colour. 

Now,  it  putting  off  the  fprouts  once  or  more,  be- 
fore the  fets  are  put  in  the  ground,  be  the  caufe  (as 
he  verily  believes  it  is)  of  the  curled  difeafe,  an  ealy 
remedy  is  at  hand.  When  the  pot.itocs  intended  for 
fets  are  dug  up,  lay  them  in  a  weft  afpeCl  as  dry  as 
polFible  :  in  fucha  lituaiion  they  will  not  fprout  fo  loon. 
The  belt  time  for  removing  mofl  forts,  is  the  firft  fine 
day  after  the  24th  of  February.  Cut  them  into  fets 
as  foon  as  polFible,  and  let  them  remain  covered  with 
dry  fand  till  the  ground  is  prepared,  which  Ihould  be 
a  winter  fallow.  Lay  the  fets  in  without  breaking  off 
any  of  the  fprouts,  for  the  fecond  will  not  be  fo  vigo- 
rous. This  accounts  for  one  fprout  out  of  three  from 
the  fame  fct  being  curled.  The  two  ftems  not  curled 
rofe  from  two  later  eyes,  and  were  tirfl  fprouts.  The 
fprout  curled  was  a  fecond,  the  Iirfl  having  been  rub- 
beil  off". 

XIV^  This  writer  fays,  that  lad  fpring  one  of  his 
neighbours  cut  and  fet,  in  the  ufual  way  of  drilling, 
fome  loads  of  the  largcll  potatoes  he  could  procure  ; 
and  more  than  half  of  them  proved  curled.  Being  a 
few  fets  Ihort  of  the  quantity  wanted,  he  planted  fome 
very  fmall  potatoes  which  he  had  laid  by  for  the  pigs. 
Thefe  being  fully  ripe  and  folid,  there  was  not  a  cur- 
led plant  among  them.  He  apprehends,  the  others 
being  curled  was  owing  to  their  not  being  fully  ripe. 
A  crop  of  potatoes,  fet  this  year  in  rows  on  ground 
that  had  borne  a  crop  of  them  lall  year,  were  niollly 
curled  ;  but  many  plants  came  up  from  feed  lel"t  in  the 
ground  lad  fcafon,  and  there  was  not  a  curled  one 
among  them. 

XV.  Of  late  years,  this  writer  fays,  great  improve- 
ments have  been  made  in  fetting  potatoes  and  cutting 
the  fets.  The  ground  is  drclfcd  cleaner  and  dunged 
ftronger.  Many  people,  in  drilling,  wrap  up  the  fets 
eijtircly  in  the  dung  ;  by  which  means,  though  their 


potatoes  are  larger,  the  difeafe  feenis  to  be increafcd. 
They  alfo  cut  their  fets  out  of  the  richcfland  largefl 
potatoes,  which  is  perhaps  another  caufe  of  this  evil. 
Jn  cold  countries,  where  they  fet  th^rir  own  feed, 
which  has  grown  on  poor  land,  with  Icfs  dung,  they 
have  no  curled  plants.  On  the  contrary,  when  they 
bought  rich  and  lirgc  potatoes  for  feed,  they  have 
been  curled  in  great  quantities.  He  believes,  the 
richncfs  and  largenefs  of  the  feed  to  be  the  caufe  of 
the  evil  ;  for  he  docs  not  ren:ember  to  have  fecn  a 
curled  Hem  which  did  not  fpring  from  a  fet  of  a  largo 
potato. 

XVI.  This  writer  apprehends  the  curled  difeafe  ill 
potatoes  to  proceed  from  a  de fedl  in  the  f/aita /fmina  - 
Ih,  or  feed-plant  ;  and  from  comparing  curled  ones 
with  others,  there  appeared  to  be  a  want  of,  or  ina- 
bility in,  the  powers  of  expanding  or  unfolding  the 
parts  of  the  former  ;  which,  from  this  defctJl,  forms 
Ihrivclled,  ftarvcd,  curled  Hems.  On  examining  fome 
of  the  lets  at  tlic  time  of  getting  the  crop,  he  found 
them  hard  and  undecayed  ;  fo  hard,  indeed,  that  feme 
of  them  would  not  be  foft  with  long  boiling.  This 
led  him  to  think,  that  fome  manures  might  have  the 
fame  effect  on  them  as  tanners  ooze  has  on  leather, 
and  fo  harden  them,  that  the  embryo  plant  could  not 
come  forth  with  eafe  ;  but  a  clofer  examination  taught 
him  othcrwife,  and  that  tiiat  they  grow  equally  in  all 
manures. 

Some  have  thought  that  the  fermentation  is  occa- 
fioned  by  too  great  quantities  being  heaped  together  ; 
but  the  writer  has  fcen  an  inflance,  wherein  a  linglc 
potato,  prefcrved  by  itfclf,  when  fct,  produced  flems 
of  the  curled  kind.  He  thinks  the  moll  conlillent  and 
rational  opinion  is,  that  the  difeafe  is  occalioned  by 
the  potatoes  being  taken  from  the  ground  before  the 
flamcn,  or  miniature-plant,  is  properly  matured  and 
ripened. 

For  let  it  be  obfcrved,  that  the  potato,  being  a  na- 
tive of  a  warmer  climate,  has  there  more  fun,  and  a 
longer  coiitinuance  in  the  ground,  confcquently,  it 
has  not  the  fame  natural  caufes  in  a  cold  climate  to 
mature  the  feed-plant  as  in  its  native  Hate.  All  the 
opportunities,  therefore,  ought  to  be  given  in  which 
climate  will  admit  for  nature  to  coniplce  her  work, 
and  fit  the  flamen  for  the  next  date  of  vcgctatio:!, 
ifpccially  in  thofe  intended  for  feed,  but  if  the  po- 
tato be  taken  up  before  the  feed-plant  he  fully  matu- 
red,  or  the  air  and  fap-velfels  have  acquired  a  proper 
degree  ofiirmnefsor  hardnefs,  it  muff,  when  thus  rob- 
bed of  turtlicr  nutriion,  Ihrivel  up  ;  and  when  thevcf- 
fels,  in  this  immature  flatc,  come- to  act  again  in  the 
fecond  ftate  of  vegetation,  they  may  produce  plants 
which  arc  cut  led. 

Ifir  be  alked,  why  arc  they  more  common  now 
than  formerly  .'  he  anfwers,  that  before  the  prcfent 
mode  of  fetting  them  took  place,  people  covered  them, 
while  ia  the  ground,  with  ilraw,  to  protect  them  from 
froft. 

If  it  be  alked,  why  one  fet  produces  both  curled  and 
fmooth  ficms  .'  he  anfwcrs,  v/c  fuppofc  every  eye  to 
cor\lM\  ^  p!^i:ta  remiitatis :  that  all  the  embryos,  or 
feed-plan. s,  contained  in  one  potnto,  are  nouriihed  l-y 
one  root  ;  th.it,  as  in  c.irs  of  corn,  fome  of  thcfc  feed- 
plants  nuy  be  nouriihed  before  others. 

Oat  of  his  neighbours,  lall  year,  fet  two  rows  of 

potatoes, 


27© 


A     G     R     I     C     U     L     T     U     R     E. 


'I'hcory.    potatoes,  wliich  proving  all  curled,  he  did  not  take 

" 'ihcmup;  and   this  year  there  is  not    a   curled   one 

among  them.  Such  potatoes,  therefore,  as  arc  delign- 
cd  tor  feed,  Uiould  be  prefervcd  as  long  in  the  ground 
as  polFiblc. 

XVII.  This  writer  advifcs  fuch  fcts  to  be  planted 
as  grow  in  mols-lanJ  ;  and,  he  fuys,  there  will  not  be 
a  lin|?;lc  curled  one  the  tirli  year.  This  is  ailirmcJ  by 
the  inhabitants  of  two  towniliips,  where  they  grow  a- 
mazing  quantities. — A  medical  gentleman  lowed  lall 
year  two  bufliels  of  fcts  from  one  of  the  above  places, 
and  had  not  one  curled  ;  but  on  fowing  them  again 
this  year,  he  had  a  few. 

Notwithrtanding  there  feems  to  be  a  diverfity  of 
opinions  in  the  above  writers,  ocealioned  by  the  diffe- 
rent appearances  of  their  crops,  and  the  fecmingly 
contrary  ctTccfs  of  the  means  ufed  to  prevent  or  cure 
the  difeafe,  wc  conceive  tliiit  the  following  general 
propolitions  may  be  fairly  drawn  from  the  whole. 
I.  That  fome  kinds  of  fotatoes  are  {^oetirii  paribui) 
much  more  liable  to  be  aiieclcd  by  the  difeafe  than  the 
reft  ;  and  that  the  oldrcd,  the  golJendun,  and  the 
long-dun,  are  the  moft  free  from  it. — 2.  That  the 
difeafe  is  ocealioned  by  one  or  more  of  the  following 
caufcs,  either  iingly  or  combined  :  ift.  By  froft,  cither 
before  oraftcrthc  fetsareplanted  :  2d,  Krom  planting 
i'ets  out  of  large  unripe  potatoes  :  fjd,  From  planting  too 
near  the  furfacc.and  in  old  worn-out  ground:  4th, Krom 
the  firftflioots  of  the  fcts  being  broken  off  before  plant- 
ing ;  by  which  means  there  is  an  incapacity  in  the  pl.11:- 
ta  fimiiiaiii  to  feud  forth  others  fufliciently  vigorous  to 
expandfo  fully  as  they  ought. — 5.  That  the  moft  fuc- 
ccfsful  methods  of  preventing  the  difeafe,  arc  cutting 
the  fcts  from  fmooth  midjle-fizcd  potatoes,  that  were 
full  ripe,  and  had  been  kept  dry  after  they  were  taken 
out  of  the  ground  ;  and  without  rubbing  off  their  lirft 


llioots,  planting  them  pretty  deep  in  frclh  earth,  with 
a  mixture  of  quicklime,  or  on  lime-ftone  land. 

A  corrclpondent  ofliie  liath  Society  is  convinced 
that,  whatever  may  be  its  caufc,  the  fault  itfclf  is  inhe- 
rent in  the  feed  ;  and  has  communicated  the  following 
method  of  avoiding  it :  "I  made  a  hot-bed  in  the  fol- 
lowingmanner:  (which  method  Ihave  ufed  everfince) 
I  laid  horfe-dung,  &c.  (as  is  generally  ufed  in  making 
hotbeds)  about  18  inches  thick  ;  over  which  I  fpread 
a  layer  of  line  rich  mould  abuut  four  or  live  inches 
thick  :  uponthe  top  of  thismould  I  laid,  in  ditterent 
divifions,  a  certain  numberof  potatoes  of  various  forts, 
fome  of  my  Ovvn  growth,  and  others  brought  from  dif- 
ferent parts,  and  covered  thefe  lightly  over  with  more 
mould  ;  they  foon  canic  up.  1  then  obfcrved  which 
was  freell  from  the  blight  or  curl  ;  for  if  there  were 
not  more  than  one  defective  \\\jorty  ox  fifty,  I  concluded 
1  might  let  of  that  fort  with  fafcty.  This  method  I 
have  now  praflifed  near  twelve  years,  and  never  loll 
my  crop  or  any  part  thereof  worth  mentioning;  whilft 
my  neighbours,  who  followed  the  old  method,  were 
frecjuently  difappointcdin  their  crops  ;  and  to  the  bcft 
ofniy  knowledge,  all  thofe  of  my  neighbours  who  have 
of  late  been  perfuaded  to  take  the  trouble  of  uling  the 
fame  means  as  myfelf,  have  never  failed  of  fuccefs  to 
their  utmoftwiflies  inone  inftance  ;  nor  do  I  ever  think 
it  will  fail,  if  duly  attended  to  ;  the  fault  being  fome 
hidden  caufe  in  the  feed  unknownat  prefent,  andl  be- 
lieve incurable  by  any  means,  at  leaft  which  have  yet 
come  to  my  knowledge.  RJy  reafon  for  planting  my 
hot-beds  fo  foon  is,  that  if  the  froft  hinders  the  firft 
experiment,  or  they  all  prove  bad,  I  may  have  time  to 
make  a  fecond  or  third  if  necell'ary,  with  different 
forts  of  feed,  before  the  proper  fcafon  arrives  for  plan- 
ting in  the  Helds  and  grounds  appointed  for  the  great 
and  general  crop." 


Part  r. 

Theory. 


Part  II.     PRACTICE  of  AGRICULTURE. 


83 


Skct.  I.     Inftrumtnts  of  Hujbandry. 

''1"'HE  inftrumcnts  employed  in  agriculture  are  vari- 
-^    ous  ;  as  the  plough,  the  harrow,  the  roller,  &c. 
which  are  again  greatlydiverlitied  by  various  conftruc- 
tions  adapted  to  particular  ufes. 

I.     Of  Ploughs. 


Scots  The  plough  conftrufled  in  the  following  manner  is 

plough,       flillthe  moft  common  and  the  moft  generally  underftood 
in  Scotland  :  and,  if  properly  made,  is  thebcftforan- 
fwcring  all  purpofes,  when  only  one  is  ufed  ;  though 
others  are,  perhaps,  more  proper  on  fome  particular  oc- 
„  caiions. 

Dflcription  '^^^  parts  of  which  this  plough  is  compofed,  are,  the 
of  the  Scots  hcadjthe  beam,  the  flicath,  the  wreil,  the  mould-board, 
plough.  the  twohanJles,  the  two  rungs,  the  lock,  and  t lie  coul- 
ter, the  twolaftarcmadcofiron,andall  the  reft  of  wood. 
I'bte  V.  The  Head,  isdelisaed  for  opening  the  ground  be- 

fig.  I.  low.  The  length  of  the  head  from  A  to  B  is  about  20 
inches,  and  the  breadth  from  A  to  D  about  five  inches  ; 
C  is  the  point  upon  which  the  fock  is  driven,  and  tlic 
length  from  B  to  C  is  about  fix  inches  ;  a  is  the  mor- 
loife  into  which  the  larger  handle  is  fixed,  and  ^is  the 
mortoife  into  which  the  iheath  is  fixed. 


The  head  is  that  part  of  the  plough  vhich  goes  in 
the  ground  ;  therefore  the  fliorter  and  narrower  it  is, 
the  fridion  willbe  the  lefs,  and  the  plough  more  eafily 
drawn  :  but  the  longer  the  head  is,  the  plough  goes 
more  fteadily,  and  is  not  fo  calily  put  out  of  its  direc- 
tion by  any  obftruclions  that  occur.  Twenty  inches  is 
confidered  as  a  mean  length  ;  and  five  inches  is  the 
moft  convenient  breadth. 

The  Sheath,  E,  is  driven  into  the  mortoife  b,  and  p. 
thus  iixed  to  the  head  A  B.  It  is  not  perpendicular  to 
the  head,  but  placed  obliquely,  foas  to  make  the  angle 
formed  liy  the  lines  A  B  and  £  B  about  60  degrees. 
The  (heath  is  about  I  3  inches  long,  belides  what  is  dri- 
ven into  the  mortoife  b  (fig.  i.)  ;  about  three  inches 
broad,  and  one  inch  thick. 

The  Iheath  isfixed  to  the  mould-board,  as  in  fig.  11. 
E,  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  wreft  isfixed  co  the  head 
in  fig.  7. 

The  MouLD-EOARD,  is  defigned  to  turn  over  the  Fig. 
earth  of  the  furrow  riaJc  by  the  plough  ;  and  it  is  ob- 
vious, that,  according  to  the  pofiiion  of  the  Iheath,  the 
mo.ild-boardwill  turn  over  the  earth  of  the  furrow  more 
or  lefs  fuddenly.  Befides,  w  hen  it  forms  a  lefs  angle 
with  the  head  than  60  degrees,  the  plough  is  in  great 
danger  of  being  chtkcd,  as  the  farmers  term  it. 

The 


Part  II. 


A    G     R     1     C     U 


271 


The  Larger  Handle,  K  A,  isfixcd  to  iliehead,  by 
'  driving  it  into  the  mortoilcrf(iig.  i.).  It  is  placed  in  the 
fame  pUnc  witli  the  head  ;  and  itslcngtli  I'roni  A  Fis 
about  live  feet  four  inches,  and  itsdiamitcrauheplacc 
where  it  is  fixed  to  the  beam  i^  about  two  inches  and  an 
half,  audiapers  a  little  to  the  top  V.  About  ten  inches 
from  A,  there  is  a  curve  in  the  handle,  which,  when  K 
is  raifcd  to  its  proper  licight,  makes  the  lower  part  of 
it  nearly  parallel  to  the  ihcath  E  B.  This  curve  is  dc- 
ligned  tollrenglhcn  the  handle.  The  proper  pofition 
of  the  handle  is,  when  the  top  V  is  about  three  feet  two 
inches  higher  than  the  bottom  of  the  head  A  B. 

'Ihc  longerthc  handles,  theplough  isthe  more  cafi- 
ly  managed, becaufe  the  levers  arc  more  diftant  from  the 
centre  of  motion.  The  higher  the  top  of  the  handles, 
ti:C  plough  is  more  ealiiy  raifed  out  of  the  ground,  pro- 
vided they  be  no  higher  than  the  lower  part  of  a  man's 
breaft. 

The  Beam,  is  fixed  to  the  larger  handle  and  the 
llieath,  all  of  which  are  placed  in  the  fame  plane  witii 
the  head.  The  length  of  it,  from  H  to  I,  is  about  fix 
feet  ;  its  diameter  is  about  four  inches.  When  the 
plough  is  in  the  ground,  tlic  beam  Ihould  be  juit  high 
enough  not  tobe  incommoded  by  any  thing  on  the  fur- 
face. 

The  pofition  of  the  beam  depends  on  the  number  of 
cattle  in  the  plough.  W  hen  two  horfes  arc  yoked,  the 
beam  (houlj  be  placed  in  fiich  a  manner  as  to  make  the 
perpendicular  diilaiice  betwixt  the  bolt-hole  of  the 
beam  and  the  plane  of  the  head  about  2 1  inches;  when 
four  horfes  are  yoked,  two  a-breaft,  this  diftance 
fhould  only  be  about  18  inches. 

The  Sock,  BP,  is  fixed  toihe  end  of  the  head,  and 
is  about  two  feet  long.  In  fitting  the  Sock  to  the  head, 
the  point  ought  to  be  turned  a  little  to  the  land  or  left 
iide  ;  becaufe  othcrwife  it  is  apt  to  come  out  of  the 
land  altogether.  When  turned  to  the  left,  itlikewife 
takes  ort'more  land ;  when  turned  upwards,  the  plough 
goes  lliallow;  and  when  downwards,  it  goes  deeper. 

The  Coulter,  is  fixed  to  th-  beam,  and  is  about 
two  feet  ten  inches  long,  two  inches  and  a  half  broad, 
(harp  at  the  point  and  before,  and  thick  on  the  back, 
like  a  knife.  It  is  fixed  and  dircfted  by  wedges,  fo  as 
to  make  the  point  of  it  equal  to,  or  rather  a  little  be- 
fore the  point  of  the  f>ck,  and  upon  a  line  with  the  left 
fide  of  the  head.  This  oblique  pofition  enables  it  to 
throw  roots,  &c.  out  of  the  land,  which  requires  lefs 
force  than  cutting  or  pufliing  them  forward. 

The  Wrest,  B  O,  is  fixed  to  the  head,  and  is  about 
26  inches  long,  two  broad,  and  one  thick.  It  is  fixed 
to  the  head  at  B,  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  make  the 
an:;le  contained  l)etween  the  lines  AB  and  BD  about 
25  degrees.  The  wrelf  is  feldom  or  never  placed  in 
ihefimc  place  with  thehead,  butgradiially  raifcd  tVom 
the  place  where  it  is  fixed  to  it;  that  ii,  from  B  to  K, 
as  in  fig.  8.  'I  he  polition  of  the  wreftdeteruiincs  the 
nature  of  the  furrow.  When  the  wreft  is  wide  and  l<iw 
fct,the  furrow  is  wi.le;  and  whcnit  is  narrow  and  high 
fet,  the  furrow  is  narrow. 

i'\i  9.  reprefents  the  two  Handles, fixedtogetber 
by  the  two  rungs.  The  larger  handle  his  already  been 
dcfe-ibed  ;  the  Iclfcr  one  is  a  few  inches  fhortcr,  and 
docs  not  require  to  be  quite  fo  ft ron;;.  The  diilance  of 
the  handles  at  the  little  rung  depends  on  the  poliiijn 
of  the  wrclt.     Their  diilance  at  M  and  P  is  about  two 


Vraflii 


L     T     U     R     E. 

feet  fix  inches.  The  Iclfcr  handle  is  fixed  to  the  mould 

board  at  M,  fig.  10.  anil  to  the  wrell  K  B,  at  L.  >/-^ 

Fig.  II.  reprefents  the  plough  comiletc,  by  joining 
togetlicr  figures  6.  and  lot  in  the  Ihcath  K  B.  The 
wreA  B  K  is  fuppofed  to  jnake  an  angle  with  the  head 
A  B  as  in  fig.  7.  and  the  handles  joined  together  asiu 
fig.  9. 

Alter  having  given  fuch  a  particular  defcription  of 
all  the  parts  and  proportions  of  the  Scots  plough,  it 
willeafily  appear  how  it  feparates,r3ifes,and  turns  over 
the  eartli  of  the  furrow.  If  it  had  no  coulter,  the  earth 
would  open  above  the  middle  of  tile  fock,  and  in  a  line 
before  the  Ihcath  ;  but  as  the  coulter  opens  the  earth 
in  a  line  with  the  left  Iide  of  the  head,  if  the  Ibil  has 
anycohefion,  the  earth  of  the  furrow  u  ill  be  wholly 
raifed  from  the  left  fide,  and,  as  the  fock  moves  for- 
ward, will  be  thrown  on  the  right  Iide  of  the  Iheath, 
and  by  the  calling  out  of  the  mould- board,  or  the  rai- 
fingof  the  wrell,  will  be  turned  over. 

The  BRiDLi-_,or  Muzzle,  isanothcrarticle  belong-  Fig.  11, 
iiig  to  theplough.  It  is  fixed  to  the  end  of  the  beam, 
and  the  cattic  arc  yoked  by  it.  The  muzzle  commonly 
ufcd  is  a  curved  piece  of  iron,  fixed  to  the  beam  by  a 
bolt  through  it.  ABC  is  the  muzzle,  A  C  the  bole 
by  which  it  is  fixed  to  the  beam;  D.  is  the  fwingle-trec 
or  crofs-tree,  to  which  the  traces  are  fixed  ;  and  Bis 
a  hook,  orc/.vi,  as  it  is  comraonly  called,  which  joins 
the  muzzle  and  fwingle-tree. 

Some  nfe  another  kind  of  muzzle,  A  B  C  D.  It  is  Fig.  13, 
fixed  to  the  beam  by  two  bolts,  and  has  notches  by 
which  the  deck  of  the  fwingle-tree  may  be  fixed  ci- 
ther to  the  right  or  the  left  of  the  beam.  There  arc 
alio  ditlerent  holes  for  the  hind-bolt  to  pafs  thro',  by 
which  the  draught  may  be  fixed  either  above  or  below 
the  beam.  A  D  is  the  fore-bolt  upon  which  the 
muzzle  turns  ;  on  B  C  are  four  notches,  betwixt  any 
two  ofwhich  the  clcekofthc  fwingle-trec  may  be  fixed. 
When  the  deck  is  fixed  at  B,  the  plough  is  turned  to- 
wards the  firm  land,  and  takes  off  a  broader  furrow  ; 
and  when  fixed  at  C,  it  is  turned  towards  the  plough- 
ed land,  and  takes  otFa  narrower  furrow.  K  and  F 
arejhe  holesoneach  fide  thro'  which  thehindmollbok 
palfes.  When  the  boltisput  thro' the  highcft  two,thefc 
holes  being  thereby  brought  to  themidiileof  thebcam, 
the  fore-part  of  the  muzzle  is  raifed  above  the  beam, 
and  the  plough  is  made  to  go  deeper  ;  and  when  put 
through  the  lowed  two,  the  fore  part  of  the  muzzle  is 
funk  below  the  beam,  and  the  plough  is  made  to  go 
Ihallower.  This  muzzle  may  be  fo  conllriictid  as  to 
have  the  kme  play  with  the  common  one.  A  is  the  Fig,  16,. 
end  of  the  beam  ;  B  a  plate  of  iron  fjiik  into  it,  and 
with  a  limilar  one  in  the  other  fide,  is  rivettcd  into  it 
by  bolts  ;  C  isthe  muzzle  fixed  to  thefc  plates  of  iron 
by  the  bolt  D,  which  bolt  miy  be  put  through  any  of 
the  holes  E  E.  From  thir  conilruclion  of  this  muzzle 
it  is  plain,  that  it  has  the  fame  play  with  the  common 
one,  and  that  by  it  the  land  of  the  plough  may  be  al- 
tered at  pleafurc.  g 

Of  all  forms,  that  of  the  Scotch   plough   is  the  fit- IVoptrtiet 
tcil  for  breaking  up  Ilitf  and  rough   land,  efpecially  of  chc  Scots  . 
where  ftoncs  abound;  and  nokfs  fit  for  (Irong  cliys  plough. 
hardened  by  drought.     The  length  of  its  head  gives  it 
a  firm  hold  of  the  ground  ;  its  weight  prevents  it  from 
beingihrown  out  by  Hones;  the  length  of  the  handles 
gives  the  plougbman  great  coiiuuand  todirecl  its  mo- 
tion ; 


272  '  A     G     R     1     C     U 

Traiiicc.  tion  ;  anj  by  the  Iciip^ili  ol'  its  licaJ,  and  of  its  mouLl- 
*—^^—  board,  i:  lays  the  fiirrow-llice  cleverly  over.  This 
j'luugh  was  contrived  during  liic  infancy  cf  a;;ricul- 
tiire,  and  was  well  contrived  :  in  iho  foils  above  dc- 
j(6  fcrihcd,  it  has  not  an  cqnal. 
In  what  foil  Uiit  i'l  tender  full  it  is  iiupropcr,  bccaufe  it  adds 
iinproin-r.  grcaily  tothc  cxpcnceof  plou^hini;,  withontany  corin- 
terb'.l  incing  benciit.  'I'iie  length  of  the  licad  and 
n'.onld-board  incrcafcsthc  frivHion,aiui  conftqnently  it 
requires  agrcuer  number  or  oxen  or  horfes  tlian  are 
ncccllary  in  a  (liorter  plojg^.  There  is  another  par- 
ticular ill  its  form,  that  rclills  tliedranghl:  tlic  mould- 
board  makes  an  angle  witli  the  fock,  iialeadof  making 
a  line  with  it  gently  curved  backward.  There  is  an 
objccHon  againft  it  no  kfs  fodd,  that  it  does  not  Air 
the  ground  pcrfcftly  :  the  hinder  part  of  tlic  wreil 
rifes  a  foot  above  the  foleof  the  head  ;  and  the  earth 
that  lies  immediately  below  that  hinder  part,  is  left 
nnllirred.  This  is  ribbing  land  below  the  lurface,  li- 
milar  to  what  is  done  by  ignorant  farmers  on  the  lur- 
face. 

Thefe  defects  nuift  be  fiibmittcd  to  in  a  foil  tliat  re- 
quires a  llrong  l)cavy,ploui:;h  ;  but  may  be  avoided  in 
a  cultivated  foil  by  a  plough  diticrintly  conftrutled. 
Of  all  the  ploughs  fated  for  a  cultivated  foil  free  of 
floncs,  that  introduced  into  Scotland  about  ao  years 
ago,  by  J?mes  Small  in  IJlackadder  Mount,  bcrwick- 
fliirc,is  thebeft.  Itis  nowin  great  rcquei't  ;  and  with 
rcafon,asit  avoids  all  the  defecls  of  the  Scots  plougli. 
The  fliortncfs  of  its  held  and  of  its  mould-board  lelfeu 
the  friJlion  greatly  :  from  the  point  of  the  fock  to  the 
back  part  of  the  head  it  is  only  ;o  inches  j  and  the 
whole  length,  from  the  point  of  the  beam  to  the  end 
of  the  handles,  between  eight  and  nine  feet.  The 
fock  and  niouldboard  make  one  line  gently  curving  ; 
andeonfequently  gather  no  earth.  Inlleadofa  wrcll, 
the  under  edge  of  the  niouldboard  is  in  one  plain  with 
the  foleof  the  head  ;  which  makes  a  wide  furrow,'.\  ith- 
out  leaving  any  part  unflirred.  It  is  termed  the  ch^iin- 
ptough,  becauie  it  is  drawn  by  an  iron  cliain  fixed  to 
the  back  part  of  the  beam  immediately  before  the 
coulter.  This  has  two  advantages:  firfl,  by  means  of 
a  muz/de,  it  makes  the  jdough  go  deep,  or  Ihallow  ; 
and,  next,  it  flrellcsthe  beam  Id's  than  if  tixed  to  the 
point,  and  therefore  a  dendercr  beam  is  fufficient. 

This  plough  may  be  well  confidered  as  a  capital  im- 
provement ;  not  only  by  faving  expence,  but  by  ma- 
king belter  work.  It  is  proper  for  loams  ;  for  coarl'e- 
clays  ;  and,  in  general,  for  every  (ort  of  tender  foil 
free  of  ftones.  It  is  even  proper  for  opening  up  pa- 
fture-ground,  where  the  foil  has  been  formerly  well 
cultivated. 
•OftheSock  A  fpikcd  fock  is  ufed  in  the  Scotch  plough.  The 
Plate  V.  difference  between  it  and  the  feathered  fock  will  be 
bcft  underllood  by  comparing  their  figures.  Fig.  14. 
is  the  common  fock,  and  fig.  is-  'he  feathered  one. 

From  the  conflruiflion  of  the  feathered  fock,  it  is 
obvious,  that  it  muft  meet  with  greater  refiftance  than 
the  ronion  fock.  However,  when  the  plough  takes 
off  the  earth  of  the  furrow  broader  than  that  part  of 
the  fock  which  goes  upon  the  head,  it  is  more  eafily 
drawn  than  the  plough  with  the  common  fock;  for  the 
earth  which  the  common  fock  leaves  to  be  opened 
by  the  wrefb,  is  more  cafily  opened  by  the  feather  of 
the  other  fock.     In  ley,  the  feathered  fock  makes  the 


87 
Chain- 
)iloiigh 
Plate  V 
f'g.  I- 


Sg 


L    T    U      R     E. 

plough  go  more  cafily,  becaufe  the  roots  of  the  grafs, 
which  go  beyond  the  reach  of  the  plough,  arc  more 
cafily  cut  by  the  leather,  than  they  can  lie  torn  afunder 
by  tlie  common  lock.  The  feaiht red  fock  is  alfo  of 
great  life  in  cutting  and  deflroying  root-weeds.  Ihc 
tomnioii  fock,  however, anfwers much  bettcrin  llrong 
land. 

It  is  proper  here  to  add,  that  in  fitting  tJie  feathered 
fock  to  the  head,  the  point  of  it  ihould  be  turned  a 
little  from  tlic  land,  or  a  little  to  the  right  hand. 

If  we  look  back  ;;o  years,  ploughs  of  different  con- 
ftruftions  did  not  ciitcreven  into  a  dream.  The  Scotch 
plough  was  nniverfally  ufed,  and  no  other  was  known. 
There  was  no  lefs  ignorance  as  to  the  number  of  cattle 
neccllary  for  this  plough.  In  the  fouth  of  Scotland, 
lix  oxen  .ind  two  horles  were  univerfal  ;  and  in  the 
north,  10  oxen,  fometimes  12.  I'he  firll  attempt  to 
lelfcn  the  number  of  oxen  was  in  Rcrwickiliire.  The 
low  part  of  that  county  abounds  with  ftonc,  clay,  and 
marl,  the  moll  fubftautial  of  all  manures,  which  had 
been  long  nfcd  by  one  or  two  gentlemen.  About  2J 
years  ago  it  acquired  reputation,  and  fprcad  rapidly. 
As  two  hoifcs  and  two  oxen  were  employed  in  every 
marl-cart  ;  the  farmer,  in  fummer-fallowing,  and  in 
preparing  land  for  marl,  was  confined  to  four  oxen  and 
two  liorfes.  And  as  that  manure  afforded  plenty  of 
fucculcnt  rtraw  for  oxen,  the  farmer  was  furprifed  to 
find  that  four  oxen  did  better  now  than  fix  formerly. 
Marling,  however,  a  laborious  work,  proceeded  (low- 
ly, till  people  were  taught  by  a  noted  farmer  in  that 
country,  what  induflry  can  perform  by  means  of  power 
properly  applied.  It  was  reckoned  a  mighty  talk  to 
marl  five  or  fix  acres  in  a  year.  That  gentleman,  by 
plenty  of  red  clover  for  his  working-cattle,  accom- 
plilhcd  the  marling  jo  acres  in  a  fuinincr,  once  54. 
Having  fo  much  occafion  for  oxen,  he  tried  with  fuc- 
ccfs  two  oxen  and  two  horfes  in  a  plough;  and  that 
practice  became  general  in  Berwicklhire. 

Now  here  appears  with  ludre  the  advantage  of  the 
chain-plough.  The  great  friflion  occafioned  in  the 
Scotch  plough  by  a  long  head,  and  by  the  angle  it 
makes  with  the  mouldboard,  neceUarily  requires  two 
oxen  and  two  horfes,  whatever  the  foil  be.  The  fric- 
tion is  fo  much  lefsin  the  chain-plough,  that  two  good 
horfes  are  found  fufiicient  in  every  foil  that  is  proper 
for  it.  Belldes,  the  reducing  the  draught  to  a  couple 
of  horfes  has  another  advantage,  that  of  rendering  a 
driver  unneceffary.  Thisfavingonevery  plough, where 
two  horfes  and  two  oxen  were  formerly  ufed,  will,  by 
the  (Irii'lcll  computation,  be  L.  15  Sterlingyearly  ;  and 
where  fourhorfes  were  nfcd,  nolefs  than  L.  20  Sterling. 
There  is  now  fcarcc  to  be  fcen  in  the  low  country  of 
Berwicklhire  a  plough  with  more  than  two  horfes  ; 
which  undoubtedly  in  time  will  become  general.  Wc 
know  but  of  one  further  improvement,  that  of  ufing 
two  oxen  inllead  of  two  horfes.  That  draught  has 
been  employed  with  fucccfs  in  feveral  places  ;  and  the 
faving  is  fo  great,  that  it  mufl  force  its  way  every 
where.  It  may  be  confidently  affirmed,  no  foil  ftirred 
in  »  proper  feafon,  can  ever  require  more  than  two 
horles  and  two  oxen  in  a  plough,  even  fuppoling  it  the 
ftiffelt  clay.  In  all  other  foils,  two  good  horfes,  or 
two  good  oxen  abreafl,  may  be  relied  on  for  every  o- 
peration  of  the  chain-plough. 

A  chain-plough  of  a  fmaller  iize  than  ordinary, 

drawM 


Part  I. 

Praflice- 


89 

Ignorance 
of  farmers 
in  Scotland 
but  a  few 
years  ago, 


yo 
AdT.inta- 
gc5  of  the 
chain 

}ilough  par- 
ticularly il- 
luftrated. 


I'lateV 


•    ',',   '.w     ,  ',„//,   .    f /■,,,,, f 


Part  II. 


AGRICULTURE. 


l>ra<aicc. 


9' 
A  fmall 
finjjlc  horfe 
plough  re- 
commend- 
ed for  va- 
riout  pur- 
poki. 


drawn  by  a  fiiigle  horfc,  is  of  all  the  mod  proper 
for  liorfc-hociiig,  fuppoliii^  the  land  to  be  mellow, 
wliich  it  ought  to  be  for  that  operation.  It  is  fuffi- 
cicnt  for  making  furrows  to  receive  the  dung,  for 
ploughing  the  drills  after  dunging,  and  for  hoeing  the 
crop. 

A  flill  fmalltr  plough  of  the  fame  kind  may  be  re- 
commended for  a  kitchen-garden.  It  can  be  reduced 
to  the  fmallcit  h/x,  by  being  made  of  iron  ;  and  where 
the  land  is  properly  drclitd  for  a  kitchen-garden,  an 
iron  plough  of  the  rniallcll  lizc  drawn  by  a  hoile  wi)  1  fave 
much  fpadc-work.  in  Scotland,  tliirty  years  ago,  a  kit- 
chen-garden was  an  article  of  luxury  merely,  bccaufc 
at  that  time  there  coiild  be  no  cheaper  food  than  oat- 
meal. At  prefcnt,  the  farrier  maintains  his  fcrvants  at 
double  expcncc,  as  the  price  of  oat-meal  is  doubled  ; 
and  yet  he  has  no  notion  of  a  kitchcn-girden  more 
than  he  had  thirty  years  ago.  He  never  thinks,  that 
living  partly  on  cabbage,  kail,  turnip,  carrot,  would 
fave  much  oat-meal  :  nor  does  he  ever  think,  that 
change  of  food  is  more  wholcfo.ne,  than  vegetables 
alone,  or  oat-meal  alone.  We  need  not  recommend 
potatoes,  which  in  fcanty  crops  of  corn  have  proved 
a  great  blelling  :  without  them,  the  labouring  poor 
would  frequently  have  been  reduced  to  a  llarving  con- 
dition. Would  the  farmer  but  cultivate  his  kitchen- 
garden  with  as  much  induftry  as  he  bellows  on  his 
potatoc  crop,  he  need  never  fear  want  ;  and  he  can 
cultivate  it  with  the  iron  plough  at  a  very  fmall  ex- 
pcncc. It  may  be  held  by  a  boy  of  12  or  13  ;  and 
would  be  a  proper  education  for  a  ploughman.  But  it 
is  the  landlord  who  ought  to  give  a  beginning  to  the 
improvement.  A  very  fmall  expencc  would  inclofc  an 
acre  for  a  kitchen-garden  to  each  of  his  tenants  ;  and 
it  would  excite  their  indiiftry,  to  beftow  an  iron  plough 
on  thofe  who  do  bed. 

Nor  is  this  the  only  cafe  where  a  fingle-horfc  plough 
may  be  proh'tably  employed.  It  is  fufficient  for  feed- 
furrowing  barley,  where  the  land  is  light  and  well- 
drcflcd.  It  may  be  ufcd  in  the  fccond  or  third  plough- 
ing of  fallow,  10  encourage  annual  weeds,  which  are 
dcllroyed  in  fubfcqucnt  ploughings. 

The  Rotheravi  pmu^h  is  a  machine  of  very  fimple 
conftruclion,  and  eafily  worked.  AB  is  the  beam, 
CD  the  (heath,  EBD  the  main  handle,  FR  the  fmall- 
cr  handle,  GH  the  coulter,  KI  the  fock  or  (hare,  NP 
the  bridle,  S  the  lly-band,  and  ML  a  piece  of  wood 
in  place  of  a  head.  The  whole  of  this  plough  fliould 
be  made  of  afli  or  elm  .  the  irons  (liould  be  flccled  and 
well-temprred  ;  and  that  part  of  the  plough  which  is 
underground  in  tilling  (hould  be  covered  with  plates 
ofiron.  The  difference  between  this  and  the  common 
plough  fcems  to  confifl  in  the  bridle  at  the  end  of  the 
beam,  by  which  the  ploughman  can  give  the  plough 
more  or  le fs  land  by  notches  at  N,  or  make  it  cut  deep- 
er or  (hallower  by  the  holes  at  P;  in  the  coulter  or 
Iharc,  which  are  fu  made  and  let  as  to  cut  off  the  new 
furrosv  without  tearing;  and  in  the  mould-b'iard, which 
isfolhapcdat  tirft  t<>  raife  a  little,  and  then  gradually 
turnover  the  new  cut  furrow  wiih  very  little  rcliflance. 
But  the  grcatcft  advantage  attending  it,  is  its  being  fo 
tafy  of  draught,  that  it  will  do  double  the  work  of  any 
common  plough. 

The  /  arwg  fk:igh  is  an  inflrument  ufcd  in  fcveral 
parts  of  EngUnd  for  paring  off  the  furfaceofihegrouad, 
Vol .  I. 


in  order  to  its  being  burnt.  Mr  OraJliy  has  giren  the 
following  defcription  of  a  very  limplc  inftrument  of 
this  kind:  From  A  to  A  (lig.ij.)  is  the  plough-btam, 
about  fevcn  feet  long,  inortifcd  and  pinioned  into  the 
block  B,  which  is  of  clean  timber  wi  hout  knots. 
CC  arc  the  flicaths  or  llandards,  made  fiat  on  the  in- 
lidc,  to  clofc  equally  \rrth  the  paring  plate,  and  falleii- 
ed  to  it  with  a  bolt  and  key  on  cicl;  lidc,  as  at  D. 
E  is  the  paring  plate  of  iron  laid  with  fteel,  about  four 
inches  wide,  and  from  12  to  18  inches  long.  This 
plate  mull  be  made  to  cut  on  the  fidcs,  which  are  bolt- 
ed to  the  ftandards  as  well  as  at  the  bottom  part.  W 
Tixc  two  iron  braces  to  keep  the  ftandards  from  giving 
way  :  thefe  ftandards  mull  be  raortifed  near  the  out" 
iidcs  and  through  the  block.  GG  are  the  plough 
handles,  which  mult  be  lixcd  (lope  ways  between  the 
beam  and  tlic  ftandards.  The  pin-holes  in  the  beam, 
the  ufe  of  which  is  to  make  tiie  plough  cut  more  or 
Icfs  deep,  by  fixing  the  wheels  nearer  to  or  farther 
from  the  paring  plate,  fliould  no:  be  ibove  two  inches 
afunder. 

Fig.  I.  reprefents  the  four-coukered  plough  of  Mr 
Tull.  Its  beam  is  ten  feet  four  inches  long,  where- 
as that  of  tlie  common  plough  is  but  eight.  The  beam 
is  (Iraight  in  the  common  plough,  but  in  this  it  is 
ftraight  only  from  a  lot,  and  tliencc  arched  :  (>  that 
the  line  let  down  perpendicuhrly  from  the  corner  at  .r, 
to  the  even  furface  on  which  the  plough  ftands,  would 
be  It;  inches;  and  if  another  lint  were  let  down  from 
the  turning  of  the  beam  at  b  [.<>  the  fame  furface,  ic 
would  be  one  foot  eight  inches  and  a  half;  and  a  third 
line  let  down  to  the  furface  from  the  bottom  of  the 
beam  at  that  part  which  bears  upon  the  pillow,  will 
fhow  the  beam  to  be  two  feet  ten  inches  high  in  that 
part.  At  the  diftance  of  three  feet  two  inches  from 
the  end  of  the  beam  a,  at  the  plough-tail,  the  firft  coul- 
ter, or  that  next  the  Ihare,  is  let  throu^ih  ;  and  at  13 
inches  from  this,  a  fccond  coulter  is  let  through  :  a 
third  at  the  fame  diftance  from  that ;  and,  finally,  the 
fourth  at  the  fame  diftance  from  the  third,  that  is,  13 
inches  :  and  from  a  10  ^  is  feven  feet. 

The  crookcdncfs  of  the  upper  part  of  the  beam  of 
this  plough  is  contrived  to  avoid  llie  too  great  length 
of  the  three  foremoft  coulters,  which  would  be  too 
much  if  the  beam  was  ftr.iight  all  the  way  ;  and  ihcy 
would  be  aj)i  to  bend  and  be  difplaccd,'  unlefs  they 
w  ere  very  heavy  and  clumfey.  Alh  is  the  bcft  wood  to 
make  the  beam  of,  it  being  fufficiently  ftroug,  and  yet 
light.  The  fheat  in  this  plough  is  to  be  feven  inches 
broad.  The  fixing  of  the  Ihare  in  this,  as  well  as  in 
the  common  plough,  is  the  niceft  part,  and  requires 
the  utmoU  art  of  the  maker;  for  the  well-going  of  the 
plough  wholly  depends  upon  the  ))lacing  this.  Sup- 
poiing  the  axis  of  the  beam,  and  the  left  tide  of  the 
Iharc,  to  be  both  horizontal,  they  muft  never  be  fct 
parallel  to  each  other  ;  for  if  ihcy  are,  the  tail  of  the 
fliarc  bearing  againft  the  trench  as  much  as  the  point, 
would  caufc  the  point  to  incline  to  the  right  hand,  aiwl 
it  would  be  carried  out  of  the  ;rround  into  the  furrow. 
If  the  poi'u  of  tiie  H.are  (l:oivld  be  fct  fo,  tliat  its  (idc 
fliould  niskc  an  angle  on  the  right  tide  of  the  axis  of 
the  beam,  this  inconvenience  would  be  much  greater; 
and  if  its  point  fiiould  incline  much  to  the  Icf:,  and 
make  too  large  an  angle  on  that  fide  with  the  axis  of 
the  beam,  the  plough  would  runquitcto  the  left  hand  ; 
M  m  and 


273 


VnSizt. 

9.1 
TheViriag 
f*liiu^h, 
I'Ute  VII, 


9« 
The  Four, 
conltcrcd 
iMougb, 
['late  VII. 


274 


AGRICULTURE. 


Part  II. 


ice.  ami  if  the  holder,  to  prevent  its  running  quite  out  of 
the  ground,  turns  the  upper  part  of  his  pluugh  to- 
wards the  kft  hand,  tlic  pin  of  the  Iharc  will  me  up, 
and  cut  the  farrow  di.igonilly, leaving  it  half  unplouo  li- 
ed. To  avoid  this  anil  fcveral  other  inconveniences, 
ihcftraijjht  lide  of  the  Iharc  mull  make  an  angle  up  n 
the  left  fide  of  the  beam  ;  but  iWat  n:ulk  be  fo  very  a- 
cuic  a  one;  that  the  tail  of  the  lliare  may  only  prcfs 
Ufs  aji;ainll  the  fide  of  tiic  trench  ihsn  the  point  noes. 
This  angle  is  Ihown  by  the  pricked  lines  at  the  bottom 
of  fig.  9.  where  i'/  is  fupjiofcd  to  be  ihc  axis  of  the 
beam  let  downto  the  furfacc,  and^  /parallel  lolhelelt 
lide  of  the  lh;rc  :  and  it  i^  the  fubtenfe  .'g  that  deter- 
mines the  inclination  which  the  point  of  theiharc  nuifl 
have  towards  the  left  hand.  '1  his  fubtenfe,  fays  Mr 
TuU,  at  the  fore-end  of  an  eight-feet  beam,  ihouid  ne- 
ver be  more  than  one  inch  and  a  half,  and  whether  the 
beam  be  long  or  Ihort,  the  fubtenfe  mull  be  the  fame. 

The  great  thing  to  be  taken  care  of,  is  the  placing 
the  four  coulicrs  ;  which  mull  be  fo  let,  that  the  four 
imaginary  places  defcribed  by  their  four  edges,  as  the 
plough  moves  forward,  may  be  all  parallel  to  each  o- 
thcr,  or  very  nearly  fo  ;  for  if  any  one  of  them  Ihould 
be  very  much  inclined  to,  or  fliould/'ecede  much  from 
cither  of  the  other,  then  they  would  not  enter  the 
ground  together.  In  order  to  place  them  thus,  the 
beam  mull  be'  carefully  pierced  in  a  proper  manner. 
The  fccond  coulter- hole  mufl  be  two  inches  and  ahalf 
more  on  the  right  hand  than  the  Itrft,  the  third  mull 
be  as  much  more  to  the  right  of  the  fecond,  and  the 
fourth  the  faniemcafurc  to  the  right  hand  of  the  third; 
and  this  two  inches  and  ahalf  mull  be  carefully  mea- 
lured  from  the  centre  of  one  hole  to  the  centre  of  the 
other.  Each  of  thefe  holes  is  a  niortifc  of  an  inch  and 
()  uartcr  w  ide,  and  is  three  inches  and  a  half  long  at  the 
top,  and  three  inches  at  the  bottom.  The  two  oppo- 
liic  lidcs  of  this  hole  are  parallel  to  the  top  and  bot- 
tom, but  the  back  is  oblique,  and  determines  the  ob- 
liquity of  the  Handing  of  the  coulter,  which  is  wedg- 
ed tight  up  to  the  poll.  The  coulter  is  two  feet  eight 
inches  long  before  it  is  worn  ;  the  handle  takes  up  lix- 
tecn  inches  of  this  length,  and  is  allowed  thus  long, 
that  the  coulter  may  be  driven  down  as  the  point  wears 
away.  As  to  the  wheels,  the  left  hand  wheel  is  20 
inches  diameter,  and  that  on  the  right  hand  two  feet 
three  inclics,  and  the  diftancc  at  which  they  arc  fet 
from  each  other  is  two  feet  5;  inches. 


36 

Swani- 
cutter, 
Plill*  V 


2.  The  Patent  Sward-cuttf.r. 

The  ditFc  rent  parts  of  thisinflrument  arcreprcfcnt- 
ed  by  N"  1.  2.  3. of  fig.  6.     A.  A.&c.  afquareframc 

5  feet  4  inches  from  the  fore  to  the  hind  part,  by  4 
I     feet   Z   inches,  the  breadth  of  the  machine  within 

fide  ;  the  timber  (when  of  fir)  4  inches  fquarc,  pla- 
ced on  two  wheels  B.  B.  5  feet  diameter,  a  little  more 
or  Icfs  (the  old  fore-wheels  ofa  chaife  may  anfwcrthc 
purpofe),  to  fupport  the  hind  part  of  the  machine. 

C.  C.  &c.  arc  fix  ftrong  pieces  of  wood,  called  iu/Zs, 
3  feet  long,  5  inches  and  a  half  broad,    the  thicknefs 

6  inches  at  E.  and  tapering  to  5  inches  at  K.  Into 
thefe  bulls  arc  fixed  the  cutting  wheels,  which  are  i- 
ron,  1  3  inches  diameter,  'ths  of  an  inch  thick  at  the 
centre,  about  an  inch  diameter  for  piercing  holes  to  fix 
tlie  iron  axles  in  -,  from  that  they  are'  to  be  of  fuch 


thicknefs,  as  allow  tlic  edges  to  be  well  ftccled.  The    rraflict. 

wheels  are  fixed  by  two  bolts  going  through  the  balls,  ^— -» 

with  cyeiion  out  end  for  the  axles  of  the  wheels  to 
run  in,  and  nuts  andfcrewson  the  other  to  make  ihein 
veiy  firm  and  funk  in  the  bulls,  to  prevent  tlicir  inter- 
fering with  the  weights  L.  L.  &c.  rellingon  them, 

0.  O.  &c.  arc  hollow  piece  of  wood,  calUd  tkorles, 
each  3',  inches  long,  which  indole  the  bolt  M.  M. 
and  keep  the  onlls  C.  C.  &c.  at  their  proper  diJlaiices, 
but  may  be  made  longer  or  Ihortcr  at  pleafurc,  accor- 
ding as  the  fward  requires  to  be  cut  in  larger  or  fn<all- 
er  pieces.  They  are  ill  two  pieces  bound  together, 
and  joitited  by  a  llrap  of  leather  or  cord,  which  allow  s 
them  to  be  readily  changed  when  the  cutting  wheels 
require  to  be  kept  at  more  or  lefs  diilance. 

'I'hc  iron  bolt  M.  M.  goes  through  tw-o  pieces  of 
wood  or  iron  P.  P.  7  inches  long,  clear  of  the  wood, 
fupporied  by  iron  flays  fixed  to  the  frame,  and  tiiro' 
all  the  bulls.  It  requires  to  be  ftrong,  as  the  draught 
of  the  horfes  terminate  there. 

H.  H.  N*  2.  and  3.  a  cylinder  or  fegmcnt  of 
wood,  7  inches  diameter,  called  a  rocking  tree,  which 
goes  acrofs  the  frame,  and  moves  on  the  pivots  fixed 
into  it,  one  at  each  end,  fupported  by  an  iron  bolt  or 
pieceof  wood  mortifed  into  the  frame,  8  inches  high, 
as  appears  in  N"  2.  and  3.  to  wjiich  6  chains  or  ropes 
are  fixed  by  hooks,  at  different  dillances,  as  you  want 
your  cuts,  9,  8,  7,  or  fix  inches  from  one  another,  and 
arejoined  to  the  end  of  each  bull  in  w  hich  the  cutting 
wheels  run  ;  fo  that  when  the  rocking  tree  is  turned 
about  by  the  lever  I.  fixed  in  the  middle  of  it,  all 
the  bulls,  with  their  cutting  wheels,  are  raifcd  out  of 
the  ground  at  once,  as  in  N°  3.  by  which  means  the 
machine  may  be  turned,  or  moved  from  place  to  place 
with  great  cafe,  without  any  danger  of  flraining  the 
wheels. 

L.  L.  L.  &c.  NS  1.2.  3.  are  weights  of  freeftone, 
26  inches  long  and  6  inches  broad  ;  the  under  one  4 
inches  thick,  the  upper  one  3  inches  thick  ;  weighing 
about  64  lb.  the  under,  and  48  the  upper ;  each  of 
them  having  two  holes,  through  which  iron  fpikes, 
firmly  fixed  in  the  bulls,  pafs,  in  order  to  keep  them 
fleady. 

When  the  ground  is  ealily  cut,  theunder  flone  may 
anfuer  ;  when  more  difiiculi,  the  other  flone  may  be 
added  ;  fo  that  every  wheel  may  have  7  ftonc-weight 
upon  it,  which  has  been  found  fufficient  for  the  flirlell 
land  and  toughcll  fward  the  machine  has  ever  been 
tried  on.  Cafl  iron  weights  will  anfwer  fully  belter, 
but  are  more  expcmivc. 

The  lever  I.  N°  2.  3.  which  ought  to  be  5  feet  long, 
mull  have  a  (liding  rope  on  it  ;  fixed  to  the  back  part 
of  the  frame  ;  fo  that  when  the  cutting  wheels  are  all 
taken  out  of  the  ground  thr.ee  or  four  inches,  by  the 
rocking  tree's  being  turned  partly  round  by  the  lever, 
the  rope  may  be  fixed  to  it  by  a  loop  over  the  pin  R. 
N°  3.  (it  ought  to  be  placed  3  feet  4  inches  from  the 
extremity  of  the  It  vcr  1.)  Thus  all  the  cutting  wheels 
are  kept  out  of  the  ground  till  the  machine  is  turned  ; 
and  then  by  moving  the  loop  off'thc  pin,  it  flips  back 
towards  the  frame,  and  the  lever  is  gently  let  back  to 
its  place,  as  in  N*^  2.  by  which  the  cuttiiit^  wheels  are 
put  into  their  former  p'ifliire,by  the  weights  fixed. en 
the  bulls  in  wliich  they  run.  The  levers  .nay  be  made 
of  good  tough  a(h. 

P.  P.  N81. 


Part  II 

VtdAke. 


AGRICULTURE. 


p.  p.  N"  I.  a  fmall  b)lt  of  imn,  with  a  hook  on 
one  end  «Mt  (one  is  I'liHiLiciii),  to  llrengihcn  ilie  bolt 
M.  M.  to  bf  hookt  J  on  the  centre  of  it,  and  joined  to 
the  frame  by  a  i.ut  and  fcrcw. 

The  grooves  in  whicii  tlie  cutting  wheels  run,  may 
be  covered  below  at  tlic  iiiiider  part  with  a  plate  of 
thin  black  iron,  6  inches  long,  3  inches  broad,  having 
a  Hit  in  it  where  the  wheels  run,  to  prevent  fif  found 
nccclfary )  any  grafs,  weeds,  or  fmall  (loncs,  from  till- 
ing the  grooves,   and  clogging  the  wiieels. 

To  the  frame  N"  i.  are  tixcd  (for  a  double-horfc 
fward-ciittcr)  three  (liafts,  as  in  a  waggon,  of  fuch 
length,  ftrciigth,  and  diilance  fromonc another,  asany 
workman  may  thi;ik  proper. 

Foralinglc  horfe  Iward-cutter  (wliich  has  only  four 
cutting  wheels);  a  pair  of  Ihafts  are  ufed,  and  may 
make  the  two  lides  of  the  frame  without  any  joinings. 
The  width  of  the  frame,  in  proportion  to  the  doublc- 
horfe  fward-cuttcr,   is  as  four  to  fix. 

It  is  recommended  for  a  double-horfe  fward-cutter 
to  have  eight  bulls  and  wheels,  in  order  that  when  it 
is  ufed  to  reduce  hard  clody  fummer- fallow,  or  land 
for  barley,  before  the  laft  furrow,  or  even  after  it,  the 
whole  weight  (42  itone)  employed  in  cutting  the  ftiff- 
eft  land  and  toughcft  fward,  may  be  applied  to  the  8 
bulls  then  at  6  inches  from  one  another.  The  641b. 
weights  to  be  applied  to  fix  of  the  bulls,  and  two  of 
the  48  lb.  weights  to  each  of  the  additional  bulls, 
which  is  a  fufficicnt  weight  for  the  purpofe,  and  will 
effeftually  prevent  a  clod  of  more  than  fix  inches 
breadth  from  efcaping  being  broke  to  pieces. 

In  the  fame  manner,  a  fingle-horfc  fward-cutter  may 
have  lix  bulls  for  the  abovementioned  purpofe  ;  the 
28  ftone  belonging  to  it  divided  thus:  The  64  lb. 
Weights  to  four  of  the  bulls,  and  two  of  the  48  lb. 
weights  to  each  of  the  additional  bulls. 

That  the  machine  may  come  as  cheap  as  poflible  to 
the  public,  the  inventor  is  of  opinion,  that  the  expcnce 
of  the  two  wheels  and  the  iron  axle  (which  is  confi- 
derablc)  may  be  favcd,  by  joining  ftrongly  to  the  frame 
at  S.  N*  3.  a  piece  of  wood  with  a  little  curve  at  the 
extremity  of  it,  refeinbling  the  foot  of  a  lledge,  for- 
merly much  ufed  in  Scotland  to  carry  in  the  corn  from 
the  field  ;  the  part  of  it  rrfting  on  the  ground  being 
kept  iSinchcs  (the  halfdiameterof  the  wheels)  from 
the  frame,  by  a  rtrong  fupport  of  wood. 

As  t'lC  two  outer  bulls  next  the  frame  are  apt  to 
get  under  it,  fo  as  to  prevent  the  cutting  wheels  from 
being  taken  oiit  of  the  ground,  a  thin  Hip  of  iron  fixed 
to  the  infidc  of  the  frame,  nearly  oppoliie  to  the  back 
end  of  the  bulls,  of  convenient  length,  will  be  found 
necelTary. 

The  original  intention  of  this  machine  was  to  pre- 
pare old  grafs-ground  for  the  plough,  by  cutting  it 
acrofs  the  ridges,  in  the  beginning  of  or  during  win- 
ter, when  the  ground  is  foft,  in  order  to  anfwer  all 
the  purpofes  that  Mr  Tull  propofed  by  his  four-coulter 
plough  above  dcfcribcd,  anil  fo  llrongly  recommended 
by  him  for  bringing  into  tilth  grafs-ground  that  has 
been  long  reftcd.  This  the  fward-cutter  has  been 
found  to  do  much  more  efTcdlually  and  cxpev.itioully  : 
For  Mr  Tail's  machine  cuts  the  fward  in  the  fame  di- 
reflion  with  the  plough  ;  and  is  liable,  from  every  ob- 
flrne^ion  any  of  the  coulters  meet  with,  to  be  thrown 
out  of  its  work  altogether,  or  the  inftrumcnc  broken: 


275 


to  which  the  fwarj-cuttcr,  confiflingof  four,   lix,  or    Prsaice. 

more  cutting  wheels,  is  never  liable,  I  roni  thefc  being  ' * 

entirely  independent  of  one  anoihcr.cuttiug  the  ground 
aerolstiieridgcs  before  ploughing,  and  rendering  that 
operation  caller  to  two  horfes  than  it  would  be  to  three 
without  its  being  cut.  The  furrow  being  cut  acro(s, 
falls  finely  from  the  plough  in  fquarcs  of  any  fiic  re- 
quired Hot  under  fix  inches,  in  pUcc  of  long  llijis  of 
tough  fward  fcldotuand  imperfectly  broke  by  the  four- 
coultcred  plough. 

This  inllrun.cnt  isvery  fit  for  preparing  ground  for 
burnbating,  as  it  will  favc  much  hand-labour. 

It  may  be  properly  ufed  in  crofs-cutting  clover  of 
one  or  two  years  flanding,  to  prepare  the  ground  for 
wheat,  if  the  land  is  ftifland  inoill  enough. 

It  may  be  applied  to  cutting  and  crofs-cnttin^r  pa- 
Aurc-grouud,  intended  to  have  manure  of  any  kind  put 
upon  it  to  meliorate  the  grafs.  In  this  it  will  far  ex- 
ceed the  fcarificator  mentioned  in  one  of  Mr  Young's 
tours  ;  as  that  inllrument  is  liable,  as  well  astlie  four- 
coultcrcd  plough,  to  be  thrown  out  of  its  work  when 
meeting  with  a  ftoneor  other  interruption.  This  the 
fward-cuttter  is  proof againft,  which  is  looked  on  as  its 
greateft  excellence. 

In  preparing  for  barley,  the  fward-cutter  excels  a 
roller  of  any  kind  in  reducing  the  large  hard  clods  in 
clay  land,  occafioned  by  a  fuddcn  drought,  after  its 
being  ploughed  too  wet  ;  and  it  is  likewife  very  pro- 
per  forrtducing  fuch  clay  land  when  underafuinmer- 
fallow.  In  thisoperation,  the  fward-cutter  is  greatly 
to  be  preferred  to  the  cutting-roller,  likewife  men- 
tioned by  Mr  Young  in  one  of  his  tours ;  for  the 
wheels  of  the  latter  being  all  dependent  one  on  ano- 
ther, when  one  is  thrown  out  by  a  flonc,  thrceor  four 
mull  fliare  the  fame  fate.  Belides,  the  cutting-roller 
has  but  feven  wheels  infix  feet;  whereas  the  fward- 
cutter  has  lix  in  four  feet  three  inches,  at  nine  in- 
ches diftance  ;  and,  if  neccflary,  may  have  thenifo 
near  as  lix  inches. 

Afterold  grafs-ground  is  cut  acrofs  with  thcfward- 
cntter  and  ploughed,  it  has  a  very  uncommon  and 
worklike  appearance, from  each  fquarc  turned  over  by 
the  plough  being  railed  up  an  inch  or  two  at  the  fide 
laft  moved  by  the  earth-board  ;  fo  that  the  field,  when 
finithed,  is  all  prettily  waved,  and  refembles  a  piece 
of  water  when  blown  on  by  a  gentle  breeze.  By  this 
means  a  very  great  deal  of  the  land's  furfacc  isexpofed 
to  the  frofb  and  other  influences  of  the  air,  whicli 
cannot  fail  to  have  a  good  efFcft  on  it. 

Two  hi>rlcs  are  fuffitient  for  the  draught  of  a  double- 
horfe  fward.cuttcr,andonehor(cforaringlc-horfeone. 
One  man  manages  the  machine  and  drives  the  horfes. 
He  begins  his  operation  by  firft  meafuring  off  20or  ;o 
paces  from  the  machine,  Icfs  or  more  as  he  inclines, 
and  there  fixes  a  pole.  He  then  cuts  the  field  crofs,  as 
near  at  right  angles  with  the  ridges  as  he  can.  When 
the  cutting  wheels  arc  part  the  laft  furrow  about  a 
yard  or  fo,  and  liie  machine  is  upon  the  outmoll  ridge 
of  the  field  on  which  it  muft  turn,  he  muft  ftop  ti;e 
horfes  ;  then  take  hold  of  the  lever  I.  N".  2.  and  by 
pulling  it  to  him  he  raifes  the  cutting  wheels  out  of 
the  ground,  which  arc  kept  fo  by  the  loop  of  the  rope 
being  put  over  the  pin  R.  in  the  lever  I.  N";.  till  the 
machine  is  turned  and  brought  to  its  proper  place, 
which  is  done  by  meafuring  offthc  fame  diilance  for- 
M  m  2  merly 


376 


AGRICULTURE. 


Part  ri. 


Vn&ki.  mrrly  Joiic  on  the  oppoiitc  fide  pf  the  (icUl.  When 
"  »^— '  the  cut  lint;  wheels  are  exactly  over  the  out  mod  Airrow, 
then,  on  the  horfes  being  (lopjicJ,  the  rope  is  dipt  off' 
the  pin  R,  and  the  lever  returned  to  its  former  place, 
asrcprcfcntcd  N^j-whichallowsihewcights  L.L.&c. 
to  force  the  cutting  wheels  into  the  ground  again. 
He  then  goes  on  till  the  interval  betwixt  the  tirlland 
fccondftrokcof  ilie  machine  is  all  cut.  In  this  manner 
the  Held  is  lobe  tinilhed,  after  which  you  may  begin 
to  plough  when  you  pleafe.  (N.  13.  There  mufl  be  a 
pole  at  each  fide  of  the  lidd. 

It  is  of  no  confcqiience  whether  the  land  to  be  fvvard- 
cut  is  in  crooked  ridges  nrflraight,  in  flat  ridges  or  in 
very  high  raifedones.  Be  the  lurfacc  ever  fo  uneven, 
the  tatting  wheels,  being  all  independent  of  one  ano- 
ther, are  forced  by  their  weights  into  every  furrow 
or  hollow.  . 

One  fward-cuttcr  will  cut  as  much  in  one  day  as  fix 
ploughs  will  plough. 

The  land  may  lie  feveral  months  in  winter  after  be- 
ing fward-cut,  wiicn  there  is  no  vegetation  to  m-ikc 
the  cuts  grow  together  again  before  it  is  ploughed  ; 
but  the  fooner  it  is  ploughed  after  cutting  the  better, 
that  it  miy  have  the  benefit  of  all  the  winter's 'froll, 
which  makes  it  harrow  better  in  feed-time. 

When  tiie  ground  is  harrowed,  the  harrows  ought 
toiro  with  the  wavei  which  appear  after  ploughing, 
not  againd  them,  as  by  that  means  they  are  lefs  apt  to 
tear  up  the  furrows  all  cut  into  fquares.  This,  how- 
ever, need  only  be  attended  to  the  two  lirft  times  of 
harrowing,  as  they  arc  called. 

Any  common  wright  and  fmith  may  make  the  in- 
ftrument.  It  is  very  llrong,  very  fimple,  and  cafily 
managed  and  moved  from  place  to  place  ;  and,  if  put 
undercover,  will  laft  many  years. 

It  was  invented  fome  time  ago  by  the  honourable 
Robert  Sandilands  ;  and  is  rcprtfentcd  in  the  Plate  as 
it  has  been  lately  improved  by  him,  the  price  being 
at  the  fame  time  reduced  from  L.  i  5  or  L.  16  toL.  5 
or  L.  6. 


9« 

BrjVe  de- 
fcribtrd, 
Plate  VI. 


97 
Ufcs. 


3.    The  Brake. 

The  brake  is  a  large  and  weighty  harrow,  the  pur- 
pofc  of  which  is  to  reduce  a  (lubborn  foil,  where  an 
ordinary  h.irrow  makes  little  imprclTioR.  It  confifts 
of  four  f.piare  bulls,  eacii  fule  five  inches,  and  lix  feet 
and  a  half  in  Icnjfth.  The  teeth  are  17  inches  long, 
bendirh'  forward  like  acoultcr.  Four  of  them  arc  in- 
ferted  into  each  bull,  fixed  above  with  a  fcrcw-nut, 
having  12  inches  free  below,  with  a  heel  clofc  to  the 
Under  part  of  the  bull,  to  prevent  it  from  being  pullied 
Kick  by  rtones.  The  nut  above  makes  it  ealy  to  be 
taken  out  for  iharping.  This  brake  requires  four  horfes 
crfouroxen.  One  of  alelfer  lizc  will  not  fully  anfwer 
the  piirpofe:  oHc  ofa  Isrgcr  fi.'.e  will  require  fix  oxen  : 
in  which  cafe  the  work  may  be  performed  at  lefs  ex- 
pcncc  with  tlie  plough. 

Thi>  iiilhument  may  be  applied  to  great  advantage 
in  the  following;  tircumllances.  In  the  fallowing  flrong 
clay  that  requires  frequent  plouj;hi;ig3,  a  breaking  be- 
tween evfry  ploughing  wi'.l  pulverize  the  foil,  and  ren- 
der the  fiiblequent  ploughings  more  eafy.  In  the 
tnonth  or  \'arch  or  A'lril,  when  flrong  (»-rour.d  is 
ploughed  for  barley,  dpcci.illy  if  bound  with  couch- 


grafs,  acrofs-breakingisf>erfcrable  to  a  crofs-plough-    Pr.iia.ice. 

iug,  and  is  done  at  half  the  expcncc.     When  ground   «»— " 

is  p  oughed  from  the  Uatc  of  nature,  and  after  a  com- 
petent time  iscrol's-ploughed,  the  brakcisapplicd  with 
great  fuccefs,  iiiimedidtily  after  the  crofs-ploughing, 
to  reduce  the  whole  to  proper  tiltli. 

Let  it  be  obfervcd,  tliat  a  brake  with  a  greater  num- 
ber of  teeth  than  abovcmentioned,  is  improper  for 
ground  that  is  bound  together  by  the  roots  of  plants, 
which  isalways  the  cafe  of  ground  new  broken  up  from 
its  natural  flate.  The  brake  is  foon  choked,  and  can 
do  no  execution  till  freed  from  the  earth  it  holds.  A 
lefs  number  of  teeth  would  be  dcticieiit  in  pulverizing 
the  foil. 

4.    The  Harrow. 

Harrows  are  commonly  confidered  as  ofnoufc 
but  to  cover  the  feed  ;  but  they  have  anotlier  ufc 
fcarce  lefs  ctfentiil,  whi-li  is  to  prepare  land  for  the 
feed.  This  is  an  article  of  iinjiortancc  for  producing 
agoodcrop.  But  iiow  imperfectly  cither  of  thefe  pur- 
polcs  is  performed  by  the  common  harrow,  will  appear 
from  the  following  account  of  it.  a$ 

The  harrow  commonly  ufed  is  of  different  forms.  Imperfec- 
The  firil  we  will  mention  has  two  bulls,  four  feet  long  tion  of  the 
and  18  inches  afunder,  wiihfour  wooden  teeth  in  each.  ''"°"»<'a 
A  fecond  has  three  bulls  and  12  wooden    teeth,     a '""*"'^' 
third   has  four  balls,  and  20  teeth  of  wood   or  iron, 
10,  II,  or  12  inches  afunder.     Now,  in  fine  mould, 
the  laft  may  be  fufficicnt  for  covering  the  feed  ;   but 
none  of  them  are  fufficient  to  prepare  for  the  feed  any 
ground  that  requires   lubduiug.     The  only  tolerable 
form  is  that  with  iron  teeth  ;   and   the  bare  defcrip- 
tion  of  its  imperfeiftions  will  Ihow  the  necelhty  of  a 
more  perfect  form.     In  the  firll  place,  this  harrow  is 
by   far  too  light  for  ground  new  taken  up  from  the 
Ifateofnature,  forclayshardencd  with  fpring-drought, 
or  tor  other  Ihibborn  foils  :  it  rioats  on  the  furface  ; 
and  after  frequent  returns  in  the  fame  traft,  nothing 
is  done  cffedually.     In  the  next  place,   the  teeth  are 
too  thick  fet.  by  which  the  harrow  is  apt  to  be  choked, 
efpecially  where  the  earth  is  bound  with  roots,  which 
is  commonly  the  cafe.    At  the  fame  time,  the  lightnefs 
ant!  number  of  teeth  keep  the  harrow  upon  the  furf.iec, 
and  prevent  one  of  its  capital  pnrpofcs,  that  of  divi- 
dingthc  Ibil.  Nor  will  fewer  teeth  aufwerforcovering 
the  iced  properly.     In  the  third  place,   the  teeth  arc- 
loo  Ihort  for  reducing  a  coarfc  foil  to  proper  tilth  ;  and 
y^t  it  would  be  in  vain  to  make  them  longer,  becaufe 
the  harrow  is  too  light  forgoing  deep  into  the  ground. 
Further,  the  common  harrows  are  foill  conllruclcd,as 
to  ride  at  every  turn  one  upon  another.  Much  time  is 
loll  in  difengaging  them.     Laflly,  it  is  equally  unfit 
for  extirpating  weeds.     The  ground  is  frequently  fo 
bound  with  couch-grafs,  as  to  make  the  furrow- llicc 
Hand  upright,  as  when  old  lea  is  ploughed  :  notwith- 
flanding  much  labour,  the  grafs- roots  keep  tlie  field, 
and  gain  the  victory. 

A  litilc  rcrieclion,  tven  without  experience,  will 
make  it  evident,  that  the  fame  harrows,  whatever  be 
tile  form,  can  never  aiifv.er  all  the  dilferent  purpoiesof 
harrowing, nor  can  operate  equally  it  all  dirrcrtnt  foils, 
rough  or  fmooth.  firm  or  loole.  i  he  follow  in,^  there- 
fore, have  bctn  recommended  ;  which  arc  of  three  dif- 
ferent 


[I. 


AGRICULTURE. 


Pfaiftice    fcrcnt  forms,  adapted  for  different  purpofcs.     They 

" « ■  arc  all  of  the  fame  weight,  druwii  each  by  two  horfes. 

iJircli  is  the  bell  wood  for  thcin,  becaufc  it  is  cheap, 
and  not  apt  to  fplit.  The  tiril  is  coinpoftd  of  four 
bulls,  each  four  feet  ten  iiicheslong,  three  and  a  quar- 
ter inches  broad,  and  three  and  a  half  deep  ;  the  in- 
terval between  the  bulls  1 1  and  ihrcc-faurths  incJics  ; 
fo  that  the  breadth  of  the  whole  hariow  is  four  feet. 
The  bulls  are  connedtd  by  f  ^ur  llicths  which  go  thro' 
each  bull,  and  arc  fixed  by  timbcr-nailsidrivcnihrouj^h 
both.  In  each  bull  live  teeth  arc  infened,  ten  inches 
free  under  the  bull,  and  ten  inches  afunder.  They  arc 
of  the  fame  form  with  thofc  of  the  brake,  and  infertcd 
into  the  wood  in  the  fame  nianniT.  Kach  of  tlicfc  teeth 
is  three  pounds  weight  ;  and  where  the  harrow  is  made 
of  birch,  the  weight  of  the  whole  is  fix  llone  14  pounds, 
Dutch.  An  ered  bridle  is  fixed  at  a  corntr  of  the 
harrow,  three  inches  high,  with  four  notches  for  draw- 
ing higher  or  lower.  To  this  bridle  a  double  tree  is 
fixed  for  two  horfes  drawing  abrealf,  as  in  a  plough. 
And  to  llrengthen  the  harrow,  a  flat  rod  of  iron  is 
nailed  upon  the  harrow  from  corner  to  corner  in  the 
line  of  the  draught. 

The  fecond  harrow  confiflsof  two  parts,  conncfted 
together  by  a  crank  or  hinge  in  liie  middle,  and  two 
chains  of  equal  length,  one  at  each  end,  which  keep 
the  two  parts  always  parallel,  and  at  tlie  fame  uillance 
from  each  other.  The  crank  is  fo  contrived,  as  to  al- 
low tiie  two  parts  to  p'y  to  the  ground  like  two  un- 
connected harrows  ;  but  neither  of  them  to  rife  above 
the  other,  more  than  if  they  were  a  fingle  harrow 
without  a  joint.  In  a  word,  they  may  form  an  angle 
downward,  bat  not  upward.  Thus  they  have  the  cf- 
fedl  of  two  harrows,  in  curved  ground,  and  of  one 
weighty  harrow  in  a  plain.  This  harrow  is  conipofed 
of  fix  bulls,  each  four  feet  long,  three  inches  broad, 
and  three  and  a  h.'.lfdeep.  The  interval  between  the 
bulls  nine  and  a  lialf  inches  ;  wliich  makes  the  breadth 
of  the  whole  harrow,  including  the  length  of  the  crank, 
to  be  five  feet  five  inches.  Kach  bull  has  five  tetth, 
nine  inches  free  under  the  wood,  and  ten  inches  afun- 
dfr.  The  weight  of  each  tooth  is  two  pounds;  the 
reft  as  in  the  former. 

The  third  comifls  alio  of  two  parts,  connected  to- 
gether like  that  lafl  mentioned.  It  has  eight  bulls, 
each  four  feet  long,  two  and  a  half  inches  broad,  and 
three  deep.  The  interval  between  the  bulls  is  eight 
inches  ;  and  the  breadih  of  the  whole  harrow,  inclu- 
ding the  length  of  the  crank,  is  fix  feet  four  inches. 
In  each  bull  arc  inftrtcd  five  tecth.feven  inches  free  un- 
der the  wood,  and  ten  and  a  half  inches  afunder,  each 
tootlt  weighing  one  pound.  The  rellas  in  the  twofor- 
nier  harrows. 

Thefc  harrowsarcaronfiderable  improvement. They 
ply  tocurved  ground  like  twounconncttedharrows;aiid 
when  drawn  in  one  plain,  they  are  in  efTecloiie  harrow 
of  double  weight,  whicli  makes  the  teeth  pierce  deep 
into  the  ground.  7  he  inipcrfeiVion  of  common  har- 
rows, meiuioncd  above,  will  luggell  the  advniit.igcs  of 
the  fet  of  harrows  here  recommended.  The  lirA  is  pro- 
per forharrowiii",  land  thai  has  long  lain  aficr  plough- 
ing, as  where  oats  arc  Town  on  a  winter-furrow,  and  in 
Rrnerat  fur  harrowing  lliiriand  :  it  pirrccsdccp  inio  the 
foil  by  its  long  teeth,  :.nd  divides  it  miiuittlv.  The  fe- 


cond is  intended  for  covering  the  feed  :  i-.s  lono-  tectii 
lays  the  feed  deeper  than  tiie  cainmon  hirrow  can  do : 
which  is  no  ili^rht  advantajic.  By  placing  the  feed 
coiUiderably  under  the  furfacc,  the  young  plants  are, 
on  the  one  hand,  protected  from  too  much  heat,  and, 
on  the  other,  have  fuiUciency  of  moiiinrc.  At  the 
fame  time,  the  feed  is  fo  well  covered  that  none  of  jt 
is  loft.  Seed  .'lightly  covered  by  the  common  harrows 
wants  moiihirc,  and  is  burnt  up  by  the  fun  ;  be.lde, 
that  a  proportion  of  it  is  left  upon  tiie  furface  unco- 
ver cd.  The  third  harrow  fupplies  what  may  be  defi- 
cient in  the  fecond,  by  fujoothing  the  furface,  and  co- 
vering the  feed  more  accurately.  Tiie  three  harrows 
make  the  ground  finer  and  finer,  as  licckies  do  lint  ; 
or,  toufeaditierentconiparifon,the  firll  harrow  makes 
the  bed,  the  fecond  Lays  t'lc  feed  in  it,  the  tiiird 
fmooths  thccloaths.  They  liave  anothcradvautagc  not 
inferior  to  any  mentioned  :  they  mix  manure  with  the 
foil  more  intimately  than  can  be  done  by  common  har- 
rows; and  upon  fuch  iniiuiatc  mixture  depends  great- 
ly the  cficct  of  manure  as  has  already  been  cxplai.ied. 
To  conclude,  rhefe  harrows  arc  contrived  to  anfwcr  an 
eftabliflicd  principle  in  agriculture.  That  fertility  de- 
pends greatly  on  pulveri/.ing  the  foil,  and  on  an  iiiii- 
niate  mixture  of  manure  with  it,  whether  dung,  lime, 
marl,  or  any  other. 

T/ji'  Chain  and  Screw  Harroiv.  Fig.  8.  is  the  plan  Piatt  VU 
of  a  harrow  alfo  invented  by  Mr  Sandilands,  and  to 
which  he  has  given  the  name  of  the  chaii:  ami fcrcjj 
harrow.  Its  properties  are,  that  if  your  ridges  be 
high,  and  you  willi  to  harrow  them  from  one  end  to  the 
other,by  lengthening  the  chain  (\\  hich  the  fere w  com- 
mands), the  harrow.whcn  drawn  along,  formsan  angle 
downwards,  and  milfes  none  of  the  curve  of  the  ridge, 
fo  far  as  it  extends  (which  may  be  nine  feet,  the  di- 
ftancc  from  A  to  B.  The  extent,  in  the  contrary  di- 
reclion  is  five  feet  fix  inches).  When  the  crowns  of 
the  ridges  have  got  what  is  thought  fufficicnt  harrow- 
ing Icngthwife,  you  Ihorten  the  chain  by  the  fcrew, 
wliich  forms  an  angle  upwards  :  the  harrow' is  then 
drawn  by  the  horfes,  one  on  each  tide  of  the  furrow  ; 
wbicii  completely  harrows  it,  and  the  fides  of  the  ridge, 
if  18  feet  broad. 

When  you  want  to  harrow  even  ground  or  high, 
ridges  acriifs  with  the  fercw,  yon  can  bring  the  har- 
row to  be  horizontal,  fo  as  to  work  as  a  folid  hariow 
without  a  joint. 

The  teeth  are  formed  and  fixed  in  the  common  man- 
ner, fquare,  not  in  the  fafliion  of  coulters;  and  are  nine 
or  ten  inches  below  the  wood,  and  of  fuch  ftrcngth  as 
it  is  thought  the  land  requires.  The  tcerh  cut,  or  ra- 
ther tear,  the  ground  at  every  four  inches  withunt  va- 
riation, though  fceuiingly  placed  irregularly  ;  and  this 
without  any  rilk  of  choaking,  except  fonictimrs  at  ti;c 
extreme  angles,  where  the  teeth  are  necelfarily  near 
each  other  ;  but  which  may  b;'  cleaned  with  thcgrcateft 
cafe,  by  railing  them  a  little  out  of  tiie  ground.  The  fi- 
gures I,  2,  &c.  point  out  where  the  ij  teeth  on  each 
lideof  the  harrow  are  placid. 

Where  a  ftrong  brake-harrow  is  not  nccelfary,  by 
making  the  teeth  ihortrrand  lighter,  you  may  have  48 
teeth,  whi  h  will  tear  the  ground  at  every  two  inches, 
cover  the  feed  well,  and  make  a  fine  mould. 

It  is  recommended,  that  harrows  for  every  purpofe, 

and 


278 


A     G     R     I     C     U     L     T    U     R     li. 


Part  ir. 


Prad      :oanil  ol  any  lizc,  be  maJe  on  tlic  aliovc  priiirij'lc  ;   by 

' "        whicli  no  'o'tli  can  ever  t'oUow  tht  track  or  aauihcr^ 

id  ajlof  ihc.ii  will  be  kept  coiilkaiiily  acting. 


iiT' 


5.    The  Roller. 


loi 


The  roller.      The  roller  is  an  inrtriiment  of  capital  ufe  in  Inif- 
banilry,  tiiough  ftarcely  known  in  ordinary  ,>ra^tict  ; 
and,  where  introduced,  it  ii>  commonly  fo  lliglit  as  to 
•     have  very  lictlc  clfec^. 

Roilersareotdiliercnt  kinds;  ftonc,caft-iron,\vooj. 
Each  ot'  ihelc  has  its  advantages.      \V  c  \\  oiild  recom- 
mend the  lalt,  conllrnoted  in  (he  fullowing  manner. 
Take  the  body  ol  a  tree,  lix  feet  ten  inches  long,  the 
larj;er  the  better,  made  as  near  a  ptrlcct  cylinder  as 
polliblc.     Siirnmnd  this  cylinder  with  three  rows  of 
lillits,  one  row  in   the  middle,  and  one  at  each  end. 
Line  ihel'etillics  with  plauksot"  wood  equally  long  with 
the  roller,  and  fo  narrow  as  to  ply  into  a  circle.     Bind 
them  fart  together  with  iron-rings.   Beech- wood  is  the 
bell,  being  hard  and  tough.     Tlie  roller  thus  mount- 
ed, ought  to  have  a  diameter  of  three  feet  ten  inches. 
It  has  a  double  pair  of  lliatts  for  two  horfes  abreaft. 
Thcfe  are  futlicieiit  in  level  ground  ;  ia  ground  not  le- 
vel, four  horfes  may  be  neceliary .    The  roller  without 
the  Ihafts  ought  to  weigh   200  Itone  Dutch  ;   and  the 
large  diameter  makes  this  great  weight  eafy  to  be 
,oi       drawn. 
Seafoii  for       Rolling  wheat  in  the  month  of  April  is  an  iniport- 
roUiog.       ant  article  in  lool'c  foil ;  as  the  winter-rains  prelling 
down  tlie  foil  leave  many  roots  in  the  air.     Barley 
ought  to  be  rolled  immediately  after  the  feed  is  fown  ; 
efpecially  where  grafs-feeds  are  fown  with  it.    The 
bell  time  for  rolling  a  gravelly  foil,  is  as  foon  as  the 
mould  is  fo  dry  as  to  bear  the  roller  without  clinging  to 
it.     A  clay  foil  ought  neither  to  be  tilled,  harrowed, 
ror  rolled,   till  the  licUl  be  perfeOlly  dry.     And  as 
rolling  a  clay  foil  is  chiciiy  intended  for  fnioothing  the 
furface^  a  dry  feafon  may  be  patiently  waited  for,  cvch 
till  the  crop  be  three  inches  high.   There  is  the  great- 
er real'on  for  this  precaution,  becaufe  nmch  rain  im- 
mediately after  rolling  is  apt  to  cake  the  furface  when 
drought  follows.     Oats  in  a  light  foil  may  be  rolled 
immediately  after  the  feed  is  fown,  unlefs  the  ground 
be  fo  wet  as  to  cling  to  the  roller.     In  a  clay  foil,  de- 
lay rolling  till  the  grain  be  above  ground.     The  pro- 
per time  for  lowing  grafs-feeds  in  an  oat-field,  is  when 
the  grain  is  three  inches  high  ;  and  rolling  (liould  im- 
mediately fuceccd,  whatever  the  foil  be.     KLix  ought 
to  be  rolled  immediately  after  lowing.    This  fliould  ne- 
ver be  neglected  ;  for  it  makes  the  feed  pufli  equally, 
and  prevents  after  growth  ;   the  bad  ctlcd  of  which  is 
vifiblc  in  every  flcp  of  the  proccfs  for  drelFing  iiax.  The 
lirfl  year's  crop  of  fown  grafles  ought  to  be  rolled  as 
early  the  next  fpring  as  the  ground  will  bear  the  hor- 
fes.    It  fixes  all  the  roots  precifely  as  in  the  cafe  of 
wheat.     Rolling  the  fecond  and  third  crops  in  loofc 
foil  is  an  ufcfal  work  ;  though  not  fo  elfential  as  rolling 
103        the  tirll  crop. 
Effeas  of       In  the  firfl  placc.roilingrcnders  aloofefoil  niorecom- 
loUiog.        paclandfolid  ;  which  encourages  the  growthof  plants, 
by  making  the  earth  clap  clofc  to  every  part  of  every 
roo:.     Nor  need  we  be  afraid  of  rendering  the  foil  too 
compacl ;  for  no  roller  that  can  be  drawn  by  two  or 
four  horfes  will  have  that  effcd.     In  the  next  place, 


rolling  keeps  in  the  nioillurc,  and  hinders  drought  to    Pra«flice. 

jenciratc.     This  eltcit  is  ol  great  moment.     In  a  dry   • ' 

i'eafon,  it  may  make  the  uilfereiice  of  a  good  crop,  or 
no  crop,  cf,.ecially  w  here  itie  foil  is  light.   In  the  third 
place,  ihe  rolliiiggrafs-iVeJs,  beli^estue  foregoing  ad- 
vantages, laciliiai.es  the  mowing  lor  hay  ;  and  it  is  to 
be  hoped,  that  the  adv.mtagc  ot  this  pra -lice  will  lead 
farmers  to  mow  thtircoru  alio,  which  will  increafe  the 
quantity  of  itraw  boUi  for  food  and  for  the  dunghill. 
There  is  a  fmall  roller  for  breaking  clods  in  land  in- 
tended for  barley.     The  common  way   is,  to  break 
clods  with  a  n'.all :  which  requires  ninny  hands,  and  is  a 
laborious  work.      i  his  roller  performs  the  work  more 
eftcctujily,  and  at  much  klsexpencc  ;  let  a  harrow  ing 
precede,  %\  hich  w  ill  break  the  clods  a  little  ;  and  after 
lyuiga  day,ora  day  and  an  half,  todry,  this  roller  will 
dillolve  them  into  powder,    fhis  however  does  not  fu- 
perfedc  tht  ufe  of  the  great  roller  after  all  the  other  ar- 
ticles arc  finillied,  in  order  to  make  the  foil  compaft, 
and  to  keep  out  the  fiimmer-drought.     A  Hone  roller 
four  feet  long,  and  tiftccn  inches  diameter,  drawn  by 
one  horfe,  is  fulRtieni  to  break  clods  that  are  ealily  dil- 
folved  by  prelfurc.  The  ufe  of  this  roller  in  preparing 
land   for  barley  is  gaining  ground  daily,  even  among 
ordinary  tenants,  who  have  become  fenlible  both  of  the 
expencc  and  toilof  uling  w'ooaen  malls.     But  in  a  clay 
foil,  the  clods  are  fometimes  too  firm,  or  too  tough,  to 
be  fubdacd  by  fo  light  a  machine.   In  that  cafe,  a  rol- 
ler of  the  fame  lize,  but  of  a  different  conllruelion,  is 
neceliary.     It  ought  to  be  furrounded  with  circles  of 
iron,  fix  inches  afunder,  and  fevcn  inches  deep  ;  which 
will  cut  even  the  moll  llubborn  clods,  and  reduce  them 
to  powder.     Let  not  this  inllrument  be  conlidered  as 
a  finical  refinement.     In  a  ftitf  clay,  it  may  make  the 
dirterencc  of  a  plentiful  or  fcanty  crop. 


6.  The  Fallow-cleansing  Machine. 


104 


This  was  invented  by  Mr  Aaron  Ogden,  a  fmith  Thefal- 
at  Alhlon-under-Line,  near  Manchcfter  in  Lancafliire.  low-cleau- 
It  is  intended  for  clcanling  fallows  from  weeds,  &c.  fingma- 
which  exhaull  the  richcsof  the  foil.  A,  A,  is  the  frame  ;  fhrnc. 
B,  thcfirll  roller  ;  C,  the  fecond  ditto  ;  in  which  lafl  are  '''^'^  ^"' 
two  cranks  to  move  the  arms  D,  D,  which  work  the  rake  ^'  ^' 
up  thedirci^tors  fixed  on  the  plank  f^.  Thcunder,lideof 
thelowerendsorlharesofthefediredlorsarelharp,tocut 
thcclodsandlet  them  come  on  the  upper  lide.  Each  al- 
ternate heel  of  the  Ihare  is  longer  than  the  intermediate 
one,  that  they  may  not  have  more  than  one-half  to  cut 
at  once.  At  the  back  of  the  plank  E  are  two  fcrcws 
to  let  it  loofc,  that  the  dirctiors  may  be  fet  higher  or 
lower.  The  Ihares  arc  to  penetrate  the  ground  two  or 
three  inches,  to  raife  the  quicks  till  the  rake  I,  I, 
fetches  them  into  the  cart  H,  where  a  man  muft  be 
ready  with  a  muck-hook  10  clear  them  backward  when 
gathered.  In  the  rake  I  are  two  teeth  for  every  fpace 
of  the  diretSlors,  that  Hones,  &c.  may  be  gathered 
without  damage.  K,  K,  are  twollaples,  by  which 
the  machine  is  drawn  :  uiiderthcm  at  /;  arc  two  hooks; 
placed  low  to  raiie  the  machine  in  turning,  by  the  help 
of  the  traces  ;  and  the  axle-tree  of  the  carl  lliould  be 
fixed  upon  a  pin,  that  it  may  turn  like  a  wan;2;on. 
F,  F,  are  the  triggers  to  throw  the  rake  behind  the 
roots.  The  long  teeth  at  G,  G,  are  to  cleanfe  the 
lolicr  C.  I,  I,  is  the  rake  which  gathers  up  the  weeds 

into 


AgRICIjI-  TL  lUl 


PlatcM 


(7r}-rrr 


'^^y  y    y  y  ^^-^-^ 


/..I  .'W-w" 


art  II. 


AGRICULTURE. 


iato  the  cart  H,  and  is  diiwii  ;ioovc  ihc  trigger  *•'  by 
liic  worki  1^;  at  llic  arms  U,  cxj'rtucJ  by  tlic  lioucd 
liiics  at  (/ i/, ///.  i  he  triggers  f,  ot  wliich  there  is 
Oiie  oil  euch  lidc,  move  on  ilic  I'ivots  a  ;  (o  tlia:  whca 
the  points  l>,  of  tlic  rake  1,  have  been  drawn  up  by  the 
dircai>rs  E  to  the  y^n  marked  c,  iftc  tr.gger,  giving 
way  permits  the  rikc  to  pafs  ;  but  ininieuiately  tail- 
ing, the  rake  returns  aLrngtlie  upper  lurtace  of  tJie 
trigi^cr  marked  <;,  e,  and  or  courle  fills  on  the  weeds 
when  it  coincs  to  the  end,  a  little  beyond  the  pivot  a. 
The  reader  will  obftrvc,  tliac  the  boarding  is  taken 
away  on  one  fide,  in  the  Plate,  in  order  to  give  a  mure 
pcrfed  view  of  the  inner  part  of  the  machine  ;  and 
in  fact  it  would  perhaps  be  better  if  all  the  boarding, 
marked  L,  L,  L,  was  taken  away,  and  irame-work 
put  tn  its  Head.  The  carl  H  might  uiidoubieuly  alio 
be  made  lighter.  The  wheels  M,  M,  appear  in  the 
Plate  to  be  made  of  folid  wood  ;  but  there  is  no  nc- 
cefTity  tliat  it  Ihould  be  fo.  At  N  is  anotlier  view  of 
the  rallcr  C,  by  which  the  difpolition  of  the  fpikes 
may  be  ealily  comprehended,  buppofe  the  circle  O, 
defcribed  by  the  end  of  the  roller  N,  to  be  divided  l)y 
four  (Irait  lines  into  tight  equal  fegnums,asreprcfciit- 
cd  at  P.  Let  the  fame  be  done  at  the  oilier  end  of 
the  roller,  and  parallel  lines  be  drawn  fromonccorre- 
fpondiug  point  to  the  odier  the  length  of  the  roller  ; 
mark  the  points  with  rigures  i,  2,  3,  4.  5,  6,  7,  8  ; 
afterwards  draw  oblique  lines,  as  from  i,  at  the  end  of 
O  to  2,  at  the  other  end,  and  from  2  to  3,  &c.  on 
thcfe  oblique  lines  the  fpikes  are  to  be  fixed  at  equal 
diflance  in  eight  circles,  defcribed  on  the  circumfe- 
rence of  the  roller.  The  fpikes  of  the  fmall  roller  B 
are  fixed  in  the  fame  manner,  except  that  the  diameter 
being  fmallcr,  there  arc  only  fix  inltcad  of  eight  rows. 
R  is  another  view  of  tlic  direttors,  with  the  plank  £ 
on  which  they  are  fixed  ;  and  S  is  a  fection  of  a  part 
of  the  plank,  with  one  of  the  directors  as  fixed,  in 
which  may  be  feen  the  heel  «;,  from  whence  to  the 
point  of  the  (hare  «  is  a  (liarp  cutting  edge.  Sec  the 
fame  letters  in  figure  R.  At  T  is  one  of  the  long 
teeth  to  be  feen  at  G  ;  it  is  bent  towards  the  roller  C, 
which  it  fervcs  to  cleanfe.  When  the  end  of  the  rake 
l>,  after  riling  above  c,  is  pulhed,  by  the  motion  of  the 
arms  D,  D,  along  the  upper  part  i,  of  the  trigger 
F,  and  comes  to  the  end  beyond  a  ;  as  it  falls,  the 
part  of  the  arm  marked  0  reils  in  the  notch  p,  till  it 
is  again  raifcd  by  the  motion  of  the  roller  C  with  the 
rake.  The  roller  C  is  to  be  one  foot  diameter,  the 
fpikes  nine  inches  long,  that  they  may  go  through  the 
furrow  (if  the  foil  lliould  bcloofe)  into  the  hard  earth, 
tlie  more  cfFeCtually  to  work  the  rake,  wliich  other- 
wife  might  be  fo  overcharged  as  to  caufe  the  roller  to 
drag  without  turning.  In  therake-cnds^  their  Ihould 
be  pivots,  with  rollers  or  pullers  on,  10  go  in  the 
groove,  to  take  off  the  fridion  ;  and  they  would  like- 
wile  take  the  triggers  more  furely  as  the  rake  comes 
back.  The  rake  mould  alfobc  hung  fo  far  backward- 
er,  that  when  it  is  fallen  the  arms  of  it  may  lie  in  the 
fame  plane  or  parallel  with  the  directors,  on  which  it 
comes  up(  which  will  require  the  frame  to  be  two  inches 
longer  in  the  model).  This  will  caufe  the  rake  to  fall 
heavier,  and  drive  the  teeth  into  the  roots,  and  bring 
them  up  without  (hattering.  Thefe  teeth  mull  be 
Blade  of  lleci,  very  fine,  and  fo  long  as  to  reach  down 


279 


to  the  plank  on  which  the  directions  are  fixed,  that  is  .rnflicc. 

to  fay,  lix  inches  long  (the  directors  arc  alfo  to  be  ^ — 

made  lix  inches  broad  above  the  plank).  The  rake- 
head  Ihould  alfo  fall  a  little  before  the  crank  i>  at  its 
extremity,  which  will  caufe  the  rake  to  pulh  forward 
to  let  the  teeth  come  into  the  roots.  1  he  rake-teeth 
muitdrop  inthcfauie  plane  with  the  roller  and  wheels, 
or  on  the  furfaceof  tiie  earth.  No  more  fpace  Ihould 
be  given  from  the  roller  C  to  the  long  teeth  at  G  G 
than  that  the  rake  may  jull  mifs  the  fpikes  of  the  rol- 
ler C  and  fall  on  the  places  before  mentioned.  As 
the  tint  roller  B  was  intended  to  cleanfe  the  fecond  C 
more  than  for  any  other  ufc,  it  may  be  omitted  when 
the  machine  is  made  in  large,  as  Mr  Ogden  has  lately- 
found  that  the  long  teeth  at  G  G  anfwer  the  end  alone, 
and  thi)  renders  the  machine  about  a  llxth  part  ihorter. 
Now,  to  fuitany  fort  of  earth,  there  Ihould  be  to  each 
machine  three  planks,  with  dircciors  at  different  fpaces, 
to  ufe  occalionally  ;  in  the  hrll,  the  fpaces  between 
the  direcbors  Ihould  be  eight  inches  wide,  in  the  fe- 
cond lix,  and  the  third  f»ur.  This  will  anfwer  the 
fame  end  as  having  fo  many  machines. 

As  there  may  be  fome  objections  to  the  rake  not 
leaving  the  roots  when  it  has  brought  them  up,  Mr 
Ogden  has  fcveral  methods  of  cleanling  it  ;  but  as  he 
would  make  it  as  fimple  as  poinble,  he  choofts  to  let 
it  be  without  them  at  prefent  ;  Imi  fuppofe  it  lliould 
bring  fome  roots  back  again  with  it,  it  will  probably 
lofe  them  before  it  gets  back  to  the  extremity  ;  whence 
they  will  lie  light,  and  be  of  but  little  detriment  to 
the  others  coming  up.  Mr  Ogden  would  have  the 
firll  machine  made  four  feet  lix  inches  wide,  the  teeth 
divided  into  equal  fpaces  the  ouilides  into  half  fpaces. 


7.  The  new  invented  Patent  Univcrfal  Sowing 
Alachint. 


105 


Th  1  s  machine, whether  made  to  be  worked  by  hand,  Univtrfal 
drawn  by  a  horfe,  or  fixed  to  a  plough,  and  ufcd  with  fowing 
it,  is  extremely  limplc  in  the  conftruition,  and  not  machine, 
liable  to  be  put  out  of  order  ;  as  there  is  but  one  P'^"'  'X. 
movement  to  direct  the  whole,  nor  does  it  require  any  '"E"  >■»'"' 
(kill  in  working.  It  will  fow  wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye, 
clover,  cole-feed,  hemp, fiax,  canary,  rape,  turnip,  be- 
fides  a  great  variety  of  other  kinds  of  grain  and  feeds 
broad  calf,  with  an  accuracy  hitherto  unknown.  It 
is  equally  ufefnl  in  the  new  hulbandry,  particularly 
when  fixed  to  a  plough  ;  it  will  then  drill  a  more  extcn- 
live  variety  of  grain,  pulfe,  and  feed  (through  every 
gradation,  with  regard  to  quantity),  and  deliver  each 
kind  with  greater  regularity  than  any  drill-plough 
whatever.  When  uftd  in  this  manner,  it  will  like%\ife 
be  found  of  the  utmoil  fcrvice  to  farmers  who  are  par- 
tial to  the  old  hulbandry,  as,  among  many  other  very 
valuable  and  peculiar  properties,  it  will  not  only  fow 
in  the  broad-caft  way  with  a  moft  fingular  exaclncfs, 
but  fave  the  expcnce  of  a  fcedfman  ;  the  feed  being 
fown  (either  over  or  under  furrow  at  pleafurc),  and' 
the  land  ploughed,  at  the  fame  operation. 

Perhaps  a  fair  and  decifive  experiment  for  afcepf  lin- 
ing the  fuperior  advantage  of  broad-calling  or  drilling 
any  particular  crop,  was  ncverbeforc  fopriiflicablc;  as 
the  feed  may  now  be  put  in  with  the  iitmoft  He  ■rcc  of 
regularity,  in  both  methods  of  culture,  by  th(  (xi".r 


AGRICULTURE. 


Part  ir. 


ri£. 


mnchiiic;  conftqiicntly,  the  feed  will  be  fownin  both 
cal'ts  willi  equal  accuracy,  without  which  it  is  iinjiol- 
lililc  10  nials.«va  ji'ilt  liecilioii. 

Tilt  excellence  of  tins  machine  confids  in  fprcading 
any  given  quaniiiyuf  iccJ  over  any  given  luinibtr  of 
acres,  with  a  mathematical  cxactnefs,  which  cannot  be 
done  by  h:uid  ;  by  which  a  great  laving  may  be  made 
in  feeding  the  ground,  as  well  as  bcuefiting  the  cx- 
j)c;tcd  crop. 

There  has  always  been  a  ditiiculty  in  fowing  turnip 
feed  with  any  degric  of  cxatliicfs,  both  from  tlic  nii- 
Juitcncfs  of  the  feed,  and  the  fniallncfs  of  ihequantity 
required  to  be  fown  on  an  acre.  Merc  the  machine 
has  a  manifeft  advantage,  as  it  m^y  be  fet  to  fow  the 
lead  quantity  ever  reqiiiicd  on  an  acre  ;  and  with  an 
accuracy  the  bell  fecdiinan  can  never  attain  to. 

It  will  alf.i  fow  clover,  cole,  riax,  and  every  other 

kind  offmallfccd.with  the  utmoft  degree  of  regularity. 

Jt  \\iU  likcwifc  broad-call  beans, peafc,  and  tares,  or 

drill  them  with  the  grcatell  cxaclnefs,  particularly 

when  conftrucled  to  be  ufcd  with  a  plough. 

Another  advantage  attending  the  ufeofthis  ma- 
chine, is  that  the  wind  can  have  no  cfted  on  the  fall- 
ing of  the  feed. 

Of  the  Machine  lohoi  niadi  to  be  ttfed  ■mithout  a 
Plough,  and  to  be  drawn  by  a  H',rfe — It  may  in 
this  cafe  be  made  of  dirf'ereni  lengths  at  the  defirc  of 
the  purchafcr.  The  upper  part  AAAA,  contains 
the  hoppers  from  which  the  grain  or  feed  dcftends  into 
the  fpouis.  The  feveral  fpouts  all  reft  upon  a  bar, 
which  hangs  and  plays  freely  by  two  diagonal  fupport- 
crs  31! ;  a  trigger  tixed  to  this  bar  bears  a  catch  wheel: 
this  being  fixed  on  the  axle,  occafions  a  regular  and 
continual  motion,  or  jogging  of  the  fpouts,  quicker  or 
flower  in  proportion  to  the  pace  tlie  perfon  fowing 
with  it  drives  ;  and  of  courfc,  if  he  quickens  his  pace, 
the  bar  will  receive  a  greater  number  of  ftrokes  from 
the  catch  wheel,  and  the  grain  or  feed  will  feed  the 
faftcr.  If  he  drives  (lower,  by  receiving  fewer  ftrokes, 
the  contrary  nuift  take  place.  In  going  along  the 
(Ide  of  a  hill,  the  ftrength  of  the  llroke  is  corrcclcd  by 
a  fpring  which  arts  with  more  or  lefs  power,  in  pro- 
portion as  the  machine  is  more  oriels  from  a  horizon- 
tal pofition,  andcounteraths  the  dilfcrenceof  gravity  in 
the  bar,  fo  that  it  preircs,  in  all  lituaiions,  with  a  pro- 
per force  againil  the  catch  wheel.  This  I'pring  is  un- 
ncccflary  if  the  land  be  pretty  level.  At  the  bottom 
of  the  machine  is  placed  an  apron  or  Ihclf  iu  a  lloping 
polition,  and  the  corn  or  feed,  by  falling  thereon  from 
the  fpouts  above,  is  fcattercd  abmit  in  every  riircclion 
under  the  machine,  and  covers  the  ground  in  a  nioft 
regular  anii  uniform  manner. 

To  fow  the  corn  or  feed  in  drills,  there  arc  moveable 
fpouts(fec  fig.  10.)  which  arc  fixed  on,  or  taken  off 
at  plcafure,  to  direct  the  feed  from  llic  upper  fpout  to 
the  bottom  of  the  furrow. 

The  machine  is  regulated  for  fowing  any  pirticular 
quantity  of  feed  on  an  acre  by  a  brafs  llider.  A,  fig.  7. 
fixed  by  fcrews  againft  a  brafs  bridge  on  each  of  the 
fpouts.  The  machine  is  prcvcn  ted  Troni  feeding  while 
turning  at  the  ends,  by  only  removing  the  lever,  E, 
tig.  2.  out  of  the  channel  G,  toanother  at  II,  on  the 
riaht  hand  of  it,  which  carric?  back  the  bar  from  the 
catch-wheel,  and  occalions  the  motionof  the  fpouts  to 
ccafe,  and  at  the  fame  time  brings  them  upon  a  level 

t 


by  the  action  of  the  diagonal  fipporters  j  fo  chat  no    Pradlce. 
corn  or  feed  can  tall  froui  them.  ^— v— 

The  machine  in  this  form  is  particularly  ufeful  for 
broad-cafting  clover  upon  barley  or  wheat ;  or  for  low- 
ing any  other  kind  of  feed,  where  it  is  necelfary  that 
the  land  Ihould  firll  be  harrowed  exceedingly  fine  and 
even. 

Manner  of  iifng  the  Machine  ii'hcn  drawn  by  a 
Horfc — l-'lace  the  mariiine  about  two  feet  from  the 
ends  of  the  furroMs  where  you  iiHend  it  (hall  begin  to 
fow.  Fill  the  hojipers  wi:  h  feed,  and  drive  it  forward 
with  tiie  ouilidc  wheel  in  the  firll  furrow.  When  you 
arc  at  the  end  of  the  length,  attheoppoflte  lidecf  the 
field,  lift  the  lever  E,  fig.  2,  into  the  channel  li,  and 
the  machine  will  inftantly  Hop  fowing.  Drive  it  on 
about  two  feet  and  then  turn.  Kill  the  hoppers  again 
if  hecellary;  then  remove  the  lever  back  again  into  the 
channel  G,  and  in  returning,  let  the  ontddc  wheel  of 
the  machine  go  one  furrow  within  the  track  which 
was  made  by  it,  in  palling  from  (he  oppolite  end  :  as 
for  example,  if  the  wheel  palled  down  the  eighth  fur- 
row from  the  ontlide  of  the  field,  let  it  return  in  the 
fevcnth  ;  and  in  every  following  leiigth  let  the  outfidc 
wheel  always  run  one  furrov/  within  the  traft  made 
by  the  fame  wheel :  becaufe  the  breadth  fown  is  about 
nine  inches  lets  than  the  diliance  between  the  wheels. 

Let  the  machine  be  kept  in  a  perpendicular  fitua- 
tuation.  Ifthe  farmer  wilhcs  to  fow  more  or  lefs  feed 
on  any  one  pan  of  the  field  than  the  other,  it  is  only 
railing  the  handles  a  liuVe  hi;;her,  or  linking  them  a 
little  lower  than  ufual,  and  it  will  occalion  a  fufllcient 
alteration  ;  and  fliould  the  laft  turn  be  lefs  in  breadth 
than  the  machine,  thafc  f|)outs  which  are  not  wanted 
may  be  taken  up  from  tiie  bar,  and  prevented  from 
feeding,  by  turning  the  knobabovc  tlum. 

Alfo  when  the  lanj  rcc^uircd  to  be  fuwn  has  what  is 
called  a  vent,  that  is,  when  the  fides  of  the  field  run  in 
an  oblique  line  to  the  furrows,  which  by  this  means 
arc  uneqnal  in  length  :  the  fpouts  muft  be  taken  up  or 
let  down  in  fucccinon  by  turning  the  knobs  ;  as  that 
part  of  the  machine,  where  they  arc  placed,  arrives  at 
the  ends  of  the  furrows.  This  is  done  while  the  ma- 
chine is  gi'ing  forwards. 

Ifthe  land  be  tolerably  level,  the  machine  may  be 
fixed  by  the  fcrevv  in  the  front,  and  the  machine  may 
then  be  ufed  by  any  common  harrow  boy. 

Method  of  regulating  tht:  Machine. — In  each  fpout  is 
fixed  a  bridge,  (fee  fig.  7.)  with  an  aperture  in  it,  B, 
for  the  grain  or  feed  to  pals  through.  This  aperture 
is  enlarged  or  contracted  by  a  (lidcr.  A,  which  palfes 
overit;  and  when  properly  fixed  for  theqaaniity  of  feed 
dcllgned  to  be  fown  nn  an  acre,  is  faftencd  by  ineans 
of  two  ftrong  fcrews  firmly  againft  the  bridge.  This 
is  made  nfe  of  in  fowing  all  kinds  of  feed,  where  it  is 
required  to  fow  from  one  buflicl  upwards  oii  an  acre. 
To  fow  one,  two,  three  gallons,  or  any  of  the  inter- 
mediate quantities,  as  of  clover,  colc-fecd.  Sec.  the 
brafs  plate,  fig.  6.  is  placed  between  the  bridge  and  the 
flider,  with  the  large!!  aperture  B  downwards,  which 
aperture  is  enlarpcd  or  coniraiJlcd  by  t!ie  ilider  as  be- 
fore. To  fow  turnips,  the  fame  plate  is  placed  be- 
tween the  bridge  and  tlie  llider,  with  its  fmallcfl  aper- 
ture A  downwards,  and  the  hollow  part  about  the  fame 
aperture  inwards. 

I.  is  a  view  of  the  regulator,  by  which  tlic 

aperture 


Fig. 


A'  ' 

'  yVa.J.  Fflt/r  Cou//rrt/  /■'LCrO//. 


PlateNll. 


Part  II. 


AGRICULTU     R     E. 


Vraitice-   apcrtiircs  in  the  fcveral  fpoiits  arc  all  fct  cxaJhly  alike, 

*~~v wich  the  iitmoil  caff,  to  make  them  feed  equ.illy.   The 

extreme  height  of  the  largcd  aperture  is  equal  to  the 
breadth  A  B,  and  the  breadth  at  C  is  equal  to  the 
height  of  the  fniallclt  aperture  ufed,  viz.  that  for  tur- 
nips. The  lide  AC,  is  divided  into  60  equal  parts, 
and  on  it  move  the  Aider  or  horfe  D  ;  which  being 
placed  at  any  particular  degree,  according  to  the  quan- 
tity of  feed  required  to  be  fown  on  an  acre,  is  fixed 
upon  it,  by  a  fcrew  on  tlic  (ide  of  the  ilider  or  horfc. 

When  this  is  done,  the  enAof  the  regulator  is  put 
through  the  aperture  in  the  bridgeor  plate  (whichever 
is  intended  to  be  ufed),  and  the  Ilider  againft  the 
bridgein  the  fpout,  raifcd  by  it,  till  it  Hops  ag.iinft  the 
horfe  on  the  regulator  ;  then  the  iliiicr  is  fa!lcned 
againfl  the  bridge  (irmly  by  the  two  fcrews;  care  be- 
ing taken  at  the  fame  tiuie  that  it  flands nearly  fquare. 

By  this  means  the  fpouts  (being  all  fixed  in  the 
fame  mannei )  will  feed  equally. 

It  is  cafy  to  conceive  that  the  lize  of  the  apertures, 
and  confcqucnlly  the  quantity  of  feed  tobc  fownonan 
acre,  may  be  regulated  with  a  f.ir  greater  accuracy 
than  is  required,  in  common  practice. 

The  fpouts  may  bercgulated  with  theutmofl  nicety, 
in  five  minutes,  to  fow  each  particular  feed,  for  the 
whole  feafon.  But  alittlcpradice  will  enable  any  per- 
fon,  who  polfelles  but  a  very  modcraie  capacity,  to 
jnal.e  the  fpouts  feed  equally,  even  without  ufing  the 
rcguUtor(A). 

OJ  the  hlachhie  lahcn  matle  to  be  ufed  by  Htind. — 
The  dirterence  of  the  machine  in  this  cafe  is,  that  it  is 
made  lighter,  with  but  three  fpouts,  without  fliafts, 
and  is  driven  forward  by  the  handles.  It  hath  alio  a 
bolt  in  front,  which  being  pullied  in  by  the  thumb,  re- 
leafes  the  machine  ;  fo  that  itcan  then  ealily  be  placed 
in  a  perpendicular  polition.  This  alteration  is  neccf- 
fary  to  keep  the  handles  of  a  convenient  height,  in 
{owing  up  and  down  a  hill,  where  the  (lope  is  conlidcr. 
able  ;  and  is  done  while  the  machine  is  turning  at  the 
end  of  the  length.  The  method  of  regulating  and 
ufing  it  is  the  fame  as  when  made  to  be  drawn  by  a 
horfc. 

Oj  the  Machine,  ly/u/;  co/iflnifletl  It  be  tifed  ii'ilh  a 
Plough. — This  is,  without  doubt  the  mofk  ufeful  ap- 
plication of  the  machine  ,  and  it  can  be  fixed  without 
difliculty  to  any  kind  of  plough,  itt  the  fame  manner  as 
to  that  reprcfentod  fig.  i. 

The  advantages  ariling  from  the  ufe  of  it  are  great 
and  numerous  ;  for,  beiide  the  increafc  in  the  crop, 
which  will  be  infured  by  tiie  feeds  being  broad-cad 
with  a  mathematical  nicety,  a  large  proportion  of  feed 
(the  value  of  w  liich  alone,  in  a  few  months,  will  amount 
Vol..  I. 


281 


to  more  than  the  price  of  the  machine)  and  the  fccdf-  PraSice. 

man's  labour  will  be  faved.     The  feed  may  likcwilc  >/— 

be  fown  either  under  or  over  furrow  ;  or  one  cart  each 
way,  as  ispraftifed  by  fonie  farmers.  The  feed  alio, 
being  call  by  the  machine  upon  the  frelli  ploughed 
land,  may  be  immediately  harrowed  in,  before  the 
mould  has  loll  any  part  of  its  moifture  ;  which  in  a  dry 
feafon  will  greatly  promote  the  crop.  In  drilling  any 
kind  of  grain,  puKe,  or  feed,  it  polleii'es  every  property 
that  can  be  wilhed  for  inthc  bcftd.nll-plough,  norwill 
it  (as  moil  of  them  do)  bruife  the  feed,  or  feed  irre- 
gularly. The  conftructionofthc  machine  is  the  fame 
as  the  large  ones,  except  being  made  witli  one  hopper 
and  fpout  inftcad  of  fevcral,  and  the  apron  moveable 
inllead  of  being  fixed,  as  may  be  feen  by  infpeding 
fig.  4.  Tlie  only  alteration  necelfary  to  make  the 
machine  broad-call  or  drill  is,  in  t!\e  former  cafe  to 
place  the  apron  B,  fig.  i.  at  the  bottom  of  the  ma- 
chine, upon  the  hooks  KF,  (loping  either  towards  thfc 
furrows  or  the  imploughcd  land,  according  as  it  is  in- 
tended to  fow  the  feed,  either  under  or  over  farrov,'. 
Whenever  the  aprou  is  required  to  be  (liifted,  it  is  done 
in  Icfs  than  a  fecond  of  time  ;  as  it  only  requires  to  be 
moved  upor  down  with  the  hand,  when  a  catch  fixes  it. 

To  prepare  it  for  drilling,  inllead  of  the  apron,  place 
the  long  fpout,  fig.  10,  upon  the  brackets,  on  the  front 
of  the  machine,  by  the  ears  AA,  tore(cive  the  feed 
from  the  upper  fpout,  and  faflcn  the  lower  end  of  it, 
by  a  fmall  cord,  to  that  hook  upon  which  the  apron  is 
hung  for  broad -cafling,  v  hich  is  next  the  plough  (fee 
fig.  3  ;)  the  feed  will  then  be  diretled  by  the  long 
fpout,  to  the  centre  of  the  furrow,  near  the  heel  of  the 
plough.  The  fpring  for  correcting  the  Jlrength  ofthe 
Itroke,  isneecllary  only  wlicn  they  are  required  to  uo 
along  the  lide  of  a  condderablc  declivity.  The  nia- 
chine,  wlien  fixed  to  a  plough,  does  not  require  the 
fmalleft  degree  of  (kill  in  uiing,  as  nothing  is  neccifary 
but  to  keep  the  hopper  filled,  wiiich  will  contain  a  fuf- 
ficient  quantity  of  Iced  to  go  upwards  of  i.jo  rods,  be- 
fore it  will  want  re-filling,  when  three  bufliels  and  a 
half  are  fown  on  an  acre.  The  accuracy  with  which 
it  willbroad-caft,  may  in  fomc  meafure  bcconceiveii, 
by  cenfidcring  that  the  feed  regularly  defcends  upon 
the  apron  or  IhcU",  and  is  from  thence  fcattcrcd  upon 
the  ground,  in  quantity  cxacUy  proportioned  to  the 
fpeed  of  the"  plough  :  alio  that  each  ca(t  fprcads  to  the 
third  furrow;  and  by  this  means  (huts  upoq.  the  lall. 
In  this  manner  it  is  continually  filling  up  till  the  whole 
field  is  completely  covered  ;  fo  that  it  is  irapoliible  to 
leave  the  fmallcft  fpacc  withoift  its  proper  quantity  of 
feed. 

A\  hen  the  plougli  is  wanted  for  any  other  purpofe, 
N  11  ihe 


(a)  Proper  dircJlions  are  given  with  each  niacliine  for  ufing  it,  as  alfofor  fixing  the  fiidersto  fow  any  parti- 
cular quantity  of  corn  or  feed  on  an  acre,  fo  as  to  enable  any  perfon  to  ftt  the  fpouts. 

The  prices  of  the  machine  (exclulive  of  the  packing  cafes)  are  as  follow.  If  conllruclcd  to  be  ufed  with  a 
fingle  furrow  plough  ;  the  wheel,  with  the  axle  and  cheeks  fleelcd,  ftrap,  re,'5ulator,  brafsplates  torbroad-ca(l- 
ing  or  drilling  turnips,  lucerne,  tares,  wheat,  barley,  &c.  &c.  &c.  and  every  article  necelfary  for  fixing  it  in- 
cluded, Aree  guineas  and  a.  half.  If  made  with  a  fpring  (for  fowiitg  on  the  fide  of  a  hi!l,  where  the  llopc  is 
confiderablr),  but  which  is  very  rarely  necelfary,  rive  ihillings  more.  If  .made  to  be  fixed  to  any  double- 
furrow  plough,  four  guineas  and  a  half. 

The  large  machine,  fig.  2.  when  made  to  broad-call  feven  farrows  ar  a  time,  and  to  be  drawn  by  a  horfe, 
eight  guineas  and  a  half.  If  conllruiilcd  to  fow  {\\<:  furrows  at  a  time,  and  to  be  ufed  by  hand,  fix  guineas, 
Thefe  are  alio  live  lljilliiigs  more  if  made  with  a  fpi  ing. 


/^ 


282 


A     G     R     I     C     U     L>     T     U     R     E 


l'ra«ice.  the  macliii.c,\viih  ilic  wheel  at  ilic  heel  ot  the  pluiijjli 

' " tor  giving  it  motion, can  be  removed  or  replaced  at  any 

time  in  tivc  minutes.  ** 

Hg.  II.  rcprcfcnts  the  machine  fixed  to  a  double 
furrow crca/ing  plough,  and  prepared  fordrilliiig.  As 
this  plough  may  not  lie  generally  known,  it  will  not  be 
improper  to  obfcrvc.that  it  iscliieHy  ufcd  tor  crcaling 
theland  wiihturrows(aticr  it  has  been  once  ploughed 
and  harrowed)  ;  whicji  method  is  necefi^ry  whcnthc 
feed  is  to  be  fown  broad-caCt  upoii  land  that  has  been 
a  clover  lay,  &c.  becaufc,  il'  the  feed  be  fown  upon  the 
rough  furrows,  a  conliJcrable  part  of  it  will  tall  be- 
iwetn  them,  and  be  unavoidably  lo(l,  by  laying  to 
deep  buried  in  the  earth.  This  mode  anfwcrs  ex- 
tremely well,  and  pariakcs  of  bo:h  methods  of  culture  ; 
the  feed,  thouj^h  fown  bioad-call,  falling  chictiy  into 
the  furrows. 

The  machine  is  very  ufeful  for  fowing  in  this  man- 
ner ;  as  the  feed  is  broad-call,  with  an  inconceivable 
regularity,  at  the  time  the  land  is  crcafed.  The  ad- 
vantages it  like  wife  poll'cfles  for  drilling  all  forts  of 
grain  or  feed  with  this  plough,  arc  too  c\ident  to  need 
mentioning. 

The  machine,  when  conftrnifled  to  be  ufcd  with  a 
double-furrow  plough,  is  made  with  two  upper  and 
two  long  fpouis  for  drilling,  two  aprons  for  broad- 
calling,  and  with  a  double  hopper  ;  but  in  other  re- 
fpceis  the  fame  as  when  intended  for  a  lingle  furrow 
plough  :  it  is  uTed  in  all  cafes  with  the  grcatcll  cafe 
imaginable. 

Tiie  interval  between  the  points  of  the  two  fliares  of 
a  crealing  plough  is  ufaally  ten  inches  ;  the  beam  about 
'  nine  feet  long  ;  and  the  whole  made  of  a  light  con- 

Plate  IX.    llrudion. 

A  more  particular  explanatioti  of  the  figures. — Fig.  I. 
The  machine  iixcdtoaKentilh  turn  wrefl  plough.  A, 
The  machine.  B,  the  apron  upon  which  theftcd  falls 
and  rebounds  upon  the  land,  in  broad-calling.  C,  Lid 
to  cover  the  hopper.  D,  Wheel  at  the  heel  of  the 
plough.  E,  ftrap.  YV,  Hooks  upon  which  the  apron 
turns  by  a  pivot  on  each  fide.  G,  Stays,  to  keep  the 
machine  fteady.     H,  Lever  to  prevent  it  from  fowing. 

Fig.  2.  The  machine  conllructed  to  be  drawn  by  a 
horfe.  AAAA,  The  hoppers.  BB,  The  diagonal 
fupporters.  CCCC,  The  upper  fpouts.  D,  The  apron 
or  Ihelfupon  which  the  feed  falls  from  the  upper  fpouts. 
E,  The  lever,  which  carries  back  the  bar,and  prevents 
the  machine  from  fowing.  FF,  Staples  upon  the  han- 
dles, through  which  the  reins  pafs,  for  the  man  who 
condufts  the  machine,  to  dired  the  horfe  by.  I, 
Screw  to  fix  the  machine  occalionally.  N.  B.  The 
knobs  (by  turning  which  each  particular  fpout  may 
be  taken  from  off  the  bar,  and  thereby  prevented  from 
fe«ding)  are  over  each  upper  fpout ;  but,  to  prevent 
confufion,  are  nn  lettered  in  the  Plate. 

Fig.  ?.  Is  the  fame  machine  with  that  in  fig.  i.  The 
dotted  lines,  exprelTing  the  fituation  of  the  lung  fpout, 
when  the  apron  is  removed,  and  the  machine  adapted 
for  drilling. 

Fig.  4.  Alfoihc  fame'machine,  with  the  front  laid 
open  to  fliow  the  inlide.  A,  The  catch-whccl  fixed 
upon  the  axle.  BB,  The  axle  upon  which  the  machine 
hjings  between  the  handles  of  the  plough.  C,  The 
pulley,  by  which  the  llrap  from  the  wheel  at  the  heel 
of  the  plough  turns  the  catch-whccl.     D,  The  bar, 


Partir. 

upon  which  the  upper  fpout  refls,   fnfpcaded  by  the    Triaicc. 

diagonal  fupporters    EE,    b-.aring  a;;p.inlt  the  catch-  «      '' 

wheel  by  the  trigger  F,  aud  thereby  kept  in  motion 

while  the  plougii  is  goi;ig.     G,  the  apron  in  a  llopiiig 

poiition,  upon  which  tlie  corn  or  feed  falls  from   the 

upper  fjiout,  and  is  fcaitcred  by  rebounding  upon   the 

land.     It  turns  upon  pivots,  and  by  this  means  throws 

the  feed  cither  towards  the  right  handor  Icftatplca- 

fuie. 

Fig.  ;.  The  upper  fpout. 

Fig.  6.  The  plate  whicli  is  placed  between  the  bridge 
and  the  llider  for  fowing  fmall  feeds.  The  aperture 
A  being  downwards  for  fowing  laruips  ;  the  larger 
one  B  downwards  for  fowing  clover,  &c. 

Fig.  7.  The  briv!;re,  fixed  in  the  upper  fpouts.  A, 
The  llider,  which  contraftsor  enlarges  the  diticrent 
apertures.  B,  the  aperture  in  the  bridge,  through 
w  hif-h  the  feed  p.id'cs,  when  fowing  any  q^uaatiiy  from 
one  bulhcl  upwards  on  an  acre. 

Fig.  8.  The  regulator  made  of  brafs.  D,  The 
llider  or  horfe  which  moves  upon  it,  and  is  fixed  at 
any  particular  decree  by  a  fcrcw  in  its  iidc. 

Fig.  9.  Reprcfcnts  the  movement  in  the  machine 
fig.  2.  AAAA.  Ckcts,  between  which  the  upper 
fpouts  reft.  BB,  The  diagonal  lipporters  by  which 
the  bar  with  the  upper  fpouts  hang.  C,  The  catch- 
wheel.  DD,  ihe  axle.  E,  The  trigger  upon  the 
bar,  which  bearsagainfl the  catch-wheel.  FF,  Stays 
from  the  back  of  tlie  machine,  by  wliich  the  bar  plays. 

Fig.  10.  The  longfpout.  AA,  Theearsby  which 
it  hangs. 

Sect.  II.  Preparing  Land  for  Cropping. 

I.  Obstrvctions  to  CRorriNC. 

ic6 
In  preparing  land  for  cropping,  the  firft  thing  that  obftiuc- 
occurs,  istoconfiderthe  obflnii^lions  to  regular  plough-  tious,  viz. 
ing.  The  moft  formidable  of  thefe,  are// r'/fjlyinga-  *°'! 
Love  or  below  the  furface,  which  are.-'n  impediment  to  S'""'*- 
a  plough,  as  rocks  are  to  a  fhip.  Stones  above  the 
furface  may  be  avoided  by  the  ploughman,  lliough  not 
without  lofs  of  ground  :  but  ftoncs  below  the  furface 
are  commonly  not  difcnvered  till  the  plough  be  Ihar- 
tered  to  pieces,  and  perhaps  a  day's  work  loft.  The 
clearinglandofftones  istherefore  necelfary  to  prevent 
milVhief.  And  to  encourage  the  operation,  it  is  at- 
tended with  much  aclual  profit.  In  the  firft  place,  tlw 
ftonesare  ufeful  for  fences  :  when  large  they  muft  be 
blown,  and  commonly  fall  into  parts  proper  for  build- 
ing. Aiidas  the  blowing,  when  gunpowder  is  furnilh- 
ed,  does  not  exceed  a  halfpenny  for  each  inch  that  is 
bored,  thefe  ftones  come  generally  cheaper  than  to  dig 
as  many  out  of  the  quarry.  In  the  next  place,  as  the 
foil  round  a  large  ftone  is  commonly  tlie  heft  in  the 
field,  it  is  purchafed  at  a  low  rate  by  taking  out  the 
ftone.  Nor  is  this  a  trUe  ;  for  no;  only  is  the  ground 
loft  that  is  occupied  by  a  larae  ftone,  but  alfo  a  con- 
fiderabU  fpace  round  it,  to  which  the  plough  has  not 
accefs  w  ithout  danerr.  A  third  advantage  is  greater 
than  all  the  reft  ;  which  is,  that  the  ploui^liing'  can  be 
carried  on  with  much  expedition,  when  there  is  no  ap- 
prehenlion  of  ftones:  in  ftony  land,  the  plough  muft 
proceed  fo  flow  as  not  to  perform  half  of  its  work. 
To  clear  land  of  flones,  is  in  many  inflauces  an  un- 
dertaking 


Part  II. 


AGRICULTURE. 


dcrtriking  too  cxpenfive  for  a  tcnant,who  has  not  a 
'  very  long  Icafc.  As  ilis  profitable  both  to  him  and  to 
his  1  iiulljrdj  it  appears  rcaloii.iblc  tluit  the  work  liioul  J 
be  divided,  where  llie  Icalc  exceeds  not  nineteen  years. 
It  fails  naturally  upon  the  landlord  to  be  at  the  f  xpenrc 
of  blowing  the  ftones,  and  upon  the  tenant  to  carry 
them  ort'the  field. 

Another  obftniflion  is  wft  ground.  Water  may 
improve  gravelly  or  fandy  foils  ;  but  it  fours  (A)aclay 
foil,  and  converis  low  ground  into  a  morafs,  unjit  lor 
any  purpofe  that  can  intcreflthe  huibaudnian. 

A  great  deal  has  been  written  upon  different  me- 
thods of  draining  land,  moftly  fo  expenlive  as  to  be 
fcarce  fit  for  the  landlord,  not  to  mention  the  tenant. 

One  way  of  draining  without  expencc  when  land  is 
to  be  inclofcd  with  hedge  and  ditch,  is  to  direct  the 
ditches  fo  as  to  carry  off  tlie  water.  But  this  method  is 
notalways  practicable,  even  where  the  divifionslie  con- 
venient for  it.  If  the  run  of  water  be  conliderablc,  it 
will  dcllroy  the  ditches,  and  lay  open  the  fences,  efpe- 
cially  where  the  foil  is  loofe  or  findy. 

If  ditches  will  not  anfwer,  hollow  drains  are  fon.e- 
times  made,  and  fometimesopen  drains,  which  mull  L>e 
made  l"o  deep  as  to  command  the  wa'cr.  The  former 
is  tilled  up  with  loofe  ftones,  with  brulli-wood,  or  with 
any  other  porous  matter  that  permits  the  water  to 
pais.  The  latter  is  left  open,  and  not  Hlled  up.  To 
make  the  former  effectual,  the  ground  nuift  have  fuch 
a  dope  as  to  give  the  water  a  brilk  courfe.  To  execute 
them  in  level  ground  is  a  grofs  error  :  the  palfagcs  arc 
foon  ftopped  up  with  fand  and  fediment,  and  the  work 
is  rendered  ufelefs.  This  inconvenience  takes  not  place 
in  open  drains  ;  but  they  are  fubjeft  to  other  inconve- 
niences :  They  are  always  filling  up,  to  make  a  yearly 
reparatiim  aecclTary  ;  and  they  obllrud  both  plough- 
ing and  pafluring. 

The  following  is  the  beft  in  all  views.  It  is  an  open 
drain  made  with  the  plough^  cleaving  the  fpace  in- 
tended for  the  drain  over  and  over,  till  the  furrow  be 
riade  of  a  futHcient  depth  for  carrying  off  the  water. 
The  (lope  on  either  fide  may,  by  repeated  ploughings, 
be  made  fo  gentle  as  to  give  no  obflruftion  either  to 
the  plough  or  to  the  harrow.  There  is  nooccalion  for 
a  fpade,  iinlefs  to  Imooth  the  fiJes  of  the  drain,  and  to 
remove  accidental  obllrucHons  in  tlie  bottom.  The 
advantages  of  this  drain  are  manifold.  It  is  executed 
at  much  lefs  expence  than  either  of  the  former  ;  and 
it  is  perpetual,  as  it  can  never  be  obfhuc'fed.  In  level 
ground,  it  i^  true,  grafs  may  grow  at  the  bottom  of 
the  drain  ;  but  to  clear  off  the  grafs  once  in  four  or  five 
years,  will  reflore  it  to  its  original  jierfeftion.  A  hol- 
low drain  may  be  proper  between  the  fpring-headand 
the  main  drain,  where  the  diflancc  is  not  great  ;  but 
in  every  other  cafe  the  drain  recommended  is  thcbefl. 

\\  here  a  level  field  is  inftlled  w'th  water  from 
higher  ground,  the  water  ougiit  to  be  intercepted  by 
a  di;cli  rarricd  along  the  foot  of  the  high  ground,  and 
terminating  in  fonic  cajut  il  drain. 

The  only  way  totlcara  field  of  water  tiiat  is  hollow 


2S3 


in  the  middle,  is  to  carry  it  off  by  fome  drain  ftill  low-    rraaicc. 
er.     This  is  couiuionly  the  cafe  *>f  a  morafs  fed  with 
water  from  higher  ground,  and  kept  on  the  furfacc  by 
a  clay  bottom. 

A  clay  foil  of  any  thickncfs  is  never  pcflcred  ■with 
fprings;  but  it  is  pcllercd  with  rain,  which  fettles  on 
the  furface  as  in  a  cup.  The  only  remedy  is  high  nar- 
row ridges,  wellroundcd.  And  to  clear  the  furrows, 
the  furrow  of  the  footbridge  ought  to  be  conliderably 
lower,  in  order  to  carry  off  the  water  cleverly.  It  can- 
not be  made  too  low,  as  nothi.ig  hurts  clay  foil  more 
than  the  itagnaiion  of  wateronit  ;  witncfsthe  hollows 
at  the  end  of  cro.ked  ridges,  wliich  arcabfolutely  liar- 
rcn.  Some  gravelly  foils  have  a  clay  bottom  ;  which 
is  a  i'ublbntial  benefit  to  a  held  when  in  grafs,  as  it 
retains  moifture.  But  when  in  tillage,  ridges  arc  nc- 
celary  to  prevent  rain  from  fettling  at  the  bottom  ; 
and  this  is  the  only  cafe  where  a  gravelly  foil  ought 
to  be  ridged. 

Clay  foils  that  have  little  or  no  level,  have  fomctimcs 
a  gravelly  bottom.  For  difcharging  the  water,  the  befl 
method  is,  at  the  end  of  every  ridge  to  pierce  down  to 
the  gravtl,  which  will  abforb  the  water.  But  if  the 
furrow  of  the  foot-iid^e  be  low  enough  to  receive  all 
the  water,  it  will  be  more  expeditious  to  make  a  few 
holes  in  that  furrow.  In  fome  cafes,  a  field  may  be 
drained,  by  tilling  up  the  htdlows  with  earth  taken  from 
higlier  ground.  But  as  this  method  is  expenlive,  it 
will  only  be  taken  where  no  other  method  anfwcrs. 
Where  a  tield  happens  to  be  partly  wet,  partly  dry, 
there  ougiit  to  be  a  feparationby  a  middle  ridge,  if  it 
can  be  done  conveniently  ;  and  the  dry  part  may  be 
ploughed  while  the  other  is  drying. 

The  low  part  of  Berwick  (liire  is  generally  a  brick  clay, 
extremely  wet  and  poachy  during  winter.  This  in  a 
good  incafurc  may  be  prevented  by  proper  inclofmg, 
as  there  is  not  a  field  but  can  be  drained  into  lower 
ground  all  the  way  down  to  the  river  Tweed.  But 
as  this  would  lefTen  the  quantity  of  rain  in  a  dry  cli- 
mate, fuch  as  is  all  the  call  fide  of  Britain,  it  may  ad- 
mit of  fome  doulit  whether  the  remedy  would  not  be 
as  bad  as  the  difeafe.    (S;i:  the  artidi  Dr.imning.) 


2.  Bringing  into  CULTURE,  Land  from  the 

SI  ATE  of  NATURE. 


109 


To  improve  a  noor,  let  it  be  opened  in  wiritcr  when  Moi.rifh 
it  is  wet;  which  has  one  convenience,  that  the  plough  grouud. 
cannot  be  employed  at  any  other  work.  In  fpring,  after 
frofl  is  over,  a  llight  harrowing  will  (ill  up  the  fcams 
with  mould,  to  keep  out  the  air,  and  rot  the  fod.  In 
that  ftate  let  it  lie  the  following  fummcr  a"d  winter, 
which  will  rot  the  fod  more  than  if  laid  open  to  the  air 
by  ploughing.  Next  April,  let  it  be  crofs-ploughed, 
braked,  and  harrowed,  till  it  be  fulticicntly  pulvcrifcd. 
Let  the  manure  laid  upon  it,  whether  lime  or  dung, 
be  intimately  mixed ^A  ith  the  foilb/  rrpeattd  harrow- 
ings.  This  will  m.ake  a  tine  bed  for'turui p-fecd  if  fown 
broad-caft.  But  if  drills  be  intended,  the  method  muft 
N  n  2  be 


(a)  By  thi^expreflion  it  is  not  meant  that  the  ground  really  becomes  acid,  but  only  that  it  beco'.ncs  unfit 
for  the  purpofesof  vegetation.  The  natural  produc^ts  of  fuch  a  foil  arc  rulhcsand  ft^ur  graTs  :  which  Lift  ap- 
pears in  the  furrows,  but  fcldom  in  the  crov;n  of  the  ridge  ;  is  dry  and  tailckfslikca  ch'ipof  wood  ;  and  feels 
rough  when  flrokcd  backwards. 


AGRICULTURE. 


no 

Swampy 


Ill 

Of  ridges. 


be  followed  that  is  Jirc6lcd  afterward  in  treating  more 
dirciUy  of  the  ciilcurc  of  turnip. 

A  factcfsful  turnip-crop,  fed  on  the  ground  with 
fliecp,  is  a  line  preparation  for  laying  down  afield  \\itli 
jjrals-fccds.  It  is  an  improvement  upon  this  method, 
lo  take  two  or  three  fiicceflivc  crops  of  turnip,  which 
will  require  nodung  for  the  fecond  and  following  crops. 
This  will  thicken  the  foil,  and  enrich  it  greatly. 

The  bell  way  of  improving  fwanipy  ground  after 
draining,  is  paring  and  burning.  But  wiicrc  the  ground 
is  dry,  uud  the  f<;il  fo^  thin  as  that  the  iiirface  cannot 
be  p.'.red,  the  bell  way  of  bringing  it  into  tilih  from 
the  llate  of  nature,  as  mentioned  sbove,  is  to  plough 
it  wiih  a  feathered  focJi,  laying  the  gralfy  furface  un- 
der. After  the  new  furface  is  mellowed'with  froft, 
fill  ujiallthcfeams  by  harrowing crofs  the  field, which 
by  excluding  the  air  will  etfeclually  rot  the  foj.  In 
this  llitc  let  it  lie  fumnicr  and  winter,  in  the  bcgin- 
ing  of  May  after,  a  crofs  ploughing  will  reduce  all  to 
fmall  fquare  pieces,  which  mult  be  pulverized  with  the 
brake,  and  make  it  ready  for  a  May  or  June  crop.  If 
ihcfc  fquare  pieces  be  allowed  to  lie  long  in  tiie  fap 
without  breaking,  they  will  become  ton^h  and  not  be 
calily  reduced. 

3.  Forming  Ridges. 

Th  e  firfl  thing  that  occurs  on  this  head,  is  to  con- 
fidcr  what  groundsought  to  be  formed  iuto  ridges,  and 
what  ought  to  be  tilled  with  a  flat  furface.  Dry  foils, 
whichfulfer  bya  lack  of  nioillure,ought  to  betillcd  flat, 
■which  tends  to  retain  moilhire.  And  the  method  for 
fuch  tilling,  is  to  go  round  and  round  from  the  cir- 
cumfercucc  to  the  centre,or  trom  the  centre  to  thecir- 
cuniferencc.  This  method  is  advantageous  in  point  of 
expedition,  as  the  whole  is  tinillicd  without  once  turn- 
ing the  plough.  At  the  fame  time,  every  inch  of  the 
foil  is  moved,  inflead  of  leaving  lithcr  the  crown  or 
the  furrow  unmoved,  as  is  commonly  done  in  tilling 
ridges.  Clay  foil,  which  futfers  by  water  /landing on 
it,  ought  to  b--  laid  as  dry  as  polhble  by  proper  ridges. 
A  loamy  foil  is  the  middle  between  the  twomentioned. 
It  ought  to  be  tilled  flat  in  a  dry  country,  efpecially 
if  it  i.iclnie  to  the  foil  firfl  mentioned.  In  a  moill 
country,  it  ought  to  be  formed  into  ridges,  high  or 
k)w  according  to  the  degree  of  moiflure  and  tendency 
to  clay. 

In  grounds  that  require  ridging,  an  error  prevails, 
that  ridges  cannot  be  raifcd  too  high.  High  ridges 
labour  under  fcveral  difadvantages.  The  foil  is  heap- 
ed upon  the  crown,  leaving  the  furrows  bare  :  the 
crown  is  too  dry,  and  the  furrows  too  wet  :  the  crop, 
which  is  always  bcft  on  thecrown.is  more  readily  iha- 
kcn  with  the  wind,  than  where  the  whole  crop  is  of  an 
equal  height  :  the  halfof  tiie  rid^e  is  always,  covered 
from  the  fun,  a  difadvantage  which  is  far  from  being 
flight  in  a  cold  climate.  High  riJges  labour  under  a- 
nother  difadvantage  in  ground  that  has  no  more  level 
than  barely  fuiiicient  to  carry  off  water  :  they  fink  the 
iarrows  below  the  level  of  the  ground  ;  and  eon fe- 
quently  retain  water  at  the  end  of  every  ridge.  The 
furrows  ought  never  to  be  funk  below  the  level  of  the 
ground.  Water  will  more  etfcctually  be  carried  off 
by  IclTcaing  the  ridges  both  ia  height  and  breadth  :  a 


narrow  ridge,  the  crown  of  which  is  but  18  inches 
higher  than  tlie  furrow,  hasa  greater  Hope  than  a  very 
broad  ridge  where  the  dillcrcnce  is  ihrcc  orfour  feet. 

Next,  of  forming  ridgts  where  the  ground  lungs 
eonfidcrably.  Ridges  may  be  too  fteep  as  well  as  too 
horizontal ;  and  if  to  the  ridges  be  given  all  the  llcep- 
rel'sof  a  fit  IJ,  a  heavy  Ihower  may  do  irreparable  mil- 
chief^  To  prevent  fuch  mifchicf,  the  ridges  ought  to 
be  fo-dirccled  cruls  ihe  field,  as  to  have  a  gentle  llopc 
for  carrying  off  water  llowly,  and  no  more.  In  that 
rcfpecl,  a  hanging  field  has  greatly  the  advantage  of 
one  that  is  nearly  ho:  izont.:l ;  beeaule  in  the  latter, 
there  is  no  opportunity  of  a  choice  in  forming  the 
ridges.  A  hill  is  of  all  the  bell  ad.ijited  for  directing 
the  ridges  properly.  If  the  foil  be  gravelly,  it  may  be 
ploughed  round  .ii:d  round,  beginning  at  thcboitoui 
and  afccnding  gradually  to  the  top  in  a  fpjral  line. 
'1  his  I'.ictliod  vt  ploughing  a  hill,  requires  no  more 
force  than  pKnij^iiiag  on  a  level  ;  and  at  the  fame  time 
removes  the  great  inconvcnicnceota  gravelly  hill,  that 
rains  go  oft"  too  quickly  ;  for  the  rain  is  retained  in 
every  furrow.  If  the  foil  be  fucii  as  to  require  ridges, 
they  may  be  directed  to  any  Hope  that  is  proper. 

In  order  to  form  a  field  into  ridges,  that  has  not  been 
formerly  cultivated,  the  rules  mentioned  are  eafily  put 
in  c.\ecuii('ii.  But  what  ii  ridges  be  already  formed, 
that  are  cither  crooked  or  too  high  ?  After  feeing  the 
advantage  of  forming  a  field  into  ridges,  people  were 
naturally  led  into  an  error,  that  the  hightr  the  better. 
But  what  could  tempt  them  to  make  their  ridges  crook- 
ed.' Certainly  this  method  did  not  originate  from  de- 
iign  ;  but  from  the  lazinefs  of  the  driver  futiering  the 
cattle  to  turn  too  hallily,  inllcad  of  making  them  hnilh 
the  ridge  without  turning.  There  is  more  than  one 
difadvantage  in  this  llovenly  praelice.  t'irll,  the  wa- 
ter is  kept  in  by  the  curve  at  the  end  of  every  ridge, 
and  fours  the  ground.  Next,  as  a  plough  has  thelealt 
frittion  poflible  in  a  llr.tight  line,  the  friction  mud  be 
incrcafed  in  a  curve,  the  back  part  of  the  mouldboard 
prelfing  hard  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  coulter  prefling 
hard  on  the  other.  In  the  third  place,  the  plough 
moving  in  a  flraightline,  has  the  greatell  command  in 
laying  the  earth  over.  But  where  the  ilraigln  line  of 
the  plough  is  applied  to  the  curvature  of  a  ridge  in 
order  to  licighten  it  by  gathering,  the  earth  moved  by 
the  plough  is  continually  falling  back,  in  fpite  of  the 
niofl  fkilful  ploughman. 

The  inconveniencesofridgeshighandcrookcdarefo 
many,  that  one  would  be  tempted  to  apply  a  remedy  at 
any  rifk.  And  yet,  if  t!ie  foil  be  clay,  it  would  not  be 
advifcable  for  a  tenant  to  apply  ihc  remedy  uponalcafc 
fliorter  than  two  nineteen  years,  in  a  dry  gravelly- 
foil,  the  work  is  not  difficult  nor  hazardous.  When 
the  ridges  are  cleaved  two  or  three  years  fuccef- 
fively  in  the  eourfc  of  cropping,  the  operation  ought 
to  be  concluded  in  one  fummer.  The  earth,  by  reite- 
rated ploughings,  lliould  be  accumulated  upon  the  fur- 
rows, fo  as  toraifc  them  higher  than  the  crowns :  they 
cannot  be  raifed  too  high,  for  the  accumulated  earth 
will  fublide  by  its  own  weight.  Crofs-ploughing  once 
or  twice,  will  reduce  the  ground  to  a  ilat  furface,  and 
give  opportunity  to  form  ridges  at  will.  The  fame 
method  brings  down  ridges  in  clay  foil  ;  only  let  care 
be  taken  to  carry  on  the  work  with  expedition  ;  be- 

catifc 


Part  ir. 

Praflicc. 


Part  I  r. 

I'racSice. 


AGRICULTURE. 


28,- 


•  EJfays  on 
yi^ritttlliire. 
Vol.  I.  p. 
146- 

Hi 
Inconvcni- 


mcthodsof  , 
levelling. 


caiife  aliearty  (hower,bcforc  the  ncwriJgcsarc  form- 
ed, would  foak  the  ground  in  water,  and  make  the  far- 
mer fjlpcnded  his  work  for  the  remainder  of  that 
year  at  lead.  In  a  ftrongclay,  wc  would  not  venture 
to  alter  the  riJges,  unlel's  it  can  be  done  to  pcrfctlioii 

in  one  fcafon On  this  fu'jjeet  Mr  Anderfon  has  the 

following  obfcrvatioMS*. 

"The  difficulty  of  performing  this  operation  pro- 
perly with  the  common  implemeutsofhulbandry,  and 
thcobvious  benefit  that  accrues  to  the  farmer  from  ha- 
enctsinthe  ving  liis'fields  level,  has  produced  many  new  invcnii- 
commoa     p,,^  „j-  ploughs,  harrov/s,  drags,  &c.  calculated  for 
fpccdily  reducing   the  fields  to  that  Hate  ;  none  of 
whicn  have  as  yet  been  found  fully  toanfwcr  the  pur- 
pofe  forwhich  they  were  intended, as  they  allindifcri- 
minaiely  carry  the  earth  that  was  oil  the  high  places 
into  thofe  tiiat  were  lower  ;    which  although  it  may, 
in  foiBC  cafes  render  the  furface  of  the  ground  tolera- 
bly fmooih  and  level,  is  uAially  attended  witli  incon- 
veniences far  greater,  for  aeon  liderable  length  of  lime, 
than  iliat.whicli  it  was  intended  to  remove. 
^''Vi         "  ^'°^  experience  fufliciently  fhows,  that  even  the 
m'^^W^c-    ^^^  vegetable  mould,  if  buried  for  any  length  of  time 
comes  inert  f"  f'*''  beneath  tlic  furface  as  to  be  deprived  of  the  be- 
by  hcing     nign  influences  of  the  atmofphere,  lofes  its  vis  vita',  if 
longburitd  I  may  be  allowed  that  exprcllion  ;   becomes  an  inert, 
lifclefsmafs,  little  fitted  for  nourilhing  vegetables,  and 
conftitutes  a  foil  very  improper  for  the  purpofesof  the 
farmer.    Jt  therefore  behoves  him,  as  much  as  in  him 
lies,  to  preferve,  on  every  part  of  his  fields,  an  equal 
covering  of  that  vegetable  mould  that  has  long  been 
uppcrmoft,  and  rendered  fertile  by  ihe  meliorating  in- 
fluence of  the  atmofphcre.    But,  if  he  fudJenly  levels 
his  high  ridges  by  any  cf  thefc  mechanical  contrivan- 
ces, lie  of  riecelUty  buries  all  the  good  mould  that  was 
on  the  top  of  the  ridges  in  the  old  furrows  ;  by  which 
he  greatly impoverilhes one  partof  his  field,  while  he 
too  much  inriches  another  ;  infomuch  that  it  isamat- 
tcrofgrcatdificulty,  for  many  years  thereafter,  to  get 
the  field  brought  to  an  equal  degree  of  fertility  in  dif- 
ferent places  ;  which  makes  it  inipnllible  for  the  far- 
mer to  get  an  equal  crop  over  the  whole  of  his  field  by 
any  mana:;cnicnt  whatever  :  and  he  has  the  mortifica- 
tion frequently,  by  this  means,  to  fee  the  cue  half  of 
his  crop  rotted  by  an  over-luxuriance,   while  other 
parts  of  it  are  wesk  and  fickly,   or  one  part  ripe  and 
ready  for  reaping,  while  the  (.thcr  is  not  properly 
filled  ;   fo  that  it  were,  on  many  occafions,  better  for 
him  to  have  his  whole  field  reduced  at  once  to  the  fame 
degree  of  poornefs  as  the  poorcllofit,  than  have  it  in 
this  (late.    An  almofl  impracticable  dcgvtc  of  attcuii- 
on  in  fpreaJing  the  manures  may  indeed  in  fome  mea- 
fure  get  the  better  of  this  ;  but  it  is'  lb  ditiicult  to  per- 
form this  properly,  that  I  have  frequently  feen  fields 
that  had  been  I  h'.is  levelled, in  which,  after  thirty  years 
of  continued  culture  and  repeated  dredings,  the  marks 
of  the  old  ndges  could  be  diltin-Hy  traced  when  the 
corn  was  growing;,  altho' the  furface  wa.- fo  level  that 
no  traces  of  thciu  could  be  perceived  when  the  corn 
was  off  the  ground. 

"  But  this  is  a  degree  of  perfrflion  in  levelling  that, 
cannot  be  ufiially  attained  by  following  this  mode  of 
practice  ;  and,  therefore,  is  but  ftldom  it  t  n.    Kor  all  _ 
^that  can  be  expcdcd  to  be  done  by  any  levelling  ma-  ' 


ciiine,  is  tc^rendcr  t!ic  f.irface  perfectly  fmooth  and    Pnaice. 

even  in  every  part,  at  the  time  that  the  operation  is  ■ w ' 

performed:  but  as,  in  this  cafe,  the  old  hollows  arc 
fuddeiily  filled  up  with  luofe  mould  to  a  great  depth, 
while  the  earth  below  the  furface  up<;:i  the  heights  of 
ihcold  ridges  reniainsrirm  and  cc-.npact.the  ncw-raifed 
earth  after  a  liiort  time  lublidcs  very  much,  while  the 
other  parts  of  the  ficid  do  not  link  at  all ;  fo  that  in 
a  lliort  time  the  old  furrows  come  to  be  agr.in  bclov/ 
the  level  of  the  other  parts  of  the  field,  and  the  water 
of  co'jrfc  is  furt'ered  in  fome  degree  to  /lagnatc  upon 
them  ;  in  fo  much  that,  in  a  few  years,  it  becomes  nc- 
celfaryoncc  more  to  repeat  the  fame  levelling  proccfs, 
and  thus  renew  the  damage  that  the  farmer  fuflains 
by  thiS'^)erniciou.s  operation. 

"  On  thcfe  accounts,  if  ihe  farmer  has  not  a  long  Ltvcllin- 
leafc,  it  will  be  found  in  general  to  be  much  hisintcrclt  fnmctime* 
to  leave  the  ridges  as  he  found  them,  rather  than  m  "ot  to  he 
attempt  toalter  theirdirettiou  :  and,  if  he  attends  with  attcmj'Kd.- 
due  caution  to  moderate  the  height  of  thefc  old  ridges, 
he  may  reap  very  good  crops,  although  perliaps  at  a 
fomewhat  greater  exptnce  of  labour  thaii  he   would 
have  been  put  to  upon  the  fame  field,  if  itliad  been  re- 
duced to  a  proper  leveifurface,anddividedintoftraight 
and  parallel  ridges. 

"  But,  whercamanisfccureofpoireflinghisgroiinJ 
for  any  confidcrallc  length  of  time,  the  advaniagei 
that  he  will  reap  from  having  level  and  well  laid-out 
fields,  are  foconliderable  as  to  be  worth  pnrchafing,  if 
it  Ihould  even  be  at  a  conliderable  expence.  But  the 
lofs  that  is  fuftained  at  the  beginning,  b)  this  mecha- 
nical mode  of  levelling  ridges,  if  they  arcof  confidcr- 
ablc  height,  is  fo  very  great,  that  it  is  perhaps  doubt- 
ful if  any  future  advantages  can  ever  fully  compenfate 
it.  I  would  therefore  advife,  that  all  this  levelling 
apparatus  ihould  be  laid  alide  ;  and  the  following  more 
eflicacious  practice  be  fubllituted  in  its  (lead  :  A  prjc- 
lice  that  I  have  long  followed  with  fuccefs,  and  can 
fat'cly  recommeijj  as  the  very  bell  that  has  yet  cumc 
to  my  knowledge. 

"  If  the  ridges  have  been  raifcd  to  a  very  great  p.^cime. 
height,  as  a  preparation  for  the  cnfuing  operations,  thoj  of 
they  may  be  firll  t/si'jw,  ov  feal^doat,  as  it  is  callrdia  Uvtllint'. 
ditterent  places  ;  thai  is,  ploughed  fo  as  to  lay  the  earth 
on  each  ridge  from  the  middle  towards  the  furrows. 
But,  if  they  are  only  of  a  moderate  degree  of  height, 
this  operation  may  be  omitted.  When  you  mean  to 
piocced  to  level  the  ground,  let  a  nnmberofmcn  be 
collected,  with  fpades,  more  or  fewer  as  the  nature  of 
t!ie  ground  requires,  and  then  fet  a  plough  to  draw  a 
furrow  direClly  acrol'sthc  ridges  of  ihe  whole  field  in- 
tended to  be  levelled.  Divide  tiiis  line  into  as  many 
parts  as  you  have  labourers,  allotting  to  each  one  ridge 
or  two,  or  more  or  Icfs,  according  to  their  number, 
height,  and  other  circumilances.  Let  each  of  the  la- 
bourers have  orders,  as  (oon  as  the  plough  has  padcd 
that  part  afllgued  him,  to  begin  10  dig  in  the  bottom 
of  the  furrow  that  the  plough  hasjuA  made,  about  the 
middle  of  the  fide  of  the  old  rid^^e,  keeping  his  face 
towards  the  old  ("urrow,  workiiig  backwards  till  he 
eoii.cs  to  the  height  of  the  rid'.;c,  and  thi::"turn  to- 
wards the  other  furrow,  and  repeat  the  f  i:  e  on  the 
other  lide  of  the  ridge,  always  throwing  the  larili  that 
he  dig^  up  into  the  dcej)  old  furrow  between  the  rid- 
ges. 


AGRICULTURE. 


PartU. 


gcs,  iliat  is  directly  before  liim  ;  taking  care  not  to  dig 
deep  where  be  firlt  i  cgiiis,  but  to  go  deeper  and  deeper 
asl>c  advances  to  the  hciglit  or  ilic  ridge,  fo  as  to  leave 
the  bottom  of  the  trench  he  thus  makes  acrofs  the 
rii'gc  entirely  level,  or  as  nearly  fo  as  pollible.  And 
■w  htn  he  hastinilhed  that  ]>art  oi  the  furrow  allotted  to 
hini  that  the  plough  has  ujade  in  going,  let  him  then 
go  and  liiiih  in  the  fame  manner  his  own  portion  of 
the  furrow  that  the  plough  makes  in  returning.  In  this 
manner,  each  man  performs  liisown  talk  through  the 
whole  field,  gradually  railing  tiic  old  furrows  as  the 
old  heights  arc  deprelied.  And,  if  an  attentive  over- 
leer  is  at  hand,  to  fee  that  the  whole  is  equally  well 
done,  and  that  each  I'urrow  is  raifcdtoa  grcaici  height 
than  the  niiiidle  of  the  old  ridges,  Ibas  to  allow  for  the 
fubfuiiug  of  the  loofc  tarth,  the  operation  will  be  en- 
tirely rinjlhed  at  once,  and  never  again  need  to  be  re- 
peated. 

^  "  In  performing  this  operation,  it  will  always  be 
jiropcr  to  make  the  ridges,  formed  for  the  purpufe  of 
levelling,  which  go  acrofs  the  old  ridges,  as  broad  as 
pollible  ;  bccaufc  tlie  dccj)  trench  that  is  thus  m.idc  in 
each  of  the  furrows  is  an  impediment  in  the  future 
operations,  as  well  as  the  height  that  is  accumulated 
ill  the  middle  of  each  of  thefe  ridges  ;  fo  that  the  fewer 
there  are  of  thefe,  the  better  it  is.  The  farmer,  there- 
fort,  will  do  Well  to  advert  to  this  in  time,  and  begin 
by  foiming  a  ridge  by  always  turning  the  plough  to 
llic  right  liai.d,  till  it  becomes  of  I'uch  a  breadth  as 
jnakesit  very  inconvenient  to  turn  longer  in  that  man- 
ner ;  and  then,  at  the  diftance  of  twice  the  breadth  of 
this  new-formed  ridge  from  the  middle  of  it,  markotf" 
a  furrow  for  the  middle  of  another  ridge,  turning 
round  it  to  tiie  right  hand,  in  the  Cinie  manner  as  was 
done  in  the  former,  till  it  becomes  of  the  fame  breadth 
with  it ;  and  then,  turning  to  the  left  liand,  plough  out 
the  interval  that  was  left  between  the  twonew-fonned 
ridges.  By  this  mode  of  ploughing,  each  ridge  may 
be  made  of  40,  or  50  or  60  yards  in  breadth,  without 
any  great  inconvenience  ;  for  although  fome  time  will 
be  lofl  in  turning  at  the  ends  of  thefe  broad  ridges, 
yet,  as  this  operation  is  only  to  be  once  performed  in 
this  manner,  thcadvantage  that  is  repeated  by  having 
few  open  furrows,  is  more  than  fufiicicnt  to  couiiler- 
balaiicc  it.  And,  in  order  to  moderate  the  height 
that  would  be  formed  in  the  middle  of  each  of  thefe 
great  ridges,  it  will  always  be  proper  to  mark  out  the 
ridges,  and  draw  the  furrow  that  is  to  be  the  middle  of 
each  fome  days  before  you  colleft  your  labourers  to 
level  the  field  ;  that  you  may,  without  any  hurry  or 
lofs  of  labour,  clear  out  a  good  trench  through  the 
middle  of  each  of  the  old  ridges;  as  the  plough  at  this 
time  going  and  returning  nearly  in  the  fame  track,  pre- 
vents the  labourers  from  working  properly  without 
this  precaution. 

"  If  thefe  rules  are  attended  to,  your  field  will  beat 
once  redu  ed  to  a  proper  Irvel,  and  the  ric  h  earth  that 
formed  the  Inrfacc  of  the  old  ridges  be  flill  kept  upon 
the  Airfare  of  your  field  ;  fothat  the  only  lofs  that  the 
pofleflbr  of  fiich  ground  can  fuflain  by  this  operation, 
is  merely  the  cxpencc  of  performing  it." 

He  afterwards  makes  a  calculation  of  the  difTerent 


cxpences  ol  levelling  by  the  plough  31  d  by  the  fpade,     I'isflicc. 

in  which  he  finds  the  latter  by  far  the  cheapeit  me-   ^ ' 

tliod.  lit; 

Let  it  be  a  rule,  to  direct  the  ridges  north  and  rmptr  di- 
fouth,  if  thegrouiul  will  permit.  In  this  direction  the  '"«<il'"n  "f 
call  and  welt  liJes  of  the  ridges,   dividing  the  fun  e-  'he  ridjjcs, 
qually  between  ihein,  will  ripen  at  the  fame  time.  117 

It  isagreat  advantage  in  agriculture,  to  form  ridges  Narrow 
fo  narrow,  and  fo  low,  as  to  admit  the  crowns  and  fur-  rii^tii-*  an 
rows  to  be  changed  ahcrnaiely  every  crop.  The  foil  i"l^»"'agc, 
nearcll  the  furtacc  is  the  bell  ;  and  by  fuch  ploughing, 
it  is  always  kept  near  the  furface,  and  never  buried. 
In  high  ridges,  the  foil  is  accumulated  at  the  crown 
and  the  furrows  left  bare.  Such  alterations  of  crown 
and  furrow,  is  eafy  where  the  ridges  arc  no  more  but 
fevcn  or  eight  feet  broad.  This  mode  of  ploughing 
anfwers  perfcclly  well  in  fandy  and  gravelly  foits,and 
even  in  loam  j  but  it  is  not  I'afc  in  clay  foil.  In  thct 
foil,  the  ridges  ought  to  be  12  fcttwide,and  20  inches 
high  ;  to  be  prefervcd  always  in  the  fame  fonn  by  caft- 
ing,  that  is,  by  ploughing  two  ridges  together,  bc- 
ginningatlhc  furrowthat  Itparaics  them,  and  plough- 
ing round  and  round  till  the  two  ridges  be  tinilhcd. 
By  tliismeihod,  the  feparating  furrow  is  railed  aliitle 
higher  than  the  furrows  that  bound  the  two  ridges. 
But  at  the  next  ploughing,  that  inequality  is  correc- 
ted, by  beginningat  the  bounding  furrows,  and  going 
round  and  round  till  the  ploughing  of  the  two  ridges 
be  completed  at  the  feparating  furrow. 

4.  Clearing  Ground  of  Weeds. 

118 
For  this  purpofea  newinflrument,termeda<;/r<7«//7f  Cleaning 

hiin ovi,  has  been  introduced  by  Lord  Kames,  and  is  harrow, 
llrongly  recommended  (b).  It  is  one  entire  piece  t'latc  V. 
like  the  lirll  of  thofe  mentioned  above,  conlilling  of  f'S-  *• 
fevcn  bulls,  four  feet  long  each,  two  and  one-fourth 
inches  broad,  two  and  three-fourths  deep.  The  bulls 
arc  united  together  by  Ihcths,  limilar  to  what  are  men- 
tioned above.  Tlie  intervals  between  the  bulls  being 
three  and  three-fourths  inclies,  the  brcailth  of  the 
whole  harrow  is  three  feet  five  inches.  In  each  bull 
are  inferted  eight  teeth,  each  nine  inches  free  below 
the  wood,  and  dillant  from  each  other  lix  inches.  The 
weight  of  each  tooth  is  a  pound,  or  near  it.  The 
whole  is  firmly  bound  by  an  iron  plate  from  corner  to 
corner  in  the  line  of  the  draught.  The  rell  as  in  the 
harrows  mentioned  above.  The  lize,  however,  is  not 
invariable.  The  cleaning  harrow  ought  to  be  larger 
or  lefs  according  as  the  foil  is  lliff  or  free. 

To  give  this  inllrument  its  full  elfert,  flor.es  of  fiich 
a  fize  as  not  topafs  freely  between  the  teeth  ought  to 
be  carried  oft,  and  clods  of  th:it  li/c  ought  to  be  bro- 
ken. The  ground  ought  to  be  dry,  which  it  commonly 
is  in  the  month  of  May. 

In  preparing  for  barley,  turnip,  or  other  fummer- 
erop,  begin  with  ploughing  and  crofs-ploughing.  If 
the  ground  be  not  fuffi .  ii  nily  pulverized,  let  the  great 
brake  be  applied,  to  be  followed  fiKcelGvelyw  it  lithe  ill 
and  2d  hsrrrows.  In  (Hflfoil,  rolling  maybe  proper,  pjjte  vi. 
or  twice  between  tlic  afls.  1  lufeupcrations  w  ill  loofen  fig,  3,4. 
every  root,    and  brin^  fome  of  them  to  the  furface. 

This 


(b)  In  his  Ciiittitnaii  farmer  ;  to  which  performance  the  prai^ical  part  ef  this  article  is  matcrixily  indebted. 


A     G 


IX 


I     C     U     L     'i'     U     R     E. 


This  is  the  time  for  the  3d  harrow,  conJuclcJ  by  a 
boy  moimtcd  on  one  of  ihc  horfcs,  who  trots  fiuartly 
alon^  the  iielJ,  ;"nJ  brings  all  the  roots  to  the  ftirlacc  : 
there  tlicy  are  to  lie  for  a  day  or  two,  till  pc rftdly 
dry.  If  any  flones  or  clods  remain,  they  mufl  be  car- 
ried off  in  a  cart.  And  now  fuccteds  the  operation  of 
the  cleaning  harrow.  It  is  drawn  by  a  hiiglc  horfc, 
dircflcd  by  rtiiis,  which  the  man  at  the  oppOlite corner 
puts  over  his  head,  in  order  to  have  both  hands  free, 
in  this  corner  is  fi.Kf  d.i  rope,  with  which  the  man  from 
time  10  iir.ic  raifes  the  harrow  from  the  ground,  to  let 
tlic  \«.  ceds  drop.  For  the  f  ike  of  expedit.on,  the  weeds 
ought  to  be  dropt  in  a  Uraight  line  crofs  the  field, 
whether  the  harrow  be  tnll  or  not  ;  and  fcidoni  is  a 
field  J'o  dirty  but  that  the  harrow  may  go  30  yards  be- 
fore the  teeth  arc  tilled.  The  weeds  will  be  thus  laid 
in  parallel  rows,  like  thofe  of  hay  raked  togetlier  for 
drying.  A  harrow  may  be  drawn  fwiftly  :ilong  the 
rows,  in  order  to  Ihake  out  all  the  dull ;  and  then  the 
weeds  may  be  carried  clean  offthe  field  in  carts.  But 
we  are  not  yet  done  with  thcfe  weeds:  inftead  of  burn- 
ing, which  is  the  ordinary  practice,  they  may  be  con- 
verted into  iifeful  manure,  by  laying  them  in  a  heap 
witli  a  mjxlurc  of  hot  dung  to  begin  fermentation. 
At  firll  view,  this  way  of  cleaning  land  will  appear 
operofe  ;  but  upon  trial,  neither  the  labour  nor  ex- 
pence  will  be  found  immodera:e.  At  any  rate,  the  la- 
bour and  cxpence  ought  not  to  be  grudged  ;  for  if  a 
Held  be  once  thoroughly  cleaned,  the  feafons  mud  be 
very  crofs,  or  the  farmer  very  indolent,  to  make  it  ne- 
ceflary  to  renew  the  operation  in  Icfs  than  20  years.  In 
the  worfl  feafons,  a  few  years  paflurc  is  always  under 
command  ;  which  effectually  deftroys  triennial  plants, 
fuch  as  thirties  and  couch -grafs. 

5.  On  the  Nature  of  difFercn:  kinds  of  Soils,  and  the 
Plants  proper  to  each. 

I.  Clay,  which  is  in  general  the  Iliffcft  of  all  foils, 
and  contains  an  un.tuous  quality.  But  under  the 
term  cUiys,  earths  of  ditt'erent  forts  and  colours  arc  in- 
cluded. One  kind  is  fo  oblHnate,  that  fcarccly  any 
thing  will  fub.hie  it  ;  another  is  fo  hungry  and  poor, 
that  it  abforbs  whatever  is  applied,  and  turns  it  into 
its  own  quality.  Some  cl.iys  arc  fatter  than  others, 
and  the  fattefl  are  the  beft  ;  fomc  arc  more  loft  and 
iHppery.  But  all  of  them  retain  water  poured  on 
their  furfaccs,  where  it  ftaonates,  and  chills  the  plants, 
without  finking  into  the  foil.  The  clofcneCs  of  clay 
prevents  the  roots  and  fibres  of  plants  from  fpreading 
in  fcarch  of  nouridiment.  The  blue,  the  red,  and  the 
white  clay,  if  ftrong,  are  unfavourable  to  vegetation. 
The  ftonyand  loofer  fort  arc  lefs  fo  ;  but  none  of  them 
are  worth  any  thing  till  their  texture  is  fo  loofencd  by 
a  mixture  of  other  fubftances,  and  opened,  as  to  ad- 
mit the  influence  of  the  fun,  the  air,  and  frofts.  A- 
mong  the  manures  recommended  for  clay,  fand  is  of 
all  others  to  be  preferred  ;  and  fca-fand  the  bed  of  all 
where  it  can  be  obtained  :  This  moft  efteflually  breaks 
the  cohelion. 

The  reafon  for  preferring  fca-fand  is,  that  it  is  not 
formed  wholly  (as  moft  other  lands  arc)  of  fmall  ftones  ; 
but  contains  a  great  deal  of  calcareous  matter  in  it, 
fuch  as,  fliells  grated  and  broken  to  pieces  by  the  tide  ; 
and  alfo  of  faJts.     The  fmallcr  the  fand  is  the  more 


287 


eaUly  it  penetrates  the  clay  ;  but  it  abides  Icfs  time  in    Praaice. 
it  than  the  hrger. 

The  next  beft  fand  is  that  wafhed  down  by  rains  011 
gravelly  foil^.  Thofe  which  are  dry  and  light  are  tha 
wor!!.  Small  gritty  gravel  has  alfo  been  recommended 
by  the  beft  writers  on  agriculture  for  thcfe  foils  ;  and 
in  many  inftanccs  we  have  found  them  to  anfwer  the 
purpofc. 

Shell-niarlc,  aflies,  and  all  animal  and  vegetable  fub- 
ftances,  are  very  good  manures  for  cl.iy  ;  but  they  have 
been  found  moll  beneficial  when  fand  is  mixed  with 
them.  Lime  has  been  often  ufcd,  but  the  writer  of 
this  fedion  would  not  recommend  it,  for  he  never 
found  any  advantage  from  it  fingly,  when  applied  to 
clays. 

The  crops  ir.oft  fuitable  for  fuch  lands  arc,  wheat, 
beans,  cablages,  and  r>e-grafs.  Clover  ftldom  f.ic- 
ceeds,  nor  indeed  any  phnts  whofe  roots  require  depth, 
and  a  wide  f^rcad  in  the  earth. 

2.  Chalk.  Chalky  fails  ape  gcncr.'.lly  dry  and  warni, 
and  if  there  be  a  tolerable  depth  of  niould,  fruitful  ; 
producing  great  crops  of  barley,  rye,  pcafe,  vetches, 
clover,  trefoil,  buraet,andparticularly  fain-foin.  The 
latter  plant  rtouriihcs  in  a  chalky  foil  better  than  any 
other.  But  if  thefurface  of  mould  be  very  thin,  this 
foil  requires  good  manuring  with  clay,  niarlc,  lo»m,  or 
dung.  As  thcfe  lands  are  dry,  they  may  be  fown  ear- 
lier than  others. 

When  your  barley  is  three  inches  high,  throw  in 
10  Jb.  of  clover,  or  I  y  lb.  of  trefoil,  and  roll  it  well. 
The  ne,x"t  fummcr  mow  the  crop  for  hay  ;  iaA  off. he 
aftermath  with  Ihecp  ;and  in  winter  give  it  a  top-drcf- 
(ing  of  dung.  This  will  produce  a  crop  the  Icconi 
fpring,  which  fliould  be  cut  for  hay.  As  foon  as  this 
crop  is  carried  off,  plo;jgh  up  the  land,  and  in  the  be- 
ginning of  September  fow  three  bjlhels  of  rye  per 
acre,  either  to  feed  off"  the  fliccp  in  the  fpring  or  to 
fland  for  harveft.  If  you  feed  it  otF,  low  winter 
vetches  in  Auguftor  September,  and  make  them  into 
hay  the  following  fummer.  Then  get  the  land  into 
as  fine  tilth  aspoflible,  and  fow  it  with  fain-foin,  which, 
with  a  little  manure  once  in  iwo  or  three  years,  will 
remain  and  produce  good  crops  for  20  years  together. 

3.  Light  poor  land,  which  feldom  produces  good 
crops  of  any  thing  till  well  manured.  At'ter  it  is  well 
ploughed,  fow  three  bulhels  of  buck-wheat  per  acre, 
in  April  or  May  :  When  in  bloom,  let  your  cattle  in 
a  few  days  to  cat  off  the  beft,  and  tread  the  other 
down  ;  this  done,  plough  in  what  remains  immediate- 
ly. This  will  foon  ferment  and  rot  in  the  gro.ind  ; 
then  lay  it  fine,  and  fow  three  buihels  of  rye  per  acre. 
If  this  can  be  got  oft  early  enough,  fow  turnips  ;  if 
not,  winter  vetches  to  cut  for  hay.  Then  get  it  in 
good  tilth  and  fow  turnip  rooted  cabbages,  in  rows 
three  feet  apart.  This  plant  feldom  fails,  if  it  has 
futficient  room,  and  the  intervals  be  well  horfc-hocd  ; 
and  you  will  rind  it  the  beft  Ipring-teed  for  (hecp  when 
turnips  arc  over. 

The  horfe-hoeing  will  clean  and  prepare  the  land 
for  fain-foin ;  for  the  fowing  of  which  April  is 
reckoned  the  beft  feafon.  The  ufual  way  is  to  fow 
it  broad-caft,  four  bulhels  to  an  acre  ;  but  the  writer 
prefers  fowing  it  in  drills  two  feet  afunder  ;  for  then 
it  may  be  horfc-hocd,  and  half  the  feed  will  be  fullir 
cicnt. 

The 


AGRICULTURE. 


Part  II. 


119 


The  horfc-hocingwill  not  only  clean  the  crop,  but 
earth  up  the  plants,  and  render  them  more  luxuriant 
and  hilling. 

If  you  low  it  broad-call,  give  it  a  topdreCing  in 
December  or  January,  of  rotten  dung,  or  alhes,  or 
which  is  Hill  better,  of  both  iiiixcd  up  in  comport. 

From  various  trials,  it  is  found  that  taking  only  one 
crop  in  a  year,  and  feeding  the  a<"tcr -growth,  is  better 
than  to  mow  it  twice.  Cut  it  as  foon  as  it  is  in  lull 
bloom,  if  the  weather  will  permit.  The  luy  will  be 
the  fweetcr,  and  the  Ilrength  of  the  plants  lefs  im- 
paired, than  if  it  Hands  till  the  feed  is  formed. 

4.  Light  rich  land,  being  the  mofleafy  to  cultivate 
to  advantage,  and  capable  of  bearing  moil  kinds  of 
grain,  pulie,  and  herbage,  little  need  be  faid  upon  it. 
One  thing  however  is  very  proper  to  be  obferved,  that 
fuch  lands  are  beft  adapted  to  the  drill  huAjandry, 
cfpecially  where  machinesareufed,  which  require  {hal- 
low furrows  to  be  made  for  the  reception  of  ihe  feed. 
This,  if  not  prone  to  cou^-grafs,  is  the  belt  of  all 
foils  for  lucerne  ;  which,  if  fown  in  two  feet  drills, 
andkept  clean,  will  yield  an  aftonifliing  quantity  of 
the  molt  excellent  herbage.     But  lucerne  will  never 

.  becultivated  toadvantagewherecouch-grafs  and  weeds 
are  very  plentiful;  nor  in  the  broad-caft method,  even 
where  they  are  not  fo  ;  becaufc  horfe-hocing  is  clFen- 
tial  to  the  vigorous  growth  of  this  plant. 

5.  Coarfe  rough  land.  Plough  deep  in  autumn  ; 
when  it  has  lain  two  weeks,  crofs-plnugh  it,  and  let  it 
lie  rough  through  the  winter.  In  March  give  it  ano- 
ther good  ploughing  ;  drag,  rake,  and  harrow  it  well, 
to  get  out  the  rubbilh,  and  fow  four  buflicls  of  black 
cats  per  acre  if  the  foil  be  wet,  and  white  oats  if  dry. 
WhijU  about  four  inches  high,  roll  them  well  after  a 
/liowcr  :  This  will  break  the  clods  ;  and  the  line  mould 
falling  among  the  roots  of  the  the  plants  will  promote 
their  growth  greatly. 

Some  fow  clover  and  rye  grafs  among  the  oats,  but 
tliis  appears  to  be  bad  hulbandry.  Ifyoudclign  it  for 
clover,  low  it  tingle,  and  let  a  coat  of  dung  be  laid 
on  in  December.  The  fnow  and  rain  will  then  dilute 
its  falts  and  oil,  and'crfrry  them  down  among  the  roots 
of  the  plants.  This  is  'far  better  than  mixing  the 
crops  on  fuch  land,  for  the  oats  will  exhauft  the  foil  fo 
much  that  the  clover  will  be  impovcrilhed.  The  fol- 
lowing  fummcr  you  will  have  a  good  crop  of  clover, 
which  cut  once,  and  feed  the  after-growth.  In  the 
winter  plough  it  in,  and  let  it  lie  till  February:  Then 
plough  and  harrow  it  well ;  and  in  March,  if  the  foil 
be  moi/l,  plant  beans  in  drills  of  three  feet,  to  admit 
the  horfc-hoc  freely.  When  you  horfe-hoe  them  a  fc- 
cond  lime,  fow  a  row  of  turnips  in  each  interval,  and 
they  will  fuecced  very  well.  But  if  the  laud  be  flrong 
enough  for  fowing  wheat  as  foon  as  the  beans  are  oflf^ 
the  turnips  may  be  omitted. 

Sect.  HI.  Culture  aj particular  Pliti.ts. 

The  articles  hitherto  infilled  on,  are  all  of  them 
preparatory  to  the  capital  olyeft  of  a  farm,  that  of 
railing  plants  for  the  nourilhmcnt  of  man,  and  of  o- 
ther  animals.  Thefe  arc  of  two  kinds  ;  culmiferous 
and  leguminous  ;  differing  widely  from  each  other. 
Wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  rye-grafs,  are  of  the  lirlt 

4 


kind  :  of  the  other  kind  arc,  peafe,  beans,  clover,  cab-  Prailice. 
bage,  and  many  others.  " • ' 

Culmiferous  plants,  Aiys  Bonnet,  have  three  fetsof  „  /'? . 
roots.     The  firlt  ifluc  from  the  feed,  and  pulh  to  the  rou5"i>lam». 
iurface  an  upright  Item  ;  another  fet  ilfuc  from  a  knot 
in  that  fteni;  and  a  third  from  another  knot,  nearer 
the  furfacc.     Hence  the  advantage  of  laying  feed  fo 
deep  in  the  ground  as  to  afford  fpace  for  all  the  ftts.  121 

Leguminous  plants  form  their  roots  difltrently.  I.epMtui- 
Peafc,  beans,  cabbage,  have  flore  of  finall  roots,  all  """sp'"""- 
ilTuing  from  the  feed,  like  the  undermoft  fet  of  culmi- 
ferous roots  ;  and  they  have  no  other  roots.  A  potato 
and  a  turnip  have  bulbous  roots.  Red  clover  has  a 
Hrong  tap-root.  The  difference  between  culmiferous 
and  leguminous  plants  with  refpe£l  to  the  effects  they 
I)voducc  in  the  foil,  will  be  inliited  on  afterward^  in 
the  feflion  conccr;iing  the  rotation  of  crops.  As  the 
prefent  feftion  is  confined  to  the  propagation  of  plants, 
it  falls  naturally  to  be  divided  into  three  articles:  firfl. 
Plants  cultivated  for  fruit ;  fecond.  Plants  cultivated 
for  roots;  third.  Plants  cultivated  for  leaves. 

I.  Plants  Cultivated  for  Fruit. 
I.  Wheat  and  Rte. 

Any  time  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  middle  of  Fallowing 
May,  the  fallowing  for  whdut  may  commence.  The  for  wheat, 
moment  Ihouldbechofcn,  when  the  ground,  beginning 
to  dry,  has  yet  fome  remaining  foftiiefs :  in  tliat  con- 
dition, the  foil  divides  ealily  by  the  plough,  and  falls 
into  fmall parts.  This  is  an  eflcntial  article,  deferving 
the  Uridlefl  attention  of  the  farmer.  Ground  plough- 
ed too  wet,  rifes,  as  we  fay,  whoh-fur,  as  when  paflure- 
ground  is  ploughed  :  where  ploughed  too  dry,  it  rifes 
in  great  lumps,  which  are  not  reduced  by  fubftquent 
ploughings  ;  not  to  mention,  that  it  requires  double 
force  to  plough  ground  too  dry,  and  that  the  plough  is 
often  broken  to  pieces.  A\"hcn  the  ground  is  in  pro- 
per order,  the  farmer  can  have  no  excufe  for  delaying 
a  lingle  minute.  This  firlt  courfe  of  f.illow  mull,  it  is 
true,  yield  to  the  barley-feed  ;  but  as  the  barley- feed 
is  commonly  over  the  firil  week  of  May,  or  fooner,  the 
feafon  mull  be  unfavourable  if  the  fallow  cannot  be 
reached  by  the  middle  of  May. 

As  clay  foil  requires  high  ridges,  thefe  ought  to  be 
cleaved  at  the  firlt  ploughing,bc;;inningat  the  furrow, 
and  ending  at  the  crown.  TJiis  plougliing  ought  to 
be  asdeep  as  the  foil  will  admit :  and  water-furrowing 
ought  inllantly  to  follow;  for  if  rain  happen  before 
water-furrowing,itflagnates  in  the  furrow,  necelTarily 
delays  the  fecond  ploughing  till  that  part  of  thf  ridge 
be  dry,  and  prevents  the  furrow  from  being  mellowed 
and  roalled  by  the  fun.  If  this  firft  jdoughing  be  well 
executed,  annual  weeds  will  rife  in  plenty. 

About  the  firfl  week  of  June,  the  great  brake  will 
I'jofen  and  reduce  the  foil,  encourage  a  fecond  crop  of 
annuals,  and  raife  to  the  furfacc  the  roots  of  v/ecda 
moved  by  the  plough.  Give  the  w  ceds  time  to  fpring, 
which  may  be  in  two  or  three  weeks.  Then  proceed 
to  the  fecond  ploughing  about  the  beginning  of  July ; 
which  mufi.  be  crofs  the  ridges,  in  order  to  reach  all 
the  llips  of  the  former  ploughing.  By  crofs-pioughing 
the  furrows  will  be  filled  up,  and  water  furrowing  be 
ftill  more  necc.Tary  than  before.  Employ,  the  brake 
again  about  the  loih  of  Augufl,  to  dcilroy  the  annuals 

thai 


Part  II.  A     G     R     I     C     U 

Praaice-  that  have  fprung  fincc  tlic  lafl  flirring.    The  dertnic- 

' >■' tio;i  of  weeds  is  ;i  capital  article  in  tallowing  :  yet  fo 

blinj  are  people  (o  their  interell,  that  nothing  is  mo^e 
common  than  a  tallow  field  covered  with  charlock  and 
wild  niiiilard,  all  in  riowcr,  and  lo  or  12  inches  high. 
The  field  having  now  received  two  harrow  ings  and  two 
breakings,  is  prepared  for  manure,  whether  lime  or 
dung,  which  without  delay  ought  to  be  incorporated 
with  the  foil  by  a  repeued  harrowing  and  a  gathering 
furrow.  This  ought  to  be  about  the  beginning  of 
September,  and  as  fuon  after  as  you  pleafc  the  feed  may 
be  fown. 

As  in  ploughing  a  clay  foil  it  is  of  importance  to 
prevent  poaching,  the  hinting  furrows  ought  to  be  done 
witii  twohofcsin  aline.  If  four  ploughs  be  employed 
in  the  fame  field,  to  one  of  them  may  be  allotted  the 
care  of  tiiiilhing  the  hinting  furrows. 

Loam,  being  a  mcdimn  between  fand  and  clay,  is 
of  all  foils  the  fittell  for  culture,  and  the  leaft  fubject 
to  chances.  It  does  not  hold  water  like  clay  ;  and 
when  wet,  it  dries  fooncr.  At  the  fame  time,  itismore 
retentive  than  fand  of  that  degree  of  moiiture  whicli 
promotes  vegetation.  On  the  other  hand,  itismore 
liibjcit  to  couch  grafs  than  clay,  and  toother  weeds  ; 
todeflroy  which,  fallow  Lng  is  Hill  more necelTary  than 
ill  clay. 

Ucginniug  the  fallow  about  the  firft  of  Afay,  or  as 
foon  as  barlcy-fecd  is  over,  t^ke  as  deep  a  furrow  as 
the  foil  will  admit.  Where  the  ridges  are  fo  low  and 
narrow  as  tliat  the  crown  and  furrow  can  be  changed 
alternately,  there  is  little  or  no  occafion  for  wattr  uir- 
rowing.  Where  the  ridges  are  fo  high  as  to  make  it 
proper  to  cleave  them,  water-furrowing  ispropcr.  I'he 
fecond  ploughing  may  beat  the  diflanceof  five  weeks. 
Two  crops  of  annuals  may  be  got  in  the  interim,  the 
firll  by  the  brake  and  the  next  by  the  harrow  ;  and  by 
the  fame  means  eight  crops  may  be  got  in  the  feafon. 
The  ground  mull  be  cleared  of  couch-grafs  and  knot- 
grafs  roots,  by  the  cleaning  harrow  defcribed  above. 
The  time  for  this  operation  is  immediately  before  the 
manure  is  laid  on.  The  ground  at  that  time  being  in 
its  loofcfl  flate,  parts  with  its  grafs  roots  more  freely 
than  at  any  other  time.  After  the  manure  is  fpread, 
and  incorporated  with  the  foil  by  breaking  or  harrow- 
ing, the  feed  may  be  fown  under  I'urrow,  if  the  ground 
hang  fo  as  calily  to  carry  otFthe  moilhire.  To  leave 
it  rough  without  harrowing  has  two  advantages  ;  it 
is  not  apt  to  cake  with  nioillure,  and  the  inequalities 
make  a  fort  of  Ihelter  to  the  young  plants  againll  I'roll. 
But  if  it  lie  flat,  it  ought  to  be  fmoothcd  with  a  lligiit 
liarrowaf'tcr  the  feed  isfown,  which  will  facilitate  the 
,j,  courfe  of  the  rain  from  the  crown  to  tiie  furrow, 
nrcfliii^  a  A  fandy  foil  is  too  loofe  for  wheat.  Tlie  only  chance 
faiiJ)  foil,  for  a  crop  is  after  red  clover,  the  roots  of  which  bind 
tlie  (oil ;  and  the  inflruOlions  above  given  for  loam  arc 
applicable  here.  Rye  is  a  crop  mu'.li  titter  for  fandy 
■foil  than  wheat;  and,  like  wheat,  is  generally  fowii 
after  a  I'ummer- fallow. 

Laftly,  Sowwheat  as  ((ion  in  the  month  of  Oclober  as 
the  ground  isre^dy.  Whtnfowna  monthmore early, 
it  is  too  forward  in  the  Ipfing,  and  apt  to  be  hurt  by 
/rod  ;  when  fown  a  month  later*  it  has  not  time  10 
root  before  froll  comes  oil,  and  frofl  fpcws  it  oat  of 
the  ground. 
Ssriiiig  ofiuhtat,  a  method  which  is  reckoned  one 
Vol.  I. 


ng. 


L    T     U     R     E. 

of  the  greatta improvement  in  hu/bandry  that  has  ta- 
ken place  this  century.     It  fccms  to  have  been  firlt 
liiggclled  by  planting  grains  in  a  garden  from  mere  cu- 
rioiity,  by  pcrlons  who  had  no  tlfought  or  opportunity 
of  extending  it  to  a  lucrative  purpofc.     Nor  was  it 
attempted  on  a  larger  fcale,  till  a  little  farmer  near 
Norwich  began  it  al>out  1 7  years  fince,  upon  Icfi  than      116 
an  acre  ot  Und.     For  two  or  three  years  only  a  fcw  Setting  of 
followed  his  example  ;  and  thole  were  generally  the  «'"■-'• 
butt  of  their  neighbours  merriment  for  adopting  fo 
lingular  a  praftice.  They  lud,  however,  conlidcrabi/ 
better  corn  and  larger  crops  than  their  neighbours  : 
tills,  together  with  the  laving  in  feed,  engaged  more 
to  follow  them  :   while  funic   ingenious  pcrfons,  ob- 
ferving  its  great  advantage,  recoinmenctd  and  pub- 
lilhcd  its  n;ility  in  the  Norwich  papcis.     Thefc  re- 
commendations had  their  cf!cd.     The  turiolity  and 
imjuiry  of  the  Norfolk  farmers   (particularly  round 
Norwich)  were  excited,  anil  they  lound  futficicut  rea- 
fon  to  make  general  experiments.     Among  the  rcit 
was  oncof  thclargcft  occupicrsof  lands  in  this  county, 
\Vho  fet  57  acres  in  one  year.     His  fucccfs,  from  the 
viable  fuperiority   ofhi^crop,   both  in  quantity  and 
quality,  was  fo  great,   that  the  following  autumn  he 
let  300  acres,  and  has  continued  the  praclicc  ever 
fince.  This  noble  experiment  efliblilhcd  the  pradicc,  a  !!J,.il 
and  was  the  means  of  introducing  it  generally  among  improvc- 
the  intelligent  farmers  in  a  very  large  diflrid  of  land;  mcnt  m  »- 
there  being  few  who  now  fow  any  wheat,  if  they  can  gr^cu'turc. 
procure  hands  to  fet  it.  It  has  been  generally  obfervcd, 
that  although  the  fet  crops  appear  very  thin  during  ihc 
autumn  and  winter,  the  plants  tiller  and  fpread  prodi- 
gioully  in  the  fpring.      i  he  ears  arc  indifputably  lar- 
ger, without  any  dwarfiih  or  fruall  corn  ;  the  grain  is 
of  a  larger   bulk,   and  fpccitically  heavier  per  bufl.cl 
than  when  fown. 

The  landsoa  which  this  method  is  particularly  pro-  Mcihld 
fperous,  arc  either  after  clover  ftubble,  oron  which 
trefoil  and  grafs-fecd  were  fown  the  fpring  before  the 
lalt.  Thefc  grounds,  alter  the  ufual  manuring,  are 
once  turned  over  by  the  plough  in  an  extended  flag  or 
turf,  at  ten  inches  wide  ;  along  which  a  man,  wh'o  is 
called  a  dibbUr,  with  twofettiiig-irons,  fomewhat  big- 
ger than  ram-rods,  but  considerably  bigger  at  the 
lower  end,  and  pointed  at  the  extremity, ''iteps  back- 
wards along  the  turf  and  makes  the  holes  about  four 
inches  afundcr  every  way,and  an  inch  deep.  Into  thefc 
holes  the  droppers  (women,  boys,  and  girls)  drop  two 
grains,  which  is  quite  fufiicicnt.  After  this,  agate 
bulhed  with  thorns  is  drawn  by  one  horfc  over  the 
land,  and  clofes  up  the  holes.  By  this  mode,  three 
pecks  of  grain  is  fufficient  for  an  acre;  and  being  im- 
mediately buried,  it  is  equally  removed  from  verntinor 
the  power  of  frofl.  The  regularity  of  its  riling  gives 
the  bcflopportuniiy  of  keeping  itclcar  fro:n  weed's,  by 
weeding  or  hand-hocing. 

Whcat-fcttingis amethod peculiarly bencficialwhcnp  ",' 
corn  is  dear  ;   and,  if  the  feafon  be  favourable,  may  be  Tava. '» -c. 
pra<ftilcd  wi;h  great  bcnctit  to  the  farmer.  Sir  Thomas  ° 

Bcevorof  Hathtl-Hall  in  Norfolk,  found  the  produce 
to  be  two  bulhels  per  acre  mrre  than  from  the  wheat 
which  is  fow  n  ;  b  it  h..ving  much  Icfs  faiall  corn  intcr- 
nii.xcd  with  it,  the  faniple  is  better,  and  always  fetch- 
es a  higher  price,  to  the  amount  generally  ol  two 
fliillings  per  (Quarter. 

O  o  This 


290 


AGRICULTURE. 


1.10 
Propaga- 
ting ot" 
w  hr.it  by 
dividiii;; 
tlic  rout:> 


This  method,  too,  favcs  :o  the  farmer  and  to  the 
piibliclix  pecks  otrteJwhcati.i  every  acre  ;  which,  if 
juitioaiiiy  adopted,  wo^iKI  ot  iifclf  arfbrd  bread  lor 
more  thau.lialf  a  iiiillin;i  uf  people. 

Addiotliefe  coiuiderations,  ihcgrcat  f;ipport  given, 
to  the  poor  by  this/c-;o/;i/  liarvcll,  as  it  m.iy  be  called, 
which  enables  them  10  dif.  harge  their  rents  and  main- 
tain their  families  without  having  recoiirfc  to  the  pa- 
riih. — The  expencc  of  fetting  by  hand  is  now  reduced 
to  about  tea  (hillings  per  acre  ;  which,  in  j^ood  wea- 
ther, may  be  done  by  one  dibblcr,  attended  by  three 
droppers,  in  two  days.  Tliis  is  live  fliillings  per  day; 
of  which,  if  the  dibblcr  gives  to  the  cliilJrcn  lixpence 
each,  he  will  have  himfeU'ihree  fliillings  and  lixpence 
lor  his  day's  work,  whicli  is  much  more  than  he  can 
poffibly  earn  b/  any  other  labour  fo  eafy  to  himfclf. 
But  put  the  cal'e,  that  the  man  has  a  wife  who  dibbles 
with  him,  and  two  or  three  of  liis  own  children  to 
drop  to  him,  you  fee  his  gains  will  tiien  be  prodigious, 
and  enough  to  enl'nrc  a  plenty  of  candidates  for  that 
work,  even  in  the  Icall  populous  parts  of  the  country. 

It  is,  however,  to  be  obfeived  with  regard  to  this 
method,  that  in  feafonswhen  feed-corn  is  very  cheap, 
or  the  autiunn  particularly  unfavourable  10  theprattice, 
it  nmll  certainly  be  Uiltncd.  In  light  lands,  for  in- 
Aance,  a  very  dry  tinie  prevents  dibbling  ;  as  the  iioles 
nude  with  the  indruments  will  be  tilled  up  again  by 
the  mould  as  fall  as  theiiUtrunicnt  is  wiiiidrawn.  So, 
again,  ina  very  wet  fc.ilc>n,oa  lining  and  llitf  clays,  llie 
feeds  in  tlie  holes  cannot  be  well  and  properly  covered 
by  the  bufnes  drawn  over  them.  But  ihefc  extremes  of 
dry  and  wet  do  not  often  happen,  nor  do  they  aliecl 
lands  of  a  moderately  conlilleut  texture,  or  both  light 
and  heavy  foils  at  the  fame  time,  fo  that  the  general 
pradice  is  in  fact  never  greatly  impeded  by  them. 

I  ropagatiiig  oj  'Mhcat  by  dividing  and  traiifplaiiting 
its  rtots.  \\\  the  Philofophical  TranfacVions  for  i  76S, 
we  meet  with  a  very  extraordinary  experiment,  of 
which  the  following  is  an  abllract.  On  the  2d  of  June 
1766,  Mr  C.  Miller  fowed  fomegrains  of  the  common 
red  wheat;  and  on  the  8th  of  Augufl  a  fmglc  plant 
was  taken  up  and  feparated  into  18  parts,  and  each 
part  planted  feparaiely.  Thefe  plants  having  puilied 
out  fcvcral  (idc-lhoots,  by  about  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember fomc  of  them  were  then  taken  up  and  divid- 
ed, and  the  rc!l  of  them  between  that  time  and  the 
middle  of  Oftober.  Tliis  fecond  divilion  produced  67 
plants.  Thefe  plants  remained  throagh  the  winter, 
and  another  divilion  of  them,  made  betw^ten  the  middle 
of  Marcliand  the  i2th  of  April,  produced  500  plants. 
Tiiey  were  then  divided  no  further,  but  permitted  to 
remain.  The  plants  were  in  general  Itroager  than  any 
of  the  wheat  in  the  fields.  Some  of  them  produced 
upwards  of  100  ears  from  a  lingle  root.  Many  of  the 
cars  meafuied  itvMW  inches  in  length,  and  contained 
between  60  and  70  grains. 

Tlic  whole  number  of  cars  which,  by  the  procefs 
abovementioned,  were  produced  from  one  grain  of 
wheat,  was  21,109,  which  yielded  three  pecks  and 
three  quarters  of  clear  corn,  the  weiglit  of  which  was 
47 lb.  7  ounces  ;  and  from'  a  calculation  made  by 
counting  the  number  of  grains  in  an  ounce,  tlie  whole 
luimber  of  grains  was  about  576,840. 

By  this  account  we  tind,  that  there  was  only  one 
general  divilion  of  the  plaiusmadc  iii  the  fpring.    Had 


Part  ir. 

a  fecond  been  made,  Mr  Miller  thinks  the  number  of   praftUe. 
jilants  would  liave  amounted  to  2000  inltead   of  500,  ^— \^— ' 
and  the  produce  thereby  nmch  enlarged. 

The  ground  was  a  light  blackilh  foil,  upon  a  gra- 
velly bouom  ;  and  coulcvjuently,  a  bad  foil  for  wheat. 
One  half  of  the  ground  was  well  duugcd,  the  other 
half  had  no  manure.  'J'here  was,  howevtr,  not  any 
dilference  difcoverablc  in  the  vigour,  or  growth,  or 
produce,  of  the  plants. 

It  mull  be  evident,  that  the  expence  and  labour  of 
felting  in  the  above  manner  by  the  hand,  will  render 
it  impracUcablc  upon  a  large  kale  fo  a.  to  be  produc- 
tive of  any  utility.  A  correfpondent  of  the  Bath  So- 
ciety, therefore  (Robert  Bogle,  Kf<,i.  of  Daldowiu, 
near  Glafgow),  with  a  view  to  extend  the  practice, 
has  propofed  the  ufe  of  the  harrow  and  roller  until  i^i 
fome  belter  implements  be  invented.  This  method  M-thnJ 
occurred  to  him  from  attending  to  the  j'raCtice  ufual  VT"'^'''')' 
with  farmers  on  certain  occalions,  of  harrowing  their  ^'''^^""c  '^• 
fields  after  the  grain  isfprungup.  I'poninvelligaiiug 
the  principles  upon  which  thefe  pradites are  founded, 
he  found  them  confined  merely  to  that  of  pnlveriling 
the  earth,  without  any  attention  to  Mr  Miller's  doc- 
trine. They  faid,  "  that  after  very  heavy  rains,  and 
then  excellive  dry  weather,  the  fiirface  of  their  lands 
were  apt  to  be  caked,  the  tender  fibres  of  the  young 
roots  were  thereby  prevented  from  pufliing,  and  of 
courfe  the  vegetation  was  greatly  obltructed  ;,  in  fuch 
iullances,  they  found  very  great  beneiit  from  harrow- 
ing and  rolling." 

Tiiefe  principles  he  acknowledges  to  be  well  found- 
ed, fo  far  as  relates  to  pulveriling  ;  but  contends,  that 
the  benefit  ariling  from  harrowing  and  rolling  is  nor 
derived  from  pulveriling  entirely,  but  alfofrom  fub- 
dividing  and  enabling  tlic  plants  to  tiller  (as  it  is  term- 
ed). "  The  harrow  (he  obfcrves)  certainly  breaks 
the  incruflation  on  thefurface,  and  the  roller  crumbles 
the  clods  ;  but  it  is  alfo  obvious,  that  the  harrow  re- 
moves a  great  many  of  the  plants  from  iheir  original 
nations  ;  and  that  if  the  corn  has  begun  to  tiller  at  the 
time  it  is  ufed,  the  roots  will  be,  in  many  jnllances, 
fub.iivided,  and  then  the  application  of  my  fy  Item  of  di- 
vilibiliiy  comes  inloplay.Tlierolk-rthen  fervcs  to  plant 
the  roots  which  have  been  torn  up  by  the  harrow."  ,..j 

But  on  this  the  Society  obferve,  that  the  teeth  of  a  oiijciftioBs. 
harrow  are  too  large  to  divide  roots  fo  fuiall  and  tena- 
cious as  are  ihofe  of  grain  ;  and  whenever  fuch  roots 
riiowever  tillered)  Hand  in  the  line  any  tooth  makes, 
tuey  will,  if  fmall,  be  only  turned  on  one  lide  by  the 
earth  yielding  to  their  lateral  prellure,  or,  if  large,  the 
whole  root  will  probably  be  drawn  out  of  the  ground. 
The  principal  ufcs,  therefore,  derived  from  harrowing 
and  rolling  thefe  crops  are,  opening  the  foil  between 
the  plants,  earthing  them  up,  breaking  the  clods,  and 
doling  the  earth  about  their  roots. 

In  a  fiibfecpient  letter,  Mr  Hogle,  without  contell- 
iag  thefe  points,  further  urges  the  fcheme  of  propaga-- 
ting  wheat  by  dividing  and  tranfplantir.gits  roots.  "I 
have  converled  (fays  lie)  much  with  many  practical 
farmers,  who  all  admit  that  my  plan  has  tlie  appearance 
not  only  of  being  pradlical,  bat  advantageous.  I  have 
alfo  feen  in  the  ninth  numbcrof  Mr  Young's  Annahof 
Agriculture,  the  account  of  an  experiment  which 
llrongly  corroborates  my  theory.  It  was  made  by  the 
RcY.  Mr  Pike  of  Edmonton,     from  this,   and  other 

experiments 


Part  If. 


AGRICULTURE. 


133 

P»adlicahi 
lity  of  the 
fchcme  af- 
fertcd. 


Bath  Soci- 
ety's obfcr- 
vatiunt. 


Praaice.  expcrimentswhich  have  been  made  under  niy  own  eye, 
I  forcfce  clearly,  that  the  fy  Item 'is  praii-ticable,  and 
will  certainty  be  produelivc  of  great  Uenerif,  Ihould  it 
become  general.  Bclides  the  (aviiigof  nine-tenths  of 
feed  in  the  land  fown  broad-cart,  other  very  important 
advantages  will  attend  the  letting  out  of  wheat  from  a 
feed-bed,  fuch  as  an  early  crop  ;  the  certainty 'of  good 
crops  J  rendering  a  fuinmcr  fallow  unnecelTary  ;  faving 
dung ;  and  having  your  wheat  perfectly  free  from  weeds 
without  cither  hand  or  horfc-hociHg.  Five  hundred 
plants  in  April  produced  almoll  a  bulhel  of  grain.  My 
gardener  fays,  he  can  fet  one  thoufand  plants  in  a  day, 
which  is  contirmed  by  the  opinion  of  two  other  gar- 
deners. Mr  Miller  found  no  difference  in  the  produce 
of  what  was  planted  on  lands  that  had  dung,  and  on 
what  had  none,  except  where  the  land  was  improper 
for  wheat  at  all." 

On  thislctterwc  have  the  following  note  by  the  fo- 
cicty  :  "Mr  Bogle  will  fee,  by  the  fociety's  premium- 
book  this  year,  that  by  having  offered  fevtral  premi- 
ums for  experiments  of  tlic  kind  he  fo  earnelUy  recom- 
mends, we  with  to  have  his  theory  brought  to  the  teft 
of  pradice.  Our  reafon  for  this,  as  well  as  for  print- 
ing Mr  B's  letter,  was  rather  to  excite  decilivc  trials 
by  ingenious  pcrfons,  than  from  any  expectation  of  the 
praiiuce  ever  becoming  a  general  one.  General,  in- 
deed, it  never  can  be.  A  fullicient  number  of  hands 
could  not  be  found  to  do  it.  Unkindly  leafoirs  at  the 
timeof  tranfplantingand  dividing  the  roots  would  fre- 
quently endanger  and  injure,  if  not  dcllroy  the  crops. 
But  admitting  the  mode  generally  practicable,  we  very 
much  doubt  whether  all  the  ad  van  tageshe  has  enumera- 
ted would  be  derived  from  this  mode  of  culture.  Why 
lliould  dividing  and  tranfplanting  tlic  roots  of  wheat 
caufe  the  crop  to  be  early,  or  attbrd  a  c;rta'!?!ty  of  its 
being  a  good  one  P  We  cannot  think  that  lefs  manure 
is  neceltiry  in  this  method,  than  either  in  drilling  or 
broad-caft  ;  nor  can  we  by  any  means  admit,  that  fuch 
crops  would  '<  be  perfectly  free  from  weeds  without 
cither  hand  or  horfe-hoeing."  Wc  readily  agree  with 
Mr  Bogle,  that  by  this  mode  of  culture  on  a  general 
feale,  an  imnicnfe  quantity  of  feed-corn  wohKI  be  an- 
nually faved  to  the  nation  ;  and  in  this,  we  believe,  the 
advantage,  were  it  praclicablc  would  principally  cou- 
fift." 

Upon  the  fame  fubjeft,  and  that  of  harrowing  all 
kinds  of  corn,  we  are  informed,  Mr  Bogle,  afterwards 
comuniuicatcd  to  the  Society  his  thoughts  more  at 
large,  together  witli  autlientic  accounts  which  were 
made  at  his  inflsncc,  and  which  were  attended  with 
very  great  fuccefs.  Thcfe,  however,  were  received 
too  laic  for  publication  in  the  laft  (jd)  volameof  their 
papers.  But  the  Society,  conceiving  his  fyllem  may 
be  attended  with  confulerable  advanta^^cs  if  brought 
iiito  general  practice,  have  given,  at  the  end  of  the  vo- 
lume, a  few  of  his  leading  principles.  Mr  Bogie  flatcs, 
I.  Th;ir  he  has  known  many  inflances  of  very  great 
crops  liavingbcen  obtained  by  harrowing  fields  of  corn 
after  th.cy  were  fprouted  ;  and  therefore  recommends 
the  praflicc  very  warmly. 

2.  That  he  has  alfo  received  an  authentic  account  of 
one  inftance  where  the  fame  good  effects  were  produ- 
ced by  ploughing  the  field. 

5.  On  the  fyllem  of  tranfplaniing,  he  flates,  that  a 
very  great  proponion  of  the  feed  will  be  faved,  as  a 


Furthcrob- 
fcrvatioiis 
of  Mr 
l;o.?Ic. 


farmer  may  have  a  nurfcry,  or  fmall  pafcli  of  plants, 
from  which  his  fields  may  be  fupplitd  ;  he  calculates 
that  one  acre  will  yield  plants  fufiicicnt  for  100  acres. 

4.  That  a  very  great  incrcafe  of  crops  may  be  ob- 
tained by  this  method,  probably  a  double  crop,  nay 
perhaps  a  triple  quantity  of  what  is  reaped  cither  by 
drilling,  or  by  the  broad-cad  hufbandry. 

5.  Tliat  a  great  part  of  the  labour  may  be  perform- 
ed by  infirm  men  and  women,  and  alfo  by  children, 
who  are  at  prcfent  fupported  by  the  parilh  charity; 
and  that  of  courfe  the  poor's  rates  may  be  coQliderably 
reduced. 

6.  That  the  expence  will  not  exceed  from  20s.  to 
?os.  per  acre,  if  the  work  be  performed  by  able-bodied 
men  and  women  ;  but  that  it  will  be  much  lower,  if  that 
proportion  of  the  work  which  may  be  done  by  employ- 
ing young  boys  and  girls  Ihould  be  allotted  to  ihem. 

7.  That  in  general  he  has  found  tiic  dillancc  of  nine 
inchesevery  way  a  very  proper  dillance  for  felting  out 
the  plants  at ;  but  recommends  them  to  be  tried  at  o- 
ther  fpaces,  fuch  as  fix,  eight,  or  even  12  inches. 

8.  That  he  conceives  an  earlier  crop  may  be  obtain- 
ed in  this  manner  than  can  be  obtained  by  any  other 
mode  of  cultivation. 

9.  That  a  clean  crop  may  alfo  be  procured  in  this 
way,  becaufe  if  the  land  be  ploughed  immediately  be- 
fore the  plants  are  fet  out,  the  corn  will  fpring  much 
quicker  from  the  plants  than  tlie  weeds  will  do  from 
their  feeds,  and  the  corn  will  thereby  bear  down  the 
growth  of  the  weeds. 

10.  That  fuch  lands  as  are  overflowed  in  the  winter 
and  fpring,  and  arc  of  courfe  unfit  for  fowing  with 
wheat  in  the  autumn,  may  be  ;-cndered  lit  for  crops  of 
wheat  by  planting  them  in  the  fpring,  or  even  in  the 
fummcr. 

,  IT.  That  he  has  known  inflanccs  of  wheat  being 
iranfplanted  in  September,  October,  November,  Fe- 
bruary, March,  >^pril,  and  even  as  late  as  the  middle 
of  May,  which  have  all  aufwercd  very  well. 

12.  That  he  has  known  an  early  kind  of  wheat  fown 
as  late  as  the  middle  of  May,  which  has  ripened  in  very 
good  time  ;  and  from  that  circumftanec  he  conceives, 
if  the  plants  fhould  be  taken  from  that  early  kind,  the 
feafon  of  tranfplanting  might  be  prolonged  at  leall  till 
the  firft  of  July,  perhaps  even  later. 

i:;.  That  he  has  reafon  to  think  wheat,  oats,  and 
barley,  are  not  annuals,  but  are  perennials,  provided 
they  are  eaten  down  bj-  cattle  and  fhcep,  or  are  kept 
low  by  the  fcythe  or  fickle  ;  and  are  prevented  from 
fpindling  or  coming  to  the  ear. 

14.  That  or.c  very  prevalent  motive  with  him  in 
proff  outing  this  plan,  is,  that  he  is  of  opinion  it  may 
enable  governmmt  to  dcvifc  means  of  fupporting  the 
vagrant  poor,  both  old  and  young,  who  are  now  to  be 
met  with  every  where,  both  in  towns  and  in  the  coun- 
try, and  who  are  at  preftnt  a  burden  on  the  commu- 
nity :  but  if  fuch  employment  coold  be  (truck  out  lor 
them,  a  comfortable  fubi'Ulence  might  be  provided  for 
them  by  means  of  their  own  labour  and  indullry  ;  and 
not  only  favc  the  public  and  private  charitable  contri- 
butions, but  may  alfo  render  that  clafs  of  people  ufcful 
and  profitable  fubjeds  ;  inltead  of  their  remaining  in 
a  ufelcfs,  wretched,  and  perhaps  a  profligate  and  vi- 
cious courfe  of  Ufe. 

Laftly,  Mr  Bogle  had  hinted  at  a  fccoadary  objeA 
O  o  I  which 


291 


Praai. 


29* 


AGRICULTURE. 


Part  ir. 


I'raaic?. 


Obfcrva- 
tions  of  the 
]''.ith  Soci- 
ety. 


Eff^a  of 
froll  upon 
tilled  Uiid. 


ij8 
Culture  of 
oats. 


which  he  has  in  view,  from  tliis  mode  of  cultivation, 
which  he  apprehends  may  in  time,  with  a  fmall  degree 
of  attention,  prove  extremfly  advantageous  toagricul- 
nire. — It  is,  that  i;i  the  tirit  place,  the  real  and  intiin- 
iic  Value  of  different  kinds  of  grain  may  he  more  ac- 
curately afccrtaincd  by  making  acomparifon  of  it  with 
a  few  plants  of  each  kind  fet  oat  at  the  fame  liine, 
than  can  he  done  wlicn  fown  in  drills  or  hroad-calt  ; 
and  when  the  mofl  valuable  kinds  of  wheat,  oats,  or 
l);irley,  arc  difcovcrcd,  lit  rtatcs,  that  in  a  very  Ihort 
time  (not  excecdiM^  four  or  five  years)  a  AilHcicni 
quantity  of  that  valn.ible  kind  may  be  procured  to  fup- 
ply  the  kingdom  with  letd  from  a  linglc  grain  of  each 
kind  ;  for  lie  calculates,  that  47,000  grains  of  wheat 
may  Ik  produced  by  divifibiiity  in  two  years  and  three 
months. 

Upon  thefe  proportions  the  Society  obfervcs,  "  That 
although  Mr  B(>;;le  appears  to  be  too  fangiine  in  Lis 
expciiatioiis  of  feting  hij  plan  realized  in  tuneral  prac- 
tice, it  certainly  merits  the  attention  of  Cientlcnien 
Farmers.  We  wifh  them  toniake  lair  cxpcrinicius,  and 
report  their  fuccefs.  Every  grand  improvement  has 
been,  and  ever  will  be,  progreiiive.  They  mult  ncrt-f- 
farily  originate  with  gentlemen^;  and  thence  the  circle 
is  extended  by  almoll  impcrcc;jtible  degrees  over  pro- 
vinces and  countries.  At  all  events,  Mr  Bogle  isjulUy 
intitled  to  the  thanks  of  ihe  Society,  and  of  the  pub- 
lic, for  the  great  attention  he  has  paid  to  the  fubjed." 

2.  Oats. 

As  winter-plonghing  enters  into  the  culture  of  oats, 
we  muft  remind  the  reader  of  the  etfed  of  frofl  upon 
tilled  land.  Frovidenr.  has  ncgleded  no  region  in- 
tended for  the  habitation  of  man.  If  in  warm  cli- 
riai rs  the  foil  be  meliorated  by  the  fun,  it  is  no  lefs 
meliorated  by  froft  in  cold  climates.  Krofl  acts  upon 
water,  by  expanding  it  into  a  l.irger  fpace.  Frofl  has 
jio  etfcrt  upon  dry  earth  ;  witncfs  fand,  upon  which 
it  makes  no  iniprellion.  But  upon  wet  earth  it  ads 
jnoft  vigoroufly  :  it  expands  the  moiftiire,  which  re- 
ouiring  more  fpace  puts  every  particle  of  the  earth  out 
of  its  place,  and  fcparates  thein  from  each  other.  In 
that  view,  froll  may  be  confidered  as  a  ]dough  fuperior 
to  any  that  is  made,  or  can  be  made,  by  the  hand  of 
nan  :  its  aciion  reaches  the  minutell  panicles  ;  and,  by 
dividing  and  fcparating  them,  it  renders  the  foil  loofc 
and  friable.  This  operation  is  the  mod  remarkable  in 
tilled  land,  whichgivcs  free  accefs  to  froft.  With  rc- 
fpect  loclay-foil  in  particular,  there  is  no  rule  in  hiif- 
handry  more  clfcntial  than  to  open  it  before  winter  in 
hopes  of  frofh  It  is  even  advifablc  in  a  cl  y-loil  to 
leave  the  flubble  rank  ;  which,  when  ploughed  in  be- 
fore winter,  keeps  the  clay  loofe,  and  admits  the  froft 
into  every  cranny. 

To  apply  this  doflrine,  it  is  dangerous  to  plough 
clay-foil  when  wet ;  becaufe  water  isa  cement  forclay, 
and  binds  it  fo  as  to  render  it  unlit  for  vegetation.  It 
is,  however,  Icfs  dangerous  to  plough  wet  clay  before 
winter  than  after.  A  liiccceding  frofl  correcHs  tlic  bad 
efiefts  of  filch  ploughing;  a  fuccceJing  drouglit  iii- 
creafes  them. 

The  common  method  is,  to  fow  oats  on  new-plough- 
ed land  in  the  month  of  March,  as  foon  as  tlie  ground 
is  tolerably  dry.  If  it  continues  wet  all  the  month  of 
March,  it  is  too  late  to  venture  them  after.     It  is  much 


better  to  fummer-fallow  and  to  fow,  wheat  in  the  an-  Prjaice. 
tumn.  But  the  preferable  method,  efpccially  inclay-  "—-^-^ 
foil,  is  to  turn  over  the  field  after  harvell,  and  to  \ij 
it  open  to  the  intlucnccs  of  froll  and  air,  which  lellcii 
the  tenacity  of  clay,  and  reduce  it  loa  free  mould.  The 
farfacc-foil  by  this  means  is  finelymellowed  for  recep- 
tion of  the  feed  ;  and  it  would  be  a  pity  to  bury  it  by 
a  I'ccond  ploughing  before  fowing.  In  general,  the 
bulk  of  clay-foils  arc  rich  ;  and  Ikilfiil  plo:ighing  with- 
out dung,  will  probably  give  a  belter  crop,  than  un- 
Ikilful  ploughiii^r  witii  dung. 

Hitherto  of  natural  clays.  We  ninfl  add  a  word  of 
carfc-clays  which  are  artificial,  whether  left  by  the 
fea,  or  Iwceped  down  from  higlur  grounds  by  rain. 
The  method  commonly  ufed  of  dreliing  carfc-elay  for 
oats,  is,  not  to  llir  it  till  tile  ground  be  dry  in  the 
fpring,  which  feldom  happens  before  ihchrflof  March, 
and  the  feed  is  fown  as  loon  after  as  ilic  ground  isfufh- 
cieiuly  dry  for  its  reception.  Frofl  has  a  flronger 
etfeft  on  fuch  clays  than  on  natural  clay.  And  if  the 
field  be  laid  open  before  winter,  it  is  rendered  fo  loofe 
by  froll  as  to  be  foondrenched  in  water.  The  particles 
at  the  lame  time  are  fo  fmall  as  that  the  firfl  drought  in 
fpring  makes  the  furface  cake  or  criill.  The  dit'nculiy 
of  reducing  tliiscrull  into  mould  for  covering  the  oat- 
fcfd,  has  led  farmers  to  delay  ploughing  till  the  month 
of  March.  But  we  are  taught  by  exjicricncc,  that  this 
foil  ploughed  before  winter,  is  fooncr  dry  than  when 
the  ploughing  is  delayed  till  fpring  ;  and  as  early  low- 
ing isa  great  advantage,  the  objection  of  the  fuperfi- 
cial  crullingis  cafily  removed  by  the  lirll  harrow  above 
defcribed,  which  will  produce  abundance  of  mould  for 
covering  the  feed.  The  ploughing  before  winter  not 
only  produces  early  fowing,  but  has  another  advantage  : 
the  fiirface-foil  that  had  been  mellowed  during  winter 
by  the  fun,  frofl,  and  vind,  is  kept  above. 

The  drelfing  a  loamy  foil  for  oats  differs  little  from 
drclTing  a  clay  foil,  except  in  the  following  ('articular, 
thai  being  lefs  hurt  by  rain,  it  requires  not  high  ridges, 
and  therefore  ought  to  be  ploughed  crown  and  furrow 
alternately. 

\\  here  there  is  both  clay  and  loam  in  a  farm,  it  is 
obvious  from  what  is  faid  above,  that  the  ploughing 
of  the  clay  after  lurvell  ought  tirll  to  be  difpatchcd. 
If  both  cannot  be  overtaken  that  feafon,  the  loam  may 
be  delayed  till  the  Ipringwith  lefs  hurt. 

Next  of  a  gravelly  foil  ;  which  is  the  reverfc  of  clay, 
as  it  never  fufters  but  from  want  of  moillure.  Such  a 
foil  ought  tohave  no  ridges  ;  but  be  ploughed  circularly 
from  the  centre  to  the  circumference,  or  from  the  cir- 
cumference to  tlie  centre.  It  ought  to  be  tilled  after 
harvefl :  and  the  lirfl  dry  weather  in  fpring  ought  lobe 
laid  hold  of  to  fow,  harrow,  and  roll ;  w  liich  w  ill  pre- 
fcrve  it  in  fap. 

The  cultureofoats  is  the  fimnlefl  of  all.  That  grain 
is  probably  a  native  of  Britain  :  it  will  grow  on  the 
worflfoil  with  very  little  preparation.  For  that  rcafon, 
before  turnip  was  introduced,  it  was  always  the  firft 
crop  upon  land  broken  up  from  the  flate  of  nature. 

Upon  fuch  land,  iTi.iy  it  not  be  a  gnod  method, 
to  build  upon  the  crown  of  every  ridge,  in  the  form 
of  a  wall,  all  the  furface-earth,  one  lod  above  ano- 
ther, as  in  a  fold  for  flieep  ?  After  flanding  in  this  form 
all  the  fimmer  and  winter,  let  the  walls  be  thrown 
down,  and  the  ground  prepared  for  oats.     This  will 

fee  arc 


Part  11. 

Vraflicc 


AGRICULTURE. 


Culture  of 
barley. 


fecurc  one  or  two  good  crops  ;  after  which  the  land 
may  be  dunged  for  a  crop  of  barley  and  grafs-feeds. 
This  method  may  aufwcr  in  a  farra  where  manure  is 
fcaaty. 

3.  Barlev. 

This  i&-a  cnhniferous  plain  that  rcqnires  a  mellow 
foil.  Upon  that  account,  extraordinary  careisrcqiii- 
iitc,  where  it  is  to  be  fown  in  clay.  The  land  ought 
to  bcilirred  immediately  after  ihc  foregoing  crop  is  re- 
moved, which  lays  it  open  to  be  metlosvid  with  the 
froft  and  air.  In  that  view,.!  peculiar  fort  of  plough- 
ing lias  been  introduced,  termed  r/W'/«_g^ ;  by  «hich  the 
greatcd  quantity  of  furfacc  poiiible  is  expofcd  to  the 
air  and  frort.  The  obvious  oiijefiion  to  this  method  is, 
that  half  of  the  ridge  is  left  unmoved,  i^nd  to  ob- 
viate that  objection,  the  following  r.iethod  is  ofiercd, 
which  moves  the  wliole  fuil,  and  at  the  fame  time  ex- 
pofts  the  fime  quantity  of  f;irface  to  the  frofl  and  air. 
As  foon  as  the  fornur  crop  is  off  the  field,  let  the 
ridges  be  gathered  with  as  deep  a  furrow  as  the  foil 
will  admit,  beginning  at  the  crown  and  ending  at  the 
furrows.  Tins  plougliing  loofens  the  whole  foil,  gi- 
ving free  accefs  to  the  air  and  froft.  Soon  after  begin 
a  lecond ploughing  in  the  following  manner.  Letthc 
field  be  divided  by  parallel  linesacrjfs  the  ridges, with 
intervals  of  30  feet  or  io.  Plough  once  round  an  in- 
terval, beginning  at  the  edges,  and  turning  the  earth 
toward  the  middle  of  the  interval ;  which  covers  a  foot 
or  fo  of  the  ground  formerly  ploughed.  M'ithin  that 
foot  plough  another  round  limilar  to  the  former  ;  and 
.iftcr  that,  other  rounds,  till  the  whole  interval  be 
finilhed,  ending  at  the  middle.  Inilcad  of  beginning  at 
ihe  edges,  and  ploughing  toward  the  middle,  it  will 
liave  the  fame  effeet  to  begin  at  the  middle  and  to 
plough  toward  the  edges.  Plough  the  other  intcrv.ils 
in  the  fame  manner.  As  by  this  operation  the  furrows 
of  the  riiiges  will  be  pretty  much  filled  up,  let  them 
be  cleared  and  water-furrowed  without  delay.  By 
this  method,  the  field  will  be  left  waving  like  a  plot 
in  a  kitchen-garden,  ridged  up  for  winter.  In  tliis 
form,  the  field  is  kept  perfertly  dry  ;  for  befidc  the 
capital  furrows  that  fcpirate  the  ridges,  cv<:ry  ridge 
Jias  a  number  of  crofs  farrows  that  carry  the  rain  in- 
flantly  to  the  capital  furrows.  In  hanging  grounds 
retentive  of  moiltiire,  the  parallel  lines  abovemention- 
ed  ought  not  to  be  perpendicular  to  the  furrows  of  the 
ridges,  but  to  be  dircded  a  little  downward,  in  order 
to  carry  rain-water  the  more  luflily  to  thcfe  furrows. 
If  the  ground  be  clean,  it  may  lie  in  that  flate  winter 
and  fpiing,  till  the  timeof  fced-furrov.ing.  If  weeds 
happen  to  rife,  they  mud  be  deftroycd  by  ploughing, 
or  breaking,  or  both  ;  for  there  cannot  be  worfe  huf- 
bandry,  than  to  put  feed  into  dirty  ground. 

This  method  refembles  common  ribbing  in  appear- 
ance, but  is  very  difitrent  in  reality.  As  thcconunon 
ribbing  is  not  preceded  by  a  gathering  furrow,  the 
haUof  the  field  is  left  untitled,  compail  as  when  the 
former  crop  was  removed,  impervious  in  a  great  nica- 
Aire  to  air  or  froft.  The  common  ribbingat  the  fame 
time  lodges  the  rain-water  on  (very  lidge,  preventing 
i:  fron  dcfcending  to  the  furrows  ;  which  is  hurtful  in 
all  foils,  and  poifonons  in  a  clr.y  foil.  The  llilchiiig 
here  dcfcribed,  or  nbi>i>:g,  if  you  plcafe  to  call  it  io, 


293 


prevents  thefc  noxious  cffctTs.    By  the  two  ploughing!  Fraaice. 

the  whole  foil  is  opened,  admitting  freely  air  and  froU  ;  ' ' 

*nd  the  multitude  of  furrows  lays  the  furface  perfectly 
dry,  giving  an  early  opportunity  for  the  barlcy-fced. — 
But   further,  as    to    the   advantage  of  this  method  : 
When  it  is  pro,cr  to  fow  the  feed,  all  is  kid  fiat  with 
the  brake, which-is an  ea fy  operation  upon  the  foil  thai  is 
dry  and  pulvcri/.ed  ;   and  tlie  feed-furrow  which  fuc- 
ceeds,  is  fo  ihallow  as  to  bury  little  or  none  of  the  fur- 
face-carth  :  whereas  the  ftirring  for  barley  is  common- 
ly done  witli  thedcepcllfyirrow;  and  confequently  bu- 
ries all  the  furfacc-foil  that  was  mellowed  by  thcfroll  .    '^-^ 
and  air.     Nor  is  this  method  more  expenlive  ;  bccaufe  .,,^^"1^' 
the  common  ribbing  muft  always  be  followed  with  a  f^cd  in  a 
Itirring  furrow,  which  is  faved  in  the  method  recom-  dry  fcafon. 
mended.     Nay,  ills  lefs  expenfivej  for  after  common 
ribbing,  which  keeps  in  the  rain  water,  the  ground  is 
commonly  fofoured,    as  to  make  the  Ilirring  a  labo- 
rious work. 

It  is  well  known  tint  barley  is  lefs  valuable  when  it 
does  not  ripen  equally  ;  and  that  barley  svhich  comes 
up  fpcedily  inadulky  foil,  mufl  gain  a  great  advantage  . 
over  feed-weeds.  Therefore,  firfl  tike  out  about  one- 
third  of  the  contents  of  the  facks  of  feed  barley  or 
bear,  to  allow  for  the  fwelling  of  the  grain.  Lay  the 
i'acks  with  the  grain  to  deep  in  clean  water  ;  let  it  lie 
covered  wiili  it  for  at  Icalt  24  hours.  Wlicn  the 
ground  is  fo  dry  as  at  prcfent,  and  no  likelihood  of 
rain  for  10  days,  it  is  better  to  lie  36  hours.  Sow  the 
grain  wet  from  fteeping,  without  any  addition  of  pow- 
dered quick-lime,  which,  though  often  recommended 
in  print,  can  only  poifon  the  feed,  fuck  up  part  of  us 
ufeful  nioifiure,  and  burn  the  hands  of  the  fower.  The 
feed  will  fcatter  well,  as  clean  water  hasno  tenacity  ; 
only  the  fower  muft  put  in  a  fourth  or  a  third  more 
feed  in  bulk  than  ufual  of  dry  grain,  as  the  grain  is 
fwclled  in  that  proportion  :  harrow  it  in  as  quickly  as 
podible  after  it  is  fown  ;  and  though  not  nccedary, 
give  it  the  benefit  of  frelh  furrow,  if  convenient.  You 
may  expeift  it  up  in  a  fortnight  at  farthclL 

i'he  followingexperiment  bya  correfpondent  of  the 
Bath  fociety  being  conhdered  as  a  very  interclling 
one,   is  here  fubjoined.  , 

"  Thelaft  fpring  (1783)  being  remarkably  dry,  I  important 
foaked  my  fccd-barley  in  the  black  water  taken  from  a  cipcri- 
refervoir  which  conilamly  receives  the  draining  of  my  riicnts  on 
dung-heap  and  (tables.       As  the  light  corn  floated  on  ^'^'^'^  barley 
the  top,   I  fkimmcd   it  oil,  and  let   the  reft  ftand    24 
hours.     On  taking  it  from  the  water,  I  mixed  the  feed 
grain  with  a  fuflicient  quantity  of  fified   wood-alhes, 
to  make  it   fpread  regularly,  and   fowed  three  fields 
with  it.     I  began  fowing  the   i6th,  and  finilhed  the 
2  ;d  of  April.     The  produce  was  60  bulhels  per  acre, 
of  good  clean  barley,  without  any  fmall  or  green  corn, 
or  weeds  at  harvcft.     No  perfon  in  this  country  had 
better  grain. 

I  fowed  alio  fcveral  other  fields  with  the  fame  feed 
dry,  and  without  any  preparation  ;  but  the  crop,  like 
thofc  of  my  neighbours,  was  very  poor  ;  not  more  than 
twenty  bnfluls  per  acre,  and  much  mixed  with  .?'<■'« 
cornand  weeds  when  harvefted.  I  alfolowed  fomeof 
the  feed  dry  on  one  ridge  in  each  of  my  former  fields, 
but  the  produce  was  very  poor  in  comparifon  of  the 
other  partsof  the  field." 

\\lure  the  land  is  in  good  order,  and  free  of  weeds, 

April 


294 


AGRICULTU 


R 


Piailice.    April  is  tlic  montli  for  fowiiig  barUy.     Every  day  is 

*~        -    proper,  from  the  firft  to  the  lall. 

_.  '*^,  The  drelling  loamy  foil  and  light  foil  for  barley,  is 

fowing,       tlic  ''^"K^  "  "'i  'li^t  dcfcribcd  ;  only  that  to  plough  dry 

is  not  aho;rtihcr  fo  cllcniial  as  in  drclling  clay-foil. 

Loam  or  land  may  be  ftirred  a  little  moid:  better, 

liowever,  delay  a  week  or  two,  than  to  (lir  aloani  when 

nioill.     Clay  innft  never  be  ploughed  moid,  even  tho' 

the  feafon  fliould  efcapc  altogether.      But  this  will  fcl- 

dom  be  nccellhry  ;  for  not  in  one  year  out  of  20  will  it 

happen,  but  that  clay  is  dry  enough  for  ploughing  fonie 

time  in  May.     Froll  may  correct  clay  ploughed  v.et 

after  harvcil  ;    but   ploughed  wet    in  the   fpring,   it 

unites  into  a  hard  mafs,  not  to  be  dilFolved  but  by  very 

hard  labour. 

On  the  cultivation  of  this  grain  we  have  the  follow- 
ing obfervations  by  a  Norfolk  farmer. 
^■t^  The  bcfl  foil,  he  obfcrves,  is  that  which  is  dry  and 

^^"'"''='"'=- healthy,   rather  light  than  flirt",  but  yet  of  fufficient 
Tati"nsco'n-  tenacity  and  ftrengtli  to  retain  the  moillure.     On  this 
cerningthe  kind  of  land  tlic  grain  is  always  the  befl  bodied  and 
cultivation  coloured,  the  nimbled  in  the  land,  and  has  the  thin- 
of  barley,    neil  lind.     Thefe  are  qualities  which  reconimcud  it 
mod  to  the  maltltcr.     If  the  land  is  poor,  it  Iliould  be 
dry  and  warm  ;  and  when  fo,  it  will  often  bear  better 
corn  than  richer  land  in  a  cold  and  wet  fituation. 

In  the  choice  of  your  feed,  it  is  needful  to  obferve, 
that  the  bed  is  of  a  pale  lively  colour,  and  brightilh 
cad,  without  any  deep  redncls,  or  black  tinge  at  the 
tail.  If  the  rind  be  a  little  flirivclled,  it  isthe  better  ; 
for  that  (light  Ihrivelling  proves  it  to  have  a  thinfkiu, 
and  to  have  fwcated  in  the  mow.  The  ncccifity  of  a 
change  of  feed  by  not  fowing  two  years  together  what 
grew  on  the  fame  foil,  is  not  in  any  part  of  hufbandry 
more  evident  than  in  the  culture  of  this  grain,  which, 
if  not  frequently  changed,  will  grow  coarferandcoar- 
fer  every  fucceeding  year. 

Ithasgcnerally  been  thought  that  feed-barley  would 
be  benefited  by  deeping;  but  liming  it  has,  in  many 
iiidances, been  found  prejudicial.  Si>rinkling  a  little 
foot  with  the  water  in  which  it  is  deeped  has  been  of 
great  fcrvicc,  as  it  will  fecure  the  feed  from  infed:s. 
In  a  very  dry  feed-time,  barley  that  has  been  wetted 
for  malting,  and  begins  to  fprout,  will  come  up  fooner, 
and  produce  as  good  a  crop  as  any  other. 

Ifyoufow  after  a  fallow,  plough  three  times  at  lead. 
At  the  lird  ploughing,  lay  your  land  up  in  fmall  ridges, 
and  let  it  remain  fo  during  the  winter,  for  tlie  frolb  to 
jutUowit ;  thefceond  ploughing  lliould  be  at  tlie  begin- 
ning of  February.  In  March  fplit  the  ridges,  and  lay 
the  land  as  flat  as  poffiblc,  at  the  fame  time  harrowing 
it  fine.  But  in  drong  wet  lands  (if  you  have  no  other 
for  barley)  lay  it  round,  and  make  deep  furrows  to  re- 
ceive the  water. 

"  I  have  often  (continues  he),  taken  the  following 
method  with  fuccefs  :  On  lands  tolerably  manured,  I 
fowed  clover  with  my  barley,  which  I  reaped  at  har- 
vefl  ;  and  fed  the  clover  all  the  following  winter,  ."nj 
from  fpring  to  July,  when  I  fallowed  it  till  the  fol- 
lowing fl'ring,  and  then  fowed  it  v.'itli  barley  and  clo- 
ver as  before.  Repeating  this  method  every  year  I 
had  very  large  crops,  but  would  not  recommend  this 
pradice  on  poor  light  land. 

"  We  fow  on  our  lighted  lands  in  April,  on  our 
moiillands  in  May  ;  finding  that  thofe  lands  which  arc 


E.  Part  ir. 

the  mod  fabjcdl  to  weeds  produce  the  bed  crops  when  Praftice. 

fown  late.  ' vr— ' 

"  The  common  method  is  to  fow  the  barley-feed 
broad-cad  at  two  fowings ;  the  lird  harrowed  in  once, 
the  fccond  twi^c  ;  the  ufual  allowance  from  three  to 
four  bulhcls  per  acre.  But  if  farmers  could  be  pre- 
vailed on  to  alter  thispradice,  they  would  loon  find 
theiraccouiu  in  it.  Were  only  half  the  quantity  fowii 
equally,  the  produce  would  be  greater,  and  the  corn 
kl's  liable  to  lodge  :  For  when  corn  dands  very  clofe, 
the  Ilalks  aregruwn  up  weak  ;  andon  that  account  are 
Id's  capable  of  redding  the  force  of  winds,  or  fupport- 
ing  thcmfelves  under  heavy  rains. 

"From  our  great  fuccefs  in  fctting  and  drilling 
wheat,  Ibme  of  our  farmers  tried  thefe  methods  with 
barley  ;  but  did  not  find  itanfwcr  their  expec^tations, 
except  on  very  rich  land. 

"  1  have  myl'clf  hadSodalks  on  one  root  of  barley, 
which  all  produced  good  and  long  ears,  and  the  grain 
was  better  than  any  other  ;  but  the  method  is  too  ex- 
penfivefor  general  pradicc.  In  poor  laud,  fow  thin, 
or  your  crop  will  be  worth  little.  Farmers  who  do 
not  reafoncn  the  matter,  will  be  of  a  dilFercnt  opinion  ; 
but  the  fact  is  indifputabie." 

When  the  barley  is  fowed  and  harrowed  in,  he  ad- 
vifes  that  the  land  be  roiled  after  the  fird  fliower  of 
rain  to  break  the  clods.  This  will  clofe  the  earth  a- 
bout  the  roots,  which  svill  be  a  great  advantage  to  it  in 
dry  weather. 

VV  hen  the  barley  lias  been  up  three  weeks  or  a 
month,  it  is  a  very  good  way  to  roll  it  again  with  a 
heavy  roller,  which  will  prevent  the  fun  and  air  from 
penetrating  the  ground  to  the  injury  of  the  roots. 
This  rolling,  bcfort  it  branches  out,  will  alfo  caufc  it 
to  tiller  into  a  great  number  of  dalks;  fo  that  if  the 
plants  be  thin,  the  ground  will  be  thereby  filled,  and 
the  dalks  drengthened. 

If  the  blade  grows  too  rank,  as  it  fometimes  will  in 
a  warm  wet  fpring,  mowing  is  a  much  better  method 
tlian  feeding  it  down  with  ihccp  ;  becaufe  the  fcythc 
takts  off  only  the  rank  tops,  but  the  (liecp  being  fond 
of  the  fweet  end  of  the  flalk  next  the  root,  will  often 
bite  fo  clofe  as  K)  injure  the  future  growth. 

4.    BUCIC-WHEAT. 

Th  e  ufes  of  this  plant  have  been  mentioned  in  the  Culture  of 
preceding  part,  n°  46.  It  delights  in  a  mellow  fan-  inick- 
dy  foil  ;  but  fucceeds  well  in  any  dry  loofe  healthy  wheat, 
land,  and  moderately  fo  in  a  free  loamy  done  brafli. 
A  dirt" clay  is  its  avirlion,  and  it  is  entirely  labour  lofl; 
to  fow  it  in  a  wet  poachy  ground.  The  proper  feafon 
for  fowing  is  from  the  lad  week  of  May  or  the  begin- 
ningof  June.  It  has  been  fown,  however,  fo  early  as 
the  beginning  of  April,  and  fo  late  as  the  szdof  July, 
by  way  of  experiment  ;  but  the  latter  was  rather  ex- 
treme tobechofen,  and  the  former  was  in  danger  from 
frod.  In  an  experiment  upon  a  fmall  piece  of  ground, 
the  grain  of  two  dificrcnt  ci'ops  was  brought  to  matu- 
rity in  the  fummer  1787. — After  fpring  feedings, 
a  crop  of  turnip-rooted  cab'jagc,  or  vetches,  there,  will 
be  fiiffieient  time  to  fow  the  land  with  buck-wheat. 
Probably,  in  hot  dry  dimmers,  a  crop  of  vetches 
might  even  be  mown  for  hay  early  enough  to  introduce 
a  crop  of  this  grain  after  it. 

In  the  year  1780,  about  fcven  acres  of  a  fandy  foil 

on 


Part  II. 


AGRICULTURE. 


295 


14! 

Advanta 
gcs  of  ihi 
croppin 


rjaflice.  on  Brifliiigton  Common  (a),  Inving  been  fir(l  tolt- 
•—>'——  jably  well  clcanl'cJ  lioni  bramble;,  tiiivc,  &c. received 
out  ploughiiij^.  To  reduce  the  irrcg;il<iritics  of  ihc 
fiirhcc,  it  was  rolled  ;  and  011  the  9lh  of  June  in  that 
year,  tsvo  biilhels  and  a  half  of  buck-wheat  per  acre 
ibwii,  llic  groinid  rolled  again  u  itliout  harrowing. 
The  vegetation  ai^pearcd  in  live  or  iix  days,  as  is 
'  conllantly  the  cafe  be  the  weather  wet  or  dry.  The 
■  growth  was  fo  rapid,  that  the  fern,  with  which  this 
land  greatly  abounded,  was  completely  kept  under. 
About  the  middle  of  September  the  crop  was  mown, 
but  by  realbn  of  a  great  deal  of  rain  about  that  time, 
it  \\as  not  fecured  until  the  beginning  of  Oelobcr  ; 
hence  a  lofs  of  great  part  of  the  grain  l>y  fliedding,  as 
well  as  fomc  eaten  by  birds.  However,  there  were 
laved  about  24  Winchcflcr  bulhels  per  acre  ;  and,  not- 
withltanding  its  long  cxpofurc  to  the  weather,  recei- 
ved no  fort  of  damage,  only  perhaps  that  the  finell 
and  moll  perfeift  grain  was  the  iirlb  to  fall  from  the 
plant.  The  ground  after  this  had  almolt  the  appear- 
ance of  a  fallow,  and  was  immediately  plouglicd. 

When  it  had  lain  a  moderate  time  tomclioratc,  and 
to  receive  theintluencesof  the  atmofpherc,  it  was  har- 
rowed, fown  with  Lammas  w  heat,  and  ploughed  in 
under  furrow,  in  a  contrary  dirtelion  to  the  tirll 
ploughing.  Thus  a  picje  of  bnd,  which  iu  the 
month  of  April  was  altogether  in  a  llatc  of  nature,  in 
the  following  November  was  fcen  under  a  pvomiling 
crop  of  what  is  well  llyled  the  king  of  grain,  and  this 
without  the  aid  of  manure,  orof  any  very  great  degree 
of  tillage.  Nor  was  the  harvcll  by  any  means  dclieicnt ; 
for  fevcral  perfonsconverfant  in  fuch  thingsclUmated 
the  produce  from  26  to  50  bulhels  p;-r  acre.  As  foon 
as  the  wheat  crop  was  taken  off",  the  ground  had  one 
ploughing,  and  on  the  tirll  of  ScptemberfoUowing  was 
Ibwn  witii  turnip-feed.  The  turnips  were  not  large, 
but  of  an  herbage  fo  abundant  as  in  the  following 
fpring  to  fupport  120  ewes  with  their  lambs,  which 
were  fed  on  it  by  folding  four  weeks.  After  this  it 
was  manured  with  a  compolition  of  rotten  dung  and 
natural  earth,  about  20  putt  loads  per  acre,  and  plant- 
ed with  potatoes.  The  crop  fold  for  L.  13S,  belidcs 
a  conliderablc  number  ufed  in  the  family,  and  a  quan- 
tity rcfcrvcd  with  which  ten  acres  were  planted  the 
ibliowing  fcal'on.  The  enfuiug  autumn  it  was  ag:iin 
Ibwn  witn  wheat,  and  produced  an  excellent  crop.  In 
the  fpring  of  i  784,  it  was  manured  and  planted  with 
potatoes,  as  in  the  prcceiiing  inftancc  ;  the  crop  (tho' 
tolerably  good)  by  nj  means  equal  to  the  former,  pro- 
ducing about  100  facks  per  acre  only.  In  fpring 
I  ySj,  the  land  was  now  for  a  third  time  under  a  trop 
of  wheat,  it  being  intended  to  try  how  far  this  mode 
of  alternate  cropping,  one  year  with  potatoes  and  an- 
other with  wheat,  may  be  carried. 

From  the  ficcefs  of  the  preceding  and  other  expe- 
riments, by  Nchemiah  Hartley  £fq  ;  of  IJrillol,  as  de- 
lulled  in  the  Bath  Society  Papers,  it  would  feeni,  that 
the  culture  of  this  plant  ought  in  many  cafes  to  be  a- 
lioptcd  inllead  of  3  fummer-fallowing :  for  the  crop 
|iroduccd  appears  not  only  to  be  fo  much  clear  gain  in 
refpeCl  to  fach  practice,  but  alio  .iffbrds  a  conliilcrablc 
quantity  of  llraw  lor  fodder  and  manure  ;  belide  that 

4 


a  fummer  fallowing  is  far  from  being  fo  advantgeous   Pra.?.icc. 
a  preparation  for  a  fucceeding  crop.  '       ^~" 


5.  Beans. 


149 


The  propereft  foil  for  beans  isa  deep  and  moill  clay.  Culture  of 

There  was  lately  introduced  iiito  Scotland  a  method  ^'^^^^ 
of  lowing  beans  with  a  drill-plough,  and  horie-hocinj'' 
the  intervals  ;   which,  befide  affording  a  good  crop,  is 
a  dreliing  to  the  ground.  But  as  that  method  is  far 
from  being  general,  we  keep  in  the  common  track. 

As  this  grain  is  early  fown,  the  ground  intended  for 
it  Ihould  be  ploughed  before  winter,  to  give  accefs  to 
the  froll  and  air  ;  benelicial  in  all  foils,  and  neceiTary 
in  a  clay  foil.  Take  the  firft  opportunity  after  Ja- 
nuary when  the  ground  is  dry,  to  loofen  the  foil  with 
the  harrow  firft  defcribcd,  till  a  mould  be  brought  up- 
on it.  Sow  the  feed,  and  cover  it  with  the  feconj 
harrow.  The  third  will  fmooth  the  furface,  and  cover 
the  feed  equally.  Thefe  harrows  make  the  very  bell 
figure  in  fowing  beans  ;  which  ought  to  be  laid  deep 
in  the  ground,  not  lefs  than  Iix  inches.  In  clay  foil, 
the  common  harrows  are  altogether  infuflicient.  The 
foil,  which  has  relied  long  after  ploughing,  is  render- 
ed compact  and  folid  :  the  common  harrows  Ikim  the 
furface  :  the  feed  is  not  covered  :  and  the  tirll  heart/ 
lliower  of  rain  lays  it  above  ground.  \\  here  the  far- 
mer overtakes  not  the  ploughing  after  harveft,  and  is 
reduced  to  plough  immediately  before  fowing,  the 
plough  anfwers  thepurpofc  of  the  tiril  harrow  ;  and 
tiie  other  two  will  complete  the  work.  But  the  labour 
of  the  tirft  liarrowisill  faved  ;  as  the  ploughing  before 
winter  is  a  tine  preparation,  not  only  for  beans,  buc 
for  grain  of  every  kind.  If  the  ground  ploughed  be- 
fore winter  happen  by  fupcrfluiiy  of  moillure  to  cake, 
the  firfl  harrow  goinj;  along  the  ridges,  andcrolfing 
them,  will  loofen  tlic  furface,  and  give  accefs  to  the 
air  for  drying.  As  fooii  as  the  ground  is  dry,  low  with- 
out delayinga  moment.  If  rain  happenin  the  interim, 
there  is  no  remedy  but  patience  till  a  dry  day  or  twa 
come. 

Carfe-clay,  ploughed  before  winter,  feldom  fails  to 
cake.  Upon  that  accouut,  a  fecond  ploughing  is  nc- 
cclTary  before  fowing  j  which  ought  to  be  pcrformt  J 
with  an  ebb  furrow,  in  order  to  keep  the  froll-mould 
as  near  the  furface  as  pollible.  To  cover  the  feed  with 
the  plough  is  exprellcd  by  the  phrafe  to/o-iU  undir  jur- 
row.  The  clods  railed  in  this  ploughing  are  a  fort 
of  Ihclier  to  the  young  plants  in  the  chilly  fpring- 
montlis. 

The  foregoing  method  will  anfwer  for  loam.  AnJ 
as  for  a  fandy  or  gravelly  foil,  it  is  altogether  impro- 
per for  beans. 

Though  we  cannot  approve  the  horfe-hoeing  of 
beans,  with  the  intervals  that  arc  commonly  allotted 
for  turnip,  yet  we  would  itrongly  recommend  the  drill- 
ing them  at  tlie  dillanceof  ten  or  12  inches,  and  keep- 
ing the  intervals  clean  of  weeds.  This  may  be  done 
by  hand- hoeing,  taking  opportunity  at  the  fame  time 
to  lay  frcfli  foil  to  the  roots  of  the  plants.  But  as  this 
is  an  expcniivc  operation,  and  hands  arc  not  alwaystobe 
got,  a  narrow  plou-j;h,  drawn  by  a  tingle  horfc,  might 
be  ufed,  with  a  mould-board  oa  each  lidc  to  fcatter  tiie 

eorilj 


( A )  A  very  roui^b  piece  of  land,  at  that  time  juft  i.idvfed. 


39^ 


AGRICULTURE. 


Part  II. 


I'raiaice.  earth  upon  the  roots  of  the  plants.  This  is  a  cheap 
and  c.\pcdilious  method  ;  it  keeps  tlic  ground  clean  ; 
and  nourilhcs  the  plants  with  frefliloil. 

As  beans  delight  in  a  moiit  foil,  and  have  no  end 
of  growing  in  a  nioill  feafun,  they  cover  the  ground 
totally  when  fown  broad  cart,  keep  in  the  dew,  and  ex- 
clude the  fun  and  air  :  the  plants  grow  to  a  great 
height  ;  but  carry  little  feed,  and  that  little  not  well 
ripened.  This  uifplays  the  advantage  of  drilling; 
which  gives  free  accefs  to  the  fun  and  air,  dries  the 
ground,  and  atiords  plenty  of  ripe  feed. 


153 


6.  Pease. 


Culturr  of  Pease  are  of  two  kinds  ;  the  white  and  the  gray, 
pcafc.         The  cultivation  ofthelattcronly  belongs  to  this  place. 

There  arc  two  fpcciis  of  the  grey  kind,  diftinguilh- 
ed  by  their  lime  of  ripening.  One  ripens  foon,andfor 
that  reafon  is  termed  hot  fad:  theother,whichis  flower 
in  ripening,  is  termed  cild f^ed. 

Pcafc,  a  leg'iminous  crop,  is  proper  to  intervene 
between  two  culmiferojs  crops  ;  lefs  for  the  proiitof  a 
pcafc-crop,  than  for  niclioraiing  the  ground.  Peafe, 
however,  in  a  dry  feafon,  will  produce  fix  or  'icve.w 
bollseach  acre  ;  but,  in  an  ordinary  feafon,  iheyfeldom 
reach  above  two,  or  two  and  a  half.  Hence,  in  a  moilh 
climate,  red  clover  fctms  a  more  bencticial  crop  than 
pcafe  ;  as  it  makes  as  good  winter-food  aspcafe,  and 
can  be  cut  green  thrice  during  fummer. 

A  field  intended  for  cold  feed  ought  to  be  ploughed 
in  Oftober  or  November  ;  and  in  February,  as  foon  as 
tlic  ground  is  dry,  the  feed  ought  to  be  lovvn  on  the 
winter-furrow.  A  field  intended  for  hot  feed  ought  to 
be  ploughed  in  March  or  April,  immediately  before 
fowing.  But  if  in  felled  with  weeds,  it  ought  to  be  al- 
fo  ploughed  in  October  or  November. 

Peafc laid  afoot  below  the  furface  will  vegetate  ;  but 
the  moil  approved  depth  is  lix  inches  in  light  foil, 
and  four  inches  in  clay  foil  ;  for  which  reafon,  they 
ought  to  be  fown  under  furrow  when  ploughing  is 
delayed  till  fpring.  Of  all  grain,  beans  excepted, 
they  are  the  lealt  in  danger  of  being  buried, 

Peafe  diftcr  from  beans,  in  loving  a  dry  foil  and  a 
dry  fealon.  Horfc-hoeing  would  be  a  great  benefit, 
could  it  be  performed  to  any  advantage  ;  but  peafc 
grow  expeditioully,  and  foon  fall  over  and  cover  the 
ground,  which  bars  ploughing.  Horfe-hocing  has 
little  clie6l  when  tiie  plants  ?.rc  new  fprung  ;  and  when 
they  arc  advanced  to  be  benelited  by  lliat  culture,  their 
length  prevents  it.  b'all  growing  at  the  fame  time  is 
the  caufe  of  their  carrying  fo  little  feed:  the  feed  is 
buried  among  the  leaves  ;  and  the  fun  cannot  penetrate 
to  make  it  grow  and  ripen.  The  only  praflicable  re- 
medy to  obtain  grain,  is  thin  fowing  ;  but  thick  fowing 
produces  more  llraw,  and  mellows  tlie  ground  more. 
Half  a  boll  for  an  Englilh  acre  may  be  reckoned  thin 
fowing  ;  three  firlots,  thick  fowing. 

Notwithllanding  what  is  faid  above,  Mr  Hunter,  3 
noted  farmer  in  Berwickflurc,  began  fome  lime  ago  to 
fowall  his  peafe  in  drills;  and  never  failed  to  have  great 
crops  of  corn  as  well  as  of  flraw.  He  fowtd  double 
rows  at  a  foot  interval,  and  two  feet  and  an  hf.lt  be- 
tween the  double  rows,  which  admit  horf£-hoei:ig.  By 
that  method,  he  had  alfo  good  crops  of  beans  on  light 
land. 


Peafe  and  beans  mixed  arc  often  fown  together,  in    rraflic*. 

order  to  catch  dirtercat  feafons.  Jn  a  moill  feafon,  the  ' >— — ' 

beans  make  a  good  crop  ;  in  a,dry  fcalbn,  the  peafc. 

The  growth  of  plants  is  commonly  checked  by 
drought  in  the  month  of  July  ;  but  promoted  by  rain 
in  Augull.  In  July,  grafsis  parched  ;  in  Auguft,  it 
recovers  verdure.  Where  peafe  are  fo  far  advanced  in 
the  dry  feafon  as  tliat  the  feed  begins  to  form,  their 
growth  isindced  checked,  but  the  feed  continues  to  fill. 
Jf  only  in  the  bloUbni  at  that  feafon,  their  growth  is 
checked  a  little  ;  but  they  become  vigorous  again  in 
Auguft,  and  continue  growing  without  filling  till  (lop- 
ped by  froll.  Hence  it  is,  that  cold  feed,  which  is 
carl/  fown,  has  the  bell  chance  to  produce  corn  :  hot 
feed,  which  is  late  fown,  has  the  bell  chance  to  pro- 
duce llraw. 

The  following  method  is  pradlifed  in  Norfolk,  for 
fowing  peafe  upon  a  dry  light  foil,  immediately  opened 
from  ))a(lure.  flic  ground  is  pared  with  a  plough  ex- 
tremely thin,  and  every  fod  is  laid  exaclly  on  its  back. 
In  every  fod  a  double  row  of  lioles  is  made.  A  pea 
dropt  ill  every  hole  lodges  in  the  tiay'd  ground  imme- 
diately below  tile  fod,  thrufls  its  roots  horizontally, and 
has  fuiiicicnt  moillure.  This  method  enabled  Norfolk 
farmers,  in  the  barren  year  i  740,  tofurnilhwhitepeafc 
at  I2S.  per  boll. 

II.  Plants  cultivated  for  Roots.     {S::  alfo  Art.  JII.'] 
I.  Tu  R  .\  I  r. 

Turnip  delights  in  a  gravelly  foil ;  and  there  it  can  Culture  uf 
be  raifcd  to  the  greatcfl  pcrfcclion,  and  with  the  leall  turnip, 
hazard  of  mifcarrying.  At  the  fame  time,  there  is  no 
foil  but  will  bear  turnip  when  well  prepared. 

No  perfonever  deferved  belterof  acountry,  than  he 
who  firll  cultivated  turnip  in  the  field.  No  plant  is  bet- 
ter fitted  for  the  climate  of  Britain,  no  plant  prol'pcrs 
better  in  the  coldeA  part  of  it,  and  no  plant  contributes 
more  to  fertility.  In  a  word,  there  has  not  for  two 
centuries  been  i;uroduced  into  Britain  a  more  valuable 
improvement. 

Of  all  roots,  turnip  requires  the  fined  mould  ;  and 
to  that  end,  of  all  harrows  froft  is  the  bell.  In  order 
to  give  accefs  to  frofl,  the  land  ought  10  be  prepared 
by  ribbingafter  harvefl,  as  above  dircdcd  in  preparing 
land  for  barley.  If  the  field  be  not  fubjecl  to  annuals, 
it  may  lie  in  that  flate  till  the  end  of  May  ;  oliierwilc 
the  weeds  mult  be  dellroyed  by  a  breaking  about  the 
middle  of  April;  and  again  in  May,  if  weeds  rife. 
The  firlt  v/cek  of  June,  plough  ilic  field  with  aihallow 
furrow.  Lime  it  if  requifiic,  and  harrow  the  lime  into 
the  foil.  Draw  lingle  furrows  with  intervals  of  three 
feet, and  lay  dung  in  the  furrows.  Covcrthedung  fuf- 
ficiently,  by  going  round  it  with  the  plough,  and  form- 
ing the  three- feet  fpaccs  into  ridges.  The  dung  comes 
thus  to  lie  below  tJie  crown  of  every  ridge.  j 

The  feafon  of  fowing  mufl  be  re(;ulated  by  the  time  Seafon  and 
intended  for  feeding.    Where  intended  for  feeding  in  method  of 
November,   Uecember,  January,  and  February,  the  fowing. 
feed  ought  tobe  fown  from  the  ifl  to  the  20th  ol' June. 
Where  the  feeding  is  intended  to   be  carried  on   to 
March,  April,  and  May,  the  feed  muil    not  be   fovvii 
till  the  end  of  July,     lurnip  fown  earlier  than  above 
diredted,  flowers  that  very  fummer,  and  runs  fall  to 
feed  i   which  renders  it  in  a  good  raeafurc  unfit  for 

j'ooii. 


Part  II. 


A    G     II     I     C     U     L    T     U     R     E. 


Pra<aicc.    fooj.  If  fnwii  much  htcr,  It  docs  not  apple,  and  there 
<         is  no  fooj  belt  from  the  leaves. 

Though  by  a  drill-plough  ihc  feed  may  be  fown  of 
any  thickucf ,  the  t'afeit  way  ij  to  low  thick.  Tliin 
fowiiig  is  liable  to  many  accidents,  which  are  far  from 
being  counterbalanced  by  ihe  expence  that  is  faveaia 
thinning.  Thick-fowing  can  bear  the  ravage  of  the 
black  /ly,  andleavca  fulhcitiit  ctop  behind,  itisapro- 
tcttiou  againll  drought,  gives  the  i  L.iits  a  rapid  pro- 
grefs,  and  cllablilhcs  thtm  in  the  ground  before  it  is 
ncceiiary  to  thin  tiiem. 

The  (owing  turnip  broadcaft  is  uni vcrfal  in  England, 
and  common  in  Scotlawil,  tlioiigb  a  barbarous  practice. 
Thecniiucnt  advantage  of  turnip  is,  that  bclide  a  pro- 
fitable crop,  it  makes  a  moll  complete  fallow  ;  and  the 
latter  cannot  be  obtained  but  by  horfe-hoeing.  Upon 
that  account,  the  fowing  turnip  in  rows  at  three  feet 
dillanceis  recommended.  Wider  rows  anfwer  no  pro- 
fitable end,  (Iraiter  rows  attbrd  not  room  for  a  liurfe 
to  wulkin.  When  the  turnip  isaboutfour  inches  high, 
annual  weeds  will  appear.  Go  round  every  interval 
with  tlie  llightell  furrow  polhble,  at  the  ilillance  of 
two  inches  from  each  row,  moving  the  eartli  from  the 
rows  toward  the  middle  of  the  interval.  A  thin  plate 
of  iron  mull  be  fixed  on  the  left  tide  of  the  plough,  to 
prevent  the  earth  from  falling  back  and  burying  the 
turnip.  Next,  let  vvomen  be  employed  to  weed  the 
rows  with  their  fingers  ;  wliich  is  better,  and  cheaper 
done,  than  with  the  hand-hoe.  The  hind-hoe,  bc- 
fidc,isapt  to  dillu'-bthe  roots  of  the  turnip  th:itareto 
Aand,  and  to  leave  them  open  to  drought  by  removing 
the  earth  from  them.  The  (landing  turnip  arc  to  be 
at  the  diflance  of  twelve  inches  from  each  other  :  a 
greater  didance  makes  them  fwell  too  much  ;  a  Icfs  di- 
llanec  attbrds  them  not  fntficient  room.  A  woman 
foon  comes  to  be  expert  in  ringer-weeding.  The  fol- 
lowing hint  may  be  necelfary  to  a  learner.  To  Iccure 
the  turnip  that  is  to  (land,Ut  her  cover  it  with  the  left 
hand  ;  and  with  the  right  pull  up  the  turnip  on  both 
fides.  After  thus  freeing  the  HaniUiig  turnip,  (he  may 
fafcly  ufe  botli  hands.  Let  the  ncld  remain  in  this 
ftate  till  the  appearance  of  new  annuals  make  a  fecond 
ploughing  necclf.iry  ;  which  mult  be  in  the  fame  fur- 
row with  the  former,  but  a  little  deeper.  As  in  this 
ploughing  the  iron  plate  is  to  be  removed,  part  of  the 
loofe  earth  will  fall  back  on  the  roots  of  the  plants  : 
the  reft  will  till  the  middle  of  the  interval,  and  bury 
every  weed.  When  weeds  begin  again  to  appear,  then 
is  the  time  for  a  third  ploughing  in  an  oppufite  direc- 
tion, which  lays  the  earth  to  the  roots  of  the  plants. 
This  ploughing  may  be  about  the  middle  of  Augud  ; 
after  w  hich,  weeds  rife  very  faintly.  If  they  do  rife, 
anoiiier  ploughing  will  clear  the  ground  of  thcin. 
Weeds  that  at  this  tii>e  rife  in  the  row,  mavbe  cleared 
with  a  hand-lioe,  which  can  do  little  mifchief  among 
plants  dirtant  twelve  inches  from  each  other.  It  is  cer- 
tain, however,  that  it  may  be  done  cheaper  with  the 
hand  (a).  And  aftcrthc  leavesof  turnipsinarow'  meet 
Vol.  '. 


297 


together,  the  hand  is  the  only  infttuincat  thatcaK  l>«    iVa^iice. 

applied  for  weeding.  — >• 

In  fwampy  ground,  the  furface  of  which  is  bcft  re- 
duced by  paring  and  burning,  the  feed  may  be  fown 
in  rows  with  intervals  of  a  foot.  To  faveiimc,  adrill- 
plough  may  be  ufed  that  fows  three  or  four  rows  at 
once.  Hand-hociiig  is  proper  for  fuch  ground  ;  bc- 
caufe  the  foil  under  the  barm  Jlrafum  is  conur.ouiy  fail 
of  roots,  which  digell  and  rot  better  under  ground  tha» 
when  brought  to  the  furface  by  the  plough.  In  the 
mean  time,  while  thefe  arc  digtfting,  the  alucs  will  fe- 
cure  a  good  crop.  ,,, 

In  cultivating  turnips  to  advantage,  great  earc  Ihould  Proptrtio 
be  taken  to  procure  good,  bright,  nimble,  and  well- «'f '''"''"nt 
dried  feed,  and  of  the  bell  kinds.  ioiu.luii- 

Thc  Norfolk  farmers  generally  raifethc  oval  v/iiite,  '"''' 
the  large  green-topp'd,  and  me  red  or  purpLlopp'd 
kinds,  which  from  longcxpcrieiicc  they  have  found  to 
be  the  moll  proiitable. 

The  roots  of  the  green  topp'd  will  grow  to  a  hrore 
fize,  and  continue  good  much  longer  than  others.  The 
redor  purplc-topp'd  v.'ill  alio  grow  large,  and  co;!ttiiur 
good  to  the  beginning  of  f'ebruary;  but  the  ro.Jts  be- 
come hard  and  llringy  fooner  thau  the  (ormer. 

The  green-topp'd  growing  more  above  ground,  is  in 
more  dangeroffullaining  injury  from  feverc  frofts  than 
t  lie  red  or  purple,  wliich  arc  more  than  half  covered  by 
the  foil  ;  but  it  is  the  fofteftand  fwectcll,  when  grown 
large,  of  any  kind.  We  havefeentheni  brought  tota- 
ble  a  foot  in  diatnctcr,  and  equally  good  as  garden 
turnips. 

Turnips  delight  in  a  light  foil,  confifling  of  fanJ 
and  loam  mixed  ;  for  when  the  foil  is  rich  and  heavy, 
although  the  crop  maybe  as  great  in  weight,  they 
will  be  rank,  and  run  to  rtowcr  earlier  in  fpring. 

Turnip-feed,  like  that  of  grain,  will  not   do  well  obfcrva- 
without  frequent  changing.     The  Norfolk  feed  is  lent  tiuoswitk 
to  moft  parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  even  to  Ireland,  but  rc(;ard  t» 
after  two  years  it  degenerates,  Co  that  thotc  who  wilh  '^"'*- 
to  have  turnips  in  pcrfcdion  Ihould  procure  i:  frefn  c- 
vcry  year  from  Norwich,  and  they  will  find  their  ac- 
count in  fo  doing.      For  from  its  known  reputation, 
many  of   the  London  fecdmen  fell,  under  that  cha- 
rafter,  feed  railed  in  the  vicinity  of  the  metropolis, 
which  is  much  inferior  in  quality. 

When  the  plants  have  got  five  leaves,  they  Ihould  be 
hoed,  and  fet  out  at  lead  C\x  inches  apart.  A  month 
afterward,  or  earlier  if  it  be  a  wet  feafon,  a  fecond  hoe- 
ing (hould  take  place,  and  the  plants  be  left  at  lead  14 
inches  didant  from  each  other,  efpecially  if  intended 
for  feeding  cattle  ;  for  where  tlic  plants  are  left  thick- 
er, they  will  be  proportionably  finaller,  unlefs  the  land 
is  very  rich  indeed.  155 

Some  of  tjic  bed  Norfolk  fanners  fow  turnips  in  Methods  of 
drills  three  feet  afunder,  and  at  a  fecond  hoeing  leave  ^'"i"^?, '" 
them    a  foot  apart  in  the  rows.     By  this  me.ms  the    '"''*'''■ 
trouble  and  expencc  of  hoeing  is  much  lelfcped,  and 
the  c."op  of  equal  weight  as  when  fown  in  the  com- 
f  p  nion 


(a)  Children  under  thirteen  may  be  employed  to  weed  turnip  with  the  fingers.  We  have  feen  them  goon 
in  that  work  with  alacrity  ;  and  a  fuiall  premium  will  have  a  good  cffefl.  For  boys  and  j'jris  ab.ive  thirteen, 
a  hand-hoe  adapted  to  their  (ize  is  an  excellent  inilruincnt :  it  ftrengthens  the  arms  ama/.ing'v.  In  driving  the 
plough,  the  legs  only  are  exerciled  ;  but  as  the  arms  are  chiefly  employed  in  hiifbandry,  they  ought  to  be  pre- 
pared beforehand  by  gentle  cxcrcife. 


2tyS 


AGRICULTURE. 


Part  II. 


riadicc. 


156 
Value  as 
food  for 
cat  de- 


mon method.     The  intervals  may  eafily  be  cleared  ot" 
weeds  by  the  horlc-hoc. 

Great  (jiianiiiics  of  turnips  are  raifcd  in  Norfolk  c- 
very  year  for  feeding  black  cattle,  which  turn  to  great 
advantage.  ' 

It  is  well  known,  that  an  acre  of  land  contains  4840 
fquarc  yar«!s,  or  45,560  fqiiare  feet ;  fuppofe  then  that 
every  Ujuarc  foot  contains  one  turnip,  and  that  ihcy 
weigh  only  two  pounds  each  on  an  average,  here  will 
be  ainalsoffood  excellent  in  kind,  of  46  tons  per  acre, 
often  worth  from  four  to  five  guineas,  and  fomctiuies 
more. 

Extraordinary  corps  of  barley  frequently  fucceed 
turnips,  efpecially  when  fed  ofFthe  land.  In  feeding 
them  off,  the  catilc  fliould  not  be  fufFcrcd  to  run  over 
too  much  of  the  ground  at  once,  for  in  that  cafe  they 
will  trc:id  down  and  fpoil  twice  as  many  as  they  eat. 
In  Norfolk,  they  are  confined  by  hurdles  to  as  mucli 
as  is  fulUcient  for  them  for  one  day.  By  this  mode 
the  crop  is  eaten  clean,  thcfoil  equally  trodden,  which 
if  light,  isof  much  fervice,  and  equally  manured  by 
the  cattle. 

A  notion  prevails  in  many  places,  that  mutton  fat- 
tened with  turnips  is  tliereby  rendered  rank  and  ill- 
tafted  ;  but  this  is  a  vulgar  error.  The  bell  mutton 
in  Norfolk  (and  few  counties  have  better)  is  all  fed 
with  turnips.  It  is  rank  paJlures,  and  marfliy  lands,^ 
that  produce  rank  mutton. 

If  the  land  be  wet  and  fpringy,  the  beft  method  is 
to  draw  and  carry  off'your  turnips  to fomc  dry  palUires; 
for  the  treading  of  the  cattle  will  not  only  injure  the 
crop,  but  render  the  land  (o  fliff,  that  you  mull  be  at 
an  additional  expence  iu  ploughing. 

Toprcferve  turjiips  for  latcfpriug  feed,  the  beft  me- 
Mahod  "f  t]joj^  am]  which  has  been  tried  with  I'uccefs  by  (bme 
vrefcrving  ^^^j^^  ^^^^  Englifli  farmers,  is.  To  ftack  them  up  in 
dry  llraw ;  a  load  of  wliicli  is  fuflicient  to  preferve 
40  tons  of  turnips.     The  method  is  eafy,  and  as  fol- 
lows : — 

After  drawing  your  turnips  in  February,  cut  oft"  the 
tops  and  tap  roots,  (which  may  be  given  to  (lieep), 
and  let  tlieni  lay  a' few  days  in  the  iield,  as  no  wcail;cr 
will  then  hurt  them. 

Then,  on  a  layer  of  flraw  next  the  ground,  place  a 
layer  of  turnips  1  wo  feet  thick  ;  and  then  another  layer 
of  flraw,  and  fo  on  alternately,  till  you  have  brought 
the  heap  to  a  point.  Care  mufl  be  taken  to  turn  up 
the  edges  of  the  layers  of  ftraw,to  prevent  the  turnips 
from  rolling  out  ;  cover  the  top  well  with  long  ilraw, 
and  it  will  fervcas  a  thatch  for  the  whole. 
.  In  this  method,  as  the  llraw  imbibes  the  nioiftare 
exiialed  from  tlie  roots,  all  vegetation  will  be  prevent- 
ed, and  th.c  turnips  will  be  nearly  as  good  iu  May  as 
when  finl  drawn  from  the  field.  If  ftraw  be  fcarcc. 
Old  haulm  or  flulible  will  anfwer  the  fame  purpofe. 

But  to  prevent  this  trouble  and  expence,  perhaps 
farmers  in  all  countries  would  find  it  mofl  to  their  in- 
terdl  to  adopt  the  method  iifcd  by  the  Norfolk 
fanners,  which  is,  to  continue  fowing  turnips  to 
the  latter  end  of  Augufl;  by  w-hich  means  their  late 
crops  remain  good  in  the  iield  till  the  latter  end  of  A- 
jiril,  and  often  till  the  middle  of  May. 

The  advantagesof  having  turnips  good  till  the  fpring 
feed  is  generally  ready,  are  fo  obvious  and  fo  great, 
ibat  many  of  the  moH  intelligent  farmers  (although  at 


157 


turnips. 


(irll  prejudiced  againll  the  pradice)  arc  now  come  into    I'riaica* 
it,  and  find  their  account  in  fo  doing.  *^~y~~' 

2.  Potatoes. 

The  choice  of  foil  is  not  of  greater  importance  in  Genrral 
any  other  plant  than  in  a  potatoe.  This  plant  in  clay  culture, 
foil,  or  in  rank  black  loam  lying  low  without  ventila- 
tion, never  makes  palatable  food,  in  a  gravelly  or 
fandy  foil,  expolcd  to  the  fun  and  to  free  air,  it  thrives 
to  perfection,  and  has  a  good  relilh.  But  a  rank  black 
loam,  though  improper  tu  raifc  potatoes  lor  the  table, 
produces  them  in  great  plenty  ;  and  the  producl  is,  as 
already  obfervcd,  a  palatable  food  for  horiied  cattle, 
hogs,  and  poultry. 

The  fpade  is  a  proper  inflrumcnt  for  railing  a  finall 
quantity,  or  for  preparing  corners  or  oilier  places  inac- 
celfible  to  the  plough  ;  but  for  railing  potatoes  in  quan- 
tities, the  plough  is  the  only  inltrument. 

As  two  great  advantages  of  a  drilled  crop  are,  to 
dcllroy  weeds,  and  to  have  a  fallow  at  the  fame  time 
with  the  crop,  nojudicious  farmer  will  think  of  railing 
potatoes  in  any  other  way.  in  Scptcm.bcr  or  October, 
as  foon  as  that  year's  crop  is  removed,  let  the  field  have 
a  rouling  furrow,  a  crofs-breaking  next,  and  then  be 
cleared  of  weeds  by  the  cleaning  harrow.  Form  it  into 
three-feet  ridges,  in  that  Hate  to  lie  till  April,  which 
is  the  proper  time  for  planting  potatoes.  Crofs-brake 
it,  to  raifc  the  furrows  alitile.  Then  lay  well-digc(>ed 
horfe-dung  along  the  furrows,  upon  which  lay  the  roois 
at  eight  inches  diilance.  Cover  up  the  roots  with  the 
plough,  going  once  round  every  row.  This  makes  a 
warm  bed  for  the  potatoes;  hot  dung  below,  and  a  loofe 
covering  above,  that  admits  every  ray  of  the  fun.  As 
foon  as  the  plants  appear  above  ground,  go  round  every 
rowa  fccond  time  with  the  plough,  which  Mill  lay  up- 
on the  plants  an  additional  inch  or  two  of  niduld,  and 
ai  the  fame  time  bury  all  the  annuals ;  and  this  will 
complete  the  ploughing  of  t!ie  ridges.  When  the  po- 
tatoesarelix  inches  higli,  the  plough,  with  the  dccpefl 
furrow  mufl  go  twice  along  the  middle  of  each  inter- 
val in  oppofitcdireclions,  laying  earth  firil  to  one  row, 
and  next  to  the  other.  And  to  perform  this  work,  a 
plough  wilh  a  double  mould- board  will  be  more  expe- 
ditious. But  as  the  earth  cannot  be  laid  clofe  to  the 
roots  by  the  plough,  the  fpade  mull  fiiccccd,  with 
wliich  tour  inches  of  the  plants  mull  be  covered,  lea- 
ving little  more  but  the  tops  above  ground  ;  and  this 
operation  will  at  the  fame  time  bury  all  the  weeds  that 
have  fprung  fince  the  former  ploughing.  Wliat  weeds 
aril'e  after  mull  be  pulled  up  with  the  hand.  A  hoe 
is  never  to  be  ufed  jiere  :  it  cannot  go  fo  deep  as  to 
dellroy  the  weeds  wiihout  cutting  the  fibres  of  the 
plants;  and  if  itfkim  the  fmiace,  it  only  cuts  off  the 
heads  of  the  weeds,  and  does  iiotprevent  their  pulliing 
again.  159 

In  the  Bath  Society  Paper'^,  vie  have  the  following  particular 
praftieal  obfcrvations  on  the  culture  and  ufe  of  poia- "'^''^'"**> 
toc.«,  given  as  the  rifult  of  various  experinienis  made 
for  five  years  fucccffively  oji  that  valuable   root,    the 
growth  of  which  caniuit  be  too  much  encouraged. 

When  the  potatoe  crop  has  been  the  only  objeiEl  in 
view,  the  following  method  is  the  mod  1  li^iblc. 

The  land  being  weli  pulverized  by  two  or  tlireegood 
harrowingsand  ploughings,  is  then  manured  with  15 
or  20  cart-loads  of  dung  per  acre,  before  it  receives  its 

lail 


Part  ir. 


AGRICULTURE. 


Pricflicc.    lafteanl).     Then  it  is  thrown  on  to  what  the  Suffolk 

" « '  fanners  call  the  Tm/.c/i  !'a/k,\\hichis  narrow  and  dtxp 

ridj^c-worli,  about  15  inclus  from  the  centre  of  one 
riii'^c  to  the  centre  ot  the  oilier.  VV'omcn  and  children 
drop  the  fets  in  the  bottom  of  every  furrow  15  inches 
apart  ;  men  follow,  and  cover  ti:cm  with  large  hoes,  a 
foot  in  widih,  pulling  the  mould  down  fo  as  to  bury 
the  lets  live  inches  deep;  llicy  mull  receive  two  or  three 
h.uid-hoeinjjs,  and  be  kept  free  from  weeds;  always 
obfci  ving  todraw  the  earth  as  much  as  pofilble  to  the 
ftems  of  tiie  young  plants.  By  repeated  trials,  thefirll 
or  fecond  week  in  April  is  found  the  moll  advanta- 
geous time  for  plaining. 

In  the  end  of  September  or  the  beginning  of  Oi^o- 
ber,  whenthehaulm  l)ecomcs  withered,  they  Ihould  be 
ploughed  up  with  a  llroiig  double  brcaticd-plough. 
The  workman  mult  be  cautioned  to  fet  his  plough  very 
deep,  that  he  may  ftrike  below  all  the  potatoes,  toa- 
void  damaging  the  crop.  The  women  whopick  tliem 
lip,  if  not  carefully  attended  to,  will  leave  many  in  the 
ground,  which  will  prove  detrimcnt.d  to  any  fucceed- 
ing  corn,  whether  wheat  or  barley.  To  avoid  which 
inconvenience,  let  the  land  be  harrowed,  and  turn  the 
fwine  in  to  glean  the  few  that  may  be  left  by  their  ne- 
gligence. 

By  this  method,  the  fets  will  be  15  fquare  inches 
from  each  other  ;  it  will  lake  18  builiels  10  plant  an 
acre  ;  and  the  produce,  if  on  a  good  mixed  loamy  foil. 
Will  amount  to  300  bulhels. 

If  the  potatoes  are  grown  as  a  preparation  for  wheat, 
it  is  preferable  to  have  the  rows  iwo  feet  two  in- 
ches from  each  other;  hand-hotingonly  the  fpace  from 
plant  10  plant  in  each  row;  then  turning  a  fuiall  fur- 
row from  the  infide  of  each  row  by  a  common  light 
plough,  and  afterwards  with  a  doublc-brealled  plough 
with  one  horfe,  fplit  the  ridge  formed  by  the  fiift 
ploughing  thoroughly  to  clean  the  intervals.  This 
work  Ihould  not  be  done  too  deep  thefirft  time,  to  a- 
void  burying  the  tender  plants,  but  the  lafl:  earth  lliould 
be  ploughed  as  deep  a  polfible  ;  and  the  clofer  the 
mould  is  thrown  to  the  llems  of  tht-  planis,  the  more 
advantageonsit  will  prove.  Thus  15  bulhels  will  plant 
an  acre,  and  the  produce  will  be  about  300  bulncis  ; 
but  the  land,  by  the  funinier  ploiighings,  will  be  pre- 
pared to  receive  feed- wheat  immediately,  and  almoil 
160  enfure  a  plentiful  crop. 
Toprevent  Thepotato-fets  Ihould  be  cut  a  week  before  plant- 
ing, wit!)  one  or  two  eyes  to' each,  and  ihc  pieces  not 
very  fmall  ;  two  bufiiels  ot  frelh  llackcd  lime  llionid  be 
fown  over  the  furface  of  the  land  as  foon  as  planted, 
wRich  will  eftlftually  prevent  the  attacks  of  the  grub. 

The  expencc  attcndingan  acre  of  potatoes  well  cul- 
tivated in  the  firft  method,  fuppoling  the  rent  20  Ihil- 
lings,  lithe  and  town  charges  rather  high  (as  in  Suf- 
folk), taking  up,  and  every  thing  included,  will  be  a- 
bout  lixponuds.  In  thclaftinethod,  it  would  be  fome- 
what  reduced. 

"  When  predilections  for  old  cuftoms  are  fubducd 
(adds  the  author),  I  hope  to  fee  the  potato  admitted  in 
the  conflant  coiiife  of  crops  by  every  fpiritrd  hulband- 
nian.  The  moll  beneficial  effecls  will,  I  am  certain, 
acciuc  from  fuch  a  fyllcm.  The  advantages  in  my 
neighbourhood  arc  apparent ;  I  cultivated  and  fed  my 
own  children  upon  them,  and  my  poorer  neighbours 
feniibly  followed  the  example.     A  great  proportion  of 


299 


the  grub. 


c\ry  cottager's  garden  is  now  occupied  by  this  root,    rnStice. 

and  it  forms  a  principal  part  of  their  diet.     Potatoes  "^      "^ ' 

are  cheap  and  excellent  fubftitutes  for  peafc  in  foaps 
and  broths,  allowing  double  the  quantity.  i6r 

"  Although  it  is  nearly  a  tranfcript  of  the  direc-  A  cht-ap 
tions  given  by  a  very  ingenious  author,  yet  I  Ihall  take  pr.-T"''";- 
ihc  liberty  of  inferting  a  receipt  for  making  a  potato-  ""     ''     * 
foup,  which  I  have  weekly  diflributcd  amongft  the  ''"*"' 
poor  to  their  great  relief. 

/.    d. 
2 
o 


An  ox's  head 

Two  pecks  of  potatoes 


Quarter  of  a  peck  of  onions 
Three  quarters  of  a  po'ind  of  fait 
An  ounce  and  a  half  of  pepper 


o 
o 
o 


Total  5  to 
Ninety  pints  of  water  to  be  boiled  with  the  above  in- 
gredients on  a  flow  fire  until  reduced  to  60,  which  re- 
quire one  peck  of  coals,  value  threepence.  I  have  ad- 
ded the  cxptnce  of  every  article  according  to  their 
prices  with  me,  that  gcnrlemcn  may  nearly  perceive  at 
how  eafy  a  rate  they  can  feed  60  of  their  poor  i'.eigh- 
bours.  I  find  from  experience,  a  pint  of  this  foup, 
with  a  fmall  piece  of  the  meat,  is  fufiicicnt  to  fatisfy  a 
hearty  working  man  with  a  good  meal.  If  vegetables 
are  plentiful,  fome  of  every  fort  may  be  added,  with 
a  fcv.-  fwect  herbs. 

"  I  hope  my  inferting  the  above,  will  not  be  efteem- 
ed  improper  ;  though  fomewhat  deviating  from  the 
culture  of  potatoes,  it  may  polfibly  be  a  means  of  ren- 
dering them  more  cxtenlivcly  ufcful." 

A  premium  having  been  offered  by  the  abovcmen- 
tioned  Society  for  the  cultivation  of  potatoes  by  far- 
mers, &c.  whofe  rent  does  not  exceed  40I.  per  annum, 
the  following  methods  were  communicated,  by  which' 
thofe  who  have  only  a  fmall  fpot  of  ground  may  obtain 
a  plentiful  crop.  j^^ 

Kirft,  then,  ihe  earth  Ilionld  be  dug  12  inches  deep,  Mcthodsof 
if  the  f)il  will  allow  of  it ;   after  this,  a  hole  fhould  be  cultivating 
opened  about  fix  inches  deep,  horfe-duug,  or  long  lit-  r"tato<rs  o» 
rcr  Ihould  be  put  therein  aliout   three  inches  thick  ;  f""*"  ^1'°"- 
this  hole  iho.ild  not  be  more  than  t2  inches  in  diame- 
ter ;   upon  this  dung  or  litter,  a  potato  Ihould  be  plant- 
ed whole,  upon  which  a  little  ir.orc  dung  Ihould   be 
fliook,  and  then  earth  mud  be  put  thereon.     In  like 
manner  the  whole  plot  of  ground  ninft  be  planted,  ta- 
king care  that  each  potato  be  at  Icafl  16  inches  apart  ; 
.and  when  the  young  flioots  make  I  heir  appearance,  they 
Ihould  have  frefh  mould  drawn  round  them  with  a  hoc  ; 
and  if  the  tender  flioots  arc  covered,  it  will  prevent  the 
frofl  from  injtiring  them  :  they  Ihould  again  be  earthed 
when  the  Ihoots  make  a  fecond  appearance,  but  not  be 
covered,  as  in  all  probability  the  feafon  will  then  bclcfs 
fcverc.     A  plentiful  fupply  of  mould  Ihould  be  given  j 

them,  and  thcperfon  who  performs  this  bufinefs  Ihould 
never  tread  tipontlie  phnt,or  the  hillock  that  is  railed 
round  it;  as  the  lighter  the  earth  is,  the  more  room 
the  potato  will  havt  to  expand.  From  a  finnle 
root  thus  planted,  very  near  /\o  pou nds  weight  of  Liri^e 
potatoes  were  obtained,  and  from  almoft  every  other 
root  upon  the  fame  plot  of  ground  from  ij  to  20 
pounds  weight  ;  and  except  the  foil  be  lloncy  or 
gravelly,  10  pounds  or  half  a  peck  of  potatoes  m.iv  al- 
moft  always  be  obtained  from  each  root,  by  purfuing 
P  p  2  the 


30O 

Praai«. 

Mithods 
of  iTulturc 
adapted  to 
finaU 


AGRICULTURE. 


Part  II. 


the  foregoing  iv.cthod.     But  note,  cuttings  or  finall 
lets  will  iiuti;o  tor  this  jniri'olc. 

The  fcconJ  iiuihoil  wiil  l\iit  the  indolent,  ortliofc 
\\l)o  have  not  time  to  dig  their  ground,  and  that  is, 
where  weeds  much  ahoimd  and  have  not  been  cleared 
ia  the  winter, a  ircnch  may  be  oj'cned  in  a  llraight  line 
the  whole  length  ol'ihc  ground,  and  about  lix  inches 
deep  ;  in  this  trench  the  potatoes  (I'.uuld  be  planted  a- 
b.)ut  lo  inches  apart  ;  cuttings  or  linall  potatoes 
V.  ill  flo  Jor  this  method.  When  they  are  laid  in  the 
trench,  the  weeds  that  arc  on  the  furtacc  may  be  pared 
ofFori  each  fide  about  lo  inches  from  it,  and  be  turned 
upon  the  plants  ;  another  trench  lliould  then  be  dug, 
and  the  mould  tliat  comes  out  of  it  turned  carefully  on 
the  weeds.  It  muft  not  be  forgot,  that  each  trench 
iliould  be  regularly  dug,  that  the  potatoes  may  be 
throughout  the  plot  to  or  12  inches  from  each  other. 
'i'hisUovcnly  method  will  in  general  raife  more  pota- 
toes than  can  be  produced  by  digging  the  ground  twice, 
and  dibbling  in  the  plants  ;  and  the  reafon  is,  that  the 
weeds  lighten  the  foil,  and  give  the  roots  room  to  ex- 
pand. '1  hey  lliould  be  twice  hoed,  and  earthed  up  in 
rows.  And  here  note,  that  if  cut  potatoes  are  to  be 
planted, every  cutting  Ihould  have  two  eyes,  for  1  hough 
fewer  fcts  \\  ill  be  obtained,  there  w  ill  be  a  greater  cer- 
tainty of  a  crop,  as  one  eye  often  fails  or  is  dcllroyed 
by  grubs  in  the  earth. 

Where  a  crop  of  potatoes  fail  in  part  (as  will  fome- 
times  be  the  cafe  in  a  dry  fealon),  amends  may  flill  be 
made  by  laying  a  little  dung  upon  the  knots  of  the 
rtraw  or  haulm  of  thofe  potatoes  that  do  appear,  and 
covering  them  with  moidd  ;  each  knotor  joint  thus  or- 
dered will,  if  the  weather  prove  wet  afterwards,  pro- 
duce more  potat:jcs  than  the  original  roots. 

From  the  fmallell potatoes  planted  whole,  from  four 
10  fix  pounds  at  a  root  were  obtained,  iiid  f>me  of  the 
Jingle  potatoes  weighed  ne^r  two  pounds.  Thefe  were 
dug  in  as  before-mentioned,  in  trenches  where  the 
ground  wss  covered,  with  weeds,  aud  the  foil  was  a 
lliff loamy  clay. 

A  good  crop  may  be  obtained  by  laying  potatoes 
upon  turf  at  about  12  or  14  inches  apart,  and  upon 
beds  of  about  lix  feet  wide  ;  on  each  fide  of  which  a 
trench  (hould  be  opened  about  three  feet  wide,  and  the 
inrf  that  comes  from  thence  Ihonld  be  laid  with  the 
grairy  fide  downv/ards  upon  the  potatoes  ;  a  fpit  of 
!iiould  lliould  next  be  taken  from  the  trenches,  and  be 
fpread  over  ihc  turf;  aud  in  like  manner  the  whole  plot 
*f  ground  that  is  dcfigned  to  be  planted  muft  be  treat- 
ed. And  remark,  that  when  the  young  flioots appear, 
ar.otber  fpit  of  mould  from  the  trenches  lliould  be 
ftrev.-ed  over  the  beds  fo  as  to  cover  the  flioots  ;  this 
will  prevent  the  froll  from  injuiing  them,  encourage 
them  to  expand,  and  totally  deflroy  the  young  weeds  ; 
and  when  the  potatoes  arc  taken  up  in  the  autumn,  a 
careful  perfon  may  turn  the  earth  again  into  thetrcn- 
<!hes,  fo  as  to  .Tiake  the  furface  level  ;  and  it  will  be 
right  to  remark,  that  from  the  fame  ground  a  much 
better  crop  of  potatoes  may  be  obtained  the  following 
year. 

For  field  planting,  a  good  (if  not  the  bell)  method 
is  to  dung  the  land,  which  ihould  be  once  ploughed 
previous  thereto  ;  and  w'hen  it  is  ploughed  a  fecond 
lime,  a  careful  perfon  lliould  drop  the  potato  plants  be- 
fore the  plough  in  every  third  furrow  at  about  eight  or 


ten  inches  apart.  Plants  thatare  cut  with  twocycsarc  Praiftict. 
bell  lor  thispurpofc.  '1  he  reafon  forplanting  them  at  fo  »— v— ' 
greatadiltancc  as  every  third  furrow,  is, that  when  the 
Ihoots  appear,  a  Ihorle-hoe  may  go  upon  the  two  va- 
cant furrows  to  keep  them  clean  ;  and  after  they  are 
thus  hoed,  they  flioulu  be  moulded  u])  in  ridgts  ;  and 
if  this  crop  be  taken  up  ab  ut  October  or  November, 
the  land  w  ill  be  in  excellent  condition  to  receive  acrop 
of  wheal.  Lands  that  are  full  of  twitch  or  couch-grafs 
may  be  made  clean  by  this  method  as  the  horfe-hoting 
is  as  good  as  a  fumnicr-fallow  ;  and  if,  when  the  pota- 
toes are  taken  up,  women  and  cliildren  were  to  pick 
out  fuch  iilth,  not  any  traces  of  it  would  remain  ;  and 
by  laying  it  on  heaps  and  burning  it,  a  quantity  of 
alhcs  would  be  produced  for  manure. 

After  ploughing, none  lliould  ever  dibble  in  pot.atoes, 
as  the  pcrfons  who  dibble,  plant,  or  hoe  them,  will  all 
tread  the  ground;  by  which  means  it  will  become  {o 
bound,  that  the  young  hbres  cannot  cxpaiid,  as  has 
been  already  obfcrveil..  ,^ood  crops  have  indeed  been 
obtained  by  ploughing  the  land  twice,  and  dropping 
the  plants  in  every  other  furrow,  and  by  hand- hoeing 
and  earthing  them  up  afterwards  as  the  gardeners  do 
peafe  ;   but  this  method  is  notequai  to  the  other. 

Vacant  places  in  hedge-rows  iTiij,htbe  grubbed  and 
planted  with  potatoei,  .uid  a  good  crop  might  be  ex- 
peClcd,  as  the  leaves  of  trees,  thorns,  &c.  are  a  good 
manure,  and  will  lurprillngly  encourage  their  growth, 
and  gratify  the  willies  of  the-planter  ;  who  by  culliva- 
tingfuch  places,  will  then  make  ihe  mollof  hisground, 
and  it  will  be  in  fine  order  to  receive  a  crop  of  corn 
the  following  year. 

j^couiit  of  the  culture,  expencei,  and  produce  offx  acres  M.,h„d  of 
of  potatoes,  be'ii.g  a  jair  part  of  near  70  acrci,  raifed  cuiiurc.&c 
by  Jukii  BiUtugfl.y,  F.lq  ;  and  for  which  the  pretniutii  for^^hicha 
ivas  granted  him  in  the  year  1 784. 

Exp  e  nc  e  s.  L.  s.  d. 

Ploughing  on  oat-flubble  in  Ot'iober  1 78;,  at 

4s.  per  acre  ...  .  14 

Crofs-ploughing  in  March  i'784  -         14 

Harrowing,  2S.  per  acre  -  -  012 

180  cart-loads  of  comport,  :1.  per  acre         t8     o 
42  facksof  feed-potatoes  (each  fack  w^eigli- 

ing  2401b.)  of  the  white  fort 
Cutting  the  fets,  6d.  per  fack 
Setting  on  ridges  eight  feet  wide  (leaving 

an  iiuerval  of  two  feet  for  an  alley)   6d. 

for  every  20  yards.  10 

Kocing,  at  5s.  per  acre  1 

Digging  up    ilie    two   feet  ^Bterval,  and 

throwing  the  earth  on  the  plants,  at  10s. 

per  acre         -  -  -  -     3 

Digging  up  the  crop,  at  8d.  for  every  20 

yards  in  Jength,  the  breadth  being  8  feet 
Labour  and  expcnce  of  fecuring  in  pits, 

wear  and  tear  of  ba/kets,  flraw,  reed, 

fpikes,  &c.  los.  per  acre 
Rent  .  .  .  - 

Tithe  .  .  .  - 


premium 
was  graDt- 
ed. 


10   10 

I     1 


12 
10 


14     6 


Profit 


72  9 

73  II 


o 

o 
o 

o 
o 


L.146    o    o 
P  «  o 


Part  II 

Vn<3ice. 


A     G     R     I     C     U     L     T     U     R     E. 


L. 

s. 

6. 

1 20 

0 

0 

21 

0 

0 

5 

0 

0 

165 

Beft  mc- 
»hod  of  ta- 
king them 
•p. 


166 
Of  prefer- 
ring tlicm. 


Produck. 
6co  facks  of  bcrt  potatoes  at  4s. 
iro  facks  niiJdlc-lizcd,  3s.  66. 
JO  of  fnrall,  2S. 

N.  B.  Each  fack  240  ib. 

I,.   146     o     o 

The  field  on  whicli  the  above  cxpcri  11, en  t  was  made, 
was  ?.n  oai-UublJe  in  the  autunu  of  1783.  la  Octo- 
ber it  was  ploughed,  and  left  in  a  rough  liatc  during 
the  V.  inter.  In  April  it  was  crofs-ploughed  and  har- 
rowed. On  the  8th  cf  May  the  field  \\as  marked  out 
into  beds  or  ridges  ciglit  feet  wide,  leasii.ga  fpacc  of 
two  feet  wide  lor  an  alley  between  every  two  ridges. 
The  manure  (a  compoft  of  liable  dung,  virgin  earth, 
and  fcrapings  of  a  turnpike  road)  wastiien  broughton 
the  land  and  dcpoliteti  in  fmall  heaps  on  the  centre  of 
each  ridge,  in  tbcpropoi  tion  of  ab^«ut  3ocart-lo3wS  to 
e:ich  acre.  A  trench  was  then  opened  wjtli  a  fpa'^e 
breadth-way  of  the  ridge,  about  four  inches  deep  ;  in 
this  trench  the  potato-fets  were  placed,  at  tiie  diuancc 
of  nine  inches  from  each  other  j  the  dung  was  then 
fpread  in  a  trench  on  ibc  fets,  ard  a  fpacc  or  j  lit  cf 
14  inches  in  breadth,  dug  in  upon  them.  When  the 
plants  wcrcatjout  lix  inches  high,  they  were  carefully 
hoed,  and  foon  after  tlic  two  feet  intervals  between 
the  ridges  were  dug,  and  the  contents  tiirown  around 
the  young  plants.  This  refreiliment,  added  to  liic 
ample  manuring  privoully  bellowed,  produced  fuch  a 
luxuriance  ann  rapidity  of  growth,  that  no  \\  ted  could 
fliow  its  head. 

the  Ihortcft  and  moft  certain  method  of  taking  up 
potatoes,  is  to  plough  once  round  every  row  at  the  di- 
ilance  of  four  inches^  removing  the  earth  from  the 
plants,  and  gathering  up  witii  the  liand  all  the  potatoes 
ihatappcar.  The  diitance  is  mace  fourinches,  to  pre- 
vent cutting  the  roots,  which  are  feldom  found  above 
that  diftance  from  the  row  on  each  Jidc.  When  the 
ground  is  thus  cleared  by  the  plough,  raife  the  pota- 
toes with  a  fork  having  three  broad  toes  or  claws ; 
which  ii'  better  tlian  a  fpade,  as  it  docs  not  cut  the  po- 
tatoes. The  potatoes  thus  laid  above  ground  mull  be 
gathered  with  the  hand.  By  this  method  fcarcc  a  po- 
tato will  be  lei"t. 

As  potatoes  are  a  comfortable  food  for  the  poor  peo- 
ple, it  is  of  i;Dportance  to  have  them  all  the  year  round. 
For  a  long  time,  potatoes  in  Scotland  were  confined  to 
the  kitchen-garden  ;  and  after  they  were  planted  in 
tiie  field,  it  wrs  not  iinagincd  at  tirll  that  thiy  could 
be  ufed  after  the  rr.onih  of  December.  Of  laie  years 
they  have  been  found  toanfwer  even  till  April ;  which 
has  proved  a  great  fupport  to  many  a  poor  family,  as 
they  arc  eafily  coo!;eii,  and  require  neither  kiln  nor 
mill.  But  there  is  no  caufc  for  (lopping  there.  It  is 
cafy  to  pre ferve  them  till  the  next  crop:  Whcnt.Tkcu 
out  of  the  ground,  lay  in  the  ccrnerofa  b.irnaquan- 
tity  that  may  fervc  till  .April,  covered  from  froil  with 
dry  draw  prclfed  down  :  bury  ihc  remainder  in  a  hole 
dug  indry  ground,  mixed  with  the  hufksof  dried  cits, 
fand,  or  the  dry  leaves  of  trees,  over  which  b-.:ild  a 
ftack  of  liay  or  corn.  \\  hen  the  pit  is  opened  for 
taking  out  the  potatoes,  the  eyes  of  what  h.ive  a  ten- 
dency to  puQi  mud  be  cut  out  ;  and  this  cargo  will 
I'ervcallthc  month  of  June.  To  be  Hill  more  certain 
of  making  the  old  crop  meet  the  new,  the  fcttingof  a 
Iraall  q^uantiiy  may  be  delayed  till  June,  to  be  taken 


up  at  the  ordinary  time  before  froft.  This  cargo,  ha- 
ving not  arrived  to  full  growth,  will  not  be  forcaayto 
pulh  as  w  hat  are  fct  in  April. 

If  the  old  crop  happen  to  be  exhaulled  before  the  ncvr 
crop  is  ready,  the  interval  may  be  fupplicd  by  the  po- 
tatoes of  the  new  crop  that  lie  next  the  furface,  to  be 
picked  up  v\  ith  the  hand  ;  which,  f»r  from  hurting  ihc 
crop,  will  rather  improve  it. 

3.   Carrot    and  Pajnip. 

167 

Of  all  roots,  acaiTot  requires  the  dccpeft  foil.  It  Cuhuxe  of 
ought  ut  leall  to  be  a  foot  deep,  all  equally  good  from  earrot. 
top  to  bottom.  If  fuch  a  fuil  be  not  in  the  farm,  k 
may  be  made  artificially  by  trench-ploughing,  whicb 
biings  to  the  furface  what  never  had  any  communica- 
tion with  the  fun  or  air.  W  hen  this  new  foil  is  fuffi- 
cicntly  improved  by  a  crop  or  two  with  duug,  it  is  fit 
for  bearing  carrots.  Beware  of  dunging  the  year  when 
the  carrots  arc  fown  ;  for  w  ith  freth  dung  they  feldom 
cfcapc  rotten  fcabs. 

'i  he  only  foils  properfor  that  root,  arc  a  loam  and  a 
fandyfoil. 

The  ground  niuft  be  prepared  by  the  deepen  furrow 
that  can  be  taken,  the  fooncr after  harvcd  the  better  ; 
immediately  upon  the  back  of  which,  a  ribbing  ought 
tofucceed,asdirefted  for  barley.  At  theendof /vlarch, 
or  beginning  of  April, whi.h  is  the  time  for  lowing  the 
feed,  the  ground  muft  be  fnioothcd  with  a  brake.  Sow 
the  feed  in  drills,  with  intervals  of  a  foot  for  hand- 
hoeing  ;  which  is  no  cxpenfive  operation  where  tht 
crop  is  coniincd  loan  acre  or  two:  but  if  the  quantity 
of  ground  be  greater,  the  intervals  ought  to  be  three 
feet,  in  order  for  horfc-hoeing. 

In  llat  ground  without  ridgcs,  it  may  be  proper  ta 
make  parallel  furrows  with  the  plough,  ten  feet  from, 
each  other,  in  order  to  carry  off  any  redundant  moi- 
llure. 

At  Parlington  in  YorkQiire,  from  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember to  the  tirll  of  May,  20  work-horfes,  four  bul- 
locks, and  lix  milk-cows,  were  fed  on  the  carrots  that 
grew  on  three  acres  ;  and  tUefc  animals  never  tailed 
any  other  food  but  a  little  hay.  The  milk  was  excel- 
lent :  and,  over  ;nd  above,  30  hogs  were  fattened  upon 
what  was  left  by  the  other  bealls.  VVc  have  this  fact 
from  undoubted  authority.  jjg 

The  culture  of  parfnips  is  the  fame  with  that  ofParO.ip*. 
carrots. 

III.  Plants  cultivated  for  Leaves,  or  for  both  Leaves 

and  Koot. 

There  are  many  garden- plants  oft  hefe  kinds.  The 
plants  proper  for  the  tield  .-ire  cabbage,  red  and  white, 
colewort  plain  and  carled,  lurnip-rooicd  cabbage,  and 
ihc  root  of  fcarcity. 

t.  Cabbage  is  an  interellinganicle  in  hufbandry.  It 
is  eaiily  railed,  is  fiibjed  to  few  difcafes,  rclills  froft 
more  thin  turnip,  ispalatablc  to  cattle,  and  fooner  dlls 
them  than  turnip,  carrot,  or  potatoes.  j^^ 

1  he  fe.ifon  for  fctiing  cablujc  depends  on  the  ufc  Culture  of 
it  is  inte:ided  for.     If  intended  for  feeding  in  Noveni-  "l>l»ge. 
l>cr,   December,   and  January,  plants  procured  from 
feed  fown  the  end  of  July  the  preceding  year  mull  be 
fct   in  March  or  April.     If  intended  tor  fcciiing  in 
March,  April,  and  M^y,  the  plants  mall  be  let  the  tirll 

week. 


302 


V-T 


R     I    C    U 


TURK. 


Part  11. 


Pra,;lice.  wf  ckof  the  preceding  July,  from  feed  fown  i;i  the  end  of 
"^  "  Ktbniaiy  or  begimiiiigot. March  liit  l;'.ii\c  year.  The 
late  reitiiig  or  tlie  j'lants  retards  their  growth  ;  by 
which  means  they  have  a  vigorous  growth  the  toUow- 
ing  fjuiiiir.  And  tliis  crop  makes  an  important  link 
in  the  chain  that  connects  winter  and  liinniier  green 
food.  Where  cabbajjc  tor  fpriiig-t'ood  happens  tube 
ncglefted,  a  few  acre  s  ol  rye,  fown  at  Micliaelmas,  will 
fupply  the  want.  After  the  rye  is  confunied,  there  is 
lime  fnfficjeucto  prepare  the  ground  for  turnip. 

And  now  to  prep.ire  a  tield  for  cabbage.  Where 
the  plants  arc  to  be  fct  in  March,  the  tield  mult  be 
made  up  after  Iiarvelt,  in  ridges  three  feet  wide.  In 
that  form  let  it  lie  all  winter,  to  be  mellowed  \\  ith  air 
and  frolt.  In  March,  take  the  hrll  opportunity,  be- 
tween wet  and  dry,  to  lay  dung  in  the  furrow  s.  Cover 
the  dung  with  a  plough,' which  will  convert  the  furrow 
into  a  crov,  n,  and  confeiiuently  the  crown  into  a  fur- 
row. Set  the  plants  upon  the  dung,  diflant  from  each 
other  three  iVj-.  Plant  them  fo  as  to  make  a  (Iraight 
line  acrofs  the  ridges,  as  well  as  along  the  furrows,  to 
which  a  gardener's  line  llretched  perpendicularly 
acrofs  the  furrows  will  be  requifite.  This  will  fct  each 
plant  at  the  dillance  precifely  of  three  feet  from  the 
plants  that  furround  it.  The  purpofcof  this  accuracy 
is  to  give  opportunity  for  ploughing,  not  only  along 
the  ridges,  but  crofs  them.  This  mode  is  attended 
with  three  fignal  advantages  :  it  faves  hand-hoeing,  it 
is  a  more  complete  drel'.ing  to  the  foil,  and  it  lays 
earth  neatly  round  every  plant. 

If  the  foil  be  deep  and  compofed  of  good  earth,  a 
trench  ploughing  after  the  preceding  crop  will  not  be 
amifs  ;  in  which  cafe,  the  time  for  dividing  the  field 
in  to  three-feet  ridges,  as  above,  ought  tobe  immedi- 
ately before  the  dunging  for  the  plants. 

If  weeds  happen  to  rife  fo  clofc  to  the  plants  as  not 
to  be  reached  by  the  plough,  it  will  require  very  little 
labour  to  deflroy  them  with  a  hand-hoe. 

L'nlcfsthe  foil  be  much  infefted  with  annuals,  twice 
ploughing  after  the  plants  are  fet  will  be  a  fufficicnt 
drclling.  The  tirfl  removes  the  earth  from  the  plants  ; 
the  next,  at  thediltance  of  a  month  or  fo,  lays  it  back. 

Where  the  plants  are  to  be  fct  in  July,    the  field 
mud  be   ribbed  as  directed    for  barley.     It  ought  to 
have  a  flight  ploughing  in  June  before  the  planting,  in 
order  to  loofcn  the  foil,  but  not  fo  as  to  bury  the  iur- 
face-earth  ;  after  which  the  three-feet  ridges  nuifl  be 
formed,  and  the  other  particulars  carried  on  as  direct- 
ed above  with  refped  to  plants  that  are  to  be  fct  in 
ijo       March. 
Cultivation      2.  As  to  thct!iiiji/--root.'d  cabbages,  their  importance 
of  the  tur-  and  value  feem  only  to  have  been  lately  afccnained. 
nip  rooted   In  the  Bath  Society  Papers  we  have  the  following  ac- 
cabb.iges.    count  of  Sir  Thomas  Beevor's  method  of  cultivating 
them  ;  which  from  experience  he  found  to  be"  cheaper 
and  better  than  any  other. 

"  In  the  fiifl  or  fecond  week  of  June,  I  few  the 
fame  quantity  o(  feed,  hoe  the  plants  at  the  fame  lize, 
leave  them  at  the  fame  diftancc  from  each  other,  and 
treat  them  in  all  refpeds  like  the  common  turnip.  In 
this  method  I/have  always  obtained  a  plentiful  crop  of 
them  ;  toafccrtain  the  value  of  which  I  need  only  in- 
forn)  you,  that  on  the  2:d  day  of  April  laft,  having 
than  two  acres  left  of  my  crop,  found,  and  in  great 


perfetlion,   I  divided  them  by  fold  hurdles  into  three    iVaAice. 

parts  of  nearly  equal  diiucnlio. is.     Jmo  thi  lirlL  part ^      ' 

1  put  24  fmall  bullocks  of  about  ;o  Itouc  weight  each        ,-, 
(i^lb.  to  the  Ihone),  and  30  niiddlt,iixed  fat  wethers,  I'h, irutili- 
whi  h,  at  the  end  of  tlie  tint  wecK,  after  thty  ha  J  ty  and  va- 
eateu  down  the  greater  j'art  of  the  leaves,  and  fomc  '"«• 
part  of  the  roots,  I   Ihiticdinto  the  fecond  divilion, 
a'.id  then  put  70  lean  ihecp  into  wha;  was  left  of  the 
tirfl  ;    thcfe  fed  otf  the  remainder  of  the    turnips 
left  by  the  fat  (lock  ;  and  lb  they  were  Ihitted  through 
the  three  diviiions,   the  lean  llo:k  t'oUowiag  the  fat 
as  they  wanted  food,  until  the  whole  was  coufumcd. 

"  The  24  bullocks  and  30  fat  weathers  continued 
in  the  turnips  until  thcatft  of  May,  being  exactly 
four  weeks  ;  and  the  70  lean  flieep  until  the  29th, 
which  is  one  day  over  four  weeks:  fo  that  the  two 
acres  kept  my  24  fmall  bullocks  and  no  Iheep  four 
weeks  (not  reckoning  the  overplus  day  of  keeping  the 
lean  flicep)  ;  the  value,  at  llic  rate  ot  keeping  at  that 
feafon,  cannot  be  eltimatcd  in  any  commohyear  at  lefs 
that  4d.  a- week  for  each  ihcep,  and  is.  6d.  per  week 
for  each  bullock,  which  would  amount  together  to  the 
fum  of  L.  14  :  10  :  8-:  for  the  two  acres. 

"  You  will  hardly,  I  conceive,  think  I  have  fet  the 
price  of  keeping  the  flock  at  two  high  a  rate  ;  it  is  be- 
neath theprice  here  in  almoll  every  fpring,  and  in  this 
lafl  it  would  have  cofl  double,.couldit  have  been  pro- 
cured ;  which  was  fo  far  from  being  the  cafe,  that 
hundreds  of  Ihecp  and  lambs  here  were  lofl,  and  the 
reft  greatly  pinched  for  want  of  food. 

"  You  will  obferve,  gentlemen,  that  in  the  valua- 
tion of  the  crop  abovcmentioned  I  have  claiuied  no 
allowance  for  the  great  benefit  the  farmerreceives  by 
being  enabled  to  futfcr  his  grafs  to  get  into  a  forward 
growth,  nor  for  the  fujrerior  quality  of  thefe  turnips 
in  fattening  his  flock  ;  both  which  circumflancts  mufl 
ftainp  new  and  a  great  additional  value  upon  them. 
But  as  their  continuance  on  the  land  may  feem  to  be 
injurious  to  the  fucceeding  crop,  and  indeed  will  de- 
prive the  farmer  totally  of  cither  oats  or  barley  ;  fo  to  « 
fupply  that  lofs  I  have  always  fown  buck-wheat  on  the 
firfi  earth  upon  the  land  from  which  the  turnips  were 
thus  fed  of^  ;  allow'ing  one  bufhel  of  feed  per  acre,  for 
which  I  commonly  receive  from  five  to  fix  quarters  per 
acre  in  return.  And  that  I  may  not  throw  that  part 
of  my  land  out  of  the  fame  courfe  of  tillage  with  the 
reft,  I  fow  my  clover  or  other  grafs-feeds  with  the 
buck-wheat,  in  the  fame  manner  as  with  the  oat  or 
barley  crops,  and  have  always  found  as  good  a  layer 
(lea)  of  it  afterwards. 

"  Thus  you  fee,  that  in  providing  a  moft  incompa- 
rable vegetable  food  for  cattle,  in  that  feafon  of  the 
year  in  which  the  farmer  is  generally  molt  diflrefled, 
and  his  cattle  almofl  flarved,  a  confldcrable  profit  may 
likewife  be  obtained,  much  beyond  what  is  ufually  de- 
rived from  his  former  practice,  by  the  great  produce 
and  price  of  a  crop  raifcd  at  fo  eafy  an  expencc  as  that 
of  buck  wheat,  which,  w  irh  us,  fells  commonly  at  the 
fame  price  as  barley,  oftentimes  more,  and  but  very 
rarely  for  lefs. 

"The  land  onwhich  I  have  ufually  fown  turnip-root- 
ed cabbages  is  a  dry  mixed  foil,  worth  ijs.  per  acre. 

To  the  preceding  account  the  Society  have  fulijoin- 
ed  the  follcviug  note  :  "  "Whetlier  we  regard  the  im- 
portance 


Part  II. 

Praciuc. 


AGRICULTURE. 


I7Z 
Recoiii- 
mcnducion 
bylhc  Bath 
Sucicty. 


173 
To  raife 
the  turni)i- 
root^d  cab- 
bage for 
tranlpLoc- 
ing. 


174 
Culture  of 
the  root  <)f 
fcarcity. 


portaiice  cf  the  fubjc(5t,  •r  the  clear  and  pradlical  iii- 
iormation  which  the  loregoiiig  letter  conveys,  it  may 
be  conlidcrcd  as  truly  iniercltiug  as  any  we  have  ever 
been  favoured  with  :  and  therefore  it  is  recommended 
in  the  flronge/l  manner  to  farmersin  general,  that  they 
adopt  a  mode  of  practice  fo  decilivcly  afccrtained  to  be 
in  a  high  degree  judicious  and  profitable." 

To  raifc  the  tuniip-rooted  cabbage  tor  tranfplanting, 
the  bell  method  yetdifcovercd  is,  to  breaft- plough  ai:d 
burn  as  much  old  pallure  as  may  be  judged  neccliary 
for  the  feed-bed  ;  two  perches  well  flocked  with  plants 
will  be  fuiKcicnt  to  plant  an  acre.  The  land  lliould 
be  dug  as  (liallow  as  polhble,  turning  the  alhes  in  ;  and 
the  feed  Ihould  be  f  <wu  the  beginning  of  April. 

The  land  intended  for  tiie  plantation  to  be  cultivated 
and  dunged  as  for  the  common  turnip.  About  Mid- 
fummer  (or  fooncr  if  the  weather  will  permit)  will  be 
a  proper  time  for  planting,  which  is  bell  done  in  the 
following  manner  :  theland  to  be  thrown  into  'ine-bout 
[idgts,  upon  the  topsof  svhich  the  plants  are  to  be  fet, 
at  about  18  inclics  dillance  from  each  other.  As  Toon 
as  the  weeds  rile,  give  a  hand-hoeing,  afterwards  run 
the  ploughs  in  the  intervals,  and  fetch  a  furrow  from 
each  ridge,  which,  after  laying  a  fortnight  or  three 
weeks,  isagain  thrown  back  to  the  ridges  ;  if  the  weeds 
rife  again,  it  is  necellary  to  give  them  another  hand- 
hoeing. 

If  tiie  young  plants  in  the  feed-bed  (hould  be  at- 
tacked by  the  Hy,  fovv  wood  alhcs  over  them  when  the 
dew  is  on,  which  will  cfFcilually  prevent  the  ravages 
they  would  othcrwife  make. 

2,-Thcraciite  ded//i;tti-,orTooto{[ca.rchy,(^Beta  cic/a) 
delights  in  a  rich  loamy  land  well  dunged.  It  is  dired- 
cd  to  be  fown  in  rows,  or  broad-call:,  and  as  foon  as  the 
plants  are  of  thcfizcof  a  goofe-quill,  tobe  tranfplanted 
in  rowsof  !8  inchcsdillauce,  and  18  iiichcsa  part,  one 
plant  from  the  other:  care  muH  be  taken  in  the  fow- 
ing,  to  fow  very  thin,  and  to  cover  the  feed,  wliich 
lays  in  the  ground  about  a  month,  an  inch  only. — In 
tranfplanting,  the  roo:  is  not  to  be  Ihortcncd,  but  the 
leaves  cut  at  the  top;  the  pl.»nt  is  then  to  be  planted 
witii  a  fetling  flick,  fo  that  the  upper  part  of  the  root 
Ihall  appear  about  half  an  inch  outof  the  ground  ;  this 
lall  precaution  is  very  nccelTary  to  be  itiended  to. 
Thcfe  plants  will  ftrike  root  in  twenty-four  hours,  and 
a  man  a  little  accullomed  to  planting,  will  plant  with 
rafc  iSooor  2000  a-d.iy.  In  the  fecil-beJ,  the  plants, 
like  al!  others  mud  be  kept  clear  of  weeds:  ulicn 
ihcy  arc  planted  out,  after  once  hoeing,  they  will  take 
cart  of  thcmftlvcs,  and  fuifocate  every  kind  of  weed 
ne.ir  them. 

The  bcft  time  to  fow  the  feed  is  from  the  bcsfiuning 
of  March  to  the  middle  of  April:  it  is,  however,  ad- 
vifcd  to  continue  fo-.ving  every  month  until  the  begin- 
ning of  July,  in  order  to  have  a  fuccellion  of  plants. 
Both  leaves  and  roots  have  been  extolled  js  excellent 
both  for  man  and  Lcafl.  This  plant  is  fai  1  not  to  be 
liable,  like  the  turnip,  to  be  deflroyed  by  infe  is,  for 
no  infect  louches  it,  nor  is  it  affected  by  excellive 
drought,  or  the  changes  of  feafons.  Horned  cattle, 
l-.orfes,  pigs,  and  poultry,  arc  exceedingly  fond  of  it 
vhcn  cut  fmall.  The  Ic.ivcs  may  be  gathered  every 
12  or  ly  days;  thCy  are  from  ;o  to  40  incites  long, 
by  22  to  25  inches  bro.id.  This  plant  is  excellent  tor 
milch  cows,  W'hen  given  to  them  in  projicrj>roponiujis. 


as  it  adds  much  to  the  quality  as  well  as  qhantity  of 
their  milk  ;  but  care  mult  be  taken  to  proportion  tlie 
leaves  with  other  green  food,  othcrwife  it  would  abate 
the  milk,  and  fatten  them  too  much,  it  being  of  fo 
exceeding  fattening  a  quality.  To  put  all  ihcfe  pro- 
perties beyond  doubt,  however,  further  experiments 
arc  wanting. 

Sect.  IV.     Cu/ture  ofCrafi. 


J7S 


The  latter  end  of  Auguft,or  the  beginning  of  Sep-  of  Uymg 
tcmbcr,  is  the  bed  feafon  for  fowing  grafs-lceds,  as  down  field* 
there  is  time  for  the  roots  of  the  young  plants  to  fix  '"  Z^^- 
themfelves  before  the  Iharp  trolls  fet  in.  It  is  fcarce 
necclTary  to  fay,  that  moill  weather  is  bell  for  fowing; 
the  earth  being  then  warm,  the  feeds  will  vegetate  im- 
mediately ;  but  if  this  feafon  prove  unfavourable,  they 
will  do  very  well  the  middle  of  March  following. 

If  you  would  have  fine  pafture,  never  low  on  foul 
land.  On  the  contrary,  plough  it  well,  and  clear  it 
from  the  roots  of  couch-grafs,rcll-harrow,  fern, broom, 
and  all  other  noxious  weeds.  If  thcfe  are  futfcred  to 
remain,  they  will  foon  get  above,  and  dcflroy  your 
young  grafs.  Rake  thele  up  in  heaps,  and  burn  them 
on  the  land,  and  fpre.id  the  alhes  as  a  luanure.  Thefs 
ploughings  and  harrowings  Ihould  be  repeated  in  dry 
weather.  And  if  the  foil  be  clayey  and  wet,  make 
fomc  undcr-drains  to  carry  off  the  water,  which,  if  fut- 
fered  to  remain,  will  not  only  chill  the  grafs,  but  make 
it  four.  Before  fowing,  lay  the  land  as  level  and  tine 
as  pollible.  Ifyour  grafs-feeds  arc  clean,  (which  fhi.  u  I 
always  be  the  cafe)  three  bulhels  will  bcfutlicient  per 
acre.  When  fown,  harrow  it  in  gently,  and  roll  it  in 
with  a  wooden  roller.  When  it  comes  up, fill  up  all  the 
bare  fpotsby  frclh  feed,  which,  if  rolled  to  fix  it,  will 
foon  come  up,  and  overtake  the  rcA. 

In  Norfolk  they  fow  clover  with  their  graffes,  par-  • 

ticularly  with  rye  grafs ;  but  this  ihould  not  be  done 
except  when  theland  isdeligned  for  grafs  only  three  or 
lourycars,bccaufeneitherof  thcfe  kinds  will  laftlong 
ill  the  land.  Where  you  intfnd  it  for  acontin  lai-.ce,  it 
is  better  to  mix  only  fiiall  white  Dutchclovcr,  or  marie 
grafs,  with  your  otlier  grafs  feed,  and  not  more  than 
eight  po'inds  to  an  acre. '  Thefe  arc  abiding  plants, 
fprcad  •  lofe  on  tlie  fari'acc,  and  make  thcfwcctcft  feed 
of  any  for  cattle.  In  the  following  iVrin^,  root  up 
ihiiUes,  hemlock,  or  any  large  plants  that  appear. 
The  doing  this  while  the  ground  is  foft  enough  to 
permit  your  drawing  them  by  the  roots,  and  before- 
they  feed,  will  favc  you  infinite  troub'e  afterwards. 

The  common  method  of  proceeding  in  laying  down 
fields  to  grafs  is  extremely  injudicious.  Some  fow 
barley  with  their  gralFcs.  which  they  fjppofe  to  be 
ufeful  in  IliaJing  them,  without  coniidering  how  much 
the  corn  draws  away  the  nourilhnicnt  from  the  land.        i-6 

Others  take  their  feeds  from  a  foul   hay-rick  ;  by  Piffcrcnt 
which  means,  belides  fillin;;  the  land  wiili'rubbilh  and  k'"J'  "^ 
weeds,  what  they  intend  for  dry  foils  may  have  come  S"'*- 
from  nioift,  wlicrc  it  grew  naturally,  andt/nr  rfrfa. 
The  confcq  icncc  is,  that  the  groimd,  ii'ftea.1  of  being 
covered    with    a  good  thick    fward,    is  tilled  with 
plants    unnatural    to   it.      The  kinds  of  grafs  moll 
eligible  for  pailure-liuds  are,    the  annual-mcao««w, 
creeping,  and  fine  bear,  the  fo.x-tails,  and  crtlled 
dog's-ta.il,   the  poas,  the    fcncues,    the  vernal,  o't- 

grifs 


304 


AGRICULTURE. 


Vraclicc.  grafs,  and  the  ray,  or  ryc-grafs.     We  do  not,  how- 

*  >^       '  ever,  approve  of  lowing  all  ihclc  kinds  tOJcthcr;  for 

not  to  mention  their  ripening  at  different  times,  by 
wltich  means  you  can  never  cut  them  all  in  ptrlcction 
and  full  vigour,  no  kind  of  cattle  are  fond  of  all  a- 
likc. 

Horfcs  will  fcarcely  eat  hay  which  oxen  and  cows 
will  thrive  upon  ;  fhcep  arc  particularly  fond  of  fonie 
kinds,  and  rcfufc  others.  The  Darnel-grafs,  if  not 
cut  bt  fore  fcvcral  of  the  other  kinds  arc  ripe,  becomes 
fo  hard  and  wiiy  in  the  llalks,  that  few  cattle  care  to 
cat  it. 

Such  gentlemen  as  wifli  a  particular  account  of  the 
abovcmeniioncd  graires,\\ill  bcamply  gratified  in  cou- 
fultir.g  Mr  Stilling.'tcct  on  this  fiibjcct.  He  has  treat- 
ed it  with  great  judgment  and  accuracy,  and  thofe 
who  follow  his  directions  in  the  choice  of  their  graffcs 
will  be  under  no  fmall  obligation  to  him  for  the  valu- 
able information  he  has  givca  them.  The  fiibftancc 
of  his  obfervations  are  given  iu  the  article  Grasses 
in  this  Diclonary. 

The  gralFes  commonly  fown  for  pafture,  for  hay,  or 
to  cut  green  for  cattle,  arc  red  clover,  white  clover, 
yellow  clover,  rye-grafs,  narrow-leaved  plantain  com- 
monly called  nli'uioit,  fain-foin,  and  lucerne. 

Red  clover  is  of  all  the  moll  proper  to  be  cut  green 
for  fnmmer-food.  It  is  a  biennial  plant  when  futfercd 
to  perfcd  its  feed  ;  but  whtn  cut  green,  it  will  laft 
three  years,  and  in  a  dry  foil  longer.  At  the  fame 
time  the  fafcft  coarfc  is  to  let  it  Aand  but  a  lingle  year : 
if  the  fecond  year's  crop  happen  to  be  Icanty,  it  proves, 
like  a  bad  crop  of  peafe,  a  great  encourager  of  weeds 
by  the  Ihelter  it  affords  them. 

Here,  as  in  all  other  crops,  the  goodncfs  of  feed  is 
of  importance.  Choofe  plump  feed  of  a  purple  colour, 
becaufc  it  takes  on  that  colour  when  ripe.  It  is  red 
when  hurt  in  the  drying,  and  of  a  faint  colour  when 

177       unrips- 
Of  red  do-      Red  clover  is  luxuriant  upon  a  rich  foil,  whether 
vcr.  clay,  loam,  or  gravel ;  it  will  grow  even  upon  a  moor, 

when  properly  cultivated.  A  wet  foil  is  its  only  bane  ; 
for  there  it  does  not  thrive. 

To  have  red  clover  in  pcrfeftion,  weeds  mull  be  ex- 
tirpated, and  Hones  taken  oS".  The  mould  ought  to 
be  made  as  fine  as  harrowing  can  make  it;  and  the 
furface  be  fmoothed  with  a  light  roller,  if  not  futH- 
cientlyfmooth  without  it.  This  gives  opportunity  for 
dirtribuling  the  feedevcnly:  which  muft  be  covered  by 
a  fmall  harrow  with  teeth  no  larger  than  that  ofa  gar- 

•  riate  V.  dcn-rake,threcincheslong,andlix  inchesafunder.*  In 
*S'  7-  harrowing,  the  man  Ihould  walk  behind  with  a  rope  in 

his  hand  fixed  to  the  back  part  of  the  harrow,  ready 
to  difcntaugle  it  from  I'tones,  clods,  turnip  or  cabbage- 
roots,  Wiiich  would  trail  ihc  feed,  and  difplace  it. 

Nature  has  not  determined  any  precife  depth  for  the 
feed  of  red  clover  more  than  for  other  feed.  It  will 
•TOW  vi  Toroullyfrom  two  inches  deep,  and  it  will  grow 
when  bnrdy  covered.  Half  an  inch  may  be  reckoned 
the  moit  advantageous  pofition  in  clay  foil,  a  whole 
inch  in  v.liat  is  lic;ht  or  loofe.  It  is  a  vulgar  error, 
that  fmall  feed  ought  to  be  fparingly  covered.  Milled 
by  that  error,  farmers  commonly  cover  their  clover- 
fi<~<  with  a  bnihy  branch  of  (horn  ;  which  not  only 
c'lvers  it  unequally,  b;;i  leaves  part  on  the  furface  to 
wither  in  the  air. 

I 


Pirfll. 

The  proper  fcafon  for  fowingred-clovcr,  is  from  the    Praaice. 

middle  of  April  to  die  middle  of  May.     It  \\  ill  fpring  ' <^-— 

from  the  iirll  of  March  to  the  cud  of  Augull ;  but 
Inch  liberty  luij^ht  not  to  be  taken  except  from  necef- 
lity. 

There  cannot  be  a  greater  blunder  in  hufbandry,  than 
to  be  fparing  of  feed  Ideal  writt  rs  talk  of  lowing  an 
acre  with  four  pounds.  'J  hat  quanti.y  of  feed,  fay 
they,  will  i.U  an  acre  with  jilants  as  thick  as  they  ought 
to  lUud.  This  rule  may  be  admilted  where  grain  is 
the  olije.'I  ;  biit  it  will  not  anlwer  with  refpecl  to  grafs. 
Cr<ifs-feed  cannot  be  fown  too  thick:  the  plants  Ihel- 
ter one  another:  they  retain  all  the  dew  :  ami  they 
mull  pulh  upwards, having  no  room  laterally.  Obferve 
(he  place  w  here  a  f.ick  of  peafe,  or  of  other  grain,  has 
been  ft  t  down  for  lowing  :  the  feed  dropt  there  acci- 
dentally grows  more  quickly  than  in  the  rell  of  the 
field  fown  thin  out  of  hind.  A  young  plant  of  clover, 
or  of  fain-foin,  according  to  Tull,  may  be  raifed  to  a 
great  lize  where  it  has  room  ;  but  the  field  will  not 
produce  half  the  quantity.  When  red  clover  is  fown 
for  cutting  green,  there  ought  not  to  be  Icfs  than  24, 
pounds  to  an  acre.  A  field  of  clover  is  feldom  too 
thick  :  the  fmaller  a  flem  be,  the  more  acceptable  it  is 
to  cattle.  It  is  often  too  thin  ;  and  when  fo,  the  llcms 
ten  i  to  wood.  -    J  . 

Red  clover  is  commonly  fown  with  grain  ;  and  the  of  Towin" 
raofl  proper  grain  has  been  found  by  experience  to  be  clover  wiU 
flax.  The  foil  mufl  be  highly  cultivated  for  flax  as  well  grain, 
as  for  red  clover.  The  proper  fcafon  for  fowing  is  the 
fame  for  both  ;  the  leavesof  flax  being  very  fmall,  ad- 
mit of  free  circulation  of  air  ;  and  flax  being  an  early 
crop,  is  removed  fo  early  as  to  give  the  clover  time  for 
growing.  In  a  rich  foil  it  has  grown  fo  fall,  as  to  af- 
ford a  good  cutting  that  very  year.  Next  to  fla.x, 
b.'.rley  is  the  befl  companion  to  clover.  The  foil  mufl 
be  loofe  and  free  for  barley  :  and  fo  it  ought  to  be  for 
clover  :  the  feafon  of  fowing  is  the  fame  ;  and  the  clo- 
ver is  well  ellabliihcd  in  the  ground,  before  it  is  over- 
topped by  the  barley.  At  the  fame  time,  barlry  com- 
monly is  fooner  cut  than  cither  oats  or  wheat.  In  a 
word,  barley  is  rather  a  nurfe  than  a  llepmother  to 
clover  during  its  infancy.  When  clover  is  fown  in 
fpring  upon  wheat,  the  foil,  which  has  lain  five  or  fix 
months  without  being  llirred,  is  an  improper  bed  for 
it ;  and  the  wheat,  being  in  the  vigour  of  growth, 
overtops  it  from  the  bejjinning.  It  cannot  be  fown 
along  with  oats,  becaufc  of  the  hazard  of  froll ;  and 
when  fown  as  ufual  among  the  oats  three  inches  high, 
it  is  over-topped,  and  never  enjoys  free  air  till  the  oats 
be  cut.  Add,  that  where  oats  are  fown  upon  the  win- 
ter furrow,  the  foil  is  rendered  as  hard  as  when  under 
wheat. — Red  clover  is  G.nietimcs  fown  by  itfclf  with- 
out other  grain  :  but  thi-;  method,  befide  loling  a  crop, 
is  not  falutary ;  becaufc  clover  in  its  infant  ilate  re- 
quires Ihelter. 

As  to  the  quantity  of  <;rain  proper  to  be  fown  wiih 
clover  :  In  a  rich  foil  w  ell  pulverized,  a  peck  of  barley 
on  an  Kngliiliacre  is  all  th.Tt  ought  to  be  ventured.  Two 
Liiilithgow  firlots  make  "the  proper  quantity  for  an 
acre  that  produces  commonly  lix  boHs  of  barley  ;  half 
a  firlot  for  what  prod.ices  nine  bolls.  To  thofe  who 
are  governed  by  cullum,  fo  fmall  a  qnaniity  will  be 
thou<rht  ridiculous.  Let  them  only  coiiiidcr,  that  a 
rich  foil  in  perfe(ft  good  order,  will  from  a  fiugle  feed 


:>artll.  A     G     R     I     C     U 

Pri^aice.  of  barley  proiiucc  20  or  ;!o  vigorous  (Icnis.  People 
~~— V '  aiay  Hatter  tliemfflvcs  with  the  remedy  ofcutting  bar- 
ley green  for  food,  if  it  Iuppcus  to  opprefs  the  clover. 
This  is  an  excellent  remedy  inaricl.iuf  an  acre  or  two; 
but  the  cutting  an  exrenlivc  ficlJ  for  food  mull  be  llow; 
and  while  one  part  is  cutting,  the  clover  is  fmoihcrcd 
J..  in  other  parts. 
Vhitc  and  The  culture  of  white  clover,  of  yellow  clover,  of 
ellow  do-  ribwort,  of  rye-grafs,  is  the  fame  in  general  with  that 
■er,  rib-  of  red  clover.  \Vc  proceed  tothcir  peculiarities.  Ycl- 
fort,  ami  j^^y  dover,  ribwort,  rye  grafs,  are  all  of  them  early 
yc-grafs,  pigm^^  blooming  in  the  end  of  April  or  beginning  of 
May.  The  two  latter  are  evergreens,  and  therefore 
excellent  for  winter  pallure.  Ryc-grafsis  lefshurt  by 
froft  than  any  of  the  clovers, 'and  will  thrive  in  amoi- 
ller  foil  :  nor  in  that  foil  is  it  much  aiteded  by 
drought.  In  a  rich  foil,  it  grows  four  feet  high  :  even 
in  the  dry  funimfl-  1775,  it  rofe  to  three  feet  eight 
inches;  butithad  gained  that  heightbeforc  thcdrought 
came  on.  Thtfc  graifes  are  generally  fown  with  red 
clovcrforproduci'ig  a  plcntifulcrop.  The  proportion 
of  feed  is  arbitrary  ;  and  there  is  little  danger  of  too 
much.  When  ryc-grafsis  fown  for  procuriitg  feed,  five 
lirlots  wheat-mcafure  may  be  fown  on  an  acre  ;  and 
forprocuring  feed  of  ribwort,  40  pounds  may  be  fown. 
The  roots  of  rye-grafs  fprcad  horizontally  :  they  bind 
the  foil  by  their  number  ;  and  tho'  fmall,  arcyct  fo  vi- 
gorous as  to  thrive  in  hard  foil.  Red  clover  has  a  large 
tap-root,  which  cannot  penetrate  any  fell  but  what  is 
open  and  free  ;  and  the  largenefs  of  the  root  makes  the 
foil  dill  more  open  and  free.  Rye-grafs,  once  a  great 
favourite,  appears  to  be  difcardcd  in  mofl  parts  ot  Bri- 
tain. Thecomraonpradicehas  been,  tofowitwith  red 
clover,  and  to  cut  them  promifcuoufly  the  beginning  of 
June  for  green  food,  and  a  little  later  for  hay.  This  in- 
deed is  the  proper  feafon  for  cutting  red  clover,  becaufe 
at  that  lime  it  begins  to  flower  ;  but  as  at  that  time  the 
feed  of  the  rye-grafs  is  approaching  to  maturity,  its 
growth  is  flopped  for  that  year,  as  much  as  of  oats  or 
barley  cut  after  the  feed  is  ripe.  Oats  or  barley  cut 
green  before  the  feed  forms,  will  afford  two  other  cut- 
tings ;  which  is  the  cafe  of  rye-grafs,  of  yellow  clover 
and  of  ribwort.  By  fuch  management,  all  the  profit 
will  be  drawn  that  thefe  plants  can  afford. 

When  red  clover  is  intended  for  feed,  the  ground 
ought  to  be  cleared  of  weeds,  were  itfornootherpur- 
pofc  than  that  the  feed  cannot  othcrwifc  be  preferved 
pure  :  what  feeds  efcape  ihe  plough  ought  to  be  ta- 
ken out  by  the  hand.  In  England,  when  a  crop  of 
feed  isiiitcndcd,  the  clover  is  always  firft  cut  for  hay. 
Thisappcars  to  be  done,  as  in  fruit-trees,  to  check  the 
growth  of  the  wood,  in  order  to  encourage  the  fruit. 
This  pradice  will  not  anfwcr  in  Scotland,  as  the  feed 
would  often  be  too  late  for  ripening.  It  would  do  bet- 
ter to  eat  the  clover  with  Iheep  till  the  middle  of  May, 
which  would  allow  the  feed  to  ripen.  The  feed  isripe 
when,  upon  rubbing  it  between  the  hands,  it  parts 
readily  from  the  hulk.  Then  apply  the  fcyihc,  fprcad 
the  crop  thin,  and  turn  it  carefully.  When  perfectly 
dry,  take  t':e  firfl  opportunity  of  a  hot  day  for  tlirelh- 
ing  it  on  boards  covered  with  a  coarfe  Ihctt.  Another 
way  lefs  fubjed  to  rifle,  is  to  flack  the  dry  hay,  and 
to  thrcih  it  in  the  end  of  April.  /\fter  the  tirll  threfli- 
ing,  expofethe  hulks  to  the  fan,  and  ihrclli  them  over 
and  over  till  no  feed  remain.    Noihinn-is  morc'cffica- 

VOL.  I. 


L    T    U 


R 


E. 


cious  than  a  hot  fun  to  make  the  hufiC  part  with  its 
feed  ;  in  which  view  it  may  be  expafcd  to  the  fun  by 
parcels,  an  hour  or  two  before  the  nail  is  applied. 

White  clover  intended  for  feed,  is  managed  in  the 
fame  manner.  No  plant  ought  10  be  mixed  with  rye- 
grafs  that  is  inicuded  farfecd.  InSciiiland,  much  rye- 
grafs  feed  i*  hurt  by  tranlgreiling  that  n!lc.  'ihe  feed 
isripe  whenit  parts  calily  with  the  hulk.  'Ihcyellow- 
nefs  of  the  flem  is  ano  her  indication  of  iss  ripcncfa  ; 
in  which  particularit  rcfcmblcsoats,  bailey,  and  other 
culmiferous  plants.  The  bi  il  manner  to  manage  a  crop 
of  rye-grafs  for  feed,  is  to  bind  it  looicly  in  fmall 
Iheaves,  widening  them  at  the  bottom  to  make  them 
ftand  ereft  ;  as  is  done  with  oats  in  inoift  weather.  In 
that  ftate  they  may  ftand  till  fufficicntly  dry  for 
threlhing.  By  this  method  iluy  dry  more  quickly, 
and  are  lefs  hurt  by  rain,  than  by  clofe  binding  and 
putting  the  llieaves  in  Ihocks  like  corn.  The  worll 
way  of  all  is  to  fprcad  ihcryc-grafsonthe  moifl  ground, 
forit  makes  the  feed  malten.  ihe  llicaves,  when  fufti- 
ciently  dry,  arc  carried  in  clofe  carts  to  where  they 
are  to  be  threfhed  on  a  board,  as  menfioned  above  for 
clover.  Put  the  llrawina  rick  when  a  hundred  ftouc 
or  foarc  threlhed.  Carry  the  threlhing-board  to  the 
place  where  anoiherrickisintended  ;  andfo  on  till  the 
whole  feed  be  threlhed,  and  the  ftraw  ricked-  There  is 
necellity  for  clofe  carts  to  favc  the  feed,  which  is  apt 
to  drop  out  in  a  hot  fun  ;  and,  as  obferved  above  a  hot 
fun  ought  always  to  be  chofen  for  threlhing.  Carry 
the  feed  in  facks  to  the  granary  or  barn,  thertf  to  be 
feparated  from  the  hulks  by  a  fanner.  Spread  the  feed 
thin  upon  a  timber-floor,  and  turn  it  once  or  twice  a- 
day  till  perfedly  dry.  If  fultercd  totake  a  heat,  it  is 
ufclefs  for  feed.  jgo 

The  writers  on  agriculture  reckon  fainfoin  prefer-  Culture  of 
able  to  cloverin  many  refpeils:  They  fay,  that  it  pro- fainfoio. 
duces  a  larger  crop  ;  that  it  does  not  hurt  cattle  when 
eaten  green  ;  that  it  makes  better  hay  ;  that  it  continues 
four  times  longer  in  the  ground  ;  and  that  it  will  grow 
on  land  that  will  bear  no  other  crop. 

Sainfoin  has  a  very  long  tap-root,  which  is  able  to 
pierce  very  hard  earth.  The  rootsgrow  very  large;  and 
the  larger  they  are, they  penetrate  to  the  greater  depth ; 
and  hence  it  may  be  concluded,  that  this  grafs,  when 
it  thrives  well,  receivesagreat  pariof  its  nourillimcnt 
from  below  the/(?a/>/^of  the  foil :  of  courfc,  a  deep  dry 
foil  is  befl  for  the  culture  of  fainfoin.  \\'hcn  plants 
draw  their  nourilhment  from  that  part  of  the  loil  that 
is  near  the  furface,  it  is  not  of  much  conlc(]uence 
whether  their  number  be  great  or  fmall.  But  the  cafe 
is  very  ditierent  when  the  plants  receive  their  food, not 
only  near,  butalfo  deep  below,  the  furface.  Befidcs, 
plants  thit  (hoot  their  roots  deep  are  often  fupplicd 
withmoiilurc,  when  thofc  near  the  furface  arc  parched 
with  drought. 

To  render  the  plants  of  fainfoin  vigorous,  it  is  necef- 
fary  that  ihey  be  fown  thin.  The  beil  method  of  do- 
ing tbisisby  a  drill ;  becaul'e,  wlien  fown  in  this  man- 
ner, not  only  the  weeds,  but  alfo  the  fupernumerary 
plants,  can  cafily  be  removed.  It  is  feveral  years  be- 
fore faiofoin  comes  to  itsfuUcftllrcngth;  and  the  I'.nm- 
bcr  of  plants  futficient  loftock  a  field,  while  in  ihisim- 
perfeft  Aate,  wilt  make  but  a  poor  crop  for  the  rirft 
year  or  two.  It  is  therefore  necelfary  that  it  be  fown 
in  fucli  a  manner  as  to  make  it  cafy  to  take  up  plants 
O  q  in 


3o6 


A     G     R     1     C     U     L     T     U     11     E 


Part  I r. 


I'riiflicc. 


in  fuch  numbers,  and  in  fi;cli  order,  as  always  to  leave 
n  the  field  tlic  proper  number  in  their  pr  .per  places. 
Thiscanonly  be  done,  with  propriciy,  by  fowing  the 
plantsin  rows  by  a  drill.  5>n]ij)olinga  (ield  to  be  dril- 
led in  rows  at  ten  inches  dillancc,  the  partitions  may 
be  hand-hoed,  and  the  row.  drell'td  in  i'licli  a  maniicr 
as  to  leave  a  proper  nLUuber  of  plants.  In  this  lltiia- 
tioH  the  field  may  rcu.ain  two  y  tars  j  then  one  tourih 
of  the  lows  may  be  taken  ont  in  pairs,  in  fnch  a  man- 
ner as  to  make  liie  beds  of  tiny  inches,  with  lix  row.sin 
each,  and  inttrv.ils  of  thirty  inches,  whi'-h  may  be 
plonghcd.  Isexc  year,  another  fourth  of  the  rows 
may  be  taken  out  in  the  fame  manner,  fo  as  to  leave 
double  rows  with  partiiious  of  ten  inches,  and 
interv.ds  of  thirty  :  All  of  which  m.iy  be  hoed  at 
once  or  akernatcly,  as  it  may  be  found  moll  conve- 
nient. 

The  (jreat  quantity  of  tiiisgrafs  which  the  writerson 
thisfiibjett  aliiire  us  may  be  raifcd  upon  an  acre,  and 
the  excellency  and  great  value  of  the  hay  made  of  it, 
fhould  induce  farmers  to  make  a  complete  trial  of  it, 
."^nJ  even  to  ufe  tl.c  fpaJc  in  place  of  the  hoe,  or  hoc- 
plough,  if  necell'ary. 

The  plants  t  J.kcn  up  from  up  a  field  of  fainfoin  may 
be  fet  in  another  field  ;  and  if  the  tranfplantiug  of  this 
grafs  fucceeds  as  well  as  the  tranfplaniing  ol  lucerne 
has  done  with  Mr  Lunin  deChatcauvitux,  the  trouble 
and  cxpence  will  be  fulficitnily  rccompciifcd  by  tlie 
largcnefs  of  the  crops.  In  tranfplanting,  it  is  neeef- 
fary  to  cut  ofFgreat  part  of  the  long  tap-root  :  this 
will  prevent  it  from  Itriking  very  deep  into  the  I'lil, 
and  make  it  puih  out  large  roots  in  a  lloping  direction 
from  the  cut  end  of  the  tap-root.  Sainfoin  managed  in 
this  manner,  will  thrive  even  on  Ihallow  land  that  has 
a  wet  bottom,  provided  it  be  not  overftocked  with 
plants. 

Whoever  inclines  to  try  the  culture  of  this  grafs 
llionld  take  great  pains  in  preparing  the  latid,  and 
making  it  as  free  from  weeds  as  polTible. 

In  England,  as  the  roots  flrike  deep  in  that  chalky 
foil,  this  plant  is  not  liable  to  be  lb  much  injured  by 
drought  as  other  graffcs  are,  whole  fibres  lie  horizcm- 
tally,  and  lie  near  the  furface.  The  quantity  of  hay 
produced  is  greater  and  better  in  quality  than  any 
other.  But  there  is  one  advantage  attending  this  grafs, 
which  renders  it  fupcrior  to  any  otiier  ;  and  that  ari- 
fcs  from  feeding  with  it  milch  cows.  The  prodigious 
incrcafe  of  milk  which  itmalces  is  allonilliing,  being 
nearly  double  that  produced  by  any  other  green  food. 
The  milk  is  alfo  better,  and  yields  more  cream  than 
any  other  ;  and  the  butter  procured  from  it  much  bet- 
ter coloured  and  ilavoured. 

The  following  remarks  by  an  Englifli  farmer  are 
made  from  much'  experience  and  obfervation. 

Sainfoin  is  much  cultivated  in  thofe  parts  where 
on  the  cul-  the  foil  is  of  a  chalky  kind.  It  will  always  fucceed 
turc  of  \vj]|  where  the  roots  run  deep  ;  the  worfl  foil  of  all  for 
it  is  where  there  is  a  bed  of  cold  wet  clay,  which  the 
tender  fibres  cannot  penetrate.  This  plant  will  make 
a  greater  increafe  of  produce,  by  at  leall  30  times, 
than  common  grals  or  turf  upon  poor  land.  Where  it 
meets  with  chalk  or  ftone,  it  will  extend  it  roots 
through  the  cracks  and  chinks  to  a  very  great  depth 
in  fearch  of  nourilhment.     The  drynefs  is  of  more 


Remarks 


fainfoin  in 
Eng'Uod, 


confequence  than  the  richntfs  of  land  for  fainfoin  ;  al-  Praitice. 
though  land  liiat  is  b"th  dry  and  rich  vsill  always  pro- se- 
duce the  largtrt crops. 

It  is  very  commonly  fowcd  broadcall ;  but  it  is  found 
toaiifwer  beil  in  drills,  efpecially  if  liie  land  be  made 
fine  by  repeated  ploughing,  rolling,  and  harrowing. 
Much  dejiends  ou  the  depth  which  this  feed  is  fovvn. 
If  it  be  bur:cd  more  than  an  inch  deep,  it  will  fcldom 
grow;  and  if  left  uncovered,  it  will  pulh  out  its  roots 
above  ground,  and  ihefe  will  be  killed  by  the  air. 
March  and  the  beginniug  of  April  arc  the  bell  fcafcms 
lor  fowing  it, asthc  fevcrity  of  uiuter  and  tlie  drought 
of  funimcr  are  equally  unfavour.;ble  to  the  young 
plants.  A  buflitl  of  feed  fown  broadcall,  or  half  that 
quantity  in  drills,  if  good,  is  luificicnt  for  an  acre. 
The  drills  Ihould  be  30  inches  apart,  to  admit  of  horfc- 
hocing  between  them.  Much,  however,  dependson 
the  goovincfs  of  the  feed,  which  maj^c  belt  judged  of 
by  the  following  marks. 

The  hulk  being  of  a  bright  colour,  the  kernel 
plump,  of  a  grey  or  bluilh  lolour  without,  and,  if  cut 
acrols.grcciiidi  and  frelh  w  ithiiilidc  ;  ii'it  be  ihiu  and 
furrowed,  and  of  a  yellow  i  111  call,  it  m  ill  I'eldom  grow. 
When  the  plants  lland  (ingle,  and  have  room  to  fprcad, 
they  produce  the  grcalell  quantity  of  herbage,  and 
the  feed  ripens  beil.  But  farmers  in  general,  from  a 
millakcn  notion  of  ail  that  appears  to  be  walle  ground 
being  unprofitable,  plant  them  lb  clofe,  that  they  choke 
and  impoverilh  each  other,  and  often  die  in  a  few 
years.  Single  plants  run  deeped  and  draw  mofl  nou- 
rillimcnt  ;  they  arc  alfo  ealieli  kept  free  from  weeds. 
A  lingle  plant  will  often  produce  half  a  pound  of  hay,  • 

when  dry.  On  rich  land  this  plant  will  yield  two  good 
crops  in  a  year,  with  a  moderate  fliare  of  culture.  A 
good  crop  mull  not  be  expected  the  firfl  year;  but,  if 
the  plants  Hand  not  too  thick,  they  will  increafe  in 
fize  the  fecond  year  prodigioully. 

No  cattle  fliould  be  turned  on  the  field  the  firlt  win- 
ter after  the  corn  is  off  with  which  it  is  fown,  as 
their  feet  would  injure  the  young  plants.  Sheep  ihould 
not  come  on  the  followiugfummer,bccaufe  they  would 
bite  off  the  crown  of  the  plants,  and  prevent  their 
fliooting  again.  A  fmall  quantity  of  foapers  allies  as 
a  top-drelfing  will  be  of  great  fervice,  if  laid  on  the 
firft  winter. 

If  the  fainfoin  be  cut  jufl  before  it  comes  into 
bloom,  it  is  admirable  food  for  horned  cattle  ;  and  if 
cut  thus  early,  it  will  yield  a  fecond  crop  the  fame 
feafon.  But  if  it  proves  a  wet  feafon,  it  is  better  to 
let  it  fland  till  its  bloom  be  pcrfetled  ;  for  great  care 
muflbe  taken,  in  making  it  into  hay,  that  the  flowers 
do  not  dropoff,  as  cows  are  very  fond  of  them  ;  and 
it  requires  more  time  than  other  hay  in  drying.  Sain- 
foinis  fo  excellent  a  fodder  for  horfes, that  they  require 
no  oats  while  they  eat  it,  although  they  be  worked 
hard  all  the  time.  Sheep  will  alfo  be  fattened  with  it 
falter  than  with  any  other  food. 

]f  the  whole  feafon  for  cutting  proves  very  rainy, 
it  is  better  to  let  the  crop  Hand  for  feed,  as  that  will 
amply  repay  the  lofsof  the  hay  ;  becaufe  itwlllnot  only 
fetch  a  good  price,  but  a  peck  of  it  will  go  as  far  as  a 
peck  and  a  half  of  oats  for  horfes. 

The  belt  time  of  cutting  the  feeded  fainfoin  is,  when 
the  grtatcft  part  cf  the  feed  is  well  filled,  the  firft 

blown 


;i. 


A     G     R.     I     C     U     L     T     U     R     E. 


blown  ripe,  and  ilic  Idfl  blown  bcjjiiiniiig  toopen.  For 
""  want  of  tills  care  ionic  people  liavc  loll  moll  of  tiicir 
feed  by  letting  it  ftand  too  ripe.  Seeded  fainfoin 
fhoulJ  always  be  cit  in  a  morning  or  cvciiing,  when 
tlic  dews  render  tlic  (talks  lender.  If  cut  when  the 
Am  (hjncs  hot,  ranch  of  the  feed  will  fall  out  and  be 
lolt. 

An  acre  of  very  ordinary  land,  when  improved  by 
this  grafs,  will  maintain  four  cows  very  well  from  the 
firftof  April  to  the  end  of  November  ;  and  afford,  bc- 
fides,  a  fiifTicient  llorc  of  hay  to  make  the  greater  part 
of  their  food  the  four  months  following. 

If  the  foil  be  tolerably  good,  a  field  of  fainfoin  will 
laft  from  ij  to  20  years  in  prime  ;  but  at  the  end  of 
fcvcn  or  eight  years,  it  will  be  neccHary  to  lay  on  a 
moderate  coat  of  well  rotted  dung  ;  or,  if  the  foil  be 
very  light  and  faiuly,  of  marlc.  By  this  means  the 
fuiure  crops,  and  tlic  duration  of  the  plants  in  health 
ajid  vigour,  will  be  greatly  increafed  and  prolonged. 
Hence  it  will  appear,  that  for  poor  land  there  is  no- 
tliing  equal  to  this  grafs  in  point  of  advantage  to  the 
anner. 

Clover  will  laft  only  two  years  iti  perfe<Jlion  j  and 
often,  if  the  foil  be  cold  and  moid,  near  half  the  plants 
will  rot,  and  bald  patches  be  found  in  every  part  of 
the  field  the  fccond  year.  Bcfides,  from  our  frequent 
rains  during  the  month  of  September,  many  crops 
left  for  feeding  are  lo(>.  But  from  the  quantity  and 
excellent  quality  of  this  grafs  ( fainfoin ),  and  its  ri))cn- 
ing  earlier,  and  continuing  in  vigour  lo  much  longer, 
much  rilk  and  certain  expence  is  avoided,  and  a  large 
annual  profit  accrues  to  the  farmer. 

The  writers  on  agriculture,  ancient  as  well  as  mo- 
dern, beftow  the  highcft  encomiuras  upon  lucercne  as 
affording  exec  11  en  thay.and  producing  very  large  crops. 
Lucerne  remains  alkali  10  or  u  years  in  the  ground, 
and  produces  about  right  tons  of  hay  upon  the  Scots 
acre.  There  is  but  little  of  it  c'ltivated  in  Scotland. 
However, it  has  been  tried  in  feveral  parts  of  that  coun- 
try ;  and  it  is  found,  that,  when  the  feed  is  good,  it 
comes  up  very  well,  and  Hands  the  winter  froit.  But 
the  chief  tiling  that  prevents  tiiis  grafs  from  being 
more  ufed  in  Scotland,  is  the  ditRcuUy  of  keeping  the 
foil  open  and  free  from  weeds.  In  a  few  years  the  fur- 
face  becomes  fo  hard,  and  the  turf  fo  Arong,  that  it  dc- 
ftroys  the  lucerne  before  the  plants  have  arrived  at 
their  grcaieft  perfection  :  fo  that  lucerne  can  fcarce*.)c 
cultivated  with  fjcccfs  there,  unlefs  fonie  method  be 
fallen  upon  of  deflroyiiig  ihc  natural  grafs,  and  pre- 
vent t  lie  fur  face  Ironi  be.oming  hard  and  im  penetrable. 
Tills  annot  be  done  cfftOltially  by  ;<ny  other  means 
than  horfc-hocing.  This  method  was  hrfl  propofed  by 
Mr  TuU,  and  afterwards  pra  tifed  ftici  efsfuUy  by  M. 
de  {  hatcauvieux  near  Geneva.  It  may  be  of  ufc 
therefore  to  give  a  view  of  that  gentleman's  method  of 
cultivating  lucerne. 

He  docs  not  mention  any  thing  par-icular  as  to  the 
manner  of  preparing  the  land  ;  but  only  obfcrvsin  ge- 
neral, that  no  pains  Ihould  be  fpare.f  in  pf'  paring  it. 
He  tried  the  fowl. it  of  lu 'crnc  boih  in  rows  upon  the 
beds  where  it  was  intended  to  Hand,  and  likcwifc  the 
lowing  it  ill  a  nn  fery,  snd  afterwaitls  tranlplantiiig  it 
into  liic  beds  prepared  for  ii.  He  prefers  tranfplant- 
ing  ;  bccauft,  when  tranfphntcd,  pan  of  the  tap-root 


is  cutoff,  and  the  plant  flioors  out  a  number  of  lateral 
branches  from  the  cut  part  of  the  root,  vihicli  makes 
it  fpread  its  roots  nearer  the  furfacc,  and  confcqucntly 
renders  it  more  eafily  cultivated  :  belides  this  circum- 
flancc  adapts  it  to  a  1;  allow  foil,  in  which,  if  left  ill  its 
natural  Hate,  it  would  not  grow. 

Thetranlplantiugofluccrneis  attended  with  many 
advantages.  The  laud  may  be  prepared  in  the  fummcr 
for  receiving  the  plants  from  the  iiurfery  in  autumn  ; 
by  which  means  the  field  mufl  be  in  a  much  better  li- 
tuaiion  than  if  the  feed  had  been  fown  upon  it  in  the 
fpring.  By  tranfplaiiting,  ihe  ro.vs  can  be  made  more 
regular,  and  the  intended  dillance  more  exaftly  ob- 
ferved  ;  and  confcqucntly  thehocing  can  be  performed 
more  pcrfeclly,  and  w  iih  Icfs  expcncc.  Mr  Chateau- 
vicux  likcwil'e  tried  the  lucerne  in  fingle  beds  three 
feet  wide,  with  fingle  rows  ;  in  beds  three  feet  nine 
inches  wide,  with  double  rows  ;  and  in  beds  four  feet 
three  inches  wide,  with  triple  rows.  The  plants  in 
the  fingle  rows  were  fix  inches  afunder,  and  ihofe  in 
the  double  and  triple  rows  were  about  eight  or  nine 
inches.  In  a  courfe  of  three  years  he  found,  that 
a  iingle  row  produced  more  than  a  triple  row  of 
the  fame  length.  Tlie  plants  of  lucerne,  when  cul- 
tivated by  tranfplantation,  Ilioiild  be  at  Icafl  f;x  in- 
ches afunder,  to  allow  them  room  for  extending  their 
crowns. 

He  further  obfcrves,  that  the  beds  or  ridges  ought 
to  be  railed  in  the  middle  ;  that  a  fmall  trench,  two 
or  three  inches  deep,  Ihould  be  drawn  in  the  middle  ; 
and  that  the  plants  ought  to  be  fet  in  this  trench, 
covered  with  earth  up  to  the  neck.  He  fays,  that  if 
tlie  lucerne  be  fown  in  the  fpring,  and  in  a  warm  foil, 
it  w  ill  be  ready  for  tranfpl.intiiig  in  September  ;  that, 
if  the  weather  be  too  hot  and  dry,  the  tranfjilanting 
fliould  be  delayed  till  Ocflober  ;  and  that,  if  the  w  ca- 
thcr  be  unfavourable  during  both  thefe  months,  this 
operation  muft  be  delayed  till  fpring.  He  further  di- 
rects, that  the  plants  fliould  be  carefully  taken  out  of 
thcnurfcry,  fo  as  not  to  damage  tjie  roots;  that  the 
roots  be  left  only  about  lixor  fcvcn  inches  long  :  that 
the  green  crops  be  cut  off  w  ithin  about  two  inches  of 
the  crown  ;  that  they  be  put  into  w  atcr  at  foon  as  taken 
up,  there  to  remain  till  they  are  planted  ;  and  ihit 
they  Ihould  be  planted  w  iih  a  planting-lUck,  in  the 
fame  manner  as  cabbages. 

He  does  not  give  particular  directions  as  to  the  times 
of  horfe-hocing;  but  only  laysin  general,  that  the  in- 
tervals Ihould  be  Itirredoiicc  in  the  month  during  tiie 
whole  time  that  the  bicerne  is  ia  a  growing  ftatt .  He 
likewife  obfcrves,  that  great  care  ought  to  be  taken 
not  to  fuffer  any  weeds  to  grow  among  the  plants,  at 
leaft  for  the  firll  two  or  three  years  ;  ana  for  this 
purpofc,  that  the  rows,  as  well  as  the  edges  of  the  in- 
tervals where  thcplough  cannot  go,  Uiould  be  weeded 
by  the  hand. 

B.irnet  is  peculiarly  adap-cd  to  poor  land  :  be-  i- 
fides, it  provesan  excellent  wiri"-r-paflure,when  hard-  I 
ly  any  thing  clfe  vegeiates.  Other  advanta^'cs  are. 
It  makes  good  butter;  it  never  i>'owsor  fwellsc  atile  ; 
it  is  tine  paflurc  for  .lieep  ;  and  will  liouriili  well  on 
poor,  ligiit,  fandy,  or  flony  fo?iS,  or  even  on  dry  chalk 
hills. 

The  cuUivationof  it  i<  neither  hazardousuor  cxpen- 
Q_  q  3  Jive. 


18-; 
uiturc  of 

.11. tt. 


joS 


AGRICULTURE. 


Part  11. 


Practice,    five.     If  ilif  lauJ  is  prtparcJas  is  generally  done  for 

•^ — V— -^  (aniI))S,  there  is  no  danger  of  .its  tailing.     After  the 

lirll  ytar,  it  will  be  attended  with  very  little  expcncc, 

as,  the  riat  circular  fprca  J  of  its  leaves  will  keep  down, 

cir  prevent  the  growth  of  weeds. 

On  the  failure  of  turnips,  ciilicr  from  the  fly  or  the 
black  worm,  t.nie  of  our  farmers  have  fown  the  land 
with  burnet,  and  in  March  (oliowinj^  hadatine  pallure 
for  their  llieep  and  lambs.  It  will  perlcft  its  feed  twice 
in  a  fumnier  ;  and  this  feed  is  faid  to  b-.-  as  good  as 
oats  for  horfes  ;  but  it  is  too  valuable  to  be  applied  to 
that  ufe. 

It  is  fometiniesfown  late  in  the  fpring  with  oats  and 
barley,  md  fuccecds  very  well ;  but  it  is  bell  to  fow  it 
lingly  in  the  beginning  of  July,  when  there  is  a  pro- 
fpect  of  rain,  on  a  fmall  piece  of  land,  and  in  Oiilobcr 
following,  tranfplaut  it  in  rows  two  feet  apart,  and  a- 
bout  a  foot  dirtant  in  the  rows.  This  is  a  proper  dif- 
tance,  and  gives  opportunity  for  hoeing  the  intervals 
in  the  fuccceding  fpring  and  fummer. 

After  it  is  fed  down  with  cattle,  it  fliould  be  har- 
rowed clean.  Some  liorfcs  will  not  cat  it  freely  at  firit 
but  in  two  or  three  d.iys  they  arc  generally  very  fond 
of  it.  It  affords  rich  pleafant  milk,  and  in  great  plenty. 

A  gentleman  farmer  near  Maidftone  fonie  years 
iincc  fowed  four  acres  as  foon  as  the  crop  of  oats  was 
got  off,  ■which  was  the  latter  end  of  Auguft.  He 
threw  in  12  pounds  of  feed  per  acre,  broadcafl  ;  and 
110  rain  falling  until  the  middle  of  September,  the  plants 
did  not  appear  before  the  latter  end  of  that  month. 
There  was  however  a  good  crop,  and  in  the  fpring  lie 
fct  the  plants  out  with  a  turnip-hoe,  leaving  them  about 
a  foot  diJlant  from  each  other.  But  the  drill  method 
is  preferable,  as  it  faves  more  than  half  the  feed.  The 
land  was  a  poor  dry  gravel,  not  worth  three  (hillings 
an  acre  for  any  thing  elfe. 

The  fevcrell  frufl  never  injures  this  plant :  and  the 
oftenpr  it  is  fcdthcthickerareits  leaves,  which  fpring 
conllantly  from  its  root. 

Sect.  V.  Rotation  of  Crops. 

•> «.L ■■!>.,,  f      No  branch  of  hulbandry  requires  more  (kill  and  fa- 
crops.         K^cy  'nan  a  proper  rotation  ot  crops,  loas  to  keep 
the  ground  aUvays  in  heart,  and  yet  to  draw  out  of  it 
the  greatefl  profit  pollible.     Some  plants  rob  the  foil, 
others  are  gentle  to  it:  fome  bind,  others  loofcn.  The 
nice  point  is,   to  intermix   crops,   fo  as  to  make  the 
greatefl  profit   confidently  with  keeping  the  ground 
in  trim.  In  that  view,  the  natureof  the  plants  einploy- 
./       cd  in  hufbindry  muft  be  accurately  examined. 
Culmifc-         The  difference  between  culmiferous  and  leguminous 
rousanillc- plants,  is  occafionally  mentioned  above*.     With  re- 
guminous   fpecl  to  the  prefent  fubject,  a  clofer  infpeftion  is  neccf- 
plants,        fary.  Culmiferous  plants,  having  fmall  leavesand  few 
•  N    Jic.  j^  number,  depend  moftly  on  the  foil  for  nouriihuient, 
^"'  and  little  on  the  air.    During  the  ripeningofthe  feed, 

they  draw  probably  their  whole  nourilhment  from  the 
foil  ;  as  the  leaves  by  this  time,  being  dry  and  wither- 
ed, muflhavelofl  their  power  of  drawing  nouriihment 
from  the  air.  Now,  as  culmiferous  plants  are  chiefly 
cultivated  for  their  feed,  and  are  not  cut  down  till  the 
feed  be  fully  ripe,  they  maybe  pronounced  all  of  them 
to  be  robbers,  fome  more,  fome  lefs.  But  fuch  plants, 
■while  young,  arc  all  leaves ;  and  in  that  flate  draw 


niofl  of  their  nourilhment  from  ihe  air.     Hence  it  is,  Vrai5lice. 

tli.it  where  cut  green  for  food  to  cattle,  a  culmiferous  ■ ^/— 

crop  is  far  from  being  a  robber.  A  hay-crop  accor- 
dingly,  even  where  it  confiff  s  moftly  of  ry  c-grafs,is  not 
a  robber,  provided  it  be  cut  before  the  feed  is  formed  ; 
which  at  any  rate  it  ought  to  be,  if  one  would  have 
hay  ill  perfection.  And  ihefoggage,  excluding  the 
froll  by  covering  the  ground,  keey>s  the  roots  warm.  A 
leguminous  plant,  by  its  broad  leaves,  draws  much  of 
its  nourilhment  from  the  air.  A  cabbage,  which  has 
very  broad  leaves,  and  a  multitude  of  them,  owes  its 
growth  more  to  the  air  than  to  the  foil.  One  faft  is 
certain,  that  a  cabbage  cut  and  hung  up  in  a  damp 
l>lace,  preferves  its  verdure  longer  tha.i  other  plants. 
At  tlic  fame  time,  a  feed  is  that  part  of  a  plant  which 
requires  the  mofl  nourilhment  :  and  for  that  nourilh- 
ment a  culmiferous  plant  mufl  be  indebted  entirely  to 
the  foil.  A  leguminous  crop,  on  the  contrary,  when 
cut  green  for  food,  niufl  be  very  gentle  to  the  ground. 
Peafe  and  beans  are  leguminous  plants  ;  but  being  cul- 
tivated for  feed,  they  feem  to  occupy  a  middle  ftation  : 
their  feed  makes  them  more  fcvere  than  other  legumi- 
nous crops  cut  green  ;  tlieir  leaves,  which  grow  till 
reaping,  make  them  lefs  fcvere  than  a  culmiferous 
plant  left  to  ripen. 

Thefe  plants  arc  dirtinguifhed  no  lefs,  remarkably  by 
the  following  circiunflance.  All  the  feeds  of  a  culmife- 
rous plant  ripen  at  the  fame  time.  As  foon  as  they  be- 
gin to  form,  the  plant  becomes  flationary,  the  leaves 
wither,  the  roots  ceafe  to  pulh,  and  the  plant  when  cut 
down  is  blanched  and  faplefs.  The  feeds  of  a  legumi- 
nous plant  are  formed  luccelfivtly  :  flowers  and  fruit 
appear  at  the  fame  time  in  different  parts  of  the  plant. 
This  plant  accordingly  is  continually  growing,  and 
pufliing  its  roots.  Hence  the  value  of  bean  or  peafc 
flraw  above  that  of  wheat  or  oats  :  the  latter  is  withe- 
red and  dry  when  the  crop  is  cut  ;  the  former,  green 
and  fucculent.  The  difference  therefore,  with  refpedt 
to  the  foil,  bet  ween  a  culmiferous  and  leguminous  crop, 
is  great.  The  latter,  growing  till  cut  down,  keeps  the 
ground  in  conffant  motion,  and  leaves  it  to  the  plough 
loofc  and  mellow.  The  former  gives  over  growing 
long  before  reaping  ;  and  the  ground,  by  want  of  mo- 
tion, turns  compait  and  hard.  Nor  is  this  all.  Dew 
falling  on  a  culmiferous  crop  after  the  ground  begins 
to  harden,  refls  on  the  furfacc,  and  is  fucked  up  by 
t!"ie  next  fun.  Dew  that  falls  on  a  leguminous  crop,  is 
fiiaded  from  the  fun  by  the  broad  leaves,  and  finks  at 
leifure  into  the  ground.  The  ground  accordingly,  af- 
ter a  culmiferous  crop,  is  not  only  hard,  but  dry  :  af- 
ter a  leguminous  crop,  it  is  not  only  loofe,  but  foft 
and  undluous. 

Of  all  culmiferous  plants,  wheat  is  the  mofl  fcvere, 
by  the  long  time  it  occupies  the  ground  without  ad- 
mitting a  plough.  And  as  the  grain  is  heavier  than 
that  of  barley  or  oats,  it  probably  requires  more  nou- 
rifliment  than  either.  It  is  obferved  above,  that  as 
peafe  and  beans  draw  part  of  their  nourifhment  from 
the  air  by  their  green  leaves  while  allowed  to  fland, 
they  draw  the  lefs  from  the  ground  ;  and  by  their  con- 
flant  growing  they  leave  it  in  good  condition  for  fub- 
fequent  crops.  In  both  refpefls  they  are  preferable 
to  any  culmiferous  crop. 

Culmiferous  crops,  as  obferved  above,  are  not  rob- 
bers when  cut  green;  the  foil,  far  from  hardening,  is 

kept 


Part  II. 

Pr  aft  ice. 


A     G     R     I     C     U 


kept  ill  conftant  motion  by  the  pulhing  cf  the  roots, 
and  is  left  more  tender  than  if  it  had  been  left  ut  rcfl 
without  any  bearing  crop. 

Bulbous-rooted  plants  are  above  all  fuccefsful  in  di- 
viding and  pulverizing  the  foil.  Potato-roots  grow 
lix,  eight,  or  ten  inches  under  the  fnrface  ;  and,  by 
their  lize  and  number,  they  divide  and  pulvcri/.c  tlie 
foil  better  than  can  be  done  by  the  plough  ;  confequent- 
ly,  v/hattvcr  be  the  natural  colour  of  the  foil,  it  is 
tilack  when  a  poiatoc-crop  is  taken  up.  The  potato, 
however,  witli  refpcdl  to  its  quality  of  dividing  the 
foil,  mult  yield  to  a  carrot  or  parfnip  ;  which  arc  large 
roots,  and  pierce  often  to  the  depth  of  i8  inches. 
The  turnip,  by  its  tap-root,  divides  the  foil  more  than 
can  be  done  by  a  fibrous-rooted  plant ;  but  as  its  bul- 
bous root  grows  inoftly  above  ground,  it  divides  the 
foil  lefs  than  the  potato,  the  carrot,  or  the  parfnip. 
Red  clover,  in  that  refpeft,  may  be  put  in  the  fame 
clafs  with  turnip. 

AVhctherpotatoesor  turnip  be  the  more  gentle  crop, 
appears  a  puzzling  quefiion.  The  former  bears  feed, 
and  probably  draws  more  nouriihmcnt  from  the  foil 
than  the  latter,  when  cut  green.  On  the  other  hand, 
potatoesdivide  the  foil  more  than  turnip,  and  leave  it 
more  loofe  and  friable.  It  appears  no  Icfs  puzzling, 
to  determine  between  cabbage  and  turnip  :  the  former 
draws  more  of  its  nourilhraent  from  the  air,  the  latter 
leaves  the  foil  more  free  and  open. 

The  refult  of  the  whole  is  what  follows  :  Culmi- 
ferous  plauts  are  robbers;  forae  more,  fonic  lefs:  they 
at  the  fame  time  bind  the  foil ;  fome  more,  fome  lefs. 
Leguminoui  plants  in  both  refpeds  are  oppolite  ;  if 
any  of  thcni  rob  the  foil,  it  is  in  a  very  ilight  degree  ; 
and  all  of  them  without  exception  loofen  the  foil.  A 
culmifcrous  crop,  however,  is  generally  the  more  pro- 
fitable :  but  few  foils  can  long  bear  the  burden  of  fuch 
crops,  unlefs  relieved  by  interjected  leguminous  crops. 
Thcfe,  on  the  other  hand,  without  a  mixture  of  cul- 
mifcrous crops,  would  foon  render  the  foil  too  loofe. 

Thefe  preliminaries  will  carry  the  farmer  fome 
length  in  direiHng  a  proper  rotation  of  crops.  Where 
dung,  lime,  or  other  manure,  can  be  procured  in  plen- 
ty to  recruit  the  foil  after  fcvcrc  cropping,  no  rotati- 
on is  more  proper  or  profitable  in  a  iirong  foil,  than 
wheat,  peafc  or  beans,  barley,  oats,  fallow.  The 
whole  farm  may  be  brought  under  this  rotation,  ex- 
cept fo  far  as  hay  is  wanted.  But  as  fuch  command 
of  manure-is  rare,  it  is  of  more  importance  to  dcicr- 
minc  what  ihould  be  the  rotation  when  no  manure  can 
be  procured  but  the  dung  colleflcd  in  the  farm.  Con- 
lidering  that  culmifcrous  crops  are  the  more  profitable 
in  rich  land,  it  would  be  proper  to  make  them  more 
frequent  than  the  other  kind.  But  as  there  arc  few 
foils  that  will  admit  fuch  frequent  culmifcrous  crops 
without  fuffering,  it  may  be  laid  down  as  a  general 
rule,  that  alternate  crops,  eulmiferous  and  legumi- 
nous, ought  to  form  the  rotation.  Nor  arc  there 
many  foils  that  will  ftand  good,  even  with  this  favour- 
able rotation,  unlefs  relieved  from  time  tu*imtby  pa- 
fluring  a  few  years.  If  fuch  extended  rotation  be  art- 
fully carried  on,  crops  without  end  may  be  obtained 
in  a  tolerable  good  foil,  without  any  manure  but  what 
is  produced  in  the  farm. 

It  isftarce  necclliiry  to  be  mentioned,  being  known 
to  every  farmer  that  clay  anlwcrs  belt  for  wheat, 


L    T     U     R     E.  309 

moilt  clay  for  beans,  loant  for  barley  and  peafe,  light   Pr»flicc. 
foil  for  turnip,  fandy  foil  for  rye  and  biickwrat  j  and         _'~~' 
that  oats  thrive  betttr  in  coarfe  foil  than  any  o'l'tf  Tlie  niiurc 
grain.     Now,  in  directing  a  rotation,  it  is  not  fuffi-of  foil  cnn- 
cient  that  a  eulmiferous  crop  be  always  fuctecded  by  a  fidcrcrcd, 
leguminous :  attention  mufl  alfo  be  given,  that  no  crop  with  re- 
be  introduced  that  is  unfit  for  the  foil.     Wheat,  being  K»''d  'o  ''•« 
a  great  Liinder,  requires  more  than  any  other  crop  ^ '■0""''°  " 
leguminous  crop  to  follow.     But  every  fuch  crop  is    "    ' 
not  proper  :  potatoes  are  the  greatcfl  openers  of  foil ; 
but  they  arc  inij'roper  in  a  v/hcat  foil.     Neither  will 
turnip  anfwcr,  bccaufc  it  requires  a  light  foil.    A  very 
loofe  foil,  after  a  crop  of  rye,  requires  rye-grafs  to  bind 
it,  or  the  treading  of  cattle  in  pafluring:  but  to  bind 
the  foil,  wheat  mull  not  be  ventured  ;  for  it  fucceeds 
ill  in  loofe  foil. 

Another  confideration  of  moment  in 'directing  tlic- 
rotation,  is  to  avoid  crops  that  encourage  weeds.  Peafc 
is  the  fittcit  of  all  crops  for  fuccccding  to  wheat,  bc- 
caufc it  renders  the  ground  loofe  and  mtllow,  and  the 
fame  foil  agrees  with  both.  But  beware  of  peafe,  un- 
lefs the  foil  be  left  by  the  wheat  pcrfeftly  free  of  weeds; 
becaufc  peafc,  if  not  ;ai  extraordinary  crop,  foftcr 
weeds.  Barley  may  be  ventured  after  v  heat,  if  the 
farmer  be  unwilling  to  lofc  a  crop.  It  is  indeed  a  rob- 
ber ;  better,  however,  any  crop,  than  run  the  hazzrd 
of  poifoning  the  foil  with  weeds.  But  to  prevent  the 
necelTity  of  barley  after  wheat,  the  land  ought  to  be 
fallowed  before  the  wheat  :  it,clcans  the  ground  tho- 
roughly, and  makes  peafe  a  fecure  crop  after  wheat. 
And  after  a  good  crop  of  peafe,  barley  never  fails.  A 
horfe-hoed  crop  of  turnip  is  equal  to  a  fallow  for  root- 
ing out  weeds  -,  but  turnip  does  not  fuit  land  that  is 
proper  for  wheat.  Cabbage  does  well  in  wheat  foil : 
and  a  horfe-hocd  crop  of  cabbage,  which  eradicates 
weeds,  is  a  good  preparation  for  wheat  to  be  fuccced- 
cd  by  peafe  ;  and  a  crop  of  beans  diligently  hand- 
hoed,  isin  that  view  little  inferior.  As  red  clover  re- 
quires the  ground  to  be  perfectly  clean,  a  good  crop 
of  it  enfures  wheat,  and  next  peafc.  In  loam,  a  drill- 
ed crop  of  turnip  or  potatoes  prepares  the  ground,  c- 
qual  to  a  fallow,  for  the  fame  fuccellion. 

Another  rule  is,  to  avoid  a  frequent  repetition  of 
tlic  fame  fpecics  ;  for  to  produce  good  crops,  change 
of  fpecics  is  no  lefs  nccelfary  than  change  of  feed. 
The  fame  fpecics  returning  evefy  fecond  or  thirdyear, 
will  infallibly  degenerate,  and  he  a  fcanty  crop.  This 
is  remarkably  the  cafe  of  red  clover.  Nor  will  our 
fields  bear  pleafantly  perpetual  crops  of  wheat  after 
fallow,  which  is  the  praifticc  of  fome  Engliih  farmers. 

Hithertoof  rotation  in  the  fame  field.  Wc  add  one 
rule  concerning  rotation  in  dit!ercnt  fields  ;  which  is 
to  avoid  crow^ling  crops  one  after  another  in  point  of 
time  ;  but  to  chcofc  fuch  as  admit  intervals  fufficicnt 
for  lefurcly  dreliing,  which  gives  opportunity  to  ma- 
nage all  with  the  fame  hands,  and  with  the  fame  cat- 
tle ;  for  example,  beans  in  January  or  F'ebruary,  peafc 
and  oats  in  March,  barley  and  p>ratoes  in  Api-il,  tur- 
nip in  June  or  July,  wheat  and  Rye  in  Odobir.  ,jg 

Forilluflrating  the  foregoing  rul»s,  a  fcwinftanccs  Exception- 
of  exceptionable  rotations  will  not  be  thought  amifs.  able  rou- 
Thefoliowiugis  an  ufual  lotation  in  Norfolk.     Firfl,  ''>'">• 
wheat  after  red  clover.  Secondly,  barley.  Third,  tur- 
nip.    Fourth,  barley  with  red  clover.     Fifth,  clover 
cnt  for  hay.     Sixtii,  a  feconj  year's  crop  of  clover 
3  commonly 


3'o 


AGRICULTURE. 


Part  I  r. 


I'raaice.    conimoiil/paflurcc!.     l^ung  is  jrivcn  to  the  wheat  and 

'       ^' '  tuniij). — ,-Vgiiall  this  i-otatioii  itvcrdl  oijcctio.is  lie. 

Barley  ay  cr  wheat  is  iiUiiropcr.  Tlie  two  crops  of  lur- 
Icy  are  too  near  together.  The  fecoiiJ  crop  of  clover 
null  be  very  bad,  if  pulliirin;;  be  the  belt  way  of  coii- 
iumiiig  it;  and  if  bad  it  ii  a  great  ciicoiirajrer  of 
weeds.  But  the  llroiigell  objec-tioii  i:-;,  that  red  clover 
repeated  fo  frequently  i:i  the  faiue  field  cauiiot  fsll  to 
degenerate  ;  and  of  tliib  the  Norfolk  farmers  bc^jin  to 
be  feillitik. — balioii  in  hall  Lotliian  is  a  ciay  foil ; 
a:id  the  rotation  there  is,  Wiieat  after  fallow  and  dun;;. 
Second,  barley  afier  two  plou;;liings  ;  the  one  before 
winter,  the  other  imnitdiately  before  the  feed  is  fown. 
Third,  oats.  Fourth,  peafe.  Fifth,  barley.  Sixth, 
o.its  :  and  then  lallow.  This  rotation  conlilts  cliieHy 
of  robbing  crops.  Peafe  are  the  only  legnniinoiis 
crop,  which  even  with  the  fallow  is  not  fiiihcient  to 
loofcn  a  llirf'lbil.      But  the  foil  is  good,  which  in  fome 

nieafure  hides  the  badnefs  of  the  rotation About 

Seaton,  and  all  the  way  from  Prellon  to  Gosford,  ihe 
ground  is  flill  more  feverely  handled  :  wheat  after  fa!  - 
low  and  dung,  barley,  oats,  peafe,  u  heat,  barley,  oats, 
and  then  anoilur  fallow.  The  foil  is  excellent ;  and 
it  ought  indeed  to  be  lb,  to  fiipport  many  rounds  of  fuch 
cropping. 

In  the  pariilies  of  Tranent,  Abcrlady,  Dirlcton, 
North-Berwick,  and  .'UhelAoncfoord,  the  following 
rotations  were  formerly  iiniverfal,  and  to  this  day  are 
imich  more  frequent  than  any  other  mode. 

1 .  .-^I'ter  f.dlow  with  dung,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  peafe 
and  beans,  barley,  cats,  wheat. 

2.  After  fallow  and  dung,  barley,  oats,  peafe  and 
bean?,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  peafe,  wheat. 

3.  After  fallow  and  dung,  Vi  heat  oats,  peafe,  barley, 
oats,  wheat. 

4  After  fallowand<liing,  barley,  oats,  beans, wlieat, 
peafe,  barley,  oats. 

In  the  feveral  Tours  of  Young,  the  itinerant  farmer, 
are  found,  in  the  bell  counties  of  England,  examples 
without  end,  of  rotations  no  lefs  exceptionable  than 
many  of  ihofe  mentioned, 
ot  Where  a  field  is  laid  down  for  pallure  in  order  to 
ft  be  recruited,  it  is  commonly  left  in  ihat  Hate  for  many 
in  years;  for  it  is  the  univerfal  oi'iniun,  that  the  longer 
it  lies,  the  richer  it  becomes  for  bearing  cor .1.  This 
may  be  true  ;  but  in  order  to  determine  the  mode  of 
cropping,  the  impoi  tani  point  is,  what  upon  the  whole 
is  the  moll  proiitiblc  rotation  ;  not  what  may  prodiice 
luxuriant  crops  at  a  dii'ant  period.  Upon  that  point, 
it  may  be  atRrmed,  that  the  fanner  who  keeps  a  field 
in  palture  beyond  a  certain  time,  lofes  tveiy  year  con- 
■(ideiv.bly  ;  and  tliat  a  few  luxuriant  crops  of  corn,  af- 
ter 20  years  of  paflare,  and  Hill  more  after  30,  will  not 
make  up  the  lofs. 

Pa!hirc-graf-.,whi'eyoung,  maintains,  many  animals; 
and  the  field  i>  greatly  recruited  by  what  they  diop  ; 
it  is  even  recruited  by  hay  crops,  provided  he  gr:  is  be 
cut  before  fecdine.  But  as  old  grafs  yiddi  little  pro- 
fit, tlic  field  ought  to  be  t.kcn  up  for  corn  when  the 
pail' re  begins  to  fail ;  an  J  after  a  few  crops,  it  ou^ht 
to  be  laid  down  again  with  prtls-fecds.  Seduced  l>y 
a  chiiutric3lnotio:;,tliatafirtd,  by  frequent  corn-f-rops, 
is  n.i'g.ipu  aid  reqiiTCs  veil  like  a  1  ibouiing  i;.an  or 
animal,  .-arehl  fanucis  give  long  vc''.  to  their  fields  by 
paftur*,  m.  ver  adverting  that  it  aiior-Js  little  profit.    It 


i?9 

Fields  11 
to  be  h 

too  lollj 

pallurc 


ought  to  be  their  fludy,  to  improve  their  foil;   by  ma-    Praflic*. 

king  it  free,  and  alio  reieniivc  of  moillure.     Jf  they  " <^ — ■ 

acconiplilh  thefc  ends,  they  need  not  be  afraid  of  ex- 
hauUing  the  loil  by  cropping.  j^^ 

\\  here  a  farmer  has  acccfs  to  no  manure  but  what  Exanii)lcs 
is  his  own  production,  the  cafe  under  conlideraiiou,  "/ rot;i- 
ihM-e  arc  various  lotations  of  crops,  all  of  them  good,  •'"!'»• 
though  perh.ips  not  equally  fo.      VV  c  Ihall  bigiu  with 
two  examples,  one  in  clay,  and  one  in  free  liul,  each 
ot  the  farms  90  a^res.   Six  acres  are  to  be  inclofed  for 
a  kitchen-garjen,  in  which  there  mull  be  annually  a 
crop  of  red  clover,  for  fumnicr-food  to  the  working 
cattle.     As  there  arc  annually  12  acres  in  hay,  and  12 
in  pallure,  a  linglc  plough  with  good  cattle  will  be 
fufiicicnt  to  command  the  remaininir  60  acres. 

o 

«]  Rotation  ill  a  clay  foil. 


£>!   1775- 

1776. 

1777- 

1778. 

1779. 

17S0. 

I.  Fallow. 

Wheat. 

Peafe. 

Barley. 

Hay. 

Oats. 

2.  Wheat. 

Peafe. 

Barley. 

Hay. 

Oats. 

Fallow. 

3.;Peafe. 

IJarlcy. 

Hay. 

Oats. 

Fallow. 

Wheat. 

4.  'Barley. 

Hay. 

Oats. 

Fal  low. 

Wheat. 

Peafe. 

S.lH:y. 

Oats. 

Fallow. 

Wheat. 

Peafe. 

Barley. 

6.  Oais. 

Fallow. 

Wheat.  Peafe. 

Barley. 

Hay. 

7.  ^Pallure. 

Pallure. 

Pallure. 

Pa  flu  re. 

Pallure. 

Pallure 

M'hen  the  rotation  is  completed,  the  feventh  inclo- 
fure  having  been  lix  years  in  palture,  is  ready  to  be  ta- 
ken up  for  a  rotation  of  crops  which  begins  with  oits 
in  the  year  1781,  and  proceeds  as  in  the  lixth  inclo- 
fure.  In  the  fame  year  1781,  the  fifth  inclofure  is 
made  pallure,  for  which  it  is  prepared  by  lowing  pa- 
llurc grafs  feeds  with  the  barley  of  the  year  17S0.  And 
in  this  manner  may  ihe  rotation  be  carried  on  without 
end.  Here  the  labour  is  equally  dillributed  ;  and  there' 
is  no  hurry  nor  confulion.  But  the  chief  property  of 
this  rotation  is,  that  two  culmifcrous  or  white-corn 
crops  arc  never  found  together  :  by  a  due  mixture  of 
crops,  the  foil  is  prcferved  in  good  heart  without  any 
adventitious  manure.  At  the  fame  time,  the  land  is 
always  producing  plentiful  crops  :  neiihcrhay  iiorpa- 
flure  get  time  to  degenerate.  The  wlude  dung  is  laid 
upon  the  fallow. 

Evcrv  farm  that  takes  a  grafs- crop  into  the  rotation 
mull  be  iiic'ofed,  which  ii  peculiarly  necelfary  in  a  clay 
foil,  as  nothing  is  more  hur iful  to  clay  than  poaching 


Rotation  in  a  jree  foil. 


£.1   I77y.   I  I77f^. 

1.  Turnip.  Barley. 

2.  Ifia:  ley.  .Hay. 
5.. Fay.       Oats. 
4.!oats.     iKallow. 
5.!Ka'low.jWheat. 
6.!v\'heat.  Turnip. 


1777- 
Hay. 
Cats, 
t'allow 
\\  heat. 


1778. 
Oats. 
tallow. 
Wheat, 
rurnip. 


7-i 


Pailure.Pallure. 


Turnip. iHarlev. 

Psrley.'Hay.' 
Pallure. 'Paflure. 


1779- 
Fallow. 
Wheat. 
I'uriiip. 
Barley. 
Hay. 
Oats. 
Paflure. 


T7S0. 
Wheat. 
Fiirnip. 
Kai  icy. 
Way. 
Oats. 
Fallow. 
Paihirc. 


For  the  next  rotation  rthefcvenih  inclofure  is  taken 
np  for  corn,  beginning  with  an  oat-crop,  and  procccd- 
in<\;  in  the  orri'-r  of  the  fourth  inclofure  j  in  place  of 
wiii'  h,  the  thir!  inclofirc  is  l?.id  down  for  p..Ihire  by 
fowingpa  ure-gralTcs  wi;h  the  l)il  'rrop  in  that  inclo- 
fure, being  barley.     This  rotation  has  alltheadvnnta- 

ges 


Part  ir. 


A     G     K     I     C     U     L    T     U     11     E. 


3'i 


I'raaicc.   gesof  the  former.    Here  the  Jun^;  is  employed  oii  the 

>< —    tur:iip-crop. 

We  proceed  to  ronfider  what  rotation  is  proper  for 
carfe  clay.  Tlic  f.irni  uc  piopofc  co.ilifts  of  73  acres. 
Nine  irt  10  be  i.iclofcd  tor  a  kitchen  (garden,  affording 
plenty  of  red  clover  to  be  cutgreen  for  the  farni-caitlc. 
The  rc;naini:i5  64  acres  arc  divided  into  four  inclo- 
furei,  16  acres  each,  to  be  cropped  as  in  the  follow- 
ing table. 

I77!'-         1777- 


I77>- 


Beans.    '  Barley, 
buley.  j  Hay. 
ILy.  Oits. 

Udti.      I  lieans. 


1773. 


May.      ';  Oats. 
Oats,      i  Bc.'.ns. 
Beans.   1  Barley. 
Barley,  j  Hay. 


Here  the  dung  ouoht  to  be  applied  to  tlie  barley. 

Many  other  rotations  may  be  contrived,  keeping  to 
the  rules  above  laid  down.  Kallow,  for  exam  pie,  wheat, 
peafc  and  beans,  barley,  cabbage,  o  'ts,  for  clay.  Here 
dung  nmll  be  given  both  to  t'le  wiieat  and  cabbage. 
For  free  foil,  drilled  turnip,  btrlcy,  red  clover,  wheat 
upon  a  fingle  furrow,  drilled  potatoes,  oats.  Both 
the  turnip  and  potatoes  moll  have  dung.  Another  for 
free  foil  :  turnip  drilled  and  dunged,  red  clover,  wheat 
on  a  fingle  furrow  with  dung,  pcafe,  barley,  potatoes, 
oats.  The  following  rotation  has  proved  fucccfstul  in 
a  foil  proper  for  wheat,  i .  Oats  with  red  clover,  after 
fallow,  without  dung.  2.  Hay.  The  clover-flnbblc 
dunged,  and  wheat  fown  the  end  of  October  with  a 
fingle  furrow.  3.  Wheat.  4.  Peafe.  5.  Barley.  rV.l- 
low  ag.iin.  Oats  are  taken  the  tinl  crop,  tofave  the 
dung  for  the  wheat.  Oats  always  thriveon  a  fallow, 
though  without  dung,  which  is  not  the  cafe  of  barley. 
But  barley  fcldom  fails  after  peafc.  In  ftrong  clay 
foil,  the  following  rotation  anfwcrs.  i.  Wheat  after 
fallow  and  dung.  2.  Beans  fown  under  furrow  asearly 
as  pofliblc.  Above  the  beans,  low  pcafe  end  of  March, 
half  a  boll  per  acre,  and  harrow  them  in.  The  two 
grains  will  ripen  at  the  fame  time.  3.  Oats  or  barley 
on  a  winter  furrow  with  grafs-fceds.  4.  Hay  for  one 
year  or  two;  the  fccond  growth  pallured.  Lay  what 
dung  can  be  fpared  on  the  hay  Hubble,  and  fow  wheat 
with  a  fingle  furrow,  j.  Wheat.  6.  Beans  or  pcafe. 
7.  Oats.     Fallow  again. 

Sect.  V'I.  Of  Reaping  Corn   and  Hay  Crops,  and 
Storing  thiin  upjor  up. 

191 

Ofripcncfs.  Cclmiferous  plants  arc  ripe  when  the  ftcm  is  to- 
tally white  :  they  are  not  fully  ripe  if  any  green  llrcaks 
remain.  Some  fanners  arc  of  opinion,  that  wh^at  ought 
to  be  cut  before  it  is  fully  ripe.  Their  reafons  are, 
lird,  that  ripe  wheat  is  apt  to  ih.ikc  ;  and  next,  that 
the  ifour  is  not  lb  good.  With  rcfpecl  to  the  lall,  it  is 
contrary  to  nature,  that  any  feed  can  be  better  in  an 
unripe  (late  than  when  brought  to  perfection  :  nor 
will  it  be  found  fo  upon  trial.  With  rcfpeJl  to  the 
firft,  wheat,  at  tlic  point  of  ptrfeclion,  is  not  more  apt 
to  (hake  than  for  fome  days  before  :  the  hmk  begins 
not  to  open  till  after  the  feed  is  fully  ripe  ;  and  then 
tlic  furtcring  the  crop  to  ftand  becomes  ticklilh  :  after 
the  minute  of  ripening,  it  Ihould  be  cut  down  in  an 
inllaiu,  if  poUible.  2 


Thii  leads  totiie  hands  tliat  are  connionly  engaged   Pr3ai..f. 

to  cut  down  corn.     In  ScotUnd,  the  univcrfal   prac- ' 

lice  was,  to  provide  a  number  of  hands,  in  proportion  q^  ^*  j„ 
to  the  extent  of  the  crop,  without  regard  to  the  time 
of  ripening.  By  this  method,  the  reapers  were  often 
idle  lor  want  of  Work;  and  what  is  much  worfc,  they 
had  often  more  work  than  they  could  overtake,  and 
ripe  fields  were  laid  open  toihaking  w  !ids.  The  Lo- 
thianshavc  long  enjoyed  weekly  ma:  kcis  for  reapers, 
where  a  farmer  can  provide  hiuifdf  with  the  number 
he  wants  ;  and  this  practice  iscrcCfiiiigiiuo  neighbour- 
ing (hires.  Where  there  is  no  opportunity  of  fu.h 
markets,  neighbouring  farmers  ought  to  agree  inbor- 
rowinjr  and  lending  their  reapers. 

Oac  liiould  iiuagine,  that  a  caution  againft  cutting 
corn  when  \\ct  is  unneceifary  ;  yet  from  the  impatience 
of  farmers  to  prevent  ihaking,  no  caveat  is  more  (i). 
Why  do  they  notconlider,  that  cot  a  Handing  dries  in 
hall  a  day  ;  when,  in  a  clofe  ihcaf,  the  weather  muft 
be  f  ivourablc  if  it  dry  iu  a  month  .'  in  iiioill  weather  it 
will  never  dry.  j^j 

VV  iih  refpeci  to  the  mUnner  of  rurring,  we  rauft  pre-  JViinurcf 
mile,  that  barley  is  of  all  the  moi;  iliiicult  grain  to  be  cu't'os- 
dried  for  keeping.  Having  no  hulk,  rain  has  eafy 
accefs  ;  and  it  lias  a  tendency  to  maltcn  when  wet. 
Where  ihcgrouud  is  properly  fmoothed  by  rolling,  it 
feeins  belt  to  cut  it  down  with  the  fey  the.  This  man- 
nerbcingmore  expeditious  than  the  fickle,  removes  it 
fcoucr  from  danger  of  wind  ;  and  gives  a  third  more 
ftraw,  which  is  a  capital  article  for  dung,  where  a  farm 
is  at  a  diltance  from  other  manure.  W  e  except  only 
corn  that  lia->  lodged;  for  ihcietlie  fickle  is  more  con- 
venient thin  the  fcythe.  As  it  ought  to  be  dry  w  hen 
cut,  bind  it  up  directly:  if  allowed  to  He  any  time  in 
the  fwalh,  it  is  apt  to  be  difcolourcd. — Barley  fo\v:i 
with  grafs-fceds,  red  clover  efpecially,  requires  a  c'if- 
ferent  management.  Where  the  grafs  is  cut  along 
with  it,  the  ditficnlty  is  great  of  getting  it  fo  dry  as 
to  be  ventured  in  a  ftack.  The  bell  way  is,  to  cut  the 
barley  with  a  lickls  above  the  clover,  fo  as  that  no- 
thing but  clean  barley  is  bound  up.  Cut  with  a  fcythe 
the  Itubblc  and  grafs  :  they  make  excellent  wintir- 
food.  The  fame  method  is  applicable  to  oats  ;  with 
this  only  difference,  that  when  the  field  is  expofed  to 
the  fouth-weft  wind,  it  is  lefs  necclfary  to  bind  imme- 
diately after  mowing.  As  wheat  commonly  grows 
higher  than  any  other  grain,  it  is  difficult  to  manage 
it  with  the  fcythe  ;  for  which  rcafun  the  iicklcis  pre- 
ferred in  England.  Peafe  and  beans  grow  fo  irregu- 
larly, as  to  make  the  fickle  nccellary.  , 

The  befl  way  for  drying  pcafe,  is  to  keep  feparate  Dr>-  ;:.'cl 
the  handfuls  that  arc  cut :  tiioiigh  in  this  way  they  wet  pcafe. 
ealily,  they  dry  as  foon.  Jn  the  common  way  of  heap- 
ing pcafe  together  for  compoling  a  llieaf,  they  wet  as 
caiily,  and  dry  not  near  fofoon.  With  refpca  tobeans, 
the  top  of  the  handful  laft  cut,  ought  to  be  laid  on  the 
bottom  of  the  t'ormcr  ;  which  gives  ready  accefs  to  the 
wind.  By  this  method  peifc  and  beans  arc  ready  for 
the  (tack  in  half  the  ordinary  time.  19c 

A  Ihcaf  commonly  is  made  as  large  as  can  be  con-  Size  of 
tained  in  two  Icngthsof  thcrorn  inadtinto  a  rope.    To  fb'»»t»- 
favefrequeiu  tying,  thebiuder  prelfesit  down  with  !iis 
knee, and  binds  it  fo  hard  as  totally  to  exclude  the  air, 
If  there  bf  any  moillure  in  t lie  crop,  which  feldom  fails, 
a  proccfs  of  fermentation  aud  putrcfaCilion  commences 

ia. 


312 


A     G     R     I     C     U     L     1'     U     R     E. 


Part  II. 


196 

Carrying 

AfTlhc 

viAuaL 


197 
StacViiij 


Covering 
the  iUcks. 


in  the  fhcai" ;  wliicli  is  pcrfcv-TcJ  i.i  ilic  flack,  totiic 
dcrtnii-Tiion  both  of  corn  and  firaw.  How  llupij  is  it, 
to  majcc  tlif  lizc  of  allicif  depend  on  the  hcigiitof  tiic 
plants  !  By  that  rule,  a  ^vhcat-flicaf  is  conunoiily  (o 
ucigliiy,  ax  to  be  unmanageable  by  ordinary  arms  :  it 
requires  an  ttiort  to  move  it,  that  frcqni  ntly  birds  tlie 
knot,  and  occafions  lofs  of  grain,  bcfiJt  tiic  trouble  of 
a  fecond  tying.  Sheaves  ought  never  to  be  larger  than 
can  be  contained  in  one  length  of  the  plant,  cut  clofe 
to  the  ground  ;  without  admhting  any  exception,  if 
the  plants  be  above  eighteen  inches higii.  Thebind- 
er's  arms  then  can  coniprefsthclhcaffutficicntly,  with- 
out need  of  his  knee.  The  additional  hands  that  this 
way  of  binding  may  require,  are  not  to  be  regarded, 
compared  with  the  advantage  of  drying  foon.  Corn 
thus  managed  may  be  ready  for  the  ilack  in  a  week  ; 
it  feldom  in  the  ordinary  way  requires  lefs  than  afort- 
iiight,  and  frequently  longer.  Of  a  fniall  flicaf  coui- 
prelled  by  the  arm  only,  the  air  pervades  every  part  ; 
nor  is  it  fo  apt  to  be  loofcd  as  a  large  flicaf,  how- 
ever lirmly  bound.  We  omit  the  gathering  of  Iheavcs 
into  ijtocks,  becaufc  the  coriimon  method  is  good, 
which  is  to  place  ihciliocks  directed  to  thcfouth-wcft, 
in  order  to  refill  the  force  of  the  wind.  Five  llieaves 
on  each  fide  make  a  fufficient  Hay  ;  and  agreater  num- 
ber cannot  be  covered  with  two  head  llieaves. 

Every  article  is  of  importance  that  haftens  the 
operation  in  a  country,  fubjecled  to  unequal  harvcll 
weather  j  for  which  reafon,  the  mofl  expeditious 
method  fliould  be  chofen  for  carrying  corn  from  the 
field  to  the  ftack-yard.  Our  carriages  are  generally 
too  fmall  or  too  large.  A  lledge  is  a  very  aakward 
machine  :  many  hands  arc  required,  and  little  progreis 
made.  Waggons  and  large  carts  are  little  lefs  dilato- 
ry, as  they  mull  ftand  in  the  yard  till  unloaded  Ihcaf 
by  flieaf.  The  bed  way  is,  to  ufe  long  carts  moveable 
upon  the  axle,  fo  as  at  once  to  throw  tiie  whole  load  on 
the  ground  ;  which  is  forked  up  to  the  flack  by  a 
hand  appointed  for  that  parpofc.  By  this  method, 
two  carts  will  do  the  work  of  four  or  live. 

Building  round  flacks  in  the  yard  is  undoubtedly 
preferable  to  houling  corn.  There  it  is  (hut  up  from 
the  air;  and  it  mull  be  exceedingly  dry,  if  itcontracl 
not  a  muflinefs,  which  is  the  tirfl  llcj)  to  putrcfadion. 
Add  to  this,  that  in  the  yard,  a  flack  is  preferved  from 
rats  and  mice,  being  lit  on  a  pedeftal  ;  whereas  no 
method  has  hitherto  been  invented  forpreferving  corn 
in  a  houfe  from  fuch  dellrudivevcrmin.  The  proper 
manner  of  building,  is  to  make  every  fheaf  incline 
downward  from  its  top  to  its  bottom.  Where  the 
Iheaves  arc  laid  hotizontally,  the  flack  will  lakein  rain 
both  above  and  below.  The  befl  form  of  a  ftack  is 
that  of  a  cone  placed  on  a  cylinder;  and  the  top  of 
the  cone  (hould  be  formed  with  three  (lieaves  drawn  to 
a  point.  If  the  upper  part  of  the  cylinder  be  a  little 
wider  than  the  under,Jo  much  the  better. 

The  delaying  to  cover  a  flack  for  two  or  three 
weeks,  thou^^h  common,  is,  however,  exceedingly  ab- 
furd  ;  for  if  much  rain  fall  in  the  interim,  it  is  beyond 
the  power  of  wind  to  dry  the  flack.  Vegetation  be- 
gun in  the  external  parts,  fluits  out  the  air  from  the 
internal  ;  and  to  prevent  a  total  puircfaflion,  the  ftack 
muflbe  thrown  down,  and  cxpofed  to  the  air,  evciy 
llieaf.  In  order  to  have  a  ftack  covered  the  moment  it 
is  fiaiflted,  ftraw  and  ropes  ought  to  be  ready  ;  and 


the    covering  ought  to  be  fo  thick  as  to  be  proof  IVaifllce. 
againil  rain.  " v 

Scotland  is  fubjefl  not  only  to  floods  of  rain,  bnt  to 
high  winds.  Good  covering  guards  againft  the  for- 
mer, and  ropes  artfully  applied  guard  againfl  the  lat- 
ter. The  following  is  a  good  mode.  Take  a  hay- 
rope  well  twilled,  and  furround  the  Hack  with  it,  two 
feet  or  fo  below  the  top.  Surround  the  flack  wiili 
another  fuch  rope  immediately  below  the  caling.  Con- 
ne6l  thcfe  two  with  ropes  in  an  up-and-down  polition, 
diftant  from  each  other  at  the  callng  about  five  or  fix 
feet.  Then  furround  the  flack  with  other  circular 
ropes  parallel  to  the  two  tirft  mentioned,  giving  them 
a  twill  round  every  one  of  thefe  that  lie  up  and  down 
by  which  the  whole  will  be  conncfted  together  in  a 
fort  of  net-work.  What  remains  is,  to  finifli  the  two 
feet  at  the  top  of  the  flack.  Let  it  be  covered  with 
bunches  of  ftrasv  laid  regularly  up  and  down  ;  the  un- 
der part  to  be  put  under  the  circular  rope  firll  men- 
tioned, which  will  keep  it  faft,  and  the  upper  part  be 
bound  by  a  fmall  rope  artfully  twilled,  commonly  call- 
ed the  crirji'ii  of  thi  pack.  This  method  is  preferable 
to  the  common  way  of  laying  long  ropes  over  the  top 
of  theflack,andtyingthem  to  the  belting-rope  ;  which 
flattens  the  top,  and  makes  it  take  in  rain.  A  flack 
covered  in  the  way  here  defcribed,  will  Hand  twoyears 
fecure  both  againfl  wind  and  rain  ;  anotablcadvantagc 
in  a  variable  climate.  ,gn 

The  great  aim  in  making  hay  is,  to  preferve  asmuch  Hay  nn- 
of  the  fap  as  poflible.  All  agree  in  this  ;  andyet  differ  king, 
widely  in  the  means  of  making  that  aim  effeclual.  To 
defcribc  all  the  different  means  would  be  equally  tedi- 
ous and  unprofitable.  We  fhall  confine  ourfelves  to 
two,  which  appear  preferable  to  all  others.  A  crop  of 
rye-grafs  and  yellow  clover  ought  to  be  fpread  as  cut. 
A  day  or  two  after,  when  the  dew  is  evaporated,  rake 
It  into  a  number  of  parallel  rows  along  the  field,  term- 
ed 'vit:d-ruw!,  for  the  convenience  of  putting  it  up  into 
fmall  cocks.  After  turning  the  rows  once  and  again, 
make  Iraall  cocks  w-eighing  a  ftone  or  two.  At  the 
diflance  of  two  days  or  fo,  put  two  cocks  into  one, 
obfcrving  always  to  mix  the  tops  and  bottoms  together, 
and  to  take  a  new  place  for  each  cock,  that  the  Icaft 
damage  poflible  may  be  done  to  the  grafs.  Proceed 
in  patting  two  cocks  into  one,  till  fufficiently  dry  for 
tramp-ricks  of  100  ftone  each.  The  eafieft  way  of 
ereifling  tramp-ricks,  is  to  found  a  rick  in  the  middle 
of  the  row  of  cocks  ihst  aretocompofe  it.  The  cocks 
may  be  carried  to  the  rick  by  two  perfons  joining  arms 
together.  When  all  the  cocks  are  thuscarricd  to  the 
rick  within  the  diftance  of  40  yards  or  fo,  the  reft  of 
the  cocks  will  be  more  expeditioufly  carried  to  the 
rick,  by  a  rope  wound  about  them  and  dragged  by  a 
horfc.  Two  ropes  are  fufKcient  to  fccurc  the  ricks 
from  wind  the  fltort  time  they  are  to  ftand  in  the  field. 
Intheyear  i77j/  10,000  ftone  were  put  into  tramp- 
ricks  the  fourth  day  after  cutting.  Inacountry  fo  wet 
as  many  parts  of  Scotland  arc,  expedition  is  of  mighty 
cosfcqiiencein  the  drying  both  of  hay  and  corn.  With 
refpefl:  to  hay  intended  for  horned  cattle,  it  is  by  the 
generality  held  an  improvement,  that  it  be  healed  a 
little  in  the  ftack.  But  we  violently  fufpedlthis  doc- 
trine to  have  been  invented  for  exculing  indolent  ma- 
nagement. An  ox,  it  is  true,  will  eat  fuch  hay  ;  but 
it  will  always  be  found  that  he  prefers  fweet  hay  ;  and 

it 


Part  II. 


AGRICULTURE. 


•»0I 
Other  me- 
thods. 
•   Etjyt  on 

vul.l.p.i86 


it  cannot  well  be  doubted,  but  that  fach  hay  is  the 
moll  falutary  and  the  mod  nourilhing. 

The  making  hay  conlifting  chiefly  of  red-clover 
requires  more  carci  The  fcal'on  of  tutting  is  the  lafl; 
week  of  June,  when  it  is  in  full  bloom  ;  earlier  it  may 
be  cut,  but  never  later.  To  cut  it  later  would  indeed 
produce  a  weightier  crop  ;  but  a  late  rirlt  cutting 
makes  the  fecond  aUb  late,  perhaps  too  late  for  drying. 
At  ihe  fame  time,  the  want  of  weight  in  an  early  tiril 
cutting,  is  amply  compcnfatcd  by  the  weight  of  the 
fecond. 

When  the  feafon  is  too  variable  for  making  hay  of 
the  fecond  growth,  mix  draw  with  that  growth,  which 
will  be  a  fubftantial  food  for  cattle  during  winter — 
This  is  commonly  done  by  laying  Urata  of  the  draw 
and  clover  alternately  in  the  dack.  But  by  this  me- 
thod, the  Arata  of  clover,  if  they  do  not  heat,  turn 
mouldy  at  lead,  and  unpalatable.  The  better  way  is, 
to  mix  them  carefully  with  the  hand  before  they  be  put 
into  the  dack.  The  dry  draw  imbibes  moidurc  from 
the  clover  and  prevents  heating. 

But  the  bedmeihod  of  hay-making  feemsto  be  that 
recommended  by  Mr  Auderfon*.  "  Indead,"  fays 
he,  "  of  allowing  the  hay  to  lie,  as  ufual  in  mod  pla- 
ces, for  fome  days  in  the  fwathe  after  it  ii  cut,  and  af- 
terwards alternatelyputting  itup  into  cocks  aud  fpread- 
ingitout,  and  tedding  it  in  the  fun,  which  tends  great- 
ly to  bleach  the  hay,  exhales  its  natural  juices,  and 
fiibjccts  it  very  much  to  the  danger  of  getting  rain, 
and  thus  runs  a  great  rilkof  bcinii  good  for  little,  I 
make  it  a  general  rule,  ifpofliblc,  never  to  cut  hay 
but  when  the  grafs  is  quite  dry  ;  and  then  make  the 
gatherers  follow  clofe  upon  the  cutters, — putting  it  up 
ininiediately  intofmall  cocks  about  three  feet  high  each. 
when  new  put  up,  and  of  as  fmall  a  diameter  as  they 
can  be  made  todand  with  ;  always  giving  each  of  them 
a  (light  kind  of  thatching,  by  drawing  a  few  hand- 
fu!s  of  the  hay  from  the  bottomof  the  cock  all  around, 
and  layingit  lightly  upon  the  top  with  one  of  the  ends 
hanging  downwards.  This  is  done  with  the  litmod 
cafe  and  expedition  ;  and  when  it  is  once  in  that  date, 
1  coniidcr  my  hay  as  in  a  great  meafure  out  of  dan- 
ger: for  unlcfs  a  violent  wind  fliould  arife  immediately 
after  the  cocks  are  put  up,  fo  as  to  overturn  them,  no- 
thingclfc  canhurt  the  hay  ;  as  I  haveofien experienced 
that  no  rain,  however  violent, ever  pen  ttratesintoihefc 
recks  but  for  a  very  little  way.  And,  if  they  are 
dry  put  up,  they  never  fit  together  fo  clofcly  as  to 
heat  ;  although  they  acquire,  in  a  day  or  two,  fuch  a 
degree  of  firmnefs,  'as  to  be  in  no  danger  ot  being  o- 
verturned  by  wind  after  that  time,  unlifs  it  blows  a 
hurricane. 

"  In  thefe  cocks  I  allow  the  hay  to  remain,  until, 
upon  infpedion,  I  judge  that  it  will  keep  in  pretty 
large  tranip-cdcks  (which  is  ufually  in  one  or  two 
Weeks,  accordingas  the  wcathcris  more  or  Icfsfavonr- 
able,  when  two  nitu,  cich  w  ith  a  long  pronged  pitch- 
Vat.  I. 


fork,  lift  up  one  of  thefe  fmall  cocks  between  them 
with  the  greated  cafe,  and  carry  "them  one  after  ano- 
ther to  the  place  where  the  tramp-cock  is  to  be  built 
(a):  and  in  this  manner  they'procccd  over  the  field  till 
the  whole  is  tinilhed.  joj 

"  The  advantages  that  attend  this  method  of  making  Advauta- 
hay,  are.  That  it  greatly  abridgesthe  labour,  as  it  does  g"  of  this 
not  require  above  the  one-half  of  the  work  that  is  nc-  n>e*''oJ> 
ceflary  in  the  old  method  of  turning  and  tedding  ir  : 
That  it  allows  the  hay  to  continue  almod  as  green  as 
when  it  is  cut,  and  preferves  its  natural  juices  in  the 
greated  perfection  ;  for,  unlefs  it  be  the  little  that  is 
expofcd  to  the  fun  and  air  upon  the  furfacc  of  the 
cocks,  which  is  no  more  bleached  than  every  draw  of 
hay  faved  in  the  ordinary  way,  the  whole  is  dried  iii 
the  mod  (low  and  equal  manner  that  could  bede(ircd  : 
and,  laftly.  That  it  is  thus  in  a  great  meafure  fecurcd 
from  almod  the  poflibility  of  being  damaged  by  rain. 
This  lad  circumilance  defervcs  to  be  much  more  at- 
tended to  by  the  farmer  'han  it  ufually  is  at  prefent  ;  a< 
I  have  feen  few  who  are  fuificicntly  aware  of  the  lou 
that  the  quality  of  thtirhay  ludains  by  receiving  a 
iliglit  lliower  alter  it  is  cut,  and  before  it  is  gathered  ; 
thegenerality  of  farmers  fecming  to  be  very  well  fatis- 
ficd  if  they  get  in  their  hay  without  being  abfolutcly 
rotted  ;  never  paying  the  leall  attention  to  its  having 
been  feveral  times  wetted  while  the  hay  was  making. 
But,  if  thefe  gentlemen  will  take  the  trouble  at  any 
time  to  compare  any  parcel  of  hay  that  has  been  made 
perfedly  dry,  with  another  parcel  from  the  fame  tielcf 
that  has  received  a  fliowcr  while  in  the  fwathe,  or  even 
a  copious  dew,  they  will  foonbe  fentiblcof  avcrymani- 
feddirterence  between  them  ;  nor  will  their  horfes or 
cattle  ever  coinmitamidake  in  cliooling  between  the 

two.  JO- 

"  Letit  be  pariicularly  remarked,  that  in  this  man-  Particular 
ner  of  making  hay,  great  care  mud  be  taken  that  it  be  "ution  re. 
dry  when  fird  put  into  the  cocks  ;  for,  if  it  is  in  the  q"ifi'= '" 
lead  degree  wet  at  that  time,  it  will  tu^-n  indantlv 'l","'" 
mouldy,  and  lit  together  lo  as  to  become  totally  imper- 
vious to  the  air,  and  will  never  afterw:irds  btcomc  dry 
till  it  is  fpread  out  to  the  fun.  For  this  reafon,  if  at 
any  time  during  a  courlc  of  gooil  fettled  weather  yon 
fliould  begin  to  cut  in  the  morning  before  the  dew  is  olf 
the  grafs,  keep  bark  the  gatherers  till  the  dew  is  eva- 
porated ;  allowing  that  which  was  fird  cut  to  lie  till  it 
is  dry  before  it  is  cocked.  In  this  cafe,  you  will  al- 
mod always  find  that  the  uncut  grafs  '.vill  dry  foonr r 
than  that  which  has  been  cut  when  wet  ;  and,  there- 
fore, the  gatherers  may  always  begin  to  pnt  up  that 
which  is  frefh  cut  betorc  tlieothcr;  which  will  Qf.ially 
require  twoor  three  hours  to  dry  after  tlicnew-cut  hay 
may  be  cocked.  And  if,  at  any  time,  in  cafe  of  nc- 
celfity,yon(hould  be  obliged  to  cut  your  hay  before  iti< 
dry,  the  fame  rule  mud  be  obfcrvcd,  alwMjs  to  alluw 
it  to  remain  in  the  fwathe  till  it  is  qiite  dry  :  but,  p^ 
there  is  :i;w  j\  s  a  great  ri(k  of  being  long  in  getting  it 
R  r  up 


(a)  If  the  hay  is  to  be  carried  to  any  confiderahlc  didancc,  this  part  of  the  laboarmay  be  great'  '., 

by  caufing  the  carriers  take  two  long  dicks  of  a  fufiicient  ftrength,  and  having  laid  them  down  i      ::l 

c<J:ks  psralkl  to  oiic  another,  at  the  didancc  of  otic  and  a  half,  or  two  feet  afandcr,  let  them  lift  t!:;".- ^r  four 
cocks,  one  aftcranother,  and  place  them  c.iicfully  above  the  dicks,  and  then  carry  them  ahojtthcr,  :.i  if  rpc» 
a  hand-barrow,  to  the  place  where  the  large  rick  is  to  be  built. 


314 


AGRICULTURE. 


Part  II.. 


rraclicf.   up,  aiiil  iis  it  iitvcr  ill  this  cafe  wi/is  (a)  fo  kindly  as 

—  ~ '  if  it  had  been  dry  cut,  the  farmer  ought  to  endeavour, 

if  poffible,  in  all  cafes,  to  cut  his  hay  only  when  dry  ; 
even  if  it  (Iwuld  coll  him  feme  additional  expcncc  to 
the  cutters,  by  keeping  them  employed  at  any  other 
work,  or  even  allowing  them  to  remain  idle,  if  the 
weather  fliould  be  variable  or  rainy. 

"  But  if  there  is  a  great  proportion  of  clover,  and 
the  weather  IhoulJ  chance  to  be  clofc  and  calm  at  the 
time,  it  may,  on  fume  occafions,  be  nccelfary  toopcn 
up  thefc  cocks  a  little,  to  admit  fome  frelh  air  into 
them  ;  in  which  cafe,  after  they  have  flood  a  day  or 
two,  it  maybe  of  great  ufe  to  turn  thefe  cocks  aiulo- 
pen  them  up  a  little,  which  ought  to  be  done  in  the 
driefl  time  of  the  day  ;  the  operator  taking  that  part  of 
each  cock  which  was  the  top,  and  with  it  forming  the 
bale  of  a  new  one;  fo  that  the  part  which  was  moll  ex- 
pofed  to  the  air  becomes  excluded  from  it,  and  that 
which  wasundcrmoflcomes  to  be  placed  upon  the  top, 
fo  as  to  make  it  all  dry  as  equally  as  poflible. 

*'\i  the  hay  has  not  been  damp  when  it  was  firfl 
put  up,  the  cock  may  be  immediately  iinilhed  out  at 
once  ;  but  if  it  is  at  all  wet,  ii  will  be  of  great  ufe  to 
turn  over  only  a  little  of  the  top  of  tiie  cock  at  firll,  and 
leaving  it  in  that  ftate  to  dry  a  little,  proceed  to  ano- 
ther, and  a  third,  and  fourth,  &c.  treating  each  in 
the  fame  way  ;  going  on  in  that  manner  till  you  find 
that  the  infide  of  the  firfl  opened  cock  is  fuffitiently 
tiried,  when  it  will  be  proper  to  return  to  it,  turning 
over  a  little  more  of  it  till  you  come  to  what  is  Hill 
damp,  when  you  leave  it  and  proceed  to  another,  and 
fo  on  round  the  whole  ;  always  returning  afredi  till  the 
cocks  arc  entirely  finillied.  This  is  the  beflwayoffa- 
vingyour  hay,  if  you  have  been  under  the  neeelfityof 
cutting  it  while  damp  ;  but  it  is  always  beft  to  guard 
againli  this  inconvenience,  if  polfible." 
s.  In  the  yard,  a  flack  of  hay  ought  to  be  an  oblong 
fijuare,  if  the  quantity  be  greater  than  to  be  eafily 
flowed  in  around  flack  ;  becaufc  a  fmaller  furface  is 
cxpofed  to  the  air,  than  in  a  number  of  round  flacks. 
For  the  fame  rcafon,  a  flack  of  peafe  ought  to  have  the 
fame  form,  the  Uraw  being  more  valuable  than  that  of 
oats,  wheat,  or  barley.  The  moment  a  flack  is  finilh- 
cd,  it  ought  to  be  covered  ;  bccaufe  the  furfacc-hay  is 
much  damaged  by  withering  in  dry  weather,  and  moi- 
fleningin  wet  weather.  Let  it  have  a  pavilion-roof; 
for  more  of  it  can  be  covered  with  flraw  in  that  lliapc, 
than  when  built  perpendicular  at  the  ends.  Let'it  be 
roped  as  directed  above  for  corn-fl?cks  ;  with  this  dii- 
fercnce  only,  that  in  an  oblong  fquare  the  ropes  mud 
be  thrown  over  the  top,  and  tied  to  the  belt  rope  be- 
low. This  bclt-ropc  ought  to  be  fixed  with  pins  to 
the  flack  :  the  rcafon  is,  that  the  ropes  thrown  overthe 
flack  will  bag  by  the  finking  of  the  ftack,  and  may 
be  drawn  tight  by  lowering  the  belt-rope,  and  fixing 
it  in  its  new  pofition  with  the  fame  pins. 

The  flems  of  hops,  being  long  and  tough,  make 
excellent  ropes  ;  and  it  will  be  a  faving  article,  to  pro- 
pagate a  few  plants  of  that  kind  for  that  very  end. 

A  ftack  of  rye-grafs  hay,  ayearold,  and  of  a  mode- 
rate fize,  will  weigh,  each  cubic  yard,  ii  Dutch  flonc. 


104 
Hay  ftack 


Aftack  of  clover-hay  in  the  fame  circumftanccs  weighs   Praaice, 
fonicwhat  Icfs.  >    '«      ' 

Sect.  VII.  Matmres. 

The  manures  commonly  ufcd  are  dung, lime,  (hclU 
marl,  clay-marl,  and  flonc-marl.  Many  other  fubllan- 
ces  are  nied  ;  fliavings  of  horn,  for  example,  refufc 
of  malt,  and  even  old  rags  :  but  as  the  quantity  that 
can  be  procured  is  iiiconfidcrablc,  and  as  their  applica- 
tion is  fimplc,  we  fiiall  confume  no  time  upon  them. 

Dung  is  the  chief  of  all  manures  ;  becaufe  a  quan- 
tity of  it  may  be  eollcclcd  in  every  farm,  and  becaufc  : 
it  makes  the  quickcfl  return.  A  field  fulhcicntly  dung- 
ed will  produce  good  crops  four  or  five  years.  lej  . 

Dung  of  animals  that  chew  the  cud,  being  more  Uimj, 
thoroughly  putrefied  than  that  of  others,  is  fit  to  be 
mixed  with  thefoil  without  needing  t9  be  colledcd  in- 
to a  dunghill.  A  horfc  does  not  chew  the  cud  ;  and 
in  horfc-dung  may  bepcrceived  flraw  orrye-grafs  bro- 
ken into  fmall  parts,  but  not  dilfolved  :  it  is  proper 
therefore  thatthe  putrefadion  becompletcd  in  a  dung- 
hill. It  ought  to  be  mixed  there  with  cool  materials  : 
fohotit  is,  that,  in  a  dunghill  by  itfelf,  it  fingcs  and 
burns  inflead  of  putrefying.  The  difference  between 
the  dung  of  a  horfe  and  of  a  horned  animal,  is  vifible  ^ 
in  apaflure-field  :  the  grafs  round  the  former  is  wither- 
ed ;  round  the  latter,  it  is  ranker  and  moreverdant  than 
in  the  rcfl  of  the  field.  A  mixture  of  dry  and  moift  . 
fluff  ought  to  be  ftudied  :  the  former  attrafting  moi- 
flurc  from  the  latter,  they  become  equally  moifl.  ^^^ 

To  prevent  fap  from  running  out  of  a  dunghill,  its  (jf  ^  junj- 
fituation  fliould  be  a  little  below  the  furface  ;  and  to  hill* 
prevent  rain  from  running  into  it,  it  Ihould  be  fur- 
rounded  with  a  ring  of  fod.     If  the  foil  on  which  the 
dunghill  Hands  be  porous,  let  it  be  paved,  to  prevent   ■ 
the  fap  from  finking  into  the  ground.     If  moillurc 
happen  to  fuperabound,  it  may  be  led  off  by  a  fmall 
gutter  to  impregnate  a  quantity  of  rich  mould  laid 
down  to  receive  it,  which  will  make  it  equal  to  good 
dung. 

Siraw  fliould  be  prepared  for  the  dunghill,  by  being 
laid  under  cattle,  and  fufficiently  moillened.  When  laid 
dry  in  to  a  dunghill, it  keeps  it  open, and  admits  too  much 
air,  and  prevents  putrefadion. 

Dung  from  the  liable  ought  to  be  carefully  fpread  on 
the  dunghill,  and  mixed  with  the  former  dung.  When 
left  in  heaps  upon  the  dunghill,  fermentation  and  putre- 
fadion  go  on  unequally. 

Complete  putrefaction  is  of  importance  with  regard 
to  the  feed  of  weeds  that  are  in  the  dunghill  :  if  they 
remain  found,  they  are  carried  out  with  the  dung,  and 
infell  the  ground.  Complete  putrefa(5lion  is  of  Hill 
greater  importanceby  pulverizingthe  dung  ;  in  which 
condition  it  mixes  intimately  with  the  foil, and  operates 
the  niofl  powerfully.  In  land  intended  for  barley,  un- 
digeded  dunghasa  very  bad  effect:  it  keeps  the  ground 
open,  a(imits  drought,  and  prevents  the  feed  from 
fpringiiig.  On  the  other  hand,  when  thorouglilyrotted, 
it  mixes  with  the  foil,andcnablesit  to  retain  nioifture. 
It  follows,  that  the  propcrelt  time  for  dunging  a  field, 

is 


(a)  Bywhmhig  hay,  is  meant  the  operation  by  wliichitis  brought  from  the  fuccukntAate  of  grafs  to  that 
ef  a  dry  fodder. 


Part  ir. 


AGRICULTURE. 


Ptaflicr.  is  in  its  higlieft  pulverization  ;  at  whicli  time  rhe  earth 
— >' — ^  mixes  intimately  with  tiic  dung.  Immediately  before 
fetiing  cabbage,  fowing  turnip,  or  wheat,  is  a  good 
time.  Dung  divides  and  fprcads  the  moft  accurately 
wlicn  moill.  Its  intimate  mixture  with  the  foil  is  of 
fuch  importance,  that  hands  fhould  be  employed  to  di- 
vide and  i'pread  any  lumps  that  may  be  in  it. 

Dung  lliould  be  fprtad,  and  ploughed  into  the 
ground  without  delay.  ^\'  hen  a  heap  lies  two  or  three 
weeks,  fome  of  the  moifture  is  imbibed  into  the  ground, 
which  u  ill  produce  tufts  of  corn  more  vigorous  than  in 
ire  raft  of  the  field.  There  cannot  be  aw  orfe  pra(;Uce 
than  to  lead  out  dung  before  w  inter,  leaving  it  expo- 
fed  to  froil  and  fnow.  The  whole  fpirit  of  the  dung  is 
extracted  by  ruin,  and  carried  ofFwith  it.  The  dung 
divcftcd  of  its  fap  becomes  dry  in  fpring,  and  incapable 
of  being  mixed  with  the  uiould.  It  is  turned  over 
whole  by  the  plough,  and  buried  in  the  furrow. 

As  dung  is  an  article  of  the  utmuit  importance  in 
hufbandry,  one  fliould  imagine,  that  the  collcding  it 
would  be  a  capital  article  with  an  iaduflrious  farmer. 
Yet  an  ingenious  writer,  obferving  that  the  Jamaicans 
are  in  this  particular  much  mure  induflrious  than  the 
Britilh,  afcribes  the  difference  to  the  dilhculty  of  pro- 
curing dung  in  Jamaica.  "  In  England,  where  the 
long  winter  enables  a  farmer  to  raife  what  quantity  he 
pleafes,  it  is  not  collected  with  any  degree  of  induflry . 
But  in  Jamaica,  where  there  is  no  winter,  and  where 
the  heat  of  tiie  fun  is  a  great  obftrudion,  the  farmer 
mufl  be  indefatigable,  or  he  will  never  raife  any  dung. " 
Cool  intcreft  is  not  alone  a  fufticient  motive  with  the 
indolent,  to  be  aiMive.  As  dung  is  of  great  import- 
ance in  Ijufbandry,  a  farmer  cannot  be  too  afliduous  in 
colle(5ling  animal  and  vegetable  fubltances  that  will  rot. 
One  article  of  that  kind  there  is,  to  coUeft  which  there 
is  a  double  motive,  and  yet  is  ncglefted  almoll  every 
where.  A  farm  full  of  weeds  is  a  nuifance  to  the 
neighbourhood  :  it  poifons  the  fields  around  ;  and  the 
polTeflbr  ought  to  be  difgraced  as  a  pelt  to  fociety. 
Now  the  cutting  down  every  weed  before  the  feed  is 
formed,  anfwers  two  excellent  purpofes.  Firlt,  it  en- 
courages good  crops,  by  keeping  the  ground  clean. 
Next,  thcfe  weeds  mixed  with  other  materials  in  a 
dunghill,  may  add  confiderably  to  the  quantify  of 
dung. 

Next  of  lime,which  is  a  profitable  raanure, and  great- 
ly fo  when  it  can  be  got  in  plenty  within  a  moderate 
diftancc.  The  benefit  of  lime  is  fo  vilible,  that  the 
life  of  it  has  become  general,  where  the  price  and  car- 
riage are  in  any  degree  moderate. 

However  people  may  differ  in  other  particulars,  all 
agree,  that  the  operation  of  lime  depends  on  its  inti- 
mate mixture  with  thefoil ;  and  therefore  that  thcpro- 
pcrtimc  of  applying  it,  is  when  it  is  perfecHly  powder- 
ed and  tlie  foil  at  the  fame  time  in  the  highefi  degree 
of  pulverization.  Lime  of  itfclf  is  abfolutely  b.trren  : 
and  yet  it  enriches  a  barren  foil.  Neither  of  the  two 
produces  any  good  tfFeft  without  the  other  :  and  con- 
fequcntly,  themoreintimately  they  arc  mixed,  the  ef- 
fect mull  be  the  greater. 

Hence  it  follows,  that  lime  ought  always  to  be  lla- 
ked  with  a  proper  quantity  of  water,  becaufe  by  that 
means  it  is  reduced  the  moft  effeiitually  into  powder. 
Lime  let't  to  be  llakcd  by  a  nioilt  air,oraccidental  rain, 
is  fcldom  or  never  tiioroughly  reduced  into  powder; 


no 
or  lime. 


ill 

Its  opera 
«>un. 


and  therefore  can  never  be  intimately  mixed  with  tlie 
foil.  Sometimes  an  opportunity  offers  to  bring  home 
flitll-lime  before  the  ground  is  ready  for  it ;  and  it  is 
commonly  thrown  into  a  heap  without  ctn'cr,  trufting 
to  rain  for  llaking.  The  proper  way  is,  to  lay  the 
Ihcll-lime  in  different  heaps  on  the  ground  where  it  is 
to  be  fprcad,  to  reduce  thefe  heaps  into  powder  by  fla- 
king it  with  water,and  to  cover  the  llaked  lime  with  fod 
fo  as  to  defend  it  from  rain.  One  however  fhould  avoid 
as  much  as  polfible  the  bringing  home  lime  before  the 
ground  be  ready  for  it.  Where  allowed  to  lie  longin 
aheap,  there  are  two  bad  confcquences :  firfl,  lime 
attracts  moillure,  even  though  well  covered,  and  runs 
into  clots,  which  prevents  an  intimate  mixture  ;  and, 
next,  we  know,  that  burnt  limeftone,  whether  in  fhelLs 
or  in  powder,  returns  gradually  into  its  original  flaie 
of  limcftone  ;  and  upon  that  account  alfo,  islefscapablc 
of  being  mixed  with  the  foil.  And  this  is  verified  by 
a  fadl,  that,  after  lying  long,  it  is  fo  hard  bound  toge- 
ther as  to  require  a  pick  to  feparate  the  parts. 

For  the  fame  reafon,  it  is  a  bad  practice,  though 
common,  to  let  fpread  lime  lie  on  the  furface  all  win- 
ter. The  bad  efTccts  abovementioned  take  place  here 
in  part :  and  there  it  another  ;  that  rain  wafhes  the 
lime  down  to  the  furrows,  and  in  a  hanging  field  car- 
ries the  whole  away. 

As  the  particles  of  powdered  lime  are  both  fmall  and 
heavy,  they  quickly  link  to  the  bottom  of  the  furrow, 
if  care  be  not  taken  to  prevent  it.  In  that  view,  it  is 
a  rule,  that  lime  be  fpread,  and  mixed  with  the  foil, 
immediately  before  fowing,  or  along  with  the  feed.  In 
this  manner  of  application,  there  being  no  occalion  to 
move  it  till  the  ground  be  Itirred  for  a  new  crop,  it  has 
time  to  incorporate  with  the  foil,  and  docs  not  readily 
feparate  from  it.  Thus,  if  turnip-feed  is  to  be  fow«. 
broadcaft,  the  lime  ought  to  be  laid  on  immediately 
before  lowing,  and  harrowed  in  with  the  feed.  If  a 
crop  of  drilled  turnip  or  cabbage  be  intended,  the  lime 
ought  to  be  fpread  immediately  before  forming  in 
drills.  With  refpeiEt  to  wheat,  the  lime  ought  to  be 
fpread  immediately  before  feed- furrowing.  If  fpread 
more  early,  before  the  ground  be  fufiicicntly  broken, 
it  finks  to  the  bottom.  If  a  light  foil  be  prepared 
for  barley,  the  lime  ought  to  be  fpread  after  feed-fur- 
rowing, and  harrowed  in  with  the  feed.  In  a  flrong 
foil,  it  links  not  fo  readily  to  the  bottoin  ;  and  there- 
fore, l>efore  fowing  the  barley,  the  lime  ought  to  be 
mixed  with  the  foil  by  a  brake.  Where  moor  is  fum- 
mer-fallowed  for  a  crop  of  oats  next  year,  the  lime 
ought  to  be  laid  on  immediately  before  the  laft  plough- 
ing, and  braked  in  as  before.  It  has  fufucicnt  time 
to  incorporate  with  the  foil  before  the  land  be  flirred 
again. 

The  quantity  to  be  laid  on  depends  on  the  nature 
of  the  foil.  Upon  a  flrong  foil,  70  or  80  bolls  of 
Ihells  are  not  more  than  futlicient,  reckoning  four  fmall 
firlots  to  the  boll,  termed  v<heat-i:iiafure ;  nor  will  it 
be  an  overdofe  to  lay  on  too  bolls.  Between  50  and 
60  may  fufRce  upon  medium  foils;  and  upon  the  thin 
or  gravelly,  between  ;o  and  40.  It  is  nocfafe  to  lay 
a  much  greater  quantity  on  fuch  foils. 

It  is  common  to  lime  a  pafture-ficld  immediately 

before  ploughing.     This  is  an  unfafc  practice  ;  it  is 

thrown  to  tlie  bottom  of  the  furrow,  from  which  it  is 

never  fully  gathercvl  up.    The  proper  time  for  litning 

Rr  2  a 


III 

Time  of  li- 
ming. 


Quantity, 


314 
Liming  pi- 
tturc-ficMt. 


Practice. 


i'5 
Test  lime- 

ftoBC. 


ai6 

orihcii- 


[i6  A     G 

a  paRurc  lulJ,  iiuciided  to  be  taken  14)  for  corn,  is  a 
year  at  Icaft,  or  two,  before  ploughing.  It  is  waihcd 
in  by  rain  among  tlic  roots  of  plants,  and  has  time  to 
inc<)rj)orate  with  the  foil. 

Limeftone  beat  fiiiall  makes  an  excellent  manure  ; 
and  fupplics  the  want  of  powdered  lime  where  there  is 
no  fuel  10  burn  the  limellonc.  Limclloiic  beat  fmall 
has  not  hitherto  been  much  ufcd  as  a  manure  ;  and  the 
proportioi^ciween  it  and  powdered  lime  has  not  been 
alcertaincd.  \\  hat  follows  may  give  fomc  light. 
Three  pounds  of  raw  lime  is  by  burning  reduced  to 
two  pounds  of  (hell-lime.  Yet  nothing  is  expelled  by 
the  Hre  but  the  air  that  was  in  the  limellonc:  the 
calcareous  earth  remains  entire.  Ergo,  two  pounds 
of  Ihcll-lime  contain  as  much  calcareous  earth  as  three 
pounds  of  raw  limellone.  Shell-lime  of  the  bell  quali- 
ty, when  llaked  with  water,  will  mcalurc  out  to  thrice 
the  quantity.  But  as  limellone  lofes  none  of  its  bulk 
by  being  burnt  into  flicUs,  it  follows,  that  three  bulli- 
cls  of  raw  limellonc  contain  as  much  calcareous  canh 
as  fix  bulhclsof  powdered  lime  ;  and  confequently,  if 
powdered  lime  poirelsnot  fome  virtue  above  raw  lime- 
llonc, three  bufliels  of  the  httcr  beat  fmall  fliould  e- 
qnal  as  a  manure  fix  bulhclsof  the  former. 

Shell-marl,  as  a  manure,  is  managed  in  every  rc- 
fpcctlike  powdered  lime;   with  this  only  dittercnce, 
that  a  fifth  or  a  fourth  part  more  in  meafure  ought  to 
be  given.  The  rcafon  is,  that  Ihell-marl  is  lefs  weigh- 
ty than  lime  ;  and  that  a  boll  of  it  contains  lefs  calca- 
reous earth,  which  is  the  fruftii'ying  part  of  both. 
Clay  and  ilone  marls,  withrefpcft  to  hulbandry,are 
;,7       the  fame,  though  in  appearance  different. 
<5f  clay  The  goodncfs  of  marl  depends  on  the  quantity  of 

and  ftouc-  calcareous  earth  in  it :  which  has  been  known  to  a- 
>"*'''•  mount  to  a  half  or  more.  It  is  too  expenlive  if  the 
quantity  be  Icis  than  a  third  or  a  fourth  part.  Good 
marl  is  the  mofl  fubllantial  of  all  manures  ;  becaufe  it 
improves  the  wcakefl  ground  to  equal  the  bed  bo- 
roughaci-cs.  The  low  part  of  Oerwicklhire  termed 
the  AhiJ;,  abounds  every  where  with  this  marl ;  and 
is  the  only  county  in  Scotland  whtre  it  is  plenty. 

Laud  ought  to  be  cleared  of  weeds  before  marling  ; 
and  it  ought  to  be  fmoothed  with  the  brake  and  harrow, 
in  order'that  the  marl  may  be  equally  fpread.  Marl 
isafoffilon  which  no  vegetable  will  grow;  its  efficacy 
depends,  like  that  of  lime,  on  its  pulverization,  and  in- 
timate mixture  witii  the  foil.  Toward  the  former,  al- 
ternate drought  and  moiflure  contribute  greatly,  as  alio 
frofl.  Therefore,  after  being  evenly  fpread,  it  ought 
JO  lie  on  the  furface  all  winter.  In  the  month  of  Oc- 
tober it  maybe  roufed  with  a  brake  ;  which  will  bring 
.10  the  furface,  and  expofe  to  the  air  and  froll,  all  the 
J'.ard  parts,  and  mix  with  the  foil  all  that  is  powdered. 
In  that  refpea  it  differs  widely  from  dung  and  lime, 
v/hich  ought  to  be  plo'i^hed  into  the  ground  without 
del.'.y.  Oats  is  a  hardy  grain,  which  will  anfwer  tor 
tcin!'-  the  firll  crop  after  marling  better  than  any  0- 
thcrT  and  it  will  fucceed  though  the  marl  be  not  tho- 
roughly mixed  with  the  foil.  In  that  cafe,  the  marl 
uught  to  be  ploughed  in  with  an  ebb  furrow  immediate- 
ly before  fowing,  and  braked  dioroughly.  It  is  I'ck- 
lifti  to  make  wheat  the  firll  crop :  if  fown  before  win- 
ter, frofl  fwells  the  marl,  and  is  apt  to  throw  the  leeJ 
out  of  the  ground  ;  if  fown  in  fpring,  it  wilUuffer  more 
tlian  oais  by  v.^ant  of  due  miAturc. 


R     I     C     U     L    T    U     R     £1. 


Part  II. 

Summer  is  the  proper  feafon  for  marling  ;  bccanfc    Praaicc. 
in  that  feafon  tlie  marl,  being  dry,  ii>  not  only  liglucr,  '^~'-'—' 
but  is  ealily  reduced  to  powder.     Kroll  however  is  not 
improper  for  marling,  cfpecially  as  in  frort  there  is 
liiile  opportunity  for  any  other  work. 

Marl  is  a  heavy  body,  and  links  to  the  bottom  of 
the  furrow,  if  indifcrectly  ploughed.  Therefore  the 
lirfl  crop  Ihould  always  have  an  ebb  furrow.  During 
the  growing  of  tliat  crop,  the  marl  has  time  to  incor- 
porate with  the  foil,  and  to  bccon;c  a  part  of  it ;  after 
which  it  does  not  readily  I'eparatc. 

Sect.  VIII.  PrinapUs  and  Operations  oftheNiiuor 
Horfe-hmhig  Hujbandry . 

The  general  properties  attributed  to  the  new  liuf- 
bandry  may  be  reduced  to  two,  viz.  the  promoting  the 
growth  of  plants  by  hoeing,  and  the  laving  of  feed  ; 
both  of  which  arc  equally  profitable  to  the  farmer.  i,g 

The  advantages  of  tillage  before  lowing  have  al-  Advanta- 
ready  been  pointed  out.     In  this  place  we  niuft  con-  gcsafcribeJ 
fine  ourfclves  to  the  utility  of  tillage  after  fowing.  '°  '""rfc- 
This  kind  of  tillage  is  moll  generally  known  by  tiie  "°""E* 
name  of  horfe-hoeing. 

Land  fowed  with  wheat,  however  well  it  may  be 
cnltivatedin  autumn,  links  in  the  winter  ;  tjie  particles 
get  nearer  together,  and  the  weeds  rife  ;  fo  that  in 
fpring,  the  land  is  nearly  in  the  fame  lituationas  if  it 
never  had  been  ploughed.  This,  however,  is  the  fea- 
fon when  it  fliould  branch  and  grow  with  nioft  vigour  ; 
and  confequently  flands  moll  in  need  of  ploughiii_g  or 
hoeing,  todcllroy  the  weeds,  tofnpply  the  roots  witlv 
frclh  earth,  and,  by  dividing  anew  the  particles  of  the 
foil,  to  allow  the  roots  to  extend  and  collect  nourilh- 
ment. 

It  is  well  known,  that,  in  gardens,  plants  grow  with 
double  vigour  after  being  hoed  or  iranfplanted.  If 
plants  growing  in  arable  land  could  be  managed  witli 
eafe  and  fafcty  in  this  manner,  it  is  natural  to  expedt, 
that  their  growth  would  be  promoted  accordingly.  Kx- 
perience  Ihows,  that  this  is  not  only  praclicablc,  but 
attended  with  many  advantages. 

In  the  operation  of  hoeing  wheat,  though  fome  of 
the  roots  be  moved  or  broken,  the  plants  receive  h(» 
injury,  for  this  very  circumllance  makes  them  fend 
forth  a  greater  number  of  roots  than  formerly,  which 
enlarge  their  pafture,  and  confequently  augment  their 
growth. 

Sickly  wheat  has  often  recovered  its  vigour  after  a 
good  hoeing,  efpecially  when  performed  in  wcailuT 
not  very  hot  or  dry. 

^V'hcat,  and  fuch  grain  as  is  fown  before  winter, 
requires  hoeing  more  than  oats,  barley,  or  other  grain 
fown  in  the  fpring;  for,  if  the  land  has  been  well 
ploughed  before  the  fowing  of  fpiing-corn,  it  neither 
has  time  to  harden,  nor  to  produce  many  weeds,  not 
having  been  expofcd  10  the  winter's  fnow  and  rain. 

Of  S  o  w  I  N  c . 

219 

As,  in  the  praflice  of  the  New  Hulbandry,  plants  Method  of 
fxow  w  ith  greater  vigour  than  by  the  ot  J  methtd,  the  fowinir  in 
land  fliould  be  fowed  thinner.     It  is  this  principle  of  'j^^^^^J^ 
the  new  hufbandry  that  has  been  ehieliy  objeftcd  to; 
for,  upon  obferving  the  land  occupied  by  a  fmall  num- 
ber of  plants,  people  are  apt  to  look  upon  all  the  Va- 
cant 


Part  II. 

Priftice, 


AGRICULTURE. 


cant  fpace  as  loA.  Bat  this  prejudice  will  fooa  be  re- 
moved, when  It  is  conlidtrcJ,  that,  in  the  bcft  land 
cultivate.!  in  the  common  method, and  fown  very  thick, 
each  Iced  produced  but  one  or  two  ears  j  that,  in  the 
fame  land  fown  thinner,  every  feed  produced  two  or 
three  ears  ;  and  ihata  (ingle  feed  fomctimcs  produces 
i8  or  21  ears. 

In  the  common  method,  as  there  are  many  more 
plants  than  can  Hnd  fufficient  nourilhment,and  asit  is 
impolfible  toaliift  them  by  hoeing,  numbers  die  before 
<hey  attain  maturity,  the  greateit  part  remain  iickly 
nnd  drooping  ;  and  thus  part  of  the  feed  is  loll.  On 
the  contrary,  in  the  new  method,  all  the  plants  have 
as  much  food  as  they  require  ;  and  as  they  ere,  from 
time  to  lime,  allifled  by  hoeing,  they  become  lb  vigo- 
rous as  to  equal  in  their  produdion  the  numerous  but 
fickly  plants  cultivated  in  the  common  method. 

Of  Hoeing. 

The  new  hufbandry  is  abfolutely  impra<?licablc  in 
lands  th^c  arc  not  ealily  ploughed.  Attempting  to 
cultivate  land  according  to  this  hulbandry,  without  at- 
tending to  this  circumTlance,  that  it  is  praiilicable  in 
no  land  except  in  fuch  as  have  already  been  brought 
into  good  tilth  by  the  old  method,  has  gone  far  to 
make  it  contemptible  in  many  places. 
*'^j  When  a  lield  is  in  good  tilth,  it  fliould  be  fown  fo 

h  !  '"  ''"'•'  ^*  '°  leave  fufficient  room  for  the  plants  to  extend 
inirs.  their  roots.   After  being  well  ploughed  and  harrowed, 

it  mull  be  divided  into  ro\Ts,  at  the  dillance  of  thirty 
inches  from  one  another.  On  the  lidcsof  each  of  thcfe 
rows,  two  rows  of  wheat  mud  be  fowxd  llx  inches  di- 
Ilant  from  each  other.  By  this  means  there  will  be 
an  interval  of  two  feet  wide  bciwixt  the  rows,  and  c- 
very  plant  will  have  room  enough  to  extend  its  roots, 
and  to  fupply  it  with  food.  The  intervals  will  like  wife 
be  fufficient  for  allowing  the  earth  to  be  hoed  or  til- 
led without  injuring  the  plants  in  the  rows. 

The  lirfi:  hoeing,  which  fhould  be  given  before  the 
winter,  is  intended  to  drain  away  the  wet,  and  to  dif- 
pofc  the  earth  to  be  mellowed  by  the  frolls.  Thefe 
two  ends  will  be  anfwcred  by  drawing  two  fniall  fur- 
rows at  a  little  dillance  from  the  rows,  and  throwing 
tlie  earth  tiken  from  the  furrows  into  the  middle  of 
the  intervals.  This  lirllhoeing  (hould  be  given  when 
the  wheat  is  in  leaf. 

The  fccond  hoeing,  which  is  intended  to  make  the 
plants  brancli,  fliould  be  given  after  the  hard  frolls  are 
over.  To  do  this  with  advantage,  after  flirring  the 
earth  a littlenear  the  rows, the  earil)  whicli  was  thrown 
in  the  middle  of  the  intervals  (honldbc  tnrned  back  in- 
to the  furrows.  This  earth,  having  been  mellowed  by 
the  winter,  fupplies  th  e  plants  with  excellent  food,  and 
makes  the  roots  extend. 

The  third  hociug,  which  is  intended  to  invigorate 
the  llalk,  (hould  be  given  when  tiie  e.irs  of  the  corn 
begin  toQiowthemfelves.  This  hoeing  may,  however, 
be  very  flight. 

But  the  lall  hoeing  is  of  the  grcateft  importance, 
as  it  enlarges  the  grain,  and  make  the  cars  fill  at  their 
extremities.  This  hoeing  (hould  be  given  when  ilie 
wheat  is  in  bloom  ;  a  furrow  mull  be  drav/n  in  the 
middle  of  the  interval,  and  the  earth  thrown  to  tjie 
right  and  left  on  the  root  of  the  plants.  This  fupports 
the  plants,  prcvciui  chcm  fro:n  Udng  laid,  and  pre- 


317 


pares  the  ground  for  the  next  fowing,  as  the  fccu  is   l>ri<5lce. 
then  to  be  piit  in  the  middle  of  the  gr<Mind  that  form-         «      '- 
cd  the  intervals. 

The  beft  feafon  for  hoeing  is  two  or  tiirce  days  af- 
ter rain,  or  fo  foon  alter  rain  as  the  foil  will  quit  the 
inftrument  in  hoeing.  Light  dry  foils  may  be  hoed  al-  " 
raeft  any  time,  but  this  is  far  from  being  the  cafe  with 
flrong  clay  foils  :  the  feafon  for  hoeing  fuch  is  fre- 
quently Ihort  and  precarious  ;  every  opportunity  there- 
fore (hould  be  carefully  watched,  and  eagerly  embra- 
ced. The  two  extremes  of  wet  and  dry,  arc  great  ene- 
mies in  vegetation  in  flrong  clay  foils.  There  is  a  pe- 
riod between  the  time  of  clay  (oils  running  together, 
fo  as  to  puddle  by  fuperfluous  wet,  and  the  time  of 
their  cakiug  by  drought,  that  they  are  as  iradlable  as 
need  be.  This  is  the  jundlurc  for  hoeing  ;  and  fo 
much  land  as  (hall  be  thus  feafonably  hoed,  will  not 
cake  or  crull  upon  tlie  furface,  as  it  otherwife  would 
have  done,  till  it  has  been  foaked  or  drenched  agaia 
with  rain  ;  in  which  cafe  the  hoeing  is  to  be  repeated 
as  foon  as  the  foil  will  quit  the  indrument,  and  as  of- 
ten as  necclfary  ;  by  which  time  the  growing  crop  will 
begin  to  cover  the  ground,  fo  as  to  acl  as  a  fcrcen  to 
the  furface  of  the  land  againfl  the  intenfe  heat  of  the 
fun,  and  thereby  prevent,  in  great  meafure,  the  b.ad 
etfeCls  of  the  foil's  caking  in  dry  weather. 

By  this  luccellivc  tillage,  or  hoeing,  good  crops  will 
be  obtained,  provided  the  weather  is  not  very  unfa- 
vourable. 

But  as  Arong,  vigorous  plants  arc  longer  before  they 
arrive  at  maturity,  corn  raifcd  in  the  new  way  is  later 
in  ripening  than  any  other,  and  mull  therefore  be  fown 
earlier. 

In  order  to  prepare  the  intervals  for  fowing  again, 
fomc  well-rotted  uung  may  be  laid  in  the  deep  furrows 
made  in  the  middle  of  the  intervals  ;  and  this  dung 
muft  be  covered  with  the  earth  that  was  belorethro^vn  ' 
towards  the  rows  of  wheat.  But,  if  the  land  does  not 
require  mending,  the  deep  farrow  is  filled  without  any 
dung.  This  operation  fliould  be  performed  immedi- 
ately after  the  liar  vefl,  that  thercmay  be  time  togive  the 
land  a  flight  flirring  before  the  rows  are  fowcd  ;  whicli 
(hould  occupy  the  middle  of  the  fpace  which  formed 
the  intervals  during  the  lad  crop.  Thcintervalsof  the 
fecond  year  take  up  the  fpace  occupied  by  the  ftubblc 
of  th'.  firil. 

Suppofmg  dung  to  be  neccflary,  which  is  denied  by 
many,  a  very  fniall  quantity  is  fu.iicient ;  a  lingle  layer, 
put  in  the  bottom  of  each  furrow,  will  be  enough. 

Description  of  the  Isetri'ments  commonly  ufed 
in  the  New  Hl'sbakdry. 

Fig.  r.  is  a  marking  plough.     The  principal  ufe  of  (nilrumcnt 
this  plough  is  to  llraight  and  regulate  the  ridges.  The  <Jtfcfil'«d- 
firrt  line  is  traced  by  the  eye,  by  means  of  three  poles,  I^'^te  VII. 
placed  in* a  llraight  line.     The  plough  draws  the  lirll 
liirrow  in  the  direflion  of  this  tine  ;  and  at  the  fame 
time,  with  the  tooth  A,  fixed  in  the  block  of  wood 
near  the  end  of  the  crofs-poleor  Aider  B  B,  marks  the 
breadth  of  the  ridge  at  the  dillance  intended.     The 
ploughman  next  traces  the  fecond  line  or  rutt  made  by 
the  tooth,  and  draws  a  fniall  furrow  along  it ;  and  con- 
tinues in  this  manner  till  the  whole  ticld  is  laid  out  in 
flraight  and  equidiilaut  ridges. 

Fiii. 


3i8  A    G    R    I     C     U 

I'raiSice.  Fig.  2.  is  a  plough  fur  lireaking  i\p  lea,  or  turning 
'~~^'  ■  up  the  bottom  of  land  when  greatly  cxhaullcd.  By  its 
conllnKHion,  the  width  and  depth  of  the  furrows  can 
PlitcVin.  be  regulated  to  a  greater  certainty  tli.iii  by  any  other 
hitherto  known  in  tliis  country.  Its  appearance  is 
he.ivy  ;  but  two  horfes  arc  fuliicieut  to  ))U)ngh  with  ic 
in  ordinary  free  hind  ;  and  only  four  are  neccllary  in 
the  (liffert  clay-foils.  This  plough  ib  likewife  ealily 
held  and  tempered.  A,  is  the  fword  fixed  in  the  llzcrs 
B,  which  runs  through  a  niortoife  E,  at  tiie  end  of  the 
bcamC,  and  reguhites  the  depth  of  the  furrow  by  rai- 
ling or  deprciiing  the  beam  ;  it  is  tixcd  by  putting  the 
pin  D  thro'  the  beam  and  fword,  and  is  moveable  at  £. 

Fig.  5.  is  a  jointed  brake  liarrowwith  24  teeth,  Iha- 
ped  like  coulters,  and  (landing  at  about  an  angle  of  80 
degrees.  By  this  inflrumcut  the  land  is  finely  pulve- 
rized, and  prepared  for  receiving  the  feed  from  the 
drill.  It  requires  four  liorfes  in  ftilf,  and  two  in  open, 
land.  This  harrow  is  likewife  ufcd  for  levelling  tlie 
ridges; which  isdoneby  prelUngitdown  by  the  handles 
where  the  ridge  is  high,  and  railing  it  up  when  low. 

Fig.  4.  is  an  angular  weeding  harrow,  which  may 
follow  the  brake  when  necelfary.  The  feven  hindmolt 
teeth  fliould  lland  at  a  more  acute  angle  than  the  reft, 
in  order  to  colled  the  weeds,  which  the  holder  can 
drop  .'it  pleafure,  by  raifing  the  liindcr  part,  w  hich  is 
fixed  to  the  body  of  the  harrow  by  two  joints. 

Fig.  J.  is  a  pair  of  harrows  with  fliafts.  This  har- 
row is  ufed  for  covering  the  feed  in  the  drills,  the  horfe 
going  in  the  furrow. 

Fig.  6.  is  a  drill-plough,  conflruftcdinfuch  a  man- 
ner as  to  fow  at  once  two  rows  of  beans,  pcafe,  or 
ivhcat.  This  machine  is  eafily  wrought  by  two  horfes. 
A,  is  the  hopper  for  containing  the  feed  ;  15,  circular 
boxes  for  receiving  the  feed  from  the  lioppcr  ;  CC,two 
fquare  boxes  which  receive  the  feed  from  fniall  holes  in 
the  circular  boxes,  as  they  turn  round  ;  and  lafbofall, 
the  feed  is  dropped  into  the  drills  through  holes  in  the 
fquare  boxes,  behind  the  coulters  D.  The  cylinder  E 
follows,  which,  together  with  the  whcolF,  regulates 
ihe  depth  ol  the  coultci-s,  and  covers  the  feed  ;  the  har- 
row G  comes  behind  all,  and  covers  the  feed  more 
completely.  H  H,  two  Aiders,  which,  when  drawn 
out,  prevent  the  feed  from  falling  intothe  boxes;  and, 
I,  is  a  catch  which  holds  the  rungs,  and  prevents  the 
boxes  from  turning,  and  loling  feed  at  the  ends  of  the 
ridges. 

Fig.  7.  is  a  fingle  hoe-plough  of  a  very  fimjilc  con- 
Urudion,  by  which  the  earth  in  the  intervals  is  ftir- 
red.  and  laid  up  on  both  fides  to  the  roots  of  the  plants, 
md  at  the  fame  time  the  weeds  are  deftroyed.  A  A 
the  mould-boards,  which  may  be  railed  or  dcprelied  at 
pleafure,  according  as  the  farmer  wants  to  throw  the 
■  earth  higher  or  lower  upon  the  roots. 
•■Plate  VII.  fig-  2.  is  a  drill-rake  for  peafe.  This  inrtrument, 
which  is  chietly  calculated  for  fmsll  inclofares  of  light 
grounds,  is  a  fort  of  flrong  plough  rake,  with  four 
large  teeth  at  a,a,b,  ^,  alittlcincurvated.  The  dillance 
from  ii  to  <7,  and  from/;  to  i;  is  nine  inches.  The  interval 
between  the  two  inner  teeth, a  and  i^,is  three  feet  lix  in- 
ches, which  allows  fufficient  room  for  the  hole-ploagh 
tomovcin.  To  the  piece  of  timber  «,  forming  the  head 
of  the  rake,  are  fixed  the  handles  d,  and  the  beanie, 
to  which  the  horfe  is  faAened.  When  this  inftrumcnt 
is  drawn  over  a  piece  of  land  made  thoroughly  fine, 


L     T     U     K     E.  Partir. 

and  the  man  who  holds  it  bears  apon  the  handles,  four  Prjflice. 
furruws,y,  g,  h,  i;  will  be  formed,  at  the  dillance  de-  ^—^v—* 
tcrmincd  by  the  conflruetionof  the  iiidrument.  Thefc 
dillances  may  be  accurately  preferved,  provided  that 
the  teeth  a  a  return  when  the  ploughman  comes  back, 
after  having  ploughed  one  turn,  in  two  of  the  channels 
formed  before,  marked  b  b  :  thus  all  the  furrows  in  the 
field  will  be  traced  with  the  fame  regularity.  When 
the  ground  is  thus  formed  into  drills,  the  pcafe  may 
be  fcattered  by  a  tingle  motion  of  the  hand  at  a  cer- 
tain dillance  from  one  another  into  tb.c  channels,  and 
then  covered  with  the  Hat  part  of  a  hand-rake,  anj 
prellcd  down  gently.  This  inftrumcnt  is  fo  finiple, 
that  any  workman  may  ealily  make  or  repair  it. 

On  Plate  IX.  is  delineated  a  patent  •  drill 
machine,  lately  invented  by  the  Reverend  James 
Cooke  of  Heaton-iSlorris  near  Manchcdcr.  A,  the 
upper  part  of  the  feed-box.  B,  the  lower  part  of 
the  fame  box.  C,  a  movable  partition,  with  a  le- 
ver, by  which  the  grain  or  feed  is  let  fall  at  pleafure 
from  the  upper  to  the  lower  part  of  the  feed-box, 
from  whence  it  is  taken  up  by  cups  or  ladles  ap- 
plied to  the  cylinder  D,  and  dropped  into  the  funnel 
E,  and  conveyed  thereby  intothe  furrow  or  drill  made 
ill  the  land  by  the  coulter  F,  and  covered  by  the  rake 
or  harrow  G.  H,  a  lever,  by  which  the  wheel  lis 
lifted  out  of  generation  with  the  wheel  K,  to  prevent 
the  grain  or  feed  being  fcattered  upon  the  ground, 
while  the  machine  is  turning  round  at  the  end  of  th« 
land,  by  w  hich  the  harrow  G  is  alio  lifted  from  the 
ground  at  the  fame  time,  and  by  the  fame  motion,  by 
means  of  the  crank,  and  the  horizontal  lever  h  h.  L, 
a  llidiug  lever,  with  a  weight  upon  it,  by  means  of 
w'liich,  the  depth  of  the  furrows  or  drills,  andconfe- 
quently  the  depth  that  the  grain  or  feed  will  be  depoli- 
tcd  in  the  land,  may  be  ealily  afcertaincd.  M,  a  fcrew 
in  the  coulter  beam,  by  turning  of  which,  the  feed-box 
B  is  elevated  or  deprelfed,  in  order  to  prevent  the  grain 
or  feed  being  crulhcd  or  bruifcd  by  the  revolution  of 
ilic  cups  or  ladles.  Fig.  13.  a  rake  with  iron  teetli, 
to  be  applied  to  the  under  fide  of  the  rails  of  the  ma- 
chine, with  ftaples  and  fcrew  nuts  at  ;;  //,  by  which 
many  ufeful  purpofes  are  anfwercd,  viz.  in  accumula- 
ting cuitch  or  hay  into  rows,  and  as  a  fcarificator  for 
young  crops  of  wheat  in  the  fpring,  or  to  be  ufe  J  upon 
a  fallow;  in  which  cafe,  the  feed-box,  the  ladle  cylin- 
der, the  coulters,  the  funnels,  and  harrows,  are  all 
taken  away. 

This  lidc  view  of  the  machine  is  reprefentcd,  for 
tVe  fake  of  perfpicuity,  with  one  feed-box  only,  one 
coulter,  one  funnel,  one  harrow.  Sec.  whereas  a  com- 
plete machine  is  furniihed  with  five  coulters,  five 
harrows,  feveir  funnels,  a  feed-box  in  eight  partiti- 
ons, &c.  with  ladles  of  different  lizes,  for  dif!erertt 
forts  of  grain  and  feeds. 

Thefe  machines,  (with  five  coulters  fiTttecn  guineas, 
with  four  coulters  fifteen  guineas)  equally  excel  in  fet- 
ting  or  planting  all  forts  of  grain  and  feeds,  even  carrot 
feed,  to  cxaAncfs,  after  the  rate  of  from  eight  to  ten 
chain  acres  per  day,  with  one  man,  a  boy,  and  two 
horfes.  They  depofite  the  grain  or  feed  in  any  given 
quantity  from  one  peck  to  three  bulhels  per  acre,  re- 
gularly and  uniformly,  and  that  without  grinding  or 
bruifing  the  feed,  and  at  any  given  depth,  from  half  an 
inch  to  half  a  dozen  inches,  in  rows  at  tlie  diilance  of 

twelve, 


Part  II. 


AGRICULTURE. 


Praiftice.    tsvclve,  fixteen  and  twenty-four  inches,  or  any  other 

' « ■  diilaiicc.     They  arc  equally  ufcful  on  all  lands,  are 

durable,  eafy  to  manage,  and  by  no  means  fubjeft  to 
be  put  out  of  repair. 

The  ladle  cylinder  D  is  furni(hcd  with  cups  or  la- 
dles of  four  different  liiccs  for  dirfcrcnt  forts  of  grain 
or  feeds,  which  may  be  diflinguilhcd  by  the  numbers 
l>  2>  3>  4- — N"  I.  (thcfmallclt  lize)is  calculated  for 
turnip-feed,  clover-feed,  cole-feed,  rape,  &c.  and  will 
fow  fomething  more  than  one  pound  per  flatute  acre. 
N"  2.  for  wheat,  rye,  hemp,  riax,  &c.  and  will  fow 
fomething  more  than  one  bulhel  per  acre.  N*.  3  for 
barley  :  and  will  fow  one  bulhel  and  a  half  per  acre. 
N»  4.  for  beans,  oats,  peafe,  vetches,  &c.  and  will 
fow  two  bulhcls  per  acre. 

Notwithilanding  the  above  fpecified  quantities  of 
grain  or  feeds,  a  greater  or  lefs  quantity  of  each  may 
be  fown  at  pleafure,  by  flopping  up  with  a  little  clay, 
or  by  adding  a  few  ladles  to  each  refpcflive  box.  The 
grain  or  feeds  intended  to  be  fown,muflbe  put  in  thofe 
boxes,  to  which  the  cups  or  ladles  as  above  defcribcd 
rcfpeclivcly  belong,  an  equal  quantity  into  each  box, 
and  all  the  other  boxes  empty.  The  ladle  cylinder  may 
be  rcverfed,  or  turned  end  for  end  at  pleafure,  for  dif- 
ferent forts  of  grain.  Sec. 

For  fo wing  beans,  oats,  peafe,  &c.  with  a  five  coulter 
machine,  four  large  ladles  mufl  occafionally  be  applied 
at  equal  diftances  round  thofe  parts  of  the  cylinder 
■which  fubtcnd  the  two  end  boxes.  And  for  fowing: 
barley,  eight  large  ones  mufl  be  applied  as  above ;  or 
fourladles,No2.  toeachofthcwheat-boxcs.  Thefc  ad- 
ditional ladles  arc  fixed  on  the  cylinder  with  nails,or  ta- 
ken oft' in  a  few  minutes  ;  but  for  fowing  with  a  four- 
coulter  machine,the  above  alterations  are  not  necelfary. 

The  funnels  are  applied  to  their  refpedive  places  by 
correfponding  numbers.  Care  fliould  be  taken,  that 
the  points  of  the  funnel  ftand  direftly  behind  the  backs 
of  the  coulters,  which  is  done  by  wedges  being  applied 
to  one  fide  or  other  of  the  coulters,  at  the  time  they 
are  fixed  in  their  rtfpedive  places. 

The  machine  being  thus  put  together,  which  is  rea-  ■ 
tlily  and  expcditioudy  done,  as  no  fcparate  part  will 
coincide  with  any  other  but  that  to  which  it  rcfpcc- 
tivtly  belongs,  and  an  equal  quantity  of  grain  or  feed 
in  each  of  the  rcfpeAive  boxes,  the  land  alio  being  pre- 
vioully  ploughed  and  harrowed  once  or  fo  in  a  place  to 
level  the  furface  ;  but  if  the  land  be  very  rough,  a  rol- 
ler will  beftanfwcr  that  purpofc,  whenever  the  land  is 
dry  enough  to  admit  of  it ;  and  upon  (Irong  clays,  a 
fpiked  roller  is  fometimes  necelfary  to  reduce  the  lize 
of  large  dry  clods;  which  being  done,  tiie  driver 
fliould  walk  down  the  furrow  or  edge  of  the  land,  and 
having  hold  of  the  lall  horfc's  head  with  his  hand,  he 
will  readily  keep  him  in  fnch  adire(fkion,as  will  bring 
the  outfide  coulter  of  the  machine  within  three  or  four 
inches  of  the  edges  of  the  land  or  ridge,  at  which 
nniform  extent,  he  Ihould  keep  his  arm  until  he  conies 
to  the  end  of  t!ie  land  ;  where  having  turned  round, 
he  muftcomc  to  thcother  fideof  his  horl'es,  and  walk- 
ing upon  the  lad  outfidc  drill, having  hold  of  the  horfc's 
head  with  his  hand  as  before,hc  will  readily  keep  the 
maohine  in  fuch  a  diredion,  as  will  llrike  the  fucceed- 
ing  drill  at  fuch  a  diftance  from  the  lall  outfide  one,  or 
that  he  walks  upon,  as  the  coulters  arc  dillaut  from 
each  other. 


The perfonwhoattcnds  the  machine  QiouldpntdoWii  praftice, 
the  lever  H  foon  enough  at  the  end  of  the  land,  that  x  ' 
the  eups  or  ladles  may  have  time  to  fill,  before  he  be- 
gins to  fow  ;  and  at  the  end  of  the  land,  he  mufl  ap- 
ply his  right  hand  to  the  middle  ofthc  rail  between  the 
handles,  by  which  he  will  keep  the  coulters  in  the 
ground,  while  he  is  lifting  up  the  lever  H  with  his  left 
hand,  to  prevent  the  grain  being  fcattered  upon  the 
headland,  while  the  machine  is  turning  round  ;  this  he 
will  do  with  great  eafe,  by  continuing  his  right  hand 
upon  the  rail  between  the  handles,  and  applying  his 
left  arm  to  the  left  handle,  in  order  to  lift  the  coul- 
ters out  of  the  ground  while  the  machine  is  turning 
round. 

If  there  be  any  difficulty  in  ufing  the  machine,  ij 
confifls  in  driving  it  Araight.  As  to  the  perfon  who 
attends  the  machine,  he  cannot  pollibly  commit  any  er- 
rors, except  fuch  as  are  wilful,  particularly  as  he  fees  rt 
one  view  the  whole  procefs  ofthc  bufincfs,viz.  that  the 
coulters  make  the  drills  of  a  proper  depth;  that  the 
funnels  continue  open  to  convey  the  grain  or  feed  into 
the  drills  ;  that  the  rakes  or  harrows  cover  the  grain 
fufficieiuly  ;  and  when  feed  is  wanting  in  the  lower 
boxes  BjWhichhecannot  avoid  feeing,  he  readily  fup- 
plies  them  from  the  upper  boxes  A,  by  applying  his 
hand,  as  the  machine  goes  along,  to  the  lever  C.  The 
lower  boxes  B,  Ihould  not  be  futftred  to  become  empty 
before  they  are  fupplicd  with  feed,  but  fhouldbe  kept 
nearly  full,  or  within  an  inch  orfo  of  the  edge  of  the 
box. 

If  chalk  lines  are  made  acrofs  the  backs  of  the  coul- 
ters, at  fuchadiflance  from  the  ends  as  the  feed  fhould 
be  dcpofitcd  in  the  ground  (viz.  about  two  inches  for 
wheat, and  from  two  to  three  for  fpring  corn),  the  per- 
fon that  attends  the  machine  will  be  better  able  to  af- 
certain  the  depth  the  feed  Ihould  be  depofited  in  the 
drills,  by  obferving,  as  tlic  machine  goes  along,  whe- 
tlierthe  chalk  lines  are  above  or  below  the  furface  of 
the  land  ;  if  above  a  proper  weight  mull  be  applied 
to  the^cvcr  L,  which  will  force  the  coulters  into 
the  ground  ;  if  below,  the  lever  L  and  weight  niuft 
be  rcverfed,  which  will  prevent  tJuir  finking  too 
deep. 

In  ditFerent  parts  of  the  kingdom,  lands  or  ridges 
are  of  different  fizes  :  where  the  machine  is  too  wide 
for  the  land,  one  or  more  funnels  may  occaiionally  be 
flopped  with  a  little  loofe  paper,  and  the  feed  received 
into  fuch  funnel  returned  at  the  end  ofthc  land,  or 
fooner  if  required,  into  the  upper  fced-lx)x.  But  for 
regularity  and  expedition,  lands  co  i/illing  of  fo  many- 
feet  wide  from  outlide  to  outliJc.as  the  machine  con- 
tains coulters,  when  fixed  at  twelve  inches  diflance,  or 
twice  or  three  times  the  number,  &c.  are  beftcalcula- 
ted  for  the  machine.  In  wet  foils  or  flrono-  clays, 
lands  or  ridges  ofthc  width  of  the  machine,  and  in  dry 
foils,  of  twitethe  width,  arc  rccommeded.  I'or  fow- 
ing of  narrow  high-ridged  lands,  the  outfidc  coulters 
fliould  be  let  down,  and  the  middle  ones  raifed,  fo  that 
the  points  of  the  coulters  may  form  the  fame  curve 
that  the  land  or  ridge  forms.  And  ihi  loofe  foil  har- 
rowed down  into  thefurrrows  fhould  be  returned  to  the 
edges  of  the  lands  or  ridges  from  whence  it  came,  by 
a  double  mould-board  or  other  plough,  whether  the 
land  be  wet  or  dry. 

Clover  or  other  hays,  intended  to  lie  fown  by  the 

]iis.cliiae.. 


320 


AGRICULTURE. 


Part  If. 


I'raaice.  machine,  flioulJ  be  ploughed  a  deep  ftrong  furrow 
'  w  '  and  well  harrowed,  in  order  to  level  thefjrfuce,  and  to 
get  as  much  loofe  foil  as  pollible  for  the  coulters 
to  work  in  ;  and  when  fown,  if  any  of  tlic  feed  api)ears 
in  the  drills  uncovered  by  reafon  of  the  ftirt  texture  of 
the  foil,  or  toiighnefs  of  the  roots,  a  light  harrow  may 
be  taken  over  the  land,  once  in  a  place,  which  will  ef- 
fcdUially  cover  the  feed,  without  difplacingit  at  all  in 
the  drills.  For  fowing  lays,  a coiUidcrable  weight  mufl 
be  applied  to  the  lever  L,  to  force  the  coulters  into  the 
ground  j  and  a  fet  of  wrought-iron coulters,  wcU-lkcl- 
cd,  and  made  Iharpat  the  front  edge  and  bottom,  are 
recommended  ;  they  will  pervade  the  foil  more  readily, 
confcqueuilyrcqui  re  lefs  draugh  t, and  expedite  buliucfs 
more  than  adequate  to  the  additional  expence. 

Kor  every  half  acre  of  land  intended  to  be  fown  by 
the  machine  with  the  feed  of  (hat  very  valuable  root, 
(carrot)  one  bulhel  of  faw-duft,  and  one  pound  ol  car- 
rot feed,  ihould  be  provided  ;  the  l\:w-dull  fhould  be 
made  dry,  and  lifted  to  take  out  all  the  lumps  and 
chips,  and  divided  into  eight  equal  parts  or  heaps  ;  the 
carfoc-fced  fliould  likewife  be  dried,  and  well  rubbed 
between  the  hands,  to  take  otF  the  beards,  fo  that  it 
will  feparate  readily,  and  being  divided  into  eight  c- 
qual  parts  or  heaps,  one  part  of  the  carrot-feed  mull 
be  well  mixed  wiih  one  part  of  the  faw-dull,  and  fo  on, 
till  all  the  parts  ofthe  carrot-feed  and  faw-dufl are  well 
mixed  and  incorporated  together;  in  which  Itate  it  may 
te  fown  very  regularly  in  drills  at  twelve  inches  dif- 
tancc,  by  the  cupsorladlcsN"  2.  Carrot-feed  refem- 
blig  faw-duft  very  much  initsfize,  roughncfs,  weight, 
adhelion,  &c.  will  remain  mixed  as  above  during  the 
lowing  ;  a  ladle  full  of  faw-dull  will,  upon  an  average, 
contain  three  or  four  carrot-feeds,  by  which  means  the 
carrot-feed  cannot  be  otherwife  than  regular  in  the 
drills.  In  attempting  to  depofit  fmall  feeds  near  the 
fiirface,  it  may  fo  happen  that  fome  of  the  feeds  may 
not  be  covered  with  foil ;  in  which  cafe  a  light  roller 
may  be  drawn  over  the  land  after  the  feed  is  fown, 
\\ hich  will  not  only  cover  the  feeds,  bat  "ill  alfo,  by 
levelling  the  furface,  prepare  the  land  for  an  earlier 
liocing  than  could  otherwife  have  taken  place. 

It  has  alv.ays  been  found  troublefome,  fometimes 
impraflicable,  to  fowany  kind  of  grain  or  feeds  (even 
liroad-calt)  in  a  high  wind.  This  inconvenience  is  en- 
tirely obviated,  by  placing  a  fcreen  of  any  kind  of 
clotii,  or  a  fack,  fupportcd  by  two  uprights  nailed  to 
the  fidesof  the  machine,  behindthe  funnels,  which  will 
prevent  the  grain  or  feed  being  blown  outof  its  direc- 
tion in  falling  from  the  ladles  into  the  funnels.  Small 
pipes  of  tin  may  alfo  be  put  on  to  the  ends  of  the  fuu- 
rels,  to  convey  the  grain  or  feed  fonear  the  furface  of 
the  land,  that  the  highefl  wind  ihall  not  be  able  to  in- 
terrupt its  defccnt  into  the  drills. 

Refpccling  the  ufc  ofthe  machine,  it  is  frequently 
remarked  by  fomc  people  not  convcrfant  with  the  pro- 
perties of  matter  and  motion,  that  the  foil  will  clofe 
after  the  coulters,  before  the  feed  is  admitted  into  the 
(drills.  Whereas  the  very  contrary  is  tiic  cafe  J  for  the 
velocity  of  the  coulters  in  pading  through  the  foil,  is 
fo  much  greater  than  the  velocity  with  which  the  foil 
cjofesup  thcdriilsby  its  own  fpontanrousgravity.thit 
the  incifions  or  drills  will  be  conftanily  open  for  three 
or  four  inches  behind  the  coulters  ;  by  which  means. 
It  is  morally  impolSblc  (if  the  points  of  the  funnels 


Hand  dircflly  behind  the  coulters)  that  the  feed  with    Praaic«r 

the  velocity  it  acquires  in  falling  tlirough  the  funnels,  * ^— ' 

Hiall  not  be  admitted  into  the  drills. 

Fig.  12.  is  a  new  conllrufted  liinplc  hand-hoe,  by  Mate  IX. 
which  one  man  will  effectually  hoe  two  chain  acres  per 
day,  earthing  up  the  foil  at  the  fame  time  to  the  rows 
of  corn  or  pulfe,  fo  as  to  caufe  roots  to  ilfue  from  the 
finl  joint  ofthe  ilem,  above  the  furface  of  the  land, 
\t  hich  otherftife  would  never  have  cxiiled. 

This  hoe  is  worked  much  in  the  fame  manner  as  a 
common  Dutch  hoe,  or  fcufile,  is  worked  in  gardens. 
The  handle  is  elevated  ordeprelTed,  to  fuit  the  fize  of 
the  perfon  that  works  it,  by  means  of  an  iron  wedge 
being  rtfpedivcly  applied  to  the  upper  or  under  fide  of 
the  handle  that  goes  into  the  fockct  ofthe  hoc. 

The  wings  or  moulding  plates  of  the  hoc,  which  are 
calculated  to  earth  up  the  foil  to  the  rows  of  corn,  foas 
to  caufe  roots  to  ifluc  from  the  firft  joint  of  the  Hem 
above  the  furface,  which  othcrwLIc  would  not  have 
cxillcd,  fhould  never  be  uftd  for  the  firfl  hoeing,  bu: 
fliould  always  be  ufed  for  the  laft  hoeing,  and  ufed  or 
not  ufed,  at  the  option  of  the  farmer,  when  any  inter- 
mediate hoeing  is  performed. 

SuMMARVof  the  Operations  neceffary  in  executing 
the  New  Husbandry  with  the  Plough. 

Hi 

1.  It  isindifpenfably  neceffary  that  the  farmer  be  Summary 
provided  with  a  drill  and  hoe-plough.  of  the  ope- 

2.  The  new  hufbandry  may  be  begun  either  with  f*''""'- 
the  winter  or  fpring  corn. 

3.  The  land  muft  be  prepared  by  four  good  plough- 
ings,  given  at  ditlcrenc  times,  from  the  beginning  of 
April  to  tlie  middle  of  September. 

4.  Thefe  ploughings  muft  be  done  in  dry  weather, 
to  prevent  the  earth  from  kneading. 

J.  The  land  muft  be  harrowed  in  the  fame  manner 
as  if  were  fowed  in  the  common  way. 

6.  The  rows  of  wheat  Ihould  be  fov/ed  very  ftraight. 

7.  When  the  field  is  not  very  large,  a  line  muft  be 
ftrained  acrofs  it,  by  which  a  rill  may  be  traced  with 
a  hoe  for  the  horfe  that  draws  the  drill  to  go  in  -,  and 
when  the  rows  are  fown,  50  inches  muftbc  left  betwixt 
each  rill.  But,  when  the  lield  is  large,  ftakes  at  five 
feet  diftance  from  each  other  muft  be  placed  at  the  two 
ends.  The  workman  mu/t  then  trace  a  fmall  furrow 
with  a  plough  thathas  no  mould-board,  for  the  horfe  to 
go  in  that  draws  the  drill,  direiling  hiuifelf  witli  his 
eye  by  the  ftakes. 

8.  The  fowing  fhould  be  finifhed  at  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember, or  the  beginning  of  Oflobcr. 

9.  The  furrows  nuifl  be  traced  the  long  way  of  the 
land,  that  as  little  ground  as  polfiblc  may  be  loft  in  the 
head-lands. 

10.  The  rows,  if  it  can  be  done,  fhould  run  down 
the  (lope  of  the  land,  that  the  water  may  get  the  ea- 
lier  off. 

11.  The  feed-wheat  muft  be  plunged  into  a  tub  of 
lime-water,  and  ftirred,  that  the  light  corn  may  come 
to  the  furface  and  be  fkiuimedofl.  ^ 

12.  The  feed  muft  be  next  fpread  on  a  floor,  anf>^ 
frequently  ftirred,  till  it  is  dry  enough  to  run  through 
the  valves  of  the  hopper  ofthe  drill. 

I  -i..  To  prevent  fmut,  Uic  feed  may  be  put  into  a  ley 
of  aflies  and  lime.  "" 

14.  Good 


AoRir  rr/ri  ui<: 


pi.it.-  \  111 


^^.    f'r,t        ..'.w^   .    /it,', 


*v 


^•t 


L;^- 


\ 


V, 


■;^ 


wl^'7 


m^m^ 


Agriculti  R 


E 


Plat  ,•  1\ 


",'..  /„/  .  Kt,//^.,  /*//,'//.- 


Pirt  11. 


AGRICULTURE. 


14.  Good  old  feed-wheat  (lioiiLi  be  chofcn  in  prefe- 
■'  rence  10  new,  as  it  is  found  by  cxpcj  icnce  not  to  be  fo 
fiibjeilto  finut. 

I).  After  ihe  hoppers  of  the  drill  arc  filled,  the 
horfc  nuift  go  llowly  along  the  furrow  that  was  triced. 
Tlidt  a  proper  quantity  of  feed  may  be  fown,  the  a- 
penurc  of  the  hopper  mud  lie  fuiied  to  tlie  fize  of  the 
grain. 

16.  Asthc  drill  is  fclJom  well  managed  at  firft,  the 
field  (honld  be  examined  after  the  corn  has  come  up, 
and  the  deficiencies  be  fupplicd. 

1  7.  Upon  wet  foils  or  (Irong  clays,  wheat  Ihould  not 
be  (lepohted  more  than  two  inclies  deep,  on  any  ac- 
connt  whatever  ;  nor  lefs  than  two  inches  deep,  on  dry 
foils.  From  two  to  three  inches  is  a  medium  depth  for 
all  fpring  corn.  But  the  cxaft  deptli  at  which  grain 
Ihould  be  depolited  in  dilferent  foils,  from  the  ligluefl 
fand  to  the  llrongeil  clay,  is  readily  afcertained  only 
by  obfervingat  what  dillancc  under  thefurface  of  the 
land,  the  fecondary  or  coronal  roots  are  formed  in  the 
fpring. 

18.  Stiff  lands,  that  retain  the  wet,  mufl  be  ftirred 
or  hoed  in  Oftober.  This  Ihould  be  done  by  opening 
a  furrow  in  themiddleof  the  intervals,  and  afterward, 
filling  it  up  by  a  furrow  drawn  on  each  fide,  which 
will  raife  the  earth  in  the  middle  of  the  intervals, and 
leave  two  fniall  furrows  next  the  rows,  for  draining  off 
the  water,  which  is  very  hurtful  to  wheat  in  winter. 

19.  The  next  flirring  mud  be  given  about  the  end 
of  Marcli,  witli  a  light  plough.  In  this  ftirring  the 
furrows  made  to  drain  the  rows  mufl  be  filled  up  by 
earth  from  the  middle  of  the  intervals. 

20.  Some  time  in  May,  the  rows  mull  be  evened  ; 
which,  though  troublefome  at  firft,  foon  becomes  eafy, 
as  the  weeds  are  foon  kept  under  by  tillage. 

21.  In  June,  jufl  before  the  wheat  is  in  bloom,  ano- 
ther flirring  mufl  be  given  with  the  plough.  A  deep 
furrow  mufl  be  made  in  the  middle  of  the  intervals, 
.md  the  earth  thrown  upon  the  fides  of  the  rows. 

22.  When  the  wheat  is  ripe,  particular  care  mull  be 
taken,  in  reaping  it,  to  trample  as  little  as  polfiblcoa 
the  ploughed  land. 

2;?.  Soon  after  the  wheat  is  carried  off  the  field,  the 
intervals  mufl  be  turned  upwith  the  plough,  to  prepare 
ihem  for  tlie  feed.  The  great  furrow  in  the  middle 
muft  not  only  be  filled,  but  the  earth  raifed  as  much  as 
podiblc  in  the  middle  of  the  intervals. 

24.  In  September,  the  land  mull  be  again  fowed 
with  a  drill,  as  above  dircded. 

2j.  In  Oflober,  the  Hubble  mufl  be  turned  in  for 
forming  the  new  intervals  ;  and  the  fame  management 
inull  be  obferved  as  direded  in  the  firfl  year. 

We  pretend  not  to  determine  whether  the  old  or 
new  hiilLandry  be  preferable  in  every  country.  With 
regard  to  this  point,  the  climate,  the  fituation  of  par- 
ticular land,  (kill  .-tiid  dexterity  in  managing  the  ma- 
chinery, the  comparative  cxpence  in  raifing  crops, 
.md  many  other  circumllanccs,  mufl  be  accurately  at- 
tended to  before  a  determination  can  be  given. 

TJie  following  comparative  view  of  the  old  and  new 
methods  of  culture,  was  furnifhed  for  the  editors  of  Mr 
TuU'sHorfe-hoeing  Hufbandry,  by  a  gentleman  who 
forfome  years  prailifed  both  in  a  country  where  the 
foil  was  light  and  chalky,  like  that  from  which  he  drew 
Vol.  I. 


liii  obfervaiions.  It  is  nccclFary  to  remark,  that  in  the 
new  hufbandry  every  article  is  llatcd  at  its  full  value, 
and  the  crop  of  cacii  year  is  four  bufliels  lliort  of  the 
other  ;  though,  in  fcvcral  years  experience,  it  has  c- 
quallcd  and  generally  exceeded  thofe  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood in  the  old  way. 

"  Anelliraateofthe  cxpence  and  profit  of  10  acres  of 
land  in  20  years. 

I.    In  the  old  %vay. 

F'irft  year,    for   wheat,  cofts   33  I.    js. 

viz.  L.     s.     d.     L.     s. 

Firll  ploughing,  at  6s.  p.  acre  300 
Second  and  third  ditto,  at  8s. 

per  acre  400 

Manure,  30s.  per  acre  15     00 


321 


Prafli; 


Compara- 
tive view 
of  the  ex- 
pellee aiij 
pro6cs  of 
theOldanJ 
New  Huf- 
bandry. 


22 


Two  harrowings,  and  fowing, 
at  2s.6d.  per  acre  I 

Seed,  three  bufliels  per  acre, 
at  4s.  per  bulhel  6 

Weeding,  at  2s.  per  acre  i 

Reaping,  binding,  and  carry- 
ing, at  6s.  per  acre  3 


Second  year,  for  barley,  cofls 
111.  6s.  8d.  viz. 

Once  ploughing,  at  63.  per  a- 
cre  ■  ■  3 

Harrowing  and  fowing,  at  is. 
6d.  per  acre         -         -        o 

Weeding,  at  is,  per  acre         o 

Seed,  four  bufliels  per  acre, 
at  2S.  per  buOiel  4 

Cutting,  raking,  and  carry- 
ing, at  3s.  2d.  per  acre  I 

Grafs-feeds,  at  3s.  per  acre      i 


10 


II 

10 


8 
o 


Third  and  fourth  years,  lying  ingrafs, 
cofl  nothing  :  fo  that  the  expence  of 
ten  acres  in  four  years  comes  to  44I. 
I  IS.  8d.  and  in  twenty  years  to 
Kirll  years  produce  is  half  a 
load  ofwhcatperacre,at  7I.  35     o    o 
Second  years  produce  is  two 
quarters  of  barley  per  acre, 
at  li.         -         -  -         20     o     o 

Third  and  fourth  years  grafs 
is  valued  at  il.  los.  per  acre  I)     o    o 

So  that  the  produce  of  ten 

acres  in  four  years  is         70     o     o 
And  in  twenty  years  it  will  be 
Dedutl  the  expence,  and  there  remains 
clear  profit  on  ten  acres  in  twenty  years  ■ 
by  the  old  way         -         - 


II.  In  the  new  way. 

Firftyearscxtraordinary  expence  is,  for 
ploughing  and  manuring  the  land, the 
fame  as  in  the  old  way     L.22    o    o 
S  f 


II 


II  6     8 


44  II 


222  i3     4 


350 


127 


Ploughing 


A 

Ploughing  once  more,  at  4s. 
per  acre 

Seed,  nine  gallons  per  acre, 
at  4s.  per  biillicl 

Drilling,  at  7J.  per  acre 

Hand- hoeing  and  weeding,  at 
2s.  6d.  per  acre 

Horfe-hoc-ing  fix  times,    at 
I  OS.  per  acre 

Reaping,  binding,  and  car- 
rying, at  6s.  per  acre 

The  Handing  annual  charge- 
on  tea  acres  is 


G 

L. 


R     I     C 

d.     L.     s. 


u 

d. 


L    T     L?    R    E. 


Part  II. 


o 

10 


13  15  10 


Therefore  the  expence  on  ten  acres  in 
twenty  years  is  -  - 

Add  the  extraordinariesofthefirfl year, 
and  the  luui  is  -  - 

The  yearly  produce  is  at  leafl  two  quar- 
ters of  wheat  per  acre,  at  il.  8s.  per 
quarter  ;  which,on  ten  acres  in  twen- 
ty years  amounts  to 

Thercl'ore,all  things  paid, there  remains 
clear  profit  on  tea  acres  in  20  years 
by  the  new  way 


27J  16     8 
297  16     8 


560 


262     3     4 


»*5  '<So  that  the  profit  on  ten  acres  of  land  in  twenty 

Arguments  y^j^j    jj,  ti,g  uj^y   way,   exceeds  that  in  the  old  1  y 
in  favour  of  i  '  „  ,         ;■  ,     .  .■  j        1  1 

the  New      L.  i;j  :  I  :  8,   and  conlcquently  isconliderably  more 

Method,  ih-in  double  thereof;  an  ample  encouragement  to  prac- 
tife  a  fchtme,  whereby  fo  great  advantage  will  arife 
from  fo  fmall  a  quantity  of  land,  in  the  corapafs  of  a 
twenty-one  years  leafe  ;  one  year  being  allowed,  both 
in  the  old  and  new  way,  for  preparing  the  ground. 

"  It  ought  withal  to  be  obferved,  that  Mr  TuU'shuf- 
bandry  requires  no  manure  at  all,  though  we  have  here, 
to  prevent  objeiflions,  allowed  the  charge  thereof  for 
the  hrfl  year  ;  and  moreover,  that  though  the  crop  of 
wheat  from  the  drill-plough  is  here  put  only  at  two 
quarters  on  an  acre,  yet  Mr  TuU  himfilf,  by  acUial  ex- 
periment and  meafurc,  found  the  produce  of  his  drill- 
ed wheat-crop  amounted  to  almolt  four  quarters  on  aa 
acre." 

It  appears  alfo  from  acomparative  calculation  of  ex- 
pence  and  profit  beiwecn  the  drill  and  common  liuf- 
bandry,  taken  from  Rir  Baker's  report  to  the  Dublin 
Society  of  his  experiments  in  agriculture  for  the  year 
I  765,  that  there  is  a  clear  profit  ariling  upon  aa  Irilh 
acre  of  land  in  15  years  in  the  drill  huibaudry  of 
L.  J2  :  3  :  II,  and  in  the  common  huibaudry  of 
L.  27  :  19:2;  and  therefore  a  greater  prolit  in  the 
drilled  acre  in  this  time  of  L.24  :  4  :  9,  which  amounts 
10  L.  I  ;  12  :  3',  per  annum.  Krom  hence  he  infers, 
that  in  every  1 5  years  the  fee-limple  of  all  the  tillage- 
lands  of  the  kingdom  is  loll  to  the  community  by  the 
common  courfe  of  tillage.  In  Hating  the  accounts, 
from  which  their  refult  is  obtained,  no  notice  is  taken 
of  fences,  water-cutting  the  land,  weeding  and  reap- 
ing, becaufe  ihefe  articles  depend  on  a  variety  of  cir- 
cuuiflances,  and  will,  in  general,  exceed  in  the  com- 
mon huibaudry  thofe  incurred  by  the  other. 

Belidcs,thecertainty  of  a  crop  is  greater  in  this  new 
■way  than  in  the  old  way  of  fowing  ;   for  moft  of  the 


accidents  atiending  wheat  crops,  are  owing  to  their    Praiflice. 

being  hue  lowu,  which  is  neccd'ary  to  the  farmer  in  ^^ ' 

the  old  way  ;  but  in  the  horfe-hocing  method  the  far- 
mer may  plough  two  furrows  whereon  the  next  crop 
is  to  Hand  immediately  after  the  Hrll  crop  is  ott".  In 
this  manner  of  huibaudry,  the  laud  maybe  ploughed 
dry  and  drilled  wet,  without  any  inconvenience  ;  and 
the  feed  is  never  planted  under  the  furrow,  but  placed 
juflat  the  depth  which  is  moll  proper,  that  is,  ai  about 
two  inches  ;  in  which  cafe  it  is  eaf'y  to  pret'erve  it,  and 
thi  re  is  no  danger  of  burying  it.  Tims  the  feed  has 
all  the  advantage  of  early  fowing,  and  none  of  the  dif- 
advantagcs  that  may  attend  it  in  the  other  way,  and 
the  crop  is  much  more  certain  than  by  any  other  means 
that  can  be  ufed. 

The  condition  in  which  tlie  land  is  left  after  the 
crop,  is  no  lefs  in  favour  ot'the  horfe-hoeing  hufbandry 
than  all  the  other  articles.  The  number  of  plants  is 
the  great  principle  of  the  exhauding  of  land.  In  the 
common  huibaudry,  the  number  is  vatlly  greater  than 
in  the  drilling  way,  and  three  plants  in  four  often 
come  to  nothing,  after  having  exhaufled  the  ground  as 
nuich  as  profitable  jdants  ;  and  the  weeds  which  live 
to  the  time  of  harveflin  the  common  way,  exhanll  the 
land  no  lefs  than  fo  many  plants  of  corn,  often  much 
more.  The  horfe-hoeiugmeiiioddellroysall  the  weeds 
in  the  far  greater  part  of  the  laud,  and  leaves  that  part 
unexliaufled  and  pcrfedly  frelh  for  another  crop.  The 
wheat  plants  being  alio  but  a  third  part  of  the  number 
at  the  utmofl  of  thofe  in  the  fowing  way,  the  land  is 
fo  much  the  lefs  exhaufled  by  them  ;  and  it  is  very  c- 
vident  from  the  whole,  that  it  mult  be,  as  experience 
proves  that  it  is,  left  in  a  much  better  condition  after 
this  than  after  the  common  huibaudry.  »aj 

Thefarmerswhoarc  againll  this  method  objeftjthat  Ofijeaion* 
it  makes  the  plants  too  llrong,  and  that  they  are  more  *"''  "" 
liable  to  the  blacks  or  blights  of  infcds  for  that  rea-  '*""■ 
fon ;  but  as  this  allows  that  the  hoeing  can,  without 
the  ufc  of  dung,  give  too  much  nourifhment,it  is  very 
plain  that  it  can  give  enough  ;  and  it  is  the  farmer's 
fault  ifhedonot  proportion  his  pains  fo  as  to  have  the 
advantage  of  the  nourilhmcnt  without  the  difadvanta- 
gcs.  It  is  alio  objeeled,  that  as  hoeing  can  make  poor 
land  rich  enough  to  bear  good  crops  of  wheat,  it  may 
make  good  land  too  rich  for  it.  But  if  this  fhould 
happen,  the  fowing  of  wheat  on  it  may  be  let  alone  a 
while,  and  in  the  place  of  it  the  farmer  may  have  a 
crop  of  turnips,  carrots,  cabbages,  and  the  like,  whirh 
are  excellent  food  for  ca'tle,  and  c.iunot  be  ovcr-nou- 
rilhed  :  or,  if  this  is  not  chofen,  the  land,  when  thus 
made  too  rich,  may  loon  be  fufficienily  impoverillied 
by  fowing  corn  upon  it  in  the  common  old  way. 

The  method  of  horfe-hocing  hufbandry,  fo  lirongly 
recommended  by  Mr  TuU,  is  objected  to  by  many  on 
accountof  tlie  largenefs  of  the  intervals  which  are  to 
be  left  behind  the  rows  of  corn.  Thcfe  arc  required 
to  be  about  five  feet  wide  ;  and  it  is  thought  that  fuch 
wide  fpaces  are  fo  much  loft  earth,  and  that  the  crop 
is  to  be  fo  much  the  lefs  for  it.  But  it  is  to  be  obferv- 
ed, that  the  rows  of  corn  ieparated  by  thefc  intervals 
need  not  be  lingle  ;  they  may  be  double,  triple,  or 
quadruple,  at  the  pleafure  of  the  farmer  ;  and  four 
rows  thus  flanding  as  one  will  have  the  five  foot  inter- 
val but  one-'ourth  of  its  bigucfs  as  to  the  whole  quan- 
tity, and  it  will  be  but  as  lif'tecn  inch  intervals  to  plants 

in 


Part  II. 

IVaaicc   in  finglc  rows 


AGRICULTURE. 


Corn  that  is  fown  irregularly  in  tlie 
•'  coiiiiuuu  way,  fccins  iiulccd  to  cover  the  ground  bec- 
tcrtliaii  that  in  rows:  but  iliis  isa  mere  diccptit,  vi/ni ; 
for  the  ftalks  of  corn  arc  never  (o  thick  as  when  they 
come  out  ot'onc  plant,  or  as  when  they  (land  in  a  row  ; 
and  a  hor(e-lu)cd  plant  of  corn  will  have  20  or  30 
ftalks  in  a  piece  of  ground  of  the  fameqiiaiuity,  where 
an  uiihocd  plant  will  have  only  two  or  three  (talks.  If 
thcfc  ftalks  of  the  hoed  plant  were  fcparated  and 
planted  over  the  intervals,  the  whole  land  would  be 
better  covered  than  it  is  in  the  common  way  ;  and  the 
truth  is,  that  thougli  thcfc  hoed  fields  feem  to  con- 
tain a  much  Icfs  crop  tlian  the  common  fown  fields,  yet 
they  in  reality  do  contain  a  much  greater.  It  is  only 
the  ditfcrcnt  placing  iliat  makes  the  fown  crop  feem 
the  larj^cr,  and  even  this  is  only  while  both  crops  are 
young. 

The  intervals  are  not  loft  ground,  as  is  ufiially  fup- 
pofed,  but  when  well  iiorfe-hoed  they  arc  all  employ- 
ed in  the  nourilhment  of  the  crop  ;   the  roots  of  the 
plants  in  the  adjoining  rows  fprcading  themfcl  ves  thro' 
the  whole  interval,  and  drawing  fuch  nourilhment  from 
it,  that  they  increafe  accordingly.     When  the  plants 
Hand  in  the  fcattered  way,  as  in  common  fowing,  they 
are  too  clofe  to  one  another  ;    each  robs  its  neighbours 
of  partof  their  nourilhment,  and  conftqucntly  the  earth 
isfoon  exhanlled,  and  all  the  plants  half  llarved.  The 
clofe  flandingof  them  alio  prevents  tlie  benefit  of  after- 
tilling,  as  the  hoe  cannot   be   brought   in,    nor  the 
ground  by  any  means  fUrred  between  them  to  give  it 
a  new  breaking,  and  confequently  afford  them  new  food. 
Experiments  have  abundantly  proved,  that  in  large 
grounds  of  wheat  where  the  different  metliods  have 
been  tried,  thofc  parts  where  the  intervals  were  largcd 
havcproduced  the  greated  crops,  and  thofc  where  hoe- 
ing was  ufed  without  dung  have  been  much  richer, 
than  thofc  where  dung  was  uled  without  hocing.     If  it 
were  poflible  that  plants  could  Hand  as  thick,  and  thrive 
as  well  over  the  whole  furface  of  the  ground,  as  they 
do  in  the  rows  fcparated  by  thcfc  large  intervals,   the 
crops  of  corn  fo  produced  would  be  vaftly  greater  than 
any  that  have  been  heard  of;  but  the  truth  is,  that 
plantsreccivethcirgrowthnot  according  to  the  ground 
they  fland  on,  but  to  the  ground  they  can  extend  their 
roots  into;   and  therefore  a  lingle  row  may  contain 
more  plants  than  a  large  interval  can  nourilh,  and 
therefore  the  fame  number  that  Hand  in  that  row,  and 
no  more  than  thcfc,  could  be  nourilhcd,  if  fcattered 
over  the  whole  interval ;  and  they  would  be  much  worfc 
nourilhcd  in  that  way  ;  becaufe  while  tlie  interval  is 
void,  the  earth  may  be  ftirred  about  them,  and  new 
roots  will  be  formed  in  threat  numbers  from  every  one 
broken  by  the  inftrumcits  and  new  no.irilhment  laid 
before  tliefc   roots  by  the  breaking  the   particles  of 
earth,  by  which  the  plants  will  have  (iipplies  that  they 
cannot  have  when  fcattered  over  the  whole  furface, 
becaulc  the  groi\nd  is  then  all  occupicdj  and  cannot  be 
moved  between  the  plants. 

All  foils  and  all  (ituations  arc  not  equally  proper  for 
this  mcthud  of  planting  in  rows  with  large  iiittrv.ils 
and  hocing  between.  The  lightcft  foils  feem  to  be 
bell  for  it,  and  the  tough  and"  wet  clays  the  word. 
Such  grounds  as  lie  on  the  (ides  of  hills  arc  alfo  lefs 
proper  than  others  for  this  work. 

This  method  is  not  fo  proper  in  common  fields,  but 


21» 


that  not  in  rcfpect  of  the  foil,  but  of  the  hufbandry  of 
thcowners,  whoareufually  in  the  old  way,  andchangc 
the  fpecies  of  corn,  and  make  it  nccellary  to  fallow 
every  fccond,  third  or  fourth  year.  Neverthelcfs  it 
has  bccnfoundby  later  experiments,  that  the  intervals 
betwixt  the  rows  of  plants,  as  recommended  by  Mr 
Tull,  were  too  great,  perhaps  double  of  what  they 
fliould  be  in  the  moll  profitable  method  of  culture  ;  by 
which  means  much  Icfs  crops  are  obtained  than  might 
be  produced  at  nearly  the  fame  cxpencc.  This  has 
1  endcred  the  profits  of  the  drill  method  much  Icfs  than 
they  would  have  been  in  a  more  judicious  praclicc,  and, 
confequently,  has  proved  a  great  difadvantiigc  to  it  in 
coniparifon  with  the  broad-call.  Mr  Tull  was  led  into 
this,  partly  from  the  want  of  more  perfect  inftruments 
for  hoeing,  and  of  ploughs  proper  for  drilling. 

To  the  preceding  (latcments,  the  following obfcrva- 
tions  by  Sir  John  Anflruther,  publiihed  among  the  Se- 
lect Papers  of  the  Bath  Society,  may  not  be  imj)ropcr- 
ly  fubjouicd. 

The  (low  progrcfs  which  the  drill-hufbandry  has  ObfcrVa- 
madc  in  many  parts  of  Great  Britain  fmce  Mr  TuU's  tious  by  Sir 
time,  he  obferves,  has  been  principally  owing  to  the  John  An- 
want  of  propcrdrillploughs.  Before  drilling  can  be-  ''ruther. 
come  general,  thcfc  ploughs  mull  be  (imple,  fuch  as  a 
common  ploughman  accullomcd  to  ufe  Itrong  inftru- 
ments can  ufe  without  breaking,  and  fuch  alfo  as  com- 
mon workmen  can  ealily  make  or  repair.  Mathema- 
tical accuracy  he  conlidcrs  as  not  required  for  deliver- 
ing the  feed  :  for  it  matters  very  little  whether  there 
be  a  quarter  of  a  peck  more  or  Icfs  fown,  if  it  be  deli- 
vered with  tolerable  regularity.  He  therefore  had  a 
plough  made,  according  te  his  own  directions,  by  a 
common  plough-wright,  of  fufficicnt  ftrcngih  for  any 
land  made  tit  for  turnips  or  wheat.  It  was  tried  on 
very  rough  ground  unfit  for  fowing,  in  order  to  afcer- 
tain  its  ftrcngth  ;  and  it  had  been  ufed  for  eight  years 
without  its  needing  any  repair.  It  is  a  double  drill- 
plough,  which  fows  two  ridges  at  a  time,  the  horfc 
going  in  the  furrow  between  them,  and  of  courfe  does 
not  tread  upon  the  ground  intended  to  be  fown  ;  w'hich 
with  a  fiuglc  drill  mull  be  the  cafe,  and  does  much 
harm  by  the  horfes  feet  linking  and  making  holes  in 
the  fine  ground,  which  retain  the  water,  and  hurt 
the  wheat  when  young. 

He  proceeds  to  obfcrve,  "  That  having  read  Mr 
Forbes  upon  the  extcnfive  pradliccofthe  new  hufban- 
dry, and  fome  other  authors,  who  gave  a  more  clear 
and  diftintt  account  of  the  ditt'crent  operations  in  dril- 
ling than  had  heretofore  been  given,  I  wilhed  to  try 
them,  and  to  adapt  my  plough  to  fow  the  quantities 
therein  dire<5le«l.  It  was,  however,  adjuftcd  to  fow 
a  ("mailer  quantity,  and  the  feed  was  not  lleepcd. 

"  Not  having  ground  fo  proper  as  I  willicd,  it  was 
drilled  on  the  lide  of  a  field,  the  foil  of  which  was  light 
and  fandy,  and  in  fuch  bad  order,  that  the  preceding 
crop  was  a  very  indifferent  one.  It  was  therefore  ma- 
nured with  a  compofl  dung-hill. 

"  After  crofs- ploughing  and  manuring,  it  was  laid 
into  four  and  a  half  feet  ridges,  then  harrowed  and 
drilled  with  one  peck  and  a  half  of  wheat  on  an  acre 
and  a  quarter,  which  is  nearly  one  peck  and  a  fifth  per 
Englilli  acre.  It  was  drilled  the  sythof  Otlober,  and 
rolled  a("ter  drilling.  The  crop  was  late  in  its  appear- 
ance, and  very  backward  in  the  fpriiig. 

S  f  2  "  March 


324  A     CJ     R     1     C     u 

I'rifllce.        "  March  3 ill,  it  was  liurfc-lioeJ  one  farrow fi'jm 

'  >'— '  I'lic  luWS. 

''  April  8tl),  it  \v:i3  liaud-hocJ  and  wccjrd  in  tlic 
rows. 

"  2j"iii,  liori'c-hocd  -i^jJiii,  Ii)''"i5  ^  furrow  back  to 
tlif  rows. 

•'  Miy  istli,   li;iud-lu)cd  tlic  fccond  time. 

•'  June  2d,  liorrt-liocdy>-6w  tlie  rows. 

•'  June  i2tli,  liand-hotd  tlic  iliird  time. 

"  July  I4tli,  horiV-lioed  to  the  rows. 

"  At  this  lafl  hoeing-,  as  many  of'  the  cars  were 
beaten  downiaio  ilie  intervals  by  wind  and  rain,  a  man 
went  before  the  horfe-hoe,  and  turned  the  ears  bade 
into  their  proper  place. 

"  The  crop,  when  reaped  and  threflicd,  yielded  me 
36  bufliels  on  one  acre  and  a  quarter,  which  is  28 
luirtiels  and  three  pecks  per  acre  ;  and  the  produce 
from  one  peck  and  an  half  96  for  one. 

"  As  the  produce  appeared  fo  great,  from  land  in 
fiich  bad  order,  it  was  carefully  n\eafiired  again,  and 
found  to  be  right.  But  this  increafe,  though  great, 
was  not  fo  large  as  Mr  Crake  of  Glafgow  had  without 
dung. 

"  Mr  Randal  fays  '  It  is  an  experimented  faft,  that 
on  i  iinc  loam  exquilitely  prepared,  144  bullicls  have 
been  produced  from  one  acre.  And,  I  believe,  it  is 
not  known  what  the  increafe  may  be  brought  to  in  rich 
land  by  high  cultivation.' 

"  Some  years  fince,  I  had  beans  dropt  alternately 
with  potatoes,  at  two  feet  dillance  in  the  rows,  which 
were  three  feet  apart,  and  ploughed  in  the  intervals. 
The  land  adjoining  was  fown  with  beans  and  peafc, 
which  were  a  good  crop  ;  but  thofe  (own  among  the 
potatoes  a  better  one.  I  pulled  one  flcm  of  the  beans 
planted  with  the  potatoes,  which  had  three  branches 
rifnig  from  the  bottom,  and  it  produced  225  beans.  In 
all  thetrials  of  drilled  beans,  moll  of  the  ftemshad  two 

branches,  with  many  pods  upon  each. From  thefe 

and  other  inrtances,  I  believe  it  is  not  yet  known  to 
what  increafe  grain  may  be  brought  by  drilling,  good 
cultivation,  and  manure. 

"  Horfe-hoeing  is  certainly  preferable  to  clofe  dril- 
ling or  hand-hoeing  ;  but  the  latter  is  fuperior  to 
broadcaft. 

"  Horfe-hoeing  the  full  depth  incrcafes  the  crop, 
by  making  it  tiller  or  branch  more  than  it  otherwife 
Would  do  ;  and  the  advantage  is  oiftinftly  obfervable 
every  hoeing,  by  the  colour  of  the  grain.  It  prepares 
the  ground  for  the  next  crop,  at  the  fame  time  that 
it  increafes  the  crop  growing,  which  hand-hoeing  docs 
not,  although  it  may  dellroy  the  weeds.  Thus  drill- 
ed ground  is  kept  in  a  loofe  open  ftate  to  receive  the 
benefit  of  the  influence  of  the  air  and  weather,  which 
broadcaft  has  not ;  and  it  is  evident,  from  certain  ex- 
perience, that  crops  maybe  drilled  many  years  to  good 
advantage  without  manure. 

'<  Snppofe  the  crops  only  20  bufliels  per  acre,  what 
courfe  of  broadcaft  crops  will  give  5I.  an  acre  for  the 
courfe  ?  But  fuppofe  they  are  dunged  the  fame  as  any 
ground  in  the  nioft  approved  courfe,  there  is  the  great - 
eft  reafon  to  expefl  as  much  as  in  the  above  experi- 
ment, which  is  28  and  three-quarters,  and  at  5s.  per 
bufhel  amounts  to  7I.  3s.  9d. 

"  Calculations  may  be  of  fervicc  to  tliofe  who  wiili 
to  try  drilling,  and  have  few  books  to  dired  them. 


L    T.    U     R     E. 


Part  IF, 


'   "  One  acre  is  10  chains  long,  of  660  feet,  or  120  IVaclicc. 

yards  long,  and  one  yard  broad,  containing  434ofquarc  '^ 

yards.  'I'hen  if  the  ridge  is  lour  feet  fix  inches,  this 
makes  1 4  ridges,  and  three  feet  to  fpare.  Thiskngih 
of  220  yards,  multiplied  by  14  (the  number  of  ridges) 
gives  a  length  of  yards  3080,  to  which  add  146  fur  llic 
fj>are  three  feet,  and  it  will  be  3226yarils.  And  as 
two  rows  arc  drilled  on  a  ridge,  the  number  of  rows 
_will  be  in  length  6452  yards  ;  but  as  a  dcdufliun  oC 
172  yards  mult  be  made  for  the  head  ridges,  fu]>pofe 
three  yards  each,  &c.  the  whole  length  to  be  fown  will 
be  628oyards  clear.  Novvagjllon  (Wincheftcr)  holds 
about  80,000  grains.  The  quantity  recommended  10 
be  drilled  by  Mr  Forbes  and  others,  being  fix  gallons, 
or  two-thirds  of  a  buihel  per  acre,  is  nearly  78  grains 
to  a  yard,  or  26  to  a  foot.  But  in  my  experiment,  by 
this  calculation,  it  was  only  about  1 1  grains  to  a  foot ; 
which  is  quite  fufficienc,  if  ihe  feed  be  good,  and  it  be 
not  deilroyed  by  vermin, 

"  Now  with  regard  to  the  quantity  of  land  this 
drill-plougli  may  fow  ;  if  a  horfe  walks  at  the  rate  of 
two  miles  per  hour,  he  goes  16  miles  in  eight  hours, 
or  28,460  yards.  As  he  fows  two  ridges  at  once,  this 
is  fcvcn  lengths  and  two- thirds  per  acre,  or  16S6  yards 
to  fow  an  acre,  being  nearly  I  7  acres  in  a  day. 

"  Four  horfc-hocings  arc  calculated  equal  to  two. 
ploughings.  In  plain  ploughing  they  fuppofe  the  ridge 
is  ploughed  with  four  furrows,  or  eight  for  twice 
ploughing.  The  four  horfe-hoeings  are  eight  fur- 
rows,  equal  to  two  ploughings. 

"  Mr  Tull  direfts  four  hoeings,  and  Mr  Forbes 
five.  Firft,  In  November,  when  the  plant  has  four 
blades.  2dly,  In  March,  deep,  and  nearer  the  rows 
than  the  former  ;  both  thefe  hoeings  fliould  be  J'ram 
the  rows,  jdly.  Hand-hoed  when  it  begins  tofpindlc, 
if  the  earth  be  crumbly,  io  the  rows.  4thly,  When 
it  begins  to  blolfoni,  fro);/  the  rows,  but  as  near  to 
them  as  in  the  fecond  hoeing.  5thly,  When  done 
bloflbming,  to  ripen  and  fill  the  grain,  to  the  rows. 

"  The  lad;  hoeing  Mr  Tull  docs  not  dircdl,  but  Mr 
Forbes  advifesir,  as  being  of  elfential  fcrvice  in  filling 
the  grain,  and  faving  trouble  in  making  the  next  feed- 
furrows.  They  advife  the  patent  or  fowing-plough 
for  horfe-hoeing;  and  the  expence  is  calculated  byMr 
Crake  at  one  guinea  per  acre,   reaping  included. 

"  But  let  us  fuppofe  the  following,  which  arc  the 
prices  in  the  county  I  live  in  (Fife). 


L. 

s. 

d. 

Ploughing  to  form  the  ridges. 

0 

4 

0 

Harrowing,              ... 

o 

0 

4 

Four  hoeings,  equal  to  two  ploughings. 

0 

8 

0 

Sowing,              -                  -               - 

0 

0 

4 

Hand-hoeing  twice, 

0 

8 

0 

Seed,   one  peck  and  a  half,  at  5s.  a  bufliel. 

0 

I 

10 

Whole  expence  per  acre,  -  L.i     2     6"       22S 

Drill  hufbandry  is,  as  a  good  writer  has  juflly  defi-  The  drill 
ned  it,  "  the  pradice  af  a  garden  brought  into  the  field."  ^"^  ''"= 
Everyman  of  the  leai't  relieL^tion  mufl  be  fenfiblc,  that  '^'■''^d"'^ 
the  praftice  of  the  garden  is  much  tetter  than  that  of  „,  ,   „„, 

'  C3  _  ni  Tt:  par* 

the  field,  only  a  little  more  cxpendvc  ;  but  if  (as  is  the  ticuhrly 
cafe)  this  extra  expence  be  generally  much  more  than  coiiijjarcd. 
repaid  by  the  fuperior  goodnefs  and  value  of  drilled 
crops,  it  ought  to  have  no  weight  in  comparing  the 
two  modes  of  hufbandry. 

3  Ju 


Part  II. 


AGRICULTURE. 


Pradice.        Ill  tl;c  broadcaft  method  the  land  is  ofttiifown  in 

' ^— ^  bad  tilth,  and  always  fcatlcrcd  at  random,  fomclimcs 

by  very  imfkili'iil  hands.  In  drilling,  the  land  muft 
be  in  fine  order;  tlic'feed  isfet  in  trenches  drawn  rc- 
j^ularly,  all  of  nearly  an  cqiKil  dcptli,  and  tliat  depth 
fuitcd  to  tlic  nature  of  each  kind  of  feed.  Thefe  feeds 
are  alfo  dillriliuted  at  proper  diltances,  xnd  by  bcinji; 
cfiually  and  fpecdily  covered,  arc  protected  from  ver- 
min and  other  injuries  ;  fo  that  the  pratlice  of  the  gar- 
den is  liere  exactly  introduced  into  the  llcld. 

In  the  broadcall  method  the  iced  falls  in  fome  pla- 
ces too  thick,  in  others  too  thin  ;  and  being  imper- 
fcftly  covered,  a  part  of  it  is  devoured  by  vermin  which 
follow  the  fowcr  j  another  part  is  left  expofcd  to  rain 
or  froft,  or  to  heats,  which  greatly  injure  it.  When 
harrowed,  a  great  part  of  it  (fiiiall  feeds  efpccially) 
is  buried  fo  deep,  that  if  the  foil  be  wet,  it  pcrilhes 
before  it  can  vegetate. 

Again  :  When  thus  fown  there  is  no  meddling  with 
the  crop  afterwards,  becaufc  its  growih  is  irregular. 
The  foil  cannot  bebroken  to  give  it  more  nourifiimcnt, 
nor  can  even  the  weeds  be  dcilroycd  without  much  in- 
convenience and  injury. 

But  in  the  drill-hulbandry  the  intervals  between 
the  rows,  whether  double  or  linglc,  may  be  horfe- 
hocdjand  thereby  nourilhnient  may  rcjieatedly  be  given 
to  the  plants,  and  the  weeds  alino/l  toiuily  deftroyed. 

The  very  fame  efieft.s  which  dig;nng  lias  upon  young 
flirubs  and  trees  in  a  garden,  wili  refuli  from  liorfe- 
hoeing  in  a  field,  whctiier  the  crop  be  corn  or  pulfe  : 
V'or  the  reafon  of  the  thing  is  the  fame  in  both  cafes, 
and  being  founded  in  nature  and  fact, cannot  ever  fail. 
In  drilling,  no  more  plants  arc  raifcd  on  the  foil  than 
u  can  well  fiipport  ;  and  by  dividing  and  breaking  the 
ground  they  have  the  full  advantage  of  all  its  fertility. 


3^-5 


The  plough  prepares  the  land  for  a  crop,  but  goes  Pra 
no  further  ;  for  in  the  broadcall  liufbandry  it  cannot  " — 
be  ufed  :  but  the  crop  receives  greater  bcnclit  from  the 
tillage  of  the  land  by  thehorfe-hoe,  while  it  is  grow- 
ing, than  it  could  in  the  preparation.  No  care  in  til- 
ling the  land  previous  to  fowing  can  prevent  weeds  ri- 
ling with  the  crop;  and  if  thefe  weeds  be  not  dcilroy- 
cd while  the  crop  is  growing,  they  will  greatly  injure 
it.  In  the  broadcaft  hulbandry  this  cannot  be  done  ; 
but  in  drilling,  the  horfe-hoc  will  effect  it  calily. 

And  what  adds  to  the  farmer's  misfortune  is,  thai 
the  mofl  pernicious  weeds  have  feeds  winged  v.iih 
down,  which  are  carried  by  the  wind  to  great  diltan- 
ces; fucharc  thirties,  fow-thiflles,  colts-foot,  and  fomc 
others. 

If  the  expcncc  of  horfc-hocing  be  objected,  there 
are  two  anfwers  u  hich  may  va-y  properly  be  made  : 
The  tirdis,  that  iliis  c:*]u-ncc1.i  mucii  lefs  than  that 
of  hand-hocing  were  it  prai^icable,  or  of  hand-weed- 
ing. Tile  fecond  is,  that  it  is  more  than  repaid  by  the 
quantity  of  feed  faved  by  drilling  ;  to  fay  nothing  of 
the  extra  quantity  and  goodnefs  of  the  crops,  which 
are  generally  felf-evidcut. 

Upon  the  whole  :  If  the  particular  modes  of  cul- 
tivating land  by  the  new  hufbandry  fliould,  after  all, 
be  coniidered  as  perhaps  too  limited  to  be  univer- 
fally  adopted  ;  yet  it  has  been  of  great  ufe  in  rai- 
fmg  fufpicionsconcerning  the  oldmethod,  and  in  turn- 
ing the  views  of  philofophersand  farmers  towards  im- 
proving in  general.  Many  real  improvements  in  agri- 
culture have  been  the  confequcnces  of  thefe  fufpicions  ; 
and  as  this  fpirit  of  inquiry  remains  in  full  vigour,  a 
folid  foundation  is  laid  for  expccling  fUll  further  im- 
provements in  this  ufcfulart. 


kgrifolium 

Vgrigcii- 
tuni. 


A    G     R 

AGRI FOLIUM,  or  A(^_ur folium.     See  Ilex. 

AGRIGENTUM,  (anc.  gcog.),  a  city  of  Sicily, 
part  of  the  lite  of  which  is  now  occupied  by  a  town 
called  Cirreuti  from  the  old  name.     See  Gircen'ti. 

According  to  ancient  authors,  Dcdalus,  the  moll  fa- 
mous mechanician  of  fabulous  antiquity,  lied  to  this 
fpot  for  proteiftion  againll  Minos,  and  built  many  won- 
derful edifices  fur  Cocalus  king  of  the  illand.  Long 
after  his  flight,  the  people  of  Gela  fcnt  a  colony  hi- 
ther 600  years  before  the  birth  of  Chrifl  ;  and  from 
thenameofancighbouringfl.-cam  called  the  new  city 
y/tragaj, whence  the  Romans  formed  their  word  y/gri- 
^i/ituM.  Thefe  Greeks  converted  the  ancient  abode 
of  the  Siculi  into  a  citadel  to  guard  the  magnificent 
city,  which  they  erecilcd  on  the  hillocks  below. 

An  advantageous  lituation,  a  free  govcrment  with 
all  its  happy  effects,  and  an  aflive  commercial  fpi- 
rit, exalted  their  commonwealth  to  a  degree  of  riches 
and  power  unknown  to  the  other  Greek  fettlements, 
Syracufe  alone  excepted.  But  the  profperity  of  Agri- 
gcnturaappears  to  havebeenbutof  Ihort  duration,  and 
tyranny  foon  deftroyed  its  liberties. 

Phalariswasthc  hrll  thai  reduced  it  to  llavcry.  His 
name  is  familiar  to  moll  readers  on  account  of  his 
cruelly,  and  the  brazen  bull  in  which  he  tortured  his 
enemies:  (See  Ph alaris.) — Phalaris  met  with  the 


A  G  R 

common  fare  of  tyrants,  and  after  his  death  the  A-  Agrigcn- 
grigentines  enjoyed  their  liberty  for  i  jojcars  ;  at  .  '"*"• 
the  expiration  of  which  term  Tlicro  ufurpcd  the  fo- 
vtreign  authority.  The  moderation,  jufticc,  and  va- 
lour of  this  prince  prcfcrvcd  him  from  oppolition 
while  living,  and  have  refcned  his  memory  from  the 
obloquy  of  pofterity.  He  joined  his  fon-in-law  Gelo, 
king  of  Syracufe,  in  a  war  againfl  the  Carthaginians  ; 
in  the  courfe  of  which  vidory  attended  all  his  ftcps, 
and  Sicily  law  herielf  for  a  time  delivered  from  her 
African  opprcfTions.  Soon  after  his  deccai'e,  his  fon 
Thrafydeus  wasdefpoiied  of  the  diadem,  and  .Agrigen- 
tum  reflored  to  her  old  democralicalgovernnent.  Du- 
cetinsncxt  dillurbed  the  general  tranquillity.  He  was 
achiefof  themountainecrs,  defccndantsof  the  Siculi  : 
and  wasan  overmatch  for  the  Agrigcntincs  while  they 
were  unfupported  by  alliances,  but  fa'nk  under  the 
weight  of  thtir  union  with  the  Sy racufans.  Sonic  tri- 
fling altercations  dilTolvcd  this  union,  and  produced  a 
war,  in  which  the  Agrigcntincs  were  worftcd,  and 
compelled  to  fubmit  tohumiliating  terms  of  peace.  Rc- 
fcntment  led  them  to  embrace  wit)',  joy  the  propofalsof 
the  Athenians,  then  meditating  an  attack  upon  Syra- 
cufe. Their  new  friends  foon  made  thein  feel  that  the 
iacrifice  of  liberty  and  fortune  would  be  the  price  of 
their  protedion  ;  and  this  coulidcration  brought  them 

fjitcdily 


A  G  R 


[     326     ] 


A  G  R 


Agripeii-    fpecdily  back  to  thtir  old  coiineclions.     But  as  if  it 
turn.       had  been  dccrted  that  all  t'ricndlliii)  Ihould  be  I'atal  to 

■"— ^^ their  rejiore,  the  reconciliation  and  its  ertccts  drew  up- 
on them  the  angir  ol'thc  Carthaginians,  iiy  this  ene- 
my their  aruiics  were  routed,  tneir  city  taken,  their 
r<ce  almolt  extirpated,  and  fcarcea  veltige  ofniagnili- 
ccncc  was  Ict't.  Agrigentuui  lay  50  years  buried  under 
its  own  ruins  ;  when  I'iniuleon,  alter  trimnpliingover 
the  Carthagiiiians,  and  rcuoring  liberty  to  Sicily,  col- 
lected the  defccndauts  of  the  Agrigeiuincs,  and  leiu 
them  tore-cdabiilh  llit  dwellings  of  tiieir  forefathers. 
Their  exerlions  were  rewarded  with  allonilhing  fuc- 
cefs  ;  for  Agrigeiituni  rofe  from  its  alhcs  with  fuch  a 
renewal  of  vigour,  tliat  in  a  very  Ihort  time  we  find  it 
engaged  in  the  bold  fchenic  of  feizinga  lucky  moment, 
Nvhen  Agathocles  and  Carthage  had  reduced  Syracui'e 
to  the  lowed  ebb,  and  arrogating  to  itfelf  fupremacy 
overall  the  Sicilian  republics.  Xenodicus  was  appoint- 
ed the  leader  of  this  arduous  cnterprife  ;  and  had  his 
latter  operations  been  as  fortunate  as  his  firll  campaign, 
Agrigentum  would  have  acquired  fuch  a  preponderance 
o('  reputation  and  power,  that  the  rival  llates  would 
not  even  have  dared  to  attack  it.  But  a  few  brilliant 
exploits  w  ere  fucceeded  by  a  fevere  overthrow  j  flie 
Agrigciitiues  loll  courage,  difagrced  in  council,  and 
humbly  fued  for  peace  10  Agathocles.  This  common- 
wealth afterwards  took  a  Urong  part  with  Pyrrhus  ; 
and  when  he  left  Sicily  to  the  mercy  of  her  enemies, 
threw  iil'ilf  into  the  arms  of  Carthage.  During  the 
lirfl  Punic  war  Agrigentum  was  the  head-quarters  of 
the  Carthaginians,  and  was  bcfieged  by  the  Roman 
confuls,  who  after  eight  months  blockade  took  it  by 
florm.  It  neverthelefs  changed  mailers  fe veral  times 
during  the  conted  between  ihofc  rival  llates,  and  in 
every  in  (lance  fuftcrcd  moll  cruel  outrages.  After  this 
period  very  little  mention  of  it  occurs  in  hillory,  nor 
do  we  know  the  prccife  time  of  the  dellrutlion  of  the 
old  city    and    the    building  of  the  new    one.     See 

GiFCENTI. 

The  principal  part  of  the  ancient  city  lay  in  the 
vale  ;  the  piefent  town,  called  Girgcnti,  occupies  the 
mountain  on  which  the  ciiadel  of  Cocalus  Hood. 

It  was  diflicult  to  be  more  judicious  and  fortunate 
in  the  choice  of  lituation  for  a  large  city.  The 
inhabitants  W'ere  here  provided  with  every  requifite 
for  defence,  pleafure,  and  comfort  of  lite  ;  a  na- 
tural wall,  formed  by  abrupt  rocks,  prefcnted  a  flrong 
barrier  againflallailants  ;  pleafant  hills  flieliered  them 
on  three  lidcs  without  impeding  the  circulation  of  air  ; 
before  them  a  broad  plain  watered  by  the  Acragas, 
gave  admittance  to  ilic  fca-brccze,  and  to  a  noble  pro- 
fpeclof  that  awful  clement  ;  the  port  or  emporium  lay 
in  view  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  probably  ihc 
road  acrofs  the  flat  was  lined  with  gay  and  populous 
fuburbs. 

The  hofpitality  and  parade  for  which  the  Agrigen- 
tines  arc  celebrated  in  hiflory  were  fupportcd  by  an  cx- 
tenlivc  commerce  ;  by  means  of  v/hich,  the  common- 
wealth was  able  to  re(i(l  many  Ihocksof  adverlity,  and 
always  to  rife  again  v\i{h  frelh  f|lcndour.  It  was, 
however.cruihcdby  the  general  fall  of  Grecian  liberty; 
the  feeble  remnants  of  its  population,  which  had  fur- 
\ived  fo  many  calamities,  were  at  length  driven  out  of 
its  walls  by  the  Saracens,  and  obliged  to  lock  them- 


felves  up  for  fafety  among  the  bleak  and  inacceflible    Agrigen- 
rocks  of  the  prefent  city.  turn. 

At  the  iiorih-eall  an^le  of  the  ancicHt  limits,  upon  ^— ^/— 
fonie  foundations  01  large  regular  Hones,  a  church  has 
been  erected  ;  a  road  appears  hewn  in  the  folid  rock 
for  the  convenience  of  the  votaries  that  vilited  this 
temple  in  ancient  days.  It  was  then  dedicated  to  Ce- 
res and  her  daughter  Prokrpinc,  the  peculiar  patron, 
eli'es  of  Sicily.  Bilhup  fjluifc  has  fucceeded  to  their 
honours. 

At  the  fouth-cafb  corner,  where  the  ground,  riling 
gradually,  ends  in  a  bold  cmiueuce,  which  is  crowned 
with  majelUc  columns,  are  the  ruins  ot  a  temple  faid 
to  have  been  confecr.ited  to  Juno.  To  the  well  of 
this.  Hands  the  building  commonly  called  the  Temple 
of  Concord;  the  lloneof  which,  and  theother  buildings, 
is  the  fame  as  that  of  the  neighbouring  mountains  and 
clill's,  a  conglutination  of  fea-land  and  ihells,  full  of 
perforations,  of  a  hard  and  durable  texture,  and  a  deep 
reddilh  brown  colour.  This  Doric  temple  has  all  its 
columns,  entablature,  pediments,  and  wall  entire  ;  only 
part  of  the  roof  is  wanting.  It  ow(S  its  prefer  vat  ion  to 
the  piety  of  fomeChriUi.ins,  who  have  covered  half  the 
nave,  and  converted  it  into  a  church  confecrated  under 
the  invocation  of  st  Gregory,  bilhop  of  Girgenti. 

Proceeding  in  the  fame  direction,  you  walk  between 
rows  of  fcpulchres  cut  in  the  rock  wherever  it  admit- 
ted of  being  excavated  by  the  hand  of  man,  or  was  fo 
already  by  that  of  nature.  Some  malles  of  it  are  hewn 
into  the  Ihape  of  colHns  ;  others  drilled  full  of  fmall 
fquare  holes  employed  in  a  different  mode  of  interment, 
and  ferving  as  receptacles  of  urns.  One  ponderous 
piece  of  the  rock  lies  in  an  extraordinary  polition  ;  by 
the  failure  of  itsfoundation,  orthe  ihock  of  an  earth- 
quake, it  has  been  loofcned  from  the  general  quarry, 
and  rolled  down  the  declivity,  where  it  now  remains 
fupiiie  with  the  cavities  turned  upwards.  Only  a 
lingle  column  marks  the  confufed  heaps  of  mofs-grown 
ruins  belonging  to  the  temple  of  Hercules.  It  flood  on 
a  projeding  rock  above  a  chafni  in  the  ridge,  which 
was  cut  through  for  a  pali'age  to  the  emporium. 

In  the  fame  track,  over  fomc  hills,  is  lituated  the 
building  uiually  called  the  tomb  of  Thero.  It  is  fur- 
rounded  by  aged  olive-trees,  which  cad  a  wild  irregular 
Ihade  over  the  ndii.  The  edifice  inclines  to  the  pyra- 
midical  Ihape,  and  conlills  at  prefent  of  a  triple  plinth 
anda  bale  fupporting a  fquare  pcdedal  :  upon  this  plain 
folid  foundation  is  railed  afecondorder,  havinga  win- 
dow in  each  front,  and  at  each  angle  iwo  Ionic  pila- 
ders  crowned  with  an  entablature  of  the  Doric  order. 
Its  inlide  is  divided  into  a  vault,  a  ground  room,  and 
one  in  the  Ionic  dory,coninuinicaling'.vith  each  other 
by  means  of  a  fmall  internal  llaircafe. 

In  the  plain  arc  fcen  the  fragments  of  the  temple  of 
Efculapitis  ;  part  of  two  columns  and  two  piladers, 
with  an  intermediate  wall,  fupport  the  end  of  a  larm- 
houfe,and  were  probably  the  front  ofthecella.  Pur- 
fiiiiig  the  track  of  the  walls  towards  the  wed,  you  ar- 
rive at  a  fpot  which  is  covered  with  the  gigantic  re- 
mains of  the  temple  of  j  up  iter  the  Olympian,  minute- 
tely  dcfcribed  by  Diodorus  Siculus.  It  may  literally 
be  faid  that  it  hasirotone  done  left  upon  another ;  and 
it  is  barely  pollible.w'ith  the  help  of  muchconjeiflure, 
to  dilcover  the  traces  of  its  plan  and  dimenfions.  Di- 
odorus 


A  G  R 


[     327     ] 


A  G  R 


igrigen-  odorus  calls  it  the  largell  temple  in  the  whole  ilknd  : 
<:""'.  but  adds,  that  t!ie  cuUiiiiticsot  war  caiifcd  the  work  to 
grimonia  (j^.  ^[jaiicloiicd  before  tlic  roof  could  be  put  oil ;  and 
'  that  tlic  Agrigciitiiics  were  ever  after  reduced  to  fucli 
a  itaie  of  poverty  and  dependence,  that  they  never  hud 
it  in  their  power  to  iinilh  this  iuperb  monument  of  the 
taltc  and  opulence  of  their  anecllors.  Tlie  lengtliof 
this  temple  vvjs  ;7o  Greek  feet,  its  breadth  60,  and 
its  height  220,  exclulive  of  tlie  toundations  orbafemcnt 
ftory  ;  the  extent  and  fulidity  of  its  vaults  and  under- 
works were  wonderlul  ;  its  Ipacious  p.jrticocs  and  ex- 
qnifite  fculpture  were  fuited  to  the  grandeur  ot  the 
whole.  It  was  not  built  in  the  ufu^l  Ityle  of  Sicilian 
temples  with  a  cella  of  inallivc  walls  and  a  peryltile, 
but  was  delignedin  a  mixt  talte  with  lialf  columns  let 
into  the  wuUs  on  the  ontlide,  the  ialide  exhibiting  a 
plain  fur  face. 

The  next  ruin  belongs  to  the  temple  of  Caftor  and 
Pollux  ;  vegetation  has  covered  the  lower  parts  of  the 
building,  and  only  a  few  fragments  of  columns  appear 
between  the  vines.  Tliis  was  the  point  of  the  hill 
where  the  wall  llopt  on  the  brink  oi  a  large  hlh  pond 
fpokeii  of  by  Uiodoi  us  :  it  was  cut  in  the  folid  rock 
30  tcet  deep,  and  water  was  conveyed  to  it  from  tlie 
hills.  In  it  was  bred  a  great  quantity  of  lilh  for  the 
ufc  of  public  entertainments  ;  fwansand  various  other 
kinds  of  wild  fowl  fwam  along  its  furface,  lor  the  a- 
mufcmentof  the  citizens,  and  the  great  depth  of  water 
preventing  an  enemy  from  fnrpriung  the  town  on  that 
iide.  It  is  now  dry  and  nfcd  as  a  garden.  On  the 
oppolite  b.ink  are  two  tapering  columns  without  their 
capitals,  moll  happily  placed  in  a  tuft  of  carob  trees. 
Monte  Toro,  where  Hanno  encamped  with  the  Car- 
thaginian army,  befure  the  Roman  conluls  ilrew  him 
into  an  engagement  that  ruined  his  defenlive  plan,  is  a 
noble  background  to  this  picUirefque  group  of  objects. 
— '1  he  whole  fpace  comprehended  within  the  walls  of 
the  ancient  city  abounds  with  traces  of  antiquity,  foun- 
dations, brick-arches,  and  little  channels  for  the  con- 
veyance of  water  ;  but  in  no  part  are  any  ruins  that 
can  be  prefnmed  to  have  belonged  to  places  of  public 
entertainment.  This  is  the  more  extraordinary,  as  the 
Agrigcntincs  were  a  fenfual  people,  fond  oflhewsand 
Jramatic  performances,  and  the  Romans  never  dwelt 
in  any  place  long  without  introducing  their  favage 
games.  Theatres  and  amphitheatres  fecm  better  cal- 
culated than  moll  buildings  to  refill  tiie  outrages  of 
time  ,  and  it  is  furpriling  that  not  even  the  veltiges  of 
their  form  Ihould  remain  on  the  ground. 

AGRIMONIA,  Agrimony  :  a  genus  of  the  di- 
ginia  order,  belonging  to  the  dodccaiidria  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
35th  order, ^I'tt/yfo/rf-.  The  charadcrsare  thefe  :  The 
calyx  is  a  monophyllous  peranthium,  divided  into  live 
acute  fegments,  perlillent,  and  fenced  with  another 
calyx  :  The  toro/Z^  conlills  of  live  petals,  liat.andcre- 
nated  at  tlie  ends  :  "Wicfiaimna  have  ten  capillary  (ila- 
nients,  fliortcr  than  the  corolla,  and  inferted  into  the 
calyx  ;  theanthcras  arefinall,didymous,and  coinpteir- 
ed  ;  the />//////;/;«  has  a  germcn  beneath  ;  the  llyli  arc 
two,  fnnplc,  and  the  length  of  the  (lamina  :  There  is 
TM  pcricarpiiitn  ■■,  the  calyx  is  coiitraded  in  the  neck, 
and  indurated  :  The  feeds  arc  two,  and  roundilh.  Of 
this  genus  there  are  live  fpccies  enumerated  by  botani- 


cal writers  ;  but  none  of  them  have  any  remarkable  Agrimoni* 
propel  ties  except  the  two  following.  I 

apccics  a?id prof'citics.      I.    1  he  enpatoria,  or  com-    ^i"W^ 
mon  agrimony,  grows  naturally  in  fcveral  parts  of  Uri-  ' 

tain  by  the  lides  of  hedges  and  of  \\o)ds.  It 
is  eat  by  flieep  and  goats,  but  rcfufcd  by  horfes 
and  fwine.  The  Canadians  are  (aid  to  ufc  an  infulion 
of  the  root  in  burning  fevers  with  great  fuccefs.  An 
infulion  of  lix  ounces  of  the  crown  of  the  root  in  a 
quartof  boiling  water,  fweetcncd  with  hoiuy ,  and  half 
a  pint  of  it  drank  three  times  a-day,  is  an  effcdual  cure 
for  the  jaundice,  according  to  l3r  Hill.  He  advifcs 
to  begin  with  a  vomit,  afterwards  to  keep  the  belly 
folnblc,  and  to  continue  the  medicine  as  long  as  any 
fyniptoms  of  the  difcafe  remain.  It  is  faid  to  be  an 
aperient,  detergent,  and  ftren^.thencr  of  the  vifcera. 
Hence  it  is  recommended  in  fcorbutic  diforders,  in  de- 
bility and  laxity  of  the  intellines,  &c.  Digclled  in 
whey,  it  affords  an  ufeful  diet-drink  for  the  fpring- 
fealon,  not  ungrateful  to  the  palate  or  flomach.  Doc- 
tor Alllon  fays,  that  the  bell  mode  of  adminidcring 
this  herb  is  in  powder,  when  the  intention  is  to  cor- 
roborate ;  and  that  if  thus  taken  in  a  large  quantity, 
we  may  cxpecl  many  of  the  etfeiits  of  the  bark  from  it 
in  agues. 

2.  The  odorata,  or  fwect-fcented  agrimony.  This 
grows  near  four  feet  high  ;  the  leaves  have  more  pinnae 
than  the  former  ;  the  ferratures  of  the  leaves  are  alfo 
fliarper,  and,  when  handled  they  emit  an  agreeable 
odour.  The  leaves  of  this  fpccies  make  an  agreeable 
cooling  tea,  which  is  fometimcs  prefcribcd  by  phyli- 
cians  as  a  drink  for  people  in  fevers. 

Culture.  Both  thefe  fpecies  may  be  propagated  ei- 
ther by  feed,  or  by  parting  the  roots  in  autumn  when 
tile  leaves  begin  to  decay.  The  feeds  ought  alfo  to  be 
fown  in  this  fcafon  ;  for  if  kept  out  of  the  ground  till 
fpriug,  they  feldom  come  up  that  year. — Agrimony  is 
a  hardy  perennial  plant,  and  will  thrive  in  almoll  a- 
ny  foil  or  lituation  ;  but  the  plants  Ihould  not  be  pla- 
ced nearer  one  another  than  two  feet,  that  the  roots 
may  have  room  to  fpread. 

HiTUp  y^ciu.vow.     See  Eitatoril'M. 

IVater  Hemp/igri>iioi:y.     See  BinENS. 

AGRIONIA,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  feflivals  an- 
nually celebrated,  by  the  Bopotiaiis,  in  honour  of 
Bacchus.  At  thefe  felUvals,  the  women  pretended  to 
fcarch  after  Bacchus  as  a  fugitive  ;  and,  after  fonic 
time,  gave  over  their  inquiry,  faying,  that  he  was 
tied  to  the  Mufcs,  and  was  concealed  among  them. 

AGRIOPIIAGI,  in  antiq.iity,  a  name  given  to 
thofe  who  fed  on  wild  bealls.  Tl\e  word  is  Greek, 
compounded  of  «5f,oc,  "  wild,"  "  favage,"  and  *«>», 
"  I  eat."  The  name  is  given,  by  ancient  writers,  to 
certain  people,  real  or  fabulous,  faid  to  have  fed  alto- 
gether on  lions  and  panthers.  Pliny  and  Solinus  fpcak 
of  Agiiophaif!  in  Ethiopia,  and  Ptolemy  of  others  in 
India  on  this  Jide  the  Ganges. 

AGRIPPA,  in  midwifery,  a  term  applied  to  chil- 
dren, brought  forth  with  their  feet  foremoll. 

AcRiPPA  (Herod),  the  fon  of  Arillobnlus  and 
Marianine,  and  grandfon  to  Herod  the  Great,  was 
born  in  the  year  of  the  world  3997,  three  years  be- 
fore the  birth  of  our  Saviour,  and  fcven  years  be- 
fore the  vulgar  sera.     After  the  death  of  Arillobu- 


A  G 


Iv 


r  32B  ] 


A  G  R 


Agrlppi.  1"S  Iiii  fjdicr,  Jnlcplius  iiitonns  us,  tint  Ilerod  his 
^^-v/ — -  graiidiallicr  took  caie  ol'  his  Ciiucatioii,  and  fciu  liiiu 
10  Rome  to  nuke  his  court  10  Tiberius.  Tlic  em- 
peror conceivcil  a  great  alledion  for  Agrippa,  and 
I'laced  him  near  his  loii  llniUis.  Agrippa  very  loon 
won  the  graces  of  Driifiio,  and  of  the  emprefs  An- 
lonia.  But  Dr.ifus  dyiHg  I'udJciily,  all  tnol'c  who 
liad  been  iniuii  about  him  were  coinmanjcd  by  Tibe- 
rius to  withdraw  from  Rome,  Icll  the  fight  and  prc- 
feiicc  of  them  l!:ould  renew  hii  aHlicHon.  Agrippa, 
Vhohad  indulged  his  inclination  to  liberality,  wasob- 
li'Tcd  to  leave  Rome  overwhelmed  with  debts,  and  in  a 
very  poor  condition.  He  did  not  think  it  fit  to  go  to 
Jerufalem,  becaufe  he  was  not  able  to  make  a  figure 
there  fuitable  to  his  birth.  He  retired  therefore  to 
tlie  cadle  of  Mallada,  where  he  lived  rather  like  apri- 
\ate  perfon  than  a  prince.  Herod  theTctrarch,  his 
ancle,  who  had  married  Herodias  his  liller,a!lilted  him 
i'or  fume  time  with  great  gencrodiy.  He  made  him 
I'riiicipal  magillrate  of  Tiberias,  and  prcfented  him 
with  a  large  Inm  of  money  :  but  all  this  was  not  fuiii- 
lient  to  aufwer  the  cxccUtve  expenccs  and  profution 
of  Agrippa  ;  fo  that  llercd  growing  weary  of  aiTifliiig 
him,  and  reproaching  him  with  his  bad  oeconomy,  A- 
grippa  took  a  rcfolution  to  quit  Judea  and  return  to 
Rome.  Upon  his  arrival,  lie  was  received  into  the 
good  grace  of  Tiberius,  and  comtnanded  to  attend 
Tiberius  Nero  the  fon  of  Drnfus.  Agrippa,  however, 
having  more  inclination  for  Caius  the  fon  of  Germini- 
cns,  and  grandfon  of  Antonia,  chofe  rather  to  attach 
himfelf  to  him  :  as  if  he  had  fome  prophetic  views  of 
the  future  elevation  of  Caius,  who  at  that  time  was  be- 
loved by  all  the  world.  The  great  afhduity  and  agree- 
able behaviour  of  Agrippa  lo  far  engaged  this  prince, 
/      that  he  kept  him  coniinaally  about  him. 

Agrippa  being  one  day  overheard  by  Entyches,  a 
r.ave  whom  he  had  made  free,  toexprefs  his  wilhesfor 
Tiberius's  death  and  the  advancement  of  Caius,  the 
flave  betrayed  him  to  the  Emperor  ;  whereupon  A- 
grippa  was  loaded  with  fetters,  and  committed  to  the 
cuftody  of  an  o:iicer.  Tiberius  foon  after  dying,  and 
Caius  Caligula  fucceeding  him,  the  new  emperor 
heaped  many  favours  and  much  wealth  upon  Agrippa  ; 
changing  his  iron  fetters  into  a  chain  of  gold  ;  fet  a 
royal  diadem  upon  his  head  ;  and  gave  him  thetetrar- 
fliy  which  Fhilip,  the  fon  of  Herod  the  Great,  had 
been  poifeired  ot,  that  is,  Batanxa  and  Trachonitis. 
To  this  he  added  that  of  Lyfanias;  and  Agrippa  re- 
tarned  very  foon  into  Judea  to  take  polfeflion  of  his 
new  kingdom. 

Caius  being  foon  after  killed,  Agrippa  who  was 
then  at  Rome,  contributed  much  by  his  advice  to 
maintain  Claudius  in  polH:rion  of  the  imperial  dignity, 
to  which  he  had  been  advanced  by  the  army.  But  in 
this  affair  Agrippa  acted  a  part  wherein  he  Hiowed 
more  cunning  andaddrefs  than  (incerity  and  honelly  ; 
for  while  he  made  a  fhow  of  being  in  the  intcrefl  of 
the  fenate,he  fecretely  advifed  Claudiustobe  rcfblute, 
and  not  to  abandon  his  good  fortune.  The  Emperor, 
as  an  acknowledgment  for  his  kind  offices,  gave  him 
all  Judea  and  the  kingdon  of  Clialcis,  which  had  been 
poltelFed  by  Herod  his  brotlier.  Thus  Agrippa  be- 
came of  a  fudden  one  of  the  greatell  princes  of  the 
Eaft  ;  and  waspollelfed  of  as  much,  if  not  more,  ter- 
ritories than  had  been  held  by  Herod  the  Great  his 


grandfather.  He  returned  to  Judea,  and  governed  it  Aprlnp! 
to  the  great  fatisfaelion  of  the  Jews.  But  the  delire  — -v — 
of  pleating  them,  and  amitfaken  zeal  forthtir  religion, 
induced  liiiii  to  commit  an  unjullactioiijilic  memory  of 
which  is  I'rel'erved  in  Scripture,  Attsxii.  i,  2,  &c.  lor 
aboutthcfcaftolilie  paliover,in  theycar  of  JelusChrift 
44,  St  James  major,  the  fon  of  Zebedee  and  brother  to 
St  John  the  Evangelilt,  was  fcizcd  by  his  order  and 
put  to  death.  He  proceeded  alio  to  lay  hands  on  St 
J'etcr,  and  imprilbned  him,  waiting  till  the  fcflival  was 
over,  that  he  might  then  lia\e  him  executed.  But 
God  having  miraculoully  delivered  St  Peter  from  the 
place  of  his  confinement,  the  deiigns  of  Agrippa  were 
fruflratcd.  After  the  pailbver,  this  prince  went  from 
Jerufalcni  toCsfarea,  and  there  had  games  performed 
in  honour  of  Claudius.  Here  the  inhabitants  of  Tyre 
and  Sid  on  waited  on  him  to  fuc  for  peace.  Agrippa 
being  come  early  in  the  morning  to  the  tlieatre,  with 
a  delign  to  give  them  audience,  feated  himfelf  on  his 
tlironc,  drelled  in  a  robeof  lilvcr- tilliie,  worked  in  the 
mofl  admirable  manner.  The  riling  fun  dartedonic 
with  its  rays,  and  gave  it  fuch  a  luftre  as  the  eyes  oi 
the  fpetSators  could  not  endure.  When  tl\erefore  the 
king  fpoke  to  the  Tyrians  andSidonians,  the  parafites 
around  him  began  to  lay,  that  it  was  the  voice  ofi 
god,  and  not  that  of  a  mall.  Inflead  of  rejedling  thefe 
impious  flatteries,  Agrippa  received  them  with  an 
air  of  complacency  ;  l)ut  at  the  fame  time  obferved  an 
owl  above  him  on  a  cord.  He  had  feen  the  fame  bird 
before  when  he  was  in  bonds  by  order  of  Tiberius  ; 
and  it  was  then  told  him,  that  he  Ihould  be  foon  fet 
at  liberty  :  but  that  whenever  he  faw  the  fame  thing  a 
fecond  time,  he  fhould  not  live  above  five  days  after- 
wards. He  was  therefore  extremely  terrified ;  and  he 
died  at  the  end  of  five  days,  racked  with  tormenting 
pains  in  his  bowels,  and  devoured  with  worms.  Such 
was  the  death  of  Herod  Agrippa,  after  a  reign  of  feven 
years,  in  the  year  of  Chrift  44. 

Agrippa  II.  fon  of  the  preceding  Herod,  was  made 
king  of  Chalcide  ;  but  three  or  four  years  after,  he 
was  deprived  of  that  kingdom  by  Claudius,  who  gave 
him  in  the  place  of  it  other  provinces.  In  the  war  Vef- 
pafian  carried  on  againfl  the  Jews.  Herod  fent  him  a 
fuccour  of  2000  men  ;  by  which  it  appears,  that  tho'  a 
Jewbyreligion,  yet  he  was  entirely  devoted  to  the  Ro- 
mans, whole  afliilancc  he  indeed  wanted,  to  fecurc  the 
peace  of  hisown  kingdom.  He  lived  to  the  third  year 
of  Trajan,  and  died  at  Rome  A.  C.  100.  He  was  the 
fcventh  andlall  kingofthe  familyof  Herod  the  Great. 
It  was  before  him  and  Berenice  his  lifter,  that  St  Paul 
pleaded  his  caiife  atCasfarea. 

Agrippa  (Marcus  Vefpanius)  fon-in-lawto  Augu- 
ftus,  of  mean  birth,  but  one  of  the  moR  confiderable 
generalsamong  the  Romans.  Auguftus'sviftory  over 
Pompey  and  Mark  Anthony  was  owing  to  hiscounfel : 
he  adorned  the  city  with  the  pantheon,  baths,  aque- 
dudls.  Sec. 

Agrippa  (Cornelius),  born  at  Cologne  in  i486,  a 
man  of  confiderable  learning,  and  by  common  report 
a  great  magician  ;  for  themonksat  that  timefufpeded 
every  thingofherefyor  forcery  which  they  did  not  un- 
derlland.  He  compofed  his  Trtatife  on  the  Excellence 
of  IVon/en,  to  inlinuate  himfelf  into  the  favour  of  Mar- 
garet of  Auftria,  governcfs  of  the  Low-Countries.  He 
acceptcdof  the  charge  of  hifloriographcr  to  the  empe- 
ror. 


A  G  R 


r  329  ] 


A  G  R 


grippioa 

I 

2ro 


ror,  which  thati>riiiccfs  gave  him.  The  treatifc  of  ihe 
Vanity  of  the  Sc!:!;c:s,  which  he  publilhed  in  I J  30,  en- 
rtema.  raged  his  enemies  extremely  ;  asdiJthatof  Ocfv//  Phi- 
"'"""  Icfoi'hj,  whi-rh  lie  printed  loon  after  at  Antwerp.  He 
was  imprifoncd  in  France  for loniething  he  had  written 
againft  Francis  1. 'smother;  but  was  enlarged,  and  went 
to  Grenoble,  where  he  died  in  1534.  jrlis  works  arc 
printed  in  two  volumes  octavo. 

AGRIPPINA,  daughter  of  Gerraanicus,  fifter  of 
Caligula,  and  mother  of  Nero  j  a  woman  of  wit,  b.it 
exceifively  Icud.  She  was  thrice  married,  thelall  time 
to  Claudius  her  own  uncle,  whom  (he  poifoned  to  make 
way  for  Nero  her  fon,  Nero  afterward  caufcd  her 
to  be  murdered  in  her  chamber,  when  ihe  bid  the  ex- 
ecutioner ftab  her  tirA  in  the  belly  thai  had  brought 
forth  fuch  a  monfler. 

Agrippina  colonia  ubiorum  (anc.geog.),  now 
Coiogue  :  fo  called  from  Agrippina,  the  daughter  of 
Germanici'.s,  and  mother  of  Nero,  who  had  a  colony 
fent  thither  at  her  requelt  by  the  emperor  Claudius, 
to  honour  the  place  of  her  birth.  See  Cologne. 

AGIIIPPINIANS,  in  churchhiRory,  the  followers 
of  Agrippinus  biihop  of  Carthage,  in  the  third  centu- 
ry, who  tirfl  introduced  and  defended  the  pradice  of 
re-baptization. 

AGROM,  a  uifeafc  fre<iiient  in  Bengal  and  other 
pans  of  the  Indies,  wherein  the  tongue  chaps  and 
cleaves  in  fcveral  placcs,bcingextremelyrough  withal, 
and  fometinies  covered  with  white  fpots.  The  Indians 
are  very  fearful  of  this  difcafc,  which  they  attribute 
to  extreme  heat  of  the  (lomach.  Their  remedy  is,  to 
drink  fome  chalybeate  liquor,  or  ih    niiccofmint. 

AGROSTK.MA,  Wild  Lvchn'  r  Campion  : 
A  genus  of  the  pentagynia  order,  Belonging  to  the  de- 
candria  clafs  of  plants ;  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  2 2d  order,  CaryophytUt.  The  cha- 
rafters  are  :  The  coiyx  is  a  finglc-liavcd  perianthium, 
leathery,  tubular,  iiuinquedcntated,  and  pcrlifteiu  : 
The  corolla  confillsof  five  ungulated  petals  :  The//^- 
inina  have  ten  fubulated  filaments  ;  the  antherje  are 
fimplc  :  The  ;>///////<?«  has  an  egg-lhaptd  gcrmen;  the 
ftyli  arc  five,  filiform,  erert,  and  the  length  of  the 
llatnina  ;  the  ftigmata  arc  fimple  :  TXxt. psricarfiinu  is 
an  oblong  covered  capfulc,  having  two  cells  and  five 
valves  :  "i\\c  fcedi  arc  numerous  and  kidney  ihapcd  ; 
the  receptacula  arc  as  many  as  the  feeds,  the  interior 
ones  gradually  longer. 

Species.  The  moil  remarkable  are,  1,  The  githago, 
liairy  wild  lychnis,  or  common  campion,  which  grows 
naturally  in  corn-fields  iu  moft  parts  of  Britain.  The 
flowers  appear  in  June,  are  generally  purple,  fomc- 
times  white,  and  by  cultivation  yellow. 

2.  The  corouaria,  or  finglc-rofe  csmpion.  Of  this 
fpecics  there  arc  four  varieties  ;  one  with  deep  red, 
another  witli  rtelh-cc)loured,a  third  with  white  Howcrs: 
and  a  fort  with  double  flowers,  which  has  turned  mofl 
of  the  otliers  out  of  the  gardens. 

5.  The  flosjovis,or  umbelliferous  mountain-campion, 
grows  naturally  upon  the  Helvetian  mountains.  It  is 
a  low  plant  wirh  woolly  leaves  :  the  Howcr-ftem  riles 
near  a  foot  high  ;  the  flowers  grow  in  umbels  on  the 
top  of  the  flalk,  and  are  of  a  bright  red  colour.  They 
appear  in  July,  and  the  feeds  ripen  in  September. 

Culture,     The    firrt  and  third  fpecics  arc  annual 
plants,  fo  muft  be  propagated  by  feeds  ;  bat  as  the 
Vol.  I. 


firil  is  found  naturally  in  corn-fields,  it  is  very  feldom 
cultivated  in  gardens  ;  the  third  fort  fliould  have  a 
lliady  fituation,  and  thrives  bell  in  a  Itrong  foil.  The 
fccond  fpccies  is  perennial,  but  only  iliofe  varieties 
which  have  fingle  tioweri  produce  any  feeds  ;  the  dou- 
ble kind,  therefore,  as  it  produces  no  feeds,  muft  be 
propagated  by  paning  the  roots  in  autumn,  after  the 
rlowers  arc  pad.  In  doin^  this,  every  head  which  can 
be  liipped  otf  with  roots  (nouid  be  parted  :  thcfe  (houij 
be  planted  ia  a  border  of  frcfn  undunged  earth,  at  the 
diftance  of  lix inches  one  from  the  other,  obferving  to 
water  them  gently  until  they  have  taken  root  ;  after 
which  they  will  require  no  more  ;  for  much  wet  is  ve- 
ry injurious  to  them,  as  is  alio  dung.  In  :his  border 
they  may  remain  till  fpring,  when  they  (hould  be  plant- 
ed in  the  borders  of  the  tiower-gardcn,  where  they 
will  be  very  ornamental  during  the  lime  of  their  tiow- 
ering,  which  is  in  July  and  Auguil. — This  plant  is 
eat  by  horfes,  goats,  and  fnccp. 

AGROSTIS,  iJENT-cRAss,  in  botany:  A  genus  of 
the  triandria  order,  belonging  totiie  digynia  clafs  of 
plants;  and,  in  the  natural  method,  raukingunder  the 
4th  order,  Crumina.  The  characters  are  :  The  calye 
is  a  one-fiowered,  two-valvtd,  pointed  gluma,  rather 
lefs  than  the  corolla.  The  corolla  is  two-valved  and. 
pointed.  The  jl a r/i i/i a  hdye  three  capillary  filaments, 
which  are  larger  than  the  corolla.  Tiie  anthtrx  are 
forked.  The  pifiilluM  hasa  mundiih  genncn  ;  the  fty- 
li  are  tvvo,  reflected,  and  villous  ;  the  ftigmata  hifpcd 
longiuidinafly.  The  p^-ncarpiuw  is  the  corolla  grow- 
ing to  the  feed,  not  gaping.  The  fitd'\%  one,  globu- 
lar, and  pointed  at  both  ends.  1  here  aje  15  fpccies  ; 
eight  of  them  natives  of  Britain. 

AGROSTOGRAPHIA,  fignifies  the  hiftory  or 
dcfcription  of  gralies.     Sec  Grass. 

AGROUND,  the  fituation  of  a  Ihip  whofc  bottom, 
or  any  part  of  it,  hangs,  or  rclls  upon  the  ground,  fo 
as  to  render  licr  immoveable,  till  a  greater  quantity  of 
water  floats  her  oS,  or  till  fiie  is  drawn  out  into  the 
ftream  by  the  application  of  mechanical  powers. 

AGRYPNIA,  among  phylicians,  implies  an  inapti- 
tude to  lleep  ;  a  troublefome  fymptom  of  fcverilh  and 
other  diforders. 

Agrvpn'ia,  in  the  Greek  church,  implies  the  vigil 
of  any  of  the  greater  felUvals. 

AGUE,  a  general  name  for  all  periodical  fevers, 
which,  according  to  the  ditFcrent  times  of  the  returns 
of  the  feveriih  paroxyfm,  are  denominated  tertian, 
quartian,  and  quotidian.  Sec  iMF.DiciNE  (Index.) 

AovK-Caki,  the  popular  name  lor  a  hard  tumour  011 
the  leftfideof  the  belly,  lower  than  the  falfe  ribs,  Ciid 
to  be  the  cfJeCl  of  intermitting  levers. 

Aoi-K-Tnty  a  name  given  to  the  falTafras,  on  ac- 
count of  its  febrifuge  qualities. 

AGUEPERSE,  a  town  of  France,  fituated  on  the 
Lyonnois,  about  15  miles  north  of  Clermont. 

AGUILLANEUF,  or  Augi'ili.aneof,  a  form  of 
rcjoici.i  J  nfcd  among  the  ancient  Franks  on  the  nr'.l 
day  of  the  year.  The  word  is  compounded  of  the 
French  .V  '« to,"  »///  "  milleto,"  and  fan  tnuj  "  the 
ncwycar."  Its  origin  is  traced  from  adruid-ceremo- 
ny  :  the  priefts  ufcdtogo  yearly  in  December,  which 
with  them  was  reputed  afacred  month,  to  gather  miilcto 
of  the  oak  in  great  folcmnity.  The  prophets  marched 
iii  the  front,  linging  hymns  in  honour  of  their  dcitifs;: 
T  t  after 


A  G  U  [     3s 

aftertlicm  cainc  a  herald  with  a  citUiccus  in  his  hand  j 
tlicfc  v.crc  followed  by  ihrcs  dniids  a-brca(l,  bearing 
ihe  tilings  ncceli'ary  ior  i'acriticc  ;  lall  ot' ail  came  the 
chief  or  arch  driud,  acconqianied  with  the  train  ot 
people.  The  chief  driiid  climbing  the  oak,  cut  off  the 
milleto  with  a  golden  fickle,  and  the  other  druids  re- 
ceived it  in  a  w  hite  cloth  ;  on  the  lirft  day  of  the  year 
it  wasdiftributedaniong  the  people,  sucr  having  blef- 
fed  and  confecrated  it  by  crying  yiguij'aii  tisiij,  to 
proclaim  the  new  year.  Ihis  cry  isllill  continued  in 
Picardy,  with  the  addition  of  Plantiz,  Planttz,  to 
will)  a  plentiful  year.  In  Burgundy  and  fomc  other 
parts,  the  children  ufe  tlie  fame  word  to  beg  a  new- 
year's  gift.  Of  later  times  the  name  Jgt!illa>ieuf\\3.i 
alfo  given  to  a  fort  of  begging,  pradifed  in  fome  dio- 
cefcs,  for  church-tapers,  on  new-ycar"sday,  by  a  troop 
of  young  people  of  both  fexes,  having  a  chief,  &c. 
It  was  attended  with  various  ridiculous  ceremonies,  as 
danciniMn  the  cluirch,&c.  which  occafioucd  the  fy nods 
to  fupprefs  it. 

AGUILLAll,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  rhe  province  of 
Isavarre,  about  24  miles  weft  of  Eflella. 

j^oviLL/iK  DdCampo,  a  town  of  Old  Caftile,  with 
the  title  of  marquifate,  about  15  leagues  north  of  the 
city  of  Burgos. 

AGUILLONIUS  (Francis),  ajefuit,  born  at  Bruf- 
fels  :  he  was  reftor  of  the  Jefuits  college  at  Antwerp, 
and  eminent  for  his  (kill  in  mathematics.  He  was 
the  firft  who  introduced  that  icicnce  among  th  e  Jefuits 
in  ihelow  countries:  he  wrote  a  book  of  Optics,  and 
was  employed  in  tinifliinghis  Catoptrics  and  Dioptrics, 
when  death  prevented  him  in  1617. 

AGUIRRA  (Jofcph  Sasnz  de),  a  Benedictine,  and 
one  ofthe  mod  learned  men  in  the  i7;h  century,  was 
born  March  24.  1650.  He  was  cenfor  and  fecretary 
of  the  fupremc  council  of  the  inquifition  in  Spain,  and 
interpreter  of  the  fcriptures  in  the  univcrJity  of  Sala- 
manca. He  printed  three  volumes  in  folio  upon  Phi- 
lofophy,  a  commentary  upon  Ariilotlc's  ten  books  of 
tthics,  and  other  pieces.  He  died  at  Rome  Augull 
19.  1699. 

AGUL,  in  botany,  a  fynonime  of  the  hedyfarura. 
See  Hedysarum. 

AGUR.  The  xxxth  chapter  of  the  Proverbs  be- 
gins with  this  title:  "The  words  of  Agur,  the  fon 
ofjakeh;"  which,  according  to  the  fignification  of 
the  original  terms,  may  be  iranflatcd,  as  the  Vulgate 
has  it.  Verba  coiigrcgahtis,  filii  vomcntis  ;  w  hich  tranf- 
lation  LeClerc  condemns,  fuppofing  thefe  to  be  pro- 
per names,  wliich  ouglit  no:  to  be  tranllated.  Thefe 
words  are  rendered  by  Lewis  de  Dieu  :  "  The  words 
of  him  who  has  recollected  himfelf,  the  fon  of  obedi- 
ence." The  generality  of  the  fathers  and  commen- 
tators will  have  it,  that  Solomon  dcfcribeshimlelt  un- 
der the  name  of  Agur  the  fon  of  Jakeh  ;  others  con- 
jecture tliat  Agur, as  w^ell as  Lemuel  (iuchap.  xxxi.i.) 
were  wife  men  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Solomon,  and 
were  his  interlocutors  in  the  book  of  Proverbs  ;  an  opi- 
nion whicii  K.  Calmet  thinks  is  without  the  lealf  Ihew 
of  probability,  this  book  being  nothing  like  a  dia- 
logue. This  lad  expofnor  thinks  it  probable,  that 
Agur  was  an  infpired  author  difFcrenl  from  Solomon, 
vhofe  fentences  it  was  thought  fit  to  join  with  thofe  of 
this  prince,  bccaufe  of  tlie  conformity  of  their  mat- 
ter. 


o     ]  AHA 

AGURAH,  in  Jewifh  antiquity,  the  name  of  a 
ftlvcr  coin,  otiierwife  called  ^t-r/e/j  and  kijhita. 

AGURIUM,  orAcvRiuM  (aiic.  geng.),  a  town 
of  Sicily  in  the  Val  di  Demona,  near  the  river  Scme- 
tus.  The  people  were  called  Populus  Agyrnieiifn  by 
Cicero  j  y^gyrinus  by  Pliny.  It  was  the  birth-place  of 
DiodorusSiculus,ashc  himfelf  teftifies ;  but  he  calls  it 
Argyrium,  as  it  is  now  called  S.  Philipfo  d' Argiroiie, 
which  modern  name  feems  toconfirm  that  Argyrium'is 
the  true  reading. 

AGUSADURA,  in  ancient  cufloms,  a  fee  due 
from  vall'als  to  their  lord  for  the  fharpening  their 
ploughing  tackle.  Anciently  the  tenants  in  fomc  ma- 
nors were  not  allowed  to  have  their  rural  implements 
fluirpened  by  any  but  whom  the  lord  appointed  ;  for 
which  an  acknow  ledgement  was  to  be  paid,  called  Agri- 
jadura,  in  fome  places  Agufagc  :  which  fome  take  to 
be  the  fame  with  what  was  otherwifc  called  Ki-illage, 
from  the  ancient  French  reilli,  a  ploughdiare. 

AGUTI,  in  zoology,  the  trivial  name  of  a  fpecies 
of  the  moufc,  belonging  to  the  mammalia  glires  of 
Linn-jsus.     See  Mus. 

AGYEI,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  obelifks,  facred 
to  Apollo,  crcded  in  the  vcflibles  of  houfcs,  by  way 
of  lecurity. 

AGYNIANI,  in  church-hiflory,  a  fed  who  con- 
demned all  ufe  of  riefli,  and  marriage,  as  notinftituted 
by  God,  but  introduced  at  the  inftigation  of  the  devil. 
The  word  is  compounded  of  the  privative  «  and  >i<y» 
iDonian.  They  are  fometimes  alfo  called  y^/««^«yji, and 
Agynii ;  zw^iXQ.  faid  to  have  appeared  about  the  year 
694. It  was  no  wonder  th  eywereof  no  long  continuance. 
Their  tenets  coincide  in  a  great  meafure  wiih  thofe  of 
the  Abelians.Gnoftics,  Cerdonians,  and  other  preach- 
ers of  challity  and  abitineuce. 

AGYRT.*;,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  ftrolling  im- 
poflors  running  about  the  country,  to  pick  up  money 
by  telling  fortunes  at  rich  mens  doors,  pretending  to 
cure  diieafcs  bycharms,  facrifices,  and  other  religious 
mylleries  ;  alfo  to  expiate  the  crimes  of  their  deceafcd 
anceflors,by  virtue  of  certain  odours  and  fumigations  ; 
to  torment  their  enemies,  by  the  ufe  of  magical  vcrfes 
and  the  like.  The  word  is  Greek  A>i;f  rat,  formed  of 
the  verb  a>i/fa,  1  congregate  ;  alluding  to  the  praflice 
of  Charletans,  who  gather  a  crowd  about  them. 

Agyrta,  among  the  Greeks,  amount  to  the  fame 
with  JErufcatores  among  the  Latins,  and  differ  not 
much  from  Gypfies  in  Britain. 

AHAB,  fon  of  Omri  king  of  Ifrael,  fucceedcd  his 
father  A.  M.  5086,  and  furpafled  all  his  predecefTors 
in  impiety  and  wickednefs.  He  married  Jezebel  the 
daughter  of  Ethbaal  king  of  the  Zidonians,  who  in- 
troduced the  idols  of  Baal  and  Aftarte  among  the  If- 
raclites,  and  engaged  Ahab  in  the  worfliip  of  thefe 
falfe  deities.  God,  being  provoked  by  the  fins  of 
Ahab,  feat  the  prophet  Elijah  to  hioi  (i  Kings  xvii, 
i,feq.)  who  declared  to  him,  that  there  wouki  be  a 
famine  of  three  years  continuance.  The  dearth  liaving 
lafted  three  years,  the  prophet  defired  Ahab  to  gather 
all  the  people  10  mount  Carmel,  and  with  them  the 
prophets  of  Baal :  when  they  were  thus  alFcmbled,  Eli- 
jah caufed  fire  to  defcend  from  heaven  upon  his  facri- 
fice,  after  w-hich  he  obtained  of  God  that  it  fhould  rain; 
and  then  the  earth  recovered  its  former  fertility. 
Six  years  after  this,  Ben-hadad  king  of  Syria  (chap. 

(xx. 


A  HA  [     33 

.\ht\h.     XX.)  laid  ficge  to  Jcrufalcm.     Bat  God,  provoked  at 

— V '  this  proud  Syrian,  fcnc  a  prophet  to  Ahab,  not  only 

to  afliire  him  a  vidory,  but  to  inllrud  him  likcwilc 
in  what  manner  he  was  to  obtain  it.  Ahab  was  order- 
ed to  review  the  princes  of  the  provinces,  which  he 
found  to  be  a  choice  company  coulilting  of  252  young 
men,  who  were  to  command  the  people  in  Samaria, 
amounting  to  about  7000  men  :  with  this  fmall  army 
Ahab  was  directed  to  fall  upon  the  great  hoft  of  the 
Syrians,  and  that  at  noon-d.iy,  while  Ben-hadad  and 
the  52  kings  that  accompanied  him  were  drinking  and 
making  merry.  Ben-hadad  having  notice  that  they 
were  marching  out  of  the  city,  ordered  them  to  be 
broughtbefore  him  alive, whatcverthcirdefigns  were: 
but  the  young  men,  followed  by  this  fmall  army,  ad- 
vanced, and  killed  all  that  oppofed  them,  fuch  a  par 
nic  feized  the  Syrian  troops,  that  they  began  to  tly  ; 
and  even  Ben-hadad  himfelf  mounted  his  horfe  and  fled 
uiih  his  cavalry  ;  which  Ahab  perceiving,  purfued 
them,  killed  great  numbers  of  them,  and  took  a  con- 
fidcrable  booty.  After  this  the  prophet  came  to  Ahab, 
to  animate  him  with  frelli  courage,  and  to  caution  him 
to  keep  upon  his  guard  ;  alFuring  him,  that  Ben-hadad 
would  return  againfl  him  the  year  following.  Ac- 
cording to  this  prediftion,  at  the  end  of  the  year  he 
returned  and  encamped  at  Aphek,  with  a  refolution 
to  give  the  Ifraelitcs  battle.  Both  armies  being  ranged 
inordcr  of  battle  for  feven  days  Aiccelfively,  at  length, 
upon  the  fcventh  day,  a  battle  cnfued,  wherein  the  If- 
raelites  killed  100,000  of  the  Syrians,  and  the  relt  fled 
to  Aphek;  but  as  they  were  prciling  to  get  into  the 
city,  the  walls  of  Aphek  fell  upon  them  and  killed 
27,ooomore.  Ben-hadad  throwing  himfelf  upon  the 
mercy  of  Ahab,  this  prince  received  him  into  his  own 
chariot,  and  made  an  alliance  with  him.  The  year 
following,  Ahabdefiring  to  make  a  kitchen-garden  near 
his  palace  (chap,  xxi.),  requefted  of  one  Naboth,  a 
citizen  of  Jezreel,  that  he  would  fell  him  his  vineyard, 
bccaufe  it  lay  convenient  for  him.  But  being  refufcd, 
he  returned  in  great  difcontentmcnt  to  his  houfe, 
threw  himfelf  upon  the  bed,  turned  towards  the  wall, 
and  would  cat  nothing.  Jezebel  his  wife  coming  in, 
aflced  the  reafon  of  his  great.concern  ;  of  which  being 
infornied,  Ihe  procured  the  death  of  Naboth,  and  Ahab 
took  poU'eflion  of  his  vineyard.  As  he  returned  from 
Jezreel  to  Samaria,  the  prophet  Elijah  met  him,  and 
laid,  "  Hafl  thou  killed  and  alfo  taken  poiiclhon  ?  Now 
faith  the  Lord,  in  the  place  where  dogs  licked  up  the 
blood  of  Naboth,  (liall  dogs  lick  thy  blood,  even  thine. 
As  for  Jezebel,  of  her  the  Lord  fpakc,  hying,  "  The 
dogs  lliall  eat  Jezebel  by  the  wallof  Jczrtel."  Aliab, 
hearing  thefe  and  other  denunciations, rent  hisclothes, 
putfuckcloth  ikpon  hisflelh,  and  gaveoiher  indications 
of  his  forrow  and  repentance.  But  his  repentance  was 
neither  lincerc  nor  perfevering.  Two  years  after  thefc 
things,  Jehollupiiat  kingof  Judah  came  to  Samaria 
to  viiit  Ahab  (chap,  xxii.)  at  a  time  uhcn  he  was 
preparing  to  attack  Ramoth-gilead,  which  Ben-hadad 
king  (if  Syria  u'juflly  with-held  from  him.  The 
king  of  Ifrael  invited  Jchofh.iphat  to  accompany  him 
in  his  expedition;  which  that  princi  agreed  'o  do, 
but  dcfired  that  fonic  prophet  mi^hl  lirll  be  eonfiltcd. 
AhabthtrcforeaircmbkdtheprophcisofBa.il,  inn  jm- 
ber about  400;  who  all  concurred  in  exhorting  the'.. iiisj 
lomarchrcfoliitelya-aiiilllUmoth-gilead.  BuiMicaiah 


I    ]  AHA 

being  alfo  confiilted,  at  Jehoftiaphat's  fuggeflion,  pro- 
phcficd  tiic  ruinof  Ahab.  Upon  this,  Ahab  gave  orders 
to  his  people  to  fieze  Micaiab,and  to  carry  him  to  Anion 
the  governor  of  the  city,  and  to  Joalh  the  king's  fon  ; 
telling  them  in  his  name,  <<  Fut  this  fellow  in  prifon, 
and  feed  him  with  the  bread  of  allliction,  and  with  the 
water  of  aHliciion,  until  1  conic  in  peace."  But  Mi- 
caiah  faid,  "  If  thou  return  at  all  in  peace,  the  Lord 
hath  not  fpokcnbyme."  Ahab  therefore  and  Jeholha- 
phat  marched  up  to  Ramoth-gilead  ;  and  the  king  of 
ifrael  faiduntojcholhaphat,  I  willdifguife  myfelf,  and 
enter  into  the  battle,  but  put  thou  on  thy  robes  :"  for 
he  knew  that  the  kingof  Syria  had  commanded  two  and 
thirty  captains  ihat  had  rule  over  his  chariots,  faying, 
"  FighLneither  with  fmall  nor  with  great,  favc  only 
with  the  king  of  Ilrack)^'  Thefe  officers  therefore  ha- 
ving obferved  that  Jehofliaphat  was  drelFed  in  royal 
robes,  took  him  for  the  king  of  Ifrael,  and  fell  upon 
him  with  great  im  pet  uolity:  but  I  his  prince  feeing  him- 
felf prelTcd  fo  clofely,  cried  out ;  and  the  miilake  be- 
ing difcovered,  the  captains  of  the  king  of  Syria  gave 
over  purfuing  him.  But  one  of  the  Syrianarmy  lliot  a 
random  arrow  which  pierced  the  heart  of  Ahab.  The 
battle  lailed  the  wliole  day,  and  Ahab  continued  in  his 
chariot  with  his  face  turned  towards  the  Syrians.  In 
the  mean  time,  his  blood  was  ftill  ilfuing  from  his 
wound,  and  falling  in  his  chariot ;  and  towards  the 
evening  he  died  :  whereupon  proclamation  was  made 
by  found  of  trumpet,  that  every  man  fliould  return  to 
his  own  city  and  country.  The  king  of  Jfrael  being 
dead  was  carried  to  Samaria  and  biiried  ;  but  his  cha- 
riot and  the  reins  of  hishorfes  w-ere  waflicd  in  the  H(h- 
pool  of  Samaria,  and  the  dogs  licked  his  blood,  ac- 
cording to  the  word  of  the  prophet.  Such  being  the  . 
end  of  Ahab;  his  fon  Ahaziah  facceeded  him,  in  the 
year  of  the  world  3107.  ■ 

.AH..^TULA,  the  trivial  name  of  a  fpecics  of  the 
coluber.     See  Coluber. 

AHASUERUS,  or  Artaxerxes,  the  hulband  of 
Efther  ;  and  according  to  archbirtiopUlherand  F.  Cal- 
met,  the  feripture  name  for  Darius,  the  fon  of  Hy  ftaf- 
pes,  kingofPtrfia  ;  though  Scaliger  will  have  Xerxes 
to  be  the  hulband  of  Either,  or  th*^  Ahafuerus  of  ferip- 
ture ;  and  Dr  Prideaux  believes  him  to  be  Arta.xcrxes 
Longinianus.     See  Hrltory  of  Persia. 

AH.AZ.  king  of  Judah,  the  fon  of  Jothani,  re- 
markable for  his  vices  and  i:npieties.  One  of  his  fons 
he  conftcratcd,  by  making  him  pals  through  and  pc- 
rilh  by  the  lire,  in  honour  of  the  falfe  godMo'.och  ; 
and  he  offered  facritiecs  and  incenfe  upon  the  high 
places,  upon  hills,  and  in  groves.  Rczin  king  of  Sy- 
ria and  Pekah  king  of  Ifrael  invaded  Judea  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  reign  of  Ahaz;  and  having  defeated 
his  army  and  pillaged  the  country,  they  laid  liege  to 
Jtrufalem.  When  they  found  that  they  coidd  not 
make  thcmfelves  mallersof  that  city  .they  divided  their 
army,  plundered  the  country,  and  made  the  inhabitants 
prifiuicrs  of  war.  Rezin  and  his  part  of  the  cti. fede- 
rate army  marched  with  all  their  fpoil  to  Damafcus  ; 
but  Pckah  with  his  divilion  of  -ihc  army  h?ving  at- 
tacked Ahaz,  killed  I20,coo  men  of  his  army  in  one 
battle,  and  carried  away  men,  women-,  and  childicn, 
without  diDin>.Tion,  to  the  number  of  200,00c.  But 
as  they  were  carrying  thole  captives  to  S  uraria,  the 
prophet  Odcd,  with  the  principal  inhabitants  of  the 
T  t  3  city. 


AHA 


[     33^     ] 


A  H  I 


city,  caiiic  out  to  nittt  thcni  ;  and  by  ihiir  rtmoii- 
ilraces  pitvailcd  with  tiicm  to  fci  their  prilbiicrs  at 
liiicrty.  Atlhcfauic  liii.c,  lUe  l^hililtiiics  antl  Edo- 
uiites  invaded  other  p^rtsoj  his  land,  killed  multitudes 
oi'  the  people,  and  carried  ort  murh  b^'oty.  lit  tJiis 
diftrclFed  eoiidilion,  Ah:vz.  finding  no uther  remedy  for 
his  atfjirs,  fent  ainbaiiadors  to  riglathpililer  king.of 
the  Allyrians ;  and  to  engage  him  to  his  intercl>,  he 
ftripped  the  temple  and  city  ot' all  the  gold  which  he 
could  meet  with,  and  fent  it  as  a  prefcnt.  Accor- 
dingly Tiglith-pilf  fcr  marched  to  the  afliftance  of  A- 
haz,  attacked  Rczin  and  killed  iiini,  took  his  capital 
Damafcus,  dcllroyed  it,  and  removed  the  inhabitants 
thereof  to  Cyrene. 

The  misfortunes  of  this  prince  had  no  influence  to 
make  him  better:  on  the  contrary,  in  the  times  of 
his  greatcll  alflittion,  he  facriliccd  to  the  Syrian 
deities,  whom  he  looked  upon  as  the  authors  of 
his  calamities,  and  endeavoured  to  render  propitious 
to  him,  by  honouring  them  in  this  manner.  He  broke 
in  pieces  the  velTels  of  the  houfe  of  God,  Ihut  up  the 
gates  of  the  temjile,  and  ere(5ted  altars  in  all  parts  of 
Jerufalera.  He  fct  up  altars  likewifc  in  all  the  cities 
otjudah,  with  a  delign  to  offer  inccnfe  on  them.  Ai 
length  he  died,  and  v/as  buried  in  Jerufalem,  but  net 
ia  tlic  fepulchres  of  the  kings  of  Judah  his  predccef- 
fors ;  wliich  honour  he  was  deprived  of,  on  account 
of  his  iniquitous  courfe  of  life.  Hezekiahhisfon  fuc- 
cecded  him  in  the  year  of  the  world  3278,  before  Je- 
fus  Chrift  726. 

AHAZIAH,  the  fon  and  fucceffor  of  Ahab  king  of 
Ifracl,  reigned  two  years,  part  alone  and  part  with  his 
father  Ahab,  who  ordained  him  his  alfociate  in  the 
kingdom  a  year  before  his  death.  Ahaziah  imitated 
his  father's  impieties  (i  Kings  xxii.  52,  feq.),  and 
paid  his  adoration  to  Baal  and  Aflarte,  the  worlhipof 
whom  had  been  introduced  in  Ifrael  by  Jezebel  his 
mother.  The  Moabitcs,  who  had  been  always  obecft- 
ent  to  the  kings  of  the  ten  tribes  ever  fiuce  their  fc- 
paration  from  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  revolted  after 
the  death  of  Ahab,  and  refufed  to  pay  the  ordinary 
tribute.  Ahaziah  had  not  Icifurc  or  power  to  reduce 
them  (2  Kings  i.  l,  2,  &c.)  :  for  about  the  fame  time, 
having  fallen  through  a  lattice  from  the  top  of  his 
houfe,  he  hurt  himfelf  conliderably,  and  fent  melfen- 
gcrs  to  Ekron,  in  order  to  confult  Baalzebub,  the 
god  of  that  place,  whether  he  Ihould  recover  of  the 
indifpoliiiou  occafiontd  by  this  accident.  But  the 
prophet  Eljah  went  to  Ahaziah,  and  declared  that  he 
Ihould  not  recover  from  his  illnefs;  and  accordingly 
he  died  in  the  year  of  the  world  5158,  and  Jehoram 
his  brother  fuccecded  to  the  crown. 

Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah,  the  fon  of  Jehoram  and 
Athaliah,  fucceeded  his  father  in  the  kingdom  of  Ju- 
dah in  the  year  of  the  world  ^i  19.  He  walked  in  the 
ways  of  Ahab's  houfe,  to  which  he  was  allied,  his 
mother  being  of  that  family.  He  reigned  only  one 
year,  being  llain  by  Jehu  the  fon  of  Mnill.i. 

AHEAD,  a  fea-term,  fignifying  further  onward 
than  the  lliip,  or  at  ••ny  diftance  before  her,  I3  ing  im- 
mediately on  that  point  of  the  conipafs  to  which  her 
ftem  is  directed.  It  is  ufcd  in  oppofition  to  ajhrn, 
which  expreiTcs  the  fituatiou  of  any  object  behind  the 
(hip.     Sec  Astern, 


AlIICCYATLI,  in  zoology,  the  Indian  name  of  AMccy.-.tli 
a  ferpcnt  reft  mbliugthcratllc-fnake,  only  it  wants  the  I 

rattles.     It  is  as  fatal  in  tflc  cffecl  of  the  poifou  as  any  Ahitui-licl. 
known  fpccies  of  ferpent.  ' 

AHIJAH,  the  piophtt  of  Shilo.  He  is  thought 
to  lie  llic  perfou  who  fpoke  twice  to  Solomon  from 
God,  once  v.  liile  he  was  building  the  temple  ( i  Kings 
vi.  II.),  and  which  time  he  promifed  him  his  protec- 
tion ;  and  at  anotlicr  time  [id.  xi.  6.)  after  his  falling 
into  all  his  irregularities,  when  God  cxprell'ed  his  in- 
dignation with  great  thrcatnings  and  reproaches.  A- 
hij  jh  was  one  of  thoft  who  wrote  the  annals  or  hiftory 
of  this  prince  (2  Chr.  ix.  29.).  The  fame  prophet 
declared  to  Jeroboam  that  he  would  ufurp  the  king- 
dom (i  Kings  ix.  29,  &c.),and  that  two  heit'crs  Ihould 
alienate  him  from  the  Lord,  meaning  thegoldcn  calves 
cre(^ed  by  Jeroboam,  one  at  Dan,  the  other  at  Bethel. 
About  the  end  of  Jeroboam's  reign,  towards  the  year 
of  the  world  3046,  Abijah  the  fon  of  that  prince  fell 
fick  ;  upon  which  Jerobo.  m  fent  his  wife  to  this  pro- 
phet to  inquire  what  would  become  of  the  child.  The 
queen  therefore  went  to  Aliijah's  houfe  in  Shilo,  difgui- 
I'cd  :  But  thcpropliet, upon  hearing  the  found  of  her  feet, 
faid,  "Come  in,  thou  wife  of  Jeroboam,  why  feigneft 
tb'>u  thyfelf  tobe  another?  for  I  am  fent  to  thee  with 
heavy  tidings."  Then  he  commanded  her  to  go  and 
tell  Jeroboam  all  the  evil  that  the  Lord  had  declared  he 
would  bring  upon  his  houfe  for  his  impieties  ;  that  fo 
foon  as  (he  would  enter  into  the  city  her  fon  Abijah 
fliould  die,  and  Ihould  be  the  only  one  of  Jeroboam's 
houfe  that  Ihould  come  to  the  grave  or  receive  the  ho- 
nours of  a  burial.  Ahijahiu  all  probability  did  not  long 
furvive  the  time  of  this  lalf  pro|)hecy  ;  but  with  the 
time  and  manner  of  his  death  we  arc  not  acquainted. 

AHITOPHEL,  a  native  of  Gillo,  was  for  fome 
time  the  connfellor  of  king  David,  whom  he  at  length 
deferted,  by  joining  in  the  rebcllionof  Abfalom.  This 
prince,  upon  his  being  preferred  to  the  crown  by  the 
greateft  part  of  thelfraclites,  fent  for  Ahitophcl  from 
Gillo  (2  Sam.  xv.  12.)  to  atiift  him  with  his  advice  in 
the  prefcnt  Hate  of  his  affairs  :  for  at  that  time  Ahi- 
tophel's  counfels  were  received  as  the  oracles  of  God 
himfelf  (chap.  .\vi.  ult.).  Nothing  gave  David  more 
uneafinefs  than  this  event ;  and  when  Hufhai  his  friend 
came  to  wait  on  him  and  attend  him  in  his  flight,  he 
intreated  him  to  return  rather  to  Jerufalem,  make  a 
Ihow  of  offering  his  fervices  to  Abfalom,  and  endea- 
vour to  fruflrate  the  prudent  nieafurcs  which  fhould 
be  propofed  by  Ahitophcl.  When  Abfalom  was  come 
to  Jenifalera,  he  delired  Ahitophcl  to  deliberate  with 
his  other  counfellors  upon  the  meafures  which  were 
proper  for  him  to  take.  Ahitophcl  adviftd  him  in  the 
firll  place  toabufe  his  father's  concubines;  fothat  when 
his  party  (liould  underfland  that  he  had  diflionoured 
his  father  in  this  manner,  they  might  conclude  that 
there  were  no  hopes  of  a  reconciliation,  and  therefore 
efpoufe  his  inttrcftmorerefniutcly.  A  tent,  therefore, 
being  prepared  for  this  pi.rpofe  upon  the  tcrrafs  of 
the  kings  jEla-c,  Abfalom,  in  the  fight  of  all  Ifrael, 
lay  V.  ith  Ms  lather's  concubines.  The  next  thing  A- 
hitophcl  propofed  v.a  in  the  terms  following:  "Let 
ir.e  now  choofeoiit  12, coo  men,  and  I  v. ill  arife  and 
purf  :e  after  David  thii  night,  and  I  will  come  upon  him 
while  he  is  weary  and  weak-handed,  and  I  will  make 

him 


A  H  U 


r     333     ] 


A  J   A 


Alimelli  liin  afrai.l,  and  all  the  people  tlia:  arc  witli  him  fliall 
II  tiif,  and  i  v.'ill  linitc  the  king  only  ;  anii  I  will  bring 
Ai.  Ijjj.^^  Jill  the  ptoiilc  unto  thtc  ;  t)ic  man  whom  thou 
'  *'  fttktlt  is  as  ilall  returned  ;  foall  the  people  Ihali  be 
in  peace."  Tliisadvice  wasvcry  agreeable  to  Abfalom 
a.iddll  the  eldcrsof  Ifracl.  However,  Abfalom  dcfired 
lluiaai  to  be  called  to  jiave  his  opinion.  K'ulhai  being 
come,  and  hearing  what  advice  Ahitophel  had  given, 
i'aid.  The  connfel  which  Ahitophel  has  given  is  not 
good  at  this  time  ;  what,  for  the  prefcnt,  in  my  opin- 
ion, may  do  better,  is  this  :  let  all  Ifracl  be  gathered 
u  t  J  thee,  form  Dan  even  to  Bcrflicba,  as  the  fand  that 
is  by  the  fra  for  multitude,  and  put  thyfclf  in  the  midfl 
of  them,  and  wiiercver  David  is,  wc  may  fall  upon 
him,  and  overwhelm  him  with  our  numbers,  as  the 
dew  falleth  upon  the  ground.  This  lalt  advice  being 
rsiore  agreeable  to  Abfalomand  all  the  elders  of  Ifrael, 
Was  preferred;  upon  which  Ahitophel fadilled  hisafs, 
went  to  his  houfe  at  Gillo,  hanged  himfelf,  and  was 
buried  in  the  fepulchrc  of  his  fathers.  He  forcTiw, 
without  doubt,  all  that  would  happen  in  confequence 
of  Hulhai's  advice,  and  wasdetcrniined  to  prevent  the 
death  which  he  had  deferved,and  which  David  would 
probably  have  inflicted  on  him,  as  foon  as  he  fliould  be 
jcfcttled  on  Iiis  throne. 

AHMELLA,  in  botany.     See  Bidens. 

AHOLIBAH  and  Ah  ol  ah,  arc  two  feigned  names 
inadc  ufe  of  by  Ezekicl  (xxiii.  4.)  to  denote  the  two 
kingdoms  ofjudahand  Samaria.  Aholah  and  Aho- 
libahare  reprefentedas  two  lifters  of  Egyptian  extrac- 
tion. Aliolah  ftands  for  Samaria,  and  Aholibah  for 
Jerufalem.  The  firft  fignifies  a  tc/it ;  and  the  fccond, 
tny  tent  IS  in  her.  They  both  proftituted  thcmfclvcs 
to  the  Egyptians  and  Aifyrians,  in  imitating  their 
abominations  and  idolatries  :  fer  which  rcafon  they 
were  abandoned  to  tliofe  very  people  for  whom  they 
had  lltown  fo  p.iflionate  and  fo  impure  an  afTeftion  ; 
ihey  were  carried  into  captivity,  and  reduced  to  the 
fevereft  fervitude. 

AHOUAI,  in  botany,  a  fynonimc  and  alfo  the 
trivial  name  of  the  fpccies  of  Cerbera. 

A-HULL,  in  the  fea-lai'.guage,  the  fiiuaiion  of  a 
fliipwhen  all  her  fails  are  furled  on  aconnt  of  the  vio- 
lence of  theftorm,  and  when  having  lalhed  hrrhclm 
on  the  lec-ride,flie  lies  nearly  with  herlidctoihe  wind 
and  fea,  her  head  being  Ibmewhat  inclined  to  the  di- 
ledtioii  of  the  wind. 

AHUN,  a  town  in  France,  in  the  Upper  Marche 
and  generality  of  Moulins,  and  is  a  royal  jiirifdi<Stion. 
It  is  feated  on  the  riverCreufe,  nearaBcncdicline  ab- 
bey of  the  fame  name,  eight  miles  fouth-eaft  of  Cue- 
ret,  50  north-eaft  of  Lomages,  and  jj  fouth-eafl  of 
Woulins.     E.  Long.  2.  8.  N.  Lat.  49.  J. 

AHL'YS,  a  town  of  Swceden.  It  is  fmall,  but  very 
ftrong  by  iis  liiuation,  and  has  a  good  port.  It  is  in 
the  principality  of  Gothland,  in  the  territory  of  Blec- 
kingy,  near  the  Balti'-  fea,  about  iR  miles  from  Chrif- 
lianltadt.     E.  Lonj;.  14.  10.  N.  Lat.  56.  20. 

AI,  (anc.gcog.)  a  town  in  Judea,  to  the  north  of 
Jericho,  called  A-rs  by  Jofcphus,  and  the  inhabitants 
Atiiatie.  Jortiua  h;.ving  fciit  a  detachment  of  ;ooo 
men  againft  Ai,God  permiiicd  them  to  be  repnlfed  on 
accountof  Acliaii's  fin,  who  had  viokied  iheanjihcma 
pronounced  againft  the  lity  of  Jericho.  But  after  the 
expiation   of  this  oti'cuct,   God  cummaiulcd  Jolhua 


(chap.  \iii.>  to  march  with  the  whole  arrryof  the  If- 
raclitcs  ngainft  Ai,  and  treat  thisciiy  and  the  kingdom 
thereof  as  he  had  treated  Jericlio,w)il)  this  difference, 
that  he  gave  the  plunder  of  the  town  to  the  people. 
Jodiua  fcnt  by  nigiit  30,000  men  to  lie  in  ambulh  be- 
hind Ai  ;  having  iirlt  well  inftruded  thofe  who  had 
the  command  of  them  in  what  they  were  to  do  ;  and 
the  next  day,  early  in  the  morning,  he  marched  againft 
the  city  witii  the  remainder  of  his  army.  The  king 
of  Ai  perceiving  them,  failicd  haftiiy  out  of  the  town 
witli  all  his  people,  and  fell  ujjon  the  forces  of  the  If- 
raclites  ;  who  upon  thciirftonfct  ficd,  as  if  they  had 
been  under  fomc  great  terror. 

As  foon  as  Jolhua  faw  the  enemyallout  of  the  gates, 
he  railed  his  Ihicld  upon  the  top  of  a  pike,  which  was 
the  (igiial  given  to  the  ambufcade  ;  whereupon  they 
immediately  entered  the  place,  which  they  found 
without  defence,  and  fct  fire  to  it.  The  people  of  Ai 
perceiving  the  fmoke  afccnding,  were  willing  to  re- 
turn, but  difcovered  thofe  who  had  fet  fire  to  the  city 
in  their  rear,  while  Jolhua  and  thofe  who  were  wiih. 
him  turning  about,  tell  upon  them,  and  cut  them  ia 
pieces.  The  king  was  taken  alive,  and  afterwards 
put  to  death. 

The  chevalier  Folard  obferves,  that  Jolhaa's  enter- 
prife  on  Ai,  excepting  in  fomc  particulars  of  military 
an,  is  very  like  that  of  Gibeah,  which  is  fcarce  any 
thing  more  than  a  copy  of  it.  It  would  appear,  fays 
that  writer,  by  the  fcripture  account,  that  Jolhua  was 
not  the  author  of  the  ftratageni  made  ufe  of  by  him  : 
for  when  God  dircfts  himfelf  to  Joftnia,  he  fays,  '  Go 
'  up  againft  Ai ;  lay  an  ambufcade  behind  the  town  ;  \ 
'  have  delivered  tlic  king  and  the  people  of5t  into  thine 
'  hands  :'  yet  notwithftanding  this,  God  might  leave 
the  whole  glory  of  the  invention  and  execution  of  it  to 
him,  as  to  a  great  general.  '  Jolliua  arofe.'  fays  the 
facrcd  author,  '  and  all  the  people  of  war,  to  go  up  a- 
'  gainft  Ai  (verfe  5.) ;  and  Jolhua  chofc  out  30,000 
'  mighty  mcnof  valour,  and  fcnt  them  away  by  night.* 
Folard  remarks,  that  there  is  a  manifeftcontradidion 
between  this  verfe  and  the  12th,  wherein  it  is  faid, 
that  Jolhua  chofe  out  joomen,  whom  he  fent  to  lie  in 
ambulh,  beiween  Bethel  and  Ai.  How  is  this  to  be 
reconciled  ?  Calmet  fays,  that  Malius  allows  but  joco 
men  for  the  ambufcade,  and  2j,ooo  for  the  attack  of 
the  city,  being  perfuadej  that  an  army  of  600,000 
men  could  only  create  confufionon  thisoccalion,  with- 
out any  ncccffity  for,  or  advantage  in,  fuch  numbers: 
but  the  generality  of  interpreters,  continues  Calmet, 
acknowledge  two  bodioe  to  be  placed  in  ambufcade, 
both  bctw^n  Bethel  and  Ai  j  one  of  25,000,  and  the 
other  of  jooo  men. 

With  regard  to  the  fignal  Jolhua  made  to  that  part 
of  his  army  which  lay  in  ambufcade,  the  learned  Fo- 
lard cnibraccsthe  opinion  of  the  Rabbins,  who  believe 
what  Is  called  the  fliicld  to  be  too  fmall  to  ferve  for  a 
fignal  :  hence  they  make  it  to  be  the  fluff  of  one  of 
their  colours  :  from  this,  our  author  concludes,  that 
the  whole  colours  were  ufed  on  the  occalion  ;  for  in 
the  Afiatic  ilyle,  which  is  very  near  the  poetic,  the 
part  IS  oftentimes  to  be  taken  for  the  whole. 

AJALON,  (anc.  gfog.)  a  town  of  the  tribe  of 
Dan,  one  of  the  Levitical.  Another  ia  tlie  tribe 
of  Benjamin,  in  whofc  valley  Jolhua  commanded  llic 
moon  to  iland  Hill,  being  then  In  her  dccrcafe,  an.l 

con- 


A  I  C 


[     334     ] 


A  I  G 


conftqiiciuly  to  be  fccii  ;it  die  fame  limc  with  the 
fun. 

AJAN,  .1  coaft  and  country  ot' Africa,  has  the  ri- 
ver ^iiilmauci  on  thcfovith;  thrniouniainsfrom  which 
that  river  fprings,  on  the  welt  j  Abyliinia,  or  Kihio- 
pia,  and  the  (Iraight  of  Babclniandel,  on  the  nonh  ; 
and  the  callcrn,  or  Indian  ocean,  on  the  eaft.  The 
coartabounds  wii hall  ncceliariesof  life,  and  hasplcnty 
of  very  good  horfcs.  The  kings  of  Ajan  arc  often  at 
war  with  the  emi'cror  ofihe  Abyliincs  ;  and  all  the  pri- 
fonersihey  take  they  ftlitothemcrchantsof  Cambaya, 
tliofe  of  Aden,  and  other  Arabs,  who  conic  to  trade 
in  their  harbours,  and  give  them  in  exchange,  colour- 
ed cloths,  glafs-beads,  raifins,  and  dates  ;  for  which 
they  alio  take  back,  befidcs  llaves,  gold  and  ivory. 
The  whole  fea-coaft,  from  Zaugnebar  to  the  ftraiglit 
of  iiabclmandel,  is  called  thecoall  of  Ajan  ;  and  a  coi'.- 
fiderablc  part  of  it  is  ftyled  the  Dcfert-coaft. 

AjAX,  the  foil  of  Oileus,  was  oiieof  th^principal 
generals  that  went  to  the  iiege  of  Troy  :  he  raviflitd 
CalFandra  the  daughter  of  I'riam,  even  in  the  temple 
of  Minerva,  where  Ihc  thought  to  have  taken  fanc- 
tuary.  It  is  laid,  he  made  a  ferpent  of  fifteen  feet 
long  fo  familiar  with  him,  that  it  eat  at  his  table,  and 
followed  him  like  a  dog.  The  Locrians  had  a  fingu- 
lar  veneration  for  his  memory. 

AjAX,  the  fon  of  Telamon,  was,  next  to  Achilles, 
the  molt  valiant  general  among  the  Greeks  at  the  (iege 
of  Troy  :  he  commanded  the  troops  of  Salamis,  and 
performed  many  great  adions,  of  which  we  have  an 
account  in  the  Iliad,  '\nDi£lys  Cr^tenfis,  and  in  the  23d 
book  of  Ovid's  Metamorphofes.  He  was  fo  enraged 
that  the  amis  of  Achilles  were  adjudged  to  Ulylfes, 
that  he  immediately  became  mad.  The  Greeks  paid 
great  honours  to  him  after  his  death,  and  creftcd  a 
magnificent  monument  to  his  memory  upon  tlie  pro- 
montory of  Rhetium. 

AjAX,  inantiquity,  a  furious  kind  of  dance,  in  ufc 
among  the  Grecians  ;  intended  to  rcprefcnt  the  niad- 
ncls  of  that  hero  after  his  defeat  by  Ulylfes,  to  wliom 
the  Greeks  had  given  the  preference  in  his  conteft  for 
Achilles's  arms.    Lucian,  in  his  treatile  of  Dancing, 

fpeaksof  dancingthc  y4jiix There  was alfoan annual 

feart  called  /fjantia,  Ai«tTf/«,  confccrated  to  that  prince, 
and  obfervcd  with  great  folemnity  in  the  illand  of  Sa- 
lamis, as  well  as  in  Attica  ;  where,  in  memory  of  tlie 
valour  of  Ajax,  a  bier  was  expofcd,  fetout  with  a 
complete  fet  of  armour. 

AJA7.ZO,  a  fea-port  town  of  the  illand  of  Corfi- 
ca,  in  the  Mediterranean,  with  a  bifliop's  fee.  Long. 
26.  35.  Lat.  41.  40. 

AjEzzo,  a  fea-port  town  of  Natolia,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Caraniania,  anciently  Silelia,  feated  on  the 
coaft  of  the  Mediterranean,  30  miles  north  of  Antiocli 
and  50  weft  of  Aleppo,  where  the  city  of  IITus  anci- 
ently ftood,  and  near  which  Alexander  fought  his  fe- 
cond  battle  with  Darius.     Long.  33.  10.  Lat.  37.  o. 

AICHSTAT,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  Franconia, 
and  capital  of  a  bifliopric  of  the  fame  name.  It  is 
remarkable  for  a  curious  piece  of  workmanfliip,  called 
thefunof  the  Holy  Sacrament,  which  is  in  the  church  : 
it  is  of  malTy  gold,  of  great  weight,  and  is  enriched 
with  350  diamonds,  1400  pearls,  250  rubies,  and  o- 
ther  precious  ftones.  This  place  is  moderately  large, 
and  feated  in  a  valley  on  the  wver  Akmul,  10  miles  N. 


of  Newburgh,  and  57  S.  of  Nuremberg.  E.  Lon.  ri.    Aicul-ouj 
10.  N.  Lat.  49.  o.  The  bilhopricis  45  milesin  lengih  I 

and  17  inbreadih  jandthc  billiop  is  chancellor  of  the  Aiguillon. 
church  of  Mayence  or  Mentz.  '       "       ' 

AICUROUS,  afpecics  of  parrot.  See  Psittacur. 

AID,  in  a  general  fenfe,  denotes  any  kind  of  allift- 
anee  given  by  one  perfouto  another. 

Aid,  in  law,  denotes  a  petition  made  in  court  to 
call  in  help  from  another  perfoirwho  has  intcrcll  in 
land,  or  any  other  thing  conteftcd. 

Aio-dc-cuwp,  in  military  affairs,  an  officer  employ- 
ed to  receive  and  carry  the  orders  of  a  general. 

^in,  Aiixiliuni,  in  ancient  cuftoms,  a  fubfidy  paid 
by  vaflals  to  their  lord  on  certain  occailons.  Such  were 
the  aid  of  relief,  paid  upon  the  death  of  the  Lord 
Mefne  to  his  heir  ;  the  aid  c'mvut,  or  capital  aid,  due 
to  the  chief  lord  on  fevcral  occafons,  as,  to  make  his 
eldelt  fon  a  knight,  to  make  up  a  portion  for  marry- 
ing his  daughter.  See. 

AIDS,  in  the  Krenclt  cnftonis,  certain  duties  paid 
on  all  goods  exported  or  imported  into  that  kingdom. 

Court  cf  Aids,  in  France,  a  iovereign  court  efta- 
bliflied  in  fcvcral  cities,  whickhas  cognizance  of  all 
caufes  relating  to  the  ta-xes,  gabelks,  and  aids,  impo- 
fed  on  fcveral  forts  of  commodities,  efpecially  wine. 

Aids,  in  the  manege  are  the  fame  with  what  fome 
writers  call  cherij})iiigs,  and  ufed  to  avoid  the  neceflity 

of  correilions The  inner  hctl,innerlcg,  inner  rein. 

See.  are  called  inner  aids  ;  as  the  outer  heel,  outer  leg, 
outer  rein,  &c.  are  called  outer  aids. 

AIDAN,  a  famous  Scottifli  bilhop  of  Lindisfarnc, 
or  Holy  Illand,  in  the  7th  century,  was  employed  by 
Ohvald  king  of  Northumberland  in  the  couverlion  of 
the  Engliflt,  in  which  he  was  very  fuccefsful.  He  died 
in  651. 

AIGHENEDALE,  the  name  of  a  liquid  meafurc 
ufed  ill  Lancafliire,  containing  feven  quarts. 

AIGLE,  a  bailwick  in  the  territory  of  Romand 
in  Swilferland,  confifts  of  mountains  and  valleys,  the 
principal  of  which  are  the  Aigle  and  Bex.  Through 
thcfe  is  the  great  road  from  Vallais  into  Italy.  When 
you  pafs  by  Villencuve,  which  is  at  the  head  of  the 
lakcofGencva,  you  enter  in  to  a  deep  valley  three  miles 
wide,  bordered  on  one  fide  with  The  Alps  of  Swilfer- 
land, and  on  the  other  with  thofe  of  Savoy,  and  croflcd 
by  the  river  Rhone.  Sixmilesfrom  thence  you  meet 
with  Aigle,  a  large  town,  feated  on  a  wide  part  of  the 
valley, where  there  are  vineyards, fields,  and  meadows. 
The  governor'scaftle  isonanemincnce  that  overlooks 
the  town,  and  has  a  lofty  marble  tower.  This  govern- 
ment has  nine  large  parilhes  ;  and  is  divided  into  four 
parts,  Aigle,  Bex,  Olon,  and  Ormont.  This  lalf  is 
among  tlie  mountains,  and  joins  to  Rouegmeiit.  It 
is  a  double  valley,  abounding  in  pailure-land.  Ivor- 
na,  in  the  diftriclof  Aigle,  was  in  part  buried  by  the 
fall  ofamountain,occalioned  by  an  earthquake  in  1584. 

Aic  tE,a  fniall  town,  in  France, in  Upper  JSorman- 
dy,  twenty-three  miles  from  D'Evereux,  and  thirty- 
eight  from  Rouen.  It  is  furrounded  with  walls  and 
ditches,has  fix  gates,  three  fuburbs,and  three  parilhes. 
It  trades  in  corn,  toys,and  more  particularly  in  needles 
and  pins,  E.  Long.  i.  5.  N.  Lat.  48.  35. 

AIGUILLON,  a  fmall  town  in  France  in  the  pro- 
vince ofGuienne,  fituateJ  at  the  conflux  of  the  rivers 
Garonne  and  Lot. 

Ai- 


A  I  L 


[     335     ] 


A  1  R 


AIGUISCE,  in  heraldry,  denotes  a  crofs  with  its 
four  ends  rtiarpeiicd,  but  ib  as  to  terminate  in  obtiifc 
angles. — It  ditl'ers  from  the  crofs  fitchcc,  in  as  niucli 
'  as  the  latter  tapers  by  degrees  to  a  point,  and  the  for- 
mer only  at  the  ends. 

AILANA,  Aii.ATH,  or  Ahei-Oth,  anciently  a 
town  of  Arabia  Peiraea,  fitiiated  near  the  Sinus  Kla- 
liites  of  the  Red  Sea.  It  was  alfo  called  Elath,  and 
Eloth,  (Stephanas,  Strabo,  Mofcs.)  The  fame  with 
Elaua. 

AILE,  in  law,  a  writ  which  lies  where  a  perfon's 
grandfather,  or  great  grand-father,  being  feizcd  of 
lands,  &c.  in  fee  limple,  the  day  that  he  died,  and  a 
flranger  abates  and  enters  the  fame  day,anddifpofleircs 
the  heir  of  his  inheritance. 

AILESBURY,  AvLESBURV,  or  Aif.seurt,  a  bo- 
rough town  in  Buckinghamniirc,  confifling  of  about 
/jOohoufcs.  Itconlirtsoffcver.il  Ilreets,  though  the 
houfesare  not  very  contiguous  :  thcfclie  round  about 
the  market-place,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  a  conve- 
nient hall,  where  the  feffions  are  held,  and  fomctimes 
the  aflizes  for  the  county.  It  fends  two  members  to 
Parliament:  has  a  market  on  Saturdays:  and  three 
fairs  for  cattle,  viz.  on  the  Saturday  before  Palm- 
funday,  June  14th,  and  September  25th.  It  is  fixty 
miles  fonth-caftof  Buckingham,  and  forty-four  north- 
wcfl  of  London.     \V.  Long.  o.  40.  N.  lat.  jr.  40. 

AILMER,or  j4^thelmare,  Earl  ofCornwall,  and 
Devonfliirc,  in  the  reign  of  king  Edgar.  It  is  not 
known  of  what  family  he  was.  His  authority  and 
riches  \verc  great,  and  fo  alfo  in  appearance  was  his 
piety.  He  founded  the  abbey  of  Cerne,  in  Dorfet- 
fhire;  and  had  fo  great  a  veneration  for  Eadwald,  the 
brother  of  St  Edmund  tlie  martyr,  who  had  lived  a 
hermit  in  that  country,  near  the  lilver  well,  as  they 
called  it,  that,  with  the  alfillance  of  Archbifliop  Dun- 
flan,  he  tranllated  his  relics  to  the  old  church  of 
Cernel.  In  1016,  when  Canute,  the  fon  of  Suane,  in- 
vaded England,  and  found  hinifelf  ftoutly  oppofed  by 
that  valiant  Saxon  prince  Edmund  Ironlidc,  the  fon 
of  Althelred,  the  Earl  Ailmcr,  with  that  arch  traitor 
Eadric  Strcone,  Earl  of  ]\Icrcia,  and  EarlAlgar,  join- 
ed the  Dane  againfl  their  natural  prince,  which  was 
one  great  caufc  of  the  Saxons  ruin.  He  did  not  long 
furvivcthis  ;  and  we  find  mentioned  inhiflory  onlyone 
fon  of  his,  whofc  name  was  jtthelward,  Earl  of  Corn- 
well,  who  followed  his  father's  maxims,  and  was  pro- 
perly rewarded  for  it.  For  in  ioi8,  Canute  reaping 
the  benefit  of  their  treafons,  and  perceiving  that  the 
traitors  were  no  longer  ufeful,  hecaufed  the  infamous 
Eadric  Strcone,  and  this  Earl  itthelward,  to  be  both 
put  to  death. 

AILRED,  or  Ealred,  abbot  of  Rcve/by  in  Lin- 
colniliire,  in  the  reigns  of  Stephen  and  Henry  II.  He 
was  born  in  1109,  of  a  noble  family,  and  educated  in 
Scotland  with  Henry  the  fon  of  king  David.  On  his 
return  to  England,  he  became  a  monkof  ihcCiftcrtian 
order,  in  the  monaftcryof  Reve(by,of  wliich  heafter- 
wards  was  made  Abbot.  He  died  on  the  12th  of  Ja- 
nuary 1 166,  aged  57,  and  was  buried  in  his  mona- 
flery.  <<  He  was  (faysLeland)  in  great  erteem  du- 
ringhislifc;  celebrated  for  the  miracles  wrought  after 
his  death  ;  and  admitted  into  the  catalogue  of  faints.  ' 
He  was  author  of  fcveral  works  ;  mort  of  u  hich  were 
pnblilhed  by  Gilbo  the  Jcfuic  at  Douay,  1631  ;  p-irt 


of  them  may  be  alfo  found  in  tlie  Bibit'AhccaCiprtiin- 
fii  and  BiblUtheca  Paiiiiiu.  His  principal  work  is  the 
Speculum  churitatis.  Lcland,  Bale,  and  Pits,  mention 
fevcral  manufcrips  which  were  never  publilhed. 

AILSA,  an  infulaicd  rock  on  the  weflern  coaft  of 
Scotland,  between  the  Ihorcs  of  Airlhire  and  Caniirc. 
It  is  two  miles  in  circumference  at  the  bafe,  is  acccf- 
fible  only  atone  place,  and  rifes  to  a  great  height  in  a 
pyramidical  form.  A  few  goats  and  rabits  pick  up 
a  fublillcncc  among  the  fliort  grafs  and  furze  ;  but  the 
importance  of  ihcrock  conlifts  in  the  great  variety  and 
boundltfs  numbers  of  birds,  by  which  it  is  frequented, 
particularly  the  ganncts  or  folan-geefe,  whofe  young 
arc  ufed  at  the  bell  tables,  and  bring  a  good  price. 
Other  birds  are  caught  for  their  feathers.  The  rock 
is  rented  from  the  Earl  of  Caflilis  at  L.jj/tr  ar.nuui. 
The  depth  of  the  water  around  the  bafe  is  from  7  to  4S 
fathoms.  It  is  furroundcd  with  excellent  banks,  well 
flocked  with  cod  and  other  white  filh. 

AINSWORIH  (Dr  Henry), an  eminent  noncon- 
formifl  divine,  who,  about  the  year  1590,  dirtinguifh-  ' 
cd  himfelf  among  the  Brownills  ;  which  drew  upon 
him  fuch  troubles  that  he  was  obliged  to  retire  to 
Holland,  and  became  minillcr  of  a  church  at  Amfter- 
dam.  Hisfkill  in  the  Hebrew  language,  and  his  ex- 
cellent Annotations  on  the  Holy  Scriptures,  which  arc 
ftill  highly  elleemed,  gained  him  great  reputation.  He 
alfo  wrote  fcveral  pieces  in  defence  of  thcBrownifts, 
and  fcveral  other  works. 

AiNswoRTH  (Robert),  born  at  Woodyale  in  Lan- 
cafhirc  in  1660,  was  mailer  of  a  boarding-fchool  at 
Bethnal-green,  from  whence  he  removed  to  Hackney, 
and  to  other  places  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London. 
After  acquiring  a  moderate  fortune,  he  retired,  and 
lived  privately  till  the  time  of  his  death, whichhappcn- 
ed  in  i  745.  We  are  indebted  to  him  for  the  bc!l  La- 
tin and  Englifli  Dictionary  extant ,  he  publilhed  it  in 
quarto  i7;6  ;  and  in  1752,  the  fourth  edition,  under 
the  care  of  Doilor  Ward  of  Grefliam,  College,  and  the 
Rev.  William  Youngc,  wasenlargcd  to  two  vols  folio. 
AIR,  in  natural  philofophy,  a  thin  fluid,  cladic, 
tranfpirent,  ponderous,  comprcflible,  and  dilatable  bo- 
dy, furrounding  the  terraqueous  globe  to  a  conliderable 
height.  See  Aerology,  Atmosphere,  and  Pnel- 

MATICS. 

Ivipngnatlon  ef  Water  with  Fixed  Air,  and  with 
Sulphureous  Air.     See  Mineral  Waters. 

Air,  in  Medicine,  &c.  makes  one  of  the  fix  non- 
naturals — From  obfervations  on  bleeding  in  rheuma- 
tifms,  and  after  taking  cold,  it  is  evident,  the  air  can 
enter  with  all  its  qualities,  and  vitiate  the  whole  tex- 
ture of  the  blood, and  other  juices From  the  palfies, 

vertigocs,and  other  nervous  alfcc'lionscaufed  by  damps, 
mines,  &c.  it  is  evident,  that  air  thus  qualified  can  re- 
lax and  obllrucl  the  whole  nervous  fyflem.  And  froni 
the  colics,  fluxes,  coughs, and  confumptions  produced 
by  damp,  muirt  and  nitrous  air,  it  is  evident  it  can 
corrupc  and  fpoil  the  noble  organs,  &c. 

Lirculatifju  cf  AiR  in  Kocvii.  To  render  the  circu- 
lation of  air  fenfiblc,kt  the  air  of  a  room  be  heated  by 
aftrong  fire,  whilrt  theairof  a  contiguous  room  is  cold  j 
then  let  the  door  betw-cen  the  two  rooms  be  opened, 
in  which  cafe  the  hot  air  of  one  room  being  lighter, 
will  pafs  thro>igh  the  upper  part  of  theopening  of  the 
door  into  the  cold  room:  and^  011  the  contrary,  the 

c»ld 


Alfd 
I 

Air- 


A  I  R 


[     336     ] 


A  I  R 


A'lr.  eold  air  of  the  other  room  being  heavier,  « ill  pafs  into 
— >'""'  the  former  room  iliroiigU  the  lower  part  of  the  open- 
ing ;  accorJingly,  it  will  be  found,  that  applying  a 
lighted  candle  at  the  top,  in  the  middle,  and  at  the 
lower  part  of  the  opening  between  the  two  rooms,  i 
flrong  current  of  air  will  appear  to  pafs  from  the  hot 
into  the  cold  room  litar  the  top;  a  comrary  current 
of  air  will  appear  to  pafs  from  liie  latter  into  the  lor- 
mcr  room  near  the  lower  part  of  the  faid  opening  ; 
whilA  in  the  middle  there  is  little  or  no  motion  at  all, 
as  may  be  clearly  perceived  by  the  direction  of  the 
riamc  of  iiie  candle. 

Itis  forthefanie  reafon  that  when  the  fireislightej 
in  a  chimney,  a  rtrong  current  of  air  is  occalioned  to 
enter  tlic  room,  which  may  be  felt  by  applying  the 
hand  near  the  key-hole,  or  other  fuch  fnull  openings, 
if  the  doors  and  windows  arc  ihut;  for  the  ajr  over 
the  fire  being  heated,  btconics  lighter,  and  »fcends  in- 
to the  chimney,  confequently  other  Lolder  air  nuill 
fiipply  its  place,  which  forces  its  way  tlu-ough  all  the 
fniall  openings  it  can  find.  Were  a  room  with  a  fire 
in  it  to  be  perfectly  clofed,  excepting  the  chimney,  the 
air  in  it  would  foon  become  unwholclome  for  rcfpira- 
tion,  and  the  fire  would  be  foim  extinguilhed,  befides 
other  inconveniences.  Hence  it  appears,  that  thofe 
perfons  raillake  who  expe>?t  to  keep  the  air  of  a  room 
fweetand  wholefome,  efpecially  forconvalcfcents,  by 
accurately  flopping  all  the  fmalleft  openings  that  ad- 
mit frelli  air.  When  the  current  of  air  that  enters  in- 
to a  room  is  on  fome  fide  of  it  where  it  falls  imme- 
diately upon  the  perfons  who  fit  in  the  room,  then  it 
juay  be  otfenfive,  efpecially  to  delicate  conftilutions. 
In  that  cafe,  fuch  opening  (hould  be  clofed  :  but  at  the 
fame  time  another  opening  fhould  be  made  tor  admit- 
ting frcfli  air,  in  another  more  convenient  part ;  for  a 
circulation  of  air,  efpecially  in  rooms  where  a  fire  is 
kept,  is  not  only  falutary  and  ufeful,  but  is  abfoluiely 
necelFary. 

In  an  ingenious  publication,  intitled,  y/  PraSlical 
Tnatife  on  Chimmys,  there  are  the  following  remarks 
relating  10  the  propercll  method  of  admitting  air  into 
a  room,  and  of  expelling  the  contaminated-air.  The 
author,  diredling  to  make  a  vent-hole  near  the  top  of 
the  room,  in  order  to  expel  the  heated  and  contami- 
nated air,  "  this,"  fays  he  "  might  be  done  by  means 
of  a  fniall  tube  opening  into  the  room,  cither  in  or 
near  the  ceiling  ;  which  might  either  be  carried  to  the 
top  of  the  building,  or  be  made  to  communicate  with 
the  external  air  by  a  fmail  perforation  through  the 
wall  at  the  roof  of  the  room  ;  by  means  nf  cither  of 
which,  a  proper  circulation  would  be  eltabliflied,  and 
the  foul  air  be  carried  oft. 


"  For  the  fire  v.ould  no  fooner  have  warmed  any 
particles  of  air  within  the  room,  than  thefc  would  be  - 
greatly  expanded,  and  rife  immediattly  upwards,  foas 
to  hll  the  higher  parts  of  the  room  w  iih  rarefied  air  ; 
and  as  other  pai  titles  would  be  fucceliivily  heated  and 
rarefied  in  their  turn,  by  their  expanltve  force  they 
would  prtfs  upon  the  fides  of  the  apartment  in  every 
place,  lb  as  to  force  the  lightell  particles  through  the 
opening  left  for  that  purpofc  in  the  top  of  the  loom  j 
by  which  means  the  foulcft  air  would  be  gradually 
drawn  ott',  without  defcending  again  into  the  lower 
regions  to  the  annoyance  of  the  company." 

But  in  order  to  admit  frclh  air  into  tberoom, '«  Let,'*- 
fays  he,  "  another  opening  be  made  in  the  ceiling  of 
the  room,  having  a  communicaiion  with  a  fmall  pipe 
that  fhould  lead  from  thence  either  to  the  outfidc  of 
ilic  wall,  or  to  any  otherpartof  the  building  tliat  might 
be  judged  more  convcuieiu,  where  it  (hould  be  bent, 
and  condiKted  downwards,  till  it  reached  the  ground  ; 
where  it  ihould  be  left  open,  to  communicate  with  the 
external  air. — In  this  fituation  the  cool  external  air 
would  be  forced  in  at  the  lower  opening  of  the  tube, 
and  made  to  afcend  into  the  apartment  in  proportion 
to  the  quantity  that  efcaped  towards  the  higher  regions 
by  means  of  the  ventilator.  And  as  that  weighty  air 
wo.ild  no  fooner  enter  the  room,  that  it  would  tend 
towards  the  floor  by  its  own  natural  gravity,  it  would 
gradually  mix  with  the  heated  air  in  its  dcfcent — be- 
come, in  fome  meafure,  warmed  by  that  means,  and^ 
equally  difperled  through  the  room,  fo  as  llowly  and 
imperceptibly  to  reach  the  candles  and  the  company  in 
the  room,  and  fupply  them  with  a  fntlicicnt  quantity 
offreQiand  wholcfunieair,  without  the  inconveniences 
to  which  the  company  are  fubjecled  by  the  ufual  way 
of  admitting  frelh  air  (a).  For  if  it  enters  near  the 
floor  of  the  apartment,  it  is  hurried  along  in  a  rapid  un- 
divided flreara  icvards  the  fire-place, and  flriking  upon 
the  legs  and  inferior  parts  of  the  body,  att'cds  them 
with  a  llrong  fenfation  of  cold.  To  overcome  the  ef- 
fe>;ts  of  this,  large  fires  mufl  be  kept ;  by  which  other 
parts  of  the  body  are  warmed  to  an  extraordinary  de- 
gree, which  is  prodiiiitive  of  mod  of  thofe  diforders 
that  are  pernicious  to  the  young,  and  often  prove  fa- 
tal to  the  old,  during  the  winter-feafon,  in  thefe  cold 
regions. 

'<  Thus  might  our  apartments  be  kept  conftantly, 
and  moderately,  and  equally  warm,  at  a  moderate  ex- 
pence,  without  cndasgcring  our  health  on  the  one 
hand,  by  refpiring  a  confined,  flagnant,  and  putrid  air, 
or,  on  the  other  hand,  by  fubjeilingourfelves  to  fuch 
danger  of  catching  colds,  confumptions,  and  rheumatic 
complaints,  by  being  expofed  to  fuch  exceedingly  un- 

cquai 


Air. 


(a)  Such  readers  as  have  been  little  accuftomed  to  fpeculations  of  this  fort,  will  be  at  a  lofs  to  comprehend 
in  what  manner  two  heles,  both  of  them  in  the  roof  the  room,  and  communicating  w  ith  the  air,  without  any 
ralve,  or  other  contrivance,  for  opening  or  clofing  of  themfelves,  lliojld  yet  anfwer  the  two  very  oppofitc  pur- 
pofes;  one,  of  conftantly  bringing  cool  air  into  the  room  without  emitting  any  warm  air — and  the  other,  of  as 
oonftantly  emitting  warm  and  admitting  no  cool  air.  They  will  pleafe  to  advert,  that  the  one  of  thefe  tubes 
communicates  with  the  atmofphere  at  the  bottom  of  the  lioufe,  and  the  other  towards  the  top  :  the  opening  of 
the  one  is  beneath  the  level  of  the  room,  that  of  the  other  above  it.  Now,  as  the  air  is  more  denfc  at  the  fur- 
face  of  the  ground  than  at  any  height  above  it,  the  warm  rarefying  air  will  naturally  illue  at  that  opening  where 
it  meets  with  lead  refinance,  which  mufl:  invari.ibly  be  through  that  which  opcnsto  the  external  air  at  the  great- 
eft  height ;  and  as  the  cool  air  will  naturally  be  preiled  into  the  room  by  that  opening  where  the  air  is  moft 
tveighty,  this  muft  invariably  be  by  that  which  is  neareft  the  farfacc  of  the  earth. 


A  I  R 


[     337     ] 


A  I  R 


Air       ciiiial  degrees   of  heat   and  cold,  as  arc  unavoiJ,;blc 
I         where  our  apartments  are  lb  open  as  to  admit  a  ready 

Air-gun.  paiiagc  to  the  external  airdnring  the  wintcr-feafon. 

"""*"  "  The  reader  v/ill  eaiily  perceive,  that  all  that  has 

been  hcrefaid  hasa  reference  only  to  thofeapartnitnts 
in  cold  climates,  and  rigorous  weather,  where  fire  to 
warm  them  becomes  nccciHiry.  lu  warmer  regions,  or 
during  the  fummer-feafon,  therccau  be  iioobjedion  to 
the  wheel-ventilator  in  the  window. — It  is  a  limplc 
contrivance,  and  a  fafe  aad  ctTectoal  mean  of  prefcrving 
the  air  in  our  apartments  iwcet  and  wholefome  at  that 
ftafon. 

It  is  a  vulgar  error  among  many  people,  to  believe 
that  fire  purifies  the  contaminated  air,  by  dcftroying 
the  noxious  particles  mixed  with  it  ;  and  for  this  rea- 
fon  they  think,  that  the  fire  kept  in  a  room  where  the 
air  is  tainted,  purities  the  room,  by  rendering  the  air 
in  it  again  fit  for  rcfpiration.  Indeed,  a  fire  kept  in  a 
room  or  apartment  where  the  air  is  tainted,  as  is  the 
cafe  with  hofpiials,  goals,  and  the  like,  does  certainly 
purify  thcapartmciu,  and  the  pra<5tice  is  very  ufeful ; 
but  this  cifccl  is  only  becaufc  the  fire  promotes  the 
circulation  of  t  lie  air,  and  dries  the  dampnefs  of  rooms, 
furniture.  Sec.  fo  that  it  is  not  the  infected  air  that  is 
purified,  but  is  new,  frelh,and  wholefome  air,  that  by 
theactionof  the  fire  has  taken  the  place  of  the  infcded 
air  ;  which  infc:fed  air,  being  rarefied  by  the  heat, 
has  been  expelled  from  the  apartment.  Fire  and  com- 
buftion  in  general  is  fo  far  from  purifying  contami- 
nated air,  that  it  actually  contaminates  a  prodigious 
quantity  of  it  in  a  Ihort  time  j  fo  that  not  only  a  com- 
mon fire,  but  even  a  lighted  candle,  when  kept  in  a 
wcU-clofed  room,  wherein  the  external  air  has  not  a 
free  accefs,  inftead  of  purifying,  renders  the  air  of  that 
room  noxious. 

Jiijtrummt  jor  afccrtainirig  the  Purity  or  Whal:fume- 
n;J'i  of  rifpirable  Air.  See  Eudiometer. 

AIR  Balloons,  a  general  name  given  to  bags  of 
any  light  fubflance  filled  with  inflammable  air,  or  other 
permanently  claflic  fluid, whofe  fpecific  gravity  iscon- 
liderablylefs  than  that  of  common  atmofphcricair.  The 
confcquenceof  their beingfilkd  in  this manneris, that  if 
they  are  of  any  cUnfidcrablc  magnitude,  they  afcenJin 
the  air  to  an  amazing  height ;  and  will  not  only  afcend 
in  this  manner  by  theinfelves,  but  carry  up  along  with 
them  great  weights,  and  continue  to  rife  till  they  at- 
tain an  height  in  which  the  circumambient  air  isof  the 
fame  fpecific  gravity  with  themfclves.  In  this  litua- 
tion  thty  will  cither  float  or  be  driven  in  the  direction 
of  the  wind  or  current  of  air  in  which  they  arc  expo- 
fed,  remaining  in  thefe  f  Icvated  regions  till  the  fluid 
cfcapcs  by  the  burning  of  the  bags  from  the  fuperior 
clailicily  of  the  fluid,  or  by  its  gradual  evaporation 
through  the  pores  of  the  envelope.  The  hiflory,  prin- 
ciples, &c.  of  thofe  machines  are  detailed  under  the  ar- 
ticle Aerostation'. 

AtR-Btad.i:r^  in  filhes.  See  Co .mparative  Ana- 
tomy, chap.  iii.  atul  Ichthyology. 

Mate  X.        jiiR-Ciiin,  a  pntutnatic  machine  for  exploding  bul- 
lets, Src.  with  gnat  violence. 

Th«  common  air-gun  is  made  of  brafs,  and  has  two 
barrels;  the  inlide  barrel  A,  fig.  8.  whichisof  afniall 
liore,  fromwhenccthebuUetsareexploded  ;  and  a  large 
Ivirrcl  r.CDR  on  the  outlide  oi  it.  There  it  a  fyringc 
ii.MNl' fixed  in  the  ftock  of  the  gun,  by  which  the 
Vol.  I. 


air  is  irije^ed  into  \.\vi  cavity  between  the  two  barrels 
ihrougli  the  valve  £P.  The  ball  K  is  put  down  into 
its  place  in  the  fnuU  barrel,  with  the  rammer,  as  in  any 
other  gun.  At  ii  L  is  another  valve,  whi:h,  being 
opened  by  the  trigger  O,  permits  the  air  to  come  be- 
hind the  bullet,  fo  as  to  drive  it  out  with  great  force. 
If  this  valve  be  opened  and  fliut  fiiddenly,  one  charge 
of  condcnfed  air  may  be  luiHcient  for  fcveral  difchar- 
gesof  bullets  ;  but  if  the  whole  air  be  difchargcd  oa 
one  tingle  bullet,  it  will  drive  it  out  with  a  great  force. 
This  difchargc  if  efiedcd  by  means  of  a  lock,  fig.  9. 
placed  here  as  ufual  in  other  guns  j  for  the  trigger  be- 
ing pulled,  the  cock  will  go  down  and  drive  the  lever 
O,  fig.  8.  which  will  open  the  valve,  and  let  in  the  air 
upofi  the  bullet  K. 

Air-guns  of  late  years  have  received  very  great  im- 
provements in  their  conftrudion.  Fig.  10.  is  a  reprc- 
fentaiion  of  one  made  by  the  late  Mr  B.  Martin  of 
London,  and  nosv  by  feveral  of  the  mathematical  iu- 
llrumcnt  and  gun-makers  of  that  metropolis.  For  (ini- 
plicity  and  perfection  it  exceeds  any  other  heretofore 
contrived.  A  is  the  gun-barrel,  with  the  lock.  Hock, 
ram-rod,  and  of  the  lii^eaud  weight  of  a  common  fow- 
ling-piece. Under  the  lock,  at  b,  is  a  round  fteel 
tube,  having  a  fmall  moveable  pin  in  the  intidc,  which 
ispulhedout  whcnthe  trigger  <j  is  pulled,  bythefpring 
work  within  the  lock  ;  to  this  tube  b,  a  hollow  copper- 
ball  c  fcrews,  perfectly  air-tight.  This  copper-ball  is 
fully  charged  with  condenfed  air  by  the  fyringc  B 
(fig.  7-)  previous  to  its  being  applied  to  the  tube  *  of 
fig.  10.  It  is  then  evident,  that  if  a  bullet  be  rammed 
down  in  the  barrel,  the  copper  ball  fcrewed  fad  at  b, 
and  the  trigger  a  be  pulled,  that  the  piti  in  b  will,  by 
theaclionof  the  fpring-workuithin  the  lock,  forcibly 
flrikc  out  into  the  copper  bill ;  and  thereby  pulhing  iii 
fuddenly  a  valve  within  the  copper  ball,  let  out  a  por- 
tion of  the  condenfed  air  ;  which  air  will  ruth  up  thru' 
the  aperture  of  the  lock,  and  forcibly  ail  againft  the 
bullet,  driving  it  to  the  diitance  of  60  or  70 yards  or 
further.  If  the  air  is  ilrongly  condenfed  at  every 
difcharge,  only  a  portion  of  the  air  efcapes  from  the 
ball  ;  therefore,  by  re-cocking  the  piece,  another  dif- 
charge may  be  made  ;  and  this  repeated  to  the  amount 
of  15  or  16  times.  An  additional  barrel  is  lometiraes 
made,  and  applied  for  the  difcharge  of  ihot,  inilcad  oi 
the  one  above  dcfcribed. 

The  air  in  the  copper  ball  is  condenfed  by  means  of 
thefyringc  B  (fig.  7-),  in  the  following  manner  :  The 
ball  c  is  fcrewed  quite  clofe  on  the  top  of  the  fvrinje  at 
b,  at  the  end  of  the  flecl  pointed  rod  :  a  is  a  ifout  hag 
throu;;h  which  paiFcs  the  rod  k:  upon  this  rod  the  feet 
Hiould  be  firmly  fct  ;  then  the  hands  are  to  be  ap- 
plied to  the  two  handles  i  /,  fixed  on  the  tide  of  the 
barrel  of  the  f/r.nge.  Now,  by  moving  the  barrel  B 
fleadily  up  and  down  on  the  rod  a,  the  ball  c  will  be- 
come charged  with  condenfed  air  ;  and  it  may  be  ea- 
iily ktiown  when  the  bill  is  as  full  as  polFiblc,  by  the 
irrelitlible  acfion  that  the  air  makes  againft  the  pitton 
when  you  are  workin^f^  the  fyriuge.  At  the  endof  the 
rod  k  is  ufually  a  four-i'quarc  hole,  which  w  ith  the  rod 
fcrves  as  a  key  to  fallen  the  ball  c  fall  on  the  fcrcw  b 
of  the  gun  and  lyringc  clofc  to  the  orifice  in  the  b.ili  c. 
In  the  iniidc  is  fixed  a  valve  and  fpring,  which  gives 
way  for  the  admillton  uf  air;  bst  upon  its  cniilllon 
comes  clofc  up  to  the  orifice,  (hutiiug  up  the  internal 
U  u  air 


Air-gum 


/\    I    K 


[     33S     ] 


A   I   R 


Alr-giin.   iiir.     The  pillon-ro>l  works  air-iight,  by  a  collar  ot 

< — ^ learhcr  oil  it,  in  liic  birrtl  ii  ;  ii  is  ihcrcforc  jjluin, 

when  tlu-  hirrcl  is  drawn  up,  ilic  air  will  rulli  iu  al  the 
hole  h.  When  die  barrel  i-.i)iilhc.l down, ihcair  there- 
in coni;'.ined  will  have  no  other  way  to  pal\  from  the 
prclairc  oftlie  pillon  b;u  into  the  balUal  top.  The 
barrel  being  drawn  up,  the  operation  is  repeated,  until 
the  condcnlitijn  is  lo  itrong  as  to  rdift  the  action  ot 
tlic  pitlon. 

Sometimes  the  lyringe  is  applied  to  the  end  of  the 
barrel  C  (fee  tig.  11.);  the  lock  and  trigger  ihnt  up  in 
abrafscafe*/;  and  the  trigger  palled,ordilchargc  made, 
by  pulling  the  chain  b.  In  this  contrivance  there  is  a 
round  chamber  for  the  condcnfed  air  at  the  end  ot  the 
fyringc  at  c,  and  it  has  a  valve  acting  in  a  limilar  man- 
ner to  that  of  the  copper  ball.  When  this  inllrumcnt 
is  not  in  ulc,  the  brafs  cafe  //is  made  to  Hide  olr",  and 
the  inlbumcnt  then  becomes  a  walking-Hick  ;  from 
which  circumltance,  and  the  barrel  being  made  of  cane, 
brafs,  &c.  it  has  received  the  appellation  of  the  Air- 
cane.  The  head  of  the  cane  unfcrc'.vsand  takes  otf  at 
*,-whcre  the  extremity  of  the  pillon  rod  in  the  barrel 
is  lliown  :  an  iron  rod  is  placed  in  a  ring  at  tlie  end  of 
this,  and  the  air  condcnfed  in  the  barrel  in  a  iimilar 
manner  to  that  of  the  gun  as  above;  but  its  force  of 
aftion  is  not  near  fo  Ihong  and  permanent  as  that  of 
the  latter. 

The  Magazine  JtR-gun  was  invented  by  that  inge- 
nious artill  L.  Colbe.  By  this  contrivance  ten  bullets 
are  fo  lodged  in  a  cavity,  near  the  place  of  difcharge, 
that  they  may  be  drawn  into  the  ihooting-barrcl,  and 
fncccinvely  difcharged  fo  faft  as  to  be  nearly  of  the 
fame  ufe  as  fo  many  ditFcrcnt  guns. 

Kic.ia.reprefenis  the  prefent  form  of  this  machine, 
where  part  of  the  Hock  is  cut  off,  to  the  end  of  the  in- 
jecting fyringe.  It  has  its  valve  opening  into  the  ca- 
vity between  the  barrels,  as  before.  K  K  is  the  fmall 
fliooting-barrel,  which  receives  the  bullets  from  the 
magazine  E  D,  which  is  of  a  fcrpcntine  form,  and 
doled  at  the  end  D  when  the  bullets  arc  lodged  in  it. 
The  circular  part  a  b  c,  is  the  key  of  a  cork,  having 
a  cylindric  hole  through  it,  /,  k,  which  is  equal  to  the 
bore  of  the  fame  barrel,  and  nukes  a  part  oi  it  in  the 
prefent  fituation.  When  the  lock  is  taken  off,  the  fe- 
veral  parts  Q,,R,  T,W.&c.comeinto  view,  by  which 
means  the  difcharge  is  made  by  pulhing  up  the  pin  P/, 
which  raifes  andopensa  valve  V,tolet  in  the  air  againtl 
the  bullet  1,  from  the  cavity  F  Y  ;  which  valve  is  im- 
mediately ihut  down  again  by  means  of  a  long  fpring 
of  brafs  NN.  This  valve  V  being  a  conical  piece  of 
brafs,  ground  very  true  in  the  part  which  receives  it, 
will  of  itfelf  befufficient  to  confine  the  air. 

To  make  a  difcharge,  you  will  pull  the  trigger  ZZ, 
which  throws  up  the  iccv y  a,  and  difengages  it  from 
the  notch  a,  upon  which  the  ftrong  fpring  WW  moves 
the  tumbler  T,  to  which  the  cock  is  fixed.  This,  by 
its  end  u,  bears  down  the  end  v  of  the  tumbling  lever 
R,  which,  by  the  other  end  m,  raifes  at  the  fame  time 
the  flat  end  of  the  horizontal  lever  Q^;  and  by  this 
means,  of  courfe,  the  pin  F  />,  which  flands  upon  it,  is 
pufliedup,  and  th'.is  opens  the  valve  V,  and  difcharges 
the  b.iUet.  This  is  all  evident  from  a  bare  view  of  the 
figure. 

To  bring  another  bullet  to  fucceed  that  marked  I, 
ijiflautancoufly,  tiurntlic  cylindric  cavity  of  the  key  of 


the  cock,  which  before  made  part  ot  the  barrel  K  K,     Air-gua 
into  the  litiution  /  k,  fo  that   the  part  /  may  be  at  K  ;  j 

and  hold  the  gun  upon  your  ihoulder,  with  [he  bar-  Air-pipe ».^ 
rcl  downwards  and  the  niag.zinc  upwards,  by  which  ' 
means  that  b'lUtt  next  the  cock  w  lil  fall  into  it  out  of 
the  maga/iiie,  but  go  no  farther  into  this  cylindric 
cavity  than  the  two  Utile  fpriigs  s  s,  which  detain  it. 
The  twocirclcs  rcprcfcnt  the  cock-barrel,  wherein  the 
key  abovcmcntioncd  turns  upon  an  axis  not  reprefent- 
ed  here,  but  vilible  i.i  fig.  13.  This  axis  is  a  I'qnare 
piece  of  Heel,  on  w  hich  comes  the  fquarc  hole  of  the 
hammer  H,  rig.  14.  by  which  the cyliniiric cavity  men- 
tioned is  opened  to  the  magazine.  Then  opening  the 
hammer,  as  in  that  figure,  the  bullet  is  brought  into  its 
proper  place  ncarthc  uifchargc-valvc,and  the  cylindric 
cavity  of  the  key  of  the  cock  again  makes  part  of  the 
inward  barrel  K  K. 

It  evidently  appears  how  expeditions  a  method  this 
is  of  charging  and  dilcharging  a  gun  ;  and  were  the 
force  of  condcnfed  air  equal  to  that  of  gun-powder, 
fuchan  air-gun  would  anfwer  the  end  of  fcveral  guns. 

In  the  air-gun,  and  all  other  cafes  where  the  air  is 
required  to  be  condcnfed  to  a  very  great  degree,  it  will 
be  rcquilitc  to  have  the  fyringc  of  a  fmall  bore,  viz. 
not  exceeding  half  an  inch  in  diameter  ;  becaul'c  the 
prcllure  againfl  every  fquare  inch  is  about  15  pounds, 
and  therefore  againfl  every  circular  inch  about  12 
pounds.  If  therefore  the  fyringe  be  one  inch  in  di- 
ameter, when  one  atmofpherc  is  injected,  there  will  be 
a  refinance  of  1 2  pounds  againfl  the  piflon  ;  and  when 
10  are  injefled,  there  will  be  a  force  of  120  pounds  to 
be  overcome  ;  whereas  loatmofpheres  acl  againfl  the 
circular  half-inch  piflon  (whole  area  is  only  one-fourth 
pan  fo  big)  with  only  a  force  equal  to  30  pounds  ; 
or  40  atmofphcres  may  be  injccled  with  fuch  a  fyringe, 
as  well  as  10  with  tlie  other.  In  fliort,  the  facility  of 
working  will  be  inverfely  as  the  fqua»es  of  the  diame- 
ter of  the  fyringe. 

AiR-Jacki-t,  a  fort  of  jacket  made  of  leather,  in 
which  are  fcveral  bags,  or  bladders,  conipofed  of  the 
fame  materals,  communicating  with  each  other.  Thefe 
are  filled  with  air  through  a  leather  tube,  having  a  brafs 
ftop-cock  accurately  ground  at  ihe  extremity,  by  which 
means  the  air  blown  in  through  the  tube  is  confined  iu 
the  bladders.  The  jacket  mufl  be  wet,  before  the  air 
be  blown  into  the  bags,  as  otherwife  it  will  immediate- 
ly efcape  through  the  pores  of  the  leather.  By  the 
help  of  thefe  bladders,  which  arc  placed  near  the  breaft, 
theperfon  is  fupported  in  the  water,  without  making 
the  efforts ufed  in  fwimraing. 

AiR-Fifics,  an  invention  for  drawing  foul  air  out  of 
fhips,  or  any  other  clofe  places,  by  means  of  fire. 
Thefe  pipes  were  firfl  found  out  by  one  Mr  Sution,  a 
brewer  in  London  ;  and  from  him  have  got  the  name 
of  Sutton's  Air  pipes.  The  principle  on  which  their 
operation  depends  is  known  to  every  body,  being  in- 
deed no  other  than  that  air  is  necellary  for  the  fup- 
port  of  fire  ;  and,  if  it  has  not  accefs  from  the  pla.- 
ces  mofl  adjacent,  will  not  fail  to  come  from  thofc 
that  are  more  remote.  Thus,  in  a  common  furnace, 
the  air  enters  through  the  aflt-holc  ;  but  if  this  is  clo- 
fedup,  and  a  hole  made  in  the  fide  of  the  furnace,  the 
air  will  rulli in  with  great  violence  through  that  hole. 
If  a  tube  of  any  length  whatever  is  inl'crtcd  in  this  hole,  / 

the  air  will  ruHithroughthe  tube  into  the  fire,  and  of 

coo- 


Platr  \ 


E'^^/^''     ^''^       ^' 


ftu 


XJ^Kjf  /O/m/ircir//'     r/r  ^^ii// 


//.   /,'„/    .>r„/^,./^'i/.'„/r 


A  I  R 


[     339     ] 


A  1  R 


A!r-plp<r«.  confcqiicnce  there  will  be  a  continual  circulation  of" 

* *< air  ill  that  pl^cc  \vlr;r<  tlic  cxtrcmiiy  ot  the  tui)cislaid. 

Mr  Suiton's  contrivance  then,  as  coniniunicalca  to  tlic 
Royal  Society  by  Do,;!or  Mead,  amounts  to  no  more 
than  this. — "  As,  in  every  Ihip  of  any  bulk,  there  is 
already  provided  a  copper  or  boiling-place  proportion- 
able to  th.e  (iicolthc  vellcl ;  it  ispropofcd  to  clear  the 
bad  air,  by  means  of  tlic  lire  already  ufed  under  the 
I'lid  coppers  or  boiling  places  for  the  ncceirary  ulcsof 
the  Ihip. 

«  It  is  well  known,  that,  under  every  fuch  copper 
or  boiler,  there  are  placed  two  holes,  feparated  by  a 
grate  ,  the  rirfl  of  which  is  for  the  tire,  and  the  other 
for  the  alhes  falling  from  the  fame  ;  and  that  there  is 
alfo  a  flue  from  the  lire-place  upward,  by  which  the 
fmokc  of  the  (ire  is  difchirged  at  fome  convenient 
place  of  the  (liip. 

"  It  is  alfo  well  known,  that  the  fire  once  lighted  in 
thcfe  fire-places,  is  only  prcfcrvcd  by  the  conllant 
draught  of  air  through  the  forenicntioned  two  holes 
and  flue  ;  and  that  if  the  faid  two  holes  are  clofely  flop- 
cd  up,  the  fire,  thougli  burning  ever  lb  brifkly  before, 
is  immediately  put  out. 

"  Hut  if,  after  fliutting  the  abovcmentioncd  holes, 
anotlier  hole  be  opened,  coniuiunicatng  with  any  o- 
ther  room  or  airy  place,  and  with  the  fire:  it  is  clear, 
the  faid  fire  mull  again  be  raifed  and  burn  as  before, 
there  being  a  like  draught  of  air  through  the  fame  as 
there  was  before  the  flopping  up  of  the  hrfl  holes  j 
this  cafe  differing  only  from  the  former  in  this,  that 
the  air  feeding  the  lire  will  now  be  fupplied  from  ano- 
ther place. 

"  it  is  therefore  propofcd,  that,  in  order  toclear  the 
holdsof  lliips  of  the  bad  air  therein  contained,  thctwo 
holes  al)ovementioncd,  tlie  tire-placcand  alh-placc,  be 
both  clofed  up  with  fubltantial  and  tight  iron-doors  ; 
and  that  a  copper  or  leaden  pipe,  of  fufRcient  fize,  be 
laid  from  the  hold  into  the  alh-place,  for  the  draught 
of  air  to  come  in  that  way  t )  feed  the  fire.  And  thus 
it  feenis  plain,  from  what  has  been  already  faid,  that 
there  will  be,  from  the  hold,  a  conftant  difcharge  of 
the  air  therein  contained  ;  andconfcqucntly,  that  that 
air,  fo dilchargcd,mufl  be  as conflantly  fupplied  by  frelh 
air  down  the  hatches  or  fuch  other  conx:nuuications  as 
arc  opened  into  the  hold  ;  whereby  the  fame  mull 
be  continually  frelhened,  and  its  air  rendered  more 
whole  fome  and  fit  for  rcfpiration. 

"  And  if  into  this  principal  pipe,  fo  laid  into  the 
hold,  other  pipes  arelct  in,  coiniminicatingrcfpeciive- 
ly  either  with  the  well  or  lower  decks  :  it  mull  follow, 
that  part  of  the  air,c(.nfunicd  in  feeding  the  fire,  mufl 
be  refpcdively  drawn  out  of  all  the  places  to  wiiich 
the  communication  Ihall  be  fo  made." 

This  accoimt  is  fo  plain,  that  no  doubt  can  remain 
concerning  the  cfiicacy  of  the  contrivance  ;  it  is  evi- 
dent, that,  by  means  of  pipes  of  this  kind,  a  conflant 
circulation  of  frclli  air  would  be  occalioncd  thro'  thofe 
places  where  it  would  otherwifebemoll  apt  toflagnatc 
and  putrefy.  Scvcralothercontrivanccs  havebeciuifed 
for  the  fame  purpofc  ;  and  Dottor  Hale's  ventilators, 
by  fome  unaccountable  prejudice,  have  been  reckoned 
fuperior  in  eflicacy  and  even  limplicity  to  Mr.  S'  tton's 
machine,  which  at  its  firll  invention  met  with  great 
•See  Sut-']  oppoliiioii*,  and  even  when  introduced  by  Dr  Mead, 

'en. 


who  u.td  all  Iiis  iutcrcfl  for  that  purpofc,  was  ihaine-    Air  yipt* 

fully  neglected. 

A  machine  capable  of  anfsvering  the  fame  purpofc 
was  invented  by  Mr  Uelagulicrs,  which  he  ciUcd  ihc 
Jhip'sluiig,.  h  conliUcdof  a  cylindrical  box  fct  up  o:i 
its  edge,  and  fixed  to  a  wooden  pedcdal.  From  the 
upper  edge  of  the  box  iliued  a  f^juare  trunk  open  at  the 
cud,  and  communicating  with  the  cavity  of  the  box. 
Within  this  box  was  placed  a  cylindrical  wheel  turning 
on  an  axis.  It  was  divided  into  r2  parts,  by  means  of 
partitions  placed  like  the  radii  of  a  circle.  'i"hcle  par- 
titions did  not  extend  quite  to  the  centre,  but  left  an 
openfpacc  of  about  i8  inches  diamcterin  the  middle  ; 
towardsthc  circumference,  they  extended  asfar  as  pof- 
fible  without  interfering  with  the  cafe,  fu  that   the 

wh  eel  niight  always  be  allowed  to  turn  freely Things 

being  thus  circumflanced,  it  is  plain,  that  if  the  wheel 
was  turned  towards  that  fide  of  the  box  on  which  the 
trunk  was,  every  divillon  would  pulh  the  air  before  it, 
and  drive  it  out  through  the  trunk,  at  the  fame  time 
that  frefli  air  would  come  in  through  the  open  fpaccat 
the  centre,  to  fupply  that  which  was  throw  n  o;it  thro" 
the  trunk.  By  turningthe  wheelfwiftly,a  flrongblall 
of  air  would  be  continually  forced  out  thro'  the  fquarc 
trunk,  on  the  fame  principles  on  which  a  common  fan- 
ner winnows  corn.  If  the  wheel  is  turned  theoppofitc 
way,  a  draught  of  air  may  be  produced  from  the  trunk 
to  the  centre.  If  this  machine,  then,  is  placed  in  a 
room  whereacirculationolairis wanted, and  the  trunk 
made  to  pafs  through  one  of  the  walls  ;  by  turning  the 
wheel  fwifily  round,  the  air  will  be  forced  with  great 
velocity  out  of  that  room,  at  the  fame  time  that  frclli 
air  will  enter  through  any  chinks  by  which  it  can  have 
accefs  to  fupply  that  which  has  been  forced  out. 

It  is  evident,  that  the  circulation  which  is  promoted 
by  this  machine,  is  entirely  of  the  fame  kind  with  that 
produced  by  Mr  Sutton's  :  tiie  turning  of  the  wheel  in 
Mr  Delagulier's  machincbeillg equivalent  to  therare- 
faclion  of  the  air  by  fire  in  Mr  Sutton's:  but  that  the 
latter  is  vaftly  fuperior,  as  adingof  itfelf,  and  witho.'t 
intermilfion,  requires  no  argument  to  prove.  Mr  Sut- 
ton's machine  has  yet  another  convcnicncy,  of  which 
no  other  convenience  for  thefjinc  purpofc  can  boafl  ; 
namely,  that  it  not  only  driws  out  putrid  air,  but  dc- 
flroys  it  by  cauling  it  pafs  through  fire  :  and  experience 
has  abundantly  Ihown,  that  though  putrid  air  is  thrown 
into  a  great  quantity  of  frclli  air,  it  is  fo  far  from  lo- 
fing  its  pernicious  properties,  that  it  often  produces 
noxious  difeafcs.  We  do  not  fay,  indeed,  that  putrid 
air  becomes  falutary  by  this  means  ;  but  it  is  undoubt- 
edly rendered  lefs  noxious  than  before  ;  tho'  w  httlicr 
it  is  equally  innocent  with  the  fmokc  of  a  fire  fed  in 
the  common  way,  wc  cannot  pretend  todcterniinc. 

Beiides  this  machine  by  Mr  Dcfaguliers,the  venti- 
lators of  Dr  Hales,  already  mentioned,  and  thofc 
called  iuiiiJ-fa\li,ix<:  likewifc  ufed  forthe  fame  purpofe. 
The  formerof  which  is  an  iuiprovcmcnt  of  the  Heiiian- 
bcllows*:theo'her  is  a  contrivance  for  throwing  frelh-  .g^j  y^^ 
air  into  thofe  places  where  putrid  air  is  apt  to  lodge  ;  tiiator,' 
hut  this  has  the  lafl-mcntioned  inconvenience  in  a 
much  greater  degree  than  any  of  the  others,  as  the 
blaft  of  frefti  lir  throws  out  that  which  was  fendered 
putrid  by  itagnation,  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  contami- 
nate all  around  it.     See  Wind-&j.'//. 

U  u  2  Air- 


A  I  R 


[     340     ] 


A  I  R 


/fir-Trui.k,  is  alfo  a  contrivance  hy  Doflor  Hales 
t..  prevent  tlic  llagnatioii  ot"  putriil  ctfluvia  in  jails, 
anJ  other  plates  where  a  grctC  number  of  people  arc 
crowdeil  tootihcriu  a  hnall  fpace.  Itconiills  oiiiy  ot 
a  long  Iquare  trunk  open  at  both  ends  ;  one  of  which  is 
infcrted  into  the  ceiling  of  the  room,  the  air  of  which 
is  required  to  be  kept  pure  ;  and  ihe  other  extends  a 
jjood  way  beyond  the  roof.  1  hrough  this,  trunk  a 
continued  circulation  is  carried  on  ;  and  iliercafon  is, 
that  the  putrid  eliiuvia  which  do  fo  much  niifchi'l  when 
col'.eilcd,  being  much  lij'hter  than  the  pure  aimof- 
phcrc,  arife  to  the  top  of  the  room  ;  and,  if  tliey  there 
jind  a  vent,  will  continually  go  out  lluouj^h  it.  1  litlc 
elHuvi.i  arilc  v.^  very  coniidcraUc  quaniity,  being  cal- 
culated by  the  late  Dr  Kcil  at  no  Ids  than  39  ounces 
from  one  man  in  24  hours. 

Thefc  trunks  vveretirll  madetrialof  by  Mr  Yeoni?.n, 
over  the  Houfc  of  Connr.ons,  where  they  were  nine 
inches  wide  w  ilhiii ;  and  over  the  t  ourtofkinj'.'s-bcnch 
in  Wellminller-haU,  where  ihty  were  lix  inches  wide. 
They  arc  f<.niclinics  made  w  ider,  and  fomctimes  nar- 
rower :  butthcwiJer  they  are  the  longer  they  o;ght 
to  be,  more  effectually  to  promote  the  afcent  of  the  va- 
pour. The  reafon  why  vapours  ot  this  kind  afccnd 
niorcfwiftly  through  a  long  trunk  than  a  fliort  one,  is, 
that  the  prclfure  of  lluids  is  always  according  to  their 
difltcrent  depth,  without  regard  to  the  diamctcrof  iheir 
balls,  or  of  the  veflel  which  contains  them  ;  and,  upon 
this  principle,  a  gallon  of  water  may  be  made  to  fplit 
a  ftrong  cafk.  See  Hydrostatics.  When  ihe  co- 
lumn of  putrid  cfduvia  is  long  and  narrow,  the  dili'er- 
ence  between  thccolumnof  atmofpherc  pretlingon  the 
upper  end  of  the  trunk,  and  that  which  prefTes  on  the 
lower  end,  is  much  greater  than  if  the  column  of  pu- 
trid etlluviavvasfliortand  wide  ;  and  confequently  the 

afcent  is   much  fwifter One  pan  of  a  fmgle  pair  of 

fcales,  which  was  two  inches  in  diameter, being  held 
within  one  of  thefe  trunks  over  theHoufc  of  Commons, 
the  force  of  the  afcending  air  made  it  rife  fo  as  to  re- 
quire four  grains  to  reftorc  the  equilibrium,  and  this 
when  there  was  no  perfon  in  the  houfe  ;  but  when  it 
was  full,  no  lets  tban  i  2  grains  were  requifite  to  re- 
ftore  the  equilibrium  ;  which  clearly  Ihows  that  thefe 
trunks  mufl  be  of  real  and  very  great  eflicacy. 

AiR-Puv:p,  a  machine  by  which  the  air  contained  in 
a  proper  velfel  may  be  exhautlcd  or  drawn  out.  See 
the  article  Pneumatics. 

AiR-Sacks,  in  birds.  See  Comparative  Anato- 
my, chap.  ii. 

^iR-Shafts,  among  miners,  denote  holes  or  fliafts 
let  down  from  the  open  air  to  meet  the  adits  and  fur- 
iiifh  frefli  air.  The  damps,  want,  and  impurity  of  air 
which  occur,  when  adits  are  wrought  ;o  or  40  fathoms 
long,  make  itneceliary  to  let  downair-lhafts,in  order 
to  give  the  air  liberty  to  play  through  the  whole  w  ork, 
and  thus  difcharge  bad  vapours,  and  furnifh  good  air 
forrcfpiration  :  the  cxpenceof  which  fliafts, in  regard 
of  their  vail  depths,  hardnefs  of  the  rock,  drawing  of 
water, fee.  fomctimes  equals,  nay  exceeds,  the  ordinary 
charge  of  the  whole  adit. 

Sir  Robert  Murray  defcribcs  a  method,  ufed  in  the 
coal-mines  at  Liege,  of  working  mines  without  air- 
fliafts. 

When  the  miners  at  Mendip  have  funk  a  groove, 
ihcy  will  not  be  at  the  charge  of  au  air-fliaft  till 


they  come  at  the  ore  ;  and  for  the  fupply  of  .tir  h.ive  Air-threa«!< 
boxes  ol  dm  exactly  doled,  ol  about  tx  inches  in  the  I 

clear,   by    which  they    cany  it  down  about  20  fa-       •'^"'- 
thorns.     They    cut  a  trench   a  little  (iiftance   t'roni  ' 

the  top  of  the  groove,  covering  it  with  turf  and  rods 
dilpoftd  to  receive  the  pipe,  which  tjuy  contrive  to 
come  in  lidcways  to  their  groove,  four  feet  from  the 
lop;  which  Ci.rries  down  the  air  10  a  great  depth. 
When  they  conic  at  ore,  aid  i;eed  an  air-lhaft,  they 
link  it  four  or  five  fathoms  dirtant,  according  to  the 
cmvenicncc  of  the  breadth,  and  of  the  fame  falhion 
w  ith  the  groove,  to  draw  as  well  ore  as  air. 

AiR-Thriuds,  in  naturals  hillory,  a  name  given  to 
the  lorg  filaments,  fo  frequently  fcen  in  autumn  float- 
ing about  in  the  air. 

Thcle  threads  arc  the  work  of  fpiders,  cfpecially  of 
that  fpccics  called  the  Icng-Icgged  tidd  fpidtr  ;  which 
having  mounted  to  the  fummit  o(  abufli  or  tree,  darts 
from  its  tail  fcveralof  ihtfc  threai's,  till  one  is  produced 
capable  of  fupporting  the  creature  in  the  air  :  on  thifi 
it  mounts  in  quell  of  prey,  and  frequently  rifes  to  a. 
very  conlidcrablc  height.     Sec  Aranea. 

Air-Vlsslls,  arc  Ipiral  dutis  in  ihe  leaves,  8;c.  of 
plants,  fuppofed  to  be  analogous  to  the  lungs  of  ani- 
mals, in  lupplyiiig  the  ditfcrent  parts  of  a  plant  with 
air.     See  the  article  Plants. 

Air,  in  mythology,  was  adored  by  the  Heathens  un- 
der ihe  names  of  Jupiter  and  Juno  ;  the  former  rcprc- 
fcnting  the  fuperior  and  liner  part  of  the  atmofpere, 
and  the  laiterihe  infeiiorand  grolferpart.  The  augurs 
alio  drew  prefages  from  the  clouds,  thunder,  light- 
ning, &c. 

Air,  in  painting,  &c.  denotes  the  manner  and  very 
life  of  action  :  or  iiisthat  which  cxpreli'es  t!ie  difpoli- 
tion  of  the  agent.  It  is  fom.etimes  alfo  ufed  in  a  fyno- 
nynious  fcnfc  with  geflure  or  attitude. 

Air,  in  mulic,  is  takui  in  ditferent  fenfes.  It  is 
fomciiuies  contralled  with  harmony  ;  and,  in  this  fcnfe 
it  is  fynonynious  with  melody  in  general. — Its  proper 
meaning  is,  A  tunc  which  is  fet  to  words,  or  to  Ihort 
pieces  of  poetry  that  arc  cMtAjongi. 

In  operas,  we  give  the  name  of  air  to  fuch  pieces  of 
nuilic  asarc  formed  with  meafures  and  cadences,  todi- 
flinguifli  it  froiii  the  recitative  ;  and,  in  general,  e\ery 
piece  of  mufic  is  called  an  air,  which  is  formed  for  the 
voice,  or  even  for  inllruments,  and  adapted  to  ftanzas, 
whether  it  forms  a  whole  in  iti'elf,  or  whether  it  can 
be  detached  from  any  whole  of  which  it  forms  a  part, 
and  be  executed  alone. 

If  the  fubjeft  admits  of  harmony,  and  is  fet  in  parts, 
the  air  is,  according  their  number,  denominated  a 
dmtt,  a  trio,  a  quartnto,  &c.  We  need  not  follow 
Kouli'eau,and  the  other  philologi(ls,in  their  endeavours 
to  invelligate  the  etymon  of  the  word  air.  Its  deriva- 
tion, though  found  and  afccrtained,  would  contribute 
little  to  illullrate  its  meaning  in  that  remote  feiife,  to 
which,  through  a  long  continuance  of  time,  and  the 
various  vicitTitudes  of  language,  it  has  now  palled.  The 
curiousmay  confult  the  fameartide  in  ihtDidioiiiiaire 
de  Mufl  que  by  M.  Rouli'eau, 

In  modern  mufic,  there-are  feveral  different  kinds  of 
airs,  each  of  which  agrees  to  a  certain  kind  of  dancing, 
and  from  thefe  dances  the  airs  thcmfelves  take  their 
fpccific  names. 

The  ain  of  our  operas,  arc,  if  we  may  be  permitted 

ihe 


A  I  R  [     34 

Air.      the  expredion,  the  canvafs  or  fibftratum  upon  which 

— ' are  paiiuc<l  all  ihc  pictures  of  imitative  miilic  ;  nitlody 

is  the  dclignjami  harmony  the  colouring  ;  every  pictii- 
refqucoLjcLl  Ctlcicd  from  thcniofl  beamifiil  parts  of 
ratuic,  every  rcriectcd  Iciiiimcnt  of  the  human  heart, 
are  the  models  which  the  artill  imitates;  whatever 
gains  attei.tion,  \vhate\er  inicrctls  tlie  foul,  whatever 
charms  the  tar,  or  caiifes  emotion  in  the  heart,  thtfc 
are  the  objects  of  his  intitaiion.  Sec  iMiTArion. 
An  air  which  delights  the  ear,  and  difcovcrs  the  learn- 
ing of  the  com  pofcr;  an  air  invented  by  genius,  and 
compofcd  with  taflc  ;  is  the  nobled  tttort  of  mulic  :  it 
is  this  which  explores  the  compafs,  and  difplays  the 
delicacy,  of  a  beautiful  voice  ;  -it  is  in  this  where  the 
charms  of  a  well  conduded  fy  mphony  fliiiie  ;  it  is  by 
this,  that  the  paliions,  excited  and  inflamed  by  nice  gra- 
dations, reach  andagiiate  the  foul  through  ihcavenucs 
of  external  fenfe.  After  hearing  a  bcauiit'ul  <?/>•,  the 
mind  is  acquicfcent  and  fcrcnc  :  the  ear  is  fatistied,  not 
difgulled  :  it  remains  iniprelTcd  on  the  fancy,  it  be- 
conies  apart  of  ourelFcnce^we  carry  it  wiih  us,  we  arc 
able  to  repeat  it  at  pleafure  :  %\  iihout  the  ability  acqui- 
red by  habit  to  breathe  a  lingle  note  of  it,  we  execute 
it  in  our  imagination  in  the  fame  manner  as  we  heard 
it  upon  the  tlieaire  :  one  fees  the  fcene,  tiic  a^lor,  the 
theatre;  one  hears  the  accompaniments  and  the  ap- 
plaufcs.  The  real  enthudaft  in  mufic  never  forgets 
tJie  beautiful  airs  which  he  has  heard  ;  when  he  choof- 
es,  he  caufes  the  opera  to  recommence. 

1  he  words  to  which  uiis  arc  adapted,  arc  not  always 
rehearfed  in  regular  fucecirion,  nor  fpokcn  in  the  fame 
manner  with  thole  of  the  recitative  ;  and  though,  for 
ordinary,  they  are  very  Ihou,  yet  they  are  interrupted, 
repeated,  tranfpofed,  at  the  (leafui  eof  theartift.  They 
do  not  conllitutc  a  narrative,  which  ou'-e  told  is  over  : 
they  eiiher  delineate  a  picture,  which  it  is  necclFary  to 
contemplate  in  I'ifterent  points  of  view;  or  iiifpireafen- 
timcntin  which  th'  heart  acquitfcts  with  pleafure,  and 
from  which  it  is  neither  able  nor  willing  to  be  difen- 
gaged  ;  and  the  different  phrafesofthea;r,  are  nothing 
elfe  but  differtntnianncrsofl.fholdingthefameiniage. 
This  is  the  reafon  why  the  fubici.'l  of  an  air  iliould  be 
one.  It  is  by  ihefe  rcpeiiiions  properly  placed,  it  is 
by  thefe  redoubled  tft'orts,  that  an  imprtlhon,  which  at 
lirft  was  not  able  to  move  you,  at  length  Ihakcs  your 
foul,  agitates  you,  tranfportsyou  out  of  yourfelf .-  and 
it  is  likewife  upon  the  fame  principle. that  the  runt  ings, 
as  they  arc  called,  or  thofe  long,  mazy,  and  in^inicn- 
lated  infieftions  of  the  vrice,  whish,  in  patheiic  ,ii  i, 
frequently  feeni,  though  they  arc  net  always  fc,  im» 
properly  placed  ,  whilft  the  heart  is  attested  with  a  kn- 
timent  t  xquilitely  moving,  it  often  cxprcflcs  iis  emo- 
tionsby  inarticulate  founds,  more  flrongly  and  fcnfibly 
tlian  it  could  do  by  words  themfclves. 

1  he  (orm  of  airs  is  of  two  kinds.  The  fmall  airs 
are  often  compofed  of  two  flrains,  which  ought  each 
ofthfm  to  be  i'upg  twice  ;  but  the  important  airs  in  o- 
peras  are  frequently  in  the  form  of  roiuleans. 

A I  R,oryj^v'r, in  geography,  a  town  of  Scotland,  capital 
of  .in  extenlive  county  of  the  fpnie  name.  It  Hands  on 
the  river  Air,  and  was  formerly  a  place  of  good  trade, 
and  fcatof  filheries  ;  allofwhirli  have  vanilhcd,  and  ihe 
people  now  live  by  one  another.  Air  appears,  from  lii- 
llory  and  other  documents,  lo  have  been  a  eonlidcrable 
placeatthetimcofthcNoni.ancotiquclt.  Thcvouchcrs 


I       ] 


A  I  I 


of  its  antiquity  are  corroborated  by  an  elegant  build- 
ing called  the  Crc/i,  which  has  elcapcd  the  dcftruc- 
livc  rage  of  the  latl  and  preceding  century.  The  due 
on  this  iragment  of  antiquity  is  losj,  confequcntly  it 
hath  flood  in  its  place  above  736  years;  and  it  is  to 
be  wilhed,  that  ihc  majority  of  the  inhabitants  may 
unite  in  preferving  it  from  being  dcftroyed  by  perfons 
who  have  exprelied  a  rtrong  driire  to  that  put  jiofe.  In 
1557,  the  tax  levied  upon  Air  was  L.2j?6  Scots  ;  upon 
Clafgow  only  L.102.  In  1771,  Air  was  airelfed  at 
15  s.  Stcrl.  andCLfgowat  L.  18,  los.  Iniyji,  the 
pickled  herrings  exported  from  Air  w  ere  6624  barrels ; 
(incc  the  year  1 777,  none.  Thefe  revolutions  appear 
the  more  extraordinary,  when  we  conlider  the  \ery 
advantageous  lituaiion  of  Air  both  by  land  and  by  wa- 
ter; the  fertilityofthe  country  ;  the  richesof  thcfca; 
its  contiguity  to  the  weftcrn  filheries  on  one  tide,  and 
to  Glafgow  on  the  other  ;  the  large  returns  for  cattle, 
grain,  and  coal ;  the  ample  revenues  of  the  town  ;  and 
particularly  thcconveniency  of  its  harbour  for  tilhing- 

veflels  of  every  conllruciion About  a  mile  north  from 

the  town  there  is  a  lazar-ho'ife,  commonly  called  7"^? 
King  s  Chapel,  which  King  Robert  de  Bruce  fct  apart 
for  the  maintenance  of  lepers. 

AIRA,  in  bt'tany  :  A  genus  of  the  triandria  digy- 
niaclafs  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
4th  order,  Cramii:a.  The  characters  are  :  The  caljx 
is  a  two-flowered  doubk-valvedglunic  :  Thec«rc//ais 
two-valved,  and  no  rudiment  of  a  (lower  between  the 
florets:  The_/7aw///rt  conlid  of  three  capillary  filaniei!  IS 
the  length  of  the  flower  ;  the  anthcrjc  are  oblong,  and 
forked  at  both  ends:  The  pijiillimi  is  an  egg-lhapcd 
gcrmen  i  theilyli  are  two,  brilily,  and  expanding;  the 
lli;;niataarcpubcfccnt :  'ihere  isuo/imfdr/>////«;  the 
including  corolla  grows  to  the  feed  :  'Y\itf<eJ  is  egg- 
fhaped  and  covered.  There  are  14  fpecicsof  theaira, 
nine  of  w  hich  arc  natives  of  Britain.  The  Kngliili 
name  is  Hair-grajs,     See  thegencral  article  Grass. 

AIRANI,  in  church-hillory,  an  obfcurc  fectof  A- 
rians,  in  the  fourth  century,  who  dci.ied  the  confub- 
ftantialiiy  of  the  Holy  Gholl  with  the  rather  and  the 
Son.  They  areothtrwife  called  .V/VdA.y/,r  ,•  and  are 
faid  to  have  taken  their  name  from  one  .iiras,  w  ho  di- 
flinguilhtd  hinifclf  at  the  head  of  this  party,  in  the 
reigns  of  Valontinian  andGraiian. 

AIRL,  a  town  of  Kiance,  in  Proper  Gafcony,  of 
w  hich  it  is  the  capit.il,  w  ith  a  bilh^'p's  fee.  It  is  fcat- 
cd  on  the  river  Adour,  on  the  declivity  of  a  mountain. 
£.  Long.  o.  ;?.  N.  Lat.  4?.  47. 

AiKK,  a  ftrong  town  in  the  Netherlands,  in  the 
county  of  .Artois,  with  a  cafilc.  It  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  !7io,  anu  was  conh'rnicd  to  them  by  the 
treaty  of  Uirecht.  It  is  ftated  on  the  River  Lis,  aa 
miles  foHih  of  Dunkirk,  and  communicates  with  St 
Omcr's  by  a  canal  cut  from  the  river  Aa.  E.  L»ng. 
2.  ?i.  N    Lat.  50.  38. 

AIR  ING,  a  term  peculiarly  ufcd  for  the  cxercifing 
horfcsiniheopenair.  It  purifies  the  blot>d;  purges  the 
body  from  grofs  humours  ;  and,  as  tlie  jockies  exprefs 
it,  tenches  the  horfe  how  to  make  his  wind  rake  equally, 
and  keep  time  wiih  the  other  motions  of  his  b»)dy.  It 
alfo  Iharpeiis  the  (loniach,  and  keeps  the  creature  hun- 
gry ;  w  hi.  h  is  a  thing  of  great  conftquence,  as  hunters 
and  racers  arc  very  apt  to  have  their  ftomach  fall  otF, 
citlicr  from  waut  of  txercile,  or  from  the  too  violent 

excr- 


A  J  U 


r  34 


Airs      cy.ercifc  whicli  ilicy  .".re  oiicn  cxpofeJ.  i?.    If  the  horfc 
ll  be  over  tat,  it  ii  btll  to  air  him  before  fun-rife  and 

AWs*-     after  fuii-fctiia{^  ;  anit  in  general,  it  is  allowed  by  all, 
"  ijial  notiiing  is  more  bcnencial  to  tliofc  ercatures  than 

tally  and  late  airings.  Sonic  of  our  modern  managers, 
however,  difputc  iliis  :  lliey  lay,  that  ilie  told  of  ilitfe 
linus  is  loo  great  for  the  crtaiure;  and  iliat  if,  in  par- 
ticular, he  is  fubjeJt  to  catarrhs,  rlitums,  or  the  like 
complaints,  the  di  \vs  and  cold  fogs,  in  thcfe  early  and 
late  airings,  will  be  apt  to  iiicrealt  all  ihofc  difor^crs. 
Katurc,  we  fee,  alfo  points  out  the  fun-beams  as  of 
great  uft  to  thefe  animals ;  thofc  which  arc  kept  hardy 
wnd  lie  out  all  night,  always  running  to  thofe  places 
where  the  funlliiiie  comes,  as  foon  as  it  appears  in  a 
morning.  This  lliould  ftcni  to  recommend  thole  air- 
ings that  arc  to  be  made  before  fuii-fet,  and  a  little  time 
after  fuu-rife.  As  to  the  caution,  lb  carnciijy  incul- 
cated by  Markham,  of  uliiig  tliefc  early  and  late  air- 
ings for  fat  horfes,  it  is  found  unncccliary  by  many: 
ior  they  fay,  that  tiie  fame  etfett  may  be  produced  by 
airings  at  warmer  times,  provided  only  that  they  arc 
jnade  lorigcr  ;  and  tliai,  in  general,  it  is  from  long  air- 
ings that  we  are  to  exped  to  bring  a  horfe  to  a  perfect 
wind  and  found  courage. 

AIRS,  in  the  manege,  are  the  artificial  motions  of 
taught  liorfcs  ;  as  the  deniivolt,  curvet,  capriole,  &c. 

AIRY,  or  Aery,  among  fporifmen,  a  term  cxpref- 
fing  the  neft  of  a  hawk  or  eagle. 

AiRvl ripitaty  among  allrologers,  denotes  the  three 
figns,  gcmini,  libra,  and  aquarius. 

AISNE,  a  river  of  France,  which  rifes  in  Cham- 
paign, and  runs  W.  by  Soifonsin  the  lilc  of  France, 
falling  into  the  river  Oife,  a  little  above  Campeigne. 

AIT OCZL',  a  coniidcrablc  river  of  Lcllcr  Alia, 
which,  arifuig  in  the  mountain  Taurus,  falls  into  the 
fouth  pan  of  the  Euxinc  fea. 

AJUGA,  BfCLi;:  A  genus  of  the  gymnofpcrmia 
order,  belonging  to  the  didynaniia  cLifs  of  plants ;  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  42d  order, 
Afpcrij'olia:.  T  h  e  charaders  are  :  The  calyx  is  a  Ihort 
periaiithium,monophyllousaiidpcrllflcnt :  The  corolla 
is  nionopetalous  and  grinning  :  The  jlamiiia  conlifl  of 
four  crert  fubulated  filaments  ;  thcanthcraK  are  dimi- 
diated :  The  p'tfiUhm;  has  a  four-cleft  gcrmen,  a  fili- 
form flylus,  and  two  (lender  fligmata.  There  is  nopi- 
rknrpium  ;  the  calyx  converging,  and  containing  the 
feeds  in  its bofoni :  The  fliHs  are  four,  and  oblong.  The 

Sped.' J  cnu.nerated  by  Linnajus  are,  i .  The  oricnta- 
lis,  with  inverted  liowcrs,  whi(  hisanativeofiheeaft. 
2.  The  gcnevenfis,  with  woolly  leaves  and  hairy  cups, 
is  a  native  of  Swilferland  and  of  the  fouthern  parts  of 
Europe.  ^.  The  pyraniidalis,  orniouniain-bugle,  with 
afquare  pyramidal  fpikc  and  blue  flowers,  is  a  native 
of  Sweden,  Germany,  Swilferland,  and  the  hilly  parts 
of  Britain.  Sheep  and  goats  cat  it ;  cow's  are  not  fond 
of  it ;  horfes  and  fwine  refufe  it.  4.  The  rtptans,  com- 
mon or  pafture  bugle,  w  ith  creeping  fur-ktrs,  and  blue, 
red,  or  w  hite  bloflbms,  in  long  leafy  fpikes,  is  a  native 
of  the  foQlhern  parts  of  Europe,  and  is  met  with  in 
woods  and  moid  places  in  many  parts  of  Britain.  The 
roots  are  altringeni,  and  flrikc  a  black  colour  with  vi- 
triol of  iron. 

Culture.  The  firft  fpecies  is  propagated  by  fowing 
the  feeds  foon  after  they  are  ripe,  in  a  pot  filled  with 
loamy  earth,  and  placed  in  a  fhady  fituation  till  autumn  ; 


2     ]  A  I  X 

when  it  mufl  be  removed  under  a  frame,  and  protoflcd 
from  the  f  rolls.  In  the  fpriug,  after  the  plants  are  come 
up,  let  them  be  tranllatcd  each  intoafcparate  pot,'and 
in  funimer  placed  under  a  Ihady  fituation.  The  other 
fu^ts  are  ealily  propagated  by  their  lide-flioots,  and 
fuccccd  bell  in  a  moifl  Ihady  fituation. 

AIUS  LocoTius,  the  name  of  a  deity  to  whom 
the  Romans  ereded  an  altar. — The  words  are  Latin, 
and  figiiify  "  a  fpeaking  voice." — The  following  ac- 
cident gave  occalion  to  the  Romans  eredling  an  altar  to 
the  Aius  Locutius.  One  M.  Seditius,  a  plebeian,  ac- 
quainted the  tribunes,  that,  in  walking  the  flreets  by 
night,  he  had  heard  a  voice  over  the  tcniple  of  Verta, 
gi\  ing  the  Romans  notice  that  the  Gauls  were  coming 
againlt  lluiu.  This  intimation  was  however  negleded  ; 
but  alter  tiic  truth  was  confirmed  by  the  event,  Caniil- 
lus  acknowledged  tliis  voice  to  be  a  new  deity,  and  erec- 
ted an  altar  to  it  under  the  name  of  the  Ams  Locutius. 

AJUTAGE,  or  Adjutage,  a  kind  of  tube  fitted 
to  the  mouth  of  the  vclfcl  through  whicli  the  water  of 
a  fountain  is  to  be  played.  To  the  diircrent  form  and 
flrutture  of  ajutages,  is  owing  to  the  great  variety  of 
fountains.     Sec  Fountain  and  Hydrostatics. 

AIX,  a  fniall  but  ancient  town  in  the  duchy  of  Sa- 
voy, with  the  title  of  a  inarquifate.  It  is  featedon  the 
lake  Bourget,  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain,  between 
Chamberry,  Annecy,  and  Rumilley.  There  is  here  a 
triumphal  arch  of  the  ancient  Romans,  but  it  is  almoft 
entirely  ruined.  The  mineral  waters  bring  a  great 
number  of  ftrangers  to  this  place.  The  place  was  o- 
riginally  called  Aqua  Cratianit,  from  the  hot  baths 
built  there  by  the  Emperor  Gratian.  E.  Long.  7.  10. 
N.  Lat.  4J.  40. 

Aix,  an  ancient  city,  the  capital  of  Provence,  in 
France.  It  is  an  archbilhopric  ;  and  has  a  parliament, 
a  court  of  aids,  a  chamber  of  accounts,  a  fenefchal's 
jurildiction,  a  generality,  and  an  univerfity.  It  has 
that  air  of  lilcnce  and  gloom  fo  commonly  eh  arafteri/lic 
of  places  dcftitute  of  commerce  or  induftry :  It  is, 
liowever,  a  well-built  city  ;  and  moft  like  Paris  of  any 
place  in  the  kingdom,  as  well  for  the  largencfs  of  tlic 
buildings,  as  in  refpefl  of  the  politenefs  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. It  is  cmbellilhed  with  abundance  of  fine  foun- 
tains, and  fcveral  beautiful  fquares.  The  preacliers 
fquare  is  on  the  fide  of  a  hill ;  it  is  about  160  yards  in 
length,  and  is  furrounded  with  trees,  and  houfes  built 
w  ith  flone  three  ftories  high.  The  town-hall  is  at  one 
end  of  the  city,  and  is  dirtributed  into  feveral  fine  a- 
partments:  ttie  two  lowcft  are  taken  up  by  the  hoard 
of  accounts,  and  by  the  fcnefchal ;  that  above  is  delign- 
cd  for  the  fcflions  of  parliament.  The  hall  of  audience 
is  adorned  with  the  pictures  of  the  kings  of  France  on 
horfeback.  The  hotel  of  the  city  is  a  handfome  build- 
ing, but  hid  by  the  houfes  of  the  narrow  flreet  in  which 
it  is  placed.  The  cathedral  church  is  a  Gothic  llruc- 
ture,  with  tombs  of  feveral  earls  of  Provence,  and  fomc 
good  pidures  by  French  mailers.  The  Corfc,  or  Orbi- 
telle,  is  a  magniliccnt  walk,  above  ^oo  yards  long, 
formed  by  a  triple  avenue  of  elms,  and  two  rows  of  re-, 
gular  and  /lately  houfes.  The  church  of  the  fathers  of 
the  oratory  is  a  handfome  building  ;  and  not  far  from 
thence  is  the  chapel  of  the  blue  penitents,  which  is  full 
of  paintings.  The  convent  of  preacherf  is  very  fine  ; 
in  their  church  is  a  lilver  Aatue  of  the  Virgin  Mary  al- 
moft as  big  as  the  life.     There  are  other  churches  and 

buildings 


A 


[     343     ] 


A  I  X 


Aix.  buildings  wliich  contain  .i  great  number  of  rarities. 
~^^^^  The  baths  without  the  city,  wliich  were  difcovered  not 
long  liiice,  have  good  biilJiiigs,  raifcd  at  a  vail  cx- 
pcncc,  for  the  accommodation  of  thofc  who  drink  the 
waters.  Although  Aix  was  the  tirll  Roman  fcttlement 
in  Gaul,  it  is  not  remarkable  for  ancient  remains.  The 
warm  fprings  from  which  it  is  now  known  and  fre- 
quented, iiKluced  Scxtus  Calvinus  to  found  a  coh>i!y 
here,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  j4qu<r  Sextiir. 
They  were  fuppofcJ  to  poflefs  particular  virtues  in  ca- 
fes of  debility  ;  and  fcvcral  altars  have  been  dug  up 
facred  to  Priapus,  the  infcriptions  on  which  indicate 
their  gratitude  to  that  deity  for  his  fuppofed  fuccour 
and  alli(l.incc.     E.  Long.  ?.  32.  N.  Lat.  43.  32. 

/^tx,  a  fmall  illand  on  the  coa(l  of  France,  between 
the  iHe  of  Oleron  and  the  continent.  It  is  twelve 
miles  north-well  of  Rochfort,  and  twelve  fouih-fouth- 
wellof  Rochellc.     W.  Long  i.  4.  N.  Lat.  46.  j. 

Aix  la  CHAPEf.LE,  a  tine  city  of  Germany,  in  the 
circle  of  Weflphalia  and  duchy  of  Julicrs. 

All  authors  are  agreed  about  its  antiquity,  it  being 
mentioned  in  Csefar's  Commentaries  and  the  Annah 
of  Tacitus.  The  Romans  had  colonies  and  fortrelfes 
there,  when  they  were  at  war  with  the  Germans  j  but 
the  mineral  waters  and  the  hot  bath  fo  increafed  its 
fame,  that,  in  proctfs  of  time,  it  was  advanced  to  the 
privileges  ot  a  city,  by  the  nameof  Aqnaegranii,  that 
is,  the  waters  of  Granius  ;  that  whicli  it  has  now,  of 
Aix  la  Chapille^  was  given  it  by  the  French,  to  di- 
ftingiiiih  it  from  tlie  other  Aix.  It  is  fo  called,  onac- 
couiit  of  a  chapel  built  in  honour  of  the  Holy  Virgin 
by  Charlemagne;  who  having  repaired,  beautiticd,  and 
enlarged  the  city,  whicii  was  dcflroyed  by  the  Huns 
in  the  reign  of  Attila,  in  4J1,  made  it  the  ufual 
place  of  his  relidence.  The  town  is  feateJ  in  a 
valley  furrounded  with  mountains  and  woods,  and  yet 
the  air  is  very  wholefomc.  Jt  may  be  divided  into  the 
inward  and  outward  city.  The  inward  is  incompallcd 
with  a  wall  about  three  quarters  of  a  league  in  circum- 
ference, having  ten  gates  ;  and  the  outward  wall,  in 
whicii  there  arc  eleven  gates,  is  about  a  league  and  a 
half  in  circumference.  There  arc  rivulets  which  run 
through  the  town  and  keep  it  very  clean,  turning  fe- 
veral  mills  ;  befides  twenty  public  fountains,  and  many 
private  ones.  They  have  ftone-quarrics  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, which  furr.ilh  the  inhabitants  with  proper 
materials  for  their  magnificent  buildings,  of  which 
the  fladt-houfcand  tlie  cathedral  are  the  chief.  There 
arc  likewife  thirty  parochial  or  collegiate  churches. 
The  market-place  is  very  fpacious,  and  the  houfes 
round  it  are  (lately.  In  the  middle,  before  the  lladt- 
houfc,  is  a  fountain  of  blue  Hones,  which  throws  out 
water,  from  fix  pipes,  into  a  marble  bal'ou  placed  be- 
neath, thirty  feet  in  circumference.  On  the  top  of 
this  fountain,  is  placed  the  llatue  of  Charlemagne,  of 
brafs,  gilt,  hoUiinu  a  fccptre  in  his  right-hand,  and  a 
globe  in  his  left.  The  (ladt-houfe  is  adorned  with  the 
ftatucs  of  all  the  emperors  lince  Charleniagr.e.  This 
fabric  has  three  llories,  the  upper  of  wiiicli  is  one  en- 
tire room  of  162  feet  \\\  length  and  60  in  breadth.  In 
this  the  new-clei5lcd  emperor  formerly  entertained  all 
the  electors  of  the  empire 

Aix  la  chapellc  is  a  free  imperial  city,  and  chan- 
ges its  magiflraey  every  year  on  the  eve  of  St  John 
Baptift.     The  mayor  is  iu  the  nomination  of  the 

3 


clc<Slor  palatine,  in  the  quality  of  tlie  duke  oi  J  1- 
liers,  as  protector  of  the  city.  This  place  is  famo-..s 
for  leveral  councils  and  treaties  of  peace  concluded 
here  ;  particularly  thofc  between  France  and  Spain  i;i 
1668,  and  between  Great  liritain  and  France  in  1 748. 
The  hot  fulphurcous  waters  for  which  this  place  has 
fo  long  been  celebrated,  aiil'e  from  fevcral  fources, 
which  fupply  eight  biths  conllructed  in  different  parts 
of  the  town.  Thcfc  waters  near  the  fources  are  clear 
and  pcllucid;and  have  allrongfulphurcoiisfmellrefcin- 
bling  thewalhings  of  a  foul  gun  ;  but  ihty  loofe  this 
fmell  by  expofurc  to  air.  Their  talle  is  faline,  bitter, 
and  urinous.  They  do  not  contain  iron.  They  arc  al- 
fo  neuiral  near  the  fountain,  but  afterwards  are  mani- 
fcllly  and  pretty  llrongly  alkaline,  iniomuch  that 
clothes  are  walhed  with  tiiem  wiihout  foap. — On  the 
vaults  above  the  fprings  and  aqueducts  of  thcfc  waters 
is  found,  every  year,  when  they  are  opened,  a  quanti- 
ty of  Kne  white-coloured  (lowers  of  fulphur,  which' 
has  been  fubliincd  from  the  waters. 

The  heat  of  the  water  of  the  hottefl  fpring,  by  Dr 
Lucas's  account,  rail'es  the  quickfilver  of  Fahrenheit's 
thermometer  to  136 — by  Monf.  Monet's  account,  to 
146 — and  the  heat  of  the  fountain,  where  they  com- 
monly drink,  by  Dr  Lucas's  account  to  112. 

Dr  Simmons  has  given  the  follo%vingacco;:nt  of  their 
feveral  temperatures,  as  repeatedly  obl'crved  by  him- 
felf  with  a  thermometer  conllrutted  by  Nairne. 
The  fpring  which  fupplics  the  Emperor's  bath 
(Bain   d;  I' Ewp^-reur),    the  New  Rath  (Bain 
A^^a/Xandthe  ^iieen  of  Hungary's  bath  (Bain 
d>:  la  Reiiie  dc  Hougri:'),  -  -  -  T2T> 

Si  Qim'm's  bsilh  (Bahi  d<:  St  Oil iriii J,         -  112" 

The  Rofc  bjth  cBahi  di  la  R''p),  and  the  Poor's 
bath  (Bain  dis  Pauvres),  both  which  are  fup- 
plicd  by. the  fame  fpring,         ...       ujo 
Charles's   bath  (Buin   di  Charlei),    and  St  Cor- 

neille's  bath   (Bain  di  St  Cornulh),     -     -     112" 
The  fpring  ufed  for  drinking  is  in  the  High  ftrcct, 
oppofitc  to  Charles's  bath;  the  heat  of  it  at  the, 
pump  is  -  -  106'^ 

Dr  Lucas  evaporated  ihc  water  of  the  hotted  fpring 
(of  the  Emperor's  Bath),  and  obtained  268  grains  of 
lolid  matter  from  a  gallon,  compofcd  of  ij  grains  of 
calcareous  earth,  10  grainsof  fclenites,  and  243  grains 
of  a  faline  matter  made  up  of  natron  and  fca  fait.  They 
arc  at  lirfl  naufeous  and  harlli,  but  by  habit  become 
familiar  ami  agreeable.  At  (iril  drinking,  alfo,  they 
generally  affect  the  head.  Their  general  operatioa 
is  by  (tool  and  urine,  without  griping  or  diniinutioit 
of  llrength  ;  and  they  alfo  promote  pcrfpiratioii. 

The  quantity  to  be  drank  as  an  alterative  is  to  be 
varied  accordiiigto  the  conllitution  and  other  circum- 
ftances  of  the  patient.  In  general,  it  is  bed  to  begin 
with  a  quarter  or  half  a  pint  in  the  morning,  and  in- 
creafe  the  dole  afterwarils  to  pints,  as  may  be  found 
convenient.  The  water  is  bell  drank  at  the  fountain. 
When  it  is  required  to  purge,  it  (hould  be  drank  iu 
large  and  ot'ten  repeated  draughts. 

In  regard  to  bathing,  this  alio  mud  be  determined 
by  the  age,  ("ex,  drength,  &c.  of  the  patient,  and  by 
the  feafon.  The  degree  of  heat  of  the  bath  (hould  like-^ 
wife  be  confidcred.  The  tepid  ones  are  in  general  the 
bed,  thougli  there  arc  fome  ca(es  in  which  the  hotter 
ones  are  mod  proper.     But  even  ia  thcfe,  it  is  bed  to 

begin 


AJI. 


A  K  E 


[     344     ] 


A  K  E 


AkciiliJc. 


bf  gin  wi:h  the  temperate  baths,  and  increafc  the  heat 

griJaally. 

Thcfc  waters  are  efficacious  in  difcafes  proceeding 
from  iiiiigclUon  and  from  fo  iliicfsof  the  ftoniach  and 
bowels.  Ill  rhcumatifms;  in  die  fciirvy,  fcro,liula, 
and  diltafesol  ihelkinjin  hyftcric  and  hypochondriacal 
difordcrs  ;  in  nervous  complaints  and  ir.clancholy  ;  in 
the  Ilonc  and  gravel;  in  paralytic  complaints;  inihofc 
evils  which  follow  an  iiijudicioiisufc  of  mcrcary;  and 
in  many  other  cafes.  They  o.ight  not,  however,  to 
be  given  in  hctlic  cafes  where  there  is  heat  and  icvcr, 
in  putrid  difordcrs,  or  where  the  bluud  is  diliolvcd,  or 
the  confvitutiun  much  broken  down. 

The  time  of  Jriiiki  ig,  inthefirltfeafon,  is  from  the 
beginuingof  May  till  themiddle  of  June  ;  and,  in  the 
latter  fcafon,  from  the  middle  of  Auguft  to  the  latter 
end  of  September. 

There  arc  galleries  or  piazzas  under  which  the  com- 
pany walk  during  the  time  of  dri.'^king,  in  order  to 
promote  the  operaiion  of  the  waters. — The  poor's 
bath  is  free  for  every  body,  and  is  frequented  by 
crowds  of  poor  people. 

It  is  fcarccly  neceirary  to  add,  that  there  are  all 
kinds  of  amufcinents  common  to  other  places  of  public 
refort;  but  the  Iharpersappearmore  fplendid  here  than 
elfewherc,allaniing  titles,  with  an  equipage  fuitable  to 

them Aix  la  ChapcUeis  21  miles  from  Spa,  36  from 

Liege,  and   30  from  Cologne.     E.  Long.  5.  4S.  N. 
Lat.  51.  jj. 

AIZOON,  called  by  Mr  'MiWer/^-mfcrvive  ;  though 
tlie  name  Aizooii  has  been  by  fonie  writers  applied  to 
the  houfeleek,  and  alfo  to  the  aloes  :  A  genus  of  the 
pentagynia  order,  belonging  to  the  icofandria  clafs  of 
plants  i  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
13th  order,  Sucaileiitx.  The  ch?rai5ters  arc  :  The  ca- 
lyx is  a  fingle  leaved  pcriantliium, divided  into  five  fcg- 
ments,  and  pcrfillent  :  There  is  no  corolla  :  The/fa- 
jiiiita  confiit  of  very  numerous  capillary  filaments:  the 
antherxare  fimple  :  The ////;//«;/; has  a  iivc-cornered 
gcrmen  above,  with  five  iimple  (lyli;  and  the  fligmata 
are  fimplc.  The  fericarpiuvi  is  a  bellied,  retufc  five- 
cornered  capfule, having  five  cells  and  five  valves:  The 
feeds  ^XQ.  many  and  globular. — Linnxus  mentions  three 
fpecics;  the  canarienfe,  hifpanicam,  and  paniculatum. 
The  firA  is  a  native  of  the  Canary  illands,  the  fecond 
of  Spain,  and  tlie  third  of  the  Cape  of  Cood  Hope. 
They  may  all  be  raifcd  in  Britain  on  hot-beds ; 
but  as  they  are  not  remarkable  either  for  beauty  or  any 
other  property,  it  appears  unneceflary  to  take  further 
notice  of  them. 

AKENSIDE  (Mark),  aphyfician,  who  publifhed 
in  Latin  "  A  Treatife  upon  the  Dyfentery,"  in  i  764, 
and  a  few  pieces  in  the  firll  volume  of  the  "  Medical 
TranfaiHions"  of  the  college  of  phyficians,  printed  in 
1768  :  bat  far  better  known,  and  to  be  diO.inguilhed 
chiefly  hcreafter,as  a  poet.  He  was  born  at  NewcalUe 
npou-Tyne,  November  9.1  721  ;  and  after  being  edu- 
cated at  thegrammar-fchoolin  Newcallle,  was  Tent  to 
the  univerliiies of  Edinburgh  and  Lcyden  ;  atwhich 
lall  be  took  his  degree  of  Doctor  iu  Phy  fic.  He  was  af- 
terwards admitted  by  mandamus  to  the  fame  degree  at 
Cambridge  ;  eleJied  a  fellow  of  the  college  of  phyfi- 
cians, and  one  of  the  phyficians  at  St  Thomas's  Ho- 
fpital;  and,upon  tlie  ellablilhmentof  the  queen's  houfe- 
bold,  appointed  one  of  the  phyficians  to  her  majefly. 

2 


That  Dr  Akeufide  was  able  to  acquire  110  other  kind  AUenSJe. 
of  cckbriiy  than  that  of  a  fcholar  and  a  poet,  is  10  be  »'  * 
accounted  for  by  the  following  particulars  in  his  life 

and  condu.;!,  related  by  Sir  John  Hawkins Mr  Dy- 

fonandhe  were  fellow-ftudents,  thconeof  lawaiid  the 
other  of  phy  fic,  at  Leydta  ,  where,  being  of  conge- 
nial tempers,  a  friendiliip  commenced  between  them 
that  lalled  through  their  hvts.  They  left  the  univcr- 
fiiy  at  the  fame  time,  and  both  fettled  in  London  :  Mr 
Dyfon  took  to  the  bar,  and  being  poiretfcd  of  a  hand- 
fome  fortune,  fupported  his  friend  while  he  was  endea- 
vouring to  make  himlelf  known  as  a  phyfician  ;  but  in 
a  Ihori  time,  having  purchaled  of  Mr  Hardinge  his 
place  of  clerk  of  the  houfe  of  commons,  he  quitted 
W'cftminllcr-hall ;  and  for  thepurpofc  of  introducing 
Akenfide  to  acquaintance  in  an  opulent  neighbourhood 
near  the  to\yn,  bougiit  a  houfe  at  North-End,  Hamp- 
Jlead  ;  where  they  dwelt  together  during  the  fumnicr- 
feafon,  frcquenciug  the  long-room,  and  all  clubs  and 
aflcmblies  of  the  inhabitants. 

At  thefe  meetings,  which,  as  they  were  not  fcleft, 
nuift  be  fuppofed  to  have  confuted  of  fuch  pcrfons  as 
ufually  meet  for  the  purpofe  of  golliping,  men  of 
wealth,  but  of  ordinary  endowments,  and  able  to  talk 
of  littlcclfe  than  news,  and  theoccurrencesof  the  day. 
Akcr.fidc  was  for  difplaying  thofc  talents  which  had 
acquired  him  the  rcputatioxi  he  enjoyed  in  other  com- 
panies ;  but  bere  they  were  of  little  ufe  to  him  ;  on  the 
contrary,  they  tended  to  engage  him  in  difputes  that 
betrayed  him  into  a  contempt  of  thofe  that  diiicred  in 
opinion  from  him.  It  was  found  out  that  he  was  a 
man  of  low  birth,  and  a  dependent  on  Mr  Dyfon  ;  cir- 
cuinflances  that  furnilhcd  thofe  whom  he  offended  with 
a  ground  of  reproach,  that  reduced  him  to  the  nectf- 
fity  of  alTertiiig  in  terms  that  he  was  a  gentleman. 

Little  could  be  done  at  Hampftead  after  matters  had 
proceeded  to  this  extremity  :  Mr  Dyfon  parted  with 
his  villa  at  North -End,  and  fettled  hisfriendiua  fmall 
houfe  in  Bloonifbury-fquare  ;  afligning  for  his  fiipport 
fuch  a  part  of  his  income  as  enabled  him  to  keep  a 
chariot. — In  this  new  fituation  Akcniide  ufed  every 
endeavour  to  become  popular,  but  defeated  them  all, 
by  the  high  opinion  he  every  where  man ifcfted  of  him- 
fclf,  and  the  little  conoefcenfion  he  Ihowed  to  men  of 
inferior  endowments  ;  by  his  love  of  political  contro- 
verfy,  his  authoritative  ceufurcof  the  public  councils, 
and  his  bigotted  notions  refpeding  government  ;  fub- 
jefts  foreign  to  his  profelhon,  and  \\  ith  which  fome  of 
the  wil'ell  of  it  have  thought  it  prudent  not  to  concern 
ihemfelves.  In  the  winter  evenings  he  frequented 
Tom's  coffce-houfe  in  Devcreux-court,  then  the  refort 
of  fome  of  the  moll  eminent  men  for  learning  and  in- 
genuity of  the  time  ;  with  fome  of  whom  he  became 
intangled  in  difputes  and  altercations,  chiefly  on  fub- 
jeifts  of  literature  and  politics,  that  fixed  on  his  cba- 
ratter  the  llanip  of  haughtincfs  and  felf-conccit,  and 
drew  him  into  difagreeable  fituations.  Hence  many, 
who  admired  him  for  his  genius  and  parts,  were  Hiy  of 
becoming  his  intimates. 

The  value  of  that  precept  which  exhorts  us  to  live 
peaceably  with  all  men,  or,  in  other  words,  to  avoid 
creating  enemies,  can  only  be  clUmatcd  bytherctlec- 
tion  on  thofe  many  amiable  qualities  agaiiift  which  the 
negled  of  it  will  preponderate.  Akenfide  v/as  a  man 
of  rcligi>ju  and  llrict  virtue  ;  a  phUofophcr,  a  fcholar, 

and 


A  K  O 


[     345     1 


ALA 


AIlcoCJc  and  i  fine  pof  t.     His  con  verfaiion  was  of  ihc  molt  de- 
ll        lightiul  kind;  learned,  inltructivc,  and  v.itiiout  any 
Akond.    atfcclatioiiofwit,  cheerful  atl<l  entertaining. 

*'  '  DrAkcnlidedicd  Ota  putrid  fever,  June  23.  1770  ; 
and  is  buried  in  tlie  parilh-cliureliof  St  James's  Wefl- 
minfler. 

His  poems,  publilhedfoon  after  his  death  in  410  and 
Svo,  conlift  of  "The  pleafures  of  Imagination,"  two 
books  of  "Odes,"  a  "Hymn  to  the  Niads,"  and 
Ibmc  "  Infcriptions,"  The  pleafures  of  Imagina- 
tion," his  capital  work,  was  firfl  publilhcd  in  i  744  ; 
;•  d  a  very  extraordinary  production  it  was  from  a  man 
who  had  not  reached  his  23d  year.  He  was  afterwards 
fenfible,  however,  that  it  wanted  revifion  and  correc- 
tion ;  and  lie  w  eat  on  revifing  and  correcting  it  for 
fcveral  years  :  but  finding  this  talk  to  grow  upon  his 
hands,  and  defpairing  of  ever  executing  it  to  his  own 
fatisfatition,  he  abandoned  the  purpofe  of  correcting, 
and  refolvcd  to  w  rite  the  poem  over  anew  upon  a  fonie- 
what  ditfcrent  and  enlarged  plan.  He  tinilhed  two 
books  of  his  new  poem,  a  few  copies  of  which  were 
printed  for  the  ufe  of  the  author  and  certain  friends  ; 
of  the  lird  book  in  17J7,  of  the  fecond  in  176J.  He 
iinillied  alfo  a  good  part  of  a  third  book,  and  an  in- 
troduction to  a  fourth  ;  but  his  nioft  munificent  and  ex- 
cellent friend,  conceiving  all  that  is  executed  of  the 
new  work,  too  inconfidcrable  to  fupply  the  place,  and 
fuperfedc  the  republication  of  the  original  poem,  and 
yet  too  valuable  to  be  with-held  from  the  public,  hath 
caufed  them  both  to  be  inferted  ia  the  coUedion  of  his 
pocnjs. 

AKIBA,  a  famous  rabin,  flourifhed  a  little  after 
the  deftrudion  of  Jerufalem  by  Titus.  He  kept  the 
flocks  of  a  rich  citizen  of  Jerufalera  till  the  40th  year 
of  his  age,  and  then  applied  himfelf  to  ftudy  in  the 
academics  for  24  years  ;  and  was  afterwards  one  of  the 
grcateft  mailers  in  Ifrael,  he  having  24,000  fcholars. 
He  declared  for  the  inipollor  Barcochebas,  whom  he 
ownedfor  theMelliah  ;  andiiotonlyanointedhim  king, 
but  took  upon  himfelf  the  office  of  his  raafterof  the 
horfe.  The  troops  which  the  emperor  Hadrian  fent 
againfl  the  Jews,  who  under  the  conduct  of  this  falfc 
Mefliah  had  committed  horrid  malTacres,  exterminated 
this  faction.  Akiba  was  taken  and  put  to  death  with 
great  cruelty.  He  lived  1 20 years;  and  was  buried 
with  liis  wife  in  a  cave  upon  a  niouniain  not  far  from 
Tiberias,  and  his  24,000  fcholars  were  buried  round 
about  him  upon  the  fame  mountain.  It  is  imagined  he 
invented  a  fuppoiititious  work  under  the  name  of  the 
patriarch  .Abraham. 

AKISSAT,  the  ancient  Thyatira,  a  city  in  Nato- 
lia,  in  Afia,  fituated  in  a  plain  18  miles  broad,  which 
produces  plenty  of  cotton  and  grain.  The  inhabitants, 
who  arc  reckoned  to  be  about  5000,  arc  faid  to  be  all 
Mahometans.  The  boufes  arc  built  of  nothing  but 
earth  or  turf  dried  in  the  fun,  and  arc  very  low  and  ill 
contrived:  bat  there  arc  (ixor  feven  mofques,  which 
arc  all  of  marble.  There  arc  remarkable  infcriptions 
on  marble  in  fcveral  parts  of  the  town,  which  are  part 
of  the  ruins  i>{  ancient  Thyatira.  It  is  feated  on  the 
river  Hcrmus,  50  miles  from  Pcrgamos.  £.  Long.  28. 
30.  N.  Lat.  38.  50. 

AKOND,  an  officer  of  julticc  in  Pcrfia,  who  takes 
cognizance  of  the  caufes  of  orphans  and  widows  ;  of 
contracts, and  other  civil  concerns.     He  is  the  head  of 
Vol.  I. 


the  fchool  of  law,  and  gives  lectures  to  all  the  fubalfcrn 
olHcers  ;  he  has  his  deputies  in  all  the  courts  of  the 
kingdom,  who,  with  the  fecond /<i</r<»,  make  all  con- 
tracts. 

AL,  an  Arabic  particle  prefixed  to  -.vords,  and  fig- 
nifying  much  the  fame  with  the  Englilh  pariicl(?/A:- .• 
Thus  they  fay,  alkermcs,  alkoran,  etc.  i.  e.  the  ker- 
mes,  the  koran,  &c. 

Al,  or  AtD,  a  Saxon  term,  frequently  prefixed  to 
the  names  of  places,  denoting  their  antiquity  ;  as 
Alborough,  Aldgate,  &c. 

ALA,  a  Latin  term  properly  fignifying  a  wing  ; 
from  a  refemblance  to  which  fcveral  other  things  arc 
called  by  the  fame  name  :  Thus, 

ALA,  is  a  term  ufed  by  botaniftsfor  the  hollow  of  a 
ftalk,  which  eitherthe  leaf,or  the  pedicle  of  the  leaf, 
makes  with  it;  or  it  is  that  hollow  turning,  orhnus, 
placed  between  the  (talk  or  branch  of  a  plant  and  the 
leaf,  whence  ancwoftspring  ufually  illues.  Sometimes 
it  is  ufed  for  thoic  parts  or  leaves  otherwife  called  UiiS 
or  tuiiigs. 

AL/E  (the  plural  number)  is  ufed  to  fignify  tliofe 
petals  or  leaves  of  papilionaceous  flowers,  placed  be- 
tween thofc  others  which  are  called  the  vixitium  and 
carina,  and  which  make  the  top  and  bottom  of  the 
flowers.  Inflancesof  riowers  of  this  ftructureare  fccn 
in  thofe  of  peafe  and  beans,  in  which  the  top  leaf  or 
petal  is  the  vcxillum,  the  bottom  the  carina,  and  the 
ftde  ones  the  i\x. 

Al«  is  alfo  ufed  for  thofe  extremely  flender  and 
membranaceous  parts  of  fome  feeds,  which  appear  as 
w  ings  placed  on  them  ;  it  likcwifc  fignities  thole  mem- 
branaceous expanfions  running  along  the  flcms  of 
fome  plants,  which  are  therefore  called  atated fialh. 

Ai.jt,  in  anatomy,  a  term  applied  to  the  lobes  of  the 
liver,  the  cartilages  of  tlic  nuiLril,  &c. 

Al  it,  in  the  Roman  art  of  war,  were  the  two  wings 
or  extreme  parts  of  the  army  drawn  up  in  the  order 
of  battle. 

ALABA,  one  of  the  three  fmalleil  diftrifts  of  Bif- 
cay  in  Spain,  but  pretty  fertile  in  rye,  barley,  and 
fruits.  There  are  in  it  very  good  mines  of  iron,  and 
it  had  formerly  the  title  of  a  kingdom. 

ALABANDA  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  in  Carta,  near 
the  Meander,  fituate  beneath  eminences  refemblingaf- 
fes  with  pack-faddles,  whicli  ;;.i>c  rifetothe  jeft  ;  ar.J 
between  Amyzo  to  ilie  wcit  and  Stratonice  to  tlic 
raft.  Under  the  Romans  they  enjoyed  alFiies,  or  a 
conventionof  jurifdidion, by  Pliny  reckoned  the  fourth 
in  order  ;  hence  the  proverb  in  Stcphanus,  exprerting 
their  happinefs.  It  was  built  by  .Alabandns,  whom 
therefore  they  deemed  a  god.  The  people  were  called 
Alabandi,  Atabanimjls,  Cicero  ;  and  AiahanJeit,  after 
the  Greek  manner,  in  coins  of  Aguftus  and  Claudius  ; 
they  were  alio  called  Alabcndini  (Livy). 

AL.AB.ARCHA,  in  antiquity,  3  kind  of  msgi- 
ftrates  among  the  Jews  of  Alexandria,  whom  the  em- 
perors allowed  them  to  eleit,  for  the  fuperintendcncy 
of  their  policy,  and  to  decide  dilterenccs  and  difputes 
which  arofc  uiiinng  them. 

AL'\B-\STr:R  (William)  an  Englilh  divine,  was 
born  at  Hadley  in  the  county  of  Suffolk.  He  was  one 
of  the  doctors  of  Tl4nity  college  in  Cambridge;  and 
he  attended  the  earl  of  ElFcx  as  his  chaplain  in  tlie  ex- 
pedition to  Cadiz  in  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth.  It 

Xx  ij 


ALA 


[     346     ] 


A  L  A 


AlaUftcr.  isfaiilj  that  liislii-fl  r(.-rolutiotis  of  changing  his  religion 
^      X    ».  wcrcoccalioucd  by  liis  Iccing  the  pomp  of  the  churciits 
of  tlic  Konian  coninuinion,  iuul  the  rcfped  witji  wjiith 
llic  priclls  fecmed  to  be  treated  ainongll  them  ;   and 
appearing  thus  to  waver  in  his  mind,  he  foon  I'ound 
pti  fons  who  took  advantages  of  this  difpolition  of  his, 
andof  the  complaints  which  he  made  of  not  being  ad- 
vanttd  according  to  his  defcrts  in  England,  in  incli  a 
"         manner  iliat  he  did  not  fcruple  to  go  over  to  the  Po- 
pifli  religion,  as  foon  as  he  he  found  that  there  was  no 
ground  tu  liope  for  greater  encouragement  in  his  own 
country.     However  that  niatteris,  he  joined  himfclf 
to  [lie  lloniilh  communion,  bur  was  difappointcd  in 
Jiis  ex)'ec1:ations.     He  was  (bondifplcalcd  at  this  ;  he 
could  liot  reconcile  himfclf  to  the  difcipiine  of  that 
church,  which  made  no  conllderatiun  of  the  degrees 
ivhicli  he  had  taken  before.     It  is  probable  too  that 
ie  could  not  approve  of  the  worlhip  of  creatures,  which 
proteftants  arcufcd  to  look  upon  with  horror.     Upon 
tills  he  returned  to  England,  in  order  to  rcfumc  his 
former  religion.     He  obtained  a  prebend  intiie  catlic- 
dral  of  St  Paul,  and  after  that  the  retlory  of  TiierfielJ 
in  Hertfordlhire.     Me  was  wtll  fkilled  in  the  Hebrew 
tongue;  but  he  gave  a  V.  rong  turn  to  his  genius  by 
fludying  the  Cabala,  wiiii  wjiich  he  was  llraugely  in- 
fatuated.    He  gave  a  proof  of  this  in  a  fenuou  which 
he    preached    upon  taking  his  degree  of  dodtor  of 
divinity  at  Cambridge.     He  took  for  his  text  the  be- 
ginning of  tlie  tirfl  book  of  Chronicles,  Adam,  Seth, 
Enos  ;   and  having  touched  upon  ilie  literal  feiifc,   he 
turned  immediately   to  the  myftical,   aliening,  that 
Adam  lignifyed  misfortune  and  mifery,  and  lo  of  the 
rell.  His  verfes  were  greatly  efteemed.  He  wrote  a  La- 
tin tragedy, intitled  Roxtiaa  ;  w  llich,^\  lien  it  wasatTied 
in  acollegcat  Cambridge,  vas.nltended  with  a  very  re- 
markable accident.     There  was  a  lady  who  was  lo  ter- 
rified at  the  lall  word  of  the  tragedy,  St'ijr/ar,  Scguur, 
which  was  pronounced  with  a  very  Ihocking  tone,  that 
llieloflhcr  fenfesall  her  lifetime  after.      Alabalkr  was 
living  in   i6;o.     His  Apparatus  in  Revelatio7icvi  Jcfii 
ChnJtiwiA  printed  at  Antwerp,  in  1607.     As  for  his 
Spiraculuii:  tiiharuv:  feu  join  Spiritiialium  Expofitio>iuvi 
ex  icqiiivocis  Pei:tciglotti  jigiiijicalionibus,  and  his  Ecce 
Spoiijiis  venitffeu  tuba  pulchrituiliiiis,  hoc  efl  Hut/ionjlra- 
tio  guoJ  ncit  jit  Ul'icitum   >iec  impoffihiU  computare  dtt- 
rationeni  inuiidi  ir  tt'7}!pus ficundi advcntus ChiiJIiylhiy 
were  printed  at  London.     We  may  judge  from  thefe 
titles  what  the  tafle  and  genius  of  the  author  was. 

Alabaster,  in  natural  hillory,  a  fpccies  of  that 
genus  of  flones  whofc  bafc  is  calcareous  earth.  It 
differs  from  the  marble  in  bcingcombincd,  notwith  the 
aerial, butwith  vitriolic  acid  ;  therefore,  when  mixed 
with  any  acid;  no  cftervcfcence  appears.  Itisfuluble 
in  about  500  times  its  weiglit  of  water  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  60.  It  is  fnllblc  alone  in  a  long-continued 
porcelain  heat,  or  by  the  blow-pipe.  Specific  gravity 
1.87.  Texture  granular,  withlliining  particles.  In 
compolition,  and  confequently  in  its  chemical  proper- 
ties, it  docs  not  differ  from  gypfiim,  felenite,  and  pla- 
fler  of  Paris. 

There  are  threefpeciesofalabafter.  i.  Thefnotv- 
■white  lliiiiiiig  alaballer,  or  lygdinumof  the  ancients, 
is  found  in  Taurus,  in  pieces  Urge  enough  to  make 
diflies,  or  the  like.  It  cuts  very  freely,  andis  capable 
of  a  fine  polilli.     2.  Theyellowilh  alabafter,  or  phen- 


gitcs  of  Pliny,  is  found  in  Greece  ;  and  ii  of  a  loft  Alaballer. 

luofe  open  texture,  pretty  heavy,  and  nearly  of  the  co-  ' >' ' 

lour  of  honey.  i'his  fpccies  has  likewife  been  found 
in  Germany,  France,  and  in  Derbylhire  in  England. 
3.  Variegated, yellow, and  reddilh  alaballer.  Thisipe- 
cics  is  tlic  common  alaballer  of  the  ancients,  and  is  fo 
foft  that  it  may  be  cut  with  a  knife  :  It  is  remarkably 
bright,  and  almoll  iranfp.irent ;  admitsof  a  tine  poliih, 
and  conlills  of  large  angular  fparry  concretions.  It  is 
not  proof  againll  water;  it  ierments  violently  with 
aqua-fortis,  and  burns  to  a  pale  yellow.  The  colour 
of  (his  fpccies  is  a  clear  pale  yellow  rcfembling  amb'  #, 
and  variegated  witli  undul.ted  veins  ;  fomc  of  whicn 
are  palered, others  whililh,andother'sofa  pale  brown 
It  was  formerly  brought  from  Egypt,  but  is  now  to  be 
met  with  in  feveral  parts  of  England.  The alabarters 
are  frequciuly  ufcd  by  Uatuaries  lor  fmall  ilatues,  vales, 
and  columns.  Alter  beiuj;  calcined  and  mixed  with 
water,  tliey  may  be  call  in  any  mould  like  plallcr  of 
Paris.     See  GvrsuM. 

Alaballer,  Mr  Boyle  obfervcs,  being  finely  powder- 
ed, and  thus  fet  in  a  bafon  over  the  fire,  will,  when 
hot,  ulTunie  the  appearance  of  a  fluid,  by  roiling  ia 
waves,  yielding  to  the  fmallcll;  touch,  and  emitting 
vapour;  all  which  properties  itlofes  again  on  the  de- 
parture of  the  heat,  and  difcovers  itfelf  u  mere  inco- 
herent powder.  The  tinenefs  and  clcarnefs  of  this 
iloiie  renders  it  in  fome  meafurc  tranfparcnt  ;  whence 
it  has  been  fomeiinies  alfo  employed  for  windows. 
There  is  a  church  at  Florence  Hill  illamiuated  by  ala- 
bafler-windows  ;  iullead  of  panes  of  glafs,  there  arc 
II  ;bs  of  alabafler  near  15  feet  high,  each  of  which 
forms  a  lingle  window,  through  which  the  light  is  con- 
veyed. The  countries  in  Europe  which  abound  luoft 
in  alaballer  are  Germany,  toward  Coblcntz  ;  the  pro- 
vince of  Maconnois,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cluiii 
in  France  ;  Italy,  toward  R.ome  ;  where  that  of  Mon- 
taiout  is  particularly  I  e ma rkablc  not  only  for  its  whit e- 
nefs,  but  alfo  for  the  bignefs  of  its  blocks,  fome 
of  which  are  fo  large,  that  flatues  as  big  as  the 
life  may  eafily  be  cut  out  of  them.  F.  Labar,  in  his 
journey  to  Italy,  obfervcs,  that  there  are  quarries  of 
alabafler  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  village  called  de 
la  Toffa,  near  Civita  Vecchia  :  there  is  alfo  alaballer 
to  be  found  in  fome  places  of  Lorrain  ;  but  it  is  not 
much  efleenied.  A  new  manufacture  of  balTo  relievos, 
from  a  lingular  fpccies  of  faftitiou;  aUbailer,  has  been 
fome  time  agoeflablilhedby  M.  Letapie,  at  the  baths 
of  St  Philip  in  Tufcany.  The  flream  at  thefe  baths 
depofites  a  peculiar  kind  of  fand,  which,  when  col- 
le  jled  and  condenfcd  in  the  cavities  of  any  body  em- 
ployed to  oppole  its  current,  acquires  the  nature,  hard- 
nefs,  and  colourof  alabafter,  and  alfumes  the  forms  of 
tlipfe  cavities  in  which  it  is  thus  lodged. 

Alabaster,  in  antiquity,  a  term  ufed  for  a  vafe 
wherein  odoiiferous  liquors  were  anciently  put.  The 
rcafon  of  the  denomination  is,  that  veli'els  fortliis  pnr- 
pofe  were  frequently  made  of  alaballer-iione,  which 
Pliny  and  other  ancients  reprefent  as  peculiarly  pro- 
per for  this  purpofe.  Several  critics  will  have  the  box 
mentioned  in  the  Gofpels  as  made  ot  alaballer  to  have 
been  of  f^lafs  :  And  though  the  text  fays  that  the  wo- 
man broke  it,  yet  the  pieces  fceni  mirarulouily  to  have 
been  united,  lince  we  are  told  the  entire  box  was  pur- 
chafed  by  the  emperor  Conllantine,  and  prcferved  as 


ALA 


[     347     ] 


ALA 


Alabj-     a  relic  of  great  price.     Otlicrs  will  have  it,  that  the 

ftrum     name  alabajia  denotes  the  I'orm  ratlier  llian  the  matter 

II         ollhis  i)ox  :   In  this  view  tl\ey  define  alabafter  by  a 

llimandus  i^^j^  without  aliaiidlc,  deriving  the  word  from  the  pri- 

"  vativc  «,  and  xafn,  aiifa,  handn. 

Alabader  is  alfo  laid  to  have  been  ufed  for  an  an- 
cient liquid  mcafure,  containing  ten  ounces  of  wine, 
or  nine  of  oil.  In  this  fenfe,  the  alaballer  was  equal 
10  half  tlie  fcxtary. 

ALABAS'IRUM  dendroide,  a  kind  of  lamina- 
ted alab.iiter,  btamifully  varitjjated  with  the  figures  of 
(lirubs,  trees,  &c.  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Hohtnllciii. 

ALADINISTS,  a  feft  among  the  Mahometans, 
aiifwering  lo  free-thinkers  among  us. 

ALADULIA,  a  conliderablc  province  of  Turkey, 
in  Alia,  in  tiiat  part  called  Natolia,  bciwctntlie  moun- 
tains of  Antitaurus,  whicli  fcparatc  il  from  Amalia, 
on  the  nortli,  and  from  Carimaiiia  on  the  weft.  It  has 
the  Mediterranean  ftaon  the  fouth;  and  (he  Euphrates, 
or  b'rat,  on  theeaft,  whicli  divides  it  from  Diarbcker. 
It  comprehends  the  kll'cr  Armenia  of  the  ancients, 
and  the  caft  part  of  Cilicia.  Formerly  it  liad  kings  of 
its  own  ;  but  the  head  of  the  lall  king  was  cut  oft' by 
Selini  I.  emperor  of  iheTurks,  who  liad  conquered  the 
country.  It  is  now  divided  into  two  parts :  the  north, 
comprehended  between  Taurus,  Antitaurus,  and  the 
Kujilirates,  is  a  beglerbeglic,  which  bears  the  namcof 
Maralli,  the  capital  town  ;  and  the  fouth,  featcd  be- 
tween mount  Taurus  and  the  Mediterranean,  is  united 
to  the  beglerbeglic  of  Aleppo.  The  country  is  rough, 
ragged,  and  mountainous  ;  yet  there  are  good  pallures, 
and  plenty  of  horfcs  and  camels.  The  people  arc  har- 
dy and  thievidi.     The  capital  is  Malatigah. 

ALAIN  (Charticr),  fccretary  to  Charles  VII.  king 
of  France,  born  in  the  year  1^86.  He  was  the  author 
of  feveral  works  in  profe  and  verfe  ;  but  his  moft  fa- 
mous performance  was  his  Chronicle  of  king  Charles 
VII.  liernard  dc  Girard,  in  his  preface  to  the  Hi- 
llory  of  France,  ftyles  him  "  an  excellent  hillorian, 
w-Jio  has  given  an  account  of  all  the  affairs,  particulars, 
ceremonies,  fpeeches,  anfwcrs,  andcircumftances,  at 
which  he  was  prefcnt  himfclf,  or  had  information  of." 
Giles  Coroxet  tells  us,  that  Margaret  daugliter  to  the 
king  cf  Scotland,  and  wife  to  the  da.iphin,  pafTing 
once  through  a  hall  where  Alain  lay  allcep,  fhe  flop- 
ped .and  kiifed  him  before  all  the  company  wlio  at- 
tended :  fome  of  them  telling  her,  that  it  was  llrange 
flic  lliould  kifs  a  man  who  had  fo  few  charms  in  his 
pcrfon,  flic  replied,  "  I  did  not  kifs  tlie  man,  but  the 
mouth  from  whence  proceed  fo  many  excellent  fayings, 
fo  many  wife  difcourfes,  and  fo  many  elegant  cxpref- 
lions."  Mr  FontcntUc,  among  liis  Dialogues  of  the 
Dead,  has  one  upon  this  incident,  bctuccn  tiie  prin- 
tefs  Margaret  and  Plato.  Mr.  Pafquier  compares  Alain 
to  Seneca,  on  account  of  the  great  number  of  bo.iiti- 
fi;l  feniences  intcrfperfed  throughout  I'is  writings. 

AL.'MS,  a  conliderablc  town  of  France,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Languedoc,  fituaied  on  the  river  Gardon,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Cevenncs.  The  Jefuits  had  a  coUfgc 
in  this  place  ;  and  a  fort  was  b  lilt  here  in  16S9.  It  is 
^4  miles  north  of  Montpellier,  and  340  front  Pais. 
E.  Lon.  4.  20.  N.  Lat.  44.  8. 

Al.AMANDUS  (Lewis),  in  French  .-//fw^/;,  arch- 
bifliop  of  Aries,  and  cardinal  of  St  Cecilia,  was  one  of 


the  grcatefl  men  of  the  lificcnth  century.  The  cardi- 
nal prelided  in  tlie  council  of  IJalil,  which depofed  tu- 
genius  iV.  and  cledtcd  the  aniipope  Fcli.x  V.  He  is 
much  commended  by  AintasSylvius,  asamancxtrcmc- 
ly  well  formed  for  prcliding  in  fuchalfemblies.lirm  and 
vigorous,  illuftrious  by  his  vin  le,  learned,  and  of  an 
admirable  memory  in  recapitulating  all  that  tlic  ora- 
tors and  difputants  had  faid.  One  day,  when  he  ha- 
rangued againll  the  fuperiority  of  the  pope  over  the 
council,  he  dillinguillicd  himfelf  in  fuch  an  eminent 
manner,  tiiat  feveral  pcrfons  went  to  kifs  him,  while 
others  prefled  even  to  kifs  his  robe.  They  extolled  to 
the  Ikies  his  abilities  and  genius,  which  had  raifed 
him,  though  a  Frenchman,  to  a  fuperiority  over  thr 
Italians,  notwithftanding  all  their  natural  fubtlcty  and 
finellc.  There  is  no  need  of  alkiiig,  whether  pope 
Eugenius  thundered  againft  the  prelidcnt  of  a  council 
which  depofed  him.  lie  deprived  him  of  all  his  dig- 
nities, and  treated  him  as  a  fon  of  iniquity.  However, 
notwithftanding  this,  Lewis  Alamandus  died  in  the 
odour  of  fanclity,  and  performed  fo  many  miracles  af- 
ter his  death,  that  at  the  requeft  of  the  canons  and 
Celeftinc  monks  of  Avignon,  and  the  folicitationofthc 
cardinal  of  Clermont  legate  a  tntsre  of  Clement  VJI. 
he  was  beatified  by  that  pope  in  the  year  TJ27. 

ALAMANNT  (Lewis)  was  born  at  Florence,  of 
a  noble  family,  on  the  28th  of  October  1495.  He 
was  obliged  to  tiy  his  country  for  a  confpiracy  againft 
Julius  dc  Mc.ici,  who  was  foon  alter  chofen  pope  un- 
der the  name  of  Clement  VII.  During  this  voluntary 
banilhment,  he  went  into  France  ;  where  Francis  1. 
from  a  love  to  his  gcniiis  and  merit,  became  his  patron. 
This  prince  employed  him  in  feveral  important  affairs, 
and  honoured  him  with  the  collar  of  the  order  of  St 
Michael.  About  thf  year  1540,  he  was  admitted  a 
member  of  the  Intiammaii,  an  academy  newly  crcctcd 
at  Padua,  chiefly  by  Daniel  Barbaro  and  Ugolin  Mar- 
lelli.  After  the  death  of  Francis,  Henry  duke  of  Or- 
leans, who  fucceeded  him  in  1  J47,  fliewed  no  Icfs  fa- 
vour to  Alainanni  ;  and  in  the  year  15  51,  fent  him  as 
his  ambafladorto  Genoa  :  this  was  his  lafl  journey  to 
Italy  ;  and  being  returned  to  France,  he  died  at  Am- 
boife  on  the  i8th  of  April  1556,  being  in  the  6ill 
year  of  his  age.  He  left  many  beautiful  poems,  and 
other  valuable  performances,  i'l  the  Italian  language. 
We  have  alfo  fomc  notes  ".  lis  upon  Homer's  Iliad 
and  Ody  Ifey  ;  thofe  upon  the  Iliad  were  printed  in  the 
Cambridge  edition  of  Homer  in  1689,  and  JoHiua 
Barnes  has  alfo  infcrtcd  them  in  his  fine  edition  of 
Homer  in  1711. 

ALAMODALITY,  in  a  general  fcnfc,  is  the  ac- 
commodating a  perfon's  beliaviour,  drefs,  and  a(ftions, 
to  the  prevailing  tafte  of  the  country  or  times  in  which 
he  lives. 

Ala  .MODALITY  of  writing,  is  defined  the  accommo- 
dation of  mental  productions,  both  as  to  the  choice  of 
tubjecland  ilie  manner  of  treating  it,  to  the  genius  or 
tafte  of  the  times,  in  order  to  render  them  more  ac- 
ceptable to  the  readers. 

ALAMODE,  a  phrafc  originally  F'rcnch,  import- 
ing a  thing  to  be  in  the  falhion  or  mode.  The  phrafc 
has  been  adopted  not  only  into  feveral  of  the  living 
b.ngnagcs,  as  the  Englilliand  High-Dutch,  bai  f-imc 
h^ve  even  taken  it  into  the  Latin.  Hence  we  ii-eet 
witli  Aliiiuod'utii  and  Alamo Jatita!. 

X  x  2  Alamode, 


ALA  [     348    ]  A  L  A 

a  thin  gluify  black  lilk,      SucJcii  ami  Fiiilaiul,  fubjtd  10  the  former 


Ai.AMODE,  111  cuinnicrcc 
chicliy  iifcd  for  woniciis  buoc's  and  intiis  uioiinuiiji 
Icarfs. 

Al'AMOS  (Bahhafar),  a  Spanilli  writer,  boni  at 
McJiiia  del  Cainpo  iii  Caltilc.  Alter  having  lUiditd 
tiic  la^v  at  Salaiiianca,  lie  ciutrcd  into  the  Itrvicc  oi 
Aiuhdiiy  Fcrcz,  fecrctary  of  Itate  uiultr  Philip  11.  Mc 
was  in  In'',^  tlletni  and  conlidcuce  with  his  mailer,  up- 
on which  account  he  was iiiijiriloncd alter  liie  dii'graee 
lit  this  niiuilkT.  He  was  kept  inconiinciiicnt  11  years 
when  Pliilip  HI.  coming  to  the  throne,  let  him  at  li- 
berty, according  to  the  carders  given  by  his  father  in 
his  will.  Alamos  continued  in  a  private  capacity,  till 
the  duke  of  Olivarcz,  the  favourite  of  Philip  IV.  cal- 
led liiu)  to  public  cinploynisnis.  He  was  a  man  of  w  it 
as  well  as  judgnieiit,  but  his  pen  was  fuperior  to  his 
tongue.  H"e  died  in  the  £8th  year  of  his  a;.i_c.  His 
Spanilhtranllation  of  Tacitus, and  the  apliorifnis  which 
he  added  in  the 'margin,  gained  him  griat  reputation. 
This  work  was  publilhej  at  Madrid  in  1614;  and  was 
to  have  been  followed,  as  mentioned  in  the  king's  pri- 
vilege,with  a  commentary,  which  however  hasiievcr 
yet  appeared.  1  he  author  compofed  the  whole  du- 
ring his  impiifonnuni. 

AL.-^N  (Cardir.al  \\  illiam),  was  born  at  RolTal  in 
Lancalhirc,  in  the  year  1532.     He  went  to  Oxford 
at  the  age  of  15,  and  in  1550  was  eltfted  fellow  of 
Oriel  college.    In  i  556,  being  then  only  24yearsold, 
he  was  chofen  principal  of  Si  Mary's  hall,  and  one  of 
the  proelors  of  the  univerfity.     In  i  558  he  was  made 
canon  of  York  ;   but,   upon  queen  i-lizabcih's  acccf- 
fion  to  the  throne,  he  left  England,  and  fettled  at  Lou- 
vain  in  an  Englilh  college,  of  which  he  became  the 
chief  fupport.    In  1565  he  vilittd  his  native  country  ; 
but,  on  account  of  his  c.ucnie  ad'tivity  in  the  propa- 
gation of  the  Koman  Catholic  religion,  he  was  obli- 
ged to  fly   the  kingdom  in   1568.     He  went  lirll  to 
Mechlin,  and  then  toHovvay,  where  he  was  made  doc- 
tor of  divinity.    Soon  after,  he  was  appointed  canon  of 
Cambray,  and  then  canon  of  Rheims.     He  was  crea- 
ted cardinal  on  the  28th  of  July  15S7,  by  the  title  of 
St  I\'!artiii  11:  jMoi.til'iis  ;  ami  obtained  from  the  king  of 
Spain  a  rich  abbey  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  af- 
icrwards  the  bilhopric  of  Mechlin.    It  is  fuppofed  to 
have  been  by  the  advice  and  inlligation  of  this  priefl, 
tliat  Philip  il.  ancmpied  to  invade  England.    He  died 
on  the  2cth  of  Odober  1594,  aged  63  ;   and  was  bu- 
ried in  the  Englilh  college  at  Rome.     He  was  a  man 
of  confidcrable  learning,  and  an  elegant  writer.     He 
wrote  many  books  in  defence  of  tbcRomilh  religion. 
The  nioil  remarkable  are,  i.  A  dejct:ce  oj  the  12  tnar- 
tyn  m  one  year.      Tho.  Alfield  w  as  hanged  for  bring- 
ing, and  publifliing,  this  and  other  of  Alan's  works, 
into  England,  in  the  year  1584.     2.   A  declaration  of 
the  fentchce  cj  Sextui  V.  Sec.     A  work  intended  to  ex- 
plain the  pope's  bull  for  the  excommunication  of  queen 
Elizabeth,  and  to  exhort  the  people  of  England  to 
lake  up  arras  in  favour  of  the  Spaniards.    Many  thou- 
fand  copies  of  this  book,  printed  at  Antwerp,  were 
put  on  board  the  armada  ;   but  the  enterprifc  failing, 
they  were  afterwards  deliroyed.      3.  Of  the  worjhip 
due  to  faints  and  their  relUii,  1583.    This  treatife  was 
anfwered  by  lord  Burlcij'Ji.  and  is  efleemed  the  moll 
elegant  of  the  cardinal's  writings. 

ALAND,   an  illaud  of   the  Baltic  fea,    between 


It  lies 
beiwecii  17  and  19  degrees  of  E.  long,  and  between 
59  and  61  degrees  of  Lat.  at  the  entrance  ol  ihe  gulph 
ofJiothnia. 

ALAKAF,  in  the  Mahometan  ilieology,  the  parti- 
tion wall  that  fejarates  heaven  from  hell.  The  word 
is  plural,  and  properly  written  at araf  ;  in  the  lingular 
il  is  w  riileii  ai  arf.  It  is  derived  from  the  Arabic 
verb  araja,  to  diltinguilh.  Al  araf  gives  tliedenonii- 
natiop.  to  the  fevenih  chapter  of  the  alcoran,  wherein 
mention  is  made  of  this  wall.  Mahomet  feenis  to  have 
copied  his  al  aral,  either  from  the  great  gulf  of  fepa- 
raiion  mentioned  in  the  New  Tellanieiit,  or  from  the 

)|cwilh  writers,  who  alio  fpeakof  a  thin  wall  dividing 
iea\cn  from  hell.  Mahonu tan  writersdiffcr extremely 
as  to  the  perfons  who  are  to  be  found  on  al  araf.  Some 
take  il  for  a  fort  of  limbus  for  the  patriarchs,  pro- 
phets, &:c.  others  place  here  fueh  whole  good  and  evil 
works  fo  cxaCrtly  balance  each  other,  that  tliey  aefervc 
neither  reward  nor  punilhnieiit.  Others  imagine  tliis 
intermediate  fpace  to  be  poiicilccl  by  thole  wjio,  going 
to  war  w  itiiout  their  parents  leave,  and  lutfering  niar- 
tyrtloni  there,  are  excluded  paradife  for  their  dilobc- 
dicnce,  yet  efcape  hell  becaufe  they  are  martyrs. 

ALARBES,  a  name  given  10  ihofe  Ar.ibians  who 
live  in  tents,  and  diliinguilhfliemfelves  by  their  drcfs 
from  the  others  who  live  in  towns. 

ALARES,  in  Roman  antiquity,  an  epithet  given 
to  the  cavalry,  on  account  of  their  being  placed  in  the 
two  wings  of  the  army. 

ALARIC,  a  famous  general  of  the  Goths.  He 
entered  Thrace  al  the  head  of  200,000  men,  and  laid 
waftc  all  the  country  through  which  he  palled.  He 
marched  next  to  Macedonia  and  Thclialy  :  the  Thef- 
falians  met  him  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Peneas, 
and  killed  about  3000  of  his  army  ;  ncverthelcfs  he  ad- 
vanced intoGrei  cc,  and  after  having  ravaged  the  whole 
country,  returned  to  Epirus,  loaded  with  immeiilc 
fpoils:  after  Ifaying  here  five  years,  he  refolved  to  turn 
his  arms  to  the  well.  He  marched  through  Paiiiionia  ; 
and,  finding  little  relilfance,  entered  Italy,  under  the 
confullh.ipof  Siilichoand  Aurelianus,  A.D.400.  After 
various  battles  and  treaties,  he  at  laif  took  Rome  by 
treachery,  and  permitted  hisfoldicrs  to  plunder  it;  this 
happened  A.  D.  409.  Alaric,  having  laid  walfe  a  great 
part  of  Italy,  intended  to  pais  into  Sicily  ;  but  a  iiorm 
obliging  him  to  land  again,  he  belieged  the  city  of 
Cofenza  ;  and  having  takea  it,  he  died  there  in  411, 
elev<  n  years  after  he  firft  entered  Italy. 

ALARM,  in  the  military  art,  denotes  cither  the 
apprehcnlion  of  being  fuddenly  attacked  ;  or  the  notice 
thereof,  lignified  by  firing  a  cannon,  firelock,  or  the 
like.  Falfe  alarms  are  frequently  made  ufc  of  to  har- 
rafs  the  enemy,  by  keeping  them  conflantly  under 
arms.  Sometimes  alfo  this  method  is  taken  to  try  the 
vigilance  of  the  piquet-guard,  and  what  might  be  ex- 
pecf  ed  from  them  in  cafe  of  real  danger. 

WtARM-Bell,  that  rung  upon  any  fudden  emergen- 
cy, as  a  fire,  mutiny,  or  the  like. 

jlLARM-Poft,  or  ALARM-ptace,  the  ground  for  draw- 
ing up  each  regiment  in  cafe  of  an  alarm.  This  is 
olherwile  called  the  rendezvous. 

Alarm,  in  fencing,  is  the  fame  with  what  is  other- 
wife  called  an  appeal,  or  challenge. 

ALASCANI,  in  church-hillory,  a  feJl  of  Antilu- 

thcrans. 


A  L  A 


[     349     ] 


ALA 


Aliifco     iheranSjVvhofediftiaguilliiiigtciiet,  bcfidcs  thi-irticny- 
I         iiig  baptil'ii,  is  laid  to  luvc  been  this,  that  the  words, 
Alaufla.    jhis  j,  „,y  body^  ill  i!ie  iiillilution  of  the  ciicharift,  are 
'         not  to  be  uadcrltood  of  llic   bread,  but  of  the  whole 
a(itioii,  or  celebration  of  the  fuppcr.    They  are  laid  to 
have  taken  the  name  from  one  Joannes  a  Lafco,  a  Po- 
lilh  baron,  faperintcndant  of  the  church  of  thac  coun- 
try, in  Kii gland.     See  the  next  article. 

AI-ASCO  (John),  a  PoliQi  uoblcnian.of  the  i6th 
century,  who,  imbibing  the  reformed  opinions,  w.iscx- 
pclkd  his  country,  and  became  prcaciicr  to  a  Proteltant 
congregaiio;i  at  Enibden  ;  but  forefeci.i;;  perfccution 
there, came  to  England  about  tucycar  i  551,  while  tiic 
reformation  was  carrying  on  nndcrEdward,ilicVl.The 
publication  ofihelnicrim  driving  thcProteltanls  to  fiich 
places  as  afforded  tiicm  toleration,  jSowcre  natural- 
ized in  England,  and  obtained  a  charter  of  incorpora- 
tion, by  which  they  were  creeled  into  an  ecclclialtical 
cftablilliment,  independent  on  tlie  church  of  England. 
The  Auguftine  friars  church  was  granteil  them,  with 
the  revenues,  for  the  maintenance  of  Al  ifco  as  fuper- 
intcndant,  witli  four  aliiftant  minillers,  w  ho  were  to  be 
approved  by  the  king  :  and  this  congregation  lived 
nndiilurbed  until  the  accelfion  of  Queen  iMary,  when 
they  were  all  fcnt  away.  They  were  kindly  received 
and  permitted  to  fettle  at  Enibden  ;  and  Alafco  at  la(f, 
after  an  abfcU'.e  of  20  years,  by  the  favour  of  Sigif- 
mund,  returned  to  his  own  country,  where  he  died  in 
1560.  Alafco  WdS  much  cllccnied  by  Erafnius,  and 
the  hiftorians  of  his  time  fpeak  greatly  in  his  praife  : 
wc  haveof  his  writing,  DiCxitaDot/unUiher ;  EpiJhU 
contiucm  fiimmam  Coutrovirfur  de  Catiia  Domini,  ire. 
He  had  fome  particular  tenets  ;  and  his  followers  arc 
called  Alafcani  in  church-hiftory. 

ALATAMAHA,  a  large  river  of  North  America, 
which,  rifing  in  the  Apalachian  mountains,  runs fouth- 
eaft  through  the  Hate  of  Georgia,  and  falls  into  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  below  the  town  of  Frederica. 

ALATERNUS,  in  botany,  the  trivial  name  of  a 
fpecics  of  the  rhanmus.     See  Rhamni;s. 

ALAVA,  a  diftriiJl  of  Spain,  about  20  miles  in 
length,  and  17  in  breadth,  containing  very  good  iron 
mines.     Vicloria  is  the  capital  town. 

ALAUDA,  or  Lark,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  of 
birds  of  the  order  of  palFcres  ;  the  characters  of  which 
are  thefe  :  The  beak  is  cylindrical,  fubulated,  ftraight ; 
and  the  two  mandibles  or  chaps  arc  of  equal  iize.  The 
tongue  is  bilid,  and  the  hinder  claw  is  flraighr,  and 
longer  than  the  toe.  There  are  28  f;'cties  of  the 
alauda,  of  which  the  following  are  the  niofl  remark- 
able. l.The  arvenlis,  or  common  (ky-hrk.  This  and 
the  wood-lark  are  the  only  birds  that  fing  as  ihey  riy  ; 
this  railing  its  note  as  it  foars,  and  lowering  it  till  it 
quite  dies  away  as  it  defcends.  It  will  often  foar  to 
fuch  a  lreij;ht,  that  we  arc  charmed  with  ihc  raulic 
•when  we  lofc  light  of  the  fonglter  ;  it  alfo  begins  its 
fong  before  the  earlicft  dawn.  Milton,  in  his  Allegro, 
moil  beautifully  exprcircsthefecircumftanccs*  and  bi- 
Ihop  Newton  obfcrves,  that  the  beautiful  fcene  that 
^lilton  exhibits  of  rural  cheerfulnefs,  at  the  fame  time 
gives  us  a  fine  piclurc  of  the  regularity  of  his  life,  and 
the  innoccncyof  hisown  mind  :  thushc  defcribcshim- 
fclf  as  in  a  fitnation 

To  hear  the  lark  begin  his  flight, 
And  iinging  flartk  the  dull  niglit, 


From  his  wateh-tow'r  in  the  fldes. 

Till  the  dappled  dawn  doth  rife. 
It  continues  its  harmony  fcvcral  months,  beginning 
early  in  the  fpring,  on  pairing.  In  the  winter  ihcy 
allemblcin  vaft  flocks,  grow  very  fat,  and  arc  taken  in 
great  numbers  lor  the  tables.  Tliey  build  their  ncll 
ou  the  ground,  beneath  foine  clod,  forniiug  it  of  hay, 

dry  fibres,  &c.  and  lay  four  or  five  eggs Thcfc  birds 

arc  taken  in  great  quantities  in  tne  neighbourhood  cf 
Dunllablc  in  England:  the  fcafon  begins  about  the 
I4:h  of  September,  and  ends  the  25th  of  February  ; 
an  1  during  that  fpacc,  about  4000  dozen  arc  are  caught, 
which  fupply  the  markets  of  the  metropolis  of  that 
kingdom.  See  BiRD-Ca/t/i'/w^.  V'aftly  greater  num- 
bers than  the  above,  however,  are  at  limes  caught 
in  different  parts  of  Germany,  where  there  is  an 
excifc  upon  them.  Keyller  fays,  that  the  cxcilc 
alone  produces  6000  dollars  every  year  to  the  city 
of  Lciptic;  whofe  larks  are  famous  all  over  Germa- 
ny as  having  the  moft  delicate  flavour.  But  it  is  not 
at  Ltipiic  only  that  they  are  taken  in  fuch  numbers, 
but  alfo  in  the  country  about  Nauniburg,  Mcrle- 
burg,  Halle,  and  other  pans. — 2.  The  pratenlis,  or 
tit-lark,  has  the  two  outward  feathers  of  the  wing 
edged  with  white,  and  frequents  the  meadows.  It  is 
found  frequently  in  low  marfliy  grounds  :  like  other 
larks,  it  builds  its  ncft  among  the  grafs,  and  lays  five 
or  fix  eggs.  Like  the  wood-lark,  it  lits  on  trees  ;  and 
has  a  moll  remarkable  fine  note,  finging  in  all  iitua- 
tions,  on  trees,  oniiie  ground,  while  it  isfportiuo-in 
the  air,  and  particularly  in  its  defcent.  This  bird, 
with  manyothers,  fuch  as  thethrufli,  black-bird,  wil- 
low-wren, &c.  become  lilcnt  about  midfummer,  and 
refumc  their  notes  in  September:  hence  the  interval 
is  the  mofl  mute  of  the  year's  three  vocal  fcafons, 
fpring,  fiimmer,  and  autumn.  Perhaps  the  birds  are 
induced  to  ling  again  as  the  autumnal  temperament  re - 
femblcs  the  vernal. —  ;.  The  arborea,  or  wood-lark, is 
a  native  of  Europe,  and  is  dillinguifhed  by  an  annular 
white  fillet  about  the  head.  It  is  inferior  in  fize  to 
the  lky-lark,and  is  lifa  Ihorter  thicker  form  ;  the  co- 
lours arc  paler,  and  its  note  is  lefs  fonorous  and  Ids 
varied,  though  not  lefs  fwcct.  It  perches  on  trees, 
and  whillles  like  the  black-bird.  It  will  ling  in  the 
night  ;  and,  like  the  common  lark,  will  ling  as  it  flics. 
It  builds  on  the  ground,  and  makes  its  ncft  on  the  out- 
fide  with  mofs,  within  of  dried  bents,  lined  with  a  few 
hairs.  It  lays  live  eggs,  daflcy  and  blotched  with  deep 
brown  marks,  darkcfl  at  the  thicker  end.  The  males 
of  this  and  the  lafl  areknownfrom  the  fcnialesby  ijieir 
fuperior  Iize.  But  this  fpecics  is  not  near  fo numerous 
as  that  of  the  common  kind. — 4.  The  campeftris,  has 
one  half  of  its  chief  feathers  of  the  wings  brown,  ex- 
cept two  in  the  middle  which  are  white,  and  the  throat 
andbreaftarcyellowifli — 5.  The  trivialis,whofechief 
feathers  on  the  tail  are  brown,  only  half  of  theoutcr- 
moflis  white,  and  the  fccondis  whiteat  the  end,  in  the 
fliape  oi  a  wedge  ;  there  is  likewifc  a  double  whitilli 
line  on  the  wings.  It  is  a  native  of  Sweden,  and  per- 
ches on  the  top  of  trees — 6.  The  crillata  :  the  chief 
tail-feathersarc  black,  but  the  twooutcrmoft  arc  edged 
with  white,  and  the  head  is  crefted.  It  is  a  native  of 
Europe.     It  fings  well,  like  the  fky-lark  ;   lays  four 

or  five  r^^s  ;   and  is  laid  to  hatch  twice  in  a  year 

7.  The  iViiwktta:  the  ciiicf  riil-fcathers  arc  black, 

only 


Alaudo. 


ALA 


35' 


only  ihe  outcrmoit  two  arc  ol>lu|ucly  half  white. 
It  is  1  native  of  Italy — 8.  The  ali>c(tris  :  the  chief 
wing-feathers  arc  half  wjiitc,  the  throat  yellow,  and  it 
has  a  blacl^  ItrcaK  nniler  the  eyes  anil  on  the  brcalL  it 
inhabits  North  Anurica,  \\hcre  it  is  migratory.  It 
vilits  tlie  neighbourhooj  ot  Albany  <he  beginning  of 
May,  bnt  goes  farther  north  to  brecJ.  In  winter 
it  comes  ill  vail  Hocks  into  Virginia  aiiil  Carolina,  re- 
turning North  in  Ipring.  It  feeds,  Juriiig  its  Hay  in  the 
more  loutheru  parts,  on  oats  and  other  grain  ;  and 
while  at  Albany,  on  the  grafs  and  tlie  buds  of  fprig- 
■birch.  It  runs  into  holes;  whence  the  natives  of  thefc 
lafl parts  have  given  it  the  wznxc  aichi-chnp-pt-fuc.  Tlie 
Englilh  call  it  tlie  o;7<//6«,and  reckon  it  delicious  eating. 
By  Ionic  it  is  called ///oai-^/M/,  as  being  very  plenty 
in  that  fcafon.  It  is  frequently  caught  in  great  num- 
bers by  means  of  horlV.-hair  fpriugs  placed  in  fonic 
bare  place,  the  fnow  being  fcraped  away,  and  a  lit- 
tle chatf  ilrewcd  about.  It  is  always  feen  on  tlie 
ground,  and  has  little  or  no  foiig.  This  bird  is  not 
peculiar  to  North  America:  we  here  of  it  in  Ger- 
many alfo  ;  and  is  in  plenty  throughout  llulTia  and 
Siberia,  going  northward  in  fpring. — 9.  The  magna, 
is  yellow  on  the  belly,  with  a  crooked  black  llrcak  on 
the  breall,and  thctbrcc  lidc-l'eathcrsofthc  tail  white. 
It  is  a  nstivc  of  Africa  ind  America. — 10.  The  New 
Zealand  lark  (Plate  XVIII.)  is  fevcn  and  a  half  inches 
in  length:  the  bill  is  half  an  inch,  of  a  pale  alh-colour, 
wi.h  the  upper  pa,  t  black  :  the  upper  partsof  the  bo- 
dy are  dulky,  edged  with  pale  afli-colour  :  the  breafl 
and  belly  arc  white  :  the  legs  reddilli  adi-colour,  and 
the  claws  black.  It  inhabits  Charlotte  Sound,  and  is 
called  kn?oo  aroure. 

ALAUTA,  aconfiderable  river  of  Turkey  in  Eu- 
rope, uiii  h,  after  watering  the  north-calt  part  of 
Tranfylvania  and  part  of  M'allachia,  lalls  into  the 
Danube  almoft  oppoiite  to  Nicopolis. 

ALAY,  lignifying  in  the  Turkiih  language  <<  The 
Triumph,"  aceremony  which  accompanies  the  alLm- 
bling  together  the  forces  of  that  vail  empire  upon  the 
breaking  out  of  a  war.  It  conljfls  of  the  inofl  inlipid 
buffoonery,  and  is  attended  with  ads  of  the  nio(l 
fhocking  barbarity.  That  which  took  place  upon  oc- 
cafion  of  the  late  war  between  the  I'ortc  and  Ruliia  is 
ilefcribcJ  by  Baron  Tott  in  his  Memoirs  as  follows. 

"  It  coniifts  in  a  kind  of  Mafquer:iilc,in  which  each 
trade  fucccliively  pvcfentsio  the  I'pcvlators  ihc  mecha- 
nical excercife  of  iis  refpedive  art.  The  labourer 
draws  his  plough,  the  weaverliandles  his  ihuttlc,  tlic 
joiner  his  plain  ;  and  ihefcdirfcrent  charaelers,  fcatcd 
in  cars  richly  ornamented,  commence  the  procelfion, 
and  precede  the  flaudar  of  Mahomet, when  it  is  brought 
out  of  the  fcraglio  to  be  carried  to  the  army,  in  order 
to  infurcviftory  to  the  Ottoman  troops. 

"  This  banner  of  the  Turks,  which  they  name 
Saiidjak-Cheiiff,  or  the  Standard  of  the  Prophet,  is 
fo  revered  among  them,  that,  notwithfianding  its  re- 
putation has  been  fo  often  tarniihed,  it  fliil  retains 
their  implicit  contidcnce,  and  is  the  facred  lignal  unto 
which  they  rally.  Kvcry  thing  proclaims  its  fanclity. 
None  but  the  emirs  are  allowed  to  touch  it ;  they  are 
its  guards,  and  it  is  carried  by  their  chief.  The  Muf- 
fulmen  alone  are  permitted  to  look  upon  it.  If  touch- 
ed hv  other  bancs,  it  would  be  defiled  ;  if  feen  by 


]  ALB 

other  eyes,  profaned.     In  lliort,  it  is  enconipaflcd  by 
the  moll  barbarous  fanaticilm. 

"  A  long  peace  hi.d  unfortunately  caufed  the  ridicu- 
loufnefs,  and  cfpccially  the  danger  of  this  ceremony 
to  be  forgotten.  The  L'hrillians  imprudently  crowd- 
ed to  fee  it  ;  and  the  /urks,  wlio,  by  the  lituation  of 
their  hoafes,  could  make  money  of  their  windows, 
began  to  proiit  by  the  advantage  ;  when  an  emir,  w  ho 
prcctiied  the  banner,  proclaimed  with  a  loud  voice, 
«  Let  no  inridel  dare  to  profane  with  his  pre  fence  the 
holy  Itandard  of  the  prophet  ;  and  let  every  Mulhil- 
nian  who  perceives  an  unbeliever  make  it  know  n  un- 
der pain  ot  reprobation.' 

"  From  that  moment  no  afylum  was  to  be  found  ; 
even  thofe  became  informers,  who,  by  lettingout  their 
houfes,  had  rendered  themfclvts  accomplices  in  the 
crime.  A  religious  fury  fcized  on  every  mind,  and 
put  arms  in  every  hand  ;  the  more  atrocious  the  cruelly, 
the  more  was  it  meritorious.  No  regard  was  paid  to 
fex  or  age  ;  pregnant  women,  dragged  by  the  hair, 
and  trodden  under  feet  by  the  multitude,  perilhed  in 
the  mofl  dej)lorabIe  manner.  Nothing  was  refpecled 
by  thefc  moullcrs ;  and  under  fuch  aufpices  the  Turks 
commenced  the  war." 

ALB,  or  Ai.BE,  in  the  Rorailb  church,  a  veftment 
of  white  linen  hangingdown  tothc  feet,andanfwering 
to  the  furplice  of  the  Engliih  clergy.  In  the  ancient 
church,  it  was  ufual,  with  thofe  newly  baptized,  to 
wear  an  alb,  or  white  veftment ;  and  lience  the  Sunday 
after  Ealler  was  called  dovmiic-i  inaibis,  on  account  of 
the  albs  worn  by  thofe  baptized  on  ealler-day. 

Ald  is  alfo  a  name  of  a  Tarkilli  coin,  othcrwifc 
called  afper.     See  Asper. 

ALBA  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  the  Marfi  in  Italy, 
liiuated  on  the  north-fide  of  the  Lacus  Fucinus,  ftill 
rciaining  in  its  name.  It  (lands  upon  an  eminence, 
and  is  noted  in  Fvoman  hillory  for  being  the  flatc  pri- 
fou  where  captive  princes  were  ihut  up,  after  being 
barbaroully  dragge.l  through  the  greets  of  Rome  at 
tiic  chariot  wheels  of  a  triumphant  conful.  Pcrfes 
kingofMacedon  terminated  his  wretched  career  in  this 
confinement,  with  his  fon,  the  kill  hope  of  an  illullri- 
ous  line  of  kings.  Syphax  the  Numidian,  and  Bitui- 
nus  king  of  the  Averni,  were  alfo  condemned  to  this 
gaol  by  the  particular  clemency  of  ilie  fenate,  whicli 
ibmciimes  indulged  itsfavage  difpolition  by  putting  its 
captives  to  death. 

Alba  being  lituatcd  in  the  centre  of  Italy,  amidft 
difficult  mountainous  palTcs,  and  far  from  all  means  of 
efcapc,  was  eftccmed  a  moll  proper  place  for  the  pur- 
pofe  of  guarding  prifoncrs  of  importance.  Artilicial 
Arcngth  was  added  to  its  natural  fecurity  by  fortifica- 
tions, which  remain  to  this  day  in  a  Hate  that  proves 
their  ancient  folidity.  For  the  entertainment  of  the 
garrifon,  which  was  required  in  a  place  of  fuch  confc- 
quence,  an  amphitheatre  was  creeled,  of  which  the 
ruins  are  ftill  \ilible,  as  well  as  the  foundations  of  a 
temple,  and  oilier  buildings  of  Roman  times. 

Lucius  VitcUius, brother  tot  he  emperor  of  that  name, 
had  a  villa  near  this  place, famous  for  the  variety  and  ex- 
cellence of  its  fruit-trees,  which  he  had  brought  from 
Syria.  His  gardens  were  the  nurferies  where  feveral 
of  thcnioft  de;i'iousftone-fruits,  that  are  now  fo  com- 
mon in  Europe,  were  firfl  cultivated  and  multiplied. 

It 


Alb, 
.'Viba. 


ALB 


351     ] 


ALB 


It  iTiiift  have  been  lucciriry  at  Alba  to  fhcltcr  trees 
tranfj/laiucil  Iroin  Al  a,  and  to  treat  them  with  great 
teiuleniel:;  aiul  care,  in  order  to  rear  them  to  pert'ec- 
tioii  :  for  the  climate  of  this  high  region  is  extremely 
rigorons  in  winter  ;  the  cold  feafon  lulls  long,  and  is 
accompanied  with  violent  llorms  of  wind  and  falls  of 
fnow.     The  lake  has  been  often  frozen  entirely  over. 

Alba  tinna,  or  Albuvi,  in  old  cufloins,  denoted 
rent  paid  in  lilvcr,  and  not  in  corn,  which  was  cal- 
led black-viail. 

jIlba  Terra,  one  of  the  numerous  names  for  the 
philofoplier's  ftonc. 

JtBA  Rugalh.     See  Stoll  Weissenburgh. 

Alba  Hdvioruw,  or  Aibmignjla,  (anc.  geog.),  af- 
terwards called  yivariiim,  now  livicrs,  in  the  fotiih- 
caft  of  Langnedoc,  on  the  Rhone.  In  the  lower  age 
the  inhabitants  were  called  Aibfiifci,  and  their  city 
Child  A/ />!.■'/ //!'!//,  in  the  Notitia  Gallix.  £.  Long. 
4.  4J.  Lat.  44.  50. 

Alba  Julia  (anc.  geog.)  now  Wcilfenhtrg,  a  town 
of  Tranfylvania,  on  tlic  river  Marilius.  or  Merifch,  to 
the  weft  of  Hermanflat,  fuppoftd  to  be  called  Alba 
Jiiliir,  after  Julia  Domna  the  mother  of  Caracalla. 
There  are,  however,  feveral  infcriptioas  found  at  or 
near  Weill'enburg,  which  bear  Coi..  Ap tJL.  that  is 
C'l.onia  y^/'«/tv;y,,f,  without  the  leaih  mention  of  y/Z^a 
7////'«,  though  infcribcd  after  Caracalla's  time.  Add, 
that  Ulpian,  reciting  the  colonies  of  Dacia,  calls  this 
colony  Apiilinft,  and  neither  Alba  nor  Julia.  W  hence 
there  is  a  fufpicion,  that  Alba  Julia  is  a  corruption  of 
Apiihiw.  It  was  alfo  called  Afulunt  Aiigvliuiii.  E. 
Long.  2J.  o.  Lat.  46.  46. 

Albi  Loiiga  (anc.  i-eog.),  a  colony  from  Lavi- 
nium,  in  Latium,  eftabliflicd  by  Afcanius  the  fon  of 
j^-'.neas,  at  the  foot  of  the  Mons  Albanus  :  called  Albn, 
from  a  white  fow  found  by  /Kneas,  whjch  farrowed 
gowhitc  pigson  thatfpnt ;  which  circuniftancc  was  in- 
terpreted to  portend  the  building  of  a  city  there  in 
30  years  after  (I'roportius).  The  epithet  Longa  was 
added  on  account  of  its  length.  If  was  the  royal  rcli- 
dence  till  the  building  of  Rome,  as  was  foretold  by 
Anchifes  (Virgil)  ;  was  dellroyed  byTuUiusHoflilius, 
all  but  the  fane  or  temple  ;  and  the  inhabitants  were 
tranfplanted  to  Rome  (Strabo). 

ALHAPonpcia  (anc.  geog.),  on  the  river  Ceba,  now 
Ccva,  in  Liguria,  the  birth-place  of  the  emperor  Per- 
tinax  ;  a  rolony  eitlicr  ertabiilhcil  at  firll  by  Pompey, 
orre-eflablidied  by  him  after  havingbeen  before  fettled 
by  Scipio.  The  inhabitants  were  called  Alptiifis  Pon- 
peiaiii.  At  this  day  the  town  is  fimply  called  Alba, 
without  any  epithet. 

ALBAHURIM,  figitra  fex/leciTii  latjnim,  a  figure 
of  great  importance  according  to  allrological  phyiici- 
ans.  who  build  their  prognofties  on  it. 

Af.BAN  (St)  is  faid  to  have  been  the  firil  perfon 
who  furt'ered  martyrdom  for  Chrillianity  in  Britain  ; 
he  is  therefore  ufually  llyled  the  pro;omartyi  of  that 
idand.  He  was  born  at  Vtrulam,  and  flourilhcd  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  third  century.  In  his  youth  he 
look  a  journey  to  Rome,  in  company  with  Amphiba- 
lus  a  monk  of  Cacrleon,  and  ferved  fcven  years  as  a 
foldier under  the  rmpi-ror  Dioclelian.  Al  his  return 
home,  he  fettled  in  Venilam  ;  and,  throush  the  exam- 
ple and  inllrui-^ions  of  .Amphibnlus,  renounced  the  cr- 
rurs  of  paganilu),  in  which  lie  had  been  educated,  and 


became  convert  to  the  Chriflian  religion,  it  is  ge- 
nerally agreed,  that  Alban  flittered  martyrdom  during 
the  great  perfeciition  under  the  reign  of  Dioclelian  ; 
but  authors  ditier  as  to  the  year  wjien  it  happened  : 
Bede  and  others  fix  it  in  286  ;  fonie  refer  it  to  tiieycar 
296  ;  but  UlFerius  reckons  it  amongft  the  events  of  roj. 
The  Itory  aud  circumftar.ces  relating  to  his  martyr- 
dom ,  according  to  Bede,  arc  as  follows.  Being  yet  a 
pagan  (or  at  leaft  it  not  being  known  that  he  was  a 
Chriilian),  he  entertained  Amphibalus  in  his  houfc. 
The  Roman  governor  being  informed  thereof,  fent  a 
party  of  foidiers  to  apprehend  Amphibalus  ;  but  Alban, 
putting  on  the  habit  of  his  gucft,  piefentcd  hiinfclf  in 
his  flead,  and  was  carried  before  that  magiftrate.  The 
governor  having  alked  hira  of  what  family  he  was  .' 
Alban  replied,  "  'I'o  what  purpofc  do  you  inquire  of 
my  family  ;  if  you  would  know  my  religion,  I  am  a 
Chriliian."  Then  being  alkcd  his  name,  he  anfwcr- 
ed,  "  My  name  is  Alban  ;  and  I  worfliip  the  only  true 
and  living  God,  who  created  all  things."  The  magi- 
llraie  replied,  "  If  you  would  enjoy  the  happinefs  of  c- 
ternal  life,  delay  not  to  ficriticc  to  the  great  goi!s." 
Alban  aufwered,  "  the  facrifices  you  oft'er  arc  made  to 
devils  ;  neither  can  they  help  the  needy,  or  grant  the 
petitions  of  their  votaries.  His  behaviour  fo  eiir;'ged 
the  governor,  that  he  ordered  him  imr.'.cdiatcly  to  be 
beheaded.  In  his  way  to  execution,  he  was  flopped  by 
a  river,  over  which  was  a  bridge  fo  thronged  with 
fpedtators  that  it  was  impoinble  to  crofs  it  j  the  faint,  as 
we  are  told,  lifted  uphis  eyes  to  heaven,  and  thcftream 
was  miraculoully  divided,  and  alforded  a  paifagc  for 
himfelt  and  a  thoufand  more  perfons.  Bede  docs  not 
indeed  give  us  the  name  of  this  river  ;  but,  notwith- 
flanding  this  oniillion,  the  miracle,  we  fuppofe,  will 
not  be  the  lefs  believed.  This  wonderful  event  con- 
verted the  executioner  upon  the  fpot,  who  threw  away 
Ills  drawn  fword,  and,  falling  at  St  Alban's  feet,  dcfi- 
red  he  might  have  the  honour  to  die  with  him.  This 
fudden  converiion  of  the  hcadfman  occalioninga  delay 
in  the  execution  till  another  perfon  could  be  got  to 
perform  the  otfice,  St  Alban  walked  up  to  a  neigh- 
bouring hill,  where  he  prayed  for  water  to  quench  his 
thirll,  and  a  fountain  of  water  fprung  up  under  his 
feet :  here  he  was  beheaded,  on  the  23d  of  June.  The 
executioner  is  faid  to  have  been  a  lignal  example  of  di- 
vine vengeance  ;  for  as  foon  as  he  gave  the  fatal  flroke, 
his  eycsdropt  out  of  his  head.  We  may  fee  the  opini- 
on of  Mr  Milton  in  regard  to  this  narrative,  Ln  his  Hi- 
flory  of  England.  His  words  are  thcfe,  fpeakiiig  of 
St  Alban,  "The  Ilory  of  whcfc  martyrdom,  lolled 
and  worfe  martyred  with  the  fabling  zeal  of  fome  idle 
fancies,  more  fond  of  miracles  than  apprehenlivc  of 
the  truth,  dcfcrves  no  longer  digrellion."  Between 
4  or  500 years  after  bt  Alban's  death,  OfFa,  king  of 
the  Mercians,  built  a  very  large  and  ftately  monaflcry 
to  his  memory  ;  and  the  town  of  bt  Albans  in  Hert- 
fordfiiire  takes  its  name  from  that  protomartyr. 

ALBAN  A  (anc.  i:;cog.},  a  fea  ptu-t  town  of  Alba- 
nia, on  the  Cafpian  lea.  between  the  rivers  Callus  and 
Albanus  ;  now  called  Baihi  or  Bu,.hy,  giving  name  to 
the  Cafpian  fea,  viz.  iM.ir  de  Babii.     E.  Long.  49.  o.  , 
Lat.  40.  o. 

ALBANENSES,  in  church-hiftory,  the  fame  with 
Albigenfes,  according  to  fome  :  .areording  to  others, 
dillcrenf.  Thcfe, however, whoarc for oillinguilhing 

ihcm 


A  L  A 


[     352     ] 


ALA 


AlUan!.    tlicp.i,  attribute  the  Umc  opinions  to  boiL  ;  only  iiia- 

— ^^ J>-'ng  'lii^  Albanculis  to  have  beta  prior  in  rcfptd  of 

liinc,  as  having  bctii  l'o^;nJ  towards  the  clofc  of  die 
eighth  century  ;  whereas  tlie  Albigcufcs  appeared  not 
tiUthc  twelfth.     Sec  Alhioknses. 

ALBANI,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  college  of  the 
fain,  orpriclls  of  Mars ;  lo  called  Irom  mount  Albanus, 
the  place  of  their  refidence.     Sec  Sahi. 

Albani  (Francis),  a  celebrated  painter,  born  in 
Bologna,  March  17,  1578.  His  father  was  a  lilk 
merchant,  and  intended  to  bring  up  his  fon  to  that 
bufinefs  ;  hut  Albani  having  a  llrong  inclination  to 
painting,  when  his  father  died,  devoted  him i'clf  entire- 
ly to  that  art,  though  then  but  twelve  years  of  age. 
He  iirfl  lludicd  under  Denys  Calvert  ;  Guido  Rheni 
being  at  the  fame  time  under  this  maflcr,  with  whom 
Albani  contracted  a  very  great  fricndlhip.  Calvert 
drew  but  one  piolilc  for  Albani,  and  afterwards  left  him 
entirely  to  the  care  of  Guido  ;  under  whom  he  made 
great  improvement, liis  fcUow-difciplcinftruL'ting  him 
with  the  utnioll  humanity  and  good  humour.  He  fol- 
lowed Guido  to  the  fchool  of  the  Caraches  :  but  a  little 
after  their  friendlhip  for  each  other  began  10  cool ; 
which  was  owing  perhaps  to  the  pride  of  Albani,  who 
could  not  bear  to  lee  Guido  furpafs  him,  or  to  the  jea- 
loufy  of  Guido,  at  rinding  Albani  make  fo  fwift  a  pro- 
grcfs.  They  certainly  endeavoured  to  ecliple  one  ano- 
ther i  for  when  Guido  had  fet  upa  beautiful  altar-piece  j 
Albani  woald  oppofe  to  it  fome  fine  picture  of  his  : 
thus  did  they  behave  for  fome  time,  and  yet  fpake  of 
each  other  with  the  highcll  cflcem.  Albani,  after  ha- 
viiiif  greatly  improved  hirafelf  under  the  Caraches, 
went  to  Rome,  where  lie  continued  many  years,  and 
married  in  that  city  ;  but  his  wife  dying  in  ciiildbed, 
at  the  earncft  requcfl  q/  his  relations  he  returned  to 
Bologna,  where  he  entered  again  into  the  ftate  of  ma- 
trimony. His  fccond  wife  (Uoralice)  was  well  def- 
ccnded,  but  had  very  little  fortune;  which  he  perfect- 
ly difrcgarded,  fo  llrongly  was  he  captivated  with  her 
beauty  and  good  fenfe.  Albani,  befides  the  fatisfaftiim 
of  polfeiring  an  accomplilhed  wife,  reaped  likewifc  the 
advantage  of  having  amolT;  beautiful  model;  fothathe 
kad  now  no  occafion  to  make  ufc  of  any  other  woman 
to  paint  a  Venus,  the  Graces,  Nymphs,  and  other  de- 
ities, whom  he  took  a  particular  delight  in  reprefent- 
ing.  His  wife  anfwered  this  purpofe  admirably  well  ; 
for  belides  her  bloom  of  youth,  and  the  beauty  of  her 
pcrfon,  he  difcovered  in  her  fo  much  modelly,  fo  ma- 
ny graces  and  i)erfedions,  fo  well  .idapted  to  painting, 
that  it  was  iinpoHiblc  for  him  to  meet  with  a  more  fi- 
nillied  woman.  She  afterwards  brought  him  feveral 
boys,  all  extremely  beautiful  and  riiiely  proportioned  ; 
fo  that  (lie  and  her  children  were  the  originals  of  his 
moll  agreeable  and  graceful  compofitions.  Doralice 
was  fo  conformable  to  his  intentions,  that  flie  took  a 
pleafure  in  fctting  the  children  in  dilFcrent  attitudes, 
holding  theiu  yakcd,  and  fomctimes  fufpended  by 
Ilrings,  when  Albani  would  draw  them  in  a  thoufanil 
different  ways.  It  was  from  them,  too,  that  the  fa- 
mous fculptors  Flaniand  and  Argaldi  modelled  their 
little  Cupids. 

Albani  was  of  a  happy  temper  and  difpofuion  ;  his 
paintings,  fays  Mai va.Ga,  breathing  nothing  but  con- 
tent and  joy.  Happy  in  a  force  of  mind  that  con- 
quered every  i;ncallnefs,his  poetical  pencil  carried  him 


through  the  m.Jll:  agreeable  gardens  to  Paphos  and  CI-    Albania. 
theria :  thofe  delightful  fcenes  brought  him  over  the  *     " 
lofty  P.-irnallus  to  the  delicious  abodes  of  Apollo  and 
the  Mules  ;  whence  what  Du  Frefnoy  fays  of  the  fa- 
mous Giulio  Romano  may  be  juftly  applied  to  Albaui : 

Taught  from  a  child  in  the  bright  Mnfes'  grots. 
He  open'd  all  the  ireaf>;rcs  of  Parnaihis, 
And  in  the  lovely  poetry  of  painting 
The  niyU'rics  of  Apollo  has  rcvcal'd. 

He  died  the  4th  of  Odobcr  1660,  to  the  great  grief 
of  all  his  friends  and  the  whole  city  of  Bologna.  Mal- 
vafiahasprefervedfome  vcrfesof  Francifcode  Lemeiie, 
intended  for  his  monument  ;  the  fenfe  whereof  is, 
'•  That  the  mortal  remains  of  the  illuftrious. Albani, 
he  who  gave  life  to  fliade,  lie  interred  in  this  tomb  : 
the  earth  never  produced  fo  wonderful  an  artill,  or  a 
hand  equal  to  his  immortal  one ;  which  gave  co- 
lours to  the  fo  il,  and  a  foul  to  colours.  Prometheus 
animated  chty,  and  gave  life  by  means  of  the  fun  ;  but 
Albani  animated  merely  by  the  alhflance  of  fliade." 
He  was  very  famous  in  his  lifetime,  and  had  been  vi- 
liled  by  the  greatefl  painters.  Several  princes  honour- 
ed him  with  letters  ;  and  amongfl  the  refl  King 
Charles  I.  who  invited  him  to  England  by  a  letter 
lio-ned  with  his  own  hand. 

o 

ALBANIA,  a  province  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  on 
the  Gulph  of  Venice,  bounded  by  Livadia  on  the  fouth, 
by  Thelfaly  and  Macedonia  on  the  cart,  and  on  the 
north  by  Bofnia  andDalmatia.  The  people  arertrong, 
large,  courageous,  and  good  horfeinen  ;  but  are  faid 
to  be  of  a  thievilh  difpofuion  :  the  grand  feignior  pro- 
cures excellent  foldiers  from  hence,  particularly  caval- 
ry, known  by  the  name  of  Arnauti.  There  are  feve- 
ral large  towns  in  this  province  ;  and  the  inhabitants 
are  almoil:  all  Chrillians  of  the  Greek  church,  and  de- 
fcended  from  theancient  Scythians.  P'ormerly  itw-as 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Macedonia.  Iheir  chief  ma- 
nufachire  iscarpets.  Thcprincipalplaccsarc  Dnrazzo, 
Veiona,  Antivari,  Scutari,  Croya,  Aleffo,  Dibr.i,  Dol- 
cigno,  and  Albanapoli.  Long,  from  28°  to  31  b  e. 
Lat.  from  r^f)"  to  43°  N. 

Albania,  a  country  of  Afia,  bounded  on  the  well 
by  Iberia  ;  on  the  eaft  by  the  Cafpian  fca  ;  on  the  north 
by  mount  Caucufus  ;  on  the  fouth  by  Armenia,  and  the 
river  Cyrus,  now  Kur  ;  which,  fpringing  from  the 
Mofchian  mountains  thatfeparate  Colchis  from  Arme- 
nia, and  watering  the  country  of  Mokan,  receives  the 
Aragns  and  Araxcs,  and  falls  into  the  Cafpian  fea 
within  a  fmall  diftance  from  the  fouthern  borders  of 
this  country. — The  whole  country  formerly  called  Al- 
liauia,  now  goes  under  the  names  of  S/uiivaii  and  £a/}- 
Cjorgia,  and  is  extremely  fruitful  and  pleafant.  The 
ancient  hiftorians  take  notice  of  the  Albanian  men 
being  tall,  fhrong-bodied,  and,  generally  fpeaking,  of 
a  very  graceful  appearance  ;  far  excelling  all  other  na- 
tions in  eomelinefs  as  well  as  flature.  Modern  travel- 
lers take  no  noti;e  of  the  appearance  of  the  men  ;  but 
extol  the  beauty  of  the  women,  which  fecms  to  be  un- 
noticed by  the  ancients.  The  Albanians  were  ancient- 
ly an  independent  and  pretty  powerful  people  ;  but 
we  find  no  mention  made  of  their  kings  till  the  reign 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  to  whom  the  king  of  Alba- 
nia is  faid  to  have  prefented  a  dog  of  an  extraordinary 

ficrccnefs  and  fize It  does  not  appear  that  the  Alba- 

:;  nians 


ALB  [3 

/VUiann,    nians  were  ever  conquered  by  the  Romans,  even  wlien 
h  Albans,  tlirir  power  was  at  its  grcalclt  htiglit ;  though,  when 

" they  ventured  to  engage  in  war  with  thai  powerful 

empire,  they  were  always  defeated,  as  might  natural- 
ly be  cxpctted. 

ALBANO,  a  town  of  Italy,  on  a  lake  of  the  fame 
name,  in  the  Campagnio  of  Rome.  It  was  called  by 
the  ancients  ylibaiium  Po>//f>eii,  and  built  out  of  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  Alba  Longa,  which  was  dcftroyed 
by  TuUus  Hoftilius.  It  Hands  within  twelve  miles 
fouth-eaft  of  Rome,  and  for  the  pleafantncfs  of  its  fi- 
luaiion  is  the  fummcr  retirement  of  a  great  many  Ro- 
man princes.  It  is  likewife  the  fee  of  a  bilhop,  who  is 
one  of  the  fix  fcnior  cardinals.  The  town  is  famous 
for  its  excellent  wine,  and  the  ruins  of  a  maufolcum, 
which,  according  to  the  tradition  of  the  inhabitants, 
ivasniadc  for  Afcanius.  The  profpeCl  from  the  garden 
of  the  Capuchins  is  extremely  pleafant,  taking  in  the 
Campania  of  Rome,  and  terminating  in  a  full  view  of 
the  Tufcan  fca.  Clofe  by  the  town  lies  the  Alban  lake, 
of  an  oval  figure,  and  about  fcvcn  miles  in  circumfe- 
rence,which,  by  reafon  of  the  liigh  mountains  round  it, 
looks  like  the  area  of  a  great  amphitheatre.  It  abounds 
with  excellent  filh,  and  over  againlt  the  hermitage  it 
is  faid  to  be  unfathomable.  The  mountain  of  Albanois 
called  M<i>iteCavo,onihetop  of  which  was  a  celebrated 
lemplededicated  to  Jupiter  and  Juno.  Near  the  Capu- 
chins there  is  another  convent  of  Francifcans ;  and  not 
far  from  thence  the  palace  of  Cardinal  Barberini,  rc- 
jiiarkable  for  very  pleafant  gardens,  with  the  ruins  of 
a:icient  baths,  and  feveral  old  fragments  of  Mofaic 
\,vor][.     E.  Long.  13. 10.  N.  Lat.  41.  45. 

There  is  likewife  another  town  of  the  fame  name 
in  the  Bafilicatc'of  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  remarka- 
ble tor  the  fertility  of  the  f'urrounding  territory,  and 
(or  the  nobility  of  the  inhabitants. 

ALBANS  (St.),  a  market  town  of  Hertford  (hire, 
is  a  very  great  thorough  fare,  accommodated  with  good 
inns,  on  the  north-well  road  from  London,  at  the  di- 
ftance  of  21  miles.  This  town  fends  two  members  to 
parliament,  gives  the  title  of  dute  to  the  noble  family 
of  Beauclerc,  and  has  one  of  the  bcfl  markets  for  • 
wheat  in  England.  St  Albans  is  feated  near  the  ru- 
ins of  an  ancient  Roman  city,  by  Tacitus  called  f'^e- 
.  ro/a»i;  and  by  the  Saxons  IVatlingceJtcr,  becaufc  it  is 
feated  on  the  road  called  Watlingjireet.  Nothing  now 
remains  of  Verolam  but  the  ruins  of  old  walls  ;  in  the 
fields  adjacent  to  which  they  continue  to  find  Roman 
coins,  as  they  formerly  found  telfellated  pavements. 
Inmemoryof  St  Alban,  Offa,  kingof  the  Mercians. 
ttuno  795,  erefted  an  abbey,  calling  it  5/  Albans  ; 
and  near  it  thetown  o  f  the  fame  name  was  afterwards 
built.  The  church  of  the  abbey  is  remaining  to  this 
day  :  time  and  the  weather  have  made  it  look  like 
ftone  on  the  out  fide  ;  but  if  you  break  a  bit  off,  the 
rednefsof  the  brick  immediately  appears.  When  the 
^iiionadcries  were  dillolvcd,  the  luwnfnicn  paid  L.400 
10  prevent  its  being  levelled  with  the  ground,  and  have 
fince  converted  it  into  a  parilh  church,  which,  for  its 
largenefs,  beauty,  and  antiquity,  claims  a  particular  re- 
gard. It  had  a  very  noble  fontof  folid  brafs,  in  which 
the  children  of  the  kings  of  Scotland  were  ufcd  10  be 
baptized  ;  and  was  brought  from  Edinburgh,  by  fir 
Philip  Lea,  when  that  city  was  in  flames  ;  but  in  the 
limes  of  the  late  civil  wars,  it  was  taken  away.  Not 
Voi.  J. 


SZ       \  ALB 

many  years  fince,  a  tomb  wa-sdilcovercd  in  tliischnj-cli,    Albn  u« 
faid  to  be  that  of  Humphrey  Dukeof  Glouceller:  when         11 
the  leaden  coflin  was  opened,  the  body  was  pretty  en   Albcnmle. 
lire,  being  prcfcrved  in  a  foi  t  of  pickle.    There  was  '      ' 
a  flately  crofs  in  the  middle  of  the  town,  as  there  were 
in  many  other   places  where  queen   Eleanor's  bod) 
refted  when  it  was  brought  out  of  the  north  for  in- 
terment at  Weflminller  ;  but  it  has  been  demoliihcd, 
as  fome  fay,  by  the  inhabiuius.   The  market-days  arc 
W^dnefdays  and  Saturdays.    W.L.o.  12.  N.L.51.44. 

ALBANUS  MONS  (anc.  gcog.),  now  called  Mo<:t 
Albano,  16  miles  from  Rome,  near  where  Alba  Longa 
flood. 

Albanus  mons  (anc.  geog.),  to  the  nortli  of  I(- 
tria,  called  Albius  by  Strabo  ;  the  extremity  of  the 
Alps,  which,  together  with  the  mountains  to  the  call, 
joining  it,  called  Monies  Bebii,  fcparatcs  the  farther 
Liburniaand  Dalmatia  from  Panuonia. 

ALBANY,  a  city  of  North  America,  in  llie  (late  of 
New-York,  lituatcd  upon  the  well  lidc  of  Hudfon's 
river,  160  miles  north  of  the  city  of  New- York,  i: 
contains  about  4000  inhabitants,  collected  from  almolt 
all  parts  of  the  northern  world.  The  houfes  are  builc 
in  the  old  Dutch  Gothic  ftile,  with  the  gable  end  to 
the  flreet,  and  are  feldom  more  than  one  llory  and  an 
half  high  ;  they  are  by  no  means  elegant,  but  are  kept 
very  clean.  Albany,  from  its  being  feated  on  a  fine 
river,  at  the  head  of  lloop  navigation,  furrounded  with 
a  rich  and  extenlive  back  country,  and  the  ftore-houfe 
of  the  trade  to  and  from  Canada,  is  in  a  flourifliing 
condition.  It  has  of  late,  however,  had  a  formida- 
ble rival  in  the  new  city  of  Hudfon.     W.  Long.  44. 

29.  N.  Lat.  42.  36. 
ALBARAZIN,  a  rtrong  town,  and  one  of  the  moil 

ancient  of  the  kingdom  of  Arragon  in  Spain.  It  is 
feated  upon  an  eminence,  near  the  river  Guadalquivir, 
a  little  below  its  fource,  and  on  the  frontiers  of  Valen- 
cia and  New  Caflile.  It  is  the  feat  of  a  bifhop  ;  and 
produces  the  befl  wool  in  all  Arragon.  It  is  about 
100  miles  call  of  Madrid.  E.  Long.  2.  10.  N.  Lat. 
40.  ;?2. 

ALBARII,  in  antiquity,  properly  denoted  thofe: 
who  gave  the  whitening  to  earthen  velFels,  Sec.  In 
which  fenfc  they  fto.xi  contradilHnguilhcd  from  Dcal- 
iatores,  wiio  whitened  walls. 

ALBARIUM  OPUS,  in  the  ancient  building,  thein- 
cruflationorcoveringoftheroofsof  houfes  with  white 
plafter,  made  of  mere  lime,  'i  liis  is  otherwife  called 
opus  album.  It  differs  from  TcC}Qriuvt,  which  is  a  com- 
mon name  given  to  all  roofing  or  ceiling,  including 
even  that  formed  of  lime  and  fand,  or  lime  and  mar- 
ble ;  whereas  Alharium  was  reArained  to  that  made 
of  lime  alone. 

ALBATROSS,  in  ornithology,  a  ipecies  of  the 
diomcdca.     See  Diomedk.^. 

ALBAZIN,  a  town  of  Greater  Tartary,  with  a 
flrong  cartle.  It  is  fituated  upon  the  river  Amur,  or 
Yamour,  and  belongs  to  the  Miifcovites.  E.  Long.  103. 

30.  N.  Lat.  54.  o. 
ALBE,  a  Ismail  piece  of  money,  current  in  Germa- 
ny, worth  only  a  French  fol  and  fevcn  denicrs. 

ALBEMARLE,  or  Aumarle,  a  town  of  France, 

in'  Upper  Normandy,  and  in  the  territory  of  Caux, 

from  whence  the  noble  family  of  Kcppel  takes  the  title 

of  Earl.    The  ferg«s  of  this  town  arc  in  high  eltccro. 

Y  y  It 


ALB 


[     354     ] 


ALB 


Albemarlt  It  13  fcated  on  the  declivity  of  u  hill,  on  the  confincsof 
II         Picardy,  55  miles  N.  E.  of  Rouen,  and  70  M.  VV.  of 
Albertin.  pa,is,     £.  Long.  2.  21.  N.  Lat.  i\<).  jo. 

Albemarle,  the  inofl  norihcru  part  of  the  flatc 
of  North  Carolina. 

ALBENGUA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  territory  of 
Genoa.  It  is  the  fee  of  a  bilhop  ;  and  is  a  very  ancient 
handfome  town,  but  not  well  peopled  on  account  of  the 
infalubrity  of  the  air.  However,  it  is  fcated  in  a  very 
beautiful  plain, which  iswellcuhivaied  ;  andthcoutlidc 
of  the  town  is  furrnunded  with  olivc-trtcs.  It  is  a  ft.i- 
port,  about  38  milts  S.  W ,  of  Genoa.  E.  Lonj;.  8. 1 3. 
N.  Lat.  44.  4. 

ALI3ERNUO,  a  kind  of  camblct  brought  from  the 
Levant  by  the  way  of  Marfcjllcs. 

ALBERONI  (Julius)  the  fon  of  a  poor  gardener  in 
the  fub.irbs  of  Plaeentia,  born  in  1664;  who,  by  his 
yreat  abilities  and  j^ood  fortune,  rofe  from  this  low 
original,  to  the  employment  of  liril  niinillcrof  llate  at 
rlie  court  of  Spain,  and  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal.  He 
roufed  that  kingdom  out  of  the  lethargy  it  had  funk 
intofor  a  century  pafl  ;  awakened  the  attention,  and 
raifed  tlie  aftonilhmcnt,of  all  Europe,  by  his  projects  ; 
one  of  which  was  lofet  the  Pretender  on  the  throne  of 
Great  Britain.  He  was  at  length  deprived  of  his  em- 
ployment, and  banidied  to  Rome.  He  died  in  1752, 
at  the  great  age  of  89.  Kis  Tcjlamcnt  lolitiqui,  col- 
ledled  from  his  incnioiis  and  letters,  was  publiihed 
at  Laufanne  in  1753. 

ALBERT,  Margrave  of  Brandenburg,  and  the  lall 
grand  maflcr  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  luidalidc  the  ha- 
bit of  his  order,  embraced  Lutheranilm,  and  conclu- 
ded a  peace  at  Cracow  in  1525,  by  which  he  was  ac- 
knowledged Duke  of  the  eaA  part  of  Pruffia  (forujtrly 
called  for  that  rcafon  Ducal  Fri/JJia),  but  tu  be  held 
as  a  lief  of  Poland,  and  to  defcend  to  his  male  heirs. 
See  Prussia. 

ALBERTI  (Leone  Battilla),  was  defcended  from  a 
noble  family  in  Florence  ;  and  wasperfectly  acquaint- 
ed with  painting,  fcalpture,  and  architeiilurc.  He 
wrote  of  all  three  in  Latin;  but  his  fludics  did  not  per- 
mit him  to  leave  any  thing  conliderable  behind  him  in 
painting.  He  was  employed  by  pope  Nicholas  V.  in 
his  buildings,  which  he  executed  in  a  beautiful  man- 
ner ;  and  his  work  on  architefture,  which  confifts  of 
ten  books,  is  greatly  cileemed.  He  alfo  wrote  fome 
treatifes  of  morality,  and  a  piece  on  arithmetic.  He 
died  in  148J. 

ALBERTISTS,  a  feftof  fcholaftics,  fo  named  from 
their  leader  Albcrtus  Magnus. 

AL3ERTUS  (Magnus),  a  Dominican  friar,  and 
afterwards  biihop  of  Ratiibon,  was  one  of  the  molt 
learned  men  and  mofl  famous  dodtorsofthe  13th  cen- 
tury. He  is  faid  to  have  afted  as  a  man-midwife  ;  and 
fome  have  been  highly  offended  that  one  of  his  pro- 
fcffion  Ihoiild  follow  fuch  an  employment.  A  book 
intitled  De  Nutnra  Rerum,  of  which  he  was  reputed 
the  author,  gave  rife  to  this  report.  In  this  treatife 
there  are  feversl  in  Amnions  f  or  mid  wives, and  fo  much 
ikill  r.iown  in  their  art,  that  one  would  think  the  au- 
thor could  not  have  arrived  at  it  without  having  him- 
fcif  pra<51ifed  :  but  the  advocates  for  Albert  fay  he 
was  nof  the  writer  thereof,  nor  of  that  other  piece  Z)f 
Sccretis  Mui'uTuvi ;  in  which  there  are  many  phrafes 
and  cxpreflions  unavoidable  on  fuch  a  fubjed,  which 


gave  great  offence,  and  raifed  a  clamour  againfl  the  Albcrtni 
fuppolcd author.  It  mull  be  acknowledged,  however,  {| 
th.u  thereare,  in  his  Comment  upon  the  Maltcrof  Seii-  Albi. 
ttnces,  fome  qucllions  concerning  the  praftice  of  eon-  *■ — ^ — ' 
jugal  duty,  in  which  he  has  ufed  fome  words  rather 
toogrofs  forchalle  and  delicate  ears  :  but  they  allege 
what  he  himfclf  i;fed  to  fay  in  his  own  vindicaiion, 
thjt  he  came  to  the  knowledge  of  fo  many  monllrous 
things  at  confeliion,  that  it  was  impollible  to  avoid 
touching  upon  fuch  qucllions.  Albert  was  certainly 
a  man  of  a  moft  curious  and  inquilitivc  turn  of  mind, 
which  gave  rife  to  other  accufations  brought  againll 
him.  They  fay,  that  he  laboured  to  lind  out  the  phi- 
lofopher'sltonc,  that  he  was  a  magician  ;  and  that  he 
made  a  machine  in  the  ihape  of  a  man,  which  was  an 
oracle  to  him,  and  explained  all  the  dilnculties  he 
propofed.  He  had  great  knowledge  in  the  mathema- 
tics, and  by  liis  fkill  in  that  fciencc  might  probably 
have  formed  ahead  with  fprings  capable  of  articulating 
founds;  like  to  tlic  machines  of  Boetiuj,  of  which 
Calfiodorus  has  faid,  "'  Metals  lowe  ;  the  birds  of  Dio- 
mcdes  trumpet  in  braf,^  ;  the  brazen  ferpcnt  hilles  ; 
counierfeitcdfwallows  chatter,  and  fuch  as  have  no  pro- 
per note,  friMii  brafs  fend  forth  liannonious  mufic." 
John  Mattbaeus  >'e  Luna,  in  his  trc.uifc  Dc  Rerum  Jn- 
ve/iiortbus,  has  i:  libuted  the  invtiuic-n of  lirc-arms  to 
All>crt ;  but  in  this  he  is  conluted  by  :saude,  in  his  A- 
foi^gii  di'.-  Ci ^„di  hii.-.},  ei.  \\  t  a'.<  lold,  that  Albert 
was  natlir.iliy  very  dull,  and  fo  ineaj.ablc  of  iiillruiitioii 
as  10  be  ujion  the  point  of  quitting  the  cloilkr,  from 
defpair  of  learning  what  his  habii  required  :  but  that 
the  I'uly  Virgin  appeared  to  him,  and  ail.cd  him  in 
whi^'h  he  ciuie  to  excel,  philufophy  or  divinity  ?  that 
having  chofm  the  former,  ihe  alfured  him  he  would 
become  iuconjparaLlc  therein  ;  but  that,  as  a  punilh- 
ment  for  not  pielerring  divinity,  he  Ihould  link,  be- 
fore he  died,  into  hii  former  lluj  iuity.  It  is  added, 
that  altcrthis  apparition  he  had  an  infinite  dealof  wit; 
and  ihat  he  advanced  in  all  the  fcicnces  with  fo  quick 
a  progrefs,  as  utterly  allonilhed  his  mafiers  :  but  that 
three  years  before  his  dca'ii,  he  Hopped  Ihurt  when 
reading  a  divinity-lec'ture  at  Cologn  ;  and  having  in 
vain  endeavoured  to  recal  his  ideas,  he  found  that  the 
Virgin's  prediciion  was  acconiplilhed.  "  It-wouldbe 
very  unneceffary  (fays  Bayle,  after  relating  thefe  par- 
ticulars) to  ohferve  that  they  are  fables.  Thofe  who 
would  believe  me  need  not  be  told  this,  fince  they 
would  judge  in  the  fame  manner  of  thcirown  accord; 
and  as  for  fuch  as  think  otherwife,  they  would  not 
alter  their  opinion  by  reading  here,  that  lam  of  a  dif- 
ferent way  of  thinking."  Albert  died  at  Co'ogn,  No- 
vember I  J,  1280.  His  works  were  printed  at  Lyons, 
in  1651,  in  21  volumes  in  folio. 

ALBERTUS,  a  gold  coin,  worth  about  14  French 
livres:  it  was  coined  during  the  adiniiiillration  of  Al- 
bertus  archduke  of  Auflria. 

ALBESL4,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  fliields  other- 
wife  called  Decumai:a.     See  Decumana. 

ALBI,  a  city  of  France,  the  capital  of  the  Albi- 
geois,  in  Languedoc,  and  the  fee  of  an  archbilhop. 
The  cathedral  is  dedicated  to  St.  Cecilia,  and  has  one 
of  the  fined  choirs  in  the  kingdom.  Here  is  a  very  va- 
luable iilver  flirine,  of  exquifite  workmanlhip,  of  the 
Mofaic  kind  :  it  contains  the  rcliquesof  St  Clair,  tho 
firilbifliopof  this  ciiy.     The  chapel  of  this  pretended 

fiiiiii 


ALB 


[     3SS     ] 


ALB 


Albl,  faint  is  magnificent,  and  adorned  with  paintings.  The 
Albigenfci.  Lice  is  a  fine  Urge  walk  without  the  city  :  what  diftin- 
«  guiflies  this  from  all  others,  is  a  terras  above  a  deep 
mall  svhich  ferves  inllead  of  a  foifc  ;  it  is  bordered  with 
two  rows  of  very  tine  trces,which  are  kept  in  excellent 
order.  There  arc  four  gates,  through  which  you  may 
viewall  the  beauties  of  a  delightful  plain.  At  one  end 
of  this  is  the  convent  of  the  Dominicans.  The  arch - 
bilhop's  palace  is  very  beautiful.  The  river  walhes  its 
walls,  and  ferves  both  for  an  ornament  and  defence. 
This  city  it  featcd  on  the  river  Tarn,  3  j  miles  north- 
by-weft  of  Touloufe,  and  2jofouth  of  Paris.  E.  Long. 
o.  52.  N.  Lat.  43.  56. 

The  Albigeois  is  a  fmall  territory  abonc  27  miles  in 
length,  and  20  in  breadth,  abounding  in  corn,  woad, 
grapes,  fatfron,  plums,  and  Diecp  :  and  the  inhabitants 
drive  a  great  trade  in  dried  i)rune5,  grapes,  acoarfefort 
of  cloth,  and  wines  of  Gaillac.  Thefe  wines  arc  the 
only  fort  hereabouts  that  are  fit  for  exportation  :  they 
arc  carried  down  to  Bourdeaux,  and  generally  fold  to 
-    the  Britilh.     They  have  likewifc  feveral  coal-mines. 

ALBIGEN'SES,  in  church-hillory,  a  feet  or  party 
of  reformers,  about  Touloufe  and  the  Albigeois  in  Lan- 
gnedoc,  who  fprung  up  in  the  12th  century,  and  dif- 
tinguilhed  themfclves  by  their  oppofition  to  the  dil'ci- 
pline  and  ceremonies  of  the  Koniifli  church. 

This  fci^  had  their  name,  it  is  fuppofed,  either  by 
reafon  there  were  great  numbers  of  them  in  the  dioccfe 
of  Albi,  or  becaufe  they  were  condemned  by  a  coun- 
cil held  in  that  city.  In  etFcft,  it  docs  not  appear  that 
they  were  known  by  this  name  before  the  holding  of 
that  council.  The  Albiginpfs  were  alfo  called  Aibuni, 
Albigefci,  yilhii,  and  Aibar.mfts,  though  fDmc  diflin- 
guilh  thefe  laft  from  them.  Other  names  given  to  them 
»re,  Hinricians,  Ahctard'ifii,  Bulgarians,  &c.  fome  on 
account  of  the  qualities  they  alFunied  j  others  on  that 
of  the  country  from  whence  it  is  pretended  ihey  were 
derived  ;  and  others  on  account  of  perfons  of  note  who 
adopted  their  caufe,  as  Peter  de  Brius,  Arnold  dc 
BrelIc,Abchrd,  Henry,  &c.  Berengarius,  ifnot  Wick- 
litf  himfelf,  is  by  fome  ranked  in  the  number.  T!ie 
Aibigtnfes,  are  frequently  confounded  with  the  Wat- 
ditifei ;  from  whom,  however,  they  differ  in  many  re- 
fpeir^s,  both  as  bein:^  prior  to  them  in  point  of  time,  as 
having  their  oritriu  in  2  different  country,  and  as  be- 
ing charged  with  divers  hcrelies,  particularly  Mani- 
chcifm,  from  which  the  Waldcnfa  are  exempt.  But 
feveral  Protcflant  writers  have  vindicated  them  from 
that  imputation.  l)r  Allix  Ihows,  that  :i  great  num- 
ber of  Manichea  A'lA  fpreadovcr  the  weftcrn countries 
from  Bulgaria  ;  and  fctiled  in  Italy,  Languedoc,  and 
ether  places,  where  there  were  alfo  /l.biginfes  ;  by 
which  means,  being  both  under  the  imputation  oi  hf- 
nfy,  they  came,  either  by  ignorance  or  malice,  to  be 
confounded,  and  called  by  the  fame  common  name, 
though  in  reality  entirely  different. 

Otlier  errors  imputed  to  them  by  their  opponents, 
the  monks  of  thofc  days,  were,  That  ibey  admitted 
two  Chrills  ;  one  evil,  who  appeared  on  earth  ;  theo- 
iher  good,  who  has  not  ye;  appeared:  Tiiat  they  de- 
nied the  refurreciion  of  the  tody  ;  and  maintained  hu- 
man fouls  tobedxnions  iinpril">ned  in  their  bodies,  by 
way  of  piiiiiihment  for  their  (ins:  That  they  conJemn- 
rd  all  the  facraments  of  the  churcli ;  rejciiicd  baptifm  as 


ufclcfs ;  held  the  eucharift  in  abhorrence  ;  excluded  the  Albigenfcj. 

ufe  of  confcflions  and  penance  ;  maintained  marriage  ' — *" 

unlawful ;  laughed  at  purgatory,  prayers  for  the  dead, 
images,crucifixes,&e — There  were  likewifefaid  to  be 
two  claffes  of  them  ;  the  Perfcct,and  the  Belie  vers.The 
perfect  boafled  of  their  living  in  continence,  of  eating 
neither  flefli,  eggs,  nor  checfe.  Thebclieverslived  like 
other  men,  and  were  even  loofc  in  their  morals  ;  bat 
they  were  pcrfuaded  they  Ihouldbe  faved  by  the  faith 
of  the  perfect,  and  that  none  were  damned  who  recei- 
ved impoliiion  of  hands  from  them.  But  from  thefe 
charges  alfo  they  are  generally  acquitted  by  Protc- 
ftants ;  who  conlider  tiicm  as  the  pious  inventions  of 
the  Romilh  church,  whofc  members  deem  it  merito- 
rious by  any  means  to  blacken  heretics. 

However  this  be,  the  A  Ibigcnfcs  grew  fo  formidable, 
that  the  Catholics  agreed  upon  a  holy  league  or  croi- 
fadc  againll  them.  They  were  at  lirft  fupported  bj 
Rainiond,  count  of  Touloufe.  Pope  Innoc.nt  lU.  dc- 
firous  to  put  a  llop  to  their  progrefs,  fent  a  legate  in- 
to their  country  ;  which  failing,  he  ftirred  up  Philip 
Auguflus,  king  of  France,  and  the  other  princes  and 
great  aicnof  the  kingdom,  to  make  war  upon  them. 
Upon  this  the  count  of  Touloufe,  who  had  iided  with 
them,  made  his  fubmilllon  to  the  pope,  and  went  over 
to  the  Catholics  :  but  foon  after,  finding  himfelf  plun- 
dered by  the  croifaders,  he  declared  war  agjin  ft  tuem, 
and  was  joined  by  the  king  of  Arragon.  His  army 
was  defeated  at  the  fiege  of  Muret,  where  he  himfelf 
was  killed,  and  the  defeat  followed  by  the  furrenderof 
the  city  of  Touloufe,  and  tha  conqucll  of  the  grcateft 
part  of  Languedoc  and  Provence.  His  fon  Uaimond 
fucceededhim  ;  who  agreed  with  the  king  and  the  pope 
to  fet  up  the  inquilition  in  his  ellates,  and  to  extirpate 
the  Albigeafes.  In  an  aifcmbly  hdJ  at  Milan,  the 
archbilhop  of  Touloufe  drew  up  articles  ;  .agreeable  to 
which  the  court  made  a  moft  ample  declaration  againll 
them,  which  he  publilhcd  at  Touloufe  in  1  ij;.  From 
this  time  the  Albigcnfes  dwindled  by  little  and  lit- 
tle, till  the  times  of  the  reformation  :  when  fuch 
of  them  as  were  left  fell  in  with  the  Vaudois,  and 
became  conformable  to  the  dodrinc  of  Zuinglius 
and  the  difeiples  of  Geneva. 

Albigenses  is  alfo  a  name  fomeiimes  given  to  the 
followers  of  Peter  Vaud,  or  Waldo  ;  and  hence  fyno- 
nymous  with  wiiat  we  more  properly  call  Watdiitftiy  or 
Poor  Men  of  Lyons.  In  this  ftnfe  the  word  is  applied 
by  Camerarius,  Thuanus,  and  feveral  other  writers. 
The  reafon  feems  to  be,  thst  the  two  parties  agreed  ia 
their  oppoiition  to  the  papal  imovations  and  incroach- 
ments,  though  in  divers  other  rcfpe^ts  faid  to  be  dif- 
ferent enough.  The  Liihop  of  Meaiix  labours  hard  t« 
fupport  a  diiiini5tion  between  the  two  fcfls,  alleging 
that  the /^/^/^f;-/Jj  were  hereticsandManichees;  where- 
as the  WWif/.yi/  were  only  f-hiftfiatics,  not  heretics; 
being  found  as  to  articles  of  faith,  and  only  feparating 
from  the  church  of  Rome  on  account  of  forms  and 
difcipline.  Or  Allix  endeavours  to  fet  afide  the  dif- 
tindtion  ;  and  fnows,  that  both  of  them  hold  the  fame  o- 
pinions,  and  were  equally  condemned  and  held  for  lie- 
retics:  and  this  not  for  points  of  fai'h,  but  for  declaim- 
ing agaip.il  the  papal  tyranny  and  idolatry,  and  hold- 
ing the  pope  to  be  the  Autichriil ;  which  laft,  accor- 
ding to  M.  de  Meaux,  conflituics  nothing  lefs  thaa 
Y  y  3  Maixichciljn. 


A  L  ii 


r    35^     ] 


ALB 


melium 

I 

Albinos. 


Wanitjieji;!!.  In  tliis  Itufe  the  LoilacJs  and  Witk- 
liflitts  in  KugUdd  wtrc  hoc  only  Albigcnfcs  but  Mi- 
nichus. 

ALIilNTKMELIUM,  Ai.bintimij.ium,  (Taci- 
tus ;)  or  at  lull  lengili,  Albi  um  Inteme.mum,  (I'li- 
iiy,  Siral)o)  ;  now  Viiitimiglia,  litiuuctl  in  the  fi>'iih- 
wcft  oftlic  tcaritory  of  Genoa,  near  (he  borders  ol' the 
county  of  Nice,  with  a  port  on  ihc  Mediterranean,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  rivulet  Uotta,  almoft  about  ]ialf-way 
betvvccn  Monaco  and  S.  F,.cuio.  E.  Long.  7.  40.  Lat. 
43.  17. 

ALBIOECK,  or  Alebece,  (Pliny,  Strabo)  ;  o- 
ihcrwifc  called /^c-;/.y/'(3/////«re'/,from  their  fuperlUtious 
worfliip  of  Apollo  ;  Aio  Chitai  Rcievjium ;  now  Ricz, 
in  Provence,  about  18  leagues  to  the  nurth-calt  of  Tou- 
lon, on  the  north  lide  of  the  rivulet  Verdon  ;  was  ori- 
ginally a  Roman  colony,  (Infcription).  It  is  foniclinics 
written  Reghnn.  Tjie  people  were  called  Albici,  (Cav- 
iar.)    E.  Long.  I.  o.  Lat.  43.  20. 

ALBINI,  in  antiquity,  the  workmen  employed  in 
what  was  called  Opm  Albanu7ii.  They  make  a  dif- 
ferent profelhon  from  the  dealbiitores  or  whitciien. 

ALBINOS,  the  name  by  which  the  Portugucfe  call 
the  white  Moors,  who  are  looked  upon  by  the  negroes 
as  monders.  They  at  a  c'illance  might  be  taken  fur 
Europeans  ;  but,  when  you  come  near  thcni,  their 
white  colour  appears  like  that  of  perfons  afFcfted  with 
a  leprofy. 

In  Saussure's  Voyages  dans  les  Alpes,  is  the  fol- 
lowing account  of  two  boys,  at  Chamouni,  who  have 
been  called  Albiuoi.  "  The  elder,  who  was  at  the  end 
of  the  year  i  7S5  about  twenty, orone-and-twenty  years 
of  age,  had  a  dull  look,  with  lips  fomewhat  thick,  but 
itothing  elfe  in  his  features  to  dillinguilh  him  from  o- 
ther  people.     The  other,  who  is  two  years  younger, 
is  rather  a  more  agree.ihlc  ligure  :  he  is  gay  and  fpright- 
ly,  and  feems  not  to  want  wit.     But  their  eyes  are  not 
blue  ;  the  iris  is  of  a  very  dillindt  rofe-colonr  :  the  pu- 
pil too,  when  viewed  in  the  light,  feems  decidedly  red  ; 
which  feems  to  demonflrate,  that  the  interior  mem- 
branes are  deprived  of  the  uvea,  and  of  that  black  mu- 
cous matter  that  Ihould  line  them.     Their  hair,  their 
eye-brows,  and  eye-laflies,  the  down  upon  their  Ikin, 
were  all,  in  their  infancy,  of  the  moii  perfcl  milk- 
white  colour,  and  very  fine;  but  their  hair  is  now  of 
a  reddifh  call,  and  has  grown  pretty  ftrong.     Their 
light  too  is  fomewhat  flrengthened  ;  though  they  ex- 
aggerate to  grangers  their  averfion  for  the  light,  and 
half-Hrut  the  eye-lids,  to  give  themfclvesamore  extra- 
ordinary appearance.     But  thofe  who,  like  me,  have 
feen  them  in  their  infancy,  before  they  were  tutored  to 
this  deceit,  and  when  too  few  people  came  to  Cha- 
mouni to  make  this  affedlation  profitable  to  them,  can 
atteflthat  then  they  were  not  very  much  offended  with 
the  light  of  day.     At  that  time,  they  were  fo  little  de- 
firous  of  exciting  the  curiofity  of  ftrangers,  that  they 
hid  themfelves  to  avoid  fuch  ;  and  it  was  nccelFary  to 
do  a  fort  of  violence  to  them  before  they  could  be  pre- 
vailed on  toallow  themfelves  to  be  inf))e6lcd.     It  is  al- 
fo  well  known  at  Chamouni,  that  when  they  were  of  a 
proper  age  they  were  unable  to  tend  the  cattle  like  the 
other  children  at  the  fame  age  ;  and  that  one  of  their 
uncles  maintained  theih  out  of  charity,  at  the  time  of 
life  when  others  were  capable  of  gaining  a  fubliftence 
by  their  labour. 


"  I  am  therefore  of  opinion,  that  wc  may  conlidcr   Albinoii 

tbcfc  two  lads  as  true  albinos:  for  if  they  have  not  the  ■> 

iJiick  lips  and  Hat  nofcs  of  the  white  negroes,  it  i.s  b«- 
caufc  they  arc  albinos  of  Europe,  not  of  Africa.  'I'his 
infirmity  affefls  the  eyes,  the  complexion,  and  the  co- 
lour of  the  hair  ;  it  even  diiniiiinics  the  Urengch,  but 
does  not  alter  tiic  conformation  of  the  features.  Uc- 
lidcs,  there  are  certainly  in  this  malady  various  de- 
grees :  fomc  may  have  Icfs  llrcngth,  and  be  lefs  able 
to  endure  the  light :  but  thtfe  circumllances  in  chofc 
of  Chaniouiii  arc  marked  with  charafters  futiiciently 
Ih'oug  to  intillc  them  to  the  unhappy  advantage  of  be- 
ing clalled  wich  that  variety  of  the  human  fpccies  dc- 
noniinaicd  albinos. 

"  When  nature  prcfentsthc  fameappearance  often,, 
and  with  circiimllauces  varied,  we  may  at  lall  difcover 
fume  general  law,  or  fomc  relation  which  that  appear- 
ance has  \\  ith  known  caufcs  :  but  when  a  fad  is  fo  lin- 
gular and  fo  rare,  as  that  of  thole  albinos,  it  gives  but 
little  fcope  10  conjecHures  ;  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  ve- 
rify thofe  by  which  we  attempt  to  explain  it. 

"  I  at  firii  imagined  that  this  difcafe  might  be  refer- 
red to  a  particular  fort  of  organic  debility;  that  a  relax- 
ation of  the  lymphatic  vellcls  within  the  eye  might  fuf- 
fcr  the  globules  of  the  blood  to  enter  too  abundantly 
into  the  iris,  the  uvea,  and  even  into  the  retina  which 
might  occallon  the  rednefs  of  the  iris  and  of  the  pupil. 
The  fame  debility  feemed  alfo  to  account  for  the  into- 
lerance of  the  liglit,  and  for  the  whitenefs  of  the  hair. 

"Butalearncd  phyliologill,  M.  Blumeubach,profef- 
for  in  the  univcrfity  at  Gottingen,  who  has  made  many 
profound  obfervations  on  the  organs  of  fight,  and  has 
confidered  with  great  attention  the  albinos  of  Chamou- 
ni, attributes  their  infirmity  to  a  different  caufe. 

"The  Audy  of  comparative  anatomy  has  furniflied 
him  with  frequent  opportunities  of  obferving  this  phe- 
nomenon ;  he  has  found  it  in  brutes,  in  white  dogs, 
and  in  owls  ;  he  fays,  it  is  generally  to  be  feen  in  the 
warmefl  blooded  animals ;  but  that  he  has  never  met 
with  it  in  thofe  with  cold  blood. 

"  From  his  obfervations,  he  is  of  opinion,  that  the 
rednefs  of  the  iris,  and  of  tlie  other  internal  pans  of  the 
eye,  as  well  as  the  extreme  fcnfibility  that  accompanies 
this  rednefs,  is  owing  to  the  total  privation  of  tliat 
brown  or  blackifh  mucus,  that,  about  the  fifth  week 
after  conception,  covers  all  the  interior  parts  of  the  eye 
in  its  found  Hate.  He  obferves,  that  Simon  Pontius, 
in  his  treatife  JeCo/oribus  Oai/orum,  long  ago  remark- 
ed, that  in  blue  eyes  the  interior  membranes  were 
lefs  abundantly  provided  with  this  black  mucus,  and 
were  therefore  more  fenfible  ro  the  aftion  of  light. 
This  fenfibility  of  blue  eyes  agrees  very  well,  fays  M. 
Blumenbach,  with  itorthern  people,  during  their  long 
twilight;  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  deep  black  in 
the  eyes  of  negroes  enables  them  to  fupport  the  fplen- 
dor  of  the  fun's  beam  in  the  torrid  zone. 

"  As  to  the  connexion  between  this  red  colour  of 
the  eyes  and  whitenefs  of  the  Ikin  and  hair,  the  fame 
learned  phyfiologift  fays,  that  it  is  owing  to  a  fimila- 
rity  of  firuflure,  confenfus  ex  fnnilitiidhis  fabrico'.  He 
aflerts,  tliat  this  black  mucus  is  formed  only  in  the  de- 
licate cellular  fubHance,  which  has  numerous  blood- 
veffels  contiguous  to  it,  but  contains  no  fat ;  like  the 
infide  of  the  eye,  the  fkin  of  negroes,  the  fpotted  pa- 
late of  feveral  domcflic  animals,  &c.     And,  laflly,  he 

fa^s* 


ALB 


[     357    ] 


ALB 


Albinoi.    fays,  iliat  tli^  colour  of  the  hair  generally  corrdponds 
^~^ with  that  of  the  iiis.     Gazette  litt.  dc  Cotingue,  Oct. 

1 784- 

(  "  At  the  very  time  that  L.Blumenbach  was  reading 
this  memoir  to  ilic  Royal  Society  of  Gottingcii,  M. 
liuz/.i,  fiirgeon  to  the  liofpital  at  Milan,  an  elcve  of 
the  celebrated  anatomill  Mojcati,  publilhed,  in  the  Q- 
f  ii/coli  Sii Iti  dt  MiUu,  1784,  lom.  vii.  p.  11 -a  very 
imcreftiiig  iiicmoir,  in  which  he  dcnionllratcsby  dif- 
ftction  what  Blumcnbach  had  only  fiippofcd. 

"  A  pcafaiu  of  About  ;!oyearsof  age  died  at  the  hof- 
pital  of  Milan  of  a  pulmonary  difordtr.  His  body  be- 
ing expofed  to  view,  was  exceedingly  remarkable  by 
the  uncommon  whitencfs  of  the  fkin,  of  the  hair,  of 
the  beard,  and  of  all  the.  other  covered  parts  of  the 
body.  M.  Buzzij  who  had  long  defired  an  oportunity 
of  dilfeding,  fuch  a  fubjcdt,  immediately  fcized  upon 
this.  He  found  the  iris  of  the  eyes  perfedly  white, 
and  thepupilofarofc-colour.  Theeyeswere  diflcfted 
with  the  greatcftpoiliblc  care,  and  were  found  entirely 
deftitutc  of  that  black  membrane  which  anatomifls 
call  the  uvea ;  it  was  not  to  be  feen  cither  behind  the 
iris,  or  under  the  rcetina:  within  the  eye  there  was 
"only  found  the  choroid  coat  extremely  thinand  tinged, 
of  a  paleredcolour,  by  vcllels  filled  with  difcoloured 
blood.  W  hat  was  more  extraordinary,  the  (kin,  when 
detach  ed  from  different  parts  of  the  body,  feemedalfo 
entirely  diverted  of  the  retc  mucofiini  maceration  did 
not  difcoverthe  Icaft  veflige  of  this,  nor  even  in  the 
wrinkles  of  the  abdomen,  where  it  is  moll  abundant 
and  mofl  vifible. 

"  M.  Buzzi  likcwifc  accounts  for  the  whitenefs  of 
the  fkin  and  of  the  hair,  from  the  abfcnce  of  the  rcte 
mucojtnii,  which,  accordingto  him,  gives  the  colour  to 
the  cuticle,  and  to  the  hairs  that  arc  fcattered  over  it. 
Among  other  proofs  of  this  opinion,  he  alleges  a  well- 
known  faft,  that  if  the  Ikinof  the  blackefthorfe  be 
accidently  dcftroyed  in  any  part  of  the  body,  the  hairs 
that  afterwards  grew  on  that  part  are  always  white, 
bccaufe  the  nte  mucofiim  which  tinges  thofc  hairs  is 
never  regenerated  with  the  (kin. 

"The  proximate  caufe  of  the  whitenefs  of  albinos, 
and  the  colour  of  their  eyes,  feems  therefore  pretty 
evidently  to  depend  on  the  abfcnce  of  the  rtr/«  mueo/u'it: 
But  what  is  the  remote  caufc  ? 

"  In  the  firft  place,  it  feems  probable  that  men  affec- 
ted with  this  infirmity  form  no  diftinil  fpecies,for  they 
are  produced  from  parents  that  have  dark  Ikins  and 
black  eyes.  What  isitthcn  ihatdcftroys  the  retemu- 
ctfiim  in  fuch  perfons  ?  M.  Buzzi  relates  a  fingular 
fail,  which  feems  to  throw  fouie  lijjht  in  this  fubjert. 

"  A  woman  of  Milan,  named  Calcagui,  had  feven 
fons.  The  two  cldeft  had  brownhair,  and  black  eyes  ; 
the  three  next  had  white  (kins,  white  hair,  and  red 
eyes  ;  the  two  laft  refembled  the  two  eldcft.  It  was 
faid  thatthiswoman, during  the  three  pregnancies  that 
produced  the  albinos,  had  a  continual  and  immoderate 
appetite  for  milk,  which  (he  took  in  great  quantities: 
but  that  when  Ihe  was  wilh-child  of  the  other  four 
children,  Ihe  had  no  fuch  dcfire.  It  is  not  however 
afccrtained,  that  this  preternatural  appitite  was  not 
iifclf  the  effeft  of  a  certain  heat,  or  internal  difeafe, 
■which  deftroycd  the  rett  mucofum'm  the  children  be- 
fore they  were  born. 
,    "  The  albinos  of  Charaouni  are  alfo  the  offspring  of 


parents  with  dark  (kini  and  black  tyes.     They  have  Albinovm. 
three  lifters  by  the  fame  father  and  mother,  who  are      >■■'". 
alfo  bruiitties.     Ontofihcm  that  I  faw  had  the  eyes    Albir.ui. 
of  a  dark  brown,  and  the  hair  almoft  black.     They         '^      ' 
arc  faid,  however,  to  be  all  atlliifled  with  a  wcakncfsof 
light.     When  the  lads  are  married,  it  will  be  curi(jus 
to  obfcrvc  how  the  eyes  of  their  children  will  be  for- 
med.    The  experiment  would  be  particularly  dctilivc 
if  they  were  married  to  women  like  thenifclves.    B 
this  faulty  conformation  feems  to  be  more  rare  anionB 
women  tlian  among  men  ;  for  the  four  of  Mil.in,  the 
two  of  Chaniouni,  the  one  defcribed  by  Maupcrtiiis, 
the  one  by  Helvetius,  and  almoft  all  the  inrtances  of 
thefe  lingular  productions,  have  been  of  our  fex.  It  is 
known,  however,  that  there  are  racesof  men  and  wo- 
men afretted  with  this  difeafe,  and  that  thefe  races  per- 
petuate themCelves,  in  Guinea,  in  Java,  at  Panama, &c. 

"  Upon  the  whole,  this  degeneration  does  not  feera 
to  be  owing  to  the  air  of  the  mountains  ;  for  though  I 
have  traverfed  the  greatefl  part  of  the  Alps,  and  the 
other  mountains  in  Europe,  thefe  are  the  only  indivi- 
duals of  the  kind  that  ever  1  met  with." 

ALBINOVANUS,  a  Latin  poet,  whom  Ovid  fur- 
named  the  £)(-'/'';i'.  There  is  now  nothing  of  his  extant, 
except  an  Elegy  on  Drufus,  and  another  on  the  Death 
of  Mecasnas. 

ALBINUS(BernhardSiegfred),acelcbratcdphy- 
fician  and  anatomifl,  was  born,  of  anilluflrious  fami- 
ly, at  Krancfort  on  the  Oder  in  1697.  His  father  was 
then  profeifor  of  the  praftice  of  medicine  in  the  univcr- 
fity  of  Francfort  ;  but  in  the  year  i  702  he  repaired  to 
Leyden,  being  nominated  profefTor  of  anatomy  and 
furgery  in  that  univerliiy.  Here  his  fon  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  fludying  under  the  mofl  eminent  maflers  in 
Europe,  who,  from  the  fingular  abilities  which  he  then 
difplayed,  had  no  difficulty  in  prognoflicating  his  fu- 
ture eminence.  But  while  he  was  dillinguiflied  in  every 
branch  of  literature,  his  attention  was  particularly 
turned  to  anatomy  and  furgery.  His  peculiar  attach- 
ment to  thefe  branches  of  knowledge  gained  him  the 
intimate  friendlhip  of  Ruyfch  and  Rau,  who  at  that 
timefioiirilhed  in  Leyden  ;  and  the  latter,  fojuAly  ce- 
lebrated as  a  lithotomirt,  is  faid  to  have  feldom  per- 
formed a  capital  operation  without  inviting  him  to  be 
prefent.  Having  finifhed  his  Audies  at  Leyden,  he 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  attended  the  leftures  of  Du- 
Verney,  Vaillant,  and  other  celebrated  profcfTors.  But 
he  had  fcarce  fpcnt  a  year  there,  when  he  was  invited 
by  the  curators  of  the  univerfity  of  Leyden,  to  be  a 
lefturer  in  anatomy  and  furgery  in  that  place.  Though 
contrary  to hisown  inclination,  he  complied  with  their 
requefl,  and  upon  that  occalion  was  created  Dr  of 
phylic  without  any  examination.  Soon  after,  upon  the 
death  of  his  father,  he  was  appointed  to  fucceed  him 
as  profedbr  of  anatomy  ;  and  upon  being  admitted  in- 
to that  office  on  the  9th  of  November  1721,  he  deli- 
vered an  oration,  De  v(ra  via  ad  jabricx  hiimani  cor- 
poris cognitionem  ducoite  ;  which  was  heard  with  uni- 
verfal  approbation.  In  the  capacity  of  a  profeifor,  he 
not  only  beftowed  the  greatcft  attention  upon  the  in- 
llru<ilion  of  the  youth  cntrufled  to  bis  care,  but  in  the 
improvement  of  the  medical  art.  With  this  view,  he 
publifhcd  many  important  difeoveries  of  hisown  ;  and 
by  elegant  editions,  turned  the  attention  of  phyficians 
to  works  of  merit,  which  might  otherwife  have  been 

neglefled. 


ALB 


[     358     ] 


ALB 


Albion     ncgleflcd.  By  thcfc  means  his  fame  was  foon  cxtend- 
I         eJ  over  Kui-ope  ;  and  the  locieties  of  London,  Pctcrl- 
Albuurjf.  burgh,  and  Harlem,  clieerliilly  received  hiiii  as  an  al- 
' — ^         fociace.     In  1745,  he  was  appointed  profefTor  of  the 
praaicc  of  medicine  at  Lcyden,  and  was  fiicceedcd  in 
the  anatomical  chair  by  his  brother  Frid.  Bern.  Al- 
binus.     He  was  twice  rector  of  the  univerlity,  and  as 
often  he  rcfufcd  that  high  honour  when  it  was  volun- 
tarily offered  him.     At  length,  worn  out  by  long  fer- 
vice  and  intenfe  ftudy,  he  died  on  the  9th  of  Scptem- 
bcr  I  770,  in  the  74tli  year  of  his  age. 

ALBION,  the  ancient  name  of  Britain. 

Nc'M  Jlbios,  a  name  given  by  Sir  Francis  Drake 
to  California. 

ALBIREO,  (in  Aflronofny)  a  flar  of  the  third  or 
fourth  magnitude,  in  the  conllclhiion  Cygnus. 

ALBIS,  (in  anc.  gcog.)  now  the  Elbe,  which  di- 
vided ancient  Germany  in  the  middle,  and  was  the 
boundary  of  the  ancient  geography  of  Germany,  fo  far 
RS  that  country  was  known  to  the  Fvomans  :  all  beyond 
they  owned  to  be  uncertain,  no  Roman  except  Drulus 
iv.id  Tiberius  having  penetrated  fo  far  as  the  Elbe.  In 
the  year  of  the  building  of  the  city  744,  °r  about  (ix 
years  before  Chriil,  Domitius  Ahcnobarbus,  eroinng 
the  river  with  a  itw,  merited  the  ornaments  of  a 
triumph  ;  fo  glorious  was  it  reckoned  at  Rome  to  have 
attempted  the  pallage.  In  the  following  age,  how- 
ever, the  river  that  before  occupied  the  middle  of  an- 
cient Germany,  became  its  boundary  to  the  north, 
from  the  irruptions  of  the  Sarmata;,  who  polTeffed 
ihemfelves  of  the  Tranfalbin  Germany.  The  Elbe 
rifes  in  the  borders  of  Silefia,  out  of  the  Rifcnberg, 
runs  through  Bohemia,  Mifnia,  Upper  Saxony,  An- 
halt,  Magdeburg,  Bandcnburg,  Danneberg,  Lauen- 
burg,  Holftcin,  and  after  being  fwelled  by  many  other 
rivers,  and  pairing  by  Hamburg  and  Gluckftadt,  falls 
into  the  German,  or  ISIorth  fca,  to  both  which  places 
the  river  is  navigable  by  large  veffcls. 

ALBISOLA,  a  fmall  town  belonging  to  the  repu- 
blic of  Genoa  :  here  is  a  porcelain  manufatlurc,  and  fe- 
veral  country-houfcs  of  the  Genoefe  nobility.  It  was 
bombarded  in  1745  by  the  Englilh.  E.  Long.  8.  20. 
N.  Lat.  4.).  IS-  .     .  ,. 

ALBOGALERUS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  white 
cap  worn  by  the/^7.v.-«  tlui/h,  on  the  top  of  which  was 
an  ornament  of  olive  branches. 

ALBORAK,  amongft  the  Mahometan  writers,  the 
bcafl  on  v.hich  Mahomet  rode  in  his  journeys  to  hea- 
ven. The  Arab  commentators  give  many  fables  con- 
cerning this  extraordinary  vrhiclc.  It  is  rcprefcntcd 
as  of  an  intermediate  Hiape  and  fizc  between  an  afs  and 
a  mule.  A  place,  it  feems,  was  fecured  for  it  in  pa- 
radife  at  the  intercclfion  of  Mahomet  ;  which,  how- 
ever, was  in  fomc  mcafurc  extorted  from  the  prophet, 
by  Alborak's  rcfufing  to  let  him  mount  him  when  tlie 
angel  Gabriel  was  come  to  cunduft  him  to  heaven. 

ALBORO,  in  zoology,  a  name  by  which  the  eryth- 
rinus,  a  fmall  red  filh,  caught  in  the  Mediterranean,  is 
commonly  known  in  the  markets  of  Rome  and  Venice. 

ALBOURG,  a  town  of  Denmark,  in  North  Jut- 
land, capital  of  the  diocefe  of  the  fame  name,  and  a 
bilhop's  fee.  It  has  this  name,  which  lignifies  eel-town, 
on  account  of  the  great  number  of  eels  taken  here.  It 
is  feated  on  a  canal,  10  miles  from  the  fea,  jo  north  of 
W'iburgh,  and  50  north  of  Arhuys.     It  has  an  ex- 


change for  merchants,  and  a  fafc  and  deep  harbour.  Altriciat 
They  havea  confidcrable  trade  in  herrings  and  corn;         1 
an  damanu  factory  of  guns,  pillols,faddles,  and  gloves.  .  Alhugo.^ 
E.  Long.  29.  16.  N.  Lat.  56.  35. 

ALBRICIUS,  born  at  London,  was  a  great  phi- 
lofopner,  a  learned  and  able  phyfician,  and  well  ver- 
fcd  in  all  the  branches  of  polite  literature.  He  lived 
in  the  11"'  century,  and  wrote  feveral  works  in  La- 
tin, particularly,  i.  Of  the  origin  of  the  gods.  2. 
The  virtues  of  the  ancients.  3.  The  nature  of  poi- 
fon,  &c. 

ALBUCA,  Bastard  star-of-Bethlehbm:  A 
genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  hcx- 
andria  dai's  of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method 
ranking  under  the  loth  ovAcr,  Cnroiiaria:.  The  cha- 
rafters  are:  The  cal}x  is  wanting:  The  rofoZ/aconfifts 
of  fix  oval  oblong  petals,  which  are  perllllcnt :  The 
Jlamhia  conllll  of  lix  three-fided  rilaments  the  length 
of  the  corolla  :  Of  thcfe,  three  arc  fertile,  with  verfa- 
tile  anthera?;  three  arc  barren,  without  antherae:  The 
piflilbnii  has  an  oblong  three-lided  gcrmen;  the  fly  lus 
is  threc-iided  :  The  perharpium  is  an  oblong  obtufc 
triangular  capfule,havingthrec  cells  and  three  valves. 
The/^c-.-//  are  numerous,  flat,  and  incumbent.  Of  this 
genus  Linnicus  reckons  only  two. 

Species.  I.  The  major,  or  liar-flower,  with  fpear- 
fhapcd-leaves.  This  is  a  native  of  Canada,  and  fome 
other  parts  of  North  America  :  the  root  is  bulbous  ; 
from  whence  Ihoot  up  eight  or  ten  long, narrow,  fpear- 
Ihaped  leaves.  In  the  centre  of  thefe  arifes  a  flower, 
fleni,  a  foot  or  more  in  height,  garnifned  with  a  loofe 
fpike  of  grecnilh  yellow  flowers.  After  the  flowers  are 
part,  the  germen  fwells  to  a  three-cornered  capfule, 
having  three  cells  filled  with  with  flat  feeds.  2.  The 
minor,  or  African  flar.flower,  is  a  native  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope.  This  hath  alfo  a  pretty  large  bulbous 
root,  from  which  arife  four  or  five  narrow  awl-fliaped 
leaves,  of  a  deep  green  colour;  the  flower-flem,  which 
comes  from  thecenterof  the  root,  is  naked,  and  rarely 
rifes  more  than  eight  or  nine  inches  high,  having 
five  or  lix  greenifli-yellow  flowers,  growing  almoll  in 
the  form  ofan  umbel  at  top:  thefe  are  rarely  fucceedcd 
by  feeds  in  Britain. 

Culture.  The  Canada  albnca  is  hardy  ;  fo  the  roots 
may  be  planted  about  four  inches  deep  in  a  border  of 
light  earth,  where  they  will  thrive  and  produce  their 
flowers  late  in  the  fummer  :  but  as  the  feeds  do  not  of- 
ten ripen  in  Britain,  and  the  bulbs  put  out  icw  off- 
fcts,  the  plants  are  not  common  in  that  country.  The 
African  fort  generally  flowers  twice  a-year;  firfl  in 
March  or  Ajiril,  and  again  in  July  or  Auguft  ;  and  if 
its  roots  arc  kept  in  pots  tilled  with  light  earth;  fliel- 
tcred  under  a  hot-bed  frame,  tlicy  will  flower  even  in 
winter  ;  but  the  befl  method  is  to  have  a  border  in  the 
front  of  a  green-houfc,  or  flove,  where  the  roots  of 
moR  of  the  bulbous  flowers  may  be  planted  in  the  full 
ground,  and  fcrcened  in  winter  from  frofl :  in  fnch  (i- 
tuations  they  thrive  much  better,  and  flower  flronger, 
than  when  kept  in  pots. 

ALBUGINEA  tunica,  in  anatomy,  the  third  or 
innermort  coat  or  covering  of  the  tefles  ;  it  is  likcwifc 
the  name  given  to  one  of  the  coats  of  the  eye. 

ALBUGINEUS,  in  anatomy,  a  term  fometimes 
applied  to  the  aqueous  humour  of  the  eye. 

ALBUGO,  or  Leuco.ma,  in  medicine,  a  diftemper 

occafioncd 


ALB 


r     359    1 


A  L  C 


Album    occafioned  by  a  wliite  opaque  fpot  growing  on  the  cor. 
I        n:a  of  the  eye,  and  obllnidtiug  vilion.     See  Mede- 
Albumen.  ciNE  (Index). 

•  '^~~'  ALBUM,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  white  tabic,  or 
regillcr,\vhereinthcnanicsof  certain  niagi/lrates,  pu- 
blic  tranfactions,  6cc.  were  entered.  Ot  thcfe  there 
were  various  forts  ;  as  the  uibitm  dtcnrloniim,  albutnje- 
v.aHruvi,  album  judicui/!,alku)ii  pTiCtoris,  ijc. 

Album  £)ft.v;/(//;^«/,  was  the  rcgillcr  wherein  the 
names  of  thei/.(;.v//4«t.i  were  entered.  This  is  other- 
wile  called  rnutriculatio  didiriuiium. 

AiDVM  Siiiator  147)1,  the  lirt  of  fcnators  names  which 
was  firtt  introduced  by  Augullus,  and  renewed  yearly. 

Album  Judicuin,  that  wherein  the  names  of  the 
perfonsof  thofe  dicuri.c  who  judged  at  certain  times, 
were  entered. 

Album  Pratorh,  that  wherein  the  forwul^  of  all 
ailions,  and  the  names  of  fuch  judges  as  the  pra;tor 
had  chofen  to  decide  caiifes,  were  written. 

The  high-priell  entered  the  chief  tranfaiSlions  of 
each  year  into  an  album,  or  table,  which  was  hung 
up  in  his  houfe  for  the  public  ufe. 

Album  is  alfo  ufed,  in  later  times  to  denote  a 
kind  of  table,  or  pocket-book,  wherein  the  men  of 
letterswith  whom  aperfon  hasconvcrfed,infcribe  their 
names  with  fome  fcntence  or  motto. — The  famous  Al- 
gernon Sydney  being  in  Denmark,  was  by  the  univcr- 
iity  of  Copenhagen  prefented  with  their  rt/i,v/«,  where- 
upon he  wrote  thefe  words  : 

Maiius  h^c  hiimica  /j  raunh 

Enfe  pelit placidamfub  libirtat:  quietem. 

Album  Cracum,  ■among  phylicians,  the  white  dung 
of  dogs,  formerly  prefcribcd  lor  inrianimations  of  the 
throat,  &c.  but  now  jully  defpifed. 

ALBUMAZAR,  a  learned  Arabian  aftronomcr  in 
the  tenth  century,  who  wrote  a  trcatife.  Of  thi  Revo- 
tu'.ion  of  the  Yiars, 

ALBUMEN,  the  white  of  an  egg.  For  its  nature, 
erigin,  and  office,  fee  Egg. 

The  white  of  an  egg,  according  to  Boerhaavc, makes 
an  extraordinary  mcnUruum.  Being  boiled  hard  in  the 
jheli,  and  afterwards  fufpended  in  the  air  by  a  thread, 
itrefolves  and  drops  down  into  an  indpid,  fcentlefs,  li- 
quor, which  appears  to  be  that  anamolous  unaccount- 
able menflruum  fo  much  ufed  by  Paracelfus  ;  and  will, 
though  it  contain  nothing  Iharp,  oleaginous,  or  fapo- 
naceous,  make  a  thorough  folution  of  myrrh  ;  which 
is  more  than  cither  water,  oil,  fpirits,  or  even  tire 
itfelf,  can  effeft. 

A  little  putrid  white  of  egg  taken  into  the  Ilomach, 
occalionsa  naufea,horror,fainiing,vomiting,diarr]icea. 
and  gripes  ;  it  inflames  the  bile,  excites  heat,  thirft,  It- 
»cr  ;  and  dilfolves  the  humours  like  the  plague.  On 
the  contrary,  the  white  of  frclli-laid  eggs,  if  taken 
while  warm  from  the  hen,  is  extremely  nourilhing  to 
the  iniirm  :  it  may  be  taken  in  hike  warm  milk :  but  if 
any  other  heat  is  applied  to  it,  the  nutritious  quality 
■will  be  dellroyed.  The  fredi  white  of  egg  prevents 
burns  from  riling  in  blillcrs,  if  it  is  ufed  immediately 
after  the  accident  :  it  militates  inrianimations  of  the 
ty£s,andprefervcsihcface  from  fun-burning.  In  phar- 
macy, it  is  ufed  as  a  medium  to  render  balfams  and  tur- 
pentines, &c.  milcible  with  aqueous  riuids  ;  but  as  it 
difagrees  with  many  fton)ac]is  when  thus  taken,  a  mu- 
cilage of  gum  arable  may  fupply  its  i>lacc,  it  being  as 


Aica. 


good  a  medium  in  fimilar  circumftances,  and  not  apt  to  Alhu- 
offend  the  tciuicrcftftomach. — Whites  of  cggsarc  alio  qucrque 
ufcful  for  clarifying  liquors  ;  to  which  purpofc,  being  I 
mixed  and  incorporated  with  the  liquors  to  be  clari- 
fied, and  the  whole  afterwards  boiled,  tl-.c  whites  of 
eggs  arc  by  this  means  Irought  together  and  harden- 
ed, and  thus  carry  oft' the  grofs  parts  of  the  liquor  a- 
long  with  them. 

ALBUq,UERQyE,  a  fniall  city  in  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Ellremadura,ii  featedou  an  eniiucnce,  nine 
miles  from  the  frontiers  of  Portugal.  It  is  command- 
ed by  ;in  almoft  impregnable  fortrefs,  built  on  a  hio-h 
mountain,  and  fcrving  to  defend  the  town.  It  carries 
on  a  great  trade  in  a  wool  and  woollen  nianufadures.  It 
was  taken  by  the  allies  of  Charles  king  of  Spain,  in 
1705.     VV.  Long.  7.  o.  \\.  Lat.  30.  53. 

ALBURN,  the  Englifli  name  of  a  compound  co- 
lour, being  a  mixture  of  white  and  red,  or  reddiili 
brown.  Skinner  derives  the  word,  in  thij  fenfc,  from 
the  Latin  albiii,  and  tBc  It.:lian  buriio,  from  bruuo, 
brown. 

ALBURNUM,  the  foft  white  fubftance  which  in 
trees  is  found  between  the  liber  or  inner  bark  and  the 
wood,  and  in  progrefs  of  time  acquiring  folidity,  be- 
comes itfelf  the  wood.  From  its  colour  and  compara- 
tive foftnefs,  it  has  been  llylcd  by  fomc  writers  the  fat 
of  trees  adips  arhorum. 

The  alburnum  is  found  in  largeA  quantities  in  trees 
that  arc  vigorous  1  though  in  fuch  as  languiih,  or  are 
lickly,  there  is  a  great  number  of  beds.  In  an  ock 
lix  inches  in  diameter,  this  fubftance  is  nearly  equal  i;i 
bulk  to  the  wood.  In  a  trunk  of  one  foot  diameter, 
it  is  as  one  to  three  and  a  half ;  of  two  and  a  half  feet 
diameter,  as  one  to  four  and  a  half,  &c.  but  tiicfc  pro- 
portions vary  according  to  the  health  and  conrtiiutiou 
of  the  trees. — The  alburnum  is  frequently  gnawed  in 
pieces  by  infeits  which  lodge  in  the  fubftancc,  and  arc 
nouridied  from  it. 

ALBURNUS,  in  zoology,  a  fpecies  of  the  c^frinm 
of  Linnaeus.     See  CvpiuNts. 

ALCA,  or  Al'k,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  of  the 
order  of  anferes.  The  beak  of  this  genus  is  without 
teeth,  Ihort,  convex,  comprciTed,  and  frequently  fur- 
rowed tranfvcrfcly  ;  the  inferior  mandible  is  gibbous 
near  the  bale  ;  the  feet  have  generally  three  toes.  The 
fpecies  of  the  alca  are  12;  of  which  the  nioft  remark- 
able are, 

I.  The  impennis,  northern  pengnina, or  great  auk, 
with  a  comprclfrd  bill  furrowed  on  each  tide,  and  an 
oval  fpot  on  each  lide  of  the  eyes.  According  to  Mr 
Martin,  this  bird  breeds  on  the  iilc  of  St  Kilda  ;  ap- 
pearing there  the  beginning  of  May,  and  retiring  the 
middle  of  June.  It  lays  one  egg,  which  is  fix  inches 
long,  of  a  white  colour;  funic  arc  irregularly  marked 
with  purpliih  lines  crolling  each  other,  others  blotched 
with  black,  and  ferruginous  about  the  thicker  end  :  if 
the  egg  is  taken  away,  it  will  not  lay  another  that  fea- 
fon.  Mr  Macaulay  iniorms  us  that  it  does  not  vilit 
that  illand  annually,  but  fometimes  keeps  away  for  fe- 
veral  years  together  ;  and  adds,  that  it  lays  its  egg 
clofe  to  the  fca-mark,  being  incapable,  by  rcafon  of  the 
fliortncfs  of  its  wings,  to  mount  higher.  Thelcni'th 
of  this  bird,  to  the  end  of  its  toes,  is  three  feet;  but 
its  wings  are  fo  fnull,  as  to  be  ufclefs  for  flight ;  the 
length,  from  ihc  tip  of  the  longcll  quill-fcathcrs  i» 

(he 


Alca. 


A  L  C  [36 

the  fii-fl  joint,  being  only  four  inches  and  a  qiiarier. 
" ■' '  This  bird  is  oblervcd  by  fcnnicn  never  to  wander  be- 
yond foundings  ;  and  according  to  its  appearance  they 
direct  their  mcafares^beingthcnairurcdthat  land  is  not 
very  remote.  It  lomctimes  frequents  the  coalls  of  Nor- 
way, the  Kcrroc  ilks,  Iceland,  Greenland,  and  New- 
foundland ;  and  feeds  much  on  the  himp-tilh,  fathcr- 
Jalher,  and  other  filh  of  that  lize.  The  young  birds  eat 
rofe-root,  and  other  plants-  The  old  ones  are  very 
rarely  feen  on  (liorc,  tho'  the  young  ones  are  not  un- 
frequenily  met  wiili.  It  is  a  very  Ihy  bird.  It  walks 
ill ;  but  dives  well,  and  is  taken  in  the  manner  ufed 
for  the  razor-bill  and  putfin.  The  (kin  between  the 
jaws  is  blown  into  a  bladder,  and  ul'ed  for  the  darts  of 
the  Grccnlanders,  as  is  alio  that  of  fomc  other  birds. 
The  fkin  of  the  body  is  fuppofcd  to  be  ufed  by  the 
Efquiniaux  Indians  for  garments. 

2.  The  alle,  little  auk,  or  black  and  white  diver, 
T\ith  a  fmooth  conical  bill,  a  white  llreak  on  the  belly 
and  wings,  and  black  feet.  The  bulk  of  this  fpccies 
exceeds  not  that  of  a  black-bird.  It  is  not  very 
common  in  Britain,  being  only  met  with  now  and  then. 
It  feems  to  be  nioft  plentiful  towards  the  north,  being 
met  with  in  various  parts  as  far  as  Spitzbergen.  It  is 
common  in  Greenland,  in  company  with  the  black- 
billed  fpecies  ;  feeds  on  the  fame  food  ;  and  lays  two 
blueilli  white  eggs,  larger  than  thofe  of  a  pigeon.  It 
flies  quick,  and  dives  well ;  and  is  always  dipping  its 
bill  into  the  water  while  fwimmiugor  at  rell  on  the 
water.  It  grows  fat  in  the  (lormy  feafon,  from  the 
wavesbringingplenty  of  crabs  and  fmallfilh  within  its 
reach  ;  but  from  its  fize  it  is  lefs  fought  after  than  the 
others.  In  Greenland  it  is  called  the  /tv-i^/riy,  being 
the  harbinger  of  Ice.  This  fpecies  iifometimes  feen 
of  a  pure  white. 

;?.  The  arclica,  or  puffin,  with  a  comprelfed  bill 
and  four  furrows  ;  the  orbit  of  the  eyes  and  temples 
are  white.  The  legs  of  this  fpecies  are  very  fmall  ,- 
and  placed  fo  far  behind  as  to  difqualify  it  from  fland- 
ing,  except  quite  ereft,  refting  not  only  on  the  foot, 
•  ]( attends  ^^^  '^^  whole  length  of  the  leg.  This  circumftance  * 
every  one  makcs  the  rife  of  the  puffin  from  the  ground  very  dif- 
ficult, and  it  meets  with  many  falls  before  it  gets  on 
wing  ;  but  when  that  is  eft'edcd,  few  birds  fly  longer 
or  ftrongcr.  Thefe  birds  frequent  the  coafls  of  feveral 
parts  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  ;  but  no  place  in 
greater  numbers  thanPrieflholmille,where  their  flocks 
may  be  compared  to  fwarms  of  bees  for  multitude. 
Thefe  are  birds  of  palTage  ;  they  refort  there  annually 
about  the  fifth  cr  tenth  of  April,  quit  the  place  (almoll 
to  a  bird),  and  return  twice  or  thrice  before  they  fettle 
to  burrow  and  prepare  forovation  and  incubation.  They 
begin  to  burrow  the  firft  week  in  May  ;  but  fomc  few 
•fave  themfelves  that  trouble,  and  didodge  the  rabbits 
from  their  holes,  taking  polfeffion  of  them  till  their 
■departure  from  the  ilk.  Thofe  which  form  their  own 
burrows,  are  at  that  time  fo  intent  on  the  work  as  to 
fufFer  themfelves  to  be  taken  by  the  hand.  This  talk 
falls  chiefly  to  the  (hare  of  the  males  ;  who  alfoaffift 
in  incubation.  The  tirft  young  are  hatched  the  begin- 
ning of  July,  The  old  ones  ihow  vaft  atfcftion  to- 
wards them  ;  and  fcem  totally  infenfible  of  danger  in 
the  breeding  feafon.  If  a  parent  is  taken  at  that  time, 
and  fufpended  by  the  wings,  it  will  in  a  fort  of  defpair 
treat  itfelf  moll  cruelly,  by  biting  every  part  it  can 

3 


] 


A  L  C 


of  tht  ge. 
Jms. 


reach  ;  and  the  moment  i:  is  loofed,  will  never  offer  to 
efcape,  lut  inftanily  refort  to  its  uuflegdcd  young  : 
tills  artcction  ceafes  at  the  Hated  time  of  migration, 
which  is  mofl  punclually  about  the  nth  of  Augull, 
when  they  leave  fuch  young  as  cannot  fly  to  the  mercy 
of  the  peregrine  falcon,  who  watches  the  mouths  of 
the  houfe  for  the  appearance  of  the  little  deferted  puf- 
fins, which, forced  by  hunger,  are  compelled  to  leave 
thcirburrows.  They  lay  only  one  egg.  The  eggs  differ 
much  in  form:  fonie  have  one  end  very  acute  ;  others 
have  both  extremely  obtufe  -,  all  arc  white.  Their  flclh 
is  exccflively  rank,  as  they  feed  on  fca-weeds  and  filh, 
cfpccially  fprats  :  but  when  pickled  and  prefer  ved  with 
fpices,  are  admired  by  thofe  wholove  high-eating.  Dr 
Caius  tells,  that,  in  his  days,  the  church  allowco  them 
in  lent,  inftead  of  fi!h  :  he  alfo  acquaints  us,  that  they 
were  taken  by  means  of  ferrets,  as  we  take  rabits  :  at 
prefent,  they  arc  either  dugout,  or  drawn  from  their 
burrows  by  a  hooked  flick  :  they  bite  extremely  hard, 
and  keep  fuch  fall  hold  on  whatever  they  fallen,  as  not 
to  be  ealily  difcngaged.  Their  noife  when  taken,  is 
very  difagrccable  ;  being  like  theertorisofaduinbper- 
fon  to  fpcak.  Thefe  birds  are  alfo  common  in  Ire- 
land ;  on  the  illand  Sherries,  three  leagues  N.  N.  W. 
of  Holyhead  ;  and  in  the  S.  Stack,  near  Holyhead, 
theybreed  in  plenty.  They  inhabit  Iceland  and  Green- 
land ;  and  breed  in  the  extreme  parts  of  the  illands.  It 
is  alfo  found  in  the  Fcrroe  ides,  where  it  is  called 
Luiida  ;  and  in  theFarn  ifles,  whcreitis  called  Coulter- 
vcb,  from  the  Ihape  of  the  bill.  It  goes  alfo  by  vari- 
ous other  names;  l'\ich&sG»/Jf»-hc'ad,  BottU-ticfe,3.nA 
Hslegttg,  in  Wales;  at  Scarborough,  Mullet;  and  in 
Cornwall,  Poi>e.  In  America  they  arc  laid  to  frequent 
Carolina  in  winter ;  and  have  been  met  with  in  Sand- 
wich Sound  by  late  voyagers :  the  natives  ornament 
the  fore  parts  and  collar  of  their  feal-lkin  jackets  with 
the  beaks  of  them  ;  and  thofe  of  Aoonalaflika  wear 
gowns  of  their  Ikins,  along  with  thofe  of  other  birds. 
On  the  coallof  Kanufchatkaand  the  Kurulfchiiflands 
they  are  common,  even  on  the  Penfchinlki  bay,almofl 
as  far  as  Ochotka  :  thenationsof  the  twofirfl  wearthc 
bills  about  their  necks  fallened  to  llraps ;  and  accor- 
ding to  the  fuperllition  of  thefe  people,  their  Ihaman 
or  priefl  mull  put  them  on  with  a  proper  ceremony,  in 
order  to  procure  good  fortune. 

4.  The  torda,orrazor-bill,  with  four  furrows  on  the 
bill  and  a  white  line  on  each  fiderunningfronuhebill  to 
the  eyes.  Thefe  birds,  in  company  with  the  guillemot, 
appear  in  the  Britilh  feas  the  beginning  of  Febru- 
ary ;  but  do  not  fettle  on  their  breeding  places  till  they 
begin  to  lay,  about  the  beginning  of  May.  They  in- 
habit the  ledges  of  the  highell  rocks  thai  impend  over 
the  fea,  where  they  form  a  grotefque  appearance ;  fit- 
ting clofe  together,  and  in  rows  one  above  another. 
They  properly  lay  but  one  egg  a-piece,  of  an  extra- 
ordinary fizefor  the  bulk  of  the  bird,  being  three  inches 
long  :  it  is  either  white,  or  of  a  pale  fea-green,  irre- 
gularly fpotted  with  black  :  if  this  egg  is  dcftroyed, 
both  the  auk  and  the  guillemot  will  lay  another ;  if 
that  is  taken,  tlien  a  third;  they  make  no  nefl,  dcpo» 
filing  their  egg  on  the  bare  rock  ;  and  though  fuch 
multitudes  lay  contiguous,  by  a  svonderfulinflindt  each 
diflinguilhes  its  own.  What  is  alfo  matter  of  great 
amazement,  they  fixtheir  eggonthefmooth  rock,  with 
fo  exaft  a  balance,  as  tofccure  it  from  rolling  off;  yet 

Ihould 


A  L  C 


[     361     ] 


A  L  cr 


ftouW  it  be  removed,  and  then  attempted  to  be  repla- 
ced by  the  human  hand,  it  is  extremely  difficult,  it  not 
iiTipolIibIc,  to  find  its  former  equilibrium.  According 
to  Mr  Latham,  it  is  by  means  of  a  cement  that  the 
bird  fixes  its  egg.  The  eggs  are  food  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  coalis  they  frequent ;  which  they  get  with  great 
hazard  ;  being  lowered  from  the  top  by  ropes,  trulUng 
to  the  ftrengih  of  their  companions,  whole  footing 
is  often  fo  unliable  that  ihcy  arc  forced  down  the 
precipice,  and  periih  together.  Thcfe  birds  are  found 
in  the  north  of  i-uropc,  alio  in  Iceland,  Grceiiland, 
and  on  the  coall  of  Labrador.  In  Europe  they  ex- 
tend along  the  White  Sea  intothe  Arflic  Aliatic  lliorcs, 
and  from  thence  to  Kamifchaik^  and  the  gulph  of  O- 
fchotka:  It  is  the  only  one  liiat  reaches  the  inland 
Bxiltic ;  being  found  there  on  the  Carls-Ozar  illcs,  near 
Oothland,  and  the  illand  of  Bondonotf  Angcrmania. 

5.  The  pica,  or  black-billed  auk,  has  the  bill  of  the 
fame  form  with  the  torda,  but  is  entirely  black.  The 
checks,  chin,  and  throat,  arc  white  :  in  all  other  rc- 
fpeds  it  agrees  with  the  former  fpccies.  Mr  Latham 
is  of  opinion  that  it  is  no  other  than  ihc  young  of  that 
fpccies.  Mr  Pennant  obfcrves,  that  it  is  fomctimcs 
found  on  our  coafls  ;  but,  according  to  Mr  Latham, 
it  is  in  the  winter  fcafon  only,  when  the  common  fort 
has  quitted  thciii.  They  are  faid  to  be  met  with  on 
the  coafl  of  Candia  and  other  parts  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean ;  "where,  no  doubt  (Mr  Latham  obfervci)  the 
complete  old  bird  is  likewifc  found,  as  1  have  been  in- 
formed that  they  arc  common  iu  the  bayot  Gibraltar, 
where  it  is  curious  to  fee  their  aftivity  under  water 
when  purfuing  the  ,ilh  ;  for,  as  the  water  in  the  bay 
is  fometinies  clear  for  a  g.  cat  depth  from  the  lurface, 
thefc  birds  may  be  otten  feen  as  it  were  Hying  after 
their  prey,  with  all  the  agility  of  a  bird  in  the  air, 
turning  111  every  dirediou  aftfcr  the  filli,  wiih  fuch 
wonderful  addrefsand  dexterity  as  fcldoni  to  mils  their 
aim." 

6.  The  cirhata  of  Dr  Pallas,  or  tufted  auk,  fome- 
what  bigger  than  the  common  putlin,  and  the  colours 
much  the  fjirc  :  the  bill  is  an  inch  and  three-quarters 
in  length,  the  fame  in  depth  at  the  bale,  and  crolled 
with  three  furrows  :  over  each  eye  arifes  a  tuft  of 
feathers  four  inches  in  length,  which  falls  elegantly 
on  each  lideof  the  neck,  reaching  almoft  to  the  back; 
and  are  white  as  far  as  they  arc  attached  to  the  head, 
but  afterwards  of  a  fine  buft  yellow  :  the  legs  are  of 
a  bright  red  ;  the  claws  black.  The  female  is  princi- 
pally diftinguiflicd  by  having  the  bill  crolFcd  only  with 
two  furrows  inflcad  of  three.  This  fpecies  inhabits 
the  (liores  of  Kamtfchatka,  the  Kurilc  illands,  and 
thofi  intervening  between  Kimtfchatka  and  America. 
In  manners  it  greatly  refembles  the  pufTi:! ;  living  all 
day  at  fea,  but  at  no  great  dillance  from  the  rocks  ; 
it  comes  on  Ihorc  at  night ;  burrows  a  yard  deep  under 
ground,  and  makes  a  nell, with  feathers  and  fea-plants; 
is  monogamous,  and  lodges  there  the  whole  night  with 
its  mate.  It  lays  one  white  egg,  the  end  of  May  or 
beginning  of  June,  which  alone  is  thought  fit  to  be 
ratcn,  the  fielh  of  the  bird  itfelf  being  inllpid  and 
hard.  It  feeds  on  crabs,  ihriraps,  and  fliell-filh,  which 
lart  it  fortes  from  the  rocks  with  its  lirong  bill.  Pal- 
las remarks,  that  the  Kamtfchatkan  girls  imiiaie  the 
tufts  of  theic  birds,  which  nature  ha.s  fupplied  thcr.i 

Vol.  I. 


with,  by  placing  a  fimilar  ftrip  of  the  white  (kin  of      Ale*, 
th;  glutton  behind  each  car,  hanging  down  behind  by    Alcxui. 
way  of  ornament ;  and  is  a  well-received  preicnt  from  *       " 
a  lover  to  his  millrcfs.   The  bills  both  of  this  and  the 
common  puffin  were  formerly  held  by  the  natives  as  a 
charm,  and  worn  by  the  priclls  as  amulets  ;  indeed  .it 
the  prcfent  thcfe  have  been  feen  fixed  round  their  iicaj 
drelfcs,  but  fuppoled  now  to  be  only  ellcemed  as  mere 
ornaments  :    the  (kins  are  however  made  ufc  of  for 
clothing,  being  ftwed  together.  It  is  called  iu  Kamt- 
fchatka, Muschagatka  ;  and  in  Ofchotka,  Igdma. 

7.  The  pfittacula,  or  perroquct  auk,  of  Dr  Pallas, 
is  about  the  lize  of  the  little  auk.  The  bill  is  much 
comprelled  on  the  fides,  in  (liape  convex  both  above 
and  below,  and  of  a  bright  red  colour  :  from  the  re- 
mote corner  of  each  eye  is  a  very  (lender  tuft  of  fine 
white  feathers,  hanging  down  the  neck  :  the  head  and 
upper  part  of  the  body  are  dulky  ;  the  lower  whitilh, 
varied  with  black  edges  :  the  legs  are  of  a  dirty  yel- 
low ;  and  the  webs  dulky.  This  fpecies  is  found  at 
Kamtfchatka,  in  the  iilcs  towards  Japan,  and  on  the 
weQern  ihorcsof  America.  They  are  fometimcs  fecii 
in  docks,  but  (cldom  far  from  land,  except  driven  by 
flornis.  Of  nights  they  harbour  in  the  crevices  of 
rocks.  They  lay  an  cggalmofl  the  fize  of  a  hen's,  of 
a  dirty  white  or  yellowifli  colour  fpotted  with  brown  ; 
which  they  do  abont  the  middle  of  June,  upon  the 
bare  rock  or  fand,  for  they  make  no  neft.  Like  mofc 
of  the  tribe,  they  arc  ftupid  birds,  as  may  be  evinced 
by  the  ridiculous  method  of  catching  them  : — One  of 
the  natives  places  himfelf  under  a  loofe  garment  of  fur, 
of  a  particular  make,  with  large  open  lleeves,  among 
the  rocks,  at  evening  ;  when  the  birds,  returning  to 
their  lodging  places  at  dufk,  run  under  the  (kirts,  and 
up  the  arm-holes,  for  Ihelter  during  the  night ;  and 
thus  become  an  eafy  prey.  Their  flupidity  likewifc 
occafions  them  to  fly  aboard  a  ihip  at  fuch  times,  mif- 
taking  it  for  a  roofiing-p!:cu  ;  whereby  navigators 
have  been  taught  to  avoid  the  danger  of  falling  in  too 
near  with  land,  either  of  evenings,  or  on  approaching 
ftorms.  The  eggs  are  eftecmed  good. 

ALC/EUS,  a  famous  ancient  lyric  poet,  born  at 
Mitylcne,  in  the  illand  of  Lefbos.  Horace  fecms  ta 
think  him  the  inventor  of  this  kind  of  poefy  : 

Now  the  Roman  miife  infpire, 

And  warm  the  long  with  Grecian  fire.     Francis. 

He  flouriflied  in  the  44th  Olympiad,  at  the  fame  time 
with  Sappho,  who  was  likewifc  of  Mitylcne.  Alcxus 
was  a  great  enemy  to  tyrants,  but  not  a  very  brave  fol- 
dier.  He  was  prcfent  at  an  engagement,  wherein  the 
Athenians  gained  a  vidory  over  the  Lcfbians  ;  and 
here,  as  he  himfelf  is  faid  to  have  confclFcd  in  one  of 
his  pieces,  he  threw  down  his  arms,  and  faved  himfelf 
by  flight.  Horace,  who,  of  all  the  Latin  poets,  inoll 
refcmbled  Alcaeus,  has  made  the  like  confclHoH  : 

With  thee  I  faw  Philippi's  plain. 

Its  fatal  rout,  a  fearful  fcene  ! 

And  dropp'd,  alas  !  th'  inglorious  (hicld. 

Where  valour's  fclf  wasforc'd  to  yield  ; 

Where  foil'd  in  dull  the  vanq'ifh'd  lay. 

And  breath'd  th"  indigi-.ant  foul  away.      Franc'u. 

The  poetical  abilities  of  Alca-us  .\re  indifpuied  ;  and 
7  7  iheiigh 


A  L  C 


L    36 


AlcivBs,    though  his  writings  were  chiefly  ill  the  lyric  drain, yet 
Alcaics.     Jiis  nnifc  was  capable  of  treating  the  fublimcllfubjcds 
'"—^y—^^  ^yj[l,  a  fuitablc  dignity.     Hence  Horace  lays, 

Alcaus  llrikcs  the  golden  firings. 

And  fcas,  and  war,  and  exile  lings. 

Thi  s  wliilc  ilicy  ftrikc  the  various  lyre, 

Thegliofls  the  I'acrcd  founds  admire  : 

But  when  Alcxiis  lifts  the  llrain 

To  deeds  of  war  and  tyrants  (lain, 

In  tliickcr  crowds  the  fliadowy  throng 

Drink  deeper  down  the  martial  fong.     Fraiicii. 

Aic«us,  an  Athenian  tragic  poet,  and,  as  fonie 
think,  the  tirll  compufcr  of  tragedies.  He  renoun- 
ced his  native  country  Milylene,  and  palfed  for  an  A- 
thenian.  He  left  ten  pieces,  one  of  which  was  Pa- 
iiphae'jiliat  which  he  produced  when  he  difputed  witli 
Arillophanes,  in  tlic  fourth  yearof  the  pytii  Olympiad. 

There  is  another  Ai.c«us  mentioned  in  Plutarch, 
perhapsthe  fame  whom  Porphyrins  mentions  as  a  coin- 
pofer  of  fatiiical  iambics  and  epigrams,  and  who 
wrote  a  poem  concerning  the  plagiarifni  of  Euphorus 
ihc  hillorian.     He  lived  in  the  145th  Olympiad. 

We  are  told  likcwife  of  one  Alcsus,  a  Melicnian, 
who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Vefpalian  and  Titus.  We 
know  not  which  of  thefe  it  was  who  fufFcred  for  his 
lewdnefs  a  very  lingular  kind  of  death,  which  gave 
occafion  to  the  following  epitaph  : 

'A^xano  Toilet  XT©„,  &C. 

This  is  Alcjeus's  tomb  ;  who  died  by  a  radifh. 
The  daughter  of  the  earth,  and  punilher  of  Adulterers. 
This  punifliment  inflicted  on  adulterers,  was  thrufting 
one  ofthelargcllradi  flies  up  the  anus  of  the  adulterer  : 
or,  for  want  of  radilhcs,  they  made  ufe  of  a  filli  with 
a  very  large  head,  which  Juvenal  alludes  to  : 

Qjiofdam  mvchos  ct  viiigilis  iiitrnt.  Sat.  x. 

The  mullet  enters  fonie  behind. 

Hence  we  may  underfland  the  menace  of  Catullus. 

Ah  !  turn  tc  miferum,  rKnHgu^fati, 
Qjiein  attrafiis  pcd'tbiu,  patinte  porta, 
Percuricnt  raplutn'tque  viagitefque.  Ep'g-  xv. 

Ah  !   wrcidicd  thou,  and  born  to  lucklefs  fate. 
Who  art  difcover'd  by  the  nnfhut  gate  ! 
If  once,  alas  !  the  jealous  hulband  come. 
The  radilh  or  the  fea-li(h  is  thy  doom. 

ALCAICS,  in  ancient  poetry,  a  denomination  gi- 
ven to  feveral  kinds  of  verfe,  from  Alcaeus,  their  in- 
ventor. 

The  firft  kind  coniifls  of  five  feet,  viz.a  fpondee,  or 
iambic  ;  an  iambic  ;   a  long  fyllable  ;  a  dadlyle  ;   ano- 
ther daftylc  :  fuch  is  the  following  verfe  of  Horace, 
Cmtiei  I  eo\(!e!u  cogiviur,  \  oiiuitiim 
•>  Verfa\tur ur\tia\feriHS  |  (icyui\ 

Sorj  exitiira. 
The  fecond  kind  confifls  of  two  daftyles  and  two 
trochees  :   as, 

Exili\:i7n  impofllWi'  |  ij7>iba. 
Befides  thefe  two,  wlii-^h  are  called  dallylic  Akit'ks, 
there  is  another  llyled  limply  Aleak  ;  conlifling  of  an 
epilrite  ;   a  choriambus  ;  another  choriambus  ;  and  a 
bacchius  :  the  following  is  of  this  fpecies, 
Cur  timet  fia\v!itn  Tibcr'im  tan\g':rt,  air  \  olivum  P 


2     1  A  L  C 

Alcaic  Ode,  a  kind  of  manly  ode  conipofed  of  fe- 
veral (Irophes,  each  conlilling  of  lour  verfcs  ;  the  two 
iirft  of  which  are  always  AlcaVcs  of  the  tirfl  kind  ;  the 
third  verfe  is  a  diameter  hypercataltdlic,  or  conlill- 
ing of  four  feet  and  a  long  lyllable  ;  and  the  fourth 
verfe  is  an  AlcaYc  of  the  fecond  kind.  The  following 
ftrophc  is  of  this  fpecies,  which  Horace  calls  minaccs 
Aicici  caviciia. 

Noil  pojfideutem  viulta  vocaveris 
Reds  beatiivi  ;  refiiiis  ocaipat 
Nojiien  bioti)  qaid.cniiii 
Muneribiis  fapi  enter  uti,  i/c. 

ALCAID,  Alcayde,  or  Ai.cai.de,  in  the  polity 
of  the  Moors,  Spaniards,  and  Portnguefe,  a  niagillraic,. 
or  othcer  of  julticc,  anfwering  nearly  to  ilie  French 
provoft,  and  the  Britilh  julticc-of-peace. — The  alcaid 
among  the  Moors  is  veiled  with  fupremc  jurifdidion,. 
both  in  civil  and  criminal  cafes. 

ALCALA  DE  GuADEiRA,  a  fmall  town  of  Spain, 
ill  Andalulia,  upon  the  river  Guadeira.  Here  are  a- 
bnndance  of  fprings,  from  whence  they  convey  water 
to  Seville  by  an  aquedufl.     W.  long.   6.    16.  N.  lat.. 

?7.  15. 

ALCAi.A  di-  Heuares,  a  beautiful  and  large  city  of 
Spain,  in  New  Caflle,  fcated  upon  the  river  Henarcs, 
which  walliesits  walls.  It  is  built  in  a  very  agreeable 
plain,  and  is  of  an  oval  figure.  The  llrecls  are  haud- 
fome  and  pretty  llraight ;  one  of  them  is  very  long,  run- 
ning from  one  end  of  ihe  city  to  the  other.  The  houfes 
arevvell  built,  and  there  are  feveral  fquares,  thclargeit 
ofwhich  is  an  ornament  to  thecity  ;  itisfurronndcd  on 
alllides  with  piazzas, where  tradei'men  have  thkir  ihops 
to  expofc  feveral  forts  ot  commodies  to  fule,  ofwhich 
there  is  a  great  plenty  and  variety  as  in  moll  towns  of 
Spain.  The  univerlity  was  founded  by  cardinal  Xime- 
nes,  archbiihop  of  Toledo,  about  the  beginning  of  tlie 
i6th  century.  The  land  about  Alcala  is  watered  by 
the  Henarcs,  well  cultivated,  and  very  fruitful,  while 
that  at  a  diflance  is  dry  and  fleriie  :  it  yields  grain  in 
plenty,  very  good  mufcat  wine,  and  melons  of  a  deli- 
cious kind.  Without  the  walls  is  a  fpriiig,  the  v.'ater 
ofwhich  is  fo  pure  and  fo  well  tailed,  thai  it  is  inclo- 
fcd  and  fhut  up  for  the  king  of  Spain's  own  ufe,  from 

whence  it  is  carried  to  Madrid Thisciiy  is  lomiles 

fouth-wefl  of  Guadalaxara,  and  13  miles  eafl  of  Ma- 
drid.    W.  Long.  4.  20.  N.  Lat.  40.  30. 

AtcALA-Real,  a  fmall  city  of  Spain,  in  Andalulia, 
with  a  fine  abbey.  It  is  built  on  the  top  of  a  high 
mountain,  in  a  mountainous  country;  and  the  road  to 
it  is  incommodious,  rough,  and  unequal ;  but  to  make 
am  ends  for  this,  here  are  feveral  kinds  of  cxquiljte  fruit 
and  wine.     W.  Long.  4.  15.  N.  Lat.  37.  18. 

ALCALY,  or  Alcali,  or  Alkali.  See  Che- 
mistry, Index. 

ALCANIS,  a  town  of  Arragon  in  Spain,  fcated 
on  the  river  GaudaJoup,  twelve  miles  from  Cafpe.  Ic 
was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Moors; 
but  being  taken  from  them,  it  was  made  acommendaiy 
of  the  order  of  Calatrava.  Here  is  a  very  remarkable 
fountain,  which  throws  up  water  through  42  pipes. 
It  is  furrounded  with  gardens  and  fruit-trees,  and  de- 
fended with  a  good  fortrefs.  W.  Long.  o.  j;  N.  Lat. 
41.  o. 

ALCANNA,  in  commerce,  a  powder  prepared  from 

th« 


A  L  C 


[     363     1 


A  L  C 


fcantara   the  leaves  of  tlir  F.gyptian  privet,  in  wliicli  the  people 
I         of  Cairo  drive  a  coiiliiJcrabic  trade.   It  is  much  ufcd  by 

.IcalT.ir  the  Tiirkilh  women  to  give  a  golden  colour  to  their 
^~^  nails  and  hair.  la  dyeinjr,  it  gives  a  yellow  colour 
when  lleepcd  with  common  water,  and  a  red  one  when 
infufcd  in  vinegar.  There  is  alio  an  oil  extrafted  from 
the  berries  of  alcanna,  and  ufed  in  medicine  as  a 
calmer. 

ALCANTARA,  a  fmall,  bat  very  Ilrong  city  of 
Eftremadiira,  in  Spain.  It  gives  name  to  one  of  the 
tliree  otiiers  of  kniglithood.  It  is  featcd  on  tlie  banks 
of  the  Tajo,  or  Tagus,  21  miles  from  Coria,  in  a 
very  fruitful  foil,  and  is  celebrated  for  its  bridge  over 
that  river.  This  was  built  in  the  time  of  the  emperor 
Trajan,  as  appears  by  an  infcription  over  one  of  the 
arches,  by  the  people  of  Lufitania,  who  were  alleded 
to  fui)ply  the  expcnce.  It  is  raifed  200  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  water;  and  though  it  confifls  but  of  lix 
arches,  is  670  feet  in  length,  and  2S  in  breadth.  At 
the  entrance  of  the  bridge,  there  is  a  fmall  antique 
chapel  hewn  in  a  rock  by  the  ancient  Pagans,  who  de- 
dicated it  to  Trajan,  as  the  Chriftians  did  to  St  Julian. 
This  city  was  built  by  tlie  Moors,  on  account  of  the 
convenience  of  this  bridge  ;  which  is  at  a  place  where 
the  Tajo  is  very  deep,  running  between  two  high  fleep 
rocks  :  for  this  reafon,  they  called  it  Al-Cantara, 
which,  in  their  language,  (iguifies  the  Br'uige.  It  was 
taken  from  them  in  121 4,  and  given  10  the  knights  of 
Calatrava,  who  afterwards  alTumed  the  name  of  Al- 
cantara. It  was  taken  by  the  Earl  of  Galloway,  in 
April,  1706,  and  retaken  by  the  French  in  November 
following.  It  is  45  miles  from  Madrid,  and  125  from 
Seville.     W.  Long.  7.  12.  N.  Lat.  39.  30. 

Knighti  of  Alcaxtari,  a  military  order  of  Spain, 
which  took  its  name  from  the  abovemcntioned  city. 
They  make  a  veryconliderablc  figure  in  the  hiftory  of 
the  expeditions  againft  the  Moors.  The  knights  of 
Alcantara  make  the  fame  vows  as  thofe  of  Calatrava, 
and  are  only  diflinguilhcd  from  them  by  this,  that  the 
crofs  fleur  de  lys,  which  they  bear  over  a  large  white 
cloak,  is  of  a  green  colour.  They  pofftfs  1,1  com- 
manderies.  By  the  terms  of  the  furrender  of  Alcan- 
tara to  this  order,  it  wasrtipulated,  that  there  fliould 
be  a  confraternity  between  the  two  orders,  with  the 
fame  praJlices  and  oblervances  in  both  ;  and  that  the 
order  of  Alcantara  Ihould  be  fubjeft  to  be  vilited  by 
the  grand-mailer  of  Calatrava.  But  the  former  foon 
relcafcd  themlelves  from  this  engagement, on  pretence 
that  their  grand-mailer  had  not  been  called  to  the  c- 
Icftion  of  that  of  Calatrava,  as  had  been  likcwife  lli- 
pulated  in  the  articles.  After  the  expulfion  of  the 
Moors,  and  the  taking  of  Granada,  the  fovereignty 
of  the  order  of  Alcantara  and  that  of  Calatrava  was 
fettled  in  the  crown  of  Caftile  by  F'crdinand  and  Ifa- 
bella. — In  1540,  the  knights  of  Alcantara  fued  for 
leave  to  marry,  which  was  granted  them. 

ALCAREZ,  a  fmall  city  of  La  Mancha,  in  Spain, 
defended  by  a  pretty  Ilrong  cadle,  and  remarkable  for 
an  ancient  aqucduift.  It  Hands  near  the  river  Guarda- 
iiiana,  and  the  foil  about  it  is  very  fruitful.  They 
have  a  breed  of  little  running-horfes,  which  are  very 
fleet  and  (Irong.  It  is  25  miles  north  of  tlie  confines 
of  Andalufia,  108  fonth  of  Cucnza,and  i^ofouth-by- 
eaft  of  Madrid.  AV.  Long.  i.  50.  N.  Lat.  38.  2S. 
ALCASSAR  DO  SAL,  a  town  of  Portugal,  in  Ellrc- 


madura,  which  has  a  caille  faid  to  be  impregnable.  It    Alciff^. 
is  indeed  very  flrong,  Loth   by  art  and  nature,  being   Alc.^j»alli 

built  on  the  top  of  a  rock  which  is  exceedingly  ilcep  oil  ' ■' 

all  fides.  Here  is  a  fali-wirk  which  produces  very  hue 
white  fait,  from  whence  the  town  takes  its  name.  The 
fields  produce  large  (juantities  of  a  fort  of  rulhcs,  of 
which  they  make  mats,  which  are  traiifportcd  out  of 
the  kingdom.     W.  Long.  9.  10.  N.  Lat.  38.  18. 

Alcassar,  a  ciiy  of  Barbary,  featcd  about  two 
leaguesfrom  Larachc,in  A(';;;a, a  province  of  the  king- 
dom of  Fez.  It  was  of  great  note,  and  the  feat  of  the 
governor  of  this  part  of  the  kingdom.  It  was  built  * 
by  Jacob  Almanzor,  king  of  Fez,  about  the  year  ir8a, 
ane  defigned  for  a  magizinc  and  place  of  rendezvous 
for  the  great  preparations  he  was  making  to  enter 
Granada  in  Spain,  and  to  make  good  the  footing  Jo- 
feph  Almanzor  had  got  fonic  time  before.  It  is  laid 
his  father  firll  invaded  Spain  with  300,000  men,  moll 
of  whom  he  was  obliged  to  bring  back  to  Africa  to 
quiet  a  rebellion  that  had  broke  out  in  Morocco.  This 
done,  he  returned  to  Spain  again  with  an  army,  as  is 
faid,  of  200,000  horfe  and  300,000  foot.  The  city 
is  now  fallen  greatly  to  decay,  fo  that  of  fifteen  mofqucs 
there  are  only  twothat  they  make  ufeof.  The  reafon, 
probably,  is  the  bad  fituation  of  the  town  ;  for  it  ftands 
fo  low,  that  it  is  exceihvely  hot  in  fummcr,  and  almofc 
overflowed  with  water  in  the  winter.  This  they  affirm 
to  be  owing  to  a  curfe  of  one  of  their  faints.  Here 
are  a  great  number  of  ftorks,  who  live  very  familiarly 
with  the  people,  walking  about  the  town,  poflelfing 
the  tops  of  the  houfes  and  niofques  without  molefta- 
lion  ;  for  they  efleem  them  facred  birds,  and  accountit 
finful  to  diilurb  them.  At  prefent,  the  bafliaw  of  Tc- 
tuan  appoints  a  governor  to  this  town,  which  is  the 
lafl  of  his  dominions  towards  Mcquincz.  Near  this  city 
there  is  a  high  ridge  of  mountains,  running  towards 
Tetuan,whofc  inhabitants  were  never  brought  entirely 
under  fubjc<5lion  ;  and  whenever  it  was  attempted, they 
revenged  themfelves  by  iiifclting  the  roads,  and  rob- 
bing and  deftroying  the  travellers.  When  they  were 
purfued, they  retired  into  their  woody  mountains.wherc 
none  could  fafVly  follow  them.  Not  far  from  hence  is 
the  river  ElmahalTen,  famous  for  the  battle  fought  be- 
tween Don  Seballian  king  of  Portugal  and  the  Moors  ; 
in  which  the  Portuguefc  were  defeated  and  their  king 
(lain.     W.  Long.  12.  3J.  N.  Lat.  35.  ij. 

ALCAVALLA,  in  the  Spanifli  finances,  was  at 
firll  a  tax  of  ten  per  cent,  afterwards  of  fourteen  per 
cent,  and  is  at  prefent  of  o'ily  lix  per  cent,  upon  the 
falc  of  every  fort  of  property,  whether  moveable  or  im- 
moveable ;  and  it  is  repeated  every  time  the  property 
is  fold.  The  levying  of  this  tax  requires  a  multitude 
of  revenue-officers  futlicient  to  guard  tiic  tranfportatioii 
of  goods,  not  only  from  one  province  to  another,  but 
from  one  Ihop  to  another.  It  fubjefls  not  only  the 
dealers  in  fomc  fort  of  goods,  but  thofe  in  all  forts, 
every  farmer,  every  manufa.;lurer,  every  merchant 
and  ihopkecper,  to  the  continual  vilits  and  examina- 
tion of  the  tax-gatherers.  Through  the  greater  part 
of  a  country  in  which  a  tax  of  this  kind  is  cllablilhcd, 
nothing  can  be  produced  for  diflant  falc.  The  produce 
of  every  part  of  the  country  mull  be  proportioned  to 
tlie  confumption  of  the  neighbourhood.  It  is  to  the 
Alcavala,  accordingly,  thatUftaritz  imputes  the  ruin 
of  the  mauufaiflnrcs  of  Spain.  He  might  have  inipu- 
Z  z  3  ted 


ALca. 


A  L  C  [     364 

J\kazar  red  10  It  iikcNwfe  the  dedcnliou  of  agriculture,  it  be- 
ing inipolrd  not  unly  upon  niiiuulucturcs,  but  iipun 
the  fuJe  produce  of  the  laud. 

ALCAZAR  i.EcuER,  a  town  of  Africa,  in  llie 
kingdom  of  Fez,  and  in  the  province  of  ilabat.  it 
was  taken  by  Aljihoufo,  king  of  Portugal,  in  1468  ; 
but  foon  alter  tliat,  it  was  abandoned  to  the  Moors. 
It  is  feattd  on  the  coall  of  the  llraits  of  Gibraltar. 
\V.  Long.  5.  3c.  N.  Lat.  38.  o. 

ALCAZiill,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  New  Caftile,  feat 


] 


A  L  C 


w  hicii  Ihould  be  carefully  faved  from  ihofc  plants  whofc    Alcedo. 

flowers  are  double  and  of  the  bell  colours  :  for  though  ' ' — 

the  duplicity  of  the  riow  ers,  as  well  as  tlicir  colour,  are 
only  accidental  properties,  yet  the  young  plants  will 
I'roducc  nearly  the  fame  kind  of  tlowers  with  tliofc 
Irom  which  the  feeds  are  taken,  provided  no  plantswiih 
lingle  or  bad-coloured  tlowers  arc  permitted  to  grow 
near  them  ;  and  as  foon  as  fuch  ,ippcar  they  ouglit  to 
be  removed  from  the  good  ones,  that  their  lariiia  may 
not  fprcad  into  the  others,  which  would  caufe  them  to 


cd  on  the  river  Guardamana,  which  has  a  furtrefs  on     degenerate.   The  feeds  ought  tobegathcrcd  very  dry, 


a  high  hill  for  its  defence,  and  lies  in  a  very  fruitful 
country.  It  is  100  miles  north-well  of  Carthagena. 
\V.  Long.  2.  10.  N.  Lat.  38.  15. 

ALC£,  .-^LCEs,  or  Llk,  in  zoology,  the  trivial 
name  of  a  fpecies  of  the  ccrvus,  belonging  to  the  order 
of  maiujnalia  pccora.     See  Cervus. 

ALCKA,  the  Holi.y-hock  :  A  genus  of  the  poly- 
andria  order,  belonging  to  the  monodelphia  clafs  of 
plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
37tliorder,  Coluinnifir^.  The  characters  are  :  The 
eal)x  is  a  double  perianthium,  monophyllous  and  pcr- 
fiftent ;  the  exterior  one  li >;- cleft,  the  interior  half  iive- 
cleft  :  'I'he  corolla  couliUs  of  nve  petals,  coalefccd  at 
the  bafe,  heartlliapcd  inverfely,  and  expanding  :  'I'lie 
fiainhia  conlill  of  numerous  filaments,  coalefccd  below 
into  a  five-cornered  cylinder,  loofe  above,  and  infcrted 
into  the  corolla  ;  the  antherse  arc  kidney-lliaped  :  The 
pifti/lurii  has  a  roundilh  germen  ;  a  Ihori  cylindric  fly- 
lus :  and  numeroits  brifUy  ftigmata  the  length  of  the 
Itylus:  The /'cT/<.v?r/i;;/OT  con  flits  of  many  arilli, jointed 
into  a  verticillum  about  a  columnar  deprelFcd  recepta- 
cle :   Thtfii^ds  are  folitary,  reniform,  and  dcprclfed. 

SpccUs.  Although  Lii'Uius  mentions  two  diltinft 
fpecies  of  this  genus,  viz.  the  rofta  a.ndJicifo/iti,  he 
thinks,  that  the  latter  may  perhaps  be  only  a  varie- 
ty of  the  former  ;  but  Mr  Miller  affirms  them  to  be 
dillinift  fpecies,  whofe  difference  in  ihe  form  of  their 


anj  remain  in  their  capfules  until  fpring;  butcarcmuft 
be  taken  that  no  wet  tomes  to  them  in  winter,  other- 
wife  the  toverswould  turn  mouldy, and  fpoil  iheircon- 
tents. — They  fliould  be  fown  indrills,  about  tlicmidtllc 
of  April,  on  a  bed  of  light  earth,  and  covered  with 
earth  of  the  fame  kind  about  half  an  inch  deep.  When 
the  plants  have  put  out  fix  or  eight  leaves,  they  iliould 
be  tranlpfiiued  into  nurlcry-beds,  obfcrving  to  w'atcr 
them  until  they  have  taken  goo  J  root ;  after  which 
they  will  reijuirc  no  fartlicr  care,  but  to  keep  them  . 
clean  from  weeds  till  October,  when  they  lliould  be  . 
iranlplanted  where  they  are  to  remain. 

ALCLUO,  or  KiNGSHSHER,  in  ornithology,  a. 
genus  of  the  order  of  pirae.  The  alcedo  has  a  long,  . 
Itrait,  thick,  triangular  bill;  with  a  flclhy,  plain,, 
Ihort,  ;lat  tongue. 

Oi  this  gems  there  are  a  great  many  fpecies,  with  • 
one  or  other  of  which  almoft  every  part  of  the  world 
isturniihcd.  Mofloi'ihcm  frequent  rivers,  and  live  on 
liih,  tilt  lingul  irity  01  catching  which  is  admirable  : 
fomeiimes  hovering  over  the  water,  where  a  fltoal  of 
fmall  filhes  is  fcen  playing  near  the  furface  ;  at  other 
times  waiting  with  attention,  on  forae  low  branch 
hanging  over  the  water,  for  the  approach  of  a  Angle 
one  who  is  fo  unlucky  as  to  fwim  that  way  ;  in  either 
cafe  dropping  like  a  Hone,  or  rather  Waning  with  ra- 
pi  jiiy  onhisprey;  when.feizingitcrolfwifcin  his  bill. 


leaves  always  continues.     The  leaves  of  the  hrfl  fort  it  retires  to  a  retting  place  to  feafton  it;  m  hichit  does 

are  roundifli,  and  cut  at  their  extremities  intoangles  ;  piecemeal,  bones  and  all,  without  referve,  afterwards 

thofeof  the  fecond  are  deeply  cut  iniolixor  fcvenfeg-  bringing  up  the  indigcliible  parts  in  pellets,  like  birds 

ments,  fo  as  ;o  relemble  a  hand.  Cultivation  produces  of  prey .  The  wings  of  mofl  of  the  genus  are  very  Ihort ; 

almoft  an  infinite  variety  of  this  plant,  fuch  as  double-  yet  the  birds  fly  rapidly,  and  with  great  ftrength.    It 

llowered,  iingle-fiowered,  deep  red,  pale  red,  blackilh  may  be  remarked,  that  throughout  thisgeniis,  blue,  in 

red,white,  purple,  yellow,  and  tlelh-colour.   The  firft  different  Ihades,  is  the  raoftpredominantcolour The 


fpecies  is  a  native  of  China,  the  fecond  grows  alio  in 
Iflria.  Tho' natives  of  warm  countries,  they  are  hardy 
enough  to  thrive  in  the  open  air  in  Britain,  and  have 
for  many  years  beenfome  of  the  grcatcfl  ornaments  in 
gardens,  towards  the  end  of  fummer;  but  they  have  the 
inconvenience  of  grow  ing  too  large  for  fmall  gardens. 


fpecies  found  in  the  South  Sea  Idands  are  held  in  a 
kind  of  fuperftitious  veneration  l)y  the  natives  of  the 
places  they  feverally  inhabit,  perhaps  on  account  of 
their  being  fiequenily  feen  flying  about  the  morals  or 
burial-placef.  That  which  inhabits  Otaheite,  where 
it  is  called  Erooro,  is  acconnied  particularly  facred. 


and  requiring  tall  ftakes  to  fecure  them  from  being     and  not  allowed  to  be  taken  or  killed 


broken  by  Arong  winds.  In  large  gardens,  however, 
when  properly  difpofed,  they  make  a  fine  appearance  ; 
for  as  their  fpikcs  of  flowers  grow  very  tall,  there  will 
be  afuceeffion  of  them  on  the  famellcmsmore  than  two 
months:  the  flowers  on  the  lower  part  of  the  fpike  ap- 
pear in  July  ;  and  as  their  (lalks  advance,  new  flowers 
are  produced  till  near  the  end  of  September.  When 
planted  in  good  ground,  the  flalks  will  often  rife  to 
the  height  of  eight  or  nine  feet ;  fo  that  near  fix  feet  of 
each  will  be  garniflied  with  flowers,  which, when  double 
andofgoodcolonrs,  make  a  very  beautiful  appearance. 
Culture.     The  holly-hock  is  propagated  by  feeds, 


I.  The  ifpida,  or  common  kings-filher,  is  not  much 
largerthanafwallow  ;  its  fiiapeisclumfy ;  the  bill  dif- 
proportionably  long;  it  is  two  inches  from  the  bafe  to 
the  tip  ;  llie  upper  chap  black,  and  the  lower  yellow. 
But  the  colours  of  til  is  bird  atone  for  its  in  elegant  form: 
the  crown  of  the  head  and  the  covertsof  the  wings  arc 
ofadeepblackilfi  green,  fpotted  with  bright  azure  :  the 
back  and  tail  are  of  the  moft  refplcndcnt  azure  ;  the 
whole  under-fide  of  tlie  body  is  orange-coloured  ;  a 
broad  mark  of  the  fame  pallcs  from  the  bill  beyond 
the  eyes  ;  beyond  that  is  a  large  white  fpot  ;  the  tail 
is  fliort,  and  conlifls  of  twelve  feathers  of  a  rich  deep 

bine; 


A  L  C 


f    365    3 


A  L  C 


blue  ;  the  feet  arc  of  a  rcdJifli  yellow,  and  the  three 
-  joints  of  (he  outmoft  toe  adhere  to  the  middle  toe, 
while  the  inner  toe  adheres  only  by  one. 

From  the  diminutive  (ize,  the  llender  Ihort  legs,  and 
the  beautiful  colours  of  this  bird,  no  perfon  would  be 
led  to  fuppofe  it  one  of  the  nioft  rapacious  little  ani- 
mals that  Ikinis  the  deep.  Yet  it  is  forever  on  the 
wing,  and  feeds  on  fifh  ;  which  it  takes  in  furprifing 
qOaniiiies.whcu  we  conliderits  fize  and  figure.  It  takes 
its  prey  after  die  manner  of  the  ofprey,  balancing  itfelf 
at  a  certain  diflance  above  the  water  for  a  conlidcrable 
fpace,  then  darting  into  the  deep,  and  fcizingthe  fifli 
with  ineviiablecertainty.  While  it  remains  fufpendcd 
in  the  air,  in  a  bright  day,  the  plumage  exhibits  a  beau- 
tiful variety  of  the  moft  dazzling  and  brilliant  colours. 
This  rtriking  attitude  did  not  el'cape  the  notice  of  the 
ancients;  for  Ibycus,  as  quoted  by  Athenseus,  ftyles 
thefe  birds  «Mti,o»icT«»i/ir<irTifc/,  the  halcyons  with  ex- 
panded wings,  it  makes  its  ncft  in  holts  in  the  lides 
of  the  cliffs,  which  itfcoops  to  the  depth  of  three  feet; 
and  lays  from  five  to  nine  eggs,  of  a  moll  beautiful  fe- 
mitranfparent  white.  The  female  begins  to  lay  ear- 
ly in  the  feafon,  and  excludes  her  firA  brood  about  the 
beginning  of  April.  The  male,  whofc  fidelity  exceeds 
even  that  of  the  turtle,  brings  her  large  provifions  of 
fi(h  while  Ihe  is  thus  employed  ;  and  (he,  contrary  to 
moft  other  birds,  is  found  plump  and  fat  at  that  fea- 
fon. The  male,  that  ufed  to  twitier  before  this,  now 
enters  the  nefl  as  quietly  and  as  privately  as  polTible. 
The  young  ones  are  hatched  at  the  expira;ion  of  20 
days  ;  but  are  fccn  to  differ  as  well  in  their  lizc  as  in 
their  beauty. 

Thisfpecies  is  the  axxi/ana^ ui©.,,  or  mutehalcyonof . 
Ariftotlc,  which  he  defcribes  with  more  precilion  than 
is  ufual  with  that  great  philofopher.  After  his  defcrip- 
tion  of  the  bird  follows  that  of  its  nefl  ;  than  which 
the  moft  inventive  of  the  ancients  have  delivered  no- 
thing that  appears  at  firft  light  more  fabulous  and  ex- 
travagant. He  relates,  that  it  rcfemblcd  thofc  con- 
cretions that  are  formed  by  the  fea-watcr  ;  that  it  re- 
femblcd  the  long-necked  gourd  ;  that  it  was  hollow 
within  ;  that  the  entrance  was  very  narrow,  fo  that, 
fhould  it  overfet,  the  wa;er  could  not  enter  ;  that  it  re- 
fifted  any  violence  from  iron,  but  could  be  broke  with 
a  blow  from  the  hand  ;  and  that  it  was  compofed  of  the 
bones  of  theBa«»,orfea-needlc.  The  nell  had  medi- 
cal virtues  afcribcd  to  it ;  and  from  the  bird  was  called 
Batcyoncuvi.  In  a  fabulous  age,  every  odd  fubftance 
that  was  rtung  alhorc  received  that  name  ;  a  fpecics  of 
tubular  coral,  a  fponge,  a  zoophite,  and  a  mifccllane- 
ous  concrete,  having;,  by  the  ancients  been  dignified 
,  with  that  title fromthcirimaginary  origin*.  Yetmuch 
•  of  this  feems  to  be  founded  on  truth.  The  form  of  the 
neft  is  juftly  defcribed  ;  and  the  materials  which  Ari- 
ftotle  fays  it  w'as  compofed  of,  are  nor  entirely  of  liis 
own  invention.  Whoever  has  feen  the  neft  of  the 
kings-fifher,  will  obfcrvc  it  ftrewed  with  the  bones  and 
fcales  of  fidi ;  the  fragments  of  the  food  of  the  owner 
and  its  young. — On  the  foundation  laid  by  the"philo- 
fophtr  fuccecding  writers  formed  other  tales  extreme- 
ly abfurdj  and  the  poets,  indulging  the  powers  of  i- 
magination,  drelfcd  the  ftory  in  all  the  robes  of  ro- 
mance. Tlfis  nefl  was  a  floating  one  : 
Incubat  hakyoni  pcndentibus  aequorc  nidis. 

Ovid.  Met.  lib.  xi. 


It  was  therefore  neeefTary  to  place  it  in  a  tranquil  fca,    Alccdo. 
and  to  fupply  the  bird  with  charms  to  allay  the  fury  ' — «^*- 
ofa  turbulent  element  during  the  time  of  its  incubation; 
for  it  had,  at  4hat  ftaion,  jKJWer  over  the  fcas  and  the 
winds. 

X    aXxMOf  yof»»ii,TT/  ra  xi/juaTu,  t»f  ti  -^aXaTTcn, 
T«»  TI  ittil,  TC»  T    tc/f  e»,  et  ir-j^at^  ^i.x/«  tin\i 
A  Xxi/oxc,  y\a\j%at.i%  Kitfxr/  tai  ti  fj.a.\if% 

Ofii^utt^i\a-3-ii.         Theocrit.  Idyl.  vii.  1.  57. 

May  Halcyons  finooth  the  waves,  and  calm  ihcfcas. 
And  the  rough  fouth-eaft  fink  into  a  breeze  ; 
Halcyons,  of  all  the  birds  that  haunt  the  main, 
Moft  lov'dand  hoiiour'd  by  the  Nereid  train. 

Fav/kes. 

Thefe  birds  were  equally  favourites  with  Thetis  as 
with  the  Nereids  ; 

Dilcftae  Thetidi  Halcyoncs.  V  t  r  c .  Georg.  I.  399, 
as  if  to  their  influence  thefe  deities  owed  a  rcpofe  in 
the  midft  of  the  ftorms  of  winter,  and  by  their  means 
were  fccured  from  thofe  winds  that  difturb  their  fub- 
marine  retreats,  andagitated  even  the  plants  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ocean. 

Such  are  the  accounts  given  by  the  Roman  and  Si- 
cilian poets.  Ariftotlc  and  Pliny  tell  us,  that  this 
bird  is  moft  common  in  the  feas  of  Sicily  :  that  it  fat 
only  a  few  days,  and  thofe  in  the  depth  of  winter;  and 
during  that  period  the  mariner  might  fail  in  full  fecu- 
rity  ;  for  which  reafun  they  were  ftylcd  Halcyon  days. 

Perquc  dies  placidos  hiberno  tempore  feptem 
\nc\i\>dit*Halcyone  pendcntibus  xquorc  nidis  : 
Tnm  via  tuta  maris  :  ventos  cuftodit,  et  arcet 
iEolus  egrelfu.  Ovid.  Met.  lib.  xi. 

Alcyone,  comprefs'd. 
Seven  days  fits  brooding  on  her  watery  neft, 
A  wintry  queen ;  her  fire  at  length  is  kind, 
Calms  every  ftorra,  and  hulhes  evtry  wind. 

Drvden. 

Irt  after- times,  thefe  words  exprefled  any  feafon  of 

profperity  :  thefe  were  the  Halycjn  days  of  the  poets  ; 

the  brief  tranquillity,  \.\\e  feptem  placidi  dies ,  of  human 

lil'e. 

The  poets  alfo  made  it  a  bird  of  fong.  Virgil  feems 
to  place  it  in  the  fame  rank  with  the  linnet  ; 

Littoraquc  Halyconem  refonant,  et  Acanthida  dumi. 

Georg.  III.  338. 

And  Silius  Italicus  celebrates  its  mufic,  and  its  float- 
ing neft  : 

Cum  fonat  //ir/crtM^  cantu^nidofque  natances 
Immota  gcftat  fopitis  fludibus  iinda.     LHr.  xiv.  275. 

But  thefe  writers  feem  to  have  transfertcd  to  our  fpc- 

iics,  the  harmony  that  belongs  to  the  vocal  alcedo  * ,  '  AriU. 

one  of  the  loft  birds  of  the  ancients.  HilU  an. 

As  the  ancients  have  had  their  fables  coi\cerning  '*' 
this  bird,  fo  have  the  modern  vulgar.  It  is  an  opi- 
nion generally  received  among  them,  that  the  flelh  of 
the  kings-filher  vill  not  corrupt,  and  that  it  will  even 
banilhall  vermin.  This  has  no  better  foundation  than 
that  which  is  faid  of  its  always  pointing,  when  hung 
up  dead,  with  its  breaft  to  the  north.  The  only  truth 
which  can  be  aflirmed  of  this  bird  when  dead  is,  that 

its 


A  L  C 


[     366     ] 


A  L  C 


Alfcdo.     its  fledi  is  utterly  unfit  to  be  eaten  ;  wliilc  its  beautiful 

" " plumage  pitl'crvcs  its  lultrc  longer  than  tliat  otany  o- 

thcrbirJ  wt  know. 

Tliis  bird  is  found  not  only  in  Britain,  but  through- 
out Furopc,  Afia,  and  Africa  ;  as  fpccinicns  have  been 
received  from  both  China,  Bengal,  auil  Kgypt.  Be- 
lon  alio  remarks  his  having  met  with  it  in  Romania 
and  Greece;  and  Scopoli  notices  it  as  a  birdofCar- 
niola,  where  he  fays  it  reniaius  the  whole  year  as  in 
England.  Indeed  it  bears  the  rigours  of  the  colder 
climates  fo  well,  that  amongthc  Germans  it  lias  gain- 
ed the  name  of  Eifzvogtl  or  Ic:  Bird :  Oliiia  fpeaks 
alio  of  its  not  regarding  the  ice  and  cold  ;  and  Gmelin 
allures  us,  that  it  is  found  even  in  Tariary  ana  Sibe- 
tia.  But,  howevc  r  this  may  be,  tliere  are  few  winters 
in  wTiich  many  of  thcfe  birds  do  not  peri(h,  apparently 
from  cold  alone  ;  as  fevcral  have  been  found  frozen 
flifFby  the  fides  of  even  running  water,  without  the 
leail  marl:  of  violence  about  them.  M.  D'Aubenton 
has  kept  ihcfc  birds  for  fevcral  months,  by  means  of 
fmall  tifli  put  into  bafonsof  water,  on  which  they  have 
fed  ;  for  on  experiment  they  have  rcfufcd  all  other 
kinds  of  nourillimcnt. 

2.  The  rudis,  or  Egyptian  kings-fiflier,  asdcfcribed 
by  Had'elquift,  is  the  lize  of  the  Royllon  crow.  The 
bill  is  blackifli,  more  than  half  an  incli  broad  at  the 
bafc,  and  two  inches  in  length  :  the  head,  llioulders, 
and  back,  are  brown,  marked  with  oblong  ferruginous 
fpots  :  the  throat  is  of  a  ferruginous  white  :  the  belly 
and  thighsare  whitifli, marked  withlongitudinal  broad- 
illl  cinereous  fpots  :  upper  tail  coverts  are  quite  white  : 
the  quills  fpotted  with  white  on  the  inner  webs,  chiefly 
at  the  tips  :  the  tail  is  a(h-coloured  :  the  legs  are  of  a 
pale  green  ;  and  the  claws  blackifli.  It  inhabits  lower 
Kgypt,  about  Cairo  ;  builds  in  fycamore  and  date  trees  ; 
and  feeds  on  frogs,- infefts,  and  fmall  filh,  which  lull 
it  meets  with  in  tlie  fields  when  they  are  overflowed. 
Its  cry  is  not  unlike  that  of  the  common  crow. 

3.  Le  taparara  of  Button  is  about  the  fize  of  a 
flarling.  The  uppermandiblc  of  the  bill  is  black;  the 
lower  red  :  (he  hind  part  of  the  neck,  tlie  back,  and 
fcapulars,  are  of  an  elegant  blue  ;  the  rump  and  upper 
tail  coverts  bright  beryl-blue  :  the  under  parts  of  the 
body  are  white  ;  the  wing  coverts  blue  ;  and  the  legs 
red.  Inhabits  Cayenne  and  Guiana,  at  which  lafl 
place  the  natives  call  all  the  kings-fiflier  tribe  by  the 
name  Tafamra.  In  this  part  of  South  America,  which 
contains  many  rivcrsfullof  filh,kings-fi(hcrs,as  might 
be  expefled,  abound  in  vaft  numbers  :  but  what  is  re- 
markable, they  never  kerd  together,  always  being 
found  fingle,  except  in  breeding-time,  which  is  about 
the  month  of  September.  They  lay  their  eggs  in  the 
holes  of  banks,  like  the  kings-fifher  of  Europe.  The 
cry  of  this  bird  imitates  the  word  Carac. 

4.  The  torqneta,  or  cinereous  kings-filher,  is  about 
the  fize  of  a  magpie,  and  fifteen  inches  and  a  half  in 
length.  The  bill  is  three  inches  and  a  half  long,  and 
brown  ;  the  bafe  of  the  lower  mandible  reddilh  :  the 
head  is  crefled  :  the  upper  parts  of  the  head  and  body 
are  blueilh  a(h  ;  i-he  upper  parts  chefnut :  the  throat 
is  whitilh,  dcfcending  down  the  neck,  and  pafling  be- 
hind like  a  collar,  ending  towards  the  bjck  in  a  point ; 
the  under  tail  coverts  are  of  a  pale  fulvous,  xranfverfe- 
ly  ftriated  with  black :  leflTer  wing  coverts  varied  with 
blueiih,  alh,  black,  and  yellowifh  :  the  kgs  arc  red  ; 


and  the  claws  blackiih.     It  inhabits  Martinico  and    Alccilo, 
Mexico  ;  at  which  lall  it  is  called  AchalalalHi.     This  Alcliemilli 

bird  migrates  into  the  northern  partsof  Mexicoat  cer-  " ' 

tain  feafons  only,  and  is  fuppofed  to  come  there  from 
fome  hotter  parts. 

[The  jacamars  are  much  allied  to  this  genus,  and 
have  been  ranked  under  it  by  Linnasus  :  Their  toes 
are,  however,  dilferently  placed  ;  their  food  alfo  is 
dirtircni,  being  infetls  alone,  and  not  filh  ;  and  their 
haunts  are  diifercnt,  being  moill  woods,  and  not  lliores 
or  tlie  banks  or  rivers.] 

J.  The  galbula,  or  green  jacamar,  is  about  the  fize 
of  a  lark.  The  bill  is  black,  of  a  fquare  form,  a  little 
incurvated  and  iharp  at  the  point :  the  plumage  in  ge- 
neral, in  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  is  of  a  m oft  bril- 
liant green,  gloll'ed  with  copper  and  gold  in  different 
lights:  the  belly,  throat,  and  vent,  are  rufous:  the 
tail  is  compofed  of  ten  feathers,  and  fliaped  like  a 
wedge :  the  legs  are  of  a  grcenifli  yellow,  very  Ihort 
and  weak;  the  claws  are  black.  This  fpecies  is  found 
both  in  Guiana  and  Bralil,  in  the  nioiif  woods  which 
it  prefers  to  the  more  dry  fpots,  for  the  fake  of  infeds, 
on  which  it  feeds.  It  is  feldom  feen  except  llngle,  as 
it  is  a  very  folitary  bird,  keeping  for  the  mofl  part  in 
the  thickell  parts  ;  its  flight  quick,  but  fliort  ;  perches 
on  branches  of  a  middling  height,  where  it  fits  all 
night,  and  frequently  part  of  the  day,  without  llirring. 
Though  thefe  birds  are  folitary,  yet  they  are  far  from 
fcarce,  as  many  may  be  met  with.  They  are  faid  to 
have  a  lliort  and  agreeable  note.  The  natives  of  Gui- 
ana call  this  bird  Venctore  and  the  Creoles,  Cotibrides 
grands  boh.     At  Brazil  their  flefli  is  eaten  by  fome. 

6.  The  paradifea,  or  paradife  jacamar,  is  of  the 
fame  fize  with  the  former,  and  has  a  fimilar  bill :  the 
throat,  fore  part  of  the  neck,  and  under  wing  coverts, 
arc  white  :  the  reft:  of  the  plumage  is  of  a  deep  dull 
green,  in  fome  lights  appearing  almoft  black,  in  other 
with  a  (light  glofs  of  violet  and  copper  bronze  :  the 
tail  is  compofed  of  twelve  feathers  of  unequal  lengths: 
the  two  middle  ones  longeft  :  the  legs  are  black  ;  the 
toes  are  placed  two  before  and  two  behind,  and  pret- 
ty much  united.  It  inhabits  Surinam  ;  and  like  the 
others,  it  feeds  on  infefts  ;  and  fomctimes,  contrary 
ro  them,  frequents  open  places.  It  flies  farther  at  a 
time,  and  perches  on  the  tops  of  trees:  It  is  frequent- 
ly found  with  a  companion,  not  being  quite  fo  folitary 
a  bird  as  the  other.  It  alfo  differs  in  the  note,  having 
a  kind  of  foft  whiftle  often  repeated,  but  not  heard  a 
great  way  off. 

Above  30  other  fpecies  have  been  defcribed  by  orni- 
thologifts. 

ALCHEMILLA,  or  Ladies-mantle;  A  genus 
of  the  nionogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  tctrandria 
clafs  of  plants ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  un- 
der the  35th  order  Seiit'tc'jfa.  The  calyx  is  a  lingle- 
leav'd  perianthium,  tubular,  and  perliftent ;  the  mouth 
flat,  and  eight-parted  :  There  is  no  c^ro//.?.  The  fla- 
mina  confiftof  four  fmall  ereft  fubulated  filaments  pla- 
ced in  the  mouth  of  the  calyx  ;  the  antherse  are  round- 
i(h :  The  fijiitiuin  has  an  egg-  fhapcd  gcrmm  :  Tlie  fly- 
/r/j'is  filiform,  the  length  of  the  ftamina,  and  infcrted 
at  thcbafcofthe  germ  :  The  rtignia  is  globular.  There 
isno  perkar[tiri;i!,  but  the  neck  of  tjic  calyx  clofcd.  The 
feedtoihzry,  elliptical,  and  comprefled.  Of  this  genus 
there  are  three 

Species. 


A  L  C 


[ 


species.  I.  The  vulgaris,  or  common  ladies-maiitlc, 
with  leaves  plaited  like  a  fan,  and  yellowilh-grccn 
blollbms.  It  grows  naturally  in  pallurc-lands  in 
moll  countries  in  Europe.  The  leaves  difcovcr 
to  the  tafle  a  moderate  aflringency  ;  and  were 
formerly  much  cfleemed  in  fome  female  weaknelf- 
es,  and  in  Huxes  of  the  belly.  They  are  now  rarely 
made  ufeof,tho'  both  the  leaves  and  roots  might  doubt- 
Icfs  be  of  fcrvicc  in  cafes  where  mild  ?itringents  are 
required.  In  the  province  of  Smolandia  in  Goth- 
land, they  make  a  tinAure  of  the  leaves,  and  give  it  in 
fpafmodic  or  convulfive  difeafes.  Horfcs,  fhcep,  and 
goats,  eat  it  ;  cows  are  not  fond  of  it ;  fwinc  refufe  it. 
— 2.  The  alpina,  or  cinque-foil  ladies-mantle,  with 
finger-lhaped  fawed  leaves,  and  grecnilh  blollbms.  It 
is  a  native  of  the  mountainous  parts  of  Europe.  Goats 
and  cows  eat  it ;  horfes,  flieep,  and  fwinc,  rcfufc  it. — 
3.  The  minor,  or  lealt  ladies  mantle,  u  ith  live  fmooth 
leaves  growing  at  a  joint  and  cut  into  many  fcgincnts. 
It  grows  naturally  in  Sweden,  Lapland,  and  other 
cold  countries.  Eaten  by  cows  and  goats  ;  refufed  by 
horfcs,  Iheep,  and  fwinc. 

Culture.  Thefe  plants  have  perennial  roots,  and  an- 
nual flalks.  They  are  eafily  propagated  by  parting  of 
their  roots,  or  fowing  their  lecds  in  autumn.  They 
ftiould  have  a  moill  foil  and  Ihady  lituation,  and  be 
kept  clean  from  weeds  j  which  is  all  the  culture  they 
require. 

ALCHEMIST,  a  praflitioncr  in  alchemy. 

ALCHEMY,  that  branch  of  chemillry  which  had 
for  its  principal  objects  the  tranfmutation  of  metals 
into  gold  ;  the  panacea,  or  univerfal  remedy  ;  an  alka- 
hell,  or  univerfal  mcndruum  ;  an  univerfal  ferment ; 
and  many  other  tilings  equally  ridiculous. 

Kircher,  inllrutted  in  all  the  lecrets  of  chemiflry, 
has  fully  expofcd  the  artiftccs  and  impolhiresof  alchc- 
mills.  Aw  alchemill  puts  into  a  crucible  the  matter 
which  is  to  be  converted  into  gold  j  this  he  fets  on  the 
fire,  blows  it,  Ilirsit  with  rods  ;  and,  after  divers  ope- 
rations, gold  is  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  crucible, 
inilead  of  the  matter  firft  put  in  :  this  there  are  a 
thoul'and  ways  of  cft'ecUng,  without  any  tranfniuta- 
tion.  Sometimes  it  is  done  by  dexteroully  dropping  in 
a  piece  of  gold  concealed  between  the  lingers,  fome- 
times  by  calling  in  a  little  of  the  dud  of  gold  or  lilver 
difguifed  under  the  appearance  of  fome  elixir,  or  other 
indifferent  matter  ;  fometimcs  acruciblcibufed  which 
has  a  double  bottom,  and  gold  put  between  the  two  ; 
fomctimes  the  rod  ufcd  to  ilir  the  matter  is  hollow, 
and  filled  with  the  dull  of  the  metal  defircd  ;  at  other 
times  there  is  metal  mixed  with  the  charcoal,  the  allies 
of  the  furnace,  or  the  like.  Mr  Harris  very  properly 
tiiftinguilhes  between  alchemy  and  cheniiilry  ;  and  de- 
fines the  former  to  be  urs  fine  arte,  ciijui  priiici{iur,i  eft 
mentiri,  7iiedium  laborare,  etfitiis  mendtcart  ;  and  the 
Italians  have  a  proverb,  noutifidiare  al akhnnifta  pre- 
vent 0  medico  at/tu/ato.  The  ruin  wliich  has  attended 
this  delulion  has  occalioucd  feveral  Rates  to  make  fc- 
vere  laws  againfl  pretences  to  alchemy.  The  Romans 
formerly  banilhed  all  fuch  as  profelled  it ;  and  the  fa- 
crdd  canons  likewife  direfted  the  thunder  of  theirccn- 
fure  againfl  them.  Dioclelian  and  C.^far  dirciled  all 
books  which  treated  of  this  fubjcCl  to  be  burnt.  Ry- 
mer  I'urnilhesus  with  a  licence  for  praailingalchemy, 
with  all  kinds  of  metals  and  minerals,  granted  to  one 


367     ]  A  L  C 

Richard  Carter  in  the  year  1476  /f_ym.  fuj.  torn.  xii.      Aldat 
Neverthelefs,wc  havc'had  fevcrclaws  agaiiift  alchemy         || 
and  multiplying  of  metals,  as  much  fo  as  againfl  coin-    Alcmaer 

ing  itfelf.  " « —  ' 

ALCIAT  f  Andrew),  agrcatlawyer,  whofJourifh- 
ed  in  the  16th  century,  ^jrn  at  Milan.  He  mixed 
much  of  polite  learning  in  the  explication  of  the  laws, 
and  happily  drove  out  tiie  barbarity  of  language  which 
rill  then  had  reigned  in  the  lectures  and  writings  of 
lawyers;  for  which  Thuanus  highly  praifcs  him.  He 
publifhed  a  great  many  law-books,  and  fomc  notes 
upon  Tacitus.  His  Emblems  have  been  much  admired, 
and  tranllated  into  French,  Italian,  and  Spanilli  ;  and 
feveral  learned  men  have  written  comincnurics  on 
them. 

ALCIBIADES,  an  Athenian  general.  It  was 
the  fate  of  this  great  man  to  live  at  a  time  when  his 
country  was  a  fccneof  confulion.  The  Greeks,  grown 
infoleut  from  their  conquefls  in  Pcrlia,  turned  their 
arms  againfl  each  other,  and  bandied  together  under 
the  conduct  of  the  twomofl  oppulent  flates  Athens  an  d 
Lacedxmon.  Alcibiadcs,  in  the  midfl  of  an  expedition 
he  had  planned  againfl  the  enemy  of  his  country,  was 
recalled  home  toanfwer  fome  charge  of  a  private  na- 
ture ;  but  fearing  the  violence  of  his  enemy,  inflead 
of  going  to  Athens,  he  offered  his  fervices  at  Sparta, 
where  theywere  readily  accepted.  By  his  advice  the 
Lacedsemonians  made  a  league  with  Pcrlia, which  gave 
a  very  favourable  turn  to  their  affairs.  But  his  credit 
in  the  republic  railing  jealoulies  againfl  him,  he  pri- 
vately reconciled  himfelf  to  his  country,  and  took  a. 
gain  the  command  of  an  Athenian  army.'  Here  vii%ry 
waiting  as  it  were  at  his  command,  attended  all  his 
motions.  The  lofsof  fcvcn  battles  obliged  the  Spar- 
tans to  fuefor  peace.  He  enjoyed  his  iriuinphs,  how- 
over,  only  a  lliort  time  at  Athens.  One  unfucccfsful 
event  made  him  again  obnoxious  to  the  malice  of  his 
citizens  ;  and  he  found  it  expedient  to  retire  from  A- 
thens.  In  his  abfence  the  Spartans  again  took  the  lead, 
and  at  the  fatal  battle  of  .-Ilgos  entirely  fubducd  the 
Athenian  pow  er.  Alcibiadcs,  though  an  exile,  endea- 
voured to  rellore  the  powerof  his  country  ,  of  which 
the  Spartans  having  intelligence,  procured  him  to  be 
air.ilhnatcd.  He  was  a  man  of  admirable  accomplifn- 
ments,  bin  indifferently  principled  :  of  great  parts; 
and  of  an  amazing  vcrfatility  of  genius. 

ALCINOUS,  kingof  the  Phoenicians,  in  theifland 
now  called  Corfu,  was  fon  of  Naulillious,  and  grand- 
fon  of  Neptune  and  Pevibea.  It  is  by  his  gardens  this 
king  has  chieiiy  immortalized  his  memory.  He  re- 
ceived Ulylfes  with  much  civility,  when  a  florm  had 
cart  him  on  his  coall.  The  people  here  loved  plcafurc. 
and  good  clieer,  yet  were  fkilf'ul  feameu;  and  Alcinous 
was  a  good  Prince. 

ALcMAER,  a  city  of  thcUnited  Provinces,  feat- 
ed  in  North  Holland,  about  four  miles  from  the  fea, 
1 5  from  Hacrlem,  and  i3  from  Arallerdam.  It  is  a 
handfomc  city,  and  one  of  the  cleaneft  in  Holland. 
The  ftreetsand  houfes  arc  extremely  neat  and  regular, 
and  the  public  buildings  very  beautiful.  It  had  for- 
merly twoparilh-churchcs,  dedicated  to  St  Mattliew 
and  St  Lawrence.  The  latter  had  fo  high  a  tower, 
that  it  fervcd  for  afea-raark  to  the  velltlsthat  were  in 
the  open  fea  ;  but,  in  1464,  it  tumbled  down,  and 
damaged  the  oUicr  church  lb  much,   that  they  were 

botlu 


A  L  C 


[     368     ] 


A  L  C 


both  JcinoIKhed  in  1470,  and  one  cliurcli  was  built  in 
theirl*cad,dcdicatcd  to  tlicfamefaiiits.  1  hcSpaiiiards, 
under  the  command  of  Krcdericot'  Toledo,  Ion  ol  the 
duke  d'Alva,  came  to  bcliej;c  it,  at'tcr  tlicy  had  taken 
Hacrlem  in  1573  '•  l^"'  were  forced  to  raifc  the  fiegc, 
after  three  nioiithslyiuj;  before  it,  as  well  on  account 
of  the  iufei5liou  of  the  air  as  the  (lout  rclilUnce  of  the 
inhabitants  and  foldiers  ;  even  the  women  lignaliiing 
thcm:<lvcs  bravely  in  its  defence,  it  is  recorded  i.i 
the  regiller  of  this  city,  that,  in  the  year  1637,  120 
tulips,  with  the  ofi-fets,  fold  for  90,000  florins.  The 
town  has  a  very  good  trade  in  butter  and  chcefe,  of 
which  a  vafl  quantity  is  fold  every  year,  and  is  elleeni- 
ed  tlie  belt  in  Holland,  £.  Long.  4.  26.  N.  Lat. 
S2.  28. 

ALCIMAN,  a  lyric  poet,  who  flourillied  in  the  27th 
Olympiad.  He  was  born  at  Sparta  ;  and  compofed 
feveral  poems,  of  which  only  fome  fragments  are  re- 
maining, quotedby  Athcnasiis  and  fome  other  ancient 
writers.  He  \.  as  wery  amorous  :  accounted  the  father 
of  gallant  poefy  ;  and  is  faid  to  have  been  the  firll  that 
introduced  the  culiom  of  iinging  love-fougs  in  com- 
pany. He  is  reported  to  have  been  one  of  ihc  great- 
cfl  eaters  of  his  age  ;  upon  wbicli  Mr  Bayle  remarks 
that  fucha  quality  would  have  been  extremely  incon- 
venient, if  poetry  had  been  at  that  time  upon  fuch  a 
■footing  as  it  has  been  often  fincc,  notable  to  pro- 
cure the  poet  bread.  He  died  of  a  llrange  difcafc  ; 
for  he  was  eat  up  with  lice. 

ALCMANIAN,  in  ancient  lyric  poetry,  a  kind  of 
verfcconliflingof  twodadylesand  two  trothces;as, — 

Virgiiii\bui  put  \rifqii.'\caKto 
The  word  is  formed  from  Aicthan,  the  name  of  an  an- 
cient Greek  poet,  in  great  clteem  for  his  erotics  or 
amorous  tompofition. 

ALCMENA,  the  daughter  ofEledlryo  king  of  My- 
cenx,  and  wife  of  Amphitryon.  Jupiter  puttingon  the 
Ihapcof  her  hufband  while  hewas  abroad  in  the  wars, 
begot  Hercules  upon  her:  he  made  that  night  as  long 
as  three  ordinary  ones. 

ALCOCK  (John),  dodor  of  laws  and  bifliop  of 
Ely  in  the  rtign  of  king  Henry  VII.  was  born  at  Be- 
verly in  Yorklhire,and  educated  at  Cambridge.  Hewas 
rirll  made  dean  of  Weflminrtcr,  and  afterwards  ap- 
pointed mailer  af  the  rolls.  In  1471,  he  was  confe- 
crated  bilhopofRochefler  .  m  1476,  he  was  tranflated 
to  the  fee  ofWorchcflcr  ;  and  in  14S6,  to  that  of  Ely, 
in  the  room  of  Dr  John  Morton,  preferred  to  the  fee 
of  Canterbury.  He  was  a  prelate  of  great  learning 
and  piety  ;  and  fo  highly  etleemed  by  king  Henry, 
that  he  appointed  him  lord  prefident  of  Wales,  and 
afterwards  lord  chancellor  of  England.  Alcock  found- 
ed a  fchool  at  Kingfton  upon  Hull,  and  built  the  fpa- 
cious  hkll  belonging  to  the  epifcopal  palace  at  Ely. 
He  wasalfo  ihcfounder  of  Jefus-college  in  Cambridge 
lor  a  mailer,  lix  fellows,  and  as  many  fcholars.  This 
houfe  was  formerly  a  nunnery,  dedicated  to  St  Radi- 
gund  :  and,  as  Godwin  tells  us,  the  building  being 
greatly  decayed,  and  the  revenues  reduced  alnioll  to 
nothing,  the  nuns  had  all  forfaken  it  except  two; 
whereupon  bilhop  Alcock  procured  a  grant  from  the 
crown,  and  converted  it  into  a  college.  But  Cambdcn 
and  others  tell  us,  that  the  nuns  of  that  houfe  were 
fo  notoi ious  for  rheir  incontinence,  that  king  Henry 
VII.  and  pope  Julis  II.  confcniej  to  its  diiTolutipn  : 

3  ' 


Bale  accordingly  calls  this  namicry /piritualiur/  men-     Alcohol 
triciitiicaucihiuji},  "  a  con;uiui:ity  ol  ipiritual  harlots.  '  | 

BiihopAkock  wrote fcvcral  pieces  i  araoiigil  which  are   Alcomi. 
the  following  i    I.  HLoht  I  erji.{ii<jHii.     2.  In  I J'uli/,<.i 
Lcitntntiald.     3.  hn/iliitt  I  ulgaret,     4.  AJ<r/i:latio>iH 
J  ia-.     He  died  Otlober  t.  15CO;  and  was  buried  in 
the  chapel  he  had  built  at  Kinglloa  upon  Hull. 

ALCOHOL,  or  Alkool,  in  clicniillry,   fpirit  of 
wine  highly  rectified  f.  It  is  alio  ufcd  for  any  highly  t  See  Clf 
redified  fpirit — Alcohol  is  extremely  light  and  in-  '"'Ay  ('"- 
flammable  :  It  is  a  Itrong  antifeptic,  and  therefore  em-  ^''^^'  ""'^ 
ployed  to  preferve  animal  fubllances.  Pharmacy. 

Alcohol  is  alfo  ufcd  lor  any  fine  impalpable 
powder. 

ALCOHOLIZATION,  the  procefs  of  reaifyiiig; 
any  fpirit.     It  is  alfo  ufed  for  pulverization. 

ALCOR,  in  allronomy,  a  fmall  liar  adjoining  to 
the  large  bright  one  in  the  middle  of  the  tail  o( utfa 
major. — The  word  is  Arabic.  It  is  a  proverb  among 
the  Arabians,  applied  to  one  who  pretends  to  fee  fmall 
things,  butoverlooks  much  greater  :  Thou  canjl  fee  /ii- 
cor  and  not  yet  fee  the  full  moov.. 

ALCORAN,  or  Al-koran,  the  fcripture,or  bible, 
of  the  Mahometans.  The  word  is  compounded  0/  ihc 
Arabic  particle  a/,  ixiA  coranox  koran,  derived  from 
the  verb  caraa  or  karaa,  to  read.  The  word  ikcreforc 
properly  fignities,  the  reading;  or  rather,  that  ■which 
ought  to  be  read.  By  this  name  the  Mahointtaus  de- 
note not  only  the  entire  book  or  volume  of  the  Koran, 
but  alfo  any  particular  chapter  or  feci  ion  of  it :  Juft  as 
the  Jews  call  either  the  whole  fcripture,  or  any  part  o£ 
it,  by  the  name  of  Karah,  or  Mikra,  words  of  the 
fame  origin  and  import. 

Bclides  this  peculiar  name,  the  Koran  is  alfo  honour- 
ed with  ftveral  appellations  common  to  other  books  of 
fcripture  :  as,  al  Farkan,  from  the  verb  Joraia,  t» 
divide  or  Jijtinguijh  i  not,  as  the  Mahometan  doitors 
fay,  becaufe  thofe  books  arc  divided  into  chapters  or 
fcdions,  or  didinguifli  between  good  and  evil ;  but  in 
the  fame  notion  that  the  Jews  u^  the  wovilerek,  or 
J'irka,  from  the  fame  root,  to  denote  a  fedlion  or  por- 
tion of  fcripture.  It  is  alfo  called  <?/ yi/i5/^<i/",  the  vo- 
lume, and  al  Kitah,  the  book,  by  way  of  eminence, 
which  anfwers  to  the  Bibtia  of  the  Greeks  ;  and  al 
Dhikr,  the  admonition,  which  name  is  alfo  given  to  the 
Pentateuch  and  Gofpel. 

The  Koran  is  divided  into  1 1 4  larger  portions  of  very 
unequal  length,  which  we  call  chapters  ;  but  the  Ara- 
bians/iwar,  in  the  Angular /ara  ;  a  word  rarely  ufcd 
on  any  otiicr  occalion,  and  properly  fignifying  a  row, 
order,  or  a  regular  feries  ;  as  a  courfe  of  bricks  in 
building,  or  a  rank  of  foldiers  in  an  army  ;  and  is  the 
fame  in  ufe  and  import  with  the  Sura,  orTora,  of  the 
Jews,  who  alfo  call  the  fifty-three  feftionsofthe  Pen- 
tateuch Scdarim,  a  word  of  the  fame  lignification. 

Thefe  chapters  are  not,  in  the  manufcript  copies,  di- 
flinguilhcd  by  their  numerical  order,  but  by  particular 
titles,  which  are  taken  foraetimcs  from  a  particular 
matter  treated  of,  or  pcrfon  mentioned  therein  ;  but 
ufually  from  the  tirft  word  of  note,  exaiily  in  the  fame 
mannerasthejewshavc  named  theirScdarim  ;  though 
the  word  from  which  fome  diaptcrs  are  denominated 
be  very  far  dilhmt,  towards  the  middle,  or  perhaps  the 
end,  of  the  ch.ipter  :  which  fccn.s  ridi«.ulous.  But  the 
occafion  of  tliis  appears  to  have  been,  that  the  vcrfc  of 

paflagc 


A  L  C 


[     369     ] 


A  L.C 


rtaiTige  wherein  fiich  word  occurs,  was,  in  poiut  of 
"^  liuic,  revealed  an  I  comiiiit:ed  to  wrida^  l)ctorc  tiic  o- 
tli'crvcr!csi>t  ihe  fame  cliaptcr  wiiicli  precede  ii  in  or- 
der ;  a'ld  tiic  tiik  being  given  to  tlic  cnapter  before  it 
was  completed,  or  the  pailagts  reduced  to  their  prefcnt 
order,  the  verit  from  whei'.cc  luch  liilc  was  taken  did 
1101  always  happen  to  begin  the  chapter.  Some  chap- 
ters have  two  or  more  titles,  occalioned  by  the  differ- 
ence of  the  copies. 

Some  of  the  chapters  having  been  revealed  at  Mec- 
cx,  and  others  »i  I>Iedina,  the  noting  this  dirfcrencc 
makes  a  part  of  the  title  :  but  the  reader  will  obferve, 
that  fcvtral  of  the  chapters  are  faiJ  to  have  been  re- 
vealed partly  at  Mecca  and  partly  at  Medina  ;  and,  as 
to  others,  it  is  yet  a  diiputc  among  the  commentators 
to  which  of  the  two  places  they  belo  ig. 

Kvery  chaptcris  f  ibdividcd  into  fmaller  portions,  of 
very  unequal  length  alfo,  which  we  cuitomarily  call 
Vc-r/ci :  but  the  Arabic  word  is  a_yat,  the  fame  with  the 
Kcbrew  oto!/!,  znd  ligTiidus  Jigi.s  or  r.'oriJcrs  :  f.ich  as 
are  the  fccrcts  of  God,  his  attributes,  works,  j^idge- 
ments,  and  ordinances,  d -livcred  in  thofe  verfes;  many 
of  which  hive  their  particular  titles  alfo,  impofed  in 
the  fame  nianiieras  thofe  of  the  chipters. 

Belides  thcfc  unequal  diviiions  of  chapter  and  vcrfe, 
the  Mahometans  have  alio  divided  their  Koranintolix- 
ty  eq'ial  portions,  which  they  call  Aiz.d,  in  the  fin- 
gular  htzt,  each  lul-.divided  into  four  equal  parts  ; 
which  is  alfo  an  imitation  of  the  Jews, who  havean  an- 
cient diviiion  of  their  iMilhna  into  lixty  portions  call- 
ed Majpcloth.  But  the  Korin  is  more  ulually  divided 
into  thi.  ty  feftions  only,  named  Ajza,  from  the  lingu- 
lar Jc~,  each  of  twice  the  length  of  the  former,  and  in 
the  like  manner  fubdiviJed  into  four  parts.  Thefe  di- 
vifionsarefor  the  ufe  if  tiic  readers  of  the  Koran  in  the 
royal  temples,  or  in  the  adjoining  chapels  where  the 
emperors  and  great  men  are  interred.  There  are  thir- 
ty of  thefe  readers  belonging  to  every  chapel,  and  each 
read>  his  feclion  every  day  ;  fo  that  the  whole  Koran  is 
read  over  once  a-day. 

Next  after  the  title,  at  the  head  6f  every  chapter, 
except  only  the  nintli,  is  prefixed  the  following  folenin 
form,  by  the  Mahometans  called  the  BifmatUh,  I.v 
T  H  E  N  A M  E  OF  T  H  E  Mos T  M  E  R c I n'  r.  Go  r> ;  wliich  form 
they  conllantly  place  at  the  beginningof  all  their  books 
and  writings  in  general,  as  a  peculiar  marker  diflin- 
guifliingcharacterillicof  their  religion,  it  being  count- 
ed a  fortof  impiety  to  omit  it.  The  Jews,  for  the  fame 
purpofc,  make  ufe  of  th  e  form,  ///  tht  name  of  ththo&X), 
or,  In  thi  nam-  of  thi  gnat  God  ;  and  the  caftern 
Chriftians  that  of,  In  th:  naine  of  tki  Fath:r,  and  of 
the  San,  and  of  thi  Holy  ChoJI.  But  Mahomet  proba- 
bly took  this  form,  as  he  did  many  other  things,  from 
iht  Pcrfian  Magi,  who  ufcd  to  begin  their  books  in 
thefe  words,  B-.nam  Tezdaii kakjha'<jhghtr  dudar  ;  that 
is,  //.■  thi  navi!  of  thi  moj!  mtrc'ijul jujt  God. 

There  are  twenty -nine  chapters  of  the  Koran,which 
have  thij  peculiarity,  tliat  they  begin  with  certain  let- 
ters of  the  alphabet,  fonie  with  a  linglc  one,  others 
Willi  more.  Thefe  lertcrs  the  Mahometans  believe  to 
be  the  peculiar  m;rksofi!.e  Koran,  and  to  conceal  feve- 
V0..I. 


ral  profound  myfteries  ;  the  certain  undcrllanding  of 
which,  tht  more  inttUigeir,  confefs,  has  not  been  cora- 
inunicaicd  to  any  mortal,  their  prophet  only  excepted. 
Notwithllaiiding  which,  fjine  will  take  the  liberty  of 
gueiling  at  their  meaning  by  that  fpccics  of  Cabila  call- 
ed by  the  Jews  Nitankon,  and  f.ippofc  the  letters  to 
ftand  for  as  many  words,  cxprelling  the  names  and  at- 
tributes of  God,  his  works,  ordinances,  and  decrees  ; 
and  therefore  thefe  myllerious  letters,  as  well  as  the 
verfes  themfelvcs,  fccm  in  tlie  Koran  to  be  called  lig^u. 
Others  explain  the  intent  of  thefe  letters  from'their 
nature  or  origin,  or  clfe  from  their  value  in  numbers, 
according  to  another  fjiecies  of  the  Je  widi  Cabala  call- 
ed 6V/';i///-/</ :  tbeuncertainty  of  which  conjectures  fuf- 
ficicntly  appears  from  their  difagreement.    Thus,  for 
example,  hvc  chapters,  oneof  which  is  the  fecond,  be- 
gins with  thefe  letters  A.  L.  M.  which  fomc  imagine 
.to  Hand  for  Ai/ah  latiff  vuig'id,  "God  is  gracious  and 
to  hi  glorified ;"  or,  Ana  it  minni,  i.  e.  to  vn  and  from 
mi,  viz.  belongs  all  perfeftion,  and  proceeds  all  good ; 
or  clfc  for  Ana  Aiiihalatn,  "  /  am  thi  moji  -aiifi  Got," 
taking  the  firft  letter  to  in.irk  the  beginning  of  the 
firft  word,  the  fecond  the  middle  of  the  fecond  word, 
and  the  third  the  lall  of  the  third  word ;  or  for  Ai- 
tab,  Cabriil,  AJohatnniid,  the  author,  rcvealer,  and 
preacher  of  the  Koran.    Others  fiy,  that  as  the  letter 
A  belongs  to  the  lower  part  of  the  throat,  the  firft  of 
the  organs  of  fpcech  ;  L  to  the  palate,  the  middle  or- 
gan ;  and  M  to  the  lips,  which  are  the  lall  organ;  fo 
thefe  letters  fignify  thatGod  is  the  beginning,  middle, 
and  end,  or  ought  tobcpraifed  in  the  beginning,  mid- 
dle, and  end,  of  all  our  wordsandaction:  :  or,  as  the  to- 
tal value  of  thofe  three  letters,  in  numbers,  is  f'-vcnty- 
oHe,  they  fignify,  that,  in  tl:c  fpace  of  f'j  many  years, 
the  religion  preached  in  the  Koran  ihould  be  fi.lly  ef- 
tablilhed.    The  co.'jccture  of  a  learned  Chriftian  is  at 
lead  as  certain  as  any  of  the  former,who  fuppofes  thofe 
letters  were  fei  there  by  the  iir.anuenfis,  for  Amar  It 
Ahhammed,  i.  e.  at  thi  comwjudof  Alohammid,  as  the 
five  letters  prefixed  to  the  nineteenth  chapter  fecm  t<> 
be  there  written  by  a  Jewilh  fcribc,  for  Cohyaas,  i.  t. 
Thus  hi  commanded. 

The  Koran  is  univerfallyallowed  to  be  written  with 
the  iitraoft  elegance  and  purity  of  l.mguage,  in  the  di- 
leifl  of  the  tribe  of  Koreilh,  the  moil  noble  and  polite 
ot  all  the  Arabians,  but  with  fome  mixture,  tho'  very 
rarely,  of  other  dialects.  It  is  confelTcdly  the  ftardard 
oi  the  Arabic  tongue,  and,  as  the  more  orthodox  be- 
lieve, and  are  taught  by  t'le  b.«)k  itfelf,  inimitable  by 
any  human  pen  (though  fomc  feftaries  have  been  of 
another  opinion),  and  therefore  infifted  on  as  a  per- 
manent miracle,  greater  than  thatof  raifing  the  dead, 
and  alone  fufficiencio  convince  the  world  of  its  divine 
original. 

And  to  this  miracle  did  Mahomet  himfe.f  chiefly 
appeal  for  the  confirmation  of  his  million,  publicly 
challenging  the  moft  eloquent  men  i.'i  Arabia,  whicii 
was  at  that  time  (locked  with  thoufanus  v.  hole  fole  ftu- 
dy  and  ambition  it  was  to  excel  in  elegance  of  llyle 
and  compoliiion,  to  produce  even  a  finglc  chapter  that 
might  be  compared  with  it  (a). 

•K  A  To 


AUp 


(a)  As  ihccjmpoiition  and  arrangement  of  words,  however,  admit  of  infinite  varieties,  iican  never  be  ab- 
folutely  faid  that  any  one  is  the  beft  pjlhble.  In  (jlA,  Harazah  Bcnahmad  wrote  a  book  againil  the  --Mcoran 
v>ith  at  lead  cnual  elegance;  and  Mofclcma  another,  which  even  furpadcd  it,  and  occalioned  a  ci.rei:ion  of  a 
great  part  of  the  MuUuIinaiis.     Joiirn.  d:  Sfav.  torn.  xiii.  p.  280.  Ouvr.di  Sfav.  Nov.  1708,  p.  404. 


A  L  C  r     37 

AK-oran.  '  "  '''"^  poiuj'  anil  luiittioiiy  of  cxpi  ciTiun  Come  altiibc 
~— N- —  j.U  the  lorcc  aiui  itt'cCi.  oi  il>c  .-Vlcoiuii  ;  which  ihcy 
niitiilcr  aia  fori  ol'imilic,  equally  lititJ  withoihtr  fpc- 
i ics  of  iliat  an  lu  ra\  iili  ami  aiuazt.  In  lliis  Mahomet 
fiicccciltiifo  v\  tU,  aiul  foitraii'^ch'  cajnivattd  ihcniiiuls 
1  I  his  amiiciicc,  that  fcvcial  ol  liis  o|i|)oiicuts  thought 
ii  llic  cffcdof  witi  h'.i'aft  ami  <.iiciiamiiiciit,as  ht  hiiii- 
iflt  comi'laiub.  Olhusliavc  aitributcJ  ihc  ctrldof  the 
Alcoi.iii  loihcfrcqaciii  inciuioiiorrc  wai\lsaiul  puiiilh- 
uK-ius ;  heaven  aiul  hell  occurring  ahnoll  in  every  page. 
i.omc  fiippofc,  llut  the  I'enfiial  plt.ifures  of  piirailifc,  fo 
•rcijiiently  fet  before  the  imaginations  of  the  readers  of 
the  AkoranjWcre  wliaicliieiiy  bevvitclud  thcni.  Tho' 
\vith  regard  to  thefc,  there  is  a  great  difpute  whether 
they  are  to  be  undcrflood  li;erally  or  fpiriiiially.  Se- 
veral have  even  allegorized  the  whole  book. 

The  general  defign  of  the  Koran  was  to  unite  the 
profcliui's  of  the  three  dihlreui  religions,  then  follow- 
ed in  tiic  populous  country  of /\ rabid  ( wlio for  tlie  moll 
pan  lived  promifcuoully, and  wandered  without  guides, 
thcfargreatcr  nu'iibcr  being idolators, and  the rclijcws 
and  Chriftians  nioflly  of  erroneous  and  heterodox  be- 
lief), in  the  knowledge  and  worfliip  of  one  God,  under 
the  fanJlion  of  certain  laws,  and  the  outward  iignsof 
ceremonies  partly  of  ancient  and  partly  of  novel  inUi- 
tution,  cnforeed  by  the  conlidcralion  of  rewards  and 
punilhmcnts  both  temporal  and  eternal  ;  and  to  bring 
them  all  to  the  obcdieixc  of  Mahomet,  as  the  prophet 
and  anibalFador  of  God,  who,  after  the  repeated  ad- 
monitions, pmniifes,  and  threats,  of  former  ages,  was 
at  lall  to  eliaolilh  and  propagate  God's  religion  on 
earth,  and  to  be  acknowledged  chief  pontifFin  fpiritual 
matters,  as  well  as  fupreme  prince  in  temporal. 

The  great  dodrine  then  of  ilic  Koran,  is  the  unity 
of  God  ;  tore/lore  which  point  Mahomet  pretended 
was  the  chief  end  of  his  million  ;  it  being  laid  down 
by  him  as  a  fundamental  t:'  uh.  That  there  never  was, 
nor  ever  can  be,  more  tli.ui  one  true  orthodox  religion. 
For,  though  the  particular  laws  or  ceremonies  are  only 
temporary,  and  fubjeet  to  alteration,  according  to  the 
divine  dircelion  ;  yet  the  fubflance  of  it  being  eternal 
truth,  is  not  liable  to  change,  but  continues  immutably 
the  fame.  And  he  taught,  that,  whenever  this  religion 
became  neglected,  or  corrupted  in  cllcntials,  God  had 
the  goodnefs  to  re-iuform  and  re-admonilh  mankind 
thereof,  by  feveral  prophets,  of  whom  Mofes  and  Je- 
fus  were  the  moftdiltinguilhed,  till  the  appearance  of 
Mahomet,  who  is  their  feal,  and  no  other  to  be  expec- 
Jed  after  him.  The  more  eft'eclually  to  engage  peo- 
ple to  licarken  to  him,  great  part  of  the  Koran  is  cm- 
ployed  in  rtlating  examples  of  dreadful  puniflimcnts 
formerly  infliefed  by  God  on  thofe  who  rejeftcd  and 
abufcd  his  melfengcrs  ;  feveral  of  which  ftorics,  or 
fomc  ciri.umftances  of  thein,  are  taken  from  the  Old 
and  New  Teflaments,  but  many  more  from  the  apocry- 
phal books  and  traditions  of  the  Jews  and  Chriflians  of 
thofe  ages,  fet  up  in  the  Koran  as  truths  in  oppofition 
to  the  fcriptures,  which  the  Jews  and  Chriftians  are 
charged  with  having  altered  :  and  indeed,  few  or  none 
of  the  relations  or  circnmflances  in  the  Koran  were  in- 
vented by  Mahomet,  as  is  generally  fuppofcd,  it  being 
cafy  to  trace  the  greatcft  part  of  them  inuch  higher,  as 
the  reft  might  be,  were  more  of  thofe  books  extant, 
and  was  it  worth  while  to  make  the  inquiry. 

The  reft  of  the  Aleoran  is  taken  up  in  prefcribing 


1 


A  L  C 


neccliary  laws  and  diredions,  frequent  admonitions  lo    Mm 

moral  and  divine  virtues,  thc.worihip  and  reverence  of  » 

the  Supreme  lieing,  and  relignaiion  to  his  will.  One 
of  their  moft  learned  commentators  diftinguiilics  the 
contents  or  the  Alcoran  into  allegoi  :cul  and  iiuial ; 
under  the  former  are  comprehended  ail  the  obfcnrc, 
parabolical,  and  enigmatical  pallages,  with  fuch  as  arc- 
repealed,  or  abrogated  ;  the  latter,  fuch  as  arc  clear,, 
and  in  full  force. 

The  moil  excellent  moral  in  the  whole  Alcoran,  in- 
terpreters  fay,  is  tli.it  in  the  chapter  ,-i'/  Ali^'I,  vis. 
Shew  mercy,  do  good  to  all,  and  difjuite  not  with  tlic 
ignorant  ;  or,  as  Mr  Sale  renders  it,  Ufe  indalgence, 
command  that  which  is  j nil,  and  witlulraw  far  froiii  the 
ignorant.  Manomet,  according  to  tlic  authors  of  tlic 
K-.Jchaf,  having  begged  of  the  angel  Gabriel  a  mi-re 
ample  explication  ot  iLispallage,  received  it  in  the  fol- 
lowing terms  :  "  Seek  him  who  turns  thee  out,  give  to 
"  him  who  takes  from  thee,  pardon  him  wiio  injures 
"■  thee  ;  lor  God  will  have  you  plant  in  your  fouls  the 
"  roots   of  Ills  chief  perfedions."     It  is  caly  to  fee 

that  this  commentary  is  copied  from  the  gofpel In 

reality,  the  neceliity  of  forgiving  enemies,  though  fre- 
quently inculcated  in  the  Alcoran,  is  of  a  later  date 
among  the  Mahometans  than  among  the  Chriftians  : 
among  thofe  latter,  than  among  the  heathens  ;  and  to 
be  traced  origiaaily  among  the  Jews.  (Sec  Kxodus 
xxxiii.  4,  5.  j  But  it  matters  not  fo  much  who  had  it 
iirft,  as  who  obfcrves  it  beft.  The  Caliph  Haflan,  fon 
ofHali,  being  at  table,  a  (lave  unfonu;iately  let  falla 
diih  of  meat  reeking  hot,  which  fcalded  him  fevercly. 
The  llave  fell  on  his  kiKcs,  rehearlingthefe  words  of 
the  Alcoran,  "  Paradife  is  for  thofe  who  rellrain  their 
"  anger."  I  am  not  angry  with  thee,  anfwered  the 
caliph — "  And  for  thofe  who  forgive  offences  againfl 
them,"  continues  the  llave.  I  forgive  tliee  thine,  re- 
plies the  caliph — "  But  above  all,  for  thofe  who  return 
good  for  evil,"  adds  the  (lave.  I  fet  thee  at  liberty, 
rejoined  the  caliph  ;  and  I  give  thee  ten  dinars. 

There  are  alfoa  great  number  of  occafional  paffages. 
inthe  Alcoran, relating  only  to  particular  emergencies. 
For  this  advantage  Mahomet  had  in  the  piecemeal  me- 
thod ofreceiving  his  revelation,  that  whenever  he  hap- 
penedto  be  perplexedandgravelled  withany  thing,  he 
had  a  certain  refource  in  fomc  new  morfel  of  revelation. 
It  was  an  admirable  contrivance  of  his,  to  bring  down 
the  whole  Alcoran  at  once,  only  to  the  loweft  heaven, 
not  to  earth  ;  (incc,  had  the  whole  been  publilhed  at 
once,  innumerable  objedions  would  have  been  made, 
which  it  would  have  been  impollible  for  him  to  folve  : 
but  as  he  received  it  by  parcels,  as  God  faw  fit  they 
fliould  be  publiflied  for  the  converlion  and  inftrudion 
of  the  people,  he  had  a  lure  way  to  aiifwer  all  emer- 
gencies, and  to  extricate  hinifelf  with  honour  from 
any  diiEculty  which  might  occur. 

It  is  the  general  and  orthodox  belief  among  the  Ma- 
hometans, that  the  Koran  is  of  divine  original :  that  it 
is  eternal  and  uncreated,  remaining,  as  fome  exprcfs  it, 
in  the  very  elTencc  of  God  :  that  the  firfl  tranfcript  has 
been  from  everlafting  by  God's  throne, written  on  a  ta- 
ble of  vaft  bigncfs,  called  the prcfer-jctt tabk,  in  which 
are  alfo  recorded  the  divine  decrees  paft  and  future  : 
that  a  copy  from  this  table,  in  one  volume  on  paper, was 
by  the  miniftry  of  the  angel  Gabriel  feni  down  to  the 
loweft  heaven,  in  the  month  of  Ramadan,  on  the  niglit 

of 


[     371     ] 


A  L  C 


Atcofan.   n(  prixtr ;  from  whence  Gabriel  revealed  it  to  ^la^lo- 

^ '  mci  by  parcels,  fonic  at  ^jecc.1,  and  Ionic  ut  MtJiiia, 

at  dincrent  times,  during  the  fpacc  of  23  years,  as  the 
cxii^cncy  ot"  aftiirs  iciiuircd  ;  giving  him,  however, 
theconfolation  toihovv  him  tlie  whi>lt  ^  which  they  tell 
us  wa-.  bound  in  lilk,  and  ailorneu  with  gold  an  J  pre- 
cious floncs  of  paridil'e)  once  a-ycar  ;  but  in  the  )a(l 
year  of  his  life  lie  had  the  favour  to  fee  it  t\\  ice.  'I'hiy 
fiy,  that  few  chapters  were  dtliv  ertd  entire,  the  suolt 
part  bcinoj  revealc  '  piecemeal,  and  written  oov.  n  ti  >m 
tiuic  to  time  by  the  p;-oi'het's  amanueniis  in  fucii  a  p  irt 
of  foch  and  fuch  a  chapter,  till  they  were  completed, 
according  to  the  directions  of  the  angtl.  The  nrit 
parcel  that  was  revealed  is  generally  agreed  to  have 
i-ec)i  the  firft  five  verfes  ot'  the  96th  chapter. 

After  the  new-revealed  paflaj^es  had  been  from  the 
prophet's  moutii  taken  down  in  writing  by  his  fcribe, 
they  were  publiflicd  to  his  followers ;  fe vcral  of  wiioin 
took  copies  f 'r  their  private  ufe,  but  the  far  greater 
number  got  them  by  heart.  The  originals,  when  re- 
turned, were  put  promifcuonlly  into  a  chell,  obfcrv- 
ing  no  order  of  time  ;  for  which  reafon  it  is  uncer- 
tain when  many  palfages  were  revealed. 

When  Mahomet  died,  he  left  his  revelations  in  the 
fame  diforder,  and  not  digeftcd  into  the  method,  fuch 
as  it  is.  in  which  we  now  tind  them.  This  was  the 
work  of  hisfuccellbr  Abu  Beer;  who,  coiifidering  that 
a  great  number  of  padagcs  were  committed  tothemc- 
mory  of  Mahomet's  followers,  many  of  whom  were 
flai.i  in  their  wars,  ordered  the  whole  to  be  collected, 
not  only  from  the  palm-leavesandlkins  on  which  they 
had  been  written,  and  w  hich  w>  re  kept  between  two 
boards  or  covers,  but  alfo  from  the  mouths  of  fuch  as 
had  gotten  them  by  heart.  And  thistranfcript,  when 
completed,  he  committed  to  the  cullody  of  Haifa  the 
daughter  of  Omar,  one  of  the  prophet's  widows. 

Krom  tliisrelation  it  is  generally  imagined  that  Abu 
Beer  was  really  the  compiler  of  the  Koran  ;  though, 
for  anght  appears  to  the  contrary,  Mahomet  left  the 
chapters  complete  as  we  now  have  them, excepting  fuch 
■p.Ufages  as  Ills  fucceifor  mi:;ht  add  or  corrcd  from 
thofc  who  had  gotten  them  by  heart ;  what  Abu  Beer 
did  elft,  being  perhaps  no  more  than  to  range  the 
chaptersin  their  prefent  order,  which  he  feemstohave 
done  w'thont  any  regard  to  time,  having  generally 
placed  the  lon^eft  firft. 

However,  in  the  ;!oth  year  of  the  Hegira,  Othman 
bcinir  then  caliph,  and  obfcrving  the  great  difagree- 
nicnt  in  the  copies  of  the  Koran  in  the  feve. '.1  pro- 
vinces of  the  empire  ;  thofc  of  Irak,  for  example,  fol- 
lowing the  reading  of  Abu  Mufa  al  Alliari,  and  the 
Syrians  that  of  .Macdad  Kbn  Afwad  :  he,  by  the  advice 
of  the  oUipiinhJi.',  ordered  a  great  ninnber  )f  copies  to 
be  traufcribed  from  tliat  of  Abu  Beer,  in  ilalli'scare, 
-under  the  iiifpeetion  of  Zcid  Eon  Tliahct,  Abd'allali 
Ebn  Zobair,  Said  Kbn  al  As,  and  Ad'aluhi;  .in  Llm 
al  Hareth  the  Makhzumite;  whop;  he  di.c  :cJ,  that, 
wherever  they  difigreed  abo.t  any  word,th:y  Hii  uld 
write 'tin  the  dialrctof  the  Koreifli.in  whicli  1.  was  at 
firft  delivered.  '1  heft  cojies,  when  made,  were  dif- 
perfedinihe  fcvcril  provin'ts  of  the  impire.and  the 
old  ones  burnt  and  f  ii'i'vcued.  Though  nuny  tilings 
in  Haifa's  copy  were  corrected  by  ih-  abovemcniioncd 
revifcrs,  yet  fonie  few  vaiioi:s  .  •  diu;';  •''.  o  -t. 
Inrinc.thebookof  the  Alcoran  is  held  m  the  iu 'ucfl 


Cbrifliamitj 
mrtiHt/m, 


cdcei,.  and  reverence  ai;i..rg  ihc  >iuffclmans.  They  AUnn*. 
dare  not  li>  raiicU  <b  toiicl.  the  Akoran  without  beijiT  ' — " — 
fird  waliit,:,.jr  leg.iily  p-irilicd  ;  to  prevent  »hicl),aii 
iiif  riptioii  is  put  >m  the  over  or  label,  Lft  ujiie  touch 
but  tkcy  'ojhourc  ch-an.  Ii  is  read  witii  great  care  and 
re.''pcd  ;  being  never  held  bel<iw  the  j^irdle.  They 
fwtar  by  i.  ;  take  omens  irom  it  on  all  weighty  occa- 
lions  ;  carry  it  wita  them  to  v.ar  ;  «.  uc  fcntc;ices  of  it 
in  their  banner^  ;  „di  r:.  it  with  gold  a  d  precious 
lloi:t.,;  and  knowingly  futter  it  Mottotit  inihcpoilc:;^;. II 
of  .^ny  of  a  dittercnt  religion.  Some  fay  that  it  is  pu- 
ailliablc  even  with  death,  in  a  ChrilHan,  to  toucii  it  ; 
oili'-rs,  that  the  veneration  of  the  JMuuuhuans  lead-; 
them  t<rcondcmn  the  tranllating  it  into  any  otiier  lan- 
guage as  a  profanation  :  but  thcfe  fecm  to  be  aggra- 
vations. The  Maliometans  have  taken  care  to  have 
their  fcriptare  trandated  intotlie  Perfian,  tje  Javan, 
the  Malayan,  and  other  languages  ;  tho'  out  of  rcfpecl 
to  the  original,  thefe  vcrlions  are  generally,  if  not  al- 
ways, interlincated. 

By  the  advocates  of  Mahometanii'm,  the  Koran,  as 
already  obferved,  has  always  been  held  forth  as  the 
greatell  of  miracles,  and  equally  ftupendous  with  the 
ad  of  railing  the  dead.  The  miracles  of  Mofcs  and 
Jefus,  they  lay  wxrc  tranficnt  and  temporary ;  but  that 
of  the  Koran  is  pcrmanc'.u  and  perpetual  ;  and  there- 
fore far  fupafles  all  the  miraculous  events  of  preceding 
ages.  We  will  not  detraft  from  the  real  merit  of  the 
Koran  :  we  allow  it  to  be  generally  elegant,  and  often 
fublime  :  but  at  the  fame  time  we  rejed  with  difdaiii 
its  arrogant  pretence  to  any  thing  iupernatural ;  all 
the  real  excellence  of  the  work  being  eafily  referable 
to  natural  and  vilible  caufes. 

In  the  language  of  Arabia,  a  language  extremely 
loved  and  diligently  cultivated  by  the  people  towlioni 
it  was  vcrnac.ilar,  Mahomet  found  advantages  which 
were  never  enjoyed  by  any  f-r>ieror  furceeding  im- 
pollor.  It  requires  not  the  eye  of  a  piiilofopher  to 
difcover  in  every  foiland  country  a  pi  incipleof  national 
pride  :  and  if  we  look  back  for  many  ages  to  the  hi- 
floryof  the  Arnbians,  we  Ihall  ealily  perceive  that 
pride  among  them  inv.iria'.'ly  to  have  comilled  in  the 
knowledgeand  improvementof  their  native  language. 
The  Araoic,  which  has  been  juftly  elkemcd  tiie  mod 
copious  of  the  eallern  tongues  ;  which  had  cxiiicd 
from  the  remote^  antiquity  ;  which  hadb?en  ellablilh- 
f  Q  by  numberlefs  poets,  and  rclnied  by  the  conltant  e x- 
crcifcof  the  natives  :  was  tlic  moll  fuoccfsf  il  inllru- 
mcnt  whicii  Mahomet  employed  in  planting  his  new 
religion  among  them.  Admirably  adapted  by  its  un- 
rivalled harmony,  and  by  its  cnulefs  variety  to  add 
painting  to  exprclhon,  and  to  purfuc  the  imagin.  tion 
in  its  unbounded  flight  ;  it  hr  ai  ic  in  the  hands  of 
Mahomet  an  irrelillible  charm  to  Mind  tht  judgnienr, 
and  to  captivate  the  fancy  of  his  followers. 

"  Of  that  defc-iption  of  uu  n  w  ho  firft  compofed  the 
adherents  of  Mahomet,  and  to  whom  the  Koran  was 
aJdrelicd,  lew,  probably,  were  aolc  to  pafs  a  very  ac- 
curate judgment  on  the  prop'riciy  of  the  fc;.;irrcnts,  or 
on  the  beauties  of  the  diction  ;  but  all  e^i  Id  judwc  of 
the  military  abilities  of  thrir  lea  Icr  ;  ane!  in  the  midll 
of  their  admiration  it  is  not  dilfirult  tocon'-eivv  'lat 
they  would  afcrib?  to  hii  compolitions  every  imagina- 
ry beauty  of  inipired  language. 

"The  Ihtpherd  and  the  foldicr,  though  awaietothe 
3  A  2  cliarms 


A  L  C  [37 

Alcoran,   tiiarms  of  ihofe  wiKl  but    beautiful  compoCuions,  in 

*- whitli  were  cikbiatcit  their  lavoiuitc  Ov-cupationsof 

lave  or  war,  were  yet  little  able  tocrilicilc  any  other 
works  liiau  ihole  which  were  aiidrcllcd  10  their  iii.a- 
giiiatiou  or  the  licari.  To  abttracl  rcafouiiigs  on  the 
aitributcs  ami  the  ilifjcnrations  of  the  Deity,  to  the 
ronipjrativt  cxcelkiicics  ot  rivil  religions,  to  the  coii- 
liftcncyof  any  one  religious  fyAeni  inalliis  parts,  and  to 
ilic  force  (>f  iis  various  proofs,  they  wei  e  t]iiite  inaticu- 
live.  In  fueh  a  filiation,  theappearanre  of  a  work  wliich 
])oirelIeil  lonietliinglit>.e  wifdoniandconliftcnce;  which 
])rcfcribed  the  rules,  and  ilhiftrated  the  duties  of  life  ; 
and  which  contained  the  pi  inciplesof  anew  and  com- 
jiaratively-fubl.me  theology,  independently  of  its  real 
and  permanent  merit,  was  likely  to  excite  tlicir  aflo- 
nilhmeiu,  and  to  become  the  Itaudard  of  future  coni- 
polition. 

"In  thefirft  periods  of  the  lireratiirc  of  every  coun- 
try, fomeihing  of  thiskind  h;;s  happened.  The  father 
of  Grecian  poetry  very  obviouily  iurluenced  the  talte 
and  imitation  of  hiscountrynicn.  The  modern  nations 
of  Europe  all  polfefs  fome  original  author,  who,  rifmg 
from  the  darkucfs  of  lormer  ages,  has  begun  the  ca- 
reer ot  compofitiou,  and  tiuchired  wiih  the  charaeicr 
of  his  own  imaginaiiua  the  ftream  which  has  lluwed 
through  ills  polterity. 

♦'  But  the  prophet  of  Arabia  had  in  this  refpcfl  ad- 
vantages peculiar  to  liimfeif.  l!i.s  compjlilions  were 
not  to  his  followers  the  works  of  man,  but  the  genuine 
language  of  Heaven,  which  hadfcnthim.  They  were 
not  confined  therefore  to  that  adu.iratiou  which  is  fo 
liberally  befiowed  on  the  earliellproductions  of  genius, 
or  to  that  fond  attachment  with  which  men  every 
where  regard  the  original  coripulitions  ot  their  coun- 
try :  butwiththeiradrairaii  jp.  tlieyilended  their  piety. 
To  know  and  to  feel  the  licau  ies  of  the  Koran,  was 
.'n  fome  refpefl:  to  Iharc  in  the  temper  of  Heaven  ;  and 
he  who  was  moll  afiecled  with  admirati"!)  in  tlie  peru- 
fal  of  its  beauties,  feemed  molt  fitly  the  object  of  that 
mercy  which  had  given  it  to  ignorant  man.  The  Ko- 
ran, therefore,  became  naurally  and  neceiraiily  the 
llandard  of  taile.  With  a  language  thus  hallow  cd  in 
their  imaginations,  they  were  too  wellfaiishcd,  either 
todifputeits  elegance  or  impi-ove  its  ftrudure.  In 
fucceeding  ages,  the  additional  faniSion  of  antiquity, 
or  prefer!  J  tion,  was  given  toihefe  conipofiiions  whicli 
their  fathers  had  admired  :  and  while  the  belief  of  its 
■  divine  original  continues,  that  admiration,  w'liich  has 
thus  become  the  tell  and  the  duty  of  the  faiihful,  can 
neither  be  altered  nor  diminiihed. 

"  When  therefore  we  confider  tliefe  peculiar  ad- 
vantagesof  the  Koran,  we  have  no  reafon  to  bcf.irpri- 
fcd  at  the  admiration  in  which  it  is  held.  But  if,  dc- 
fctnding  to  a  more  minute  invcRigation  of  it,  we  con- 
sider its  perpetual  inconfiltcnce  and  ablurdity,  we  Ihall 
indeed  have  caufe  for  aftonilhment  at  that  weaknefs  of 
humanity  which  could  ever  have  received  fuch  compo- 
sitions as  the  work  of  the  Deity. 

"  The  firll  praifeof  all  the  produ-'lionsof  genius,  is 
invention  ;  that  quality  of  the  mind,  whicli,  by  the  ex- 
tent and  quicknefs  of  its  views,  is  capable  of  the  lar- 
gefl  conceptions,  and  of  formingnew  combinations  of 
objects  the  moA  iiftant  and  nnufual.  But  the  Koran 
bears  little  imprelhon  o'f  tliis  tranfcendant  eharaftcr. 
Its  materials  are  wholly  borrowed  from  the  JewidTand 
C!»rillian  fcriptures,  from  the  Talmudical  Ugends  anil 


3     ]  A  L  C 

apocryphal  gofpels  then  current  iu  the  Kail,  and  /roin    1 
the  traditions  and  fables  which  abounded  in   Arabia.  ~ 
Tiic  materials  colleded  from  ihefefe%eral  fources  are 
here  heaped  togciher,  witii  perpetual  and  needlefs re- 
petitions, without  any  fettled  principle  or  vilible  con- 
nection. 

"  When  a  great  part  of  the  life  of  Mahomet  had 
been  fpent  in  preparatory  mediiation  on  the  fyllenn 
he  was  about  to  eltablilh,  its  chapters  were  dealt 
out  dowly  and  feparately  during  the  long  period  of 
2:?  years.  Yet  thus  defecive  in  it;;  lirutiture,  and 
not  lels  exceptionable  in  its  doctrines,  was  the  work 
wiiich  Mahomet  delivered  Lo  his  foUow'ers  aS  the 
oracles  of  God. 

'•  rhc  molt  prominent  feature  of  the  Koran,  tliat 
point  of  excellence  in  which  tlic  parti;iiity  of  its  admi- 
rers has  ever  delighted  to  view  v  ,  is  the  lubliinc  noti- 
on it  generally  imprelles  of  the  iuunre  and  attributes 
of  God.  If  its  a  uhor  had  really  derived  thcfcjuit  con- 
ceptions from  theinfpiration  of  that  Being  whom  the/ 
atteiuj  t  lodcfcribe,  they  would  not  have  been  lurroun- 
iled,  as  they  now  are  on  every  lldc,  with  error  and 
ab.urdity.  But  it  might  eafdy  be  proved,  that  w  hatever 
it  Jultiy  defines  of  i!ie  divine  attributes,  was  borrowed 
from  our  holy  fcripture  ;  which  even  from  its  lirltpro- 
nuilgaiion,  but  efpecially  from  the  completion  of  the 
New  Tellanieiit,  has  extended  the  vicv.i  and  enliglit- 
ened  the  nn^lcrl landings  of  mankintl;  and  thus  fiinii (li- 
ed them.with  arms,  which  iiave  toooften  bcenincffec- 
tually  turned  againlt  itfelf  i)y  its  ungeneious  enemies. 

"  In  this  inflan-.epanicularly,  the  copv  is  far  below 
the  great  original,  both  iu  the  propriety  of  iis  images, 
andtiie  torceof  its  defcriptions.  Our  holy  iVriptures 
arc  the  onlv  conipofitions  that  can  enable  the  dim  fight 
of  mortality  to  penetrate  into  the  inviiible  world,  and 
to  behold  agliniide  of  the  Divine  perfections.  Accor- 
dingly, \s  lien  they  would  reprefent  tons  the  happinefs 
of  Heaven,  they  defcribe  it,  not  by  any  thing  minute 
and  particular,  but  by  fomcthing  general  and  great  ; 
fomcwhat,  that  without  defeending  to  any  detci  minatc 
object,  may  at  once  by  its  beauty  and  immcniity  ex-» 
cite  our  w  illies  and  elevate  our  affections.  Though  iu 
the  ]'ropheti'  al  and  evangelical  writings  the  joys  that 
fliall  attend  us  in  a  future  Hate  are  often  mentioned 
with  a;dent  admiration,  they  are  exprelfed  rather  bv 
allulion  than  iimilitude,rathcrby  indeliniteandligura- 
tive  terms,  than  by  any  thing  fixed  and  determinate. 
'  Eye  hath  not  fecn,  nor  ear  heard,  neither  1/ave  en- 
tered into  the  heart  of  man,  the  things  which  God 
hath  prepared  for  them  that  love  him.'  j  Cor.  ii  9. 
What  a  reverence  and  aftonilhment  does  this  pa.iage 
excite  in  every  hearer  of  tafle  and  piety  ?  ^V■hat  ener- 
gy, and  a:  the  fame  time  what  fnnplirity,  in  the  ex- 
prefTion  \  How  fublimc,  and  at  the  fame  time  howob- 
fcurc,  is  the  imagery. 

"  Different  was  the  conduft  of  Mahomet  in  his  de- 
fcriptions of  heaven  and  of  paraoife.  Unaffilled  by  the 
neceffary  intlnenceofvirtuousinteiiti'msaiid  l-'ivincin- 
fpiration,he  was  neither  dclirous, nor  indeed  a  ble.to  ex- 
alt the  min;ls  of  men  to  fu  bl  i  me  concept  ion  s,'ir  to  ration- 
al expectations.  By  attempting  to  explain  what  is  in- 
ctmcei vable,  to  defcribe  what  is  cnetiable,  and  to  mate- 
rialize what  in  itfelf  is  fpiritual  ;  he  abfnrdlyand  im- 
pioufly  aimed  to  fenfualize  the  pin-iiy  of  tlic  Divine 
cffence.  Thus  he  fabricated  a  fyltem  of  incoherence, 
a  religion  of  depravJt/;  totally  repugnant  indeed  to  the 

nata- 


A  L  C 


[     373     ] 


A  L  C 


Altoran,   nature  of  tliac  Being,  who,  as  he  pretended,  was  its 
Alcoraniftsoiijcct  ;   but  therefore  more  likely  to  accord  with  the 
"         apjictites   and  conceptions  of  a  corrupt   and   lenfual 
age. 

"  That  wc  may  not  appear  to  exalt  our  Scriptures 
thus  f?.r  above  tjie  Koran  by  an  unrcaionable  preference 
wc  fnall  produce  a  part  of  tlic  Iccond  chaptir  ol  the 
Ijlli'r.whichisdcfcrvfdly  admired  by  ihcMahometaiis, 
who  wear  it  engraved  on  tluir  ornaments,  and  recite  it 
in  their  prayers.  'God!  there  is  no  God  but  he  ;  the 
living,  tlie  felf-fub'illing  :  neithei' llumi)cr  nor  llecp 
feizelh  him  :  to  him  bclungcih  whatfocvcr  is  in  hea- 
ven, and  on  earth.  Who  is  he  that  can  intercede  with 
him  but  througli  his  good  pleafure  ?  He  knoweth  that 
which  is  part,  and  that  which  is  to  come.  His  tlironc 
is  extended  over  heaven  and  earth,  and  the  prefcrva- 
lion  of  both  is  to  him  no  burden.  He  is  the  liigh,  the 
mighty.'  Salc'j  Kor.  ii.  p.  30.  4to  edit. 

"  To  this  defcription  who  can  rel'ufe  the  praife  of 
magnificence  .'  J-'art  of  that  magnificence,  however,  is 
to  be  referred  to  that  vcrfc  of  the  Fl'alniifl,  whence  it 
was  borrowed,  •  He  that  kcepetli  Ifraei,  fuall  neither 
finjTibfrnor  llcep.'  Ifal.  cxxi.  4. 

"  Hut  if  wc  compare  it  with  that  otlier  paiFage  of 
the  fame  inipired  Plalmift,  all  its  boafled  grandeur  is 
at  once  obfcuicd,  and  loll  in  the  blaze  of  a  greater 
light. 

"  O  my  God,  take  me  not  away  in  the  niidfl  of  my 
days  ;  thy  years  are  ihrougliout  all  generations.  Of 
old  hail  thou  laid  the  foundations  ul  the  earth  ;  and 
the  heavens  are  the  work  of  thy  hands.  They  Diall 
perilh,  but  thou  Ihalt  endure  :  yea  all  of  tiiem  fliall  w  ax 
old,  as  doth  a  garment  ;  as  a  vefturc  flialt  thou  change 
them,  and  they  Ihall  be  changed  ;  but  thou  art  the 
fame,  and  thy  years  Ihall  not  fail.' 

"  The  Koran,  therefore,  upon  a  retrofpeclive  view 
of  thcfe  fcvcral  circumftanccs,  far  from  fupporting  its 
arrogant  claim  to  a  fupcrnatural  work,  links  below  the 
lc\elof  many  tompolitions  confcfledly  of  human  origi- 
jial ;  and  lUU  lowerdoesit  fall  in  our  cflimaiion,  when 
•  compared  with  that  pure  and  perfeft  pattern  which  we 
jufUy  admire  in  tlic  fcriptures  of  truth. 

"It  isthercforr  abundantly  apparent, that  nomiracle 
ciihcrwas  externally  performed  for  the  fupport,  oris 
internally  involved  in  the  compolition,  of  the  Maho- 
metan revelation." 

A  I.CORA  N,  is  alfo  figuratively  applied  to  certain  o- 
ther  books  full  of  impieties  and  inipollurcs — In  this 
fenfc  we  meet  with  the  Akortjn  of  the  Cordeliers, 
■which  has  made  a  great  noifc  ;  wherein  St  Francis  is 
extravagantly  magnified,  and  put  on  a  level  with  Jefus 
Chrift  The  Alcoran  of  the  Cordeliers  is  properly  an 
extract  of  a  very  fcarce  book,  intiiled,  l"he  conformity 
of  the  lifeof  the  ieraphic  father  St  Francis  with  the  life 
of  Clirill,  pubhflied  in  1500,  4to  ;  fincc,  at  Bologna, 
in  folio.  Krafmus  Albtrtus,  being  by  the  cletlor  of 
Brandenburg  appointed  to  vilit  a  monaftery  ofFran- 
cifcans,  found  this  book  ;  and  being  llruck  with  the 
extreme  folly  and  abfurdity  of  it,  collcc'led  a  number 
of  curiofities  out  of  it,  ancl  publiflud  them  under  the 
title  of  the  Alcoran  of  the  FranciCcans,  with  a  preface 
by  A!artin  Liiiher. 

ALCOR  ANISTS,  among  Mahometans,  thofe  who 
adhere  ftriclly  to  the  Icttcror  tcxtof  the  alcoran,  from 
an  opinion  of  its  ultimate  luflicicncy  and  pcrlcdion. 


The  Hcrfians  are  generally  yilccranifii,  as  admitting    Alcove, 
the  Alcortn  alone  lorihcirrulc  of  faith.  The  Turks,   AIcujjui. 
Tartars,  Arabs,  &c.  beiidcb  the  Alcoran,  admit  a  mul-  "       "       ' 
titudc  of  traditions.     'Ihe  Alcoranills,  among  Maho- 
metans, amount  to  much  the  fame  with  the  icxtuaries 
among  the  Jews.     The  Alcoraiiifts  can  rind  nothing 
excellent  out  of  the  Alcor.in  ;  are  enemies  of  pbilofo- 
phers,  metaphyficians,  and  fcholaftic  writers.     With 
them  the  Alcoran  is  every  thing. 

ALCOVE,  among  builders,  a  reccfs,  or  part  of  a 
clianibcr  feparated  by  an  eilrade,  or  partition  of  co- 
lumns, and  oilier  correfpouding  ornaments,  iu  which 
is  placed  a  bed  of  (late,  and  fomctimcs  feats  to  enter- 
tain company.  Thefe  alcoves  arc  frecjuent  in  Spain  ; 
and  the  bed  is  railed  two  or  three  afcents,  with  a  rail 
at  tlic  foot. 

ALCUINUS  (Flaccus^,  an  ccclcfisflic  of  the 
eighth  century.  Where  lie  was  born,  isaraatterof 
difputc  ;  hut,  according  to  the  mo.l  probable  opinion, 
itwasiii  Yorklhire.  It  is  pretty  certain,  however,  that 
he  was  tducitcd  at  York,  under  the  direction  of  arch- 
bilhop  Egbert,  as  we  learn  from  his  own  letters,  .in 
which  he  frequently  calls  that  great  prelate  his  beloved 
raafter,  and  the  clergy  of  York  the  companions  of  his 
youthful  fludies.  Ashefurvived  venerable  Bcdc  about 
70  years,  it  is  hardly  podible  that  he  could  have  re- 
ceived any  jiart  of  his  education  under  him,  as  fomc 
writers  of  literary  hidoiy  ha/ealiirmcd;  and  it  is  wor- 
thy of  obfcrvation,  that  he  never  calls  that  great  man 
his  mailer,  though  he  fpcaksrffhi.'n  with  the  highell 
veneration.  It  is  not  well  known  to  what  preferments 
he  had  attained  in  the  church  before  he  left  England, 
though  fonie  fiy  he  was  abbot  of  Canterbury.  The 
occaiion  of  his  leaving  bis  native  country,  was  his  be- 
ing fent  on  an  embaify  by  Otta  king  of  Mcrcia  to  the 
emperor  Charlemagne  ;  who  contracted  fo  great  an 
efteeni  and  fricndfiiip  for  hini,  that  heearncllly  folici- 
tcd,  and  at  length  pre\ ailed  upon  him,  to  fettle  in  his 
court,  and  became  his  preceptor  in  the  fciences.     Al-  , 

cuinus  accordingly  inftrufted  that  great  prince  in  rhe- 
toric, logic,  maiiicmatics,  and  divinity  ;  which  ren- 
dered him  one  of  Iiis  grcatell  favourites.  "  He  was 
treated  with  fo  much  kindncfsand  familiarity  (fays  a 
cotemporary  writer)  by  the  Emperor,  that  the  other 
courtiers  called  him,  by  way  oi <:\\\\x\.ci\Qt. ,t he  emperor' i 
lijitglt."  Charlemagne  employed  his  learned  favourite 
to  write  feveral  books  againlt  the  heretical  opinions 
of  Felix  Biihop  of  Urgcl  in  Catalonia,  and  to  defend 
the  orthodox  faith  againll  the  hereliarch,  in  the  coun- 
cil of  Fraucfort,  A.  D.  894  j  which  he  performed  to 
the  entire  fatisfadion  oi'the  Emperor  and  council,  and 
even  to  the  conviction  of  Felix  and  his  followers,  who 
abandoned  their  errors.  The  Emperor  confulted 
chicHy  with  Alcuinus  on  all  things  relating  to  religion 
and  learning ;  and,  by  his  advice,  did  many  great 
thiiigs  for  the  advancement  of  both.  An  academy 
was  eftablilhedin  the  imperi.''!  palace,  over  which  Al- 
cuinns  prelided,  and  in  which  the  princes  and  prime 
nobility  were  educated  ;  and  other  academics  were 
eflablilhed  iu  the  chief  towns  of  Italy  and  France,  at 
his  inlUgaiion,  and  under  his  infpeftion.  "France 
(fays,  one  of  our  bell  writers  of  literary  h'llory)  is  in- 
debted to  .Alcuinus  for  all  the  polite  learning  it  boall- 
ed  of  in  that  a:id  the  following  ages.  Theuniveriities 
of  Paris,  Tours,  Foldca,  Soilfons,  and  many  others, 

o\v« 


A  L  C 


[     374    ] 


A  L  D 


Alcyon    owe  to  tlicni  tlicir  origin  and  increafc  ;  thofcof  whom 
■I  'jcwasiK't  the  liipciioraiui  I'ouiuki ,  being  at  Icaft  cii- 

Alcyonius  lighttiieil  by  liii  doitrine  and  cxamiik,  and  enriched 
"^  by  the  bcneiits  he   procured  ior  ihcm  froniChaiic- 

ina^nc."  After  Alcuinus  had  I'pcnt  many  years  in  tiic 
moll  intimate  familiarity  wiih  the  grtatcit  prince  of 
his  asjc,  he  at  Itn^lli,  with  ^rcat  oilii.'iliy,  obtained 
leave  to  retire  f;o!n  court  to  iiisabl)cy  ot  at  Martin's 
at  Tours  Here  he  kept  up  a  coiillant  corrcijjondciice 
by  letters  with  Chii  icmagnc  ;  from  which  it  appears 
mat  botfi  till  emperor  and  his  learned  iricnd  were  a.ii- 
maied  with  the  moll  .irder.i  love  to  learning  ana  reli- 
gion, and  conllaiitly  emj'io^cd  in  comrivi.ig  and  exe- 
cuting the  ao.)lcit  dcligns  tor  t.icir  advaucenient.  He 
compofed  many  treatifis  on  a  great  variety  of  lubjccts, 
in  a  llyle  much  fupcrior  in  purity  and  elegance  to  iliat 
of  the  generality  of  writers  in  the  age  in  which  he  Hoii- 
rillied.  Charlemagne  often  folicited  him,  w  ith  all  the 
warmth  of  a  mollaifecnionaie  friind,  to  return  to  court, 
and  favour  him  with  his  company  and  advice  ;  but  he 
fiill  ixcnl'ed  liimfcU,  and  nothing  could  draw  him 
frgm  his  retireinenti.i  hisab'ocy  of  St  Martin  in  Tours, 
where  he  died  A.  D.  904.  Kis  works  were  coUeii^ed 
and  puMiflied  by  Andrew  duChefnc  in  one  volume  fo- 
lio, Paris,  1617.  They  con  lift  of,  i. Traces  upon  fcrip- 
ture.  2.  Traits  upon  doiflrinc,  dilciplinc,  and  mora- 
lity. 3.  Hiftorical  treatifes,  letters,  and  poems.  Since 
that  edition, there  has  been  pubhfnedan  incredible  num- 
ber Of  ira^Jls,  poems,  &e.  afcribcd  to  this  author,  moll 
of  which,  in  all  probability,  were  not  his. 

ALC  YON,  the  trivial  name  of  a  fpecies  of  alcedo. 
See  Alcedo. 

ALCYOiS'IUM,  an  obfolete  name  of  a  fubmarinc 
■{ihut.  Jt  is  alio  ufed  for  a  kind  of  coral,  or  allroites, 
frequently  found  folfilc  in  England. 

Alcyon  I U..I  Siagiium  (anc.  geog.),  a  lake  in  the 

territory  of  Coriiith,  whofc  depth  was  unfathomable, 

anJin  vaiiiaitcm|ited  tobc  uilcovcred  by  Nero.   Thro' 

•  this  Uke  Bacchus  is  faid  to  have  defcendcd  to  hell,   to 

bring  br.ck  Seuule  ;  (Paufanias). 

ALC'iONK  S  (Peter), a  learned  Italian,  who  flou- 
rifhedinthc  i6th  century.  I'c  waswell  verfed  in  the 
Greek  and  Latin.  tongii;s,  and  wrote  fome  pieces  of 
eloquence  which  met  with  great  approbation.  He 
was  corre.ior  of  the  prcfs  a  conliderable  time  for  Al- 
dus Mamuius,  and  is  entitled  to  a  lliare  in  the  praifes 
given  to  the  editions  o;  that  learned  printer.  He  pu- 
blilhtd  a  treaiifc  concerning  ba..illiment,  which  con- 
tained fo  many  fine  paiTages  intermixed  with  others 
quiie  the  reverfe,  that  it  vias  thought  he  had  tacked 
to  fomewhat  of  his  own,  feveral  fragments  of  a  treatife 
of  C:cero  de  gloria  ;  and  that  afterwards,  in  order  to 
favehinifclf  from  being  dctcflcd  in  this  theft,  he  burnt 
thcmanufript  of  Cicero,  the  only  one  extaiit.  Pau- 
1ns  Manuiius,  in  his  commentary  upon  thefe  words  of 
Cicero,  Libiini:  i'lbi  ciUnt^-r  lu'Utam  d:  gloria,  "I  will 
fpe-dily  fend  you  my  treatife  on  gl  ry  ;"  has  the  fol- 
lowing pallage  relating  to  this  affair  :  "  He  mc-!is, 
(fays  he)  his  two  booksnn  Glory,  w!  ich  were  handed 
down  to  thea:u'  of  our  fathers  ;  for  ccrnard  Juftinian, 
in  the  index  o(  his  boc>ks,  mentions  Cicero  'e  I  loiia. 
This  treaiifc,how(ver,when  Pel  uardhadlcft  his  whole 
library  to  a  r.u.V.iery,  could  :iot  be  found,  though 
fough:  after  with  great  care  :  nobuoy  do-bted  b"'P'-- 
:cr  Alcyonius,  who,  being  phylician  10  the  nunnery, 


was  entruAeJ  wub  the  libiary,  had  baftly  Hole  it.     Aldba- 
And  truly,  in  his  li  eatile  *.>f  Laniliimtiit,  fome  things      rough 
are  tounu  interfpcrfed  here  and  there,  which  fttia  not         U 
to  favour  of  Alcyonius,  lut  of  fome  higher  author."  "^    """°: 
1  he  two  orations  he  made  aftei  the  taking  of  Rome-, 
wherein  he  reprci'ented  very  ftrongly  the  injuftice  of 
Charles  V.  and  the  barbarity  ol  his  foKliers,  were  ex- 
cellent pieces.  '1  here  is  alio  an  oration  afcribcd  to  him 
on  the  knights  who  died  at  thefiege  of  Rhodes. 

ALUUOROUOH,  a  fea-port  town  in  Suffolk, 
with  a  market  on  Saturdays,  it  is  pleafautly  lituated, 
in  a  d  lie,  between  a  high  hill  to  the  weltward,  on 
which  its  large  old-built  church  (lands  ;  the  fea  to  the 
call,  and  its  river  running  fouth-well.  It  is  a  large, 
long,  ordinary  town,  made  up  of  two  or  three  (Irects 
ot  low  houfes,  running  parallel  to  each  other.  A  quar- 
ter of  a  mile  to  the  fouth  lies  Slaughdcn,  where  they 
liave  a  commodious  key,  with  warehoufes  fortilh:  more 
foutherly  flill,  they  have  conveniences  for  drying  their 
north-fea  tifli.  Their  employment  in  the  liihery  is  their 
chief  buiincfs,  which  is  conliderable  in  the  feafons  for 
catching  hen  ings  and  fprats  ;  and  it  is  the  only  place 
in  England  lor  curing  red  fprats.  It  is  a  town  corpo- 
rate, and  fends  two  members  to  parliament.  Towards 
the  fea,  it  has  fome  pieces  of  cannon  planted  for  its  de- 
fence. It  is  88  miles  north-eaft  ftom  London.  E.Long. 
I.  32.  N.  Lat.  52.  50. 

Aldborough,  a  market-town  in  the  wefl  riJing 
of  Yorklhire,feated  on  the  river  Oufe,  15  milesuorth- 
well  of  York,  and  200  miles  north  of  London.  It 
fends  two  members  to  parliament.  W.  Long.  o.  20. 
N,  Lat.  54.  I  J.  It  was  anciently  a  Roman  city,  call- 
ed Jjhrium  Brigatitiujii  ;  and  feveral  coins  and  rnonu- 
meiits  of  the  Saxons  and  Romans  have  been  difcovcr- 
ed  there. 

ALDEBARAN,  in  aflronomy,  a  flar  of  the  firfl 
magnitude,  called  inEnglilli  the  bull' 1  eye,  as  making 
the  eye  of  the  conflellation  1  aurus.  Its  longitude  is 
6  deg.  32  min.  9  fee.  of  Gemini,  and  its  latitude  5  dcg> 
29  min.  40  fee.  ibuth. 

ALDER-TREE,  in  Botany.  Sec  Betula. 
ALDERHOLM,aplcafant  illand  of  Sweden,  for- 
med by  the  three  arms  of  a  river  running  thro'Gentle, 
a  town  of  Nordland,  in  Sweden.  Here  is  a  wharf,  a 
repolitory  for  planks  and  deals,  two  packing  houfes,  a 
large  cullomhoufe  for  taking  toll  of  the  fliips,  an  arfe- 
nal  for  cannon,  and  a  granaiy, 

ALDERM.AN,  in  the  Britiili  policy,  a  niagillratc 
fubordinate  to  the  lord-mayor  of  a  city  or  town-cor- 
porate. The  number  of  thefe  magiftrates  is  not  limit- 
ed, but  is  more  or  lefs  according  to  the  magnitude  of 
the  place.  In  London  ihcy  are  26  ;  ca.h  having  one 
of  the  wards  of  the  city  committed  to  his  care.  This 
office  is  for  life  ;  fo  that  when  one  of  them  dies,  or  re- 
ligns,  a  ward-mote  is  called,  who  return  two  perfons, 
one  of  whom  thclorJ-niayor  and  aldermen  choofc  to 
fupply  th«  vacancy.  All  the  aldermen  are  jufliicsot  the 
peace,  by  a  charter  of  1 5  Geo.  II.  The  aldermen  of 
London,  Sec.  are  exempted  from  ferving  inferior  offi- 
ces ;  nor  (hall  ll'.ey  be  put  upon  alfizes,  or  ferve  on  ju- 
ries, fo  long  as  they  continue  to  be  aldermen. 

Alcerman,  among  the  ancient  Saxons,  wis  a  de- 
gree of  nobility  anfwering  to  carl  or  count  at  prefent. 
Ali-erman   was  alfo  ufed,     in  the  time  of  king 
Edgar,  for  a  judge  or  juflice.     Thus  we  meet  with 

ihe 


A  L  D  [3 

Aiilc-ney,  lllc  lilkb  of  Atdartnanniti  totius  Aitgi:^,  aldtrniamtiii 
AldhclAi.  rcgi>,  cii/tilatiis,  civitutis,  burgi,  cnJUlli,  huiidredi 
"  *'  y/c'e'  ■>uaf:i:titch:i,  it  novct//dcciuiOru>ii.  According  lo 
Spcliiuii,  ihc  alderiiianuui  lotita  Angii^  feems  [o  lijvc 
been  ihc  Came  officer  v.ho  was  afterwards  fly  led  uipila- 
Ui jujlitiariui  Aiigiiie ,  or  chicf-julUcc  of  England  ;  the 
alJcrmuiDiui  icgis  fccnis  to  have  been  an  otcalional 
III . giftratc,  anfwcring  to  our  jiUticc  o(  affize  ;  and  the 
alddirtiiannui  idmitatui,  a  inagiflrate  \\  ho  held  a  middle 
.ank  between  what  was  afterward  called  earl  and 
ihc  fher,^  ;  he  fat  at  the  trial  of  caufes  with  the  liidlop: 
the  latter  proceeding  according  to  ecclclialiical  law, 
and  the  former  declaring  and  expounding  the  common 
law  of  the  land. 

ALDEIIN'EY,  an  idand  in  the  Briiilli  channel,  fiib- 
jcct  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain.  It  is  about  eight 
miles  in  compafs,  and  is  feparated  from  Cape  la  Hoguc, 
in  Noriiiandy,  by  a  narrow  Arciglit,  called  the  Race  (J 
Aidiriii),  which  is  a  very  dangerous  palFagc  in  (lorniy 
weather  when  the  two  currcuts  meet ;  othcrwife  it  is 
(afe,  and  has  depth  of  water  for  the  largeftfhips.  Tiiro* 
this  flreight  tlie  French  rtcet  made  their  cfcapc  after 
their  defeat  at  La  Hogue,  in  1692.  It  is  a  htaUhy 
ifland,  has  but  one  church,  is  friiiiful  buh  in  corn  ai;d 
pafture,  and  is  remarkable  for  a  fine  breed  of  tows.  The 
inhabitants,  for  their  greater  fifcty,  li\  e  together  in  a 
town  of  tlie  fame  name.  The  number  of  houles  are 
faid  to  be  200,  and  the  inhabitants  1000.  It  has  but 
one  harbour,  called  Crabby,  which  is  at  a  good  diltance 
from  the  town  ;  and  is  only  fit  for  fniall  vclfels.  To  the 
weft  lie  the  range  of  rocks  called  the  Cajkeis,  fo  dan- 
gerous to  mariners.  \V.  Long.  :.  17.  N.Lat.49.  50. 
ALDHi^LM  (Si),  biihup  of  Shercburn  in  the  time 
of  the  Saxon  Heptarchy.  He  is  faid  to  have  been  the 
fon  of  Kenrcd,  brother  to  Ina,  king  of  the  Wcfl-- 
Saxons;  but,  in  the  opinion  of  William  of  Malmlbury, 
his  father  was  no  more  than  a  diltant  relation  to  the 
king.  Having  received  the  firft  part  of  his  education 
in  the  fchool  which  oncMacJulf,  a  learned  Scot,  hjd 
fet  up  in  the  place  where  Malmftjury  now  flands,  he 
travelled  into  France  and  Italy  for  his  improvement. 
Athisrcturn  home,he  ftuJiedfonie  tune  under  Adrian 
abbotof  St  Augulline's  in  Canterbury,  the  moll  learn- 
ed profelforofthc  fciences  who  had  ever  been  in  Eng- 
land. In  thefe  ditFerent  fcniinaries  he  acquired  a  very 
uncommon  flock  of  knowledge  ;  and  became  famous 
for  bii  learning,  not  only  in  England,  but  in  foreign 
countries:  whence  fcvcral  learned  men  fcnt  him  their 
writings  for  his  perufal  and  correction  ;  particularly 
Prince  Arcivil,  a  fon  of  the  king  of  Scotland,  who 
wrote  many  pieces  which  he  fent  to  Aldhelni,  "  in- 
treating  him  to  give  them  the  laft  polifli,  by  rubbing 
off  their  Scots  mil."  He  was  the  firlt  Englilhmaii 
who  wrote  in  the  Latin  language  both  in  profe  and 
verfe,  and  compofed  a  book  for  the  inftrudion  of  bis 
countrymen  in  the  profoJy  of  that  language.  Belides 
this,hc  wrote  feveralothertreatifcs  on  various  fubjecls; 
fome  of  which  are  lo!l,  and  others  publilhcd  by  Martin 
Delrioand  Caniiius.  Venerable  Bcdr,  who  flourilhcd 
in  the  end  of  this  and  the  begining  of  the  next  cen- 
tury, gives  the  following  charaderof  Ald!iclm:  "  He 
was  a  man  ofuniv«rfalcruuition,havii:;;an  elegant  llyle, 
and  being  wonderfully  well  .cquainted  with  books, 
kith  on  pTiilofophicaland  religious  fubjedls."  In  fad, 
coulldchng  ihc  cloud  of  ignorance  by  which  he  was 


75     J  A  L  D 

)urrouiuled,ana:bcgrcatdiiHcultyofaccjjiringkiiuw-  Aldh  Im 
ledge  withouT  proper  inftru.-tion,  AlJhclin  wa:.  a  very  !■ 
cxiriordinary  man.  From  oa»  of  his  letters  10  Hedda  Aldred. 
bilh'jp  of  \Vi:.:hc;ler,  concerning  the  nature  of  his  (la-  " 
dies  wiulft  at  Canterbury,  he  appears  to  have  bcci 
iade.atigably  determine  j. to  acquire  every  Ipetics  of 
learning  iii  his  p.;wer.  For  a  copy  of  this  curious 
epiiUc,  fee  Henry's  Hillory,  vol.  ii.  p.  320.  King  Al- 
fred the  Great  declared,  that  Aldlulm  was  the  bui  i-f 
all  the  Saxon  poets  ;  and  that  a  favourite  fong,  which 
was  univerlally  fung  in  his  time,  near  200  years  after 
its  author's  death,  was  of  his  coinpufition.  When  he 
wasabbo:  of  Malmlbury,  having  a  fine  voice,  and  great 
Ikill  in  mufic  as  well  as  poetry,  and  obferxing  the 
backwardncfb  of  hii  barbarojs  countrymen  to  liilen  to 
grave  inftructions,  he  compofed  a  number  of  little 
poems,  which  he  fung  to  them  after  niafs  in  the  fwect- 
eft  manner  ;  by  which  they  were  gradually  inllruaeJ 
andciwlizcd.  After  tiiis  excellent  pcrfon  had  govern- 
ed the  monallery  of  Malmlbury,  of  which  he  was  the 
founder,  about  30  years,  he  w.ismade  biihop  of  Sherc- 
burn, where  he  died  A.  D.  709 He  wrote,  i.   De 

ocivvitiis  frii.cifaiihus.  This  trcatife  is  extant  iji  Bi- 
blioth:ca  i  atrin/i  of  Canifius.  2.  JEiiigmaticum  vFrfus 
mille.  This,  with  fcvcral  other  of  his  poems,  was 
publillied  by  Martin  Dclrio  at  Meutz,  8vo,  i6ci. 
3.  A  book  adJrcii'cd  to  a  certain  king  of  Northumber- 
land, named  Alfrid,  on  various  fubjeds.  4.  De  vita 
luoiiachoium.  S- De iaudc faniloiuvi.  G.De aritht/ie- 
tica.  7.  De  aflrologia.  8.  A  book  againft  tlic  mi- 
ftakcof  the  Britons  concerning  the  celebration  of  Ei- 
iler;  printed  by  Sonius,  i,-76.  9.  De  Uude  virgi- 
iiitath.  Manufcript,  in  Btnact-college,  Cambridge. 
Publillied  among  Bedc's  OptijcMla.  Bcfidcs  many  foa- 
ncts,  epiilles,  and  homilies  in  the  Saxon  langua-^e, 

ALUPORT,    aa  ancient   name  for  Manchciler. 
Sec  Manchesi  er. 

ALDRED,  abbot  of  Tavillock,  was  promoted  to 
the  bilhopric  of  VVorcefttr  in  the  year  1046.  He  wis 
fo  much  in  favour  with  King  Edward  the  Confellor, 
and  had  fo  much  power  over  his  mind,  that  he  obli  -cJ 
him  to  be  reconciled  with  the  worll  of  his  enemies 
particularly  with  Swane  fon  of  the  earl  Goodwin,  who 
had  revolted  againft  him,  and  came  with  an  army  to 
invade  the  kingdom.  Aldred  alforeftored  the  union 
and  frieudlhip  between  king  Edward  andGrifTin  kin» 
of  Wales.  He  took  afterwards  a  journey  to  Rome*^ 
and  being  returned  into  England,  in  the  year  1054, 
he  was  fcnt  cmbalfador  to  the  emperor  Henry  II.  ;  he 
ftaid  a  whole  year  in  Germany,  and  was  very  honour- 
ably entertained  by  Herman  archbilhop  of  Culogn, 
from  whom  he  learned  many  things  relating  to  ccclefi- 
3fticaldifc"ipline,  which  on  his  return  he  eftabliihed  in 
his  own  diocefc.  In  the  year  1058  he  went  to  Jeru- 
falem,  which  no  archbilhop  or  biihop  of  England  had 
ever  done  before  him.  Twoyears  after  he  returned  to 
England  ;  and  Kinfius  archbilhop  of  York  dyinj  the 
22d  of  December  1060,  Aldred  waselecled  in  hisllcad 
on  Chriftmas  day  following,  and  tbocght  fit  to  keep 
his  bilhopric  of  Worcefter  wi:h  tiie  archbilhopric  of 
Canterbury,  as  fome  of  his  predecelfors  had  done.  Al- 
dred went  foon  after  to  Rome,  in  order  to  receive  the 
Pallium  from  the  Pope  :  He  was  attended  by  T>.fton 
earl  of  No:  thumberland,  Gilo  biihop  of  Wells,  and 
Walter  bifliop  of  Hereford.     The  pope  received  Tof- 

toil. 


A   L  D 


[     376 


1 


A  L  D 


Alilred.    ton  very  lioiiouribly,  .iiul  made  Iihii  fit  by  him  in  (he 
^ — ^ — '   fynod  which  he  liiKlagainllthcSimoiiills.     He  griiu- 
cd  to  Gilo  and  Walter  tlicir  rciiiiclt,  bccaiife  they  were 
toleral)ly  well  learned,  and  not  accuicd  of  linioiiy.  but 
Aldrtd  being  by  liis  anlwcrs  found  ignorant,  antl;;iiil- 
ty  of  iiniony,  the  pope  deprived  him  very  fevereiy  of 
all  lionours  and  diguiiies;  fo  that   he  was  obligcJ  to 
return  without  the  Pallium.     On  his  way  homeheand 
his  three  fellow-travellers  were  attacked  by  fonie  rob- 
bers, who  took  from  them  all  that  they  had,  though 
they  did  not  oticr  to  kill  them.     This  obliged  them  to 
return  10  Rome  ;   aud  the   pope,  either  out  of  com- 
panion, or  by  the  threateniugs  of  the  c.al  of  Northum- 
berland, gave  ■■Mdrcd  the  Pallium  ;  but  he  was  obli- 
ged to  rclign  liis  billiopric  of  W'orceller.  Hov,  ever,  as 
the  archbilhoprie  of  York  had  been  almoll  entirely 
ruined  by  the  many  invalions  of  foreigners,  king  Kd- 
ward  gave  tiie  new  arehbilhop  leave  to  keep  twelve  vil- 
lages or  manors  which   belonged  to  the  bilhopric  of 
Worceller.     Kdward  the  Confclfor  dying  in   1066, 
Aldrcd  crowned  Harold  his  fuccellbr.     He  alio  crown- 
ed M'illiam   the  Conqueror,  after  he  had  made  him 
lake  the  following  oath,  viz.  that  he  would proted  the 
holv  church  of  God  and  their  leaders  ,  that  he  would 
cllabliHi  andobferve  righteous  laws  ;  that  he  would  en- 
tirely   prohibit  and  fapprefs   ::11  rapines  and  unjull 
judgments.     He  was  fo  much  in  favour  with  the  con- 
queior,  that  this  prince  looked  upon  him  as  a  fither  ; 
and,  though  imperious  in  regard  10  every  body  elfc,  he 
yet  fubmiticd  to  obey  this  arehbilhop  :  John  Bromton 
gives  us  an  inftancc  of  the  king's  fiibniiirion,  which  at 
the  fame  time  fliows  the  prelate's  Iiaughtinefs — It  hap- 
pened one  d.iy,  as  the  .-'.rtlibilhop  was  at  York,  that 
the  deputy-govermu- or  lord-lieutenant  going  out  of  the 
city  with  a  great  number  of  people,   met  the  arch- 
bilhop's  fervants,  wlio  came  to  town  with  feveral  carts 
and  horfcs  loaded  with  provilions.  The  governor  afk- 
cd  them  to  whom  they  belonged  ;  and  they  having  an- 
fwercd  they  were  Aldrcd's  fervants,  the  governor  or- 
dered that  all  tl'.efc  provilions  lliould  be  carried  to  the 
king's  flore-houfe.     The  arehbilhop  fcnt  immediately 
:'ome  of  his  clergy  to  the  governor,  eonimandiug  him 
to  deliver  the  provilions,  and  10  make  faiisfaflion  to  St 
Peter,  and  to  him  the  faint's  vicar,  for  the  injury  he 
liad  done  them  ;  adding,  that  if  he  refufed  to  comply, 
the  arehbilhop  would  make  uleof  his  apollolic  autho- 
rity againllhim,  (intimating  thereby  that  he  would  ex- 
communicate him).     The  governor,  offended  at  this 
proud  mellage,  ufed  the  perfons  whom  the  arehbilliop 
hadfent  him  very  ill,  and  returned  an  p.nfwer  as  haugh- 
ty as  the  melFage  wr.s.     Aldred  thereupon  went  to 
London  to  make  his  complaint  to  the  king  ;   but  in 
this  very  complaint  he  aftcd  with  his  wonted  infolcnce  ; 
for  meeting  the  king  in  the  church  of  St  Peter  at 
Weilminrter,  he  fpoke  to  him  in  thefe  words :  "  Hear- 
"  ken,OWiiliam:  wherahou  will  but  aforeigner, aud 
*'  God,  to  punilh  the  lins  of  this  nation,  permitted  thee 
*'  to  become  nialtcrof  it,  after  having  lliedagreat  deal 
"  of  blood,  I  conlecratrd  thee,  and  put  the  crown 
"  upon  thy  head  with  blciihigs  ;  but  nov/,  becaufc 
"  thou  halt  defcrvcd  it,  I  pronounce  a  eurfc  over  thee, 
"  jnftcad   of  a  blefling,  lincc    thou  art  become  the 
"  perfccutorofGod'schureh,;ridof  hismiuirters,  and 
"  liifl  bro];cn  the  promifes  and  the  oaths  which  thgu 


"  madtll  to  me  before  St  Peter's  altar."  The  king, 
terrified  at  this  difcourfc,  fell  upon  his  knees,  and 
humbly  begged  the  prelate  to  tell  him,  by  what  crime  * 
he  had  deferved  fo  levere  a  fentcnce.  The  Uoblemen, 
who  were  prcfcnt,  were  enraged  agaiull  the  areh- 
bilhop, and  loudly  cried  out  he  deferved  death,  or  at 
leaft  banilliment,  tor  having  clfcrcd  fuch  an  iujiry  to 
liis  fovcreigu,  and  they  prelled  him  with  threateniugs 
to  raife  the  king  from  the  ground.  But  the  prelate,  un- 
moved at  all  this,  anfwcrcd  calmly,  "  Good  men,  let 
"  him  lie  there,  for  he  is  not  at  .Aldred's  but  at  St 
"  Pcler'sfeet  ;  he  mull  feel  StPtter's  power,  lince  he 
"  dared  toiujure  his  vicegerent."  Having  thus  re- 
proved thcnoblcsby  his  epifcopal  authority,  hevouch- 
lafed  to  take  the  king  by  the  hand,  and  to  tell  him  the 
ground  of  his  complaint.  The  king  humbly  exeufcd 
himfelf,  by  faying  he  had  been  ignorant  of  the  whole 
matter  ;  and  begged  of  the  noblemen  to  iutreat  the 
prelate,  that  he  might  take  off  the  euifc  he  liad  pro- 
nounced, and  to  change  it  into  a  blelling.  Aldred 
was  at  lalf  prevailed  upon  to  favour  the  king  thus  far  ; 
but  not  without  the  promife  of  feveral  prefcnts  and  fa- 
vours, and  ordy  after  the  king  had  granted  him  to 
take  fuch  a  revenge  on  the  governor  as  he  thoi\ght  fit. 
Since  that  time  (adds  the  hif-oiian)  none  of  the  no- 
blcjnen  ever  dared  to  offer  the  leafb  injury.  It  may  be 
qucflioned,  which  was  more  furpriling  here,  whether 
tlie  archbilhop's  haughtinefs,».ho  dared  to  treat  hisfo- 
vereign  after  fo  unbecoming  a  manner  ;  or  the  king's 
flupidity,  who fuff'ered fuch  inlblenceand  audatioulncfs 
from  apricll  ? — The  Danes  having  made  an  inv.uionin 
the  north  of  England  in  the  year  1068,  under  the  con- 
duft  of  Harold  and  Canute  the  fons  of  king  Swane, 
Aldred  N\as  fomuch  alBided  at  it,  that  he  died  of  grief 
the  1 1  ih  of  September  in  thai  fame  yerj",  having  bc- 
fought  God  that  he  might  not  fee  the  dcfoLtion  of  his 
church  and  country. 

ALDRICH  (Robert),  bifliop  of  CatliOe,  was  born 
at  Burnham  in  Buckinghamlhire  about  the  year  149;, 
and  educated  at  Katon-fchool ;  from  whence,  in  1507, 
he  was  ckcU-d  fcholar  of  King's  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  took  his  degree  in  arts,  and  was  afterwards 
procior  of  the  univerlity.  In  1525,  he  was  appointed 
niafter  of  Eaton  fchool,  then  became  fellow  of  that 
college,  and  finally  provofl.  In  1529,  he  went  to 
Oxford,  where,  being  firfl  incorporated  bachelor  of 
divinity,  in  the  following  year  he  proceeded  dodor 
in  that  faculty  :  in  J S?^>  ^^  was  made  areh-deacon  of 
CoIchclUr;  in  IJ54,  canon  of  Windfor  ;  and  the  fame 
year,  regiftrary  of  the  order  of  the  garter.  He  was 
confecratcd  bidiop  of  Carlille  in  the  year  1537,  and 
died  at  Hornci.iUein  Lincolnfliire  in  1556.  He  wrote, 
I.  EpijIoLi  a.idil.  Hoy2!iaiiri!i!,  in  Latin  verfe  ;  printed 
in  Horman's  Jnttbojpcmi,  Lond.  I  J2i,  of  which  book 
Pitts  erroneoully  makes  Aldrich  the  author.  2.  Epi- 
gravwiata  var:a.  3.  Latin  vcrps,  and  another  epiftls 
to  Horvian,  prefixed  to  the  Vulgaiia  pusruriim  of  that 
author,  Lond.  1519,410.  /\.  Aiipwus  th  artuin  que- 
rhs  concerning  the  abuj'cs  (.f  the  mafs  ;  alfo  about  recti- 
zi'-'g  the  fticranunt. 

Alpkich  (Dr  Henry),  an  eminent  Englifh  divine 
and  philofopher,  born  at  London  in  1647,  was  edu- 
cated at  Wellr.iinder  fchool  under  the  famous  Dr  Buf- 
by,  and  admitted  of  Chrill-church  college,  Oxford. 

He 


Alilrcd. 
AUlrich. 


A  L  D 


C     377     ] 


A  L  D 


Aliiricli.  He  had  a  great  fliarc  in  t!ic  controvcrfy  witli  the  Pa- 
•*-— V— —  pills  in  the  reign  of  James  II.  and  Bilhoj)  Burnet  rnnl^s 
him  among  thofc  who  examined  all  the  points  of  po- 
pery with  a  folidity  of  judgment,  clearnefs  of  argu- 
ment, depth  of  learning,  and  vivacity  of  writing,  far 
beyond  any  who  had  before  that  time  written  in  our 
language.  He  rendered  himlelf  fo  confjucuous,  that 
at  the  rcvoluiion,  v.hen  Mafl'ey  the  poi/ifli  dean  of 
Chrill-chureh  HeJ,  his  dtanery  was  conferred  on  liini. 
In  this  ftation  he  behaved  in  an  exemplary  nianntr,and 
that  fabric  owes  much  of  its  beauty  to  his  ingenuity  : 
it  was  Aldrich  w  ho  deiigncd  the  beautiful  Iquarc  cull- 
ed Ptrct-K'afei-Oriaiiran^lif,  which  is  ellecmed  an  excel- 
lent piece  of  architeilurc.  In  imitation  of  his  pre- 
deccflbr  Dr  Kcll,  he  publilhcd  yearly,  a  piece  of  fomc 
ancient  Greek  autiior,  as  a  prefcnt  to  tlic  fiujents  of 
liis  houfc  :  he  publifiicd  ^'l H^JIcm  (J  Lcgic,  with  fomc 
other  pieces;  and  tiie  reviling  Clarcdon's  Killoryof 
the  Rebellion  was  intruftcd  to  him  and  bilhop  Spratt ; 
but  it  doth  not  appear  that  they  made  any  additions, 
or  conlidcrablealterations  in  it,  as  lias  been  allerted  by 
IVlr  Oldmixon.  Bclides  iiis  preferments  aboveinen- 
lioned,  Dr  Aldrich  was  alfo  redor  of  Wem  in  Shrop- 


and  the  other  on  the  death  of  the  Dnk'c  of  Gloaccfter.  Aldrich. 
Sir  John  liawkiiw  hath  prefcrved  a  humorous  tran-  Aldrovan- 
flation  by  him  of  the  v/dl-known  Englifh  ballad,         ,    '^"'- 

"  A  foldicr  and  a  failor, 

"  A  tinker  and  a  taylor,"  &c. 

The  following  epigram,  intitlcd  "  CaufaBibendi," 
is  likcwife  afcribed  to  Dr  Aldrich  : 

"  Si  bene  quid  memini,  Caufxfuntquinqucbibendi, 
"  ho/filij  AJvci.ttit  ;  prajcus  Sitij,  ztmiejritura; 
"  Aut  Vhii  Btnitas :  qute  libet  altera  Cati/a," 

The  epigram  has  been  thus  tranllated  : 

"  If  on  my  theme  I  rightly  think, 

"  There  are  five  reafons  why  men  drink  : 

"  Good  wine,  a  friend,  becaufe  I'ni  dry, 

"  Or  left  I  Ihould  be  by  and  by, 

"  Or  auy  other  rcafon  why." 

The  tranflation  is  not  equal  to  the  original.  It  is  e- 
vident,  from  the  verfes  cited  and  referred  to,  that  Dr 
Aldricli  was  of  a  very  cheerful  and  plcafant  tu.-n  of 
mind.  Indeed,  he  is  always  fpoktii  of  as  having  been 


Ihirc.     He  was  chufcn  prolocutor  of  the  convocation  a  man  of  wit  ;  and  as  one  who,  to  his  great  talents  and 

in  1702.     This  worthy  perfon  died  at  Chrill-church  virtucs,joincd  thofcamiablequalitics,  which  rendered 

on  the  14th  ofDecember  1710.     As  to  his  character  him  theobjeclof  gcneralalTeition,  aswellasof  general 

he  w.nsa  moft  univcrfal  fcholar,  and  had  .1  taftefor  all  efteem  and  refpcct.    Having  never  been  married,  he 

forts  of  learning,  efpecially  arehitcJturc.     Sir  John  appropriated  his  income  to  works  of  hofpitality  and 

Hawkins  has  favoured  the  public  \\  ith  feveral  particn-  benificence,  and  in  encouraging  learning  to  theuimoll 

lars  relative  to  Dr  Aldrich's  (kill  in  niufic;  and  on  ac-  of  his  power,  of  which  he  was  a  moll  muniiicent  pj- 

countofthe  Dodor's  eminence  in  this  rcfped.  Sir  tron,  as  well  as  one  of  the  greateft  men  in  Kngland, 

John  hath  given  his  life,  with  his  head  periixed.  His  if  confidered  as  a  chriltian  or  a  gentleman.     He  had 

abilities  as  a  muiician  rank  him,  we  are  told,  among  always  the  ir.tereftof  his  college  at  heart,  whereof  kc 

the  greatell  maflersof  the  fcicnee.  Hecoinpofcd  many  was  an  excellent  go\ernor.  Ani,  as  he  was  remark 


fervicesfor  the  church,  which  are  well  known  ;  as  are 
alfo  his  anthems,  nearly  to  the  number  of  twenty.  He 
adapted,  withgreat  Ikill  andjudgment,  Knglidi  words 
to  many  of  tlie  notes  of  Paleftrina,  Cariiiiiui,  Vidoria, 
and  other  Italian  compofcrs  for  the  church,  fome  of 
which  are  frequently  fungin  the  cathedrals  as  ant  hems. 
I3y  ill  chappy  talent  \\  hich  Dr  Aldrich  poirclicd,  of  na- 
turalizing the  eompofiiions  of  the  old  Italian  mafiers, 
and  accommodating  tltem  to  an  Englilh  ear,  he  in- 
creafed  the  flores  of  his  own  church.     Thousrh  the 


able  for  modcfly  and  humility,  concealing  his  name  10 
thofe  feveral  learned  tracis  he  publilhed,  io  at  his  death 
hcappointcd  to  be  buried  without  any  memorialin  the 
cathedral ;  which  his  tluifiy  nephew  complied  with, 
depoliting  him  on  the  fouth  tide  of  bilhop  Fell's  grave, 
December  22,  tight  days  after  his  deccafc  ;  which 
happened  in  the  6;d  or  64th  year  of  his  ap-c. 

ALDROVANDUS  (Ulyll'es),  profeiro"r  of  philo- 
fophy  and  phylic  at  Bologna,  the  place  of  his  nativity. 
He  was  a  inofl  curious  inquirer  into  natural  hillory. 


Dotlor  chieliy  applied  liimfelfto  the  cultivation  of  fa-  and  travelled  into  the  moll  diflanicouniiiesoii  purpol'c 

crcd  raulic,  yet,  being  a  man  of  humour,  he  could  di-  toinforni  hiinfclfuftheirnaturalprodut'lions. Minerals, 

vert  himfelf  by  producing  pieces  of  a  lighter  kind.  met.<ls,  plants,  and  animals,  were  the  "hjccls  of  his 

There  are  two  catches  of  his  ;  the  one.   "  Hark  the  curious  rcfearches  ;  but  he  applied  hiir.fcll'chie/ly  to 

bonny  Chrift-church  Bells,"  ilu-  other  intitlcd,  "  a  birds,  and  was  at  great  cxpcnce  to  have  figures  of 

Smoking  Cateli,"  to  be  fui>g  by  fonr  men  Imoking  them  drawn  from  the  life.     ALibert  le  Alire  fays,  that* 

'  their  piix:s,  which  ij  not  more  riitllcult  to  fing  than  di-  he  gave  a  certain  painter,  famous  in  ih.it  art,  a  yearly 

vcrtiiig  !«  hear.    His  lo\  c  of  Smoki:;g  was,  it  feems,  falary  of  aoo  crowiis,  lor  :o  yi:'ri  and  iipwariis  ;  and 

fo  cxceliive  as  to  be  an  entirtaining  topic  of  dil'courfc  that  he  employed  at  hisowT  cxpcnce  Lorcniv*  Ijcnnini 

in  the  univcrlity.     Such  was  Dr  Aldrich's  regard  for  and  Cornel  ins  S  win  tus,  as  well  asihclauiouse^'iiravcr 

the  advancement  of  mufic,  and  the  lio:iuur  of  its  pro-  Chriftopher  Coriolanus.     ThrlV  expences  nincd  his 

fcffors,  that  he  had  formed  a  detign  of  writing  a  hifto-  fortune,  and  at  length  reduced  him  to  the  utmofl  ne- 

ry  of  the  fcience  ;  and   the  materials  from  whi;h  he  cellity  ;  and  it  isfaid  that  he  died  blind  in  an  lu.fj'ii.;! 

propofed  to  compile  it  are  yet  extant  in  the  library  of  at  Bologna,  at  a  great  age,  in  16c  j.     Mr  E.:ylc  ub- 

his  own  college.  It  a,'pears  from  iljcfciiiatcrials,  that  fcrvcs,  that  antiquity  does  not  furniih  us  with  an  in- 

lie  had  marked  down  every  thing  which  he  had  met  ftanec  of  a  defign  fo  extcnlivc  and  h  l?bnrious  as  tli.-.t 

with  conecrni'.i^nuilic  and  mufiei.ins  ;  but  that  he  had  of  Aldrovandus,  with  regard  to  natunl  hillory  ;  ili:!t 


wrought  no  pan  of  them  into  any  kind  of  form. 

Dr  Aldrich  is  of  fome  note  as  a  Latin  jioet.    In  the 
J\]iif,r  Aiigiicaiijc,  We  find  two  elegant  copies  of  verfes 
by  him  J  one  on  the  acceflion  of  King  S\  iiliam  III. 
Voi.  I. 


Pliny  has  treated  of  more  kinds  of  fubjecls,  but  only 
touches  lightly  on  ihtm,  faying  but  a  little  upon  an/ 
thing,  whereas  Aldrovandus  has  coUcclcd  all  he  could 
meet  with  His  compilation,  or  that  compiled  upon 
%  B  hi<5 


ALE 


[     378     1 


ALE 


his  plan,  con  alls  of  1 3  volamcbin  folio, fcveralof  which 
were  printed  after  his  death,  lie  himfelf  piiblilhcd 
his  Ornithology,  or  Hillory  of  Birds,  in  three  folio  vo- 
lumes, in  IJ99  ;  and  his  fcven  books  Of  Infects, which 
make  another  volume  ot  the  fame  fizc.  The  volume 
Of  Serpents,  three  Of  Qiiadnipeds,  one  Of  Hlhcs, 
that  Of  exangiiioiis  Animals,  the  Hillory  of  Moulters, 
with  the  Siipplcnicnt  to  that  of  Animals,  the  trcatife 
Of  Metals,  and  the  Dendrology  or  Hillory  of  Trees, 
were  publilhed  at  icveral  times  after  the  death  of  Al- 
drovandns,  by  the  care  of  icveral  pcrlbns;  and  Aldro- 
vanJiisis  the  folc  aiuhoronly  of  the  tirfl  lix  volumes  of 
this  work,  the  red  having  been  tiniflied  and  compiled 
by  others,  upon  the  plan  of  Aldrovandus  :  a  molt  ex- 
teniive  plan,  wherein  he  not  only  relates  what  he  has 
read  in  iiaturalifts,  but  remarks  alio  what  hilloriaiis 
have  written,  legillators  ordained,  and  poets  feigned  : 
he  explains  alio  the  ditferent  ufes  which  may  be  made 
of  the  things  he  treats  of,  in  common  life,  in  medicine, 
architecture,  and  other  arts  ;  in  Ihort,  he  fpeaks  of 
morality,  proverbs,  devices,  riddles,  hieroglyphics, 
»nd  many  other  things  which  relate  to  his  fubjett. 

ALDROVANDA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  pen- 
landria  order,  belonging  to  the  pentagynia  clais  of 
plants  ;  of  which  there  is  but  one  fpecies.  The  calyx 
is  di\  ided  into  five  parts  ;  the  petals  are  five  ;  and  the 
capfule  has  five  valves,  with  leu  feeds.  It  is  a  native 
»>f  Italy  and  the  Indies  ;  and  has  no  Englilh  name. 

ALDUABIS  (anc.  gcog.),  a  river  of  Celtic  Gaul, 
which  riling  from  Mount  Jura,  fcparating  the  Scquani 
frsm  the  Hclvelii,  and  running  through  the  county  of 
Burgundy,  or  the  Franchc  C'omte,  environs  almolt  on 
every  fide  the  city  of  Bcfanj on  ;  and  running  by  Dole, 
falls  into  the  Saone  near  Chalone.  In  Casfar  it  is  call- 
ed Alduufdubis ,-   in  Ptolemy,  Duhn  :  now  /e  Dou.-:. 

ALE,  a  fermented  liquor  obtained  from  an  infulioii 
of  malt,  and  differing  from  beer  chiefly  in  having  a  lefs 
proportion  of  hops.  (See  Brewing.).  This  liquor, 
the  natural  fubflitute  of  wine  in  fuch  countries  as  could 
not  produce  the  grape,  was  originally  made  in  Egypt, 
the  firfl  planted  kingdom,  on  the  difperlion  from  the 
cafl,  that  was  fuppofcd  unable  to  produce  grapes.  And, 
as  the  Noachian  coloniespierced  further  intothe  welt, 
they  found,  or  thought  they  found,  the  Xcime  defect, 
and  fupplied  it  in  the  fame  manner.  Thus  the  natives 
of  Spain,  the  inhabitantsof  F'rance,  and  the  aborigines 
of  Britain,  allufcdan  infufion  of  barley  for  their  ordi- 
nary liquor  :  and  it  was  called  by  the  various  names 
ofCj'/ia  and  Ccria  in  the  firft  country,  Cerevifia  in  the 
fecond,  and  Ctir7ui  in  the  lafl ;  all  literally  importing 
only  the  Jiroa^  'lOater. 

"  All  the  feveral  nations  (fays  Pliny)  virho  inhabit 
the  weft  of  Europe,  have  a  liquor  with  which  they  in- 
toxicate themfclves,  made  of  corn  and  water.  The 
manner  of  making  this  liquor  is  fonicwhat  different  in 
Gaul,  Spain,  and  other  countries,  and  is  called  by 
many  various  names  ;  but  its  nature  and  properties  are 
every  where  the  fame.  The  people  of  Spain,  in  parti- 
cn'ar,  brew  this  liquor  fo  well,  that  it  will  keep  good 
a  long  time.  So  exquifite  is  the  cunning  of  mankind, 
in  gratifyin*  their  vicious  appctkes,  that  ihcy  have 
thus  invented  a  metiiod  to  make  water  itfelf  intoxi- 
cate." The  mctliod  in  M'hich  the  ancient  Britons,  and 
other  Celtic  nations,  made  their  ale,  is  thus  defcribed 
fcy  Ifidorus  aiid  Orolius.     "  The  grain  is  fteepcd  in 


water  and  made  to  germinate,  by  which  its  fpirits  are 
excited  and  fet  at  liberty  ;  it  is  then  dried  and  grind-  ^ 
ed  ;  after  which  it  is  infufed  in  a  certain  quantity  of 
water  ;  which  being  fermented,  becomes  a  pleafant, 
warming,  ftrengthcning,  and  intoxicating  liquor." 
Thisalewas  nioltcomnionly  made  of  barley;  but  fomc- 
limei  of  wheat,  oats,  and  millet. 

Anciently  the  Welch  and  Scots  had  alfo  two  kinds 
of  ale,  called  common  ale  3.r-«.\J}iccd  ale ;  and  their  va- 
lue was  thus  afcertained  by  law  :  "  If  a  farmer  hath 
no  mead,  he  fliall  pay  two  calks  of  Ipiccd  ale,  or  four 
calks  of  common  ale,  for  one  calk  of  mead."  By 
this  law,  a  calk  of  fpiced  ale,  nine  palms  in  height, 
and  i8  palms  in  diameter,  was  valued  at  a  fum  of  mo- 
ney equal  in  efficacy  to  L.  7.  los.  of  our  prefent  mo- 
ney ;  and  a  calk  of  common  ale,  of  the  fame  dimen- 
fions,  at  a  fum  equal  to  L.  3.  15s.  This  is  a  fufiicient 
proof,  that  even  common  ale  in  this  period  was  an  ar- 
ticle of  luxury  among  the  Welch,  which  could  only 
be  obtained  by  the  great  and  opulent.  Wine  fecms 
to  have  been  quite  unknown  even  to  the  kingsof  Wales 
in  this  period,  as  it  is  not  fo  much  as  once  mentioned 
in  their  laws  ;  though  Giraldus  Cambrenfis,  whoflou- 
riflied  about  a  century  after  the  conqueft, acquaints  us, 
that  there  was  a  vineyard  in  his  time  at  Maenarper, 
near  Pembroke,  in  South  Wales. 

Ale  was  the  favourite  liquor  of  the  Anglo-Saxons 
and  Danes,  as  it  had  been  of  their  anccftors  the  an- 
cient Germans.  Before  their  converfion  to  Chriftiani- 
ty,  they  believed  that  drinking  large  and  frequent 
draughts  of  ale  was  one  of  the  chief  felicities  which 
thofe  heroes  enjoyed  who  were  admitted  into  the  hall 
of  Odin. 

There  are  various  forts  of  ale  known  in  Britain, 
particularly /Ji!/!' and  brown:  the  former  is  brewed  from 
malt  nightly  dried  ;  and  is  efleemed  more  vifcid  than 
the  latter,  which  is  made  from  malt  more  highly  dried 
or  roalled. 

Pale  ale  brewed  with  hard  waters,as  thofe  of  fprings 
and  wells,  isjudged  themofl  wholefome,  in  regard  the 
mineral  particles  tend  to  prevent  the  cohclions  of  thofe 
drawn  from  the  grain,  and  enable  them  to  pafs  the  pro- 
per fecrctions  the  better;  fofter  waters,  as  thofe  of  ri- 
vers, and  rain,  feem  better  fuited  to  draw  out  the  fub- 
flance  of  high-dried  malts  which  retain  many  igneous 
particles,  beft  ahforbed  in  a  fmooth  vehicle. 

In  Statfordlhire,  they  have  a  fecret  of  fining  ale  in 
a  very  (liort  time.  Plot  conjedlures  it  to  be  done  by 
adding  alum,  or  vinegar,  in  the  working. 

Ale  is  prepared  various  ways,  andof  various  ingre- 
dients, as  of  wheat,  rye,  millet,  oats,  barley,  the  ber- 
ries of  the  quick-bean,  &c. 

Some  have  found  that  the  juice  which  bleeds  from 
the  birch  or  fycamore  is  of  great  ufe  on  this  occafion, 
applied  inflead  of  water.  It  makes  one  bufliel  of  malt 
go  as  far  as  four  in  the  common  way. 

Some  have  a  method  of  preparing  ale,  fo  that  it  will 
keep,  carried  to  the  Eafl  or  \\  eft  Indies.  The  fecret 
is,  by  mafliing  twice  with  frefh  malt  ;  boiling  twice; 
and, after  fhippingit,  putting  to  every  five  gallons  two 
new-laid  eggs  whole,  to  remain  therein.  It  is  faid, 
that,  in  a  fortnight's  time,  the  IliWlswill  be  dillblved; 
and  the  eggs  become  like  wind-eggs  ;  and  that  after- 
wards the  white  will  difappcar  and  tli?  yolk  remain 
imtou.ched. 

Ale 


Al.. 


ALE 


[     379     ] 


ALE 


Ale.  Ate  i5  gciieiilly  held  m  be  more  (iiurcl;c  tliaii  beer, 

in  regarJ  ii  is  CniDOtlier,  moie  fot'teiiing,  and  relaxing; 
l"o  that  wlitii  iiriiic  is  to  be  in-onioted  by  facilit  itiiig 
llic  pallige,  ale  is  iiiolt  liivei/  to  etltil  it. 

Ale  is  liatnleiu  ;  and  hence  loineiinics  produces  co- 
lics, and  llic  cholera  morbus :  it  is  aeefcent  ;  but  it  docs 
not  produce  calcareous  dil'eaies,  as  has  been  ailerted. 

If  malt-liquor,  of  any  degree  of  llreiigtli,  is  be- 
come flat  and  tartilli,  as  it  is  uled,  it  (liould  be  drawn 
out  of  the  calk  into  a  jug,  in  which  as  many  drams  of 
powdered  chalk  is  put  as  there  arc  to  be  pinisof  licjuor  ; 
thus  a  new  ferment  will  be  raifed,  a  fprigluly  taftc  will 
be  rcftored  to  the  liquor,  and  its  acidity  will  be  de- 
llroycd.  Tart  liquors  of  this  kind  arc  apt  to  produce 
a  dyfury,  flrangury,  or  a  gonorrhtea  ;  in  which  cafes, 
a  fmall  quantity  of  brandy  may  be  taken. 

The  confumption  of  ale  in  Great  Britain  is  incre- 
dible. It  was  computed  twenty  years  ago  at  the  va- 
lue of  four  inillionsycarly,  intludingGrcat  Britain  and 
Ireland. 

The  duties  on  ale  and  beer  make  a  principal  branch 
of  the  revenue  in  Britain.  They  were  Hrll  jnipofed 
by  the  12th  of  Car.  11.  and  have  been  continued  by 
feveral  fubfcquent  atts  of  parliament  to  tirll  Geo.  111. 
which  lays  an  additional  duty  of  3d.  per  barrel.  In 
the  whole,  the  brewer  ol  ale  and  beer  for  fale  fliall  pay 
8s.  for  every  barrel  of  cither,  above  6s.  a  barrel  ;  and 
for  every  barrel  of  6s.  or  under,  the  fum  of  is.  4d. 

Medicated  Ales,  thofe  wherein  medicinal  herbs  have 
been  infufed,  or  added  during  the  fermentation.  Sec 
Pharmacy,  (Index.) 

CiU-ALt.,  isthat  in  which  the  dried  leaves  of  gill  or 
ground-ivy  have  been  infufed.  It  is  cfteemedabller- 
five  and  vulnerary,  and  confequently  good  in  difordcrs 
of  the  breaft  and  obftru<f\ionsof  the  vifcera. 

AhE-Coinisr,  an  officer  in  London,  who  infpefls  the 
meafures  ufed  in  public  houfes.  There  arc  four  ale- 
conners, who  are  all  chofcn  by  liverymen  in  com- 
mon hall  on  midfummer-day. 

Ale- Houfes  mwd  belicenfedbyjuflicesof  the  peace, 
who  take  recognizances  of  the  perfons  licenfed,  and  of 
their  furetics,  viz.  lol.  each,  that  they  will  notfufFcr 
unlawful  gaming, norothcr  difordcrly  praftices  in  their 
houfes.  Every  perfon,  excepting  thofe  who  fell  ale 
in  fairs,  negleding  to  procure  a  licenfe,  is  liable  to  a 
penalty  of  40s.  for  the  lirfl  offence,  4I.  for  the  fccond, 
and  61.  for  the  third,  with  all  cofls.  The  licence  is 
granted  on  the  firfl  of  September,  or  within  twenty 
days  after,  at  a  general  meeting  of  the  jufticcs  for  the 
divifion  to  which  lie  belongs,  upon  his  producing  a 
certificate  to  his  character,  unlefs  by  living  in  a  city 
or  town-corporate,  this  lafl  circumllancc  is  difpenfed 
with,  and  continues  in  force  for  one  year  only.  Ale- 
houfc  keepers,  felling  ale  in  (liort  meafure,  are  liable 
to  a  penalty  not  exceeding  40s. and  not  lefs  than  los.and 
likewifc  to  a  fine  of  los.  for  permitting  tipling,  &c. 

By  29th  Geo.  II.  c.  12.  perfons  keeping  ale-honfes 
in  Scotland  Ihall  be  licenfed  as  in  England,  and  the 
juftices  there  Ihallmcet  annually  10  licenfe  ale-houfes; 
on  each  of  whicli  licciifes  a  fee  of  is.  is  payable  to  the 
clerk  of  the  peace.  Magiflratcs  of  Royal  boroughs 
fliall  meet  yctrly  for  the  like  purpofc  ;  but  where  there 
ihall  not  be  afufficicnt  number  of  magillratcs  toat^  in 
any  royalborough,  jullices  may  gnint  liccnfcs,tobein 
force  for  (Hie  year  only.     Ibid. 


Perlonsin  Scotland  conviftcd  of  keeping  unliccnfcd       Air 
ale-houfcs  Ihall  forfeit  for  the  firll  otfeucc  5s.  for  the  I 

fccond  los.  for  the  third  20s.  and  to  be  difqu 'litird  ;    Alci5lor»- 
and  for  every  fubfcquent  otfcncc  40s.   to  be  levied  by      """"*_. 
(iiflrefsand  fale,  one  moiety  to  the  informer,  the  other         "       ' 
to  thepoorof  the  parilh.  Conviction  to  be   intimated 
to  the  offender,  and  certified  to  the  clerk  of  the  peace, 
and  recorded :  but  perfonk  aggrieved  may  appeal  to 
the  quarter  feflions.     Ibid. 

Liccnfcs  for  houfes  on  the  military  roads  in  Scot- 
land Ihall  be  iifued  on  payment  of  is.  only  to  the  clerk 
of  the  peace  :  nuikingout  liccnfes  before  the  fame  be 
Aampcd,  is  a  penalty  of  lol.  and  making  them  con- 
trary to  the  intention  of  this  ad,  5I.  and  the  fame 
ihall  be  vacated,  unlefs  the  duty  and  tine  be  paid,  and 
the  receipt  produced,  and  licenfe  ftampcd.     Ibid. 

AtF.-Silvcr,  a  tax  paid  annually  to  the  lord-mayor  of 
London,  by  all  who  fell  ale  within  the  ciiy. 

ALEA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  denotes  in  general  all 
manner  of  games  of  chance  ;  but,  in  a  more  reft  ricled 
Icnfe,  was  ufcd  for  a  j«articuh:r  game  played  with  dice 
and  tables,  not  unlike  ourbackgamnion. 

ALEANDER  (Jerome),  cardinal  and  archbidioi* 
ofBrindili,  wasbornin  r48oianddiUinguilhedliiaiftIf 
at  the  beginning  of  the  reformation,  by  the  oppofition 
he  made  to  Luther:  for  being  fcnt  into  Germany  as 
the  pope's  nuncio  in  i;i9j 'ic  acted,  as  occafion  ferved, 
in  the  charadler  both  of  ambalFador  and  dodor  ;  and 
declaimed  three  liours  together  againft  Luther's  doc- 
trine before  the  diet  of  Worms,  but  could  not  prevent 
that  celebrated  reformer  from  beinghcardin  that  diet. 
Hepublilhed  feveral  works,  and  died  at  Rome  in  1 J42. 

Aleander  (Jerome),  a  learned  man  of  tjic  fevcii- 
tecnth  century, born  in  the  principality  of  Friuli, of  the 
fame  family  with  the  preceding.  When  he  went  to 
Rome,  he  was  employed  as  fecretary  under  cardi- 
nal Odavius  Bandini,  and  difcharged  this  office  with 
great  honour  for  almoft  tw^enty  years.  He  afterwards, 
by  the  perfualion  of  Urban  VIII.  who  had  a  great  c- 
ftcemforhim,  become  fecretary  to  Cardinal  Barberini, 
W'hom  he  accompanied  to  Rome  when  he  went  there 
in  the  charader  of  legate  <i/<»/frir,  and  in  wliofe  fer- 
vice  he  died  in  1631.  He  was  one  of  the  firll  mem- 
bers of  the  academy  of  Humorifls.wTote  a  learned  trea- 
tife  in  Italian  on  the  device  of  the  focicty,  and  difplay- 
ed  his  genius  on  many  different  fubjecls.  Barberini 
gave  him  a  magnificent  funeral  at  the  academy  of  Hu- 
morifts  ;  the  academills  carried  his  corps  to  the  grave ; 
and  Gafper  Simeonibiis,  one  of  the  members,  made  hit 
funeral  oration. 

ALECTO,  one  of  the  Furies,  daughter  of  Ache- 
ron and  Night,  or,  as  others  would  have  it,  of  Pluto 
and  Profcrpine. 

ALECTORIA,  a  ftone  faid  to  be  formed  in  the 
gall  bladders  of  old  cocks,  to  which  the  ancients  a- 
fcribed  many  fabulous  virtues.  This  is  otherwile  call- 
ed Alifloritii  Liifh  ,hmcx\n\es  Ah-iJorolitf^os ,  in  Englilh 
the  cock-floue.  The  more  modern  naturalills  hold  the 
nledoritn  lapis  to  be  originally  fwallowed  down,  not 
generated  in,  the  ftomach  or  gizard  of  cocks  and  ca- 
pons. It  is  known  that  many  of  the  fowl-kind  make 
a  pradicc  of  fwallowing  pebbles,  as  it  is  fuppofcd  to  be 
of  fervicc  in  the  bulincfsof  iriturationanddi^eftion. 

ALECTOi\OMANTIA,  in   antiquity,    a  fpecies 

of  divination  performed  by  means  of  .1  cock.     This  is 

381  other- 


A  L  E 


[     3S0     ] 


ALE 


A-!ee      otlicwil'c  rcallcJ  JUniyoiiiai.'cy  ;  of  v.liich  (here  appear 
II  to  luvc  bccji  (Jirtcrtnt  fpecics.     But  iliat  moll  fpokeii 

Alimbcrt  of"  by  aiuliors  was  in  (he  lullowiiig  nianiicr  :  A  circle 
'""""'  being  dcfcribcd  on  tlic  ground,  anil  diviJeJ  into  twen- 

ty-tbiir  equal  portions,  in  eacli  of  thefc  I'paccs  was 
written  one  of  tlic  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and  on  each 
of  the  letters  was  laidagraiaof  whejt  ;  after  whicii, 
a  cock  being  turned  loofe  in  tlic  circle,  particular  no- 
tice was  taken  of  the  grains  picked  up  by  the  cock, 
becaul'c  the  letters  under  them,  being  formed  into  a 
M'ord,  made  the  anfwer  delired.  It  was  thus,  accor- 
ding to  Zonarus,  th  it  Libanius  and  Jamblicus  fought 
wlio  lliould  fuccecd  the  emperor  Valcns  ;  and  the  cock 
eating  the  grains  anlVcring  to  the  fpaces  ©EOA,  fc- 
vcral  whofc  names  began  with  thofc  letters,  as  Thco- 
dotus,  Theodillcs,  Thcodulous,  Sec.  were  put  to  death, 
which  ciul  not  hinder,  but  promote,  Theodolius  to  the 
fiicceflion.  But  the  itory,  however  current,  is  but  ill 
fupported  :  It  has  been  called  in  quellion  by  fome, 
and  refuted  by  others,  from  the  filencc  of  MarccUiuus 
Socrates,  and  other  hiilurians  of  that  time. 

A-LEE,  in  the  lea-language,  a  term  only  ufed  when 
the  wind,  crofling  or  rianking  the  lino  of  a  lliip's 
courfc,  prelles  upon  the  marts  and  fails  fo  as  to  make 
her  incline  to  one  fide,  wliicli  is  called  the  lec-lidc  : 
hence,  when  the  helm  is  moved  over  to  tiiis  lide,  it  is 
•faid  to  be  a  lee,  or  hard  a-tee. 

ALEGAMBE  (Philip),  a  celebrated  Jefuit,  born 
7^.  BrulFels  in  IJ92,  diltinguilliej  himfelf  by  publilh- 
ingaUibliotliequeof  the  writers  of  hisorder,  and  died 
at  Rome  in  [652. 

ALEGRETTE,  a  Imall  town  of  Portugal,  in  A- 
lentcjo,  on  the  confines  of  Port  Alcgre,  on  the  river 
•  Caja,  which  falls  into  tlic  Guadiana,  a  Utile  below  Ba- 

jaJoz,  near  tlie  frontiers  of  Spani'.li  Eilremadura.  It 
is  a  very  pretty  town,  and  finely  fituatcd  ;  leven  miles 
fouth-eaft  of  Port  Alegre,  and  thirty  miles  north  of 
Elvas.  W.  Long.  5.  20.  N.  Lat.  39.  6. 

ALEIUS  CAMPUS  (auc.  gcog.),  a  plain  in  Cili- 
cia.on  this  fide  the  river  Pyramus,  near  the  mountain 
Chimerj,  famous  for  Bellcrophon's  wandering  and  pe- 
riil'.ing  there,  after  being  thrown  oft  Pcgafus  ;  which 
is  the  rcalbn  of  the  appellation. 

AL E.M.ANl A , or  A l t.E m k-ais , (anc.  geo^. )  a  name 
of  Germany,  but  not  known  before  the  time  of  the 
Antonines,  and  then  ufcd  only  for  a  part.  After  the 
Marcomanni  and  their  allies  had  removed  from  the 
Rhine,  a  rabble,  or  collcLlion  of  people  from  all  pans 
ofGual,  as  the  term  AUniaimi  denotes,  prompted  ci- 
ther by  levity  or  poverty,  occupied  the  Agri,  called 
Di'diniates  by  Tacitus,  bccaul'e  they  held  them  on  a 
tithe  ;  now  fuppofcd  to  be  the  iutchy  o{  lVirti'?i:!>urgh. 
Such  ap;«ear  to  be  the  fmall  beginnings  of  Alcmanii, 
which  was  in  af'ter-times  greatly  enlarged  :  but  llill 
it  was  conlidercd  as  a  dilii net  part  ;  for  Caracalla, 
who  conquered  the  Alenianni,  atfumed  the  furname 
hoi\\  of  /Junumnic.i  3.\tA  Ccrmaniais. 

ALEMBDAR,  and  oflicer  in  the  court  of  the  Grand 
Signior,  who  bears  the  green  flandard  of  Mahomet, 
when  the  fulian  appears  in  public  on  any  folemn  occa- 
(ion. 

ALEMBERT  (John  Ic  Rnnd  d'),  an  eminent 
French  pliilofophcr,  w.is  born  at  Paris  in  1717.  He 
derived  the  name  of  {o.'m  Ic  Rond  from  that  of  the 
cliurch  r.car  which,  after  his  birth,  he  was  txpofcd  as 


a  foundling.     His  father,  informed  of  this  circnni-  Alcmb«rt. 

fiance,  lillencd  to  the  voice  of  nature  and  duty,   took  ■ ./       ' 

meafuresfor  the  proper  education  of  his  child,  and  lor 
his  future  fubflflcnce  in  a  flate  of  cafe  and  indepen- 
dence. 

He  received  his  firll  education  in  the  College  of  the 
Four  Nations,  among  the  Janlenifls,  where  he  gave 
early  marks  of  capacity  anj  genius.  In  the  firll  year 
of  his  philofophital  iludics,  he  compofed  a  Commen- 
tary on  the  epiftle  of  St  Paul  to  the  Romans.  The 
Janfenifls  confuiered  this  production  as  an  omen  that 
portended  to  the  party  of  Port-Royal  a  relloration  to 
fome  part  of  their  ancient  fplendor,  and  hoped  to 
find  one  day  in  I\l.  d'Alcmbert  a  fecond  Pafcal.  To 
render  this  refcmblance  more  complete,  they  engaged 
their  rifing  pupil  in  the  Rudy  of  the  mathematics  ;  but 
they  loon  perceived  thut  his  growing  attachment  to 
this  fcicnce  was  likely  to  difappoint  the  hopes  they 
had  formed  with  refpcvl  to  his  future  defUnation  ; 
they,  therefore,  endeavoured  to  divert  him  from  this 
line  ;  but  their  endeavours  were  fruillels. 

At  his  leaving  college, he  found  himfelf  alone  and 
unconnected  in  the  world  ;  and  fought  an  afyluni  in 
thehoufc  of  \\\^iiurfe.  He  comforted  himfelf  with  the 
hope,  that  his  fortuuc,  though  not  ample,  would  bet- 
ter the  condition  and  fubfillencc  of  that  family,  which 
was  the  only  one  that  he  could  confider  as  his  own  : 
Here,  therefore,  he  took  up  his  refidencc,  refolvingto 
apply  himfelf  entirely  to  the  fludy  of  geometry  :  And 
here  he  lived,  during  the  fpaceof  forty  years,  with  the 
greatell  limplicity,  difcoveringthe  augmentation  of  his 
means  only  by  eucreafingdifplays  of  his  beneficence, 
concealing  his  growing  reputation  and  cclebrily  from 
thefc  honcit  people,  and  making  (heir  plain  and  uncouth 
manners  the  lubject  of  good-natured  plcafantry  and 
lihilofophical  obtervation.  His  good  nurfe  perceived 
hisardcntaOtivity  ;  heard  himmentioned  asthe  writer 
of  many  books  ;  but  never  took  it  into  her  head  that 
he  was  a  great  man,  and  ratlier  beheld  him  with  akind 
of  companion.  "  Xou  'ocill  never,"  faid  fhe  to  him  one 
day,  "  bi;  any  thing  but  a  philofopher — and  ivhat  is  a 
philofoph^r  ? — a  fool,  who  toils  and  pl.igues  h;?iifi;ij  during 
his  lifi,  that  people  may  talk  oj  hi?!!  wh.n  HE  is  no  more. 

-rs  iM.  d'Alembert's  fortune  did  not  far  exceed  the 
demands  of  necelFity,  his  friends  advifed  him  to  think 
of  a  profeffion  that  might  enable  him  fo  augment  it. 
He  accordingly  turned  his  views  to  the  law,  and  took 
his  degrees  in  that  line  ;  but  loon  abandoned  this 
plan,  and  applied  to  the  fludy  of  medicine.  Geome- 
try, however,  was  always  drawing  him  back  to  his 
former  purfuits,  and  after  many  inelfedual  efforts  to 
refifl  its  attractions,  he  renounced  all  views  of  a  lucra- 
tive pro  f'cliion,  and  gave  iiiinfelf  over  entirely  to  ma- 
thematics and  poverty.  ' 

In  the  year  1741  he  was  admitted  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  ;  for  which  di.Qinguiflied  literary 
promotion,  at  fuch  an  early  age,  he  had  prepared  the 
way  by  correlating  the  errors  of  a  e;lcbratcd  work*,  'The  jlna- 
■which  was  deemed  clajpcai  in  France  in  the  line  of  ge-  '.'/  ''"'•m-     ! 
ometry.     He  afterwards  let  himfelf  to  examine,  with  ''  "'  " 
deep  attention  and  alhduity,  what  mufl  be  the  notion    '^"'^"" 
of  a  body  which  paffes  from  one    fluid  into  another 
more  dcnfc,  in  a  direiSion  not  perpendicular  to  the 
lurface  I'eparaiing  ilic  two  fluids.     Every  one  knows 
tlieplicuomenoii  which  happens  in  this  cafe,  and  which 

amufcs 


ALE 


[     3S1     ] 


ALE 


Alembert-  amufes  children  under  the  denomination  o{  Ducki  and 
— V-—  Drakis  ;  but  M.  d'Alcmbert  was  the  firfl  who  explain- 
ed it  in  a  fatiifattory  and  philofophical  manner. 

Two  years  after  hisekttion  to  a  place  in  the  acade- 
my, he  publilhcd  his  Treat'ifi dii D) naviia .  The  new 
principle  developed  m  tins  trcatifc  coniiiled  in  eila- 
bliUiing equality,  at  each  inllant,  between  the  changes 
that  tlic  motion  ot  a  body  has  undergone,  and  the  for- 
ces or  powers  which  have  occn  employed  to  proilncc 
them  ;  or  to  exprefs  the  thing  otherwire,ir.  I'epararing 
\\\\o  t'iuo  parts  the  action  of  the  moving  powers,  and 
coufidcring  the  one  as  producing  alone  the  motion  of 
the  booy,  in  the  fecond  inflant,  and  the  other  as  em- 
ployed to  dedroy  that  which  it  had  in  the  firll. 

Si)  early  as  the  year  1744,  ^'-  d'Alenjbcrt  had  ap- 
plied this  principle  to  the  theory  of  the  equilibrium, 
ar.d  the  motion  of  huids  ;  and  all  the  problems  before 
rolv(d  by  geometricians  became,  in  fomc  nieafurc,  its 
corollaries.  The  difcovery  of  thisnew  principle  was 
followed  by  that  of  a  new  calculus,  the  firlt  trials  of 
which  were  ^\x\>\\^\K.i\\\\iLDifcoiirJ's  on  the  gsneratThco- 
ry  oj  the  Windi,  to  which  the  prize-medal  was  adjudg- 
ed by  the  academy  of  Berlin  in  the  year  1746,  and 
which  was  a  new  and  brilliant  addition  to  the  fame  of 
M.  d'Alcmbert.  This  new  calculus  of  partial  dilier- 
enccs  he  applied,  the  year  following,  to  the  problem  of 
vibrating  chords,  whofe  foUuion,  as  well  as  the  theory 
of  the  ofcillations  of  the  air  and  the  propagation  of 
found,  had  been  given  but  incompletely  by  the  geome- 
tricians who  preceded  him,  and  thefc  were  his  malters 
or  his  rivals. 

In  the  year  1749  '"^  furniflied  a  method  of  applying 
his  principle  to  the  motion  of  any  body  of  a  given  fi- 
gure ;  and  he  folvcd  the  problem  of  the  preccifion  of 
the  equinoxes,  determined  its  quantity,  and  explained 
the  phenomenon  of  the  nutation  of  the  terrcftrial  axis 
difcovcred  oy  Dr  Bradley. 

In  1752,  M.  d'Alcmbert  publ^tbeJ  a  trcatifc  on  the 
Refijlunce  oj  k'lriids,  to  which  he  gave  the  modefl  title 
of  an  Effay ;  but  whi'.h  contains  a  multitude  of  ori;;i- 
nal  ideas  and  new  obfervations.  About  the  fame  time 
he  pnblithed,  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Acaiicniy  of  Ber- 
lin, Rsfearchci  ci):cernii'.g  the  IiA-gral  Calculus,  \vhich 
is  greatly  indebted  to  him  for  the  rapid  progrefsit  has 
made  in  the  prefent  century. 

While  the  lludies  of  ^I.  d'Alcmbert  were  confineJ 
togeomttry,  he  was  '.ittlc  known  or  celebrated  in  his 
native  country.  His  connections  were  limited  to  a 
fmall  foriety  ot  fclcd  friends  :  he  had  never  feen  any 
man  in  high  office  except  M.  d'Ari:enfon.  Satisfi- 
ed with  an  inromc  which  furnilhcd  him  with  the  ne- 
cefTaries  of  I'ifc,  he  did  not  afpire  at'tcro;iulcncc  or  ho- 
nours ;  nor  had  they  been  hitherto  bei'li>wed  upon  him, 
as  it  is  caficr  to  confer  them  on  thole  who  folicit  them, 
than  to  look  out  for  men  who  defcrvc  them.  His 
cheerful  con  verfaiion,hisfmart  and  lively  fal  lies,. 1  hap- 
py knack  at  telling  a  ftory,  a  fingular  mixture  of  ma- 
lice of  fpeech  with  goodnefs  of  heart,  and  of  delicacy 
of  wit  wjth  limplicity  of  manners,  rendered  him  a  plea- 
lingand  interclUng  companion,  and  his  ci^mpany  coa- 
fequently  was  much  Ibnght  at'ter  in  the  f'alhiunablc  cir- 
cles. His  reputation,  at  length,  made  its  way  to  the 
throne,  and  rendered  him  the  objett  of  royal  attention 
and  beneficence.  He  received  alio  a  pcniion  from  go- 


vernment, which  he  owed  to  the  frjendihip  of  Count  Alembm. 
d'Argcnfon.  ' ^ » 

The  tranquillity  of  M.  d'Alcmbert  was  abated  when 
his  fame  grew  more  extcniivc,  and  when  it  was  known 
beyond  thecirde  of  his  friends,  that  a  rinc  and  enlight- 
cned  talle  for  literature  and  philofjpby  accompanied 
hii  mathematical  genius.  Ourauthor'sculogift  alcriLci 
to  envy,  detraitiou,  and  to  other  motives  nearly  as  un- 
generous, all  the  difapprobation,  opp,)(ltion,  and  ccn- 
liire  that  M.  Q'-Alcmbcrt  met  with  on  account  of  the 
pMolicationof  the  famous  Encyclopedical  Uiclionaryof 
Artsaiid  Sciences,  in  conjunction  with  Diderot.  None 
furcly  w;i!  rcfufc  the  well-defcrvcd  tribute  of  applaufc 
to  the  eminent  difplays  of  geni.is,  judgment,  and  true 
literary  tallc,  with  which  M.  d'Alcmbert  has  enriched 
the  great  work  now  mentioned.  Among  others,  the 
Preliminary  Dilcourfe  he  his  siiixed  to  it,  conccrnin--- 
the  rile,  progrcfs,  connexions,  ann  afiinitics  of  all  the 
branches  of  human  knowledge,  is  periiaps  one  of  the 
mofl  capital  productions  of  which  thcphilofophyofthc 
prefent  age  can  boafl.  Nor  will  it  be  difputcd,  that  .lA./i/; 
tlie  malttr-builders  of  this  new  and  flupciijous  temple  Rf.invftr 
of  fcicnce,  for  the  worfhipof  Naturk,  had  alfo  really  A/j'--"?*;. 
in  view  the  advancement  of  human  knowledge,  and 
the  improvement  of  the  arts  and  fcicnccs.  This,  no 
true,  no  candid  philolbphtr,  will  call  in  queflion.  But 
that  in  the  inner  court  of  this  temple  there  was  a  con- 
federacy formed  againft  all  thole  who  looked  higher 
than  nature,  for  the  principal  object  of  their  venera- 
tion and  confidence,  is  a  fact  too  palpable,  nay  too  bold- 
ly avowed,  to  Hand  in  need  of  any  proof. 

.St'ine  time  after  this,  d'.-^lembcrt  publilhcd  his  Phi- 
lofophical,  Hillorical,  and  Philological  Mifcellaiiies. 
Thefc  were  followed  by  the  Mtuioirs  of  Chrillina 
(^ueenof  Sweden  ;  in  which  M.d'Alcmbcrt  fliowed  that 
he  was  acquainted  wit!i  the  natural  rights  of  mankind, 
and  was  bold  enough  to  alTcrt  them.  His  Fffay  on  the 
Intercoiirfe  of  Men  oj  I.:tters  -jiith  perfons  high  in  Rank 
andOlfice,  wounded  the  former  to  :hc  quick,  as  it  ex- 
pofed  to  the  eyes  of  the  piiblic  the  ignominy  of  thole 
lervile  chains,  which  they  feared  10  Ihakc  off,  or  were 
proud  to  wear.  A  lady  of  the  court  hearing  one  day 
the  author  accufed  of  having  exaggerated  the  defpo- 
lifm  of  the  great,  and  thcfubmillion  they  require,  an- 
fwcredllyly,  If  he  had  confuited ii:e,  I ■nsould have  tolJ 
him  jltli  iiinre  oj  the  vtatier. 

M.  d'A'embcrt  gave  very  elegant  fpccimens  of  his 
literary  abilities  in  his  trandation  of  Ibme  felted  pieces 
of  Tacitus.  But  thcfeocc.  pations  did  not  divert  him 
from  his  mathematical  iludics  :  fur  about  the  fame  time 
he  tnrichcd  the  Encyclopcdir  with  a  multitude  of  ex- 
cellent articles  in  tli;:t  line,  and  compofed  his  Ref^arch- 
es  on  fi'jeral important  Fointi  0/  ti>-r  it  Hem  of  the  ICortJ, 
in  which  he  carried  to  a  higiier.des.''cc  of  perfc<51io;i 
the  foliuion  of  the  problem  of  the  perturbation  of  the 
planets,  that  had  fcvcral  years  before  been  prefentcd 
to  the  Academy. 

In  I  759  he  publilhcd  his  El.'ner.ts  of  rhiloff.[hy  :  a 
work  extolled  as  remarkable  for  its  preciiion  and  pcr- 
fpicuity  ;  in  which,  however,  arc  fome  tenets  relative 
both  to  nictaphylics  and  moral  fcicnce,  that  arc  far 
from  being  admitllble. 

The  reftiitmcnt  that  was  kindled  (and  the  difputcs 
that  foUovicdit)  by  the  article  C/;«?</, inrertel  in  the 

Encyclopedic, 


A  L  E 


[     38 


Alcmhroth 


A'.cmlicrt  Kncyclojicdie,  »re  well  known.  I\l.  d'Aleiiilurt  diJ 
II  not  lc;ivi-  il.is  iitld  of  coiuroverfy  with  tlyin;!;  colours. 
'  Voltaire  was  an  auxiliary  in  the  contcll :  but  as,  in 
point  ol"  candour  ami  decency,  he  had  no  reputation 
to  lolc  ;  and  as  he  weakened  the  blows  of  his  enemies, 
by  throwing  both  them  and  the  Ipcdators  into  fus  of 
lan|^luer,  the  ilhie  of  the  war  gave  liini  little  uneali- 
iiefii.  It  fell  more  heavily  on  d'Alcnibr rt ;  and  expo- 
led  him,  even  at  home,  to  nuich  coniradidion  and  op- 
pofition. 

it  was  on  this  occalion  that  the  late  Jxing  of  PruiTia 
offered  him  an  lionourabic  afylum  at  his  court,  and  the 
place  of  prclident  of  iiis  academy  ;  and  was  not  olf'cnd- 
edat  his  refnfal  of  thefc  diflinil'tions,  but  cultivated  an 
intimate  friendthip  with  him  during  tlie  reft  of  his 
lite.  He  had  refufed,  icniie  time  before  this,  a  pro- 
pofal  made  by  the  cmprefsof  lliiiha  to  intrull  him  with 
the  education  of  the  Grand  Duke  ; — a  propofal  accom- 
panied with  all  ilie  Haticiing  offers  that  could  tempt 
a  man,  ambitious  of  titles,  or  defirous  of  niakinc  an 
ample  fortune:  but  the  objects  of  his  ambition  were 
tranquillity  andftudy. 

In  the  year  1765,  he  publilhed  h.\'^  Dilfcrtat'ion  oh 
the  Dilirudiun  oj  th^' Jcfnits.  This  piece  drew  upon 
him  a  fwarm  of  adverfarics,  who  contirmed  the  me- 
rit and  credit  of  his  work  by  their  manner  of  attack- 
ing it. 

Be(ide  the  works  already  mentioned,  he  publiflied 
Jiine  volumes  of  memoirs  and  treatifcs,  under  the  title 
of  Opufciilis ;  in  which  he  has  folved  a  multitude  of 
problems  relative  to  affronomy,  mathematics,  and  na- 
tural philofophy  ;  of  which  our  panegyrift  gives  a  par- 
ticularaccount,  more  efpecially  of  thofc  which  exhibit 
new  fubjeds,  or  new  methods  of  invcfligation. 

He  pnbliflicd  alfo  Elevu-iits  of  Mufic;  and  rendered, 
at  lengili,  the  fyllem  of  Rameau  intelligible  ;  but  he 
did  not  think  the  mathematical  theory  of  the  fonorous 
body  fufiicicnt  to  account  for  the  rules  of  that  art. 
He  was  always  fond  of  nuilic  ;  which,  on  the  one 
hand,  is  connected  with  tlie  moR  fubile  and  learned 
refearches  of  rational  mechanics  ;  while,  on  the  otlier, 
its  power  over  the  fenfcs  and  the  foul  exhibits  to  phi- 
lofophers  phenomena  no  lefs  fingular  and  [till  more  in- 
explicable. 

In  tlie  year  1772  he  was  chofen  fecretary  to  the 
Krcnch  academy.  He  formed,  foon  after  this  prefer- 
ment, the  deiign  of  writing  the  lives  of  all  the  decea- 
fed  academicians,  from  r  700  to  i  772  ;  and  in  the  fpace 
of  three  years  he  executed  this  deiign,  by  eompoling 
70  eulogies. 

M.  d'Alcnibert  died  on  the  29th  of  O^^lobcr  17S;!. 
There  were  many  amiable  lines  of  candour,  modelty, 
difintereflednefs,  and  beneficence,  in  hismoral  charac- 
ter ;  which  are  defcribed,  with  a  difFufive  detail,  in  his 
culogium,  by  M.  Condorcet,  Hifi.d:  i'Aad.  Royalc  des 
Sciincss,   1783. 

ALKMBIC,  a  chemical  veflTel  ufually  made  of  glafs 
or  copper,  formerly  ufcd  for  dillilhtion.  The  bottom 
part,  which  contained  the  fubject  for  diftillation,  is 
called,  from  its  fliapc,  the  cucurbit ;  the  upper  part, 
which  receives  and  condenfes  the  fleam,  is  called  the 
lia/i,  the  beak  of  which  is  fitted  into  the  neck  of  a  re- 
ceiver. Retorts,  an  1  the  commoxViDorm-ftUl ,  are  now 
jnorc  generally  employed. 

ALEMBROTH,  in  ilie  writings  of  the  alchcmifls, 


2     ]  ALE 

a  word  I'.fed  for  a  fort  of  tixed  alkaline  fait,  which  had 
the  power  of  the  famous  alkahelt,  in  diliblving  bodies, 
opening  the  pores  of  molt  or  all  known  fubO.anccs,  and 
theace,  as  well  as  by  dedroying  fulphurs,  promoting 
the  feparation  of  metals  from  their  ores. — It  is  alfo 
ufcd  for  a  compound  of  corrofivc  mercury  and  fal  am- 
moniac.    See  Chemistry. 

ALENIO  (Julius),  a  Jefuit,  born  at  Brcfcia  in  the 
republic  of  Venice.  He  travelled  into  the  caflcni 
countries  ;  and  arrived  at  Macao  in  16 10,  where  he 
taught  mathematics.  From  thence  he  went  to  the 
•jnpire  of  China,  where  he  continued  to  propagate  th* 
Chriilian  religion  for  thirty-lix  years.  He  was  the 
firlt  who  planted  the  faith  in  the  province  of  Xanli, 
and  he  built  feveral churches  in  the  province  of  Kokien. 
He  died  in  Auguft  1649,  leaving  behind  him  feveral 
works  in  the  Chinefe  language. 

ALENTEJO,  a  province  of  Portugal,  between  the 
rivers  of  Tajo  and  Guadiana  :  the  foil  is  very  fertile, 
and  the  inhabitants  laborious  and  indullrious.  The 
principal  town  is  Ebora. 

ALENZON,  a  large  handfome  town  of  France,  in 
lower  Normandy,  witli  the  title  of  a  duchy.  It  is 
furrounded  with  good  walls,  and  /lanked  w  iih  towers. 
The  callle  was  formerly  a  place  of  great  confequence, 
and  has  held  out  long  lieges.  It  has  but  one  parifh- 
church,  which  has  a  bold  and  noble  front.  Among  the 
nunneries,  that  of  St  Clair  is  moll  remarkable.  It  is 
feated  on  the  river  Sarte,  in  a  vaflopen  plain,  which 
produces  all  forts  of  corn  and  fruit.  Near  it  there  arc 
quarries  of  Itone  lit  for  building,  wherein  are  found 
a  fort  like  Briflol  /tones.  The  linen  made  at  Alenzon 
is  very  good,  and  fells  at  Paris.  It  is  20  miles  north 
of  Mans,  63  fouth-by-wefl  of  Rouen,  and  R8  fouth- 
weft  of  Paris.     W.  Long.  o.  10.  N.  Lat.  48.  2J. 

ALEPPO,  or  Halab,  the  capital  of  the  Pachalic, 
and  of  all  Syria,  and  the  ordinary  refidence  of  the  pa- 
clia,  is  lituated  in  the  vafl  plain  which  extends  from 
the  Orontes  to  the  Euphrates,  and  which  towards  the 
fouth  terminates  in  the  defart.  It  is  built  on  eight 
hills  or  eminences,  on  the  highefl  of  which  the  caftle 
is  erefted,  and  is  fuppofcd  to  be  the  ancient  Bersea. 
This  mount  is  of  a  conic  form,  and  feems  in  a  great 
meafure  to  be  raifed  with  the  earth  thrown  up  out  of 
a  deep  broad  ditch  which  furrounds  it.  The  fuburbs 
to  the  north-north-eafl  are  next  in  height  to  this,  and 
thofc  to  the  wefl-fouth-wcfl  are  much  lower  than  the 
parts  adjacent,  and  than  any  other  part  of  the  city. 
The  houfes  are  large  and  commodious,  having  terraces 
on  their  tops,  and  generally  fky-lights  in  form  of  a 
dome  10  let  the  light  into  the  rooms,  which  from  their 
loftinefs,  the  gilding  on  the  window-fhutters,  cup- 
board-doors, &c.  have  at  firft  entrance  a  very  grand 
and  agreeable  eff  edl.  They  are  all  fo  equal  in  height, 
that  there  are  feldom  any  Iteps  to  afccnd  or  dcfcend  in 
going  from  one  houfe  to  another  ;  while  feveral  large 
vaulted  flreets  increafe  the  facility  of  communication, 
by  affording  a  pallage  to  every  part  of  the  city  free 
from  the  cmbarrallmentof  the  open  flreets.  They  are 
carefully  paved  ;  have  gutters  and  a  foot-pavement  on 
each  fide  ;  and  the  middle  of  the  flreet  is  laid  with 
brick,  the  fmall  end  upwards,  for  the  convenience  of 
the  horfcs.  There  is  alfo  a  cleaulinefs  obferved  here 
unknown  to  the  other  cities  of  Turkey,  and  which  i« 
not  attended  with  the  trouble  of  fcavengers,  there 

being 


ALE 


[    383     J 


ALE 


being  afs-dhvers  who  go  about  the  city  and  take  up 
'  the  rubbilh  and  duft,  which  each  inhabitant  isobligtd 
to  fwccp  together  ;  and  though  the  ]icat  ol  the  climate 
renders  this  labour  more  ealy,  the  fame  htat  obliges 
them  to  greater  clcanlincfs,  in  order  to  prclcrvc  the 
falubrity  of  the  air. 

The  niofqucsin  Aleppo  arc  numerous,  and  foinc  few 
of  them  magnificent.  Before  each  of  tliem  is  an  area, 
with  a  fountain  in  the  middle,  deligncd  for  ablutions 
before  prayers  ;  and  behind  fonie  of  tiie  larger  there 
are  little  gardens.  There  are  many  large  khans,  or 
caravanferas,  confifting  of  a  capacious  fquare,  on  all 
fides  of  which  are  a  number  of  rooms,  builtonaground- 
iloor,  ufed  ocwfionally  for  chambers,  warc-honfcs,  or 
fiables.  Above  ftairs  there  is  a  colonadc  or  gallery  on 
every  tide,  in  which  are  the  doors  of  a  number  of  fmall 
rooms,  wherein  the  merchants,  as  well  Arangers  as  na- 
tives, tranfaift  mod  of  their  bufincfs. 

The  bazars  or  market-places  arc  long  covered  nar- 
row Hreets,  on  each  fide  of  which  arc  a  great  number 
of  fraall  Ihops,  jull  fufficient  to  hold  the  tradefman  and 
his  goods,  the  buyer  being  obliged  to  ftand  without. 
Each  feparate  branch  of  bulinefs  has  a  particular  bazar, 
■which  is  locked  up,  as  well  as  the  llrects,  an  hour  and 
a  half  after  fun-fet :  but  the  locks  arc  of  wood,  though 
the  doors  are  cafed  with  iron.  The  llaughtcr-houfes 
arc  in  the  fuburbs,  open  to  the  fields.  The  tanners 
have  a  khan  to  work  in  near  the  river.  To  the  fouth- 
ward  in  the  fuburbs  they  burn  lime  ;  and  a  little  be- 
yond that  there  is  a  village  where  they  make  ropes  and 
catgut.  On  the  oppofite  lideof  the  river,  to  the  weft- 
ward,  there  is  aglafs-houfe,  where  they  make  a  coarfe 
white  glafs,  in  the  winter  only  ;  for  the  greatcft  part 
of  this  manufadure  is  brought  from  a  village  35  miles 
Weflward. 

The  fituation  of  Aleppo,  befide  the  advanttge  of  a 
rich  and  fruitful  foil,  polfcires  alfo  that  of  a  ftrcam  of 
frelh  water,  which  never  becomes  dry.  This  rividtt, 
which  is  about  as  large  as  that  of  the  Gobelins  at  Pa- 
ris, or  the  New  River  near  London,  rifes  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Aentab,  and  terminates  fix  leagues  below  A- 
leppo,  in  a  morafs  full  of  wild  boars  and  pelicans.  Near 
Aleppo,  its  banks,  inllead  of  the  naked  rocks  which 
line  them  in  the  upper  part  of  its  courfc,  are  covered 
with  a  fertile  earth,  and  laid  out  in  gardens,  or  ra- 
ther orchards,  which,  in  a  hot  country,  and  efpecially 
in  Turkey,  cannot  but  be  delightful.  The  city  is  in 
itfelf  one  of  the  moft  agreeable  in  Syria,  and  is  per- 
haps the  clcancll  and  bell  built  of  any  in  Turkey.  On 
whatever  fide  it  is  approached,  its  numerous  minarets 
and  domes  prcfent  an  agreeable  profpect  to  the  eye, 
fatigued  with  the  continued  fanicnefs  of  the  brown 
and  parched  plains.  In  the  centre  is  an  artificial  moun- 
tain furrounded  by  a  dry  ditch,  on  which  is  a  ruinous 
fortrefs.  From  hence  we  have  a  fine  profpccl  of  the 
whole  city,  and  to  the  north  difcover  the  fnowy  tops 
of  the  mountains  of  Bailan  ;  and  on  the  weft,  thofe 
which  feparate  the  Orontes  from  the  fca  ;  while  to  the 
fouth  and  eaft,  the  eye  can  liifcern  as  far  as  the  Eu- 
phrates. In  (he  time  of  Omar,  this  caftlc  ftopped  the 
progrefs  of  the  Arabs  for  fcveral  months,  and  was  at 
laft  taken  by  treachery,  but  at  prefcnt  would  not  be 
able  to  refift  the  fetbeft  allanlt.  Its  llight  wall,  low, 
and  without  a  buttrcfy,  is  in  ruins  ;  its  little  old  tow- 
ers arc  ill  no  better  condition ;  and  it  has  not  four  can- 


not fit  for  fervice,  not  excepting  a  culvcrine  nine    Al«pp«». 

feet  long,  uken  from  the  Perfians  at  the  fiege  of 

Baffora.  Three  hundred  and  fifty  Janifaries,  who 
fhould  form  the  garrifon,  are  bufy  in  their  ftiopi,  and 
the  aga  fcarcely  finds  room  in  it  to  lodge  bis  retinue. 
It  is  remarkable  that  this  aga  is  named  immediately 
by  the  Porte,  which,  ever  fufpicious,  divides  as  much 
as  poirible  the  different  offices.  Within  the  walls  of 
the  caftle  is  a  well,  which,  by  means  of  a  fubterrane- 
ous  communication,  derives  its  water  from  a  fpring  a 
league  and  a  quarter  diftant.  In  the  environs  of  the 
city,  we  find  a  number  of  large  fquare  ftones,  on  the 
top  of  which  is  a  turban  of  ftonc,  which  are  fo  many 
tombs.  There  are  many  riling  grounds  round  it, 
which,  in  cafe  of  a  fiege,  would  greatly  facilitate  the 
approaches  of  the  affailants.  Such,  among  others,  is 
that  on  which  the  lioufe  of  the  Derviches  ftands,  and 
which  commands  the  canal  and  the  rivulet:  Aleppo, 
therefore,  cannot  be  efteemed  a  place  of  importance 
in  war,  though  it  be  the  key  of  Syria  to  the  north  ; 
but,  conlidered  as  a  commercial  city,  it  has  a  diiicrent 
appearance.  It  is  the  emporium  of  Armenia  and  the 
Diarbekar  ;  fends  caravans  to  Bagdad  and  into  Perfia  ; 
and  communicates  with  the  Perfian  gulph  and  India, 
by  Balfora,  with  Egypt  and  Mecca  by  Damafcus,  and 
with  Europe  by  Skandaroon  (Alexaiidrctta)  and  La- 
takii.  Commerce  is  there  principally  carried  on  by 
barter.  I'he  chief  commodities  are  raw  or  fpun  cot- 
tons, clumfy  linens  fabricated  in  the  villages  ;  filk 
ftuffs  manufadured  in  the  city,  copper,  bourcrs  (coarfe 
cloths)  like  thofe  of  Rouea,  goats  hair  brought  from 
Naiolia;  the  gall  nuts  of  the  Kourdeftan,  the  mer- 
chandifc  of  India,  fuch  as  fliawls  and  muflins,  and 
piftachio  nuts  of  the  growth  of  the  neighbourhood. 
The  articles  fupplicd  by  Europe  are  the  Languedoc 
cloths,  cochineal,  indigo,  fugar,  and  fome  other  gro- 
ceries. The  coffee  of  America,  though  prohibited, 
is  introduced,  and  ferves  to  mix  with  that  of  Moka. 
The  French  liave  at  Aleppo  a  conful  and  feven  count- 
ing-houfes;  the  Englilh  and  the  Venetians  two,  and 
the  merchants  of  Leghorn  and  Holland  one.  The 
emperor  appointed  a  conful  there  in  17S4,  in  the  per- 
fon  of  a  rich  Jew  merchant,  who  (haved  his  beard  to 
aflume  the  uniform  and  the  fword.  RuiFia  has  alfo  lent 
one  very  lately.  Aleppo  is  not  exceeded  in  extent 
by  any  city  in  Turkey,  except  Conftaniinople  and 
Cairo,  and  perhaps  Smyrna.  The  number  of  inha- 
bitants has  been  computed  at  200,000;  but  in  thefc 
calculations  certainty  is  impolFible.  However,  if  we 
obferve  that  this  city  is  no'  larger  than  Nantes  or 
INIarftillcs,  and  that  the  houfes  confift  only  of  one  fto- 
ry,  we  fhall  perhaps  not  think  it  probable  they  ex- 
ceed 100,000.  The  people  of  this  city,  both  Turks 
and  Chriftians,  are  with  reafon  efteemed  the  moft  ci- 
vilized in  all  Turkey  ;  and  the  European  merchants 
no  where  enjoy  fo  much  liberty,  or  are  treated  with 
fo  much  refpeft. 

The  air  of  Aleppo  is  very  dry  and  piercing,  but  at 
the  fame  time  very  falubrious  for  all  who  are  not  trou- 
bled with  afthmatic  complaints.  The  city,  however, 
and  the  environs,  are  fubjet't  to  a  lingular  cndcmnial 
diforder,  which  is  called  the  ringv.orm  or  pimple  of 
Aleppo  ;  it  is  in  i^St  a  pimple  which  is  at  firft  infiam- 
matory,  and  at  length  becomes  an  ulcer  of  the  Jize  of 
tl\c  nail.  The  ul"a,;l  dur.uion  of  this  ulcer  is  one  year  ; 

U 


A  L  E 


[     384     ] 


ALE 


Aleppo,    it  commonly  fixes  on  the  lace,  and  leaves  a  fear  wliicli 

dibfi^iircs  alinoll  all  ilic  inhabiiaitls.   It  is  alleged  that 

cveiy  llran;;er  who  rclidcs  there  three  months  is  at- 
tacked with  it;  experience  has  tauj!;ht  that  the  he!l 
uiodc  of  treatment  is  to  niake  tsfe  of  r.o  reniedy.  No 
reafon  is  alligiied  lor  this  nialady  :  but  iM.  Voliiey  fu- 
fj)C(.Ms  it  proceeds  from  the  quality  of  the  water,  as  it 
is  likcwife  frequent  in  the  ncij^hbouring  viliaj;es,  in 
fomc  parts  of  the  Diarhckar,  and  even  i:i  certain  di- 
AriCls  near  Iian;al'ci;s,  where  the  {"oil  a:;d  the  water 
have  the  fame  appearances.  Of  tlie  Chi  i;lian  inhabi- 
tants the  greater  number  arc  Greeks,  next  to  them 
the  Armenians,  then  the  Syrians,  and  lallly  the  Ma- 
•  ronitcs  j  each  of  whom  have  a  church  in  the  city  called 
JmiiJa  ;  in  wiiieh  quarter,  and  the  parts  adjacent,  moll 
of  ihrni  rcliJc.  The  common  language  is  the  vulj^ar 
/^rabic,  but  the  Turks  of  condition  ulc  the  Turkilli. 
Mofi  of  the  Armenians  can  fpcak  the  Armenian,  fomc 
few  Syrians  uiidcrllaiu!  Syriac,  and  many  of  the  Jeus 
Hebrew  ;  but  fcarcc  one  of  the  Greeks  undcrlland  a 
word  of  Greek.  The  people  in  general  are  of  a  mid- 
dle ftaturc,  and  tolerably  w  ell  proportioned  ;  but  they 
fccm  neither  vigorous  norac^ive.  Both  fcxesare  haiul- 
fome  when  young  :  but  the  beard  loon  disfigures  the 
jnen  :  and  the  women,  as  they  rome  early  to  maturity, 
alfo  lade  very  foon  ;  females  are  generally  married  from 
1/)  to  18  years  of  age,  and  many  under  14.  The  peo- 
ple of  rank  here  are  polite  and  aftiiblc,  making  allow- 
ances for  that  fuperiority  whicli  the  Mahometan  reli- 
gion iuftrufls  its  votaries  to  alfume  over  all  whohuld 
a  different  faith.  Their  bread  is  geaierally  of  wheat 
flour  made  into  thin  cakes,  but  very  ill  prepared,  and 
is  generally  eaten  as  foon  as  it  comes  out  of  the  oven. 
The  principal  people  have  fome  loavcsof  a  liner  llonr, 
which  arc  well  fermented  and  baked.  Belides  thcfe, 
there  are  a  varic ty  of  bifcuits,  mofL of  whicli  are  Ihew- 
td  on  the  top  with  fome  kind  of  feeds.  The  Kuro- 
}'eans  have  very  good  bread,  baked  and  prepared  in  the 
French  manner.  All  the  inhabitants  of  both  fcxes 
Imoke  tobacco  10  great  excels;  even  the  very  fervanis 
have  almoft  conltantly  a  i>ipein  their  nioutlis.  Coaches 
or  earriagescrenoiuled  here;  iherclore  perlonsof  qua- 
lity ride  on  horltbaek  in  the  city,  with  a  number  of 
iVrvairts  walking  before  them, according  totluir  rank: 
ladies  of  the  firildiftinilion  are  even  compelled  to  walk 
on  foot  ia  the  city,  or  10  any  place  at  a  moderate  di- 
Aancc:  in  longer  journeys  they  are  carried  by  mules, 
in  a  kind  of  a  couch  dole  covered  up.  There  arc  a 
luimber  of  public  bagnios  in  this  city,  which  are  ufed 
bypeople  of  all  ranks, except  thofeof  the  high  ell  diftinc- 
lion,  who  commonly  have  bath:;  and  every  other  con- 
venience in  their  own  houfes.  Aleppo  is  70  miles  eaft 
ol  Scandaroon,  on  the  fea-toaft,  and  1 75  nortk-by-l[;alt 
ef  Damafcus.     E.  Long.  ;7.  40.  N.  Lat.  36.  12. 

yith.ppo  [the  Vachalic  of),  one  of  the  live  govern- 
nicnts  into  which  Syria  is  divided.  It  comprehends 
the  country  extending  from  the  Euphiaies  luihc  .Vc- 
diterrancan,  between  tvvo  lines,  one  drawn  from  Scan- 
I'aroon  to  Ikcr,  along  the  mountains  ;  the  oilier  from 
"Belcs  to  the  fca,  by  Mara  and  the  bridge  of  Shogcr. 
This  (pace  principally  coulifls  of  two  plaiiis  j  that  of 
Antioch  to  the  well,  and  that  of  Aleppo  to  th.e  call  : 
che  north  and  the  fea  coa!l  are  occupied  by  cjiifidera- 
bly  high  mountains,  known  to  the  ancients  by  the 
flames  of  Amanus  and  of  Riiofns.     In  general,  tlic 

I 


foil  of  this  govcrnincnt  is  fat  and  loamy.  The  lofty 
and  vigorous  plants  v,hi:h  llioot  up  every  whereafter  "^ 
the  winter  rains  prove  its  fertility,  but  its  actual  fruit- 
fulnefs  is  but  little.  Tiie  greatcll  part  of  the  lands  lie 
wade  ;  fcarccly  can  we  trace  any  marks  of  cultivation 
in  the  cnviroiisot'  tin-  towns  and  \illages.  Its  princi- 
pal produce  conlifs  :n  w  heat,  barley, and  cotton, which 
are  found  efpccially  in  tne  flat  country.  In  the  moun- 
tains, they  rather  choofe  to  cultivate  the  vine,  mulber- 
ry, olive,  and  lig  trees.  The  fides  of  the  hills  towards 
the  fea-coall  are  appropriated  to  tobacco,  and  the  ter- 
ritory of  Aleppo  to  piftachios.  The  palluragc  is  not 
to  be  reckoned,  becaufc  that  is  abandoned  to  the  wan- 
dering hordes  of  the  Turkmen  and  Curds. 

In  the  greater  part  of  the  paelialics  the  pacha  is,  as 
his  title  imports,  at  once  the  viceroy  and  farmer  ge- 
neral of  the  country  ;  but  in  that  of  Aleppo  he  does  not 
polfels  the  latter  office.  '1  his  the  Porte  has  bellowed 
on  a;//t7)fl/';7orcolledtor,  who  is  immediately  account- 
able for  v.hat  he  receives.  Kis  leafe  is  only  for  a 
year.  The  prcfent  rent  of  his  farm  is  800  purfcs 
(above  L. 40,000)  ;  but  to  this  mull  be  added  the  price 
of  the  babo,'.h:t  (Turkilh  llippers),  or  a  prefeiu  of 
three  or  four  thoufand  pounds,  to  ])urchafe  the  favour 
of  the  vilirand  men  in  oilicc.  For  thcfe  two  Aims  the 
farmer  receives  all  the  duties  of  the  government  ; 
which  are,  fi';},  The  produce  of  import  and  export  du- 
ties on  mercluuidifc  coming  from  turope,  India,  and 
Conliantinople,  and  on  that  exported  in  exchange. 
Secondly,  'I'lie  taxes  paid  by  the  herds  of  cattle 
brought  every  year  by  the  Turkmen  and  Curds  from 

Armenia  and   the  Diarhckar,  to  be  fold  in  Syria 

Thirdly,  1  he  lifth  of  the  falt-works  of  Djeboul.  And 
lallly,  the  niiri,  or  land-tax.  Thcfe  united  may  pro- 
duce about  L. 60,000. 

The  pacha,  deprived  of  this  lucrative  branch  of  the 
adir.iniltration,  receives  a  fixed  allowance  of  about 
L.8300.  This  revenue  has  always  been  inadcqiiaio 
to  the  expellees  ;  for,  belides  the  troops  he  is  obliged 
to  maintain,  and  the  reparation  of  the  highways  and 
fortrelies,  the  expences  of  which  he  is  obliged  to  de- 
fray, he  is  under  the  neceliity  of  making  large  jirc- 
f.nis  to  the  miniiters,  in  order  to  keep  his  place  ;  but 
the  Porte  adds  to  the  account  the  contributions  he  may 
levy  on  the  (  urds  and  Turkmen,  and  his  extortions 
from  the  villages  and  individuals  ;  nor  do  the  ))achas 
come  ll'.ort  of  this  calculation.  Abdi  Pacha,  who  go- 
verned 13  or  14  years  ago,  carr/i  d  off,  at  the  end  of 
15  months,  upwards  of  L.i6o,oco,  by  laying  under 
contribution  every  trade,  even  the  very  cleaners  of 
tobacco  pipes;  and  very  lately  another  of  the  fame 
name  has  been  obliged  to  ily  for  fimilar  oppreflions. 
'1  he  former  was  rew-ardcd  by  the  divan  with  the  com- 
.mand  of  an  army  againit  the  PvUlIians  ;  but  if  the  latter 
has  not  enriched  himfelf,  he  will  be  Itranglcd  as  an 
extortioner.  Such  is  the  ordinary  progrefs  of  aflairs 
in  Turkey  ! 

In  eo.iftqucncc  of  fuch  wretched  government,  the 
greater  part  of  the  pacliali'.s  in  the  empire  are  impo- 
veriJlicd  and  laid  walle.  This  is  tlie  cafe  in  particular 
w  ith  that  of  Aleppo.  In  the  ancient  dcfiars,  or  regif- 
ters  of  inipoUs,  upwards  of  3200  villages  were  rec- 
koned ;  but  at  prefent  the  colic  ior  can  fcarccly  hnd 
400.  Such  of  our  merchants  as  have  relidcd  tliere  20 
years,  have  themfclvcs  fcen  the  greater4>art  of  tiie 

environs 


ALE 


[     3S5    ] 


ALE 


environs  of  Aleppo  bccime  liepopiilaied.  The  travel- 
ler meets  with  i!i>i!iiiiT;  bjt  Iioiifcs  in  ruins,  ciftevns 
rciulcrcii  iirtlcf>',  and  liclds  ab.uuioiicd.  Thofc  who 
ciiltiv.itcd  them  arc  Hcd  into  the  towns,  where  the  po- 
ptiliitioii  is  aWorbed,  b'lt  where  at  Icall  tlic  iiidividuil 
conceals  himfcU" among  ihc  crowd  from  the  rapacious 
liand  of  dcfpotifra. 

ALKKIA,  Alalia,  or  Alaria,  (anc.  gcf-j^),  a 
town  of  Corfica,  (ituated  nc^r  the  middle  of  die  calt 
lideof  the  iiiand,  on  an  cmiaencc,  nenr  the  mouth  of 
tlie  river  Roianus  mentioned  by  I'tolcniy;  built  by  llie 
l'hoc«ans  (  Diodorns  Siculus) .  Afterwards  Sy  11a  led 
a  colony  thither.  It  is  now  m  ruins,  and  called  Aiina 
Dijtruita. 

ALES  (Alexander),  a  celebrated  divine  of  the  con- 
feflion  of  Aug^bourjr,  born  at  Edinburgh  the  2?d  of 
April  ijoo.  Hcfoonmadca  conliderablc  progrtfs  in 
fchool-diviniiy,  and  entered  the  lids  very  early  againfl 
Jyiither,  this  being  then  the  great  controverfy  in  fa- 
fliion,  and  the  grand  field  wherein  all  authors  young 
and  old  ufed  todifpliy  their  abilities.  Soon  after,  he 
had  a  Ihare  in  the  difpute  which  Patrick  Hamilton 
maintained  againfl  the  ecclefiaflics,  in  favour  of  the 
new  faith  he  liad  imbibed  at  Marpurj;h.  He  endea- 
voured to  bring  them  back  to  the  Catholic  religion  ; 
but  this  he  could  not  eficft,  and  even  began  himfdf  to 
doubt  about  his  own  religion,  being  much  affeded  by 
the  difconrfe  of  this  gentleman,  and  Hill  more  by  the 
cunftancy  he  Ihowcd  at  the  flake,  when  David  Beton 
archbidiopof  St.  Andrew's  eaufcd  him  to  be  burnt. 
Beginning  thus  to  waver,  he  was  himfclf  perfecutcd 
with  fo  much  violence,  that  he  was  obliged  to  retire 
into  Germany,  where  he  became  at  length  a  perlcet 
convert  to  the  Proteflant  religion.  The  change  of  re- 
ligion which  happened  in  England  after  the  marriage 
of  Henry  Vm.  with  Anna  Bullen,  indueed  Ales  to 
goto  London  in  I5;;5.  He  was  highly  efteemed  by 
Cranmer  arch  bilhoj)  of  Canterbury,  Latimer,  and  Tho- 
snas  Cromwel,  'Aw  were  at  that  time  in  high  favour 
with  the  king.  Upon  the  fall  of  thefe  favourites,  he 
was  obliged  to  return  to  Germany  ;  where  the  elecfor 
of  Brandenburg  api)ointcd  him  profelFor  of  divinity 
at  Kranefort  upon  the  Oder,  in  1540.  But  leaving 
this  place  upon  fomc  difguft,  he  returned  to  Leipiic, 
where  he  was  chofen  profelFor  of  divinity,  and  died 
in  March  IJ65.  He  wrotca  Coramcniary  on  St.  John, 
on  the  epillles  to  Timothy,  and  on  the  Pfalms,  &c. 

ALESA,  Al«sa,  or  Halesa,  (anc.geog.),  a  town 
of  Sicilj,  on  the  Tufcan  fea,  built,  accordin.g  to  Dio- 
dorus  Siculus,  by  Achronides  of  Hcrbita,  iii  the  fe- 
cond  year  of  the  94th  01ynipi;id,  or  403  years  before 
Chriil ;  lituattd  on  an  eminence  about  a  mile  from  the 
fea  :  now  in  ruins.  It  enjoyed  impiuniiy  from  taxes, 
under  the  Romans  (Diodorus,  Cicero).  The  inhabi- 
tants were  called  HaL-fiiii {^Cicero,  Pliny) ;  MoAu-Jhi't, 
and  AUf'nii. 

AI.ESHAM,  a  fmall  neat  town  in  Norfolk.  It  is 
l5niil(S  N.  of  Norwich,  and  121  N.  E.  by  N.  of  Lon- 
don. E.  Long.  o.  ;!0.  N.  Lat.  52.  53.  The  town 
confifts  of  about  400  pretty  good  houfcs ;  bjt  the  ftrects 
are  narrow,  though  well  paved. 

ALESLA,  (anc.  ^eo,^.)  called  y^/.'A./^  by  Livy  and 

others;  a  town  of  the  Mandubii,  a  people  of  Celtic 

Gaul  ;   fituatcd,  according;  to  Cxfar,  on  a  very  high 

hill,  w  hofe  foot  was  walhcd  on  two  fides  by  two  rivers. 

Vol,  I.  ■ 


1  he  town  was  of  fuch  aniiipnty,  thit  Diodorus  Siea-       Aid 
lusrclutcs  it  was  i)uih  by  liereales.     It  is  fwppofcd  to         1 
be  the  city  of  AliJ'e,  in  the  duchy  of  llafundv,  not  Alexander, 
far  from  Dijon.  «.      .'  , 

ALET,  a  town  of  Kraiice,  in  Lower  Langucdoc, 
with  a  bilhop's  fee.  it  is  remarkable  for  its  I)at1i%  and 
for  the  grains  of  gold  and  lilvcr  found  in  the  llrcam 
which  runs  from  the  Pyrencan  mountains,  at  lije  foot 
of  wjiieh  it  Hands.  It  is  featcd  on  the  river  Audc, 
1 5  miles  S.  of  CarcalTone,  and  37  N.  W.  of  Na.bonue. 
E.  Long.  2.  5.  N.  Lat.  42.  59. 

ALE  riUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  raonogynia 
order,  belonging  to  the  hcxaiulria  clafs  of  plants,  and 
in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  icth  order, 
Co'oiiaria.  The  charaelers  arc  :  The  ajrotla  is  niono- 
pctalous, funnel  fliaped,hcxangular,n)uehcorrugatcd, 
fcniiquinquetid,  and  perfifteut  :  Thc/.'«w.-;>;<j  con/ift  of 
(ix  fubulatcd  tilaments,  the  length  of  the  eorolh,  anj 
inferted  info  the  bale  of  the  divilions  of  the  corolla  : 
the  anlheras  are  oblong  and  tred  :  The  pijiiltuin  Las 
an  ovate  gernien  ;  the  llylus  fubulatcd,  and  the  length 
of  thcftamiiia;  the  lligma  ii  tritid  :  The  pericarpium 
is  an  ovat-d  capfule,  triquetrous,  pointed,  and  triocn- 
lar :  The/laii  are  numerous.  Of  this  genus  botanical 
writers  enumerate  five. 

Spicks.  I.  The  farinofa,  a  native  of  Virginia,  and 
other  parisof  North  America.  2.  The  capeniis,  a  na- 
tive of  the  Cape  of  Good-Hope.  5.  Thehyaciuthoi- 
des,  nr  Guinea  aloe.  4.  Ti.e  zcylanioa,  or  Ceylon 
aloe.  5.  The  fragrans,  or  tree-aloe,  a  native  of  Africa. 
Of  thefe  only  the  tirft  is  fo  hardy  as  to  outlive  the  win- 
ter in  Britain,  unlefs  placed  in  a  (love  ,  and  even  thii 
requires  to  be  Iheltcrcd under  a  frame.  The  Howcii 
appear  in  Juneor  Juiy,of  a  whiti'hgreen  colour.  The 
third  and  ijfth  produce  line  fpikes  of  white  flowers  ; 
thofc  of  the  third  kind  appearing  in  Jul/,  of  thc/ifth 
in  March  or  ApriL  By  proper  inanagcm*  nt  the  lail 
kinJ  becomes  a  (lately  plant,  riling  to  ihe  height  of  12 
or  14  feet ;  the  flowers  open  wide  in  the  evcnin>',  an.l 
perfume  the  air  of  the  ftove.  Thcle  fend  out  one  or 
two  heads,  or  tufts,  towards  their  tops,  which  may  be 
cut  off;  and  after  they  have  lain  a  week  in  the  (love  to 
heal  the  wounded  parts,  thty  may  be  planted  for  iu- 
crcafe.  The  other  fpccies  fcidom  or  never  llower  in 
Britain,  nor  does  their  appearance  otherwife  ineritno- 
licc. 

ALETUM,  or  Ai.eta,  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  o( 
Celtic  Gaul,  now  exiinft.  Eroin  its  ruins  arolo  St 
Malo,  in  (Jrittany,  at  the  dilUnee  of  a  mile.  Its  ruins 
are  called  Ctiich  .-Iflh  in  the  Briiilh. 

ALEUKOMANCY,  the  fume  with  what  was  o- 
tlierwilc  called  alphiiomar.tia,  and  c>  itho'iianl''\a,  and 
means  an  ancient  kind  of  divination  performed  bj^ 
meaiis  of  nu-al  or  Hour. 

.^LEX.ANDER  riiF.  cheat,  king  of  Macedonia. 
His  father  Pliilip  laid  tlie  plan  <<\  that  extcniive  em- 
pire, which  Iiisfon  afterwards  executed Philip.ha- 

ving  made  himfclf  madcr  of  Greece, began  to  call  hi» 
eyes  upon  Perlia,  w  ith  .a  view  to  retaliate  upon  that 
haughty  empire  the  injuries  of  former  times.  It  v.as  ■ 
the  [lopulartopici.f  the  day.  But  this  prince  was  cutoff 
in  the  midAof  Iiisenterprife.  Suf-h,  how  ever,  was  the 
iniluenre  of  Alexander  in  the  ademblyof  the  Grecian  ^ 
Hates,  that  he  was  created  f^cneril  of  their  combined 
forces  ia  the  room  of  his  father.  Having  made  every 
3  C        -  needful 


ALE 


[     3S5    ] 


ALE 


A  ii.^ijdir  necdlul  prcparaiion,  at  the  head  of  a  veteran  army  he 

*— ^/ '  invaJcJ  .'\lia.     The  liciitciiaius  of"  Darius,  who  \vis 

then  king  of  Peilia,  oppol'cJ  him  at  the  river  Granj- 
cus,  where  Alexander  obtained  a  complete  victory ,  af- 
ter whicli  he  piirfi-icd  his  march  ihronj^h  Afia.  At 
Illiis,  near  Scanderoon,  he  was  met  by  Darius  in  per- 
fon,  at  the  liead  of  a  prodigious  army.  Here  he  ob- 
tained a  fccoiid  vidory ;  and  took  the  camp  of  Dari,- 
us,  together  with  his  family,  whom  he  treated  with 
the  lunioft  humanity.  Contrary  to  all  the  maxims  of 
war,  inllcad  of  pnrfuing  Darius,  he  made  an  excuriion 
into  Egypt  ;  and,  as  far  as  appears,  through  no  better 
motives  liian  thofcof  vanity.  Here  he  was  acknow- 
ledged to  be  the  fon  of  Jupiter  Amnion.  In  the  mean 
lime  Darius  recruited  his  llrengih,  and  got  together 
an  army  fupcrlor  to  what  he  brought  into  the  plain  of 
Iiuis.  AUxandcrhavingfiniflicd  his  Egyptian  expedi- 
tion, traverfcd  Alia,  and  palled  the  Euphrates.  At  Ar- 
bella,  a  town  in  Ailyria,  lie  met  Darius.  Mere  a  deci- 
llvc  battle  was  fought,  wliicli  put  all  I'erfia  into  tlie 
hands  of  Alexander.  His  ambition  not  being  fatisiied 
with  the  conqueA  of  that  vaft  country,  heprojedcdan 
expedition  into  India.  Here  he  met  with  great  oppo- 
iition  from  I'orus,  a  gallant  prince,  whom  in  the  end 
he  reduced.  Beyond  the  Ganges  lay  a  country  flill  un- 
fnbducd.  He  notified  it  to  his  army,  that  he  propofcd 
topafs  the  river.  Bat  thei'c  veterans,  liaralledw  ith  the 
fatio;ues,  and  feeing  no  end  of  their  labour,  mutinied, 
andVefufcd  to  march  further.  The  difappointcd  chief 
was  therefore  obliged  to  return.  At  Babylon  he  pro- 
pofcd to  receive  an'badadors,  appoint  governors,  and 
fettle  his  vail  monarcliy  ;  but  his  excelfes  pui  an  end 
to  his  life  in  the  niidft  of  his  dcfign,  and  in  the  flower, 
ef  his  age. 

The  character  of  this  hero  is  fo  familiar  to  every  bo- 
«!y,  that  it  is  almofl  needlefs  labour  to  draw  it.  All  the 
world  knows,  fays  Mr.  Bayle,  that  it  was  equally  com- 
pofed  of  very  great  virtues  and  very  .great  vices.  He 
had  no  mediocrity  in  any  thing  but  his  ftaturc  :  in  his 
ether  properties,  whether  good  or  bad,  he  was  all  ex- 
tremes. His  ambitionrofc  even  to  madncfs.  His  fa- 
ther was  not  at  all  miftaken  in  fuppcling  the  botuulsof 
Macedon  too  fmall  for  his  fon  :  for  how  could  Macedon 
bound  the  ambition  of  a  man,  who  reckoned  the  whole 
world  too  fmall  a  dominion  ?  He  wept  at  hearing  the 
philofophtr  Anaxarchus  fay,  that  there  was  an  infinite 
number  of  worlds  :  his  tears  were  owing  to  his  dc- 
fpair  of  conquering  them  all,  finee  he  had  not  yet 
bcenable  to  conquer  one.  Livy,  in  a  (liort  digrelhon, 
has  attempted  to  enquire  into  the  events  which  might 
have  happened,  if  Alexander,  after  the  conquefl  of 
Alia,  had  brought  his  arms  into  Italy  ?  Doubtlefs 
things  might  have  taken  a  very  different  turn  with 
him  ;  and  all  the  grand  projcfts,  which  fucceeded  fo 
Well  ag-amfl  an  efl'eminate  Pcrllanmonarcli,  miglit  ca- 
£\y  have  mifearried  if  he  had  had  to  do  with  rough  har- 
dy Roman  armies.  And  yet  the  vafl'aims  ofthismighty 
conqueror,  if  feen  under  another  point  of  view,  may 
appear  to  have  been  confined  in  a  very  narrow  com- 
pafs ;  fince,  as  we  are  told,  the  ntmofi;  wilh  of  that  great 
heart,  for  which  the  whole  earth  was  notbig  enough, 
was,  afier  all,  to  be  praifed  by  the  Athenians  :  for  it 
is  related,  that  the  difficulties  which  he  encountered  in 
•rder  to  pafs  the  Hydafpes,  forced  him  to  cry  out, 
"  O  Athenians,  could  you  believe  to  what  dangers  I 


"  expofe  myfclf  for  the  fake  of  being  celebrated  by  Akxarilcr, 

"  you  r"     But  Bayle  affirms,  that  iJiis  was  quite  eon-  y—" 

(i.'huL  with  the  vail  unbounded  extent  of  his  ambition, 
as  he  wanted  to  make  all  luturc  time  his  own,  and  bo 
an  objeJ  of  admiration  to  the  laicll  pollci  ity  ;  yet  did 
not  expect  this  from  the  conquelt  of  worlds,  but  from 
bjoks.  He  was  perfcetly  in  the  right,  fays  Bayle  ; 
"  for  if  Greece  had  not  furnillied  him  with  good  wri- 
"  ters,  he  would  long  ago  have  been  as  much  forgot- 
"  ten  as  the  kings  who  reigned  in  Mactdon  before 
"  .Amphitiyon." 

Alexander  has  been  praifed  upon  ihe  fcore  of  con- 
tinency,  yet  his  life  could  not  furely  be  quite  regular 
in  that  refpecJl.  Indeed  the  iireof  his  early  youth  ap- 
peared fo  cold  towards  women,  that  h'n,  mother  fuf-  • 
pei-Hed  him  to  be  impotent;  and,  to  fatisfy  herfclf  in 
this  point,  did,  with  the  confent  of  Pj.ilip,  procures 
very  handfome  courtezan  to  lie  with  him,  w  hofe  car- 
relics,  however,  were  all  to  no  purpofc.  His  behaviour 
afterwards  tothePerfian  captives  fliows  him  to  have  had 
a  great  command  over  himfclf  in  this  particular.  The 
wife  of  Darius  was  a  finiflied  beauty  ;  her  daughters 
likcwife  were  all  beauties  ;  yet  thisyoung  prince,  who 
liad  them  in  liis power,  not  only  beiloweJ  on  thcni  all 
the  lionours  due  to  their  high  rank,  but  managed  their 
reputation  with  theutmolt  delicacy,  Tiuy  were  kept 
as  in  a  cloy  Rer  concealed  from  the  world,  and  fecured 
from  the  reach  of  every  I'.ilhonoural'le  (not  only  at- 
tack, but)  imputation.  He  did  not  give  tltc  leafl  han- 
dle to  fcandal,  eiilier  by  his  vilits,  his  looks,  or  his 
Words  :  and  for  other  Perfian  dames  his  prifoners,  c- 
qually  beautiful  in  face  and  fliape,  he  contented  him- 
fclf with  faying  gaily,  that  they  gave  indeed  much 
pain  to  his  eyes.  The  araazon  Thaleliris  could  not 
obtain  from  him  a  comi'liancc  wilh  her  gallant  rcqucll 
lill  after  a  delay  of  thirteen  days.  In  the  mean  time, 
what  are  we  toconcl -de  from  his  cauling  his  favour- 
ite mirtrefs  Pancafle  to  be  drawn  naked  by  Apelles,  tho' 
it  is  true  he  gave  her  to  the  painter,  v.^Io  fell  in  love 
wilh  her  ?  What  of  that  immoderate  love  of  boys, 
which  Athenaus  relates  of  him  ?  What  of  that  prodi- . 
gious  number  of  wives  and  concubines  which  he  kept.' 
His  excelfes  with  regard  to  wine  were  notorious, 
and  beyond  all  imagination  ;  and  he  committed,  when 
drunk,  a  thoufand  extravagancies.  It  was  owing  to 
wine,  tliat  he  killed  Clytus  who  faved  his  life,  and 
burnt  Perfepolis,  one  of  the  moll  beautiful  cilies  of . 
the  Eall :  he  die)  this  lafl  indeed  at  the  infligation  of 
the  courtezan  Thais  ;  but  this  eircumflance  made  it 
only  the  more  heinous.  It  is  generally  believed,  that 
he  died  by  drinking  immoderately  :  and  even  Plutarch, 
who  afte^ls  to  contradid  it,  owns  that  he  did  nothing 
but  drink  the  whole  day  he  was  taken  ill. 

In  fliort,  to  fum  up  the  charafler  of  this  prince,  we 
cannot  be  of  opinion,  that  his  good  qualities  did  in  a- 
ny  wife  eompenfate  feir  his  bad  ones.  Heroes  make 
a  noife  :  their  adions  glare,  and  (Irike  the  fenfes  for- 
cibly ;  while  the  infinite  deflruiSlion  and  mifcry  they 
occafion  lies  more  in  the  (liade,  and  out  of  fight.  One 
good  legifiator  is  worth  all  the  heroes  ihat  ever  did  or 

willexifl.     See  Macedon. 

ALEXANDER  ah   Alexandro,    a   Neapolitan 

lawyer,  of  great  learning,  who  flourilhed  toward  the 

end  of  the  15th  and  beginning  of  the   i6th  century. 

He  followed  the  profclfion  of  the  law  firll  at  Naples,^ 

afterwards . 


ALE 


r     3S7^   ] 


ALE 


^Tinder,  aftcrwai'ds  at  Ro.iic:  b'.it  he  devoted  all  the  time  he 
— V— '  could  I'parc  to  the  ftudy  of  polite  literature;  and  at 
length  he  entirely  left  tlic  b  ir,  that  he  might  lead  a 
more  eafy  and  agreeable  life  with  liic  inufcs.  The  par- 
ticulars of  his  life  arc  to  be  gathered  from  his  work  in- 
titled  Gciiia/ium  Dieruvi :  We  are  there  informed  that 
he  lodged  at  Rome,  in  a  houfc  that  was  haunted  ;  and 
he  relates  many  furpriling  particulars  about  the  gholl : 
lie  fays  aUb,  that  wiicn  he  was  very  young,  he  went  to 
the  ledures  of  Philcl])hiis,  who  explained  at  Rome  the 
Tufculan  qucftions  of  Cicero  j  he  was  there  alfo  when 
Nicliolas  Perot  and  Domitias  Caldcrinus  read  their 
lectures  upon  Martial.  The  particular  time  when  he 
died  is  not  known  ;  but  he  was  buried  in  the  monartcry 
"  of  tlie  Olivets.  Tiraqiieawrote  a  learned  commentary 
upo;i  his  work,  which  was  printed  at  Lyons  in  1587, 
and  reprinted  at  I-cydtn  in  1675,  with  the  notes  of 
Dennis  Godfrey,  Chriftophcr  Colerus,  and  Nicholas 
Mcrcerus. 

ALEXANDER  (Neckham),  an  eminent  Englifh 
writer  in  the  nth  and  ;  3th  ceniurics,  born  at  St  Al- 
bans in  Hertfordlhirc.  In  rai  J  he  was  made  abbot  of 
Exeter,  and  died  in  1227.  He  wrote  fcvcral  works, 
which  were  never  publiihed  ;  but  they  arc  to  be  found 
in  manufcript  in  the  libraries  of  England  and  other 
countries. 

ALEXANDER  (Noel),  an  indefatigable  writer  of 
the  I  7th  century,  born  at  Roan  in  Normandy,  1639. 
After  finiihing  his  ftudies  at  Roan,  he  entered  into  the 
order  of  Dominican  friars,  and  was  profelFcd  there  in 
i655'.  Soon  after  he  went  to  Paris,  to  go  through  a 
courfeof  philofophy  and  divinity  in  tlic  great  convent, 
where  he  dillinguilhed  himfelf  fo,  that  he  was  appoint- 
ed to  teach  philofophy  there,  which  he  did  for  12 
years.  Mr  Colbert  Ihowcd  him  many  marks  of  his  e- 
flcem  :  and  being  determined  to  omit  nothing  toper- 
feft  the  education  of  his  fon,  afterwards  archbilhop  of 
Roan,  he  formed  an  alfembly  of  the  n-.oil  learned  pcr- 
I'ons,  whofe  conferences  upon  ecclellaflicnl  hi  (lory 
mightbeofadvantage  tohim.  Father  Alexander  was 
invited  tothis  allcmbly.w  herehecxertcd  himftlf  with 
fo  much  genius  and  ability,  that  he  gained  the  parti- 
cular fricndlliip  of  young  Colbert,  wholhowed  him  the 
iitmoft  regard  as  long  as  he  lived.  Thcfc  conferences 
gave  rife  to  Alexander's  defign  of  writing  an  ecclc- 
liaflical  history  :  for,  being  delired  to  reduce  what  was 
material  in  thefeconferences  to  writing,  he  did  it  with 
fo  much  accuracy,  that  the  learned  men  who  compo- 
fed  thisalfembly,  advifcd  him  to  undcrt.ikc  a  complete 
body  of  church-hiitory.  This  he  executed  with  great 
alliduity,  colleding  and  digefling  the  materials  him- 
felf, and  writing  even  the  tables  with  his  own  hand. 
He  at  laft  completed  his  work  in  1686.  Towards  the 
latter  part  of  his  life,  he  was  anii(ited  with  the  lofs  of 
liis  light ;  a  moll  incxpreflible  misfortune  to  one  whifc 
whole  pleafurc  was  in  fludy,  yet  he  bore  it  with  great 
patience  and  refignation.  He  died  merely  of  a  decay 
of  nature,  1724,111  the  S6th  year  of  his  age. 

Alfxander  Sevr  r us,  emperor  of  R3me,fucceed- 
cd  Heliogabalus  about  A.  D.  222,  when  but  16  years 
of  age.  His  mother's  name  was  Mamnisi,  and  by  her 
advice  he  ina  great  meafure  regulated  his  conduct.  He 
applied  hinifeK  to  the  reformanon  of  alnifes,  the  ftatc 
having  bcm  grciily  difordered  by  the  vicious  eonii.ict 
wf  his  pre.ieceiTor ;  he  was  a  moft  llriit  lover  ofjuftice, 


an  encourager  of  learning  and  leirr.cd  men,  and  i\-  iW'.^a 

vourable  to  theChriftians.     He  male  a  fucccfsful  ex-  •'- 

pcdition  agjinft  the  I'crfians  ;  but  cndcavourini;  to  rc- 
lorm  his  troops,  which  had  grown  very  licentious  un- 
der the  late  bad  government,  they  my.rderedhimit  the 
inftigation  of  Maximinus  in  the  29lh  year  of  his  age, 
together  with  his  mother,  A.  D.  235. 

Alexander  VI.  (Pope),  had  four  baftards  when 
he  was  cardinal,  for  one  of^which  he  had  fo  great  af- 
fedlion,  that  he  ftuck  at  nothing  to  raife  him.  Dc- 
ligning  to  poifon  fomc  cardiiuls,  he  was  poifoned  him- 
felf, A.  D.  1503.     See  Burcia. 

Alexander  VII.  (Pope).  SeeCHicr. 
Alexander  Bilhop  of  Lincoln  in  the  reigns  of 
Henry  I.  and  Stephen,  was  a  Norman  by  birth,  and 
ncphe^v  of  the  famous  Roger,  bilhop  of  Salifoury,  wh* 
lirfl  made  him  archdeacon  of  Salifbury,andafterwards, 
by  his  interell  with  tlie  king,  raifcd  him  to  the  mitre. 
Alexander  was  confecrated  at  Canterbury,  July  22. 
1 1 23.  Having  received  his  education  under  hft  nnclc, 
the  bilhop  of  Salilbury.and  been  accuftomcd  to  a  fplcn- 
did  way  of  living,  he  affea-cd  fliow  and  ftatc  more 
than  was  fuitabic  to  his  charafler,  or  eonliflcnt  with 
his  fortunes.  This  failing  excepted,  he  was  a  man  of 
worth  and  honour,  and  every  way  qualified  for  his  (Na- 
tion. The  year  after  his  confccration,  his  cathedral 
church  at  Lincoln  having  been  accidentally  burnt  down, 
he  rebuilt  it,  and  fecured  it  agaii;(l  ilic  like  accident 
for  the  future  by  a  Hone  roof.  This  prelate  increafcd 
the  number  of  prebends  in  his  church,  and  augmented 
its  revenues  with  fevcral  manors  and  eftaies.  In  imi- 
tation of  the  barons  and  fomc  of  the  bifliops,  parti- 
cularly his  uncle  the  bilhop  of  Salilbury,  he  built  three 
cartles  ;  one  at  Banbury,  another  at  Slraford,  and  a 
third  at  Newark.  He  likewife  founded  two  mona- 
flcrics  ;  oneat  Haverholm,  for  regular  canons  and  nuns 
together,  the  other  at  Tame  for  white-friars.  He  went 
twice  to  Rome  in  the  years  1142  and  11 44.  The  firft 
time,  he  came  back  in  quality  of  the  pope's  legate, 
for  the  calling  a  fynod,  in  which  he  publiihed  feveral 
wiiolefome  and  neccd'ary  canons.  In  Angull  1147, 
he  took  a  third  journey  to  the  pope,  who  was  then  in 
France  ;  where  he  fell  fick  through  the  exccilivc  heat 
of  the  weather,  and  returning  with  great  difficulty  t» 
England,  he  died  in  the  24  year  of  his  prelacy. 

Alexander  (William), earl  ofStirling, an  eminent 
Scots  ftatefman  and  poet  in  the  reigns  of  James  VI.  and 
Charles  I.  who,  after  travelling  with  the  duke  of  Ar- 
gylc  as  his  tutor  or  companion,  wrote  a  poetical  com- 
phint  of  his  uufuccefsful  love  of  fonie  beauty,  under 
the  title  of  /jnrira.  He  thearemoved  to  tlie  court  of 
James  VI.  where  he  applied  to  the  more  folid  parts  of 
poetry,  furming  himfelf  ujion  the  plan  of  the  Greek 
and  Romantragedians.  In  i6o7,hepubliihcd  feme  dra- 
matic performances,  intitlcd  7"/'.'  'MmiiirthicTrag.dii-s, 
dedicated  tokingjanies  ;  who  wis  fo.well  pleafcd  with 
them,  as  tocall  him  his  philofophical  poet.  After  this, 
he  i':  f.iid  to  have  written  yifupplimtnt  to  complete  the 
thirdparrof  Sir  Philip  Sidney's  Arcadia  ;  and  in  i6t^, 
he  produced  a  poem  called  Doowl'day ,  trtht  Great  Dm 
of  J:t.igmc>:t.  He  w  is  made  gentlcmaii-ulhcr  to  prince 
Charlcs,and  mafleroftherequefts  ;  was  knighted,  and 
obtained  a  grant  of  Nova  Scotia,  where  he  projeJled 
the  fcttlcnu-nt  of  a  colony,  but  afterward  fold  it  to  the 
French.  In  i6::6,  he  was  made  fecretary  of  flatc  f<Jr 
3  C  3  Scotland; 


ALE 


[     38S     ] 


ALE 


Alc»;.iiutr  ScoiliiiiJ  ;  V.MS  cr<;itcJ  liill  vifcouiii,  and  tlicii  car),  ot 
I         Siiilinj;;  aiidilicJ  in  1640. 

Alexa  sets.  1.  (5>')>  ^\  li"ii>  Si  Irciicus  reckons  tlic 
lit'lh  bilhop  ot'  Koaic,  liicctciltd  St  tvurillus  in  ihc 
yt;ir  ICO,  and  I'icd  iu  tlic  year  1 19.  Tnert  is  no  ac- 
toiini  ol  iii.j  lift  ;  and  the  cpilllcs  which  arc  atiriljuicd 
to  iiiiii  arc  fuppoi  tiiious. 

AtEXrt  :;DtK  11.  king  of  Scotland,  fucccedtd  liis  fa- 
ther William  iu  1213,  at  16  years  of  age.  He  made 
an  expedition  into  England,  10  opjolc  the  tyranny  of 
king  John  ;  whorcturntdthc  vifit,  and  was  ottered  bat- 
tle by  Alexander,  bat  refilled  it.  He  ti-okthc  city  or 
Carlillc  from  Henry  111.  whichwasaftcrwardsexchan- 
ged  for  Berwick.  Alexander  died  in  1349, in  the  sill 
yiarof  his  age,  and  3$lh  of  hisi'eigu  ;  and  left  for  his 

fuccclibr,  hisfjn 

Alkxanter  111.  who  was  crowned  king  of  Scotland 
in  1249.  ThcCuniiiiings,lordsof  Scotland,  lookarvns 
a:;ainll  him  ;  and  taking  liiin  prifoner,  coit*iiicd  him  at 
StrivelJi»g  :  but  he  was  afterwards  ri leafed  by  his  fi'b- 
ictts.  He  married  the  daughter  of  Henry  IJI.  ki  ig 
of  England  ;  and  was  at  length  killed  by  a  fall  from 
his  horfc,  on  the  loih  of  April  1290,  after  having 
rcigacd  42,  or  according  toothers  57,  years. 
^•ALEXANDERS,  in  botany.  SccSmyrmium- 
ALEXANDREA,  (aiic.  gcog.)  a  inouniain  of 
Myfia,  on  tlir  Ica-coall,  forming  a  part  of  mount  Ida, 
where  Paris  gave  jiidgmenc  on  the  three  godJelles. 

ALEXANDRE  11  A,  by  the  Ttirks  called  i«/.- 
ifinoiij  a  t;;un  in  Sytia,  at  the  extremity  of  the  Wc- 
diierrancan  fea.   It  is  the  port  of  Aleppo,  from  which 
it  is  dillant  28  or  ;o  leagues.     It  is  now,  properly 
fpcaking,  nothing  elfc  but  a  village,  withoM  walls,  in 
uhich  the  ton-.bs  arc  more  numerous  than  the  houtcs, 
and  which  cntirelyov.es  its  cxiltence  to  the  road  which 
it  eoinniands.   Thisislheonl/road,  in  all  Syria,  where 
vedels  anchor  on  a  folid  bottom,  without  their  cables 
being  liable  to  chafe  :  but  in  other  rcf;  cAs  it  has  many 
inconveniences.  Itisinfe(lcil,duriiigwinier,by  apccn- 
liar  wind,  called  by  the  French  failorsA-  A'</^'///i-;  ,\vhicli 
n:!hingl'rom  the  fuowy  fiininiitsof  the  mountains,  fre- 
quently forces    lliips  to  drag  their  anchors    fevcral 
leagues:    And  when  the  fuovv  begins  to  cover  the 
mountains  wl:ich  furround  the  Gulph,    tempclhious 
windsarifc  which  pre  veil  tvclTels  from  entering  lor  three 
(•r  four  months  together.     The  road  alfo  to  Aleppo 
by  the  plain  is  infellcd  by  Curd  robbers,  who  conceal' 
themfelvcs  in  the  neighbouring  rocks,  and  frequently 
attack  and  plunder  the  flrongcft  caravans.     But  the 
v.'orftcircun'.llancc  i-  the  extreme  nnwholefomcnefs  of 
the  air,occalloned  here  b^  fiagnant  waters  audinephi- 
tic  exhalations.     It  may  be  affirmed,  that  this  every 
year  carries  otTonc-third  of  the  crews  of  the  velicls 
which  remain  heredui  iiig  the  fummerjnay,  Ihipsfrc- 
queiiily  iofc  all  their  men  in  two  months.  The  fcafon 
for  thi^  epidemic  difordcr  is  principally  from  May  to 
the  end  of  September  :  it  is  an  intermittiiig  fever  of 
tiie  mofl  malignant  kind  ;  and  is  accompanied  with  ob- 
^     Itruftions  of  the  liver,  %vhich  terminate  in  a  droply. 
To  this  baneful  epidemic,  Alcxnndreiia,  from  its  fitu- 
aiion,  fccjns  to  be  irrcmedi<ibly  co::demned  :  for  the 
plain  on  which  the  town  is  built  is  i'o  low  and  flat,  that 
the  rivulcts,findiiignodccliviiy,can  never  reach  the  fea. 
AVhrn  they  are  fwJlcd  by  tiie  winter  rains,  the  fea, 
ivii-elled  likcw  jfc  by  tempclts^binders  their  difcharging 


themfelvcs  into  it :  hence  their  waters,  forced  tofprcad    Alexaii- 
themfelves,  lorni  la.kes  in  the  plain.    On  the  approach     drctta, 
of  the  fummcr,  the  waters  becoming  corrupted  uythc  ^"^^'"'"a 
heat,  exhale  vapours  equally  corrupt,  and  which  can- 
not dil'pcrle,  being  conhned  by  the  mountains  that  en- 
circle the  gulph.    The  entrance  of  the  bay  belidcs  lies 
to  the  welt,  which  in  thufc  countries  is  the  moll  un- 
healthy cxpof'tire  when  it  correfpoHds  with  the  fe.i. 
Thckibour  iieceit.:ry  to  remedy  this  would  be  immenfe, 
and  after  all  inl'ulhcient ;  and,  indeed,  fuch  an  under- 
taking would  be  abfolutely  impoliihle  under  a  govern- 
ment like  that  of  the   I'urks.     A  few  years  ago,   Mr 
Volncy  informs  us,  the  merchants  of  Aleppo,  difgu.O- 
ed  with  the  numerous  inconveniences  of  Alexandretta, 
wiihed  to  abandon  that  port  and  carry  the  trade  to  La- 
takia.     They  propofcd  to  the  I'acha  of  Tripoli  tore- 
piiir  the  harbour  at  their  own  expencc,   provided   he 
would  grant  them  an  exemption  from  all  duties  for  ten 
years.     To  induce  him  to  comply  with  their  rcqueft, 
the  agent  they  employed  talked  much  of  the  ...dvaniagc 
which  would,  i/i  th/ie,  refult  to  the  whole  country  : 
"  But  what  lignjriesit  to  nie  what  may  happen  ;;/  tirz/ir, 
replied  the   Facha?   I  was  yellcrday  at  Slarach  ;  to- 
tnorrow,  perhaps  I  Ihall  beat  Djcdda :  Why  Ihould  I  de- 
prive myl'clf  of  prcfcnt  advantages,  which  jrecertifin, 
for  future  benefits  I  cannot  hope  to  partake  .'"     The 
European  factors  were  obliged  therefore  to  remain  at 
Scandaroon.    There  arc  three  of  thefefaflors,  two  for 
the  French,  and  one  for  the  Englilh  and  Venetians. 
The  only  curiolily  whicii  they  have  toanudellrangers 
with  conlills  in  fix  or  fcvcn  marble  monuments,  fent 
from  Englmd,  on  which  you  read  :   B(rr^-  ti:s  fuch  a  (.in 
carried  ojf'  in  the  fowir  ij  his  age,  hy  the j'uiat  cffells  of 
a  eontagioiis  air.     1  he  light  of  thcfe  is  the  more  di- 
flrelTing,  as  the  languid  air,  yellow  compkclion,  livid 
eyes,  and   dropiical  bellies  of  ihofe  who  ihow  them, 
make  it  but  too  probable  they  cannot  long  clcape  the 
fame  fate.     It  is  true,  they  have  foir.e  refource  in  the 
village  of  Bailan,  the  pure  air  and  exceilciit  waters  of 
which  Airprifingly  rellorc   the  lick.     The   aga,  for 
fome  years  pali,  has  applied  the  duties  of  the  euflom- 
houfe  of  Alexandretta  to  bis  own  ufc,  and  rendered 
hinifelf  almoft  iiidepcirdent  of  the   l'ach.i  of  Aleppo. 
The  Turkiih  empire  is  full  of  Aich  rebels,  who  fre- 
quently die  in  peaceable  poirelHon  of  their  ufnrpations. 
ALEX.ANDRIA,    now  Scanderia,    by  Alhenarus 
called  Xfutrii ;  a  city  of  Lower  Egypt,  and  for  a  long 
lime  its  capital.      This  city  was  built  hy  Alexanderihe 
Great,  foon  after  the  ovtrthiow  cf  Tyre,  about  j;;; 
years  before  Chrift.     It  is  iituated  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean, twelve  miles  well  of  that  mouth  of  the  Nile  an- 
ciently called  Cantipiann  ;  and  lies  in  E.  Long.  30.  19. 
N.  Lat.  31.  TO. 

Alexander  is  faid  to  have  been  induced  to  build  this 
city,  on  aeconnt  of  its  being  conveniently  fituatcd  for 
a  hnc  port  ;  and  fo  hidden  was  his  rcfoluiion,  that  af- 
ter he  had  directed  where  every  public  flrut'rure  was 
to  be  placed,  fixed  the  number  of  temples,  and  the  dei- 
ties to  whom  they  IhciiM  be  dedicated,  ?<e.  there  were 
no  inllruments  r.t  hand  proper  for  marking  out  the 
walls,  according  to  the  cuf'.om  of  thofe  times.  Upon 
this,  a  workman  advifcd  the  king  to  colleft  whet  meal 
w'ss  among  the  fidi'.iers,  and  to  lift  it  i  1  lines  upon  the 
ground,  whereby  the  circuit  of  the  walls  would  be 
fufiiciciJtly  marked  out.     Thi.i  advice  was  followed  ; 


ALE 


[     3S9     ] 


ALE 


A'exandrii  and  the  new  method  of  marking  o'.u  chc  walls  was,  by 

■ Ariftandcr,  the  kiii;^'s  footiifaycr, interpreted  asa  prc- 

fage  of  ihc  city's  abounding  with  all  the  ncccilarics  of 
life.  Nor  was  he  deceived  in  his  prediction  ;  for  A- 
lexandria  foon  became  the  Aaplc  not  only  for  merchan- 
difcjbiit  alfo  for  all  the  arts  and  fcienccs  of  the  Greeks. 
Alexandria  was  a  league  and  a  half  long,  by  one- 
third  in  breadth,  which  made  the  circumr'crence  of 
its  walls  about  four  leagues.  Lake  Mareotis  bathed 
its  walls  on  the  fouth,  and  the  Mediterranean  on  the 
north.  It  was  initrfected  Icngihwife  byflraight  pa- 
rallcl  flreci"!.  This  direftion  left  a  free  paflajie  to  the 
northerly  wind,  which  alone  conveys  coolneis  and  fa- 
lubrity  into  Egypt.  A  ftreet  of  2000  fect\\idc  be- 
gan at  the  gate  of  the  fca,  and  terminated  at  ilic  gate 
of  Canopus.  It  was  decorated  by  magniticent  houfcs, 
by  temples,  and  by  public  buildings.  In  this  extenlive 
rangcthe  cyewas  nevcriired  with  adniiringthc  marble 
the  porphyry,  and  the  obclifks,  which  were  dcflined  at 
fome  future  day  to  cnibellilh  Rome  and  Conflantinople. 
Thisilrect,  thehandfomeftin  thcuniverfc,  wasinter- 
/efled  l>y  another  of  the  fame  breadth,  which  formed 
a  fquarc  at  their  jnn^fion  of  half  a  league  in  circumfe- 
rence. From  the  middle  of  this  great  place,  the  two 
gates  were  to  be  fcen  at  once,  and  vclFcls  arriving 
ttnder  full  fail  from  the  north  and  from  the  fouih. 

A  mole  of  a  mile  in  length  ftrctched  from  the  con- 
tinent to  the  i!le  of  Pharos,  and  divided  the  great  har- 
bour into  two.  That  whidh  is  to  the  northward  prc- 
fcrvcd  its  name.  A  dyke  drawn  from  the  ifland  to  the 
rock  whereon  was  built  the  Pharos, fecured  it  from  the 
weflcrly  winds.  Thcother  was  called  £';//v;y,'i'/, or  the 
Safe  return.  The  former  is  called  at  prcfcnt  the  nev/, 
the  latter  the  old  harbour:  abridge  that  joins  the 
Eiolc  to  the  city,  fcrvcd  for  a  communication  between 
them.  It  was  raifed  on  lofiy  pillars  funk  into  the  fca, 
and  left  a  free  paifage  for  ihips.  The  palace,  which 
advanced  beyond  the  promontory  of  Lr^c^/.^j,  extended 
as  far  as  the  dyke,  and  occupied  more  than  a  quarter 
of  the  city.  Each  of  ihc  Ptolemies  added  to  its  mag- 
jiificence.  It  contained  \\  iihin  its  inclofure,  the  mii- 
fcum,  anafyhnn  forlcirnedmen,  groves  and  b'iildin;;s 
worthyof  royal  majclly,  and  a  temple  where  the  body 
of  Alexander  was  dcpofited  in  a  golden  cofin.  The 
infamous  StlencusCibyofaclcs  violated  this  monument, 
carried  ofFthe  golden  cofHn,  and  put  a  glafs  one  in  its 
place.  In  the  great  harbour  was  the  little  illand  of 
Anti-Rhodes,  where  ftood  a  theatre,  and  a  royal  place 
of  rcfidcnce.  Within  the  harbour  of  Eunoftos  was  a 
fmallcrone,  called  Kibot  as,  dug  by  the  hand  of  man, 
which  commanicated  with  Lake  Marcoti>  by  a  canal. 
Between  thib  canal  and  the  palace  wa?  the  admirable 
temple  of  Scrapis,  and  that  of  Neptune  near  the  great 
place  where  the  market  was  held.  Alexandria  extend- 
ed likcwife  along  the  fouthern  banks  of  the  lake.  Its 
taftern  part  prcienttd  to  view  the  ^yniualiuni, with  its 
porticoes  of  more  than  600  feet  long,  fupportcd  by  fe- 
veralrov.-s  of  marble  );illars.  Without  the  gate  of  Ca- 
nopus  was  a  fp..cioiis  circus  for  the  chariot  races.  Be- 
yond that,  the  fuburb  of  Nicopolis  ran  along  the  fea- 
^ore,  and  ftcmed  a  fccond  Alexandria.  A  fujcib 
amphitheatre  was  built  there  with  a  race-ground,  for 
the  celebration  of  the  quinquennalia. 

Such  is  the  defcription  left  us  of  Alexandria  by  the 
^cients,  and  above  all  by  Strabfl. 


The  architei.^  employed  by  Alexander  in  t!;is  on-  .-Uuai.ilf.j 
dertaking  was  the  celebrated    Dinocratrs,  who  had  ^      ■■' 

acquired  fo  much  repuution  by  rebuilding  the  tenij  U 
of  Diana  at  Ephtfus.  The  city  was  h'rrt  rendered 
populous  by  Piolemy  Sottr,  one  of  Alexander's  cap- 
tains, who,  after  the  death  of  the  Macedonian  mo- 
narch, being  appointed  governor  of  Egypt,  foon  alfu- 
med  the  title  of  king,  and  took  up  his  relideace  at  A- 
lexandria,  about  304  years  before  Chrill. 

In  the  3o:h  year  of  Ptolemy  Soter's  reign,  he  took 
his  fon  Ptolemy  Philadclphiis  partner  with  him  in  th* 
empire  ;  and  by  thisprincc  ihecity  of  Alexandria  was 
much  cmbcllillied.  In  the  finl  year  of  his  reign  the 
fanious  watch-tower  of  Pharos  was  tinilhcd.  It  had 
been  begun  feveral  years  before  by  Ptolemy  Soter  ; 
and,  wiicn  finiilicd,  wasjookcd  upon  as  one  of  the 
wnndcrs  of  the  world.  The  fame  year,  the  i.'land  of 
Pharos iifclf, originally  fcvcn furlongs di/lant  frouithe 
continent,  wasjoincd  to  it  by  a  c-iuftway.  Tl>is  wastlie 
Work  of  Dexiphancs,  who  completed  it  at  the  fame 
lime  that  his  fon  j'ut  liie  laft  hand  to  the  tower.  Th« 
tower  was  a  large  fquarc  flruJiurcof  white  marble  ;  i,:i 
the  top  of  which  fires  were  kept  conllan:ly  bnrning, 
for  the  direction  of  failors.  The  building '-.•;lt  8co 
talents;  which,if  Attic,  amounted  10  L.  i6j,ooo fieri, 
if  .'Me.xandrian,  to  tv^ice  that  fum. 

The  architcft  employed  in  this  famous  ftrnfture 
fell  upon  the  following  contrivance  to  nfurp  the  whole 
glory  to  hiinfelr'. — Being  ordered  to  aigravc  upon  it 
the  following  infcription,  "  King  Ptolemy  to  the 
Gods  tlie  Saviours,  for  the  benetii  of  Sailors  j"  inftead 
of  the  king's  name  he  fublUtuttil  his  own,  and  then 
filling  up  the  hollow  of  the  marble  with  mortar,  wtoic 
upon  it  the  abovcmcniioned  inf*  riinion.  In  prcccfs 
of  time,  the  moriar  being  wore  oft,  tlic  following  in- 
fcripiioii  appeared  :  "  Sostratus  the  Cnidum,  the 
fon  of  Dexiph ANES,  to  the  Gods  the  Saviours,  for 
the  bcnciit  of  Sailors." 

This  year  alfo  was  remarkable  for  the  bringing  of 
the  image  of  Scrapis  from  Pontus  to  Alexandria.  It 
was  fct  up  in  one  of  the  fuburbs  of  the  city  called 
Rhuoitis,  where  a  temple  was  afterwards  erefled  to  his 
honour,  fuitable  to  the  grcatncfs  of  that  flately  me- 
tropolis, and  called,  from  the  god  worfliippcd  there, 
Serai'cuin.  This  llruclure,  according  to  Animianus 
Marcellinus,  furpallcd  in  beauty  and  magnificence  all 

others  in  the  world,  except  the  capitol  at  Rome. 

Within  the  verge  ofthis  temple  was  the  famous  Alex- 
andrian library.  It  was  founded  by  Ptolemy  Sotcr,  for 
the  nfc  of  an  academy  hcinilitutcd  in  this  city  ;  and,  by 
continual  additions  by  his  fuccelTors,  becaniea;  lafl  the 
lineft  library  in  the  world,  containing  no  fewer  than 
700,000  volun:cs.  The  method  followed  in  collecting 
books  for  this  library,  was,  to  ftizc  all  thofe  which  were 
brought  into  Egypt  by  Greeks  or  other  foreigners. 
'I  he  books  were  tranfcribcd  in  the  mufiumby  perfons 
appointed  for  ihatpurpofe  ;  the  copies  wcrcthen  deli- 
vered to  the  proprietors,  and  the  originals  laid  up  in 
the  library.  Ptolemy  Energeies,  having  borrowed 
from  the  .■Athenians  the  works  of  Sophocles,  Euri- 
pides, and  /tTchyhis,  returned  them  only  the  copies, 
which  he  caufed  to  be  tranfcribcd  in  as  beautiful  a 
manner  as  polliblc  ;  prefcnting  the  Athenians  at  the 
fame  time  with  fifteen  talents  (upwards  of  L.  jcco 
Stsrlizig)  for  the  exchange. 


A  L  D 


[     390     ] 


ALE 


AlcvanJr'a      As  ihr  mnfcum  was  at  firft  in  iliat  quarter  of  the 

' ^ city  ciUcti  Bnah')",  near  the  royal  palace,  the  library 

was  placed  tlicrt  lijccwifc  ;  .but  wIrii  it  came  to  con- 
tain 400,000  volumes,  anotlicr  liiirary,  within  the 
Scrapciim,  was  crectc  I  by  way  of  fiipplcuicnt  to  it, 
aiiJ  on  tliat  a.connt  callcJ  the  jan^fucr  of  tJit  former. 
In  this  fccond  library  300,000  voli.inus,  in  proccfs  of 
time,  were  Jepolitrd  ;  and  the  two  together  contained 
the  700,000  volumes  already  mentioned.  In  the  war 
carried  on  by  Julius  Ca-far  againll  the  i'lhabiiants  of 
thiicity,  ihclilvraryin  the  Bnichion,  with  the  400,000 
volumes  it  eoiuained,  was  reduced  to  afiics.  The  li- 
brary in  the  Serapcum,  however,  ftill  remained  :  and 
lure  Cleopatra  dcpofited  2co,ooo  volumes  of  the  Pcr- 
};amcan  library,  which  Marc  Antony  prcfcnted  her 
with.  Thcfc,  and  others  added  from  time  to  time, 
rendered  the  new  library  at  Alexandria  more  nume- 
rous and  confiderable  than  the  former  ;  and  though  it 
wasoflcnplunderedduringtherevolutionsand  troubles 
«)f  the  Roman  empire,  yet  it  was  again  and  again  re- 
paired, and  filled  with  the  fame  number  of  books. 

Kor29  5  years  Alexandria  was  h.cld  in  fubjeflion 
by  the  Ptolemies.  Here  is  a  lift  of  thcfc  princes,  \\'\l\\ 
the  d  \tes  of  their  refpedive  reigns. 

Ptolemy  the  fon  of  Lagus,  furnamed  Soter,  reigned 
J9  years,  and  died  in  the  year  of  the  world  3720. 
Ptolemy  Philadelpluis  reigned  39  years,  and  died  in 
3758.  Ptolemy  Euergetcs  reigned  2jyears,  and  died 
in  ■^t^'}.  Ptolemv  Philopater  reigned  17  years,  and 
died  in  5800.  Ptolemy  Epiplianes  reigned  34  years, 
and  died  in  3824.  Ptolemy  Philometcr  reigned  37 
years,  and  died  in  3861.  Ptolemy  Eucrgctes,  or  Phyf- 
con,  reigned  ?3  years,  part  with  his  brother  Pliilome- 
tcr  and  part  alone.  He  died  in  3888.  Ptolemy  La- 
thyrus  reigned  36  years  fix  months.  He  died  in  3923. 
Cleopatra,  the  daughter  of  Lathyrus  and  wife  of  A- 
Icxander  I.  reigned  lix  months.  Alexander  I.  the  ne- 
phew of  Lathyrus,  was  cflablilhcd  in  3924  and  died 
in  3943.  Alexander  II.  the  fon  of  Alexander  I.  was 
difpolfeired  by  the  Alexandrians  in  3939.  Ptolemy 
Nothus,  or  Auletcs,  the  fon  of  Lathyrus,  reigned  13 
years,  and  died  in  5953.  Ptolemy,  furnamed  Dioiij- 
fiuiox  Bacchus,  reigned  three  years  eight  months,  and 
died  in  3957.  Cleopatra  reigned  from  3957,  and  kill- 
ed herfelf  in  3974. 

This  city,  as  we  have  already  obfcrved,  foon  became 
extremely  poj^ulons,  and  was  embclliflied  botli  by  its 
own  princes  and  the  Romans  ;  but,  like  moft  other 
noted  cities  of  antiquity,  hath  been  the  feat  of  terrible 
inalFacrcs.  About  1  41  years  before  Chrift,  it  was  al- 
mofl  totally  depopulated  by  Ptolemy  Phyfcon.  That 
barbarous  monfter,  without  the  le.ift  provocation,  gave 
free  liberty  to  his  guards  to  plunder  his  metropolis  and 
murder  the  inhabitants  at  their  pleafure.  The  cruel- 
ties pradifcd  0:1  thisoccafion  cannot  be  exprelTed  ;  and 
the  few  who  cfcapcd  were  fo  terrified  that  they  tied 
into  other  countries.  Upon  this,  Phyfcon,  that  he 
might  not  reign  over  empty  houfcs,  invited  thither 
flrangcrs  from  the  neighbouring  countries  ;  by  whom 
the  city  was  repeopled,  and  foon  recovered  its  former 
fplendor.  On  this  occalion  many  learned  men  h  .ving 
iecnobliged  tofly, proved  themeansof  revivinglearn- 
ingin  Greece,  Afia  Minor,  the  iilands  of  the  Archi- 
pelago, and  other  places,  where  it  was  almoft  totally 
loft. 


The  new  inhabitants  were  not  treated  with  much  AlexanHri* 
more  kindnefsby  Phyfcon  than  thcold  ones  had  been;  '*—%/—' 
for,  on  iheircomplainingofhistyrannical  behaviour, 
he  refoUcd  on  a  general  mallacrc  of  the  young  men. 
Accordingly, when  they  wereoncday  .iifeuiblcd  in  tlic 
gymnaliuui,  or  place  of  their  public  t-xercifes,  he  or- 
dereil  it  to  be  fct  on  fire  ;  fu  that  they  all  perifli- 
<:d,  either  in  the  flames,  or  by  the  fwords  of  his  mer- 
cenaries, wliom  tlie  tyrant  had  placed  at  all  the  ave- 
nues. 

Though  Julis  Caefar  was  obliged  to  carry  on  a 
war  for  fome  time  againft  the  city,  it  feeins  not  to 
have  fufftrcd  much  damage,  except  the  burning  of 
the  library  already  mentioned.  Before  Csfar  left 
Alexandria,  in  acknowledgment  of  the  aflillance  he 
had  received  from  the  Jews,  he  confirmed  all  their 
privilege*  there, and  even  engraved  his  decree  on  a  pil- 
lar ol  brafs.  This,  however,  did  not  prevent  the  maf- 
facre  ot  50,000  of  them  in  this  city  about  the  year  of 
Chrill67. 

'I  he  cityof  Alexandriafeems  tohave  fallen  intodc- 
cay  foon  after  this,  and  to  have  forfeiteJ  many  ofits 
ancient  privileges,  tho' for  whatofFence  is  not  known; 
but  when  Adrian  vifitcd  Egypt,  about  the  year  141, 
it  was  ahuoil  totally  ruined.  He  repaired  both  the 
public  and  private  buildings,  not  only  reftoring  the 
in  habitantsto  their  ancient  privileges, but  heaping  new 
favours  upon  them  ;  lor  which  they  returned  him  their 
folemn  thanks,  and  conferred  upon  him  what  honours 
they  could  while  he  was  prefent;  but  as  foon  as  he  was 
gone,  they  publilhed  the  moft  bitter  and  virulent  lam- 
poons againft  him. 

The  fickle  and  fatirical  humourof  thcAlexandrians 
was  highly  dillikedby  Adrian,  though  he  inflifled  no 
punilhmcnt  upon  them  for  it ;  but  when  they  lampoon- 
ed Caracalla,  he  did  not  let  them  efcape  fo  eafily. 
Tliat  tyrant,  in  the  year  21  J,  when  he  vifited  their 
city,  having  become  the  fubjccl  of  their  foolilhfatires, 
ordered  agcneral  mall'acre  by  hisnumcroastroops,who 
were  difperfed  all  over  the  city.  The  inhuman  orders 
being  given,  all  we.re  murdered,  without  diftindlion  of 
age  or  fcx  ;  fo  that  in  one  night's  time  the  whole  city 
floated  in  blood,  and  every  houfe  was  filled  with  car- 
cafes.  The  monfter  who  occalioned  this  had  retired 
during  the  night  to  the  temple  of  Serapis,  to  implore 
the  proteftion  of  that  deity  ;  and,  not  yet  fatiated  with 
flaughter,  commanded  the  malfacre  to  be  continued  all 
thencxtdayjfo  that  very  fewof  the  inhabitantsremain- 
ed.  Asif  even  this  had  not  been  fufficient,  he  ftripped 
the  city  ofall  its  ancient  privileges ;  fupprefTed  the  aca- 
demy ;  ordered  all  ftrangers  who  lived  there  to  depart; 
and  that  the  few  who  remained  might  not  have  the  fa- 
tisfadlion  of  feeing  one  another,  he  cut  off  all  commu- 
nication of  one  ftrcctwith  another,  by  walls  built  for 
that  purpofe,  and  guarded  by  troops  left  there. 

Notwithftanding  tliis  terrible  difafter,  Alexandria 
foon  recovered  its  former  fplendor,  as  Caracalla  was 
murdered  a  fliort  time  after,  ft  was  long  efteemed  the 
firft  city  in  the  world,  next  to  Rome;  and  w-e  may  judge 
ofits  ]nagnificencc,  and  the  multitude  of  people  con- 
tained in  it,  from  the  account  of  Diodorus  Siculus, 
wlio  relates,  that  in  his  time  ( 44  jears  before  Chrift) 
Alexandria  had  on  its  ro!4s  300,000  freemen.  To- 
wards the  middle  of  the  fixth  century,  Amrou  Ehii  tl 
Ajs,  Omar's  general,  took  it  by  ftorm,  after  a  liege  . 

of 


ALE 


[     391     ] 


ALE 


K-x»ndria  ot'  1 4  moiulis,  auJ  with  the  lofs  of  2^,000  men.   He- 

— radius,  the  emperor  of  Conftantiaoplc,  did  not  fend 

a  (ingle  Ihip  to  its  alliftancc.  This  prince  affords  an 
example  very  rare  in  hiftory  ;  he  had  difplayed  fonie 
vigour  in  the  tirft  year  of  hii  reijn,  and  then  fuffered 
himfclf  to  be  lulled  into  idlenefs  and  effeminacy.  A- 
wahtned  fuddenly  from  his"  lethargy  by  the  noife  of 
the  coiiquclls  of  Cofroes,  that  fcourge  of  the  call,  he 
put  himfclf  at  the  head  of  his  armies,  diilinguilhed 
himfclf  as  a  great  captain  from  his  very  tirft  campai;jn, 
laid  wade  Pcrfia  for  fevcn  years,  and  returned  to  his 
capital  covered  with  laurels :  he  then  became  a  theo- 
logian on  the  throne,  loft  all  his  energy,  and  amufed 
himfclf  the  reft  of  his  life  with  difputing  upon  Mono- 
theifm,  whilft  the  Arabs  were  robbing  him  of  the  finefl 
provinces  of  his  empire.  Deaf  to  the  cries  of  the  ur.- 
fortunate  inhabitants  of  Alexandria,  as  he  had  been  to 
thofe  of  the  people  of  Jcrufalcm,  who  defended  them- 
fclves  fortwoycars,  he  left  themafacritice  to  the  for- 
tunate afcendancy  of  the  indefatigable  Amrou.  All 
their  intrepid  youth  pcrilhed  with  their  arms  in  their 
hands. 

The  vidor,  aftonifhed  at  his  conqueft,  wrote  to  the 
caliph,  "  I  have  taken  the  city  of  the  weft.  It  is  of 
an  iinmenfe  extent.  I  cannot  defcribe  to  you  how 
many  wonders  it  contains.  There  are  4000  palaces, 
4000  baths,  1 2, coo  dealers  in  frefli  oil,  12,000  gar- 
deners, 40,000  Jews  who  pay  tribute,  400  come- 
dians," &c. 

At  this  time  according  to  the  Arabian  hiftorians, 
Alexandria  conlilted  of  three  cities, r;r.  yV/^«;i.'?,orthe 
port,  which  included  Pharos,  and  the  neighbouring 
parts;  Atsxandria,  properly  fo  called,  where  the  mo- 
dern Scanderia  nowftands  ;  and  Nckita,  probably  the 
Necropolis  of  Jofephus  and  Strabo. 

At  that  time  John,  furnamed  the  grammarian^  a 
famous  Peripatetic  philofophcr,  being  in  the  city,  and 
in  high  favour  with  Amrou  t,bn  al  Aas  the  Saracen 
general  begged  of  him  the  royal  library.  Amrou  re- 
plied, that  it  was  not  in  his  power  to  grant  fuch  a  re- 
queft  ;  but  that  he  would  write  to  the  khalif  on  that 
head  ;  lince  without  knowing  his  pleafure,  he  dared 
not  to  difpofe  of  a  finglc  book.  He  accordingly  wrote 
to  Omar,  who  was  then  khalif,  acquainting  him  with 
the  rcqueftof  his  friend  :  To  which  the  ignorant  ty- 
rant replied.  That  if  thofe  books  contained  the  fame 
dodrine  with  the  koran,  they  could  be  of  no  ufe,  fince 
the  kor.in 'contained  all  nccciLrry  trjths;  but  if  they 
contained  any  thing  contrary  to  that  book,  they  ought 
not  to  be  fuffered  :  and  therefore,  whatever  their  con- 
tents were,  he  ordered  them  to  be  deftroyed.  Purfuant 
to  this  order,  they  were  diftributed  among  the  public 
baths  ;  where,  for  the  I'pace  of  fix  months,  tJiey  ferved 
to  fupply  the  fires  of  thofe  places  of  which  there  was 
an  incredible  number  in  Alexandria. 

After  the  city  was  taken,  Amrou  thought  proper  to 
purfue  the  Greeks  who  had  tied  farther  up  the  coun- 
try; and  therefore  marched  outofAlexanHria,  leaving 
but  a  very  llcndcr  garrifon  in  the  place.  The  Greeks, 
who  had  before  fled  on  board  their  (hips,  being  appri-- 
fed  of  this,  returned  on  a  fudden,  furprifed  the  town, 
and  put  all  the  Arabs  they  found  thereinto  the  fword  : 
but  Amrou,  receiving  advice  of  what  had  happeiwd, 
fuddenly  returned,  and  drove  them  out  of  it  with  great 
ilaughtcr ;  after  which  the  Greeks  were  foi.niiniidatcd, 


that  he  had  nothing  farther  to  fear  from  them A  few  .Wtnn'.ni. 

years  after,  however,  Amrou  being  deprived  of  his  " ' 

government  by  the  khalif  Othman, the  Egyptians  were 
fomuchdifplcafed  with  hisdifmillionthatihey  inclined 
loa  revolt;  andConftaniinetheGreekempfror,having 
received  intelligence  oftheirdifaffcdioii,  began  to  me- 
ditate the  reduction  of  Alexandria.  For  this  purpofc, 
he  fcntone  Manuel,  an  eunuch,  and  his  ger.eral,  with 
a  powerful  army,  to  retake  that  place  ;  which,  by  the 
ailillance  of  the  Greeks  in  this  city,  who  kept  a  fecrec 
correfpondcnce  with  the  imperial  forces  while  at  fea, 
and  joined  them  as  foon  as  they  had  made  a  dcfcent, 
he  cffccled,  without  any  conliderable  effulion  of  Chri- 
ftian  blood.  The  khalif,  now  perceiving  his  millake, 
immediately  reftored  Amrou  to  his  former  dignity. - 
This  ftep  was  very  agreeable  to  the  natives  ;  whoha- 
ving  had  experience  of  the  military  Ikill  and  bravery  of 
this  renowned  general,  and  apprehending  that  they 
Ihould  be  called  to  an  account  by  the  Greeks  for  their 
former  perfidious  conduct,  had  petitioned  Othman  to 
fend  him  again  into  Egypt. — Upon  Amrou's  arrival, 
therefore,  at  Alexandria,  the  Copts  or  natives,  with 
the  traitor  Al-Mokawkas  (who  had  formerly  betrayed 
to  Amrou  the  fortrcfsof  Mcfr)  at  their  head,  not  only 
joined  him,  but  fupplicd  him  with  all  kinds  "f  provi- 
fions,  exciting  him  to  attack  the  Greeks  without  de- 
lay. Tliis  he  did  ;  and,  after  a  moft  obftinate  difputc 
which  lafted  feveral  days,  drove  them  into  the  town, 
where,  for  fome  time,  they  defended  themfches  with 
great  bravery,  and  repelled  the  utinoft  efforts  of  the 
belicgers.  '1  his  foexafpcratcd  Amrou,  that  he  fwore, 
"  If  God  enabled  him  to  conquer  the  Greeks,  he  \\oulJ 
throw  down  the  walls  of  the  city,  and  make  it  as  eafy 
of  accefs  as  a  bavidj-h'.ufi,  which  lies  open  to  every 
body."  Nor  did  he  fail  to  execute  this  menace  ;  for 
having  taken  the  town  by  ftorn.,  he  quite  difmantleJ 
it, en  tirclydcmolidiiiig  the  walls  a:id  fortifications.  The 
lives  of  the  citizens,  however,  were  fpared,  at  leaft  as- 
far  as  Iny  in  the  geiL-ral's  power;  biit  m my  of  them 
were  put  to  the  fv.c;  ,i  by  the  foldierson  their  firft  en- 
trance. In  one  quarter  particularly,  Amrou  found 
them  butchering  tlie  Alexandrians  with  unrelenting 
tirbarity;  to  whicli,  however,  by  his  fcafonable  in- 
terpoliiion,  he  put  a  flop,  and  on  that  fpot  erefted  a 
raofque,  which  he  called  the  mo/qm  of  mercy. 

From  this  time  Alexandria  never  recovered  its  for- 
mer fplendor.  It  continued  under  the  dominion  of  the 
khalifs  till  the  year  924,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  Ma- 
grebians,  two  years  after  its  great  church  had  been 
dcilroyed  by  fire.  This  cliurch  was  called  by  the 
Arabs  .4i  Kaifaria,  or  Citfiiria  ;  and  had  formerly  been 
a  pagan  temple,  erected  in  honour  of  Saturn  by  the 
famous  queen  Cleopatra. 

The  city  was  foon  after  abandoned  by  the  Magre- 
bians  ;  but  in  928  they  again  made  themfelves  mailers 
of  it :  their  deet  being  afterwards  defeated  by  that  be- 
longing to  the  khalif.  Abut  Kafc!:i  the  Magrebian  ge- 
neral retired  from  AlexanJria,leaving  there  only  a  gar- 
rifon  of  ;oo  men  ;  of  which  Thr.ia.'l,  the  khalif"'s  ad- 
miral, being  appril'ed,  he  in  a  few  days  appeared  before 
the  town,  and  carried  off  the  remiinder  of  the  inhabi- 
tants to  an  illand  in  the  Nile  calUd  yivuka'tr.  This 
was  done,  to  prevent  Abul  Kafem  from  meeting  with 
any  entertainment  at  Alexandria,  in  cafe  he  ihoulJ 
thiiik  proper  to  return.  According  to  Eutychius,  above 

30O,C0O . 


ALE 


[     392     ] 


ALE 


AleX'odrii.  2co,oooof  ;hc  niilcr  lolciuiiabiuutsperilhcdthuycai . 

— ~ What  contribute  J  to  raii'c  Alexandria  to  I'iich  a  pni- 

digiutis  height  of  rpk-iidurasit  enjoy  cJjor  a  lotij;  time, 
waiits  bci.'.g  the  centre  otcommtrtc  between  the  talS- 
crn  and  weltcru  parts  of  the  world.  It  was  with  ihc 
view  of  becoming  inaiicrol  this  lucrative  tr;dc,  that 
Akxaadcr  built  thiicity,  aftir  having  extirpated  the 
Tyrians,  who  formerly  cngroii'ed  all  the  tall-India 
traffic.  Of  thcimiuenfc  riches  which  that  trade  attord- 
ed,  wc  may  form  an  idea,  from  coiilidtririg  that  the 
Romans  accounted  it  a  pjint  of  polity  ty  opprefs  the 
Egyptians,  cfpetial  y  the  Alexandrians;  and  after  the 
defeatofZenobia,  tiicrc  wasa  lingle  merchant  of  Alex- 
andria who  undertook  to  raifc  and  pay  an  army  out  of 
the  profits  of  his  trade.  The  Greek  cmperori  drew 
prodigious  tributes  from  Egypt,  and  yet  the  klialifs 
found  their  fubjccts  iafogoodcircumltancesas  10  fcrcw 
up  their  revenues  to  three  hundred  millions  of  crowns. 

Though  the  revolutions  which  happened  in  the  go- 
vernment of  l-g)'pt,  after  it  fell  into  the  hands  ot'  the 
MahonittanSjfrtqueatlyaSecled  this  city  to  a  very  great 
degree;  yet  Hill  tiie  excellence  of  its  port,  and  the  in- 
numerable conveniences  refulting  from  the  Kall-lndia 
trade, to whomfocver were milUrsof Egypt,  prefcrved 
Alexandria  from  total  dcitruclion,  even  when  in  the 
hands  of  the  moll  barbarous  nations.  Thus,  in  the 
i;[h  century,  when  the  barbarifm  introduced  by  the 
tioihs,  &c.  began  to  wear  off  from  the  European  na- 
tions, and  they  acquired  a  taftc  for  the  elegancies  of 
life,  the  old  ip.ai  t  of  Alesandria  began  to  revive  ;  and 
the  port,  though  far  from  recovering  its  former  mag- 
jiificcuce,  grew'once  r.jorc  famous  by  becoming  the 
centre  of  tommerce  :  but  having  fallen  under  the  do- 
minion of  the  Turks,  and  the  palfage  round  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  being  difcovcred  by  the  Portuguefc  in 
1499,  a  fatal  blow  was  given  10  tiie  Alexandrian  com- 
jiierce,  and  the  city  has  lince  fallen  into  decay. 

Atprefcnt  the  city  of  Alexandria  is  reckoned  10  have 
abo.it  i<i,ooo  or  j  s.oco  inhabitants  ;  a  Ifraiige  collu- 
vics  of  diifcrent  nations,  as  well  as  from  various  pans 
of  the  Turkilh  empire.  They  are  in  general  given  to 
thieving  and  cheating  ;  and  (like  iheir  predccelTors) 
fcditious  above  all  others,  were  they  not  kept  in  av.  e 
by  the  fcverity  of  their  government.  The  Britilh  and 
French  carry  on  aeonlideraMc  commerce  with  them, 
and  Iiavc  each  a  conful  reliding  here.  Some  Venetian 
■Ihips  alfo  fail  thither  yearly,  but  with  French  colours, 
-and  under  the  protection  of  France.  The  fubjefts  of 
thofc  kingdoms v;hich  k"ep  no  conful  Ii«re,  are  fubjed- 
cd  to  a  tax  by  the  Grand  Slgnior  :  bi:t  the  Jews  have 
found  oat  the  method  of  indemnifying  themftlves  for 
thisdifadvanragc;  namely, by  fcllir-gthcirconimoditics 
cheaper  than  other  foreigners  cm  afford.  They  are 
alfo  favoured  by  ilie  farmers  c>i'  the  revenue  ;  who 
know,  that  if  they  do  not  i  ly  fonie  private  regard  to 
them,  the  Jews  have  it  their  power  to  caufe  fewer 
nierchandi/.cs  come  into  their  port  during  the  two 
years  that  their  farm  lafts. 

The  prcfent  city  is  a  kind  of  peninfula  fituatcd  be- 
tween the  two  jxirts.  That  of  the  weftward  was  called 
by  the  ancient'  the  Fort.-u  Eunoflus,  now  the  CJd  Fort, 
a.nd  is  by  fartLtbeft  ;  TiiikiPn  vr/Tcli  only  are  albwed 
TO  anchor  theic  :  the  other,  called  the  A'fw  fcr^,  is 
for  the  Chriftians;  atthe  e:;ircmiiy  ofon«  of  thcarms 
«f  which  ftooJ  ijie  famous  Phiros.     The  New  Pon, 


the  oiily  harbour  fjr  the  Ei-r.'pci-.as,  is  clogged  up  with  Aleiaiulru 

fand,  iufon.uch  that  iii  florrriy  weather  ihips  are  liable   — >•'— ' 

to  i<il,ic  ;  and' the  bjttom  being  alio  rocky,  the  cables 

lix>n  chafe  ami  part  ;  fo  that  one  vcllcl  driving  againll 

afccoud,  a:id  that  .'.gainil  a  third,  tncy  are  pcrUaps  all 

lulf.     OfinisiiKrc  was  a  fataliultaiicc  i6or  iSycars 

ago,  \*  hcii  42  vclicls  were  dalhcd  to  pieces  on  the  mole 

iu  a  gale  of  wind  from  the  i:orth-v.  tl>,  and  numbers 

have  been  lince  loll  there  at  difFcrent  times.     If  it  be 

allied,   Why  do  they  not  repair  the  New  Fort  ?  the 

anfwcr  is.  That  in  Turkey  they  dcftroy  <:\t.ry  thii'.g 

and  repair  noihiug.     The  old  harbour  will  be  dcUroy- 

ed  likewife,  as  the  ballafl  of  vch'cis  has  been  enntinu- 

ally  thrown  into  it  for  the  lift  200  years.     The  fpirit 

of  the  Turkilh  government  is  to  ruin  the  labours  of 

pajl  ages,  and  dcltroy  the  hopes  of  future  limes,  be- 

cjufc  the  barbarity  of  ignorant  defpotiliu  never  conli- 

ders  to-morrow. 

In  time  of  war,  Alexandria  is  of  no  imp-ortance  : 
no  fortification  is  to  be  feen  ;  even  the  Farillon,  witk 
its  hifiy  towers,  cannot  be  defended.  It  has  not  four 
cannon  fit  for  fervice,  nor  a  gunner  who  knows  ho\r 
to  point  them.  The  joojanilTaries,  who  lliould  form 
the  garrif  111,  reduced  to  half  the  number,  know  no- 
thing but  how  to  fmoke  a  pipe.  But  Alcxantlria  is  a 
place  of  which  the  conqucll  would  be  of  no  value.  A 
foreign  power  could  not  maiinain  itfelf  there,  as  the. 
country  is  without  water.  This  murt  be  b:ought  from 
the  Nile  by  the  kaltdj,  or  canal  of  12  leagues,  which 
conveys  it  thither  c\<.iy  year  at  the  time  of  the  inun- 
dation. It  fills  the  vaults  or  rcfcrvoirs  dug  under  the 
ancient  city,  and  tliii  proviiionmuft  ferve  till  the  nex.t 
year.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  were  a  foreign 
power  to  take  poiTcCion,  the  canal  would  be  lliut,  and 
all  fupplits  of  water  cut  off.  It  is  this  canal  alon* 
which  connefts  Alexandria  with  Egypt ;  for  from  its 
iituatioa  without  the  Delta,  and  the  nature  of  the  foil, 
it  really  belongs  to  thedtfartsof  Africa.  Its  environs 
arc  fandy,  flat,  and  Hcrilc,  without  trees  and  without 
honfcs ;  where  v\c  meet  with  nothing  but  the  plant 
vvhich  yields  the  kali,  and  a  row  of  palm-trees  which 
follows  the  courfcof  the  kalidj  or  canal. 

'I  he  city  is  governed  like  others  in  the  fame  king'- 
dom.  (See  EcYrr.)  It  hath  a  fmall  garrifon  of  fol- 
diers,  part  of  which  »re  Janilfariesand  AlTaffs;  whoare 
very  haughty  and  infolcnt,  not  only  toftrangcr«,  but  to 
the  mercantile  and  indullrious  part  of  the  ptoj^le,  tho* 
ever  foconfiderable  anduftful.  l"bc  government  is  (o 
remifs  in  favour  of  thefc  wretches,  that  Mr  Norden  in- 
forms us,  one  of  them  did  not  hclitatc  to  kill  a  farmer 
of  the  culloms,  for  rcfuiing  to  take  lefs  of  him  than 
the  duty  impofed,  and  went  o/funpuniflicd  ;  it  being  a 
common  falvo  among  them,  that  what  is  doac  cannot 
be  undone. 

The  prcfent  condition  of  Alcxiiidna  is  very  defpi- 
ciblc,  being  no^vfo  far  ruined,  that  the  rubbiibitJ  many 
places  overtops  the  houfes.  The  famous  tower  of  Pha- 
ros has  long  lince  been  ricmolilhcd,  and  a  ca/tle, called 
Faritlcii,  builtin  itsplarc.  The  caafcway  which  join- 
ed the  irtaiid  to  the  continent  is  broken  down,  and  it* 
place  fupplicd  by  a  flonc  bridge  of  fcveral  arches. 

Some  j-art;  of  the  old  walls  of  the  city  arc  yttftand- 
ing,  and  prcfent  us  with  a  malier-piecc  of  ancient  ina- 
fonry.  They  arc  flanked  with  large  towers,  about  200 
paces  diiunt  from  each  other,  with  Xmail  ones  in  the 

middle. 


ALE 


L    Z'ji   1 


/\  L  E 


Alexar.dris.  midJk.  Below  arc  inagniticciu  cafcmcnis,  whicli  may 

'— ^ fcrvcforgallcrics  to  walk  in.  In  ilic  lower  pan  of  the 

towers  is  a  large  fquarc  hall,  whofc  roof  is  lupported 
by  tbick  columns  of  Thebaic  ftonc.  Above  this  arc 
fcvcral  rooms,  over  which  there  arc  platforms  more 
than  20  paces  fquarc.  The  ancient  rcfcrvoirs,  vaulted 
with  fo much  art,  which  cxteudundcr  the  whole  town, 
arc  almofl.  entire  at  the  end  of  2000  years. 

Of  Csefar's  palace  there  remain  only  a  few  porphyry 
pillars,  and  the  front,  which  is  almoft  entire,  and  looks 
very  beautiful.  The  palace  of  Cleopatra  v.-as  built 
upon  the  walls  facing  the  port,  having  a  gallery  on  the 
oullide,  fupported  by  fcvcral  fine  columns.  Not  far 
from  this  palace  are  two  obelifks  vulgarly  called  Clea- 
patra's  Nicdla.  They  arc  of  Thebaic  llone,  and  co- 
veredSvith  hyeroglyphics.  One  is  overturned,  broken, 
and  lying  under  the  fand  ;  the  other  is  on  its  pcdeftal. 
Thelc  two  obcliftcs,  each  of  them  of  a  lingle  ftone,  are 
about  60  feet  high,  by  feven  feet  fquarc  at  the  bafe. 
Towards  the  gate  of  Rofctta,  are  five  columns  of 
marble  on  the  place  formerly  occupied  by  the  porticoes 
of  the  Gymnafiura.  The  reft  of  the  colonnade,  the 
dcfign  of  which  was  difcovcrable  100  years  ago  by 
Maillct,  has  lince  been  dcftroyed  by  the  barbarifm  of 
the  Turks. 

But  what  moft  engages  the  attention  of  travellers  is 
the  Pillar  of  I'ompcy,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  fitua- 
ted  at  a  quarter  of  a  league  from  the  fouthern  gate. 
It  is  compofcd  of  red  granite.  The  capital  is  Corin- 
thian, with  palm  leaves,  and  not  indented.  It  is  nine 
feet  high.  The  fliaft  and  the  upper  member  of  the 
bafe  are  of  one  piece  of  90  feet  long,  and  9  in  diame- 
ter. The  bafe  is  a  fquarc  of  about  15  feet  on  each 
<ide.  This  blockof  marble,  60  feet  in  circumference, 
refts  on  two  layers  of  ftone  bound  together  with  lead  ; 
which,  however,  has  not  prevented  the  Arabs  from 
forcing  our  fcvcral  of  thcm^  tofearch  for  an  imaginary 
treafurc.  The  whole  column  is  i44feet  high.  It  is 
pcrfciJtly  wcUpoliQied,  andonly alittlelhiveredon the 
caftern  lidc.  Nothing  can  equal  the  majcfty  of  this 
monument ;  feen  from  a  diftance,  it  overtops  the  town, 
and  fcrvcs  as  a  iignal  for  veflels.  Approaching  it 
nearer,  it  produces  an  aftonilhment  mixed  with  awe. 
One  can  never  be  tired  with  admiring  the  beauty  of 
the  capital,  the  length  of  the  fliaft,  nor  the  extraordi- 
nary limplicity  of  the  pedeftal.  This  laft  has  been 
fomew  liat  dam.iged  by  the  inftruments  of  travellers, 
who  arc  curious  to  polfefs  a  rclici  of  this  antiquiiy  ; 
and  orie  of  the  volutes  of  the  column  was  immaturely 
brought  down  about  twelve  years  ago,  by  a  prank  of 
I'ome  Englilh  captains,  which  is  thus  related  by  Mr 
Irwin. 

Thefc  jolly  fons  of  Neptune  had  been  pufliing  about 
the  can  on  board  one  of  the  Ihips  in  the  harbour,  until 
a  flrange  freak  entered  into  one  of  their  brains.  The 
eccentricity  of  the  thought  occalio}icd  it  immediately 
to  be  adopted  ;  and  its  apparent  impollibility  was  but 
f  a  fpur  for  the  puttiiit^  it  into  execution.  The  boat 
was  ordered  ;  and  with  proper  implcnienis  for  the  at- 
tempt, thefc  cnterprifing  heroes  puilicd  alnore,to  drink 
a  bowl  of  punch  o\\  the  top  of  Ponipey's  pillar !  At 
the  fpot  they  arrived  ;  and  many  contrivances  were 
propofed  to  accomplifli  the  defired  point.  But  thiir 
l.bour  was  vain  ;  and  they  began  to  defpair  of  fucccfs, 
when  ihe  genius  who  ftruck  out  the  frolic  happily  fug- 

VOL.    I. 


gcfled  the  means  of  performing  it.     h  m.in  was  dif-  Alci.ndrii. 

patched  to  the  ci:y  for  a  paper  kite.     The  inhabitants  ^ 

were  by  this  time  appiifcd  of  what  was  goingforward, 
and  ilockcd  in  crowds  to  be  wimeflcs  of  the  adJrcfs 
and  boldnefs  of  the  Knglilli.  The  governor  of  Alex- 
andria was  xold  that  thefc  feamen  were  about  to  pull 
4ov;n  Ponipey's  pillar.  B'.rt  whether  he  gave  them 
credit  for  thtir  refpecl  to  the  Uomau  warrior,  or  to 
the  Turkifli  government,  he  left  them  tothcniftlvcs  ; 
and  politely  anfwcrcd,  that  the  Knglilh  were  too  great 
patriots  to  injure  the  rtmaias  of  Pompey .  I  Fc  knew 
little,  however,  of  the  difpofition  of  the  people  who 
were  engaged  in  this  undertaking.  Had  the  Turkilh 
empire  rofeinoppolition,  it  would  not  pcrhsps  at  that 
moment  have  deterred  them.  The  kite  was  brought, 
and  flown  fodircclly  over  the  pillar,  that  when  it  ftU 
on  the  other  lide,  the  (Iring  lodged  upon  the  capital. 
The  chief  obflacle  was  now  overcome.  A  two-inch 
rope  was  tied  to  oncend  of  tlic  ftring,  and  drav»'novcr 
the  pillar  by  the  end  to  which  the  kite  was  affixed. 
By  this  rope  one  of  the  feamen  afccnded  to  the  top; 
and  in  lefs  than  an  hour,  a  kind  of  Ihroud  was  con- 
ftruded,  by  which  the  whole  company  went  up,  arl 
drank  their  pupch  amid  the  (houts  of  the  aftoniflicj 
multitude.  l"o  the  eye  below,  the  capital  of  the  pii- 
lar  docs  not  appear  capable  of  holding  n-.orc  than  one 
man  upon  it;  but  our  feamen  found  it  could  comai:i 
no  Icfs  than  eight  perfons  very  conveniently.  It  is 
aftonilhing  that  no  accident  bcfel  thefc  madcaps,  in  a 
fituation  fo  elevated,  thit  would  have  turned  a  land- 
man giddy  in  his  fobcr  fenfcs.  The  only  detriment 
which  the  pillar  received,  was  the  lofs  of  the  volute 
beforementioned;  which  came  down  with[a  thundi  ring 
found,  and  was  carried  to  England  by  one  of  the  cap- 
tains, as  a  prefent  to  a  lady  who  commiilioncd  him  for 
a  piece  of  the  pillar.  The  difcovery  which  they  made 
amply  compenfatcd  for  this  mifchief;  as  without  their 
evidence,  the  world  would  not  have  known  at  this 
hour,  that  there  was  originally  a  ftaiue  on  this  pillar, 
one  foot  and  ancle  of  which  arc  flill  remaining.  The 
flatue  muft  have  been  of  gigantic  (ize,  to  have  appear- 
ed of  a  man's  proportion  at  lb  great  an  height. 

There  arc  circumllances  in  this  ftory  «  hich  might 
give  it  an  airof  fi  lion,  were  it  not  dcmondratcd  be- 
yond all  doubt.  Rcfides  the  tcftimonies  of  many  cyr- 
witneifes,  the  adventurers  thcmfclvcs  have  left  us  a  to- 
ken of  the  fact,  by  the  initials  of  their  names,  which 
arc  very  legible  in  black  paint  jiill  beneath  the  capital. 

Learned  men  and  travellers  have  made  many  t'ruit- 
Icfs  attempts  to  difcovcr  in  honour  of  what  prince  it 
was  creeled.    The  befl  informed  have  concluded,  that 
it  could  not  be  in  honour  of  Pompey,   lincc  neither 
Stribo  nor  Diodorus  Sicuhis  have  fpokcn  of  it.     The 
Arabian  Abulfcda,  in  his  c'cfcripiiou  of  Ej^ypt,  calls 
it  the  ruiar  of  Stvenii.  And  hillory  informs  nsf,  that  ^rij,!ifiar~ 
this  emperor  "  vifitcd  the  city  of  Alexandria  :  That  />o«'i  Li/t 
he  granted  a  fenate  to  its  inhabitants,  who  until  that  'fSntti,!, 
time,  under  the  fubjedion  of  a  lingle  Roman  magi-  ''"F-  '"• 
flratc,  had  lived  without  any  national  council,  as  under 
the  reign  of  the  I'tolemirs,  when  the  will  of  the  prince 
was  their  only  law  :  That  he  did  not  confine  his  be- 
nefaftions  there  ;  he  chanj;rd  fcvcral  laws  in  their  fa- 
vour."   This  column,  therefore,  Mr  Savary  concludes 
to  have  been  crcrtcd  by  the  inhabitants  ^s  a  mark  of 
their  gratitude  to  Severus.     And  in  a  Greek  infcrip- 
3  D  tion, 


ALE 


[     39+ 


ALE 


Alexandria,  tion,  now  half  effaced,  but  villblc  on  the  weft  fide 
*~"v~~'  when  the  fun  fliincs  upon  it,  and  wliich  probably  was 
legible  in  the  time  of  Abulfcda,  he  fuppofes  the  name, 
of  Scverus  to  have  been  prefcrvcd.  He  further  ob- 
fcrves,  that  this  was  not  the  only  monument  creded  to 
him  by  the  gratitude  of  the  Alexandrians  :  for  there  is 
ilill  feen  in  the  midft  of  the  ruins  of  Antinoe,  built  by 
Adrian,  ainagniticent  pillar,  the  infcripiion  on  which 
is  flill  remaining  dedicated  to  Alexander  Severus. 

On  the  louth-wcfl  fide  of  the  city,  at  a  mile's  di- 
ftancc,  are  lituatcd  the  catacombs,  the  ancient  burial- 
place  of  Alexandria  ;  and  although  tluy  cannot  be 
compared  to  thofc  of  the  ancient  Memphis,  which  the 
Arabs  will  not  permit  to  be  vifitcd,  in  order  to  make 
ihc  better  i;i?rkct  of  tlicir  mummies,  it  is  probable 
that,  the  method  of  embalming  being  the  fame,  the 
form  of  thefc  catacombs  can  only  difter  in  their  pro- 
portions.— The  Baron  dc  Tott,  in  defcribing  thefe, 
obfcrves,  "  that  Nature  not  having  furnilhed  this  part 
of  Egypt  with  a  ridge  of  rocks,  like  that  which  runs 
parallel  with  the  Nile  above  Delta,  the  ancient  inhabi- 
.  tants  of  Alexandria  could  only  have  an  imitation  by  dig- 
ging into  a  bed  of  folidrock;  and  thus  they  formed 
Nccropolisjor  the 'City  of  the  Dead.*  The  excavation 
is  from  50  to  40  feet  wide,  and  aoortngand  25  deep, 
and  is  terminated  by  gentle  declivities  at  each  end. 
The  two  fides,  cut  perpendicularly,  contain  fcveral 
openings,  about  10  or  12  feet  in  width  and  height, 
hollowed  horizontally  ;  and  which  form,  by  their  dif- 
ferent branches,  fubtcrraneau  ftreets.  One  of  thefc, 
which  curioliiy  lias  difincumbcred  from  tlic  ruins  and 
fands  that  render  the  entrance  of  others  difficult  or  im- 
poflible,  contains  no  mummies,  but  only  the  places 
they  occupied.  The  order  in  which  they  were  ranged 
is  ftill  to  be  feen.  Niches,  20  incites  fquarc,  funk  lix 
feet  horizontally,  narrowed  at  the  bottom,  and  fepa- 
rated  iVom  each  other  by  partitions  in  the  rock,  feven 
or  eight  inche>  thick,  divide  into  checkers  the  two 
walls  of  this  fubterrancan  vault.  It  is  natural  to  fup- 
pofc,  from  this  difj  ofiiion,  that  each  mummy  was  in- 
troduced  with  the  feet  forcmoft  into  tiit  cell  intended 
for  its  reception  ;  and  that  new  ftreets  were  opened, 
in  proportion  as  thefe  dead  inhabitants  of  Necropolis 
increafed."    This  obfcrvation,  he  adds,  which  throws 


water  of  the  fea,  is  pure  and  tranfparcnt  as  cryflal.  Alexandria 
Seated  on  the  ftone  bench,  the  water  rifcs  a  little  above  Alcxandri- 
thc  waift  ;  while  the  feet  foftly  repofe  on  a  line  fand.  .    ""• 
The  wavcsof  the  fea  are  heard  roaringagainft  the  rock, 
and  foaming  in  the  canal.  1  he  fwell  enters,  raifesyou 
up,  and  leaves  you  j  and  thus  alternately  entering  and 
retiring,  brings  a  coniinnal  frefli  fupply  of  water,  and 
a  coolnefs  which  is  truly  delicious  under  a  burning 
Iky.     This  place  is  vulgarly  called  the  Bath  of  Cleopa- 
tra.    Some  ruins  announce  that  it  was  formerly  orna- 
mented. 

Alexandria  is  about  fifty  Icauges  north  of  Cairo. 
E.  Long.  31  15.  N.  Lat.  51.  12. 

Alexandria,  a  ftrong  and  confidcrable  city  of  I- 
taly,  belonging  to  the  dutchy  of  Milan,  with  a  good 
caftlc,  built  in  1 1  78  in  honour  of  Pope  Alexander  III. 
This  pope  made  it  a  bilhopric,  with  fevcral  privileges 
and  exemptions.  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy  took  this  city 
in  1  706 ;  after  three  days  ficge.  The  French  took  it  in 
1745  ;  but  the  king  of  Sardinia,  to  whom  it  belongs 
bythe  treaty  of  Utreclit,  retook  it  in  1746.  The  for- 
tifications of  the  town  are  trifling,  but  the  citadel  is 
conliderable.  It  is  15  miles  fouth-eaft  of  CalTal,  35 
iiorth-by-weft  of  Genoa,  and  40  fouth-by-weft  of  Mi- 
lan. E.  Long.  8.  40.  N.  Lat.  44.  53.  The  country 
about  this  town  is  called  the  AUxandrin. 

Alexandria  (anc.geog.),  acityof  Arachofia,call- 
cd  alfo  Alexandropdlis,  on  the  river  Arachotus  (Ste- 
phanus,  Ilidorus  Characenus) — Another  Alexandria 
in  Gedroiia,  built  by  Lconatus,  by  order  of  Alex- 
ander (Pliny). — A  third  Alexandria  in  Aria,  fituated 
at  the  lake  Arias  (Ptolemy)  ;  but,  according  to  Pli- 
ny, built  by  Alexander  on  the  river  Arias — A  fourth 
in  the  BaClriana  (Pliny). — A  fifth  Alexandria,  an 
inland  town  of  Carmania  (Pliny,  Ptolemy,  Ammian). 
— A  lixth  Alexandria,  or  Altxaiidropolis,  in  the  Sog- 

diana   (Ilidorus  Characenus) A  feventh  in  India, 

at  the  conriuence  of  the  Acefnies  and  Indus  (Arrian). 
— An  eighth  called  alfo  AUxandrctta,  near  the  fmus 
Illicus,  on  the  confines  of  Syria  and  Cilicia,  now  Scan- 
deroon  ^fecALEXANDB  ETTA),the  port-town  to  Aleppo. 
— A  ninth  Alexandria  of  Margiana,  which  being  de- 
molilhed  by  the  barbarians,  was  rebuilt  by  Antiochus 
the  fon  of  Stlcucus,  and  called  ^/;//oc/'/<i  of  Syria,  (Pli- 


a  light  on  the  catacombs  of  Memphis,  may  perhaps     ny)  ;  watered  by  the  river  Margus,  which  is  divided 
likewif^e  explain  the  vaft  fizc  and  multitude,  as  well  as     intof         '    '  -     -      -  -       .  .       . 


the  different  elevations,  of  the  pyramids  in  the  High 
cr  and  Lower  Egypt. 

About  70  paces  from  Pompey's  pillar  is  the  khalis, 
or  tlie  canal  of  the  Nile,  which  was  dug  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  to  convey  the  water  of  the  Nile  to  Alex- 
andria, and  fill  the  cifierns  under  the  city.  On  the 
fide  of  the  khalis  arc  gardens  full  of  orange  and  lemon 
trees,  and  the  fields  are  full  of  caper  and  palm  trees. 
On  the  top  of  a  hill  is  a  tower,  on  wliich  a  ccntincl 
is  a'ways  pliccd,  to  give  notice,  by  means  of  a  flag, 
of  the  lliips  that  arc  coming  into  the  port.  From  this 
bill  may  be  fc-n  ihc  fea,  the  whole  extent  of  ilic  city, 
and  the  pans  round  it. 

In  going  along  tlie  fea-coalt,  there  is  a  large  bafon 
cut  out  of  the  rock  that  lints  the  lliore.  On  the  fides 
cf  this  bafon,  two  beautiful  faloons  are  hewn  out  by 
the  chifcl,  with  benches  that  run  acrofs  them.  A 
can.il  made  zig-zag,  for  the  purpofe  of  flopping  the 
fand  by  its  different  windings,  conveys  into  them  the 


feveral  channels,  for  the  puvpofes  of  watering  the 
country,  which  was  called  Zctale.  The  city  was  fe- 
vcnty  lladia  in  circuit,  according  to  Pliny  ;  who  adds, 
that,  after  the  defeat  of  Cralliis.  the  captives  w  ere  con- 
veyed to  this  place  by  Orodes  the  kingof  the  Parthians. 
— A  tenth,  of  the  Oxiana,  built  on  the  Oxus  by  .-ilcx- 
auder  on  the  confines  of  Baftria  (Pliny) — An  ele- 
venth, built  by  Alexander  at  the  foot  of  mount  Paro- 
pamifus,  which  was  called  Caucaftis  (Pliny,  Arrian). 
— A  twelfth  A'exandria'in  Troas,  called  alfo  Troas  and 

Antigtiuia  (Pliny) A  i'.-.;riecnthon  the  L.xanes,  the 

boundary  of  Alexander's  victories  towards  Scyihia, 
and  the  l.;ft  that  he  built  on  that  fide. 

ALEXANDI11.4N,  in  a  particular  fenfe,  is  ap- 
plied to  all  thofe  who  profelfcd  or  taught  the  fcienccs 
in  the  fchool  of  Alexandria.  In  tiiis  fenfc,  Clemens 
is  denominated  Atexandrinta,  though  boni  at  Athens. 
The  fan'.e  may  be  faid  of  Apion,  who  was  born  at 
Oalis  ;  and  .'^roftarchus,  by  birth  aSamothraci.in,  The 
chief  AkxsudrJan  philufophers  were,  Anionius,  Plo- 

liuus. 


ALE 


[     395     ] 


A  L  K 


Alexandri-  tiiius,  Origen,  Porphyry,  Jamblicus,  Sopater,  Maxi- 
inus,  and  IJcxippus. 

Alexandrian  is  more  particularly  underftoodofa 
college  of  priclls,  confccrated  to  ilic  fcrvicc  of  Alex- 
ander Scvcnis  after  bis  deification.  Linipridiusrchtcs, 
that,  nntwithftandiiigScvcrus  was  killed  by  Maxiniin, 
the  I'enatc  profecutcd  his  apotheofis  ;  and,  for  regula- 
rity of  worfliip,  founded  anordcr  of  pricfls,  ox  fodal'ts, 
under  thccleuoniiaaiion  of  AUxandrin'i. 

AttXASDRl  AS  Library .     Seep,  ■^^(f,  ficpra. 

Alrxasvuuas  Maiiufcrift ,  a  famous  copy  of  the 
Scriptures,  coniifling  cf  four  volumes,  in  a  large  quar- 
to fize  ;  which  contains  the  whole  iiiblein  Greek,  in- 
cluding the  Old  and  New  Teflament,  with  the  Apo- 
crypha, and  foinc  fmaller  pieces,  but  not  quite  com- 
plete. This  nianufcript  is  now  prefcrved  in  the  Britilh 
Mufeum.  It  was  fcnt  as  aprtfeut  to  King  Charles  I. 
from  Cyrillus  Lucaris,  patriarch  of  Coiiflantinoplc,  by 
Sir  Thomas  Rowe,  amballador  from  England  to  the 
Grand  Signior,  about  the  year  i623.  Cyrillus  brought 
it  with  him  from  Alexandria,  where  probably  it  was 
written.  In  a  fchedule  annexed  to  it,  he  gives  this 
account  :  That  it  was  written,  as  tradition  informed 
them,  by  Thccla,  a  noble  Egyptian  lady,  about  i  joo 
years  ago,  not  long  after  the  council  of  Nice.  But 
this  high  antiqaity,  and  the  authority  of  the  tradition 
to  which  the  patriarch  refers,  have  been  difputed  ; 
nor  are  the  mo/l  accurate  biblical  writers  agreed  about 
its  age.  Grabe  thinks  that  it  might  have  been  written 
before  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  ;  others  are  of  opi- 
nion, thii  it  was  not  writ  till  near  the  end  of  the  fifth 
century,  or  fomewh.it  later. 

ALEXANDRiAN',or^/v-.r<7«;/r;j;r,  in  poetry,  a  kind  of 
verfe  conllfting  of  twelve,  or  of  twelve  and  thirteen 
fyllables  alternately  :  fo  called  from  a  poem  on  the  life 
of  Alexander,  written  in  this  kind  of  verfe  by  fome 
French  poet.  Al-.xandrines  are  peculiar  to  modern 
poetry,  and  feem  well  adapted  to  epic  poems.  They 
are  fometimes  ufcd  by  mod  nations  of  Europe  ;  but 
chiefly  by  the  French,  whofe  tragedies  arc  generally 
compofed  of  Alexandrines. 

ALEXICACUS,  fomcthing  that  preferves  the  bo- 
dy from  harm  or  mifchief.  The  word  amounts  to 
much  the  fame  as  alcxitcrial. 

Al  EX  I  c  A  c  u  s,  in  antiquity,  was  an  attribute  of  Nep- 
tune, whom  the  tunny-fifliers  ufcd  to  invoke  under  this 
appellation, that  their  nets  might  be  prcferved  from  tlic 
f /oi»:,  or  fword-fi(h,  which  ufed  to  tear  them;  and  that 
he  might  prevent  the  affiftance  which  it  was  pretended 
the  dolphins  ufcd  to  (rive  the  tunnies  on  this  occafion. 

ALEXIPHARMICS,  in  medicine,  are  properly 
remedies  for  expelling  or  preventing  the  ill  cffcds  of 
poifon:  but  fome  ofthe  moderns  having  imagined,  that 
the  animal  fpirits,  in  acute  diftempcrs,  were  affedled 
by  a  malignant  poifon,  the  term  has  been  underftood 
to  mean  medicines  adapted  to  expel  this  poifon  by  the 
cutaneous  pores,  in  the  form  of  fwcat.  In  this  fenfe, 
alcxipharmics  arc  the  fame  as  fudorifics. 

ALEXIS,  a  Picdr.ioptcfc.  There  is  a  book  of 
"  Secrets,"  which  for  a  long  time  has  gone  under  his 
name.  It  was  printed  at  Bafil  1536.  in'^vo,  and 
tranflated  from  Italian  iito  Latin  by  Wecher  ;  it  has 
alfo  been  tranllatcd  into  French,  and  printed  fcveral 
limes  with  additions.  There  is  a  preface  to  the  piece, 
wherein  Alexis  informs  us,  that  he  was  born  of  a  noble 


.VotA- 


family  ;  that  he  had  from  his  n-.o.'t  eariy  years  applied  Aleiite.-i»I 
himfclf  to  ftudy  ;  that  he  had  learned  th:  Greek,  the  I 

Latin,  the  Hebrew,  the  Chaldean,  the  Arabian,  and 
feveral  other  languages  ;  that  having  an  extreme  cu- 
riofity  to  be  acquainted  with  the  fecrets  of  nature,  he 
had  colleded  as  much  as  he  could  daring  his  travels 
for  57  years  ;  that  he  piqued  hinifelf  upon  not  com- 
municating his  fecrets  to  any  pcrfon  ;  but  that  when 
he  was  82  years  of  age,  having  fecn  a  poor  man  who 
had  died  of  a  fickncfs  which  might  have  bee;;  cured 
had  he  coAimunicatcd  his  fecret  to  the  furgcon  who 
took  care  of  him,  he  was  touched  with  fuch  a  remorle 
of  confcience,  that  he  lived  almod  like  a  hermit:  and 
it  was  in  thii  folitude  that  he  ranged  his  fecrets  in  futh 
an  order  as  to  make  them  fit  to  be  publilhcd.  The 
hawkersgenerally  carry  them, with  other  books, to  the 
country  fairs.  Thcfe,  however,  contai.^i  only  the  fclect 
remedies  of  Scignor  .Alexis  of  Piedmont;  the  entire 
collection  would  make  too  large  a  volume  for  them. 

ALEXITERIAL,  among  phyficians,  a  term  of 
much  the  fame  import  with  alixipharmic;  thoigh  fome 
times  uled  in  a  fynonymous  fenfe  with  amulet. 

ALEYN  (Charles),  an  Englilhpoet  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.  In  1651,  he  publiihed  two  poems  on  the 
famous  vidoriesofCreffy  and  Poicliers.  He  fucccedcd 
his  father  as  clerk  of  the  ordnance, and  was  coramillary 
general  of  the  artillery  to  the  king  at  the  battle  of 
EdgehiU.  The  next  piece  be  wrote  was  a  poem  irr 
honour  of  Henry  VII.  and  the  victory  that  gained  him 
the  crown  of  England.  In  1656,  the  year  before  he 
died,  he  tranllatcd  the  hiftory  of  Eurialius  and  Lucre- 
tia,  from  the  Latin  epiftles  of  j^neas  Sylvius. 

ALFANDIGA,  the  name  of  the  cuftoaihoufe  at 
Lifbon. 

ALFAQUES,  among  the  Moors,  the  name  ge- 
nerally ufcd  for  their  clergy,  or  thofe  who  teacii  the 
Mahometan  religion  ;  in  oppofition  to  the  Morabitcs, 
who  anfwer  to  monks  among  Chriltians. 

ALFATERNA  (anc.geog.),  the  laft  town  of  Cam- 
pania, beyond  Vefuvius  (Diodorus)  ;  the  fame  with 
Nocera,  which  fee.  The  inhabitants  Alfatirni  (Pli- 
ny). 

ALFDOUCH,  a  name  given  by  the  Moors  to  a 
fort  of  vermicelli,  which  they  make  of  flour  and  water 
and  are  very  fond  of  in  their  entertainments. 

ALFET,  in  old  cuftoms,  denotes  a  caldron  full 
of  boiling  water,  wherein  an  acufed  perfon,  by  way  of 
trial  or  purgation,  plunged  his  arm  up  to  his  elbow. 

ALFROD,  a  town  in  LincolnQiire,  with  a  n^arket 
on  Tucfdays  for  provifious  and  corn  ;  and  twof^irs, 
on  Whic-Tuefday,  and  Novembers,  for  cattle  and 
Ihccp.  It  is  featcd  on  a  fmall  brook  that  runs  through 
the  town,  and  is  a  compact  place.  A  lali  fpri:;g  was 
difcovered  herein  1670,  from  the  pigeons  which'Hcw 
thither  in  great  numbers  to  drink  the  water  ;  thofc 
birds  being  known  to  be  foi:d  of  fait.  It  contains  a 
purging  fjlt,  together  with  a  portion  of  fca-falt.  It 
is  ftrongly  purgative.  It  is  recommended  as  cooling, 
cleanfnig,  and  attenuating.  As  a  g<x)d  remedy  in  the 
fcurvy,  jaundice,  and  other  glandular  obfiniclions.  It 
alfo  promotes  nrine  and  fweat,  and  therefore  is  gocd 
in  gravelly  and  other  diforders  oft  he  kidneys  and  b!  id- 
dcr  ;  and  in  complaints  arifing  from  obftrudcd  pcrfpi- 
r.ition.  .■\lford  is  fix  milts  from  the  fca,  and  20  N. 
ofBofto:!.     E.  Long.  o.  ij.  N.Lat.  j^.  50. 


^  D  a 


ALFRED, 


A   L  I-^ 


I     396     J 


A  L  F 


a;Ii<.J,         AI.KKtU,  iT/fc-LHiED,  ihc  Gnat,  king  of  tng- 

^ liiuiJ,  w.:s  ihc  tilth  aiut  yoiuigclt  li>n  ol  .t,ilich\olt" 

ling  oT  the  Weft  Siixoiis,  aiiJ  was  lK>rn  at  vv  aiitagc 
i:!  Lii  j-jliirc  in  S/',^.  I'c  diliinguillud  liinil'tlt,  Jii- 
iiug  ilic  reign  of  hi-^  brotlicr  ttlitlrcii,  in  fcvtrai  111- 
g.igcmtiUi  agaiiut  tijc  Uaucs;  aiul  ui)on  liisittaiii  luc- 
tttdid  to  the  crown,  in  the  year  871,  and  ilie  2;d  of 
his  aj>c.     At  hiiaitcnoinu;  ilicilirone  he  found  him- 


Alfred  granted  thtin  better  terms  thaa  they  coutJ  ex-     Alfred. 

peCh  He  agreed  to  give  lip  the  whole  kingdom  of  the   ■'""■ 

Kaft-Aiigles  toluchaswouldeiiibracc  theChriltian  re- 
ligion, on  condition  they  would  oldigc  the  rtll  of  their 
countrymen  to  (jiiit  the  iilaad,  and,  as  much  as  it  was 
in  their  power,  prevent  the  landing  of  any  more  fo- 
reigners. For  the  performance  thereof  he  took  hofta- 
ges  i  and  wlun,  in  piirluance  of  the  treaty,  Guthrnm 


feif  involved  in  a  dangerous  war  with  the  Danes,  and  the  Danilh  captain  came,  with  thirty  of  his  chief  ofli 

placed  in  fuch  cir.  iimllanccs  of  diKrefs  as  called  for  ccrs,  to  be  b.ijii/.ed,  Allred  aniwcred  for  him  at  the 

llie  grcatclt  \a4ui:r,  rcli  lutiou,  and  all  the  other  vir-  font,  and  gave  him  the  wmwc  oi  JEthitJlani: ;  and  ctr- 

lues  with   which  he  was  adorned.     The  Danes  hud  tain  laws  were  drawn  up  between  the  king  and  Gu- 

already  piiictrated  inioihe  heart  of  hiskingdoni  ;  and  thrum  for  the  regulation  andgovernnuiit  of  the  Danes 

before  he  jiad  been  a  month  on  the  throne,   he  was  fettled  in  England.     In  884,  a  frefli  number  of  Danes 

obliged  10  take  the  fiilu  .igainli  thofe  forniidable  enc-  landed  in  Kent,  and  laid  liege  to  Rochclter  ;   but  the 

mies.  After  many  batllei  gained  on  lo'h  fides,he  was  at  king  coming  to  the  relief  of  that  city,  they  were  ob- 

length  reJiiccdiolhcgrcateUdiitrefs,and  was  entirely  liged  to  abandon  their  dclign.     Alfred  had  now  great 

abandoned  by  his  fubjccts.     In  this  limaiion,  Alfred,  fuccefs  ;  which  was  ehietiy  owing  to  his  fleet,  an  ad-, 

conceiving  himfelfr.o  longer  a  king.laid  alidc  all  marks  vantage  of  his  own  creating.  Ha\ing  fccured  the  fea- 

of  Totality,  and  took  llulter  in  the  hoiife  of  one  who  co.dls,  he  fortiiied  the  reft  ot  the  kingdom, w  ith  eaules 

kept   his  cattle.     He  retired  afterwards  to  the  i!le  of  aiui  walled  towns  ;  and  he  befieged  and  recovered  from 

/Ktlulingey  in  Sonicrfetlliire,N\  here  he  built  a  fort  for  the  Danes  the  city  of  London,  which  he  refolvcdtorc- 

the  fecnriiy  of  liinifelf,  his  family,  and  a  few  faithful  pair,  and  keep  as  a  I'rontier  (it), 
fervants  whorcjiaired  thither  to  him.     When  he  had  After  fonie  years  refpilc,  Alfred  was  again  callcu 

been  about  a  year  in  this  retreat,  having  been  inform-  into  the  tield  :   for  a  body  of  Danes,  being  worftcd  in 

cd  that  I'onie  of  his  fiibjcets  had  routed  agreatarmyof  the  wellof  b"rance,  came  v\ith  a  Hect  of  jsofail  on  the 

the  Danes,  killed  theirchiefs,  and  taken  their  magical  coall  of  Kent  ;  and  having  landed,  lixcd  themfelvcsal 

llandard  (a), he  ilfued  his  letters,  giving  notice  where  Apjile-tree  :   lliortly  after,  ar.other,  fleet  of  80  vcflcls 

lie  was,  and  inviting  his  nobility  to  come  and  confult  coming  up  the  Thames,  the  men  landed,  and  built  a 

with  him.   Before  they  came  toa  final  determination,  fort  at  Middlcton.   Before  Alfred  marched  againft  the 

Alfred,  pulling  on  the  habit  of  a  harper,  went  into  enemy,  he  obliged  the  Danes,  fettled  in  Nonhumbcr- 

ilic  enemy's  camp,  where  without  fufpicion,  he  was  land  and  Elfex,  to  give  him  hollages  for  their  good 

every  where  admitted, and  had  the  honour  to  play  be-  behaviour.  He  then  moved  towards  the  invaders,  and 

lore  their  princes.  Having  thereby  acquired  an  exad  pi  tchcdhiscamp  between  their  armies,  to  prevent  their 

knowledge  of  their  lituation,  he  returned  in  great  fe-  jundion.     A  great  body,  however,  moved  ofi  to  £f- 

crecy  to  his  nobility,  whom  he  ordered  to  theirrefpe-  iVx  ;  and  crolllng  the  river,  came  to  Karnham  inSurry, 

tive  homes,  there  to  draw  together  each  man  as  great  where  they  were  defeated  by  the  king's  forces.  Mean 

5  force  as  he  could  ;  and  upon  a  day  appointed  there  while  the  Danes  fettled  in  Northumberland,  in  breach 

was  to  be  a   general  rendezvous  at  the  great  wood,  of  treaty,  and  notwithllanding  the  hoftages  given,  e- 

called  Sil'iuood,  in  Wiltlliirc.  This  affair  was  tranfac-  quipped  two  fleets  ;and,  after  idundering  the  northern 

ted  fo  fccretly  and  expeditioully,  that,in  a  little  time,  and  fbuthern  coafts,  failed  to  Exeter,  and  beiiegedit. 

the  king,  at  the   head  of  an  army,  approached  the  The  king,  as  foon  ashereccivedintelligence,  marched 

.  Danes,  before  they  had  the  Icall  intelligence  of  his  de-  againll  them  ;  but  before  he  reached  Exeter,  they  had 

lign.     Alfred,  taking  advantage  of  the  furprife  and  got  poflVlIion  of  it.  He  kept,  them,  however,  blocked  up 

terror  they  were  in,  f'ellupon  them, and  totally  defeat-  on  all  liuts  ;  and  reduced  them  at  lall  to  fuch  extremi- 


cd  them  at  A^thcndunc,  now  Eddington.  Thofc  who 
efcaped  fled  toa  neighbouring  cafllc,  where  they  were 
foon  bclieged,  and  obliged  tofurrendcr  at  difcretion. 


ties,thatthcy  wercobliged  toeat  thcirhorfes.and  were 
•even  ready  to  devour  each  other.  Being  at  length  ren- 
dered defperate,  they  made  a  general  fally  on  the  be- 

fiegcrs  ; 


(a)  "  This  (fays  Sir  John  Spclman)was  a  banner  with  the  image  of  a  raven  magically  wrought  by  the  three 
fiftersof  Hiuguarand  Hobba,  on  purpofe  for  their  expedition,  in  revenge  of  their  father  Lodcbroch's  murder, 
made,  they  fay,  almod  in  aninflant,beingby  them  at  once  begun  and  linilhcd  in  a  noontide,  and  believed  by  the 
Danes  to  have  carried  great  fatality  with  it,  for  which  it  was  highly  eftcemcd  by  them.  It  is  pretended,  that 
being  carried  in  battle,  towards  good  fuccefs  it  would  always  feem  to  clap  its  wings,  and  make  as  if  it  would 
fly  ;  but  towards  the  approach  of  milhap,  it  would  hang  down  and  not  move."  Life  of  Atfrtd,  p.  61. 

(h)  The  Danes  had  poll'effcd  themfclves  of  London  in  the  time  of  his  father;  and  had  held  it  till  now  as  a 
convenient  place  for  them  to  land  at,  and  fortify  themfclves  in  ;  neither  was  it  taken  from  them  butby  aclofe 
fiege.  However,  when  it  came  into  the  king's  hand.s,  it  was  in  a  miferable  condition,  fcarce  habitable,  and  all 
its  fortifications  ruined.  The  king,  moved  by  the  importance  of  the  place,  and  the  dellre  of  flrcngthening  his 
frontier  againll  the  Danes,  reftored  it  to  its  ancient  fplendor.  Andobferving,  that,  through  the  confufion  of 
the  times,  many, both  Saxons  and  Danes,  lived  in  a  1  )ofe  diforderly  manner,  without  owning  any  government, 
he  offered  them  now  a  comfortable  eftablifliment,  if  they  would  fubmit  and  become  hisfubjeds.  This  propoli- 
tion  w^as  better  received  than  he  cxpeclcd  ;  for  jnuUitudes  growing  weary  of  a  wagabondkindof  life,joytully 
accepted  fuch  an  offer.    CArt/;,  iS<ja:.  p.  88. 


A    L   F 


[     3 


ficgcrs ;  but  were  defeated,  thoiigli  with  great  lofs  on 
'  the  king's  lidc.  The  remainder  of  i  his  body  oi'Daiics 
fled  into  Kllex,  lo  the  fort  they  bad  built  tlK-re,  and  to 
their  Ihips.  Before  Alfred  had  time  to  recruit  him- 
felf,  another  Dauifli  leader,  whofe name  was  Laf,  came 
with  a  great  army  out  of  Northumberland,  and  dc- 
flroyed  all  before  hii:i,  marching  on  to  the  city  of 
W'crhcal  inthewelb,  whichis  fuppofed  to  bcChefter, 
where  thty  rcniiincd  the  reft  of  that  year.  The  year 
foUowingthcy  invadedNorth-Wales;  andaftcrhaving 
plundered  and  dellroyed  every  thing,  they  divided,  one 
body  returning  to  Northumberland,  another  into  the 
territories  of  the  Ealt- Angles  ;  from  whence  they  pro- 
ceded  to  Klfcx,  and  took  pollclfioa  of  a  fmall  illand 
called  Mercjig.  Here  ihey  did  not  long  remain  :  for 
having  parted,  fome  failed  up  the  river  Thames,  and 
others  up  thchea-road  ;  where  drawing  up  their  fhips, 
they  built  a  fort  not  far  from  London,  which  proved  a 
great  check  upon  the  citizens,  who  went  in  a  body  and 
attacked  it,  but  were  rcpulfcd  with  great  lofs  :  at  har- 
veft-time  the  king  hiinielf  was  obliged  to  encamp  with 
a  body  of  troops  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city,  in 
order  to  cover  the  reapers  from  the  cxcurfions  of  the 
Danes.  As  he  was  one  day  riding  by  the  lidc  of  the 
river  Lea,  after  forac  obfervations,  he  began  to  think 
that  the  Danilli  l!>ips  might  be  laid  quite  dry;  this 
he  attempted,  and  fucceedcd ;  fo  that  the  Danes  de- 
ferted  their  fort  and  Ihips,  and  marched  away  to  the 
banks  of  the  Severn,  where  they  buiJt  a  fort,  and  win- 
tered at  a  place  called  Quatbrig  (c).  Such  of  the  Da- 
nilli (hips  as  could  be  got  otF,  the  Londoners  carried 
into  their  own  road  ;  the  relf  they  burnt  anddeflroycd. 
Alfred  enjoyed  a  profound  peace  during  the  three 
laft  years  of  his  reign,  which  he  chieliy  employed  in 
cAablifliingand  regulating  his  government,  for  the  fe- 
curity  of  himfelf  and  his  fuceellbrs,as  well  as  the  eafc 
and  benefit  of  his  fubjedts  in  general.  After  a  trou- 
blelomereign  of  28  years,  hediedonthe  aSthofOdo- 
bcr  A.  D.  900  ;  and  was  buried  at  Wincheller,  in 
Hyde-abbey,  under  a  monument  of  porphyry. 

All  the  hiftorians  agree  indiftinguilhing  himasone 
of  the  moft  valiant,  wifeft,  and  bell  of  kings  that  ever 
reigned  in  England  ;  and  it  is  alfo  generally  allowed, 
that  he  not  only  digefted  feveral  particular  laws  Hill  in 
being,  but  that  he  laid  the  firll  foundation  of  their  pre- 
fent  happy  conlUiution.  There  is  great  rcafon  to  be- 
lieve that  they  arc  indebted  to  this  prince  for  trials  by 
juries  ;  and  the  doomfday  book,  which  is  prcferved  in 
the  exchequer,  is  thought  to  be  no  more  than  ano- 
ther edition  of  Alfred's  book  of  Wincheller,  which 
contained  a  furvey  of  the  kingdom.  It  is  faidalfo,  that 
he  was  the  firll  who  divided  the  kingdom  into  Ihires, 
what  is  afcribcd  to  him  is  not  a  bare  divifion  of  the 
country,  but  the  fettling  a  new  form  of  judicature  ;  for 
after  having  divided  his  dominions  into  Ihires,  he  fub- 
divided  each  Ihire  into  three  parts,  called  trythings. 
There  are  fome  remains  of  this  ancient  divilion  in  the 
ridings  of  Yorklhire,  the  laths  of  Kent,  and  the  three 


97     ]  A   L   F 

parts  of  LincoUifliire.  Each  try  tiling  was  divided  ir.to    Alfre.t. 

hundreds  or  wapentakes;  and  thefe  again  into  tythings  ' " — 

or  dwcllingsof  ten  houfeliolders  :  eachof  thefe  houic- 
holders  ilood  engaged  to  the  king,  as  a  pledge  for  the 
good  behaviour  of  his  family,  and  all  the  ten  were  mu- 
tually pledges  for  each  other  ;  fo  that  if  any  one  of  the 
tything  was  fufpeftcd  of  an  otfcnce,  if  the  head  bo- 
roughs or  chiefs  of  the  tything  would  not  be  fccurit/ 
for  him. he  wasiniprifoned  ;  and  if  he  made  hise'cape, 
the  tything  and  hundred  w  ere  lined  to  the  king.  Each 
Ihire  was  undt  r  the  government  ofan  earl,  under  whom 
was  the  reive,  his  deputy  ;  fince,  from  bib  office,  cal- 
\ti^Jhirc-rewi,  or  jhiriff.  And  fo  etfedual  were  thefe 
regulaiions,  that  it  is  laid  he  caiifed  bracelets  of  gold 
to  be  hung  up  in  the  highways,  as  a  challenge  to  rou- 
bcrs  and  they  remained  untouched. 

In  private  life,  Alfred  was  the  moll  amiable  man  in 
his  dominions  ;  of  fo  equal  a  temper,  that  he  never 
fuffered  either  faduels  or  unbecoming  gaiety  to  enter 
his  mind;  butappearcil  always  of  a  calm,  yet  cheerful 
difpolition,  familiar  to  his  friends,  jull  even  to  his  ene- 
mies, kind  and  tender  to  all.  He  was  a  remarkaLlc 
oeconoraill  of  his  time,  and  AlTcrius  has  given  us  an  • 
account  of  the  method  be  took  for  dividing  and  keep-' 
ing  an  account  of  it :  he  caufed  fix  wax-candles  to  be' 
made,  each  12  inches  long,  and  of  as  many  ounces 
weight;  on  thecandlesthcinches  wereregularlvmark- 
ed,  and  having  found  that  one  of  them  burnt  jull  four 
hours,  heconiniiitcdthcni  to  the  careof  the  keepers  of 
his  chapel,  who  from  time  to  time  gave  him  notice 
how  the  hours  went  :  but  as  in  windy  weather  tlic 
candles  were  walled  by  the  impreflion  of  the  air  on  the 
flame,  to  remedy  this  inconvenience,  he  invented  Ian- 
thorns,  there  being  then  no  glafs  in  his  dominions. 

This  prince,  we  arc  told,  was  12  years  of  age  be- 
fore a  mailer  could  be  procured  in  the  welleni  kingdom 
to  teach  him  the  alphabet ;  fuch  was  the  flate  of  learn- 
ing  when  Alfred  began  to  reign.  He  had  felt  the  mi- 
fery  of  ignorance;  anddeterminedevcn  10  rival  his  co- 
temporary  Charlemagnein  the  encouragemcntof  lite- 
rature. He  is  fuppofed  to  have  appointed  perfons  to 
read  ledures  at  Oxford, and  is  thence  conlidercd  as  the 
founderof  that  univerlity.  By  other  proper  cflablilh- 
m-uts,  and  by  a  general  encouragement  to  men  of  abi- 
lities, he  did  every  thing  in  his  power  to  ditfufc  know- 
ledge throughout  his  dominions.  Nor  was  this  end 
promoted  more  by  his  countenance  and  encouragement 
than  by  his  own  example  and  his  writings.  For  not- 
■withllanding  the  htenefs  of  his  initiation,  he  had  ac- 
quired extraordinary  erudition  :  and,  had  he  not  bee.T 
illullrioas  as  a  king,  he  would  have  been  famous  as  an 
author.  His  works  are,  i .  Breviamm  quaJdain  collie- 
turn  exLegibui  Tri,jani,riijit,  Ste.  lib.  I.  A  Breviary  col- 
lecled  out  of  the  LawsofthcTrojans,  Greeks,  Britons, 
Saxons, and  Danes,  in  one  Book.  Lelandfaw  this  book 
in  the  Saxon  toagjc,  at  Chrift-church  in  Hampihirc. 
3.  ViffSuxoirn/i  Leges,  lib.  I.  The  laws  of  the  Weft- 
Saxons,  in  one  book.     Pitts  tells  us,  that  it  is  in  Ben- 

nec- 


\c)  The  king's  contrivance  is  thought  to  have  produced  the  meadow  between  Hertford  and  Bow  ;  for  at 
Hertford  was  the "Danilh  fort,  and  from  thence  they  made  frequent  excurfions  on  the  inhabitants  of  London. 
Authors  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  method  the  king  purfued  in  laying  dry  the  Danilh  Ihips  :  Dugdale  fuppofes 
that  he  did  it  by  ftraiteniiig  the  channel ;  but  Henry  of  Huntingdon  allcdges,  that  he  cut  fcvtra! canals,  which 
cxhauilcd  its  water. 


A  L  G 


Alfreil  nct-ColUgc  library,  at  C  JinbriJgc. ;;  Injlitnta  quarjjtu, 
II  lib.  I.  Certain  Inltiiiiics,  in  one  book.  This  is  mcii- 
Algcbra.  lioncii  by  Pitts,  and  fceins  to  be  tlic  IcconJ  capitulati- 
"  ~  on  with  Guthrinn.  4.  Ctiiitra  jtuiut's  imqii'.!,,  lib.  1. 
An  luveclivc  againlt  Unjull  Judges,  in  one  book.  5. 
y/i'/rt  Magijirutiiuvi  fnoi uiii,  lib.  I.  Acls  of  his  Ma- 
giftiatcs,  in  one  book.  This  is  Aippoled  to  be  the 
book  of  judgmcnis  mentioned  by  Hornc  ;  aiiJ  was,  in 
all  probability,  a  kind  of  reports,  intended  for  the  life 
of  fuccccding  agts.  6.  Ri-gtn/i  Jorlnnu-  vaiij-,  lib.  I. 
The  various  Koriunes  of  Kings,  in  one  book.  7.  Du- 
tafapi^ntutu,  lib.  I.  The  Sayings  of  Wife  Men,  in 
one  book.  8.  ParoboU  ti  falcs,  lib.  I.  F.irablcs  and 
pleafant  fayings,  in  one  book.  9.  Colleniones  cfroi.i- 
cortiM.  CoUedionsof  Chroni  les.  10.  EpiJioLcad IVi/lj- 
fi^iiiiii  Efifco/uni,  lib.  I.  EpilUcs  to  Bifliop  Wulfsig, 
111  one  book.  II.  jMuntiaL- meJitatio/im/i.  A  Manu- 
al of  Meditations. — Befidcs  thefe  original  works,  he 
tranllatcd  many  authors  froni  the  Latin,  &c.  into  the 
Saxon  language,  viz.  i.  Bcdc's  Ilillory  of  England. 
2.  Paulinus  Orofinus's  Iliftory  of  the  Pagans.  3.  St 
Gregory's  Pafloral,  &c.  The  firft  of  thcfc,  with  his 
prefaces  to  tlie  others,  to;»eilier  with  his  laws,  were 
printed  at  Cambridge,  1644.  His  laws  arc  likewife 
infertcdin  Spelnian's  Councils.  4.  Boithiiu  de  Conjoin. 
tione,)\h.  V.  Boctius'sConfolaiions  of  Philofophy,  in 
five  books.  Dr  Plot  tells  us,  king  Alfred  tranllated 
it  at  Woodftock,  as  he  found  in  a  MS.  in  the  Cotton 
Library.  5.  JEfop't  t\tbul,e,  /Efops  Fables  :  which  he 
is  faid  lohavc  tranllated  from  the  Greek  both  into  Latin 
and  Saxon,  b.  r/cdtirium  Davidicui/iyWU.  ].  David's 
Pfaltcr,iuone  book.  Tiiis  was  the  lail  work  the  King 
attempted,  death  furpriliug  him  before  he  had  finilhed 
it  ;  it  was  however  completed  by  another  hand,  and 
publillicd  at  London  in  1640,  in  quarto,  by  Sir  John 
Spelman.  Scvcr.1l  others  are  mentioaevi  by  Malnilbu- 
ry  i  and  the  old  hillory  of  Ely  afferts,  that  he  tranf- 
lated  the  Old  and  New  Tcftaments. 

The  life  of  this  great  king  v>as  firfl  written  by  Af- 
ferius  Mencvcnfis  :  and  lirft  publiflied  by  Archbifliop 
Parker,  in  the  old  Saxon  character,  at  the  end  of  his 
edition  of  Hallinghaui's  hiftory,  printed  in  1674,  fol. 

ALGA,  in  botany,  the  trivial  name  of  the  li- 
chen, fucus,  and  feveral  other  plants  of  the  crypto- 
gamia  clafs. 

ALG/E,  Flags  ;  one  of  the  feven  families  or  na- 
tural tribes  into  wliich  the  whole  vegetable  kingdom  is 
divided  by  Linnaeus  in  his  Philofil'hiaBUa'iica.  They 
are  dtlintd  to  be  plants,  wliofe  root,  leaf,  and  flcni  are 


[       39S       ] 


A  L  G 


allone.  Under  this  dcfcription  are  comprehended  all  the  AlgigioU 
fea-wccds,  andfomeotheraquatic  plants.  In  thcfcxual         |{ 
lyflem,  they  conllitute  the  3d  order  of  the  24th  clafs   Algebra. 
Cryptogai.-iia  ;  in  Tournefort,  the  fccond  genus  of  the  *~~"^' 
ferondiC(5lion,  Mari>i,c,  aut fiuviatilii,o(\.\\i:  i7tli  clafs 
yljpcrmj:  iiilgt  habit^r;  and  the  57tb  order  in  Linnx- 
us's  Fragments  of  a  Natural  Method.     The  difcove- 
ries  made  in  this  part  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  are 
unceriain  and  imperfect;  and  the  attempts,  in  parti- 
cular, to  arrange  flags  by  the  parts  of  the  fruttilica- 
tion,  have  not  been  attended  with  great  fuccels.  Dil- 
leniushas  arranged  this  order  of  plants  from  their  ge- 
neral habit  and  llrufture  ;  Michelius  from  the  parts  of 
frudification Each  has  confiderablc  merit. 

ALGAGIOLA,  a  fmall  fea-port  town  in  the  illand 
ofCorfica,  fortilied  with  walls  and  ballions.  It  was 
almoll  dcftroyed  by  the  mal-contcnts  in  1731,  but  has 
lince  been  repaired.   E.  Long.  9.  4  j.  N.  lat.  42.  20. 

ALGAROl",  in  chemiftry,  an  Arabic  term  for  an 
emetic  powder,  prepared  from  regulus  of  antimony, 
dilfolvcd  in  acids,  and  fcparated  by  repeated  lotions  in 
warm  water. 

ALGAROTTI  (Count)  a  celebrated  Italian,  was 
born  at  Padua  ;  but  the  year  is  not  metioncd.  Led 
by  curiolity,as  well  as  a  dcfire  of  improvement,  he  tra- 
velled early  into  foreign  countries;  and  was  very  young 
when  he  arrived  in  France  in  1736.  Here  he  oom- 
pofcd  his  "Newtonian  Philofophy  for  the  Ladies;"  as 
Fontcnnellc  had  done  hisCartelian  Aftronomy,  in  tlie 
work  entitled,  "  The  plurality  of  worlds."  He  was 
noticed  by  the  king  of  Pruffia,  who  gavehim  marksof 
the  eftccm  he  had  for  him.  He  died  at  Pifa  the  23d 
of  May,  1764;  and  ordered  his  own  maufoleum,  with 
this  infcription  to  be  fixed  upon  it  :  Hie  jacc:  Alga- 
"rottus,  fednonomnis."  He  is  allowed  to  have  been 
a  very  great  connoifl'curin  painting,  fcr.lpture,  and  ar- 
chitecture. He  contributed  much  to  the  reformation 
of  the  Italian  opera.  His  works  which  are  nume- 
rous, and  upon  a  variety  of  fubjefts,  abound  with  viva- 
city, elegance,  and  wit  :  a  colleftion  of  them  has  late- 
ly been  made,  and  printed  at  Leghorn. 

ALGARVA,  a  province  in  the  kingdom  of  Por- 
tugal, 67  miles  in  length  and  20  in  breadth  :  bounded 
on  the  W.  and  S.  by  the  fca,  on  the  E.  by  the  river 
Guadiana,  and  on  the  N.  by  Alenieja.  It  is  y^ry  fer- 
tile in  figs,  almonds,  dates,  olives,  and  excellent 
wines  ;  bcfid&s,  the  filhery  brings  in  large  fums. 
The  capital  town  is  Pharo.  It  contains  four  cities, 
13  towns,  67parillics,  and  6  r,oco  inhabitants. 


A 


E 


B 


R 


A, 


PefinitMn  A  GENERAL  method  of  computation,  wiierein  li^ns 
an.tctyaio-  t\.  and  fymbols,  toiumonly  llic  letters  of  the  alpha- 
lagy.  bet  aremadc  nfe  of  to  rcprcfent  numbers,  or  anyoihcr 

quantities. 

This  fcience,  properly  fpeaking,  is  no  other  than  a 
kind  of  ihort-haud,  or  ready  way  of  writing  down  a 
chain  of  mathematic.'.!  reafoningon  any  fubject  what- 
ever ;  ib  that  it  is  applicable  to  ariLhmeiic,  geometry, 
aflronomy,  nicr.fnrationof  all  kinds  of  folids,  Src.  and 
the  great  advantages  derived  from  it  appear  marifcitly 
toarife  fromthccoiicil'cnclipandpcrfj'icuity  with  which 


every  propofition  on  mathematical  fubjeflscan  be  writ- 
ten down  in  algebraic  charai?tcrs,greatlyfupcrior  to  the 
tcdionscirrumlocutions  which  would  be  neceHary  were 
the  reafoning  to  be  written  in  words  at  length. 

Witli  regard  to  the  etymology  of  the  word  algibra, 
it  is  much  conteflcd  by  the  critics.  Menage  derives 
it  from  the  Arabic  alg'abarat,  which  fignities  the 
refliiution  of  any  thing  broken  ;  fuppofing  that  the 
principal  part  of  algebra  is  the  conlidcration  of  broken 
numbers.  Others  rather  borrow  it  from  the  Spanilh^ 
algibnjlet,  a  perfon  who  replaces  diliocatcd  bones  ;  ad- 
ding. 


A       L       G       E 

ding,  that  algebra  has  nothing  to  do  with  fraflion. 
Some,  with  M.  d'Herbclot,  are  of  opinion,  that  alge- 
bra takes  its  name  from  Gcbar,  a  celebrated  philofo- 
pher,  chcmiA,  and  mathematician,  whom  the  Arabs 
call  Giaber,  and  whe  is  fuppaled  to  have  been  the  in- 
ventor. Others  from  gcjr,  a  kind  of  parchment  made 
of  the  fkin  of  a  camel,  whereon  All  and  Giafcr  Sakck 
wrote,  in  myfticchara<5lers,the  fate  of  Mahomctanifm, 
and  the  grand  events  that  were  to  happen  till  the  end 
of  the  world.  But  others,  withmcre  probability,  de- 
rive it  from  gcber  ;  a  word  whence,  by  prcfixingthe  ar- 
ticle al,  we  have  formed  algebra  ;  which  is  pure  Ara- 
bic, and  properly  lignities  the  redudion  of  fractions  to 
a  whole  number.  However,  the  Arabs,  it  is  to  be  ob- 
ferved,  never  ufe  the  word  algebra  alone,  to  exprefs 
what  we  mean  by  it;  but  always  add  to  it  the  word 
vtacabelah,  which  lignities  oppolition  and  comparifon  : 
t\i\is  algebra-almacabclah,  is  what  we  properly  calU/- 

gebra. 

Some  authors  define  algebra.  The  art  of  folving  ma- 
thematical problems  ;  but  this  is  rather  the  idea  of  ana- 
lyfis,  or  the  analytic  art.  The  Arabs  call  it.  The  art 
of  reflitution  and  comparifon  ;  or.  The  art  ofrefolution 
and  equation.  Lucas  de  Burgo,  the  firfl  European 
■who  wrote  of  algebra,  calls  it,  Regula  ret  et  cenfiis  : 
that  is,  the  rule  of  the  root  and  its  fquare  ;  the  root 
with  them  being  called  res,  and  the  fquare  cenfus.  O- 
thers  call  it  Specious  Arithmetic  ;  and  fome  Vniverfal 
Arithmetic. 

rjTORT.  It  'S  highly  probable  that  the  Indians  or  Arabians 
firft  invented  this  noble  art :  for  it  may  be  reifonably 
fuppofed,  that  the  ancient  Greeks  were  ignorant  of 
it  ;  becaufe  Pappus,  in  his  mathematical  collcftions, 
where  he  enumerates  their. '.naly lis,  makes  no  mention 
of  any  thing  like  it  ;  and,  befidcs,  fpcaks  of  a  local 
problem,  begun  by  Euclid,  and  continued  by  Apol- 
lonius,  which  none  of  them  could  fully  rcfolvc  ;  which 
doubtlefs  they  might  eafily  have  done,  had  they  known 
any  thing  of  algebra. 

Diaphantus  was  the  firft  Greek  writer  of  algebra  ; 
who  publiihed  13  books  about  the  year  800,  though 
only  fix  of  them  were  tranllated  into  Latin,  by  Xylan- 
der,  in  ij7{  ;  and  afterwards,  viz.  anno  1721,  in 
Greek  and  Latin,  by  M.  Buchtt  and  Fermat,  with  ad- 
ditions of  their  own.  This  algebra  of  Diaphautus's 
only  extends  to  the  folution  of  arithmetical  indcicr- 
niinatc  problems. 

Before  this  tranflationof  Diaphantus  came  out,  Lu- 
cas  Pacciolus,  or  Lucas  dc  Burgo,  a  Minorite  friar, 
publilhed  at  Venice,  in  the  year  1494,  an  Italian  trca- 
tife  of  algebra.  This  author  makes  nitntioii  of  Lco- 
nardusPifanus,  and  fomeothers,of  whonvhc  hadlearn- 
cd  the  art  ;  but  we  have  none  of  their  writings.  He 
adds,  that  algebra  came  originally  from  the  Arabs, 
and  never  mentions  Diaphantus  ;  which  makes  it 
probable,  that  that  author  was  not  then  known  in  Eu- 
rope. Hio  algebra  goes  no  farther  than  finipk  and 
quadratic  equations. 

After  Pacciolus  appeared  Stifclius,  a  good  author  ; 
b.it  neither  did  he  advance  any  farther. 

.After  h\\\\  came  Scipio  Ktrrcus,  Cardan,  Tarta- 
gilla,  and  fome  others,  who  reached  as  f:\ras  the  fo- 
lution of  fome  cubic  equations.  Bonibrlli  followed 
ihcft,  and  went  a  little  farther.     At  lull  came  Nun- 

I 


BRA. 

nius.  Ramus,  Schoner,  Salignac,  Clavius,  8rc.  who  all 
of  them  took  diiferent  courlcs,  but  none  of  them  went 
beyond  quadratics. 

in  1 590,Vieta  introduced  what  he  called  WisSpecioui 
Arithmetic,  which  confifts  in  denoting  the  quantities, 
both  known  and  unknown,  by  fy  inbols  or  letters.  He 
alfo  introduced  an  ingenious  mcihodof  extracting  the 
roots  of  equations,  by  approximations  ;  fince  greatly 
improved  and  facilitated  by  Ralphfon, Halley,  Madau- 
rin,  Sinipfon,  and  others. 

Vieta  was  followed  by  Oughtrcd,  who,  in  his  Clavis 
Mathematica,  printed  in  163 1,  improved  Vieta's  me- 
thod, and  invented  fcveral  tonipendio'is  charafters,  to 
fliow  the  furas,diftcrenc£s,rectaMglcs,fqiiares,cubes,S:c. 

Harriot,  another  fcnglilhman,  cotcmporary  with 
Ojghtrcd,  left  feveral  trcatifes  at  his  death  ;  and  a- 
niong  the  reft,  an  Analylis,  or  Algebra,  which  was 
printed  in  1631,  where  Vieta's  method  is  brought  in- 
to a  Hill  more  commodious  form,  and  is  much  citcemed 
to  this  day. 

In  1657,  DcsCartespublifhcd  his  geometry,  where-  ' 
in  he  made  ufe  of  the  literal  calculus  and  the  algebraic 
rules  of  Harriot ;  and  as  Oughtred  in  his  Clavis,  and 
Marin.  Ghetaldus  in  his  books  of  mathematical  com- 
pofition  and  refolution  publilhed  in  1630,  applied 
Vieta's  arithmetic  to  elementary  geometry,  and  gave 
the  conftruflion  of  fimple  and  quadratic  equations  ;  fo 
Des  Cartes  applied  Harriot's  method  to  the  higher 
georaetry,explainingthe  nature  of  curvesby equations, 
and  adding  the  conilrudlions  of  cubic,  biquadratic,, 
and  other  higher  equations. 

Des  Cartes's  rule  for  coiiftruv5ling  cubic  and  biqua- 
dratic equations,  was  farther  improved  by  Thomas  Ba- 
ker, in  his  Clavis  Ceometrica  Catholica,  publilhed  ia 
1684;  and  the  foundation  of  fuch  conRruftions,  with 
the  application  of  algebra  to  the  quadratures  of  curves, 
queftions  de  inaxiviis  et  minimis,  the  cenirobaryc  me- 
thod of  Guldinus,  &c.  was  given  by  R.  Slutius,  in 
i663  ;  as  alfo  by  Fermat  in  his  Opera  Matheoiatica, 
Robcrval  in  the  Mem.  de  Mathem.  et  de  Phiftpie,  and 
Barrow  in  his  Le^.Ceot/iet.  In  1708,  algebra  was  ap- 
plied to  the  lawsofchance  and  gaming,  by  R.dc  Mom- 
mort ;  and  lincc  by  dc  Moivre  and  James  Bcrnouilli. 

Theelcmentsof theart wcrecor.ipilcd  and  publilhed 
by  Kerfcy,  in  1671  ;  wherein  the  fpccious  arithmetic, 
and  the  nature  of  equations,  arc  largely  explained,  and 
iilulUatcdby  a  variety  of  examples:  the  whole  fubftancc 
of  Diophantus  is  here  delivered,  and  many  ihiog'sad.f- 
ed  concerning  mathematical  compof.tion  and  rcfol'iiiou 
from  Ghetaldus.  The  like  has  bieii  iiucc  done  by 
Prcllc:  in  1694,  and  by  O/anam  in  1703  :  but  thcfc 
authors  omit  the  application  of  algebra  to  geometry  ; 
which  defcdisfuppliedby  Giiifnec  in  a  French  ircatiic 
cxprcfsly  on  the  fubjeCrl  publilhed  in  1704,  and  I'Ho- 
pitnl  in  his  analytical  treaiife  of  the  conic  fct'lions  i:i 
1707.  The  rules  of  algebra  arc  alfo  compcndiojf'y 
delivered  by  Sir  Ifaac  N'cwton,  in  his  AritkwcticaU ri- 
ver fatis,  firll  publidied  in  1707,  which  abounds  in  fe- 
Icct  exaniples,  and  contains  fcvcr.il  rules  ai.d  iutihoii.s 
invented  by  the  author. 

Algebra  has  alio  been  applied  ro  the  confideration 
and  calculus  of  infinites  ;  frori  whence  a  new  and  cx- 
tenfivcbranth  of  knowledge  has  arifi.  u,  called  theZJc.;- 
trine  c/  Fluxions,  oiAiiatjIit  iflnfnites,  or  the  Calcu* 
lu:DiJfer:n:ij!is. 

Paut 


4.00 


B       R       A. 


Part  I. 


R      r 


I. 


Introduction. 

« 

AQ_iANTiiv  which  csn  be  me.ifurcd,  and  is  the 
objed  of  mathematics,  is  of  two  kinds,  Ntimbsr 
and  Extiiififiit.  The  former  is  treated  ot  in  Arithnu- 
lic  ;  the  latter  in  Ceoinetr^. 

Numbers  arc  ran;;cdin  afcale,  by  the  continued  re- 
pel ition  of  fomc  one  mmibcr,  which  is  called  the  Root ; 
and,  in  confcqurncc  of  this  order,  they  arc  conveni- 
tntly  exprelicd  in  words,  and  denoted  by  charafters. 
The  operations  of  arithmetic  are  cafily  derived  from 
tlic  cllablilhcd  method  of  notation,  andihcmoftiimple 
rtafoningscoiiccrnino;  the  rtUtionsof  magnitude. 

InvelUgations  by  the  common  arithmetic  are  greatly 
limited,  troni  the  want  of  charadcrs  to  exprcfs  the 
(|uantitics  that  are  unknown,  and  their  dirfercnt  rela- 
lioris  ti)()neanother,and  tofuch  asarc  known.  Hence 
letters  and  other  convenient  fymbols  hare  been  intro- 
duced to  fupply  this  defect  ;  and  thus  gradually  has 
arifen  the  fciencc  of /^/j^ira,  properly  called  t/«;p<T- 
J.il  ylrilhinetic. 

Ill  the  connuon  .".rithmetic  too,  the  given  numbers 
difappeftr  in  l]ie  courfe  of  the  operation,  fo  that  gene- 
ral rules  can  fcKiom  be  derived  trom  it  ;  but,  in  alge- 
bra, the  known  quantities,  as  well  .-is  the  unknown, 
may  be  cxprelTcd  by  letters,  which,  through  the  whole 
operation,  retain  their  original  form  ;  and  licnce  may 
be  deduced,  not  only  general  canons  for  like  cafes,  but 
tlie  dcpendenceofihe  feveralquuniities concerned, and 
likcwifethe  determination  of  a  problem,  without  ex- 
hibiting which,  it  is  not  completely  refolvcd.  This 
general  manner  of  exprclFing  quantities  alfo,  and  the 
general  rcafonings  concerning  theirconnedions.which 
may  be  founded  on  it,  have  rendered  this  icicncc  not 
lefs  ufeful  in  the  demonllraiion  of  theorems  than  in 
the  rcfolution  of  problems. 

If  gcomttrical  quantities  be  fuppofed  to  be  divided 
into  equal  parts,  their  relations,  in  refpcet  of  magni- 
tude, or  their  proportions,  may  be  exprelicd  by  luim- 
bcrs  ;  one  of  thefe  equal  pans  being  denoted  by  tlie 
f  unit.  Arithmetic,  however,  is  ufed  in  exprelFing  on- 
ly the  conelulions  of  geometrical  propolitions  ;  and  it 
is  by  algebra  that  the  bounds  and  application  of  geo- 
metry have  been  of  late  fo  far  extended. 

The  proper  objedsofmathematicalfciencc  arc  num- 
ber and  extcnfion  ;  but  mathematical  inquiries  may  be 
inflituted  alfo  concerning  any  phylical  quantities  that 
arc  capable  of  being  meafured  or  exprelicd  !)y  numbers 
and  extended  magnitudes  :  And,  as  the  application  of 
slgcbra  may  be  equally  univerfal,  it  has  been  called 
The  fcienci  oj  quantity  in  general. 

Definitions. 

I.  QiANTiTiEs  which  are  k::ownare  generally  repre- 
fcntcd  by  the  lirft  letters  of  the  alphabet,  as  a,  b,  c, 
&c.  and  luch  as  are  unknown  by  the  laft  letters,  as 

I.  The  fign  -^(pliis)  denotes,  that  the  quantity  be- 
fore which  it  is  placed  is  to  be  added.  Thus 
(T-l-ii  denotes  the  fuin  of  a  and  ^  j  3;-J-5  denotes  the 
fum  of  3  and  j,  or  8.  When  no  fign  isexjircU'ed, 
-^  isunderllood. 

I 


3.  The  fign —  {wiuus)  denotes,  that  the  quantity  be-  Ikfinition«, 

fore  wliich  it  is  placed  is  to  be  fubtraiited.     Tiius  ' ^— ' 

a — b  denotes  the  excels  of  <»  above  ^  ;   6 — 2  is  the 

cxccfs  of  6  above  2,  or  4.  Note,  Tliefe  cliaraders 
+  and — ,  from  their  extenlive  ufe  in  algebra,  are 
called  the  figns  j  and  the  cjnc  is  faid  to  be  oppojits  or 
contrary  to  the  other. 

4.  Quantities  which  have  the  fign  +  prefixed  to  them 
arc  called  pofitive  or  affirmative ;  and  fuch  as  have 
the  lign  — prefixed  to  them  are  called  negative. 

;.  Qiiantitics  which  have  the  fame  fign,  cither  +  or 
— ,  are  alfo  faid  to  have  likejignt,  and  thofe  which 
have  different  lignsarc  faidtohave  unlike Jigns.  Thus 
-t-<»,-f-i5,  have  like  figns,  and  +a, — c,  are  faid  to 
have  unlike  figns. 

6.  The  juxiapo/ition  of  letters  as  in  the  fame  word,  ex- 
prelles  the  produdof  tlie  quantities  denoted  by  ihefc 
letters.  Thus  ab  exprellcs  the  product  of  «  and  b  ; 
bed  cxprefl'cs  the  continued  produd  of  b,  c,  and  d. 
The  lign  +  alfo  exprellcs  the  produd  of  any  two 
quantities  between  which  it  is  placed. 

7.  A  number  prefixed  to  a  letter  is  called  a  ntitnerable 
coefficient,  and  exprcdes  the  produd  of  the  quantity 
by  that  number,  or  how  often  the  quantity  denoted 
by  the  letter  is  to  be  taken.  When  no  number  is 
prefixed,  unit  is  underflood. 

The  y;/o//t^;;/ of  two  quantities  is  denoted  by  placing 

the  dividend  abowc  a  fmall  line  and  the  <//i»;/or  below 

18 
it.  Thus  — is  the  quotient  of  18  divided  by  3,  or 

3 


8 


6; 


—  is  the  quotient  of  a  divided  by  b. 


This  cx- 


prelilon  of  a  quotient  is  alfo  called  zfraSlion. 

9.  A  quantity  is  faid  to  hefmple,  w  hich  confiftsof  one 
part  or  Term,  as-J-<», — abc  ;  and  a  quantity  is  faid 
to  be  compound,  when  it  confifts  of  more  than  one 
term  conneded  by  the  figns  -f-  or  — .  Thus  a+b, 
a — b+c,  are  compound  quantities.  If  there  arc 
two  terms,  it  is  called  a  binomial;  if  three,  di.trin0' 
niial,  &c. 

10.  Simple  quantities,  or  the  terms  of  compound 
quantities,  are  faid  to  be  like,  which  confifl  of  the 
fame  letter  or  letters,  equally  repeated.  Thus-)-/j^, 
— sab,  are  like  quantities  ;  but  -\-ab,  and  +aab, 
are  unlike. 

11.  The  equality  of  two  quantities  is  exprefled,  by 
placing  thclign=  between  them.  Thus  x-\-a:zI — c, 
means  that  the  fum  of  X  and  a  is  equal  to  the  exccfs  of 
b  above  c. 

When  quantities  are  conlidercd  abflrac^ly,  then  -(- 
and  —  denote  addition  and  fubtradion  only,  according 
to  Def.  2.  and  3.  and  the  terms  poftive  and  negative 
exprefs  the  fame  ideas.  In  that  cafe,  a  negative  quan- 
tity by  iifcif  is  unintelligible.  The  fign  +  alfo  is  un- 
neccilary  before  fimpic  quantities,  or  before  the  lead 
ing  term  of  a  compound  quantity  which  is  not  nega- 
tive ;  though,  when  fuch  a  quantity  or  term  is  to  be 
added  to  another,  -I-  mufl  be  placed  before  it,  to  ex- 
prefs that  addition  ;  and  hence  in  Uef.  2.  it  is  faid, 
that  -f  is  unMerflood  when  no  fign  is  txpreifed. 

In  geometry,  however,  and  ia  certain  applications 

of 


A 


G 


Fuiida-     of  gcotnctrjr  and  algebra,  there  may  be  an  oppofiiion 
(neiitalo-  or  coiitrancty  in  tlie  quintities,  analogous  to  that  of 
pcration«.  addition  ami  fjbtradtioii  -,  and  the  fi^ns  +  and  —  may 
"       '"""^  very  convtiiicnily  be  ufcd  to  cxprcfs  that  contrariety. 
In  fuch  cafes,  negative  quantities  arc  undcrftood  to 
exill  by  t'lenifclves;  and  the  fame  rules  take  place  in 
opciarioPb  into  which  they  enter,  as  are  iifcd  with  re- 
gard 10  tiie  negative  terms  of  abftracl  quantities. 

CHAP.     1. 

Sect.  t.  FundamtntMOferatlnns. 

The  fundamental opcraiionsiualgebraarethc  fame 
as  in  common  arithmetic,  Addition,  SubtraClion,  Mul- 
tiplication, and  Dtvifion  ;  and  from  the  various  combi- 
nations of  thcfe  four,  all  the  others  arc  derived. 

Prob.  I.  To  add  quantitits. 

Simple  quantities,  or  the  terms  of  compound  quanti- 
ties, to  be  added  together,  may  be  hkc  with  like 
Jig'is,  liii  with  unlike  figns,  or  tlicy  may  be  unltkt. 

Cafs  I.  To  add  terms  that  arc  like  and  have  like 
figus. 

Rule.  Add  together  the  coefficients,  to  their  fum  pre- 
fix ; he  common  fign,  and  fubjoin  the  common  letter 
or  Utters. 


Examp.     To 
Add 


sab 


Sum  ^ab 


■}aa — ab 
Taa — 2ab 
4aa — §ab 

l^a — 8ub. 


Cafe  2.  To  add  terras  that  are  like,  but  have  unlike 
figus. 

Rule.  Subtrafl  the  lefs  coefficient  from  the  greater  ; 
prefix  the  fign  of  the  greater  to  the  remainder,  and 
fubjoin  the  common  letter  or  letters. 

Exatnp.  —  4^  -f-7ic  — Sab 
-f7a  — 5*c  A-'i'b 
+bc 


+3>ib 


+3" 


+Sic 


Cafe  3.  To  add  terms  that  are  unlike. 

Kule.  Set  them  all  down,  one  after  another,  with  their 
figns  and  coefficients  prefixed. 

Examp.     2"  4-  '^b 
— JC-+-8 


^       B       R       A. 

terms  in  the  quantity  10  be  added  may  fcc  united,    fo 
as  to  render  the  expreffion  in  the  fum  more  fmiple- 

Prob.   II.      To  SuhtraCi  tlyantilia. 

General  Rule.  Change  the  figns  of  the  quantity  to 
be  fubira6lcd  into  the  contrary  (igns,  and  then  add 
it,  fo  changed,  to  the  quantity  from  which  it  was 
to  be  fubtraclcd  (by  Prob.  I.)  ,  and  the  fum  arifing 
by  this  addition  is  the  remaindcc, 

Examp.  F'rom         -^^a  '  ijb — xdbc 


40 1 


2«-t-3/l— 5T4-3 

Compound  quantities  are  added  together,  by  uniting 
the  feveral  terms  of  which  they  confift  by  the  pre- 
ceding rules. 

(■   s^h — xxy — X'i.cd 
Examp.   The  fum  of^  y.v) — ab+^s 
(  <)cd — xy — mil 


is  i,ab — ■3,cd-\-\'i — w/.-f-^xy 

The  rule  for  cafe  5.  may  be  confidercd  as  the  gene- 
ral ruU  foraddiugallalgcbraicalquantiticswhatfocver; 
and,  '  y  the  rules  in  the  two  preceding  cafes,  the  like 
Vol.  I. 


■¥'ia 
Subtrad     -l-ja 


lah-'rliib 


Rem.        +2J  nib — i6bc — mi 

From     jfT — T!i+(fc+8 
Subt.      2a — nb+<)c — d 


Pi.era.    3a — 3w^-t-£-t-j' 

Wlien  a  pofitive  quantity  is  to  be  fibtraQcd,  th^ 
rule  isobvious  from  Def.  3. :  In  order  tolhowir,  when 
the  negative  part  of  a  quantity  is  [o  be  fubtrafted,  Ic'. 
c — d  be  fubtracled  from  a,  tiie  remainder,  according 
to  the  rule,  is  a — c+d.  For  if  c  is  fubtrafted  from 
a,  the  remainder  is  a — c  (by  Def.  3.)  ;  but  this  is  too 
fmall,  becaufe  c  is  iubtrafttd  infteadof  t — d,  which  i.; 
lefs-than  it  by  d ;  the  remainder  therefore  is  too  fmaii 
by  d  ;  and  d  being  added,  it  is  a — c+J;  according  to 
the  rule. 

Othermife  If  the  quantity  d  be  added  to  ihefc  two 
quantities  a  and  c — d,  the  difference  will  continue  the 
fame;  that  is,  the  cxcefs  of  a  above  c — d  is  equal  to 
the  excefs  of  ^j-t-iy  above  c — </-+-(/;  that  is,  tothe  cx- 
cefs of  <?-!-</ above  c,  which  plainly  is  (j-f,/ — c,  and  is 
Therefore  the  remainder  required. 

Prob.  III.     To  multiply  Q^iantities. 

Ctneral  Rule  for  the  Signj.  When  the  figns  of  the 
two  terms  to  be  multiplied  arc  like,  the  lign  of  the 
product  is  -I-  ;  but,  when  ihc  iignsarc  unlike,  the 
fign  of  the  prodod  is  — 

Cafe  I.  To  multiply  two  terms. 

Rule.  Find  the  fign  of  the  produifl  by  the  general  rule; 
after  it  place  the  produft  of  the  numeral  tocfficienti, 
and  then  fet  down  all  the  letters  one  after  another, 
as  in  one  word. 


Mult,  +a 
By       +b 


+Si 


—  sax 

—  -jab 


+ab  — 1  sbc  +^S''abx 

Thej-eafon  of  this  rule  is  derived  from  Bcf.  6.  anci 
from  the  nature  of  multiplication,  which  is  a  repeated 
addition  of  one  of  the  quantities  to  be  multiplied  as 
often  as  there  arc  units  in  the  other.  Hence  alfo  the 
letters  in  two  terms  multiplied  together  ni.iy  be  placed 
in  any  order,  and  therefore  the  order  of  the  alphabet 
is  generally  preferred. 

Cafi  2.  To  ranltip!/  compound  quantities. 

Rule.  Multiply  every  term  of  the  niiltiplicand  by  all 
the  terms  ot'  the  muliiplicr,  one  sfter  another,  ac- 
cording to  the  preceding  rule,  ar.r"  then  colccl  all 
the  produds  into  one  fum  ;  that  fum  is  the  produft 
required. 

3  E  Exjmp. 


402 

Fundi-     ExiWip.   Mult.  2<»+3^ 
mental  a  Uy        ^.ax — 4*r 

pcr^tiont.  ' 


7)1- 


Prod.  6atfx+9<v^.v — 8a4> — J2!>ijf 

Mult.     <J — / 
By  c—d 


nim-\-mx 
— mx — XX 

mmif. — XX 


ac — cb 
— ad^rdb 

Prod.  a'-. — ib — ad-\-db 

Oj  th:  general  Rule  for  the  Signs. 

The  reafon  of  ihat  rule  will  appear  by  proving  it,  as 
applied  to  the  lall  mcmioned  example  of  <?— ^  multipli- 
ed hy  c — d,  in  which  every  cafe  of  it  occurs. 

Since  multiplication  is  a  repeated  addition  of  the 
multiplicand  as  often  as  there  are  units  in  the  multi- 
plier, hence,  if  a — b  is  to  be  multiplied  by  c,  a — i 
nuift  be  added  to  itfelf  as  often  as  there  arc  units  in  c, 
and  the  product  therefore  muft  be  ca — ib  (Prob.  I.) 

But  this  produ(5l  is  too  {i;rcat  ;  for  a — b  is  to  be  mul- 
tiplied, no;  by  c,  but  by  c — n'only,  which  is  the  ex- 
cefsof  f  above  (/;  r/ times ./ — ^therefore,  or  (/a — db,  has 
be«n  taken  too  much  ;  hence  this  quantity  mud  be  fub- 
traclcd  from  the  former  part  of  the  produft,  and  the 
remainder,  which  (by  Prob.  II.)  is  ca — cb — da+db, 
will  be  the  true  product  required. 

Def.  I ;.  W  iicn  fcveral  quantities  are  multiplied  to- 
gether, any  of  them  is  called  a /ii^or  of  the  product. 

13.  The  produds  arifing  from  the  continual  multi- 
plication of  the  fame  quantity  are  called  the  powers  oi 
that  quantity,  which  is  the  root.  Thus,  aa,tjaa,  aaaa, 
&c.  are  powers  of  the  root  a. 

14.  Thcfc  powers  are  cxpreffed,  by  placing  above 
the  root,  to  the  right  hand,  a  figure,  denoting  howof- 
icn  the  root  is  repeated.  This  figure  is  called  an  /'«- 
dcx,or  exponeiii,  and  from  it  the  power  is  denominated. 
Thus, 


Power  of  the  root  (a'  ( 
a,  and  is  other-  j  a' 
wife    exprcffed  1  a' 
by  L«% 


&c. 


The  2d  and  3d  powers  are  generally  called  the 
fquare  an&cube;  and  the  4th,  5th  and  6th,  are  alfo 
fometimes  rcfpcftjvely  called  tiie  biq!iiidralc,fiirfolid, 
and  ctiboaibe. 

Cor.  Powers  of  the  fame  root  are  multiplied  by 
adding  their  exponents,  Thus,  a'  •X.a'  =.1^,01  eaaX 
aazmaaaa,  b'X.b—b*  ■ 

Scholium. 

'  Sometimes  it  is  convenient  to  exprefs  the  multipli- 
fation  of  quantities,  by  fetting  them  down  with  the 
iign  (x)  between  them,  without  performing  the  ope- 
ration according  10  the  preceding  rules  ;  thus  a'  y.b  is 
written  infteadof  <!'i  ;  and  <j— li  ■>(.€— d  exprelTes  tlie 
fjoducl  of  a—b,  multiplied  by  c — d. 

Dcf.  I  f .  A  vii^Mlum  is  a  line  drawn  over  any  nuui- 


BRA.  Partr. 

bcr  of  terms  of  a  compound  quantity,  to  denote  thofc    Fuwda- 
which  are  underftood  to  be  affeiltd  by  the  particular  mental  o- 
fign  coniieded  with  it.  pcrations. 

Thus,  inthc  lafl  example,  it  iliows  that  the  terms  '  ^^  ' 
-l-aand  — b,  and  alfo  t  and  — ^/arc  all  afieclcd  by  the 
lign  (x).  Without  the  vinculum,  the  cxprellion 
a-—by.c. — (/would  mean  the  cxccfs  of  <j  above  be  and 
d  \  and  a — hy^c — </ would  i.'.can  the  excefs  of  the  pro- 
duct of  a — b  by  c,  above  d.  Thus  alfo  u^b\ '  ex- 
prcfles  the  fecond  power  of  a+b,  or  the  produft  of 
that  quantity  multiplicdby  itfelf ;  whereas a-t-^'  would 
exprefs  only  the  fum  of  w  and  b'  ;  and  fo  of  others. 
By  fome  writers  aparenthclis  (  )  is  ufrd  as  a  vinculum, 
and  (^a+b)'  is  the  fame  thing  as  a-\-i')'. 

Prob.  IV.     To  divide  Qr/anti/ies, 

General  Rule  for  the  Si^ns.  If  the  figns  of  the  divifor 
and  dividend  are  like,  tlie  (ign  of  the  quotient  is 
-\- ;  if  they  are  unlike,  the  lign  of  the  quotient  is 

•This  rule  is  eafily  deduced  from  that  given  in  Prob. 
III.  ;  for,  from  the  nature  of  divifion,  the  quotient 
muft  be  fueh  a  quantity  as,  multi))lied  by  the  divifor, 
fliall  produce  the  dividend  wiih  its  proper  lign. 

From  Def.  8.  The  quotient  of  any  two  quantities 
may  be  exprelTed,  by  placing  the  dividend  above  aline 
and  ilie  divifor  below  it.  But  a  quotient  may  often 
be  cxprelfed  in  a  more  fimple  and  ionvenient  form,  as 
will  .ippear  from  the  following  diftinftion  of  the  ca- 
fes. 

Cafe  I.  When  the  divifor  is  fimple,  and  is  a  fadlor 
of  all  the  terms  of  the  dividend.  This  is  eafily  dif- 
covtrcd  by  infpeflion  ;  for  then  the  coefficient  of  the 
divifor  mealurcs  that  of  all  llic  terms  of  the  dividend, 
and  all  the  letters  of  the  divifor  are  found  in  every 
term  of  the  dividend. 

Rule.  The  letter  or  letters  in  the  divifor  are  to  be  ex- 
punged out  of  each  term  in  the  dividend,  and  the 
cocfticicnts  of  each  term  to  be  divided  by  the  coef- 
ficient of  the  divifor:  the  quantity  rcfulting  is  the 
quotient. 

Ex.     a)  ab(b.      laab)    6a'bc — ^' bdtu  [^ac — 2dm. 

The  reafon  of  this  is  evident  from  the  nature  of  di- 
vilion,  andfrom  Def.  6.  Note.  It  is  obvious  from  co- 
rollary to  Prob.  III.  that  powers  of  t]>e  fame  root  are 
divided  by  fubtrading  their  exponents. 

Thus  a' )a'  (a     a>)a'{a'.     AUo  a'b)  a'b^  (ai' . 

Cafe  II.  When  the  divifor  is  fimple,  but  not  a  fac- 
tor of  the  dividend. 

Rule.  The  quotient  is  expreflfed  by  a  fraflion,  aecord- 
ino-  to  Def.  8.  viz.  by  placing  the  dividend  abovea 
line  and  the  divifor  below  it. 

Thus  the  quotient  of  ■^ab'  divided  by  2!iibc  is  the 
■^ab' 


fradion 


2w  be. 


Such  cxprefTions  of  quotients  may  often  be  reduced 
to  a  more  limple  form,  as  Ihall  be  explained  in  the  fe- 
cond part  of  til  is  chapter. 

Cafe  III.  When  ihc  divifor  is  compound. 

HuJe. 


Ruti  I.  The  term?  of  the  JiviJciid  arc  to  be  ranged 
according  to  the  powers  of  fome  one  of  its  letters  ; 
and  thofc  of  the  divifor,  according  to  the  powers 
of  the  fame  letter. 

Thus,  if  <t'+2>r^4-^^  is  the  dividend,  and  a->irb  the 
divifor,  they  arc  ranged  according  to  the  powers  of  a. 

a.  The  firfl  term  of  the  dividend  is  to  be  divided  by 
the  firft  term  of  the  divifor  (obfcrving  the  general 
rulcof  tlie  ligns) ;  and  this  quotient  being  fet  down 
as  a  part  of  the  quotient  wanted,  is  to  be  multiplied 
by  the  whole  divifor,  and  the  produd  fubtracled 
from  the  dividend.  If  nothing  remain,  the  divi- 
Con  is  finilhcd  :  the  remainder,  when  there  is  any, 
is  a  new  dividend. 

Thus,  in  the  preceding  example,  a"  divided  by  a, 
gives  a,  which  is  tlic  firft  part  of  the  quotient  want- 
ed :  and  the  produft  of  this  part  by  the  whole  divifor 
n^,  viz.  a'-\-ab  being  fubtraded  from  the  given  di- 
vidend, there  remains  in  this  example  ab-^b' . 

3.  Divide  the  firfl  term  of  this  new  dividend  by  the 
firfl  term  of  the  divifor  as  before,  and  join  the  quo- 
tient to  the  part  already  found,  with  its  proper  fign: 
then  multiply  the  whole  divifor  by  this  part  of  the 
quotient,  and  fubtraft  the  produft  from  the  new 
dividend  ;  and  thus  the  operation  is  to  be  continued 
till  no  remainder  is  left,  or  till  it  appear  that  there 
will  always  be  a  remainder. 

Thus,  in  the  preceding  example,  -{-ab,  the  firfl 
term  of  the  new  dividend  divided  by  a,  gives  b  ;  the 
produtt  of  which,  multiplied  by  a^b,  being  fubtraft- 
ed  from  iii-t-i", nothing  remains,  and  a-\-bis  the  true 
quotient.    The  entire  operation  is  as  follows. 


a+b)  a'+2ab+i' 
a'^  ab 


i^+b 


ab+b' 
ab+b- 


ja — b)  3<J' — 12a' — a'b+ioab — 2^'  («'- 
3a'  — a'b 


-Ha+zi 


—  I2<J' 
I2<J" 

+  Joab 

+6ab—2b' 
+6ab—2b' 

I-..) 

»          • 

I  {i+a+a'+a>,  Sec. 
I — a 

+a — «' 

+a>,  &c. 
tt  often  happens,  as  in  the  lad  example,  that  there 


E       B       R       A.  403 

is  ftiU  a  remainder  from  which  the  operation  may  be     Tunda- 
continucd  without  end.     This  cxprcflion  of  a  quotient   w"?"'*'  "- 
is  called  a;t  infinite  feria  j   the  nature  of  which  (hill   P^'""^ 
be  coufidercd  afterwards.    By  comparing  a  few  of  the  '" 

firfl  terms,  the  law  of  the  fcrics  may  be  difrovered, 
by  which,  without  any  mor«  divifion,  it  may  be  con- 
tinued to  any  number  of  terms  wanted. 

Of  the.  Central  Rule. 

The  rcafon  of  the  different  parts  of  this  rule  is  evi- 
dent ;  for,  in  the  courfe  of  the  operation,  all  the  term-^; 
of  the  quotient  obtained  by  it  arc  multiplied  by  all 
the  terms  of  the  divifor,  and  the  produdlsarc  fuccef- 
fivcly  fubtraclcd  from  the  dividend  till  nothing  re- 
main :  that,  therefore  from  the  nature  of  divifioi;, 
mufl  be  the  true  quotient. 

Note.  The  fign  jl.  is  foraetimesufed  to  exprefs  the 
quotient  of  two  quantities  between  which  it  is  placed: 
Thus,  <j"-(-v'-i-a-t-.v,  expreflcsthc  quotient  of  <7'-4-Ar' 
divided  by  a+x. 

§  2.     Of  Fractions. 

Definitions. 

1.  When  a  quotient  isexpreflcd  by  a  fraiflion,  tlie  di- 
vidend above  the  line  is  called  the  numerator ;  and 
the  divifor  below  it  is  called  the  denominator. 

2.  If  the  numerator  is  lefsthan  the  denominator,  it  is 
called  z  proper  fraOion. 

3.  If  the  numerator  is  not  lefs  than  the  denominator, 
it  is  called  an  improper  fradion. 

4.  If  one  part  of  a  quantity  is  an  integer,  and  the  o- 
ther  a  fraiSion,  it  is  called  a  mixt  quantity. 

5.  The  reciprocal  of  a  fraction,  is  a  fraction  whofe  nu- 
merator is  the  denominator  of  the  other  ;  and  whofe 
denominator  is  the  numerator  of  the  other.  The 
reciprocal  of  an  integer  is  the  quotient  of  i  divided 
by  that  integer.     Thus, 

-is  the  reciprocal  of  f  ;  and — is  the  reciprocal 

a  b  m 

of  ?«. 

The  diftinftions  in  Def.  2,  ;,  4,  properly  belong  to 
common  arithmetic,  from  which  they  are  borrowed, 
and  are  fcarcely  ufed  in  algebra. 

The  operations  concerning  fradions  are  founded  on 
the  following  propofition  : 

If  the  divifor  and  dividend  be  either  both  multiplied 
or  both  divided  by  the  fame  quantity,  tlie  quotient  is 
the  fame  ;  or,  if  both  the  numerator  and  denominator 
of  the  fraflion  be  either  multiplied  or  divided  by  the 
fame  quantity,  the  value  of  that  fradion  is  the  fame. 

Thus,  let-=f,  then  —  —c.     For,  from  the  nature 
b  mb 

of  divifion,  if  the  quotient-  (=c)  be  multiplied  bjr 

b 

the  divifor^,  the  produ<5lmi[ll  be  the  dividend  A.  Hence  , 
f  T  X  ^  =^ )  ^c=^>  anJ  likewife  w<i=iw3c,  and  dividing 

both  by  mb,  —  -C.     Converfely,  if '—- c,  then  alf» 
mb  mb 


3E    2 


Cor. 


404  A        L        U        1 

Fund*-        Cor.  I.  Hence  a  frartion  may  be  reduced  to  another 
mrntal  o-  of  tlic  fame  value,  but  of  a  more  fmiplc  furni,  by  Ji- 
pcratiuns.  viding  both  numerator  and  dciiominator  by  any  coni- 
niou  mcafure. 

Thus,   ?oax — J4iy._jx — 9/. 
I2ai  ~     20 


BRA, 


Part.  IX 


4«" 


2« 


Cor.  2.  A  fraflion  is  multiplied  by  any  integer,  by 
inultij'l)  iujj  the  nuir.crator,  or  dividing  the  drr.oniina- 
iiir  by  that  integer:  and  convcrfely,  a  fraclion  is  di- 
vided by  any  integer,  by  dividing  ilie  numerator,  or 
n.uliiplying  the  denominator  by  that  integer. 

Prop.  I.     To  fi/id the  great rO  conimcn  Meafurt  oj  tv.:: 
Qf.-j/Jiti'!, 

I.  Of  pnre  numbers. 

Ri//e.  Divide  the  greater  by  the  Icfs:  and,  if  there  is 
no  remainder,  the  lefs  is  the  greatcll  common  niea- 
iiirc  required.  If  there  is  a  remainder,  divide  the 
lafl  divilor  by  it ;  and  t!ius  proceed,  continually  di- 
viding the  l.ifl  divifor  by  its  remainder,  till  no  re- 
mainder is  left,  and  the  lall  divifor  is  the  greatcll 
common  meafurc  required. 

The  grcatefl  common  mcafure  of  45  and  63  is  9  ; 
the  greatcft  common,  mcafure  of  187  and  391  is  17. 
Thus, 


45)63(1 
4S 


187)391(2 
374 


I8)4J(2 
36 

7).8(: 
18 


17)187(11 
187 


From  the  nature  of  this  operation,  it  is  plain  that 
it  may  always  be  continued  till  there  be  no  remainder. 
The  role  depends  on  the  two  following  principles  : 

1.  A  quantity  which  meafures  both  divifor  and  re- 
oainder  mull  mcafure  the  dividend. 

2.  A  quantity  which  meafures  both  divifor  and  di- 
vidend muft  alfo  mcafure  the  remainder. 

For  a  quantity  which  meafures  two  other  quantities, 
mult  alfo  meafurc  both  their  fum  and  diftcrcncc  ;  and, 
Irom  the  nature  of  divifion,  the  dividend  conlills  of  the 
tf  vifor  repeated  a  certain  number  of  times,  together 
with  the  remainder.  By  the  firft  it  appears,  that  the 
nnmber  found  by  this  rule  is  a  common  meafure  ;  aad, 
by  the  fecond,  it  is  plain  there  can  be  no  greater  com- 
mon mcafure  :  for,  if  there  were,'  it  mull  necefl'arily 
meafurc  the  quantity  already  found  lefs  than  itfelf, 
■which  is  abfnrd. 

When  the  greatcft  common  meafure  of  algebraical 
^nantities  is  required,  if  either  of  them  be  llmple,  any 
common  timple  divifor  is  eafily  found  by  infpcclion. 
If  they  are  both  compound,  any  common  limple  divi- 
for may  alfo  be  found  by  infpcflion.  But,  when  the 
greatcft  compound  divifor  is  wanted,  the  preceding 
rule  is  te  be  applied  ;  only, 


2.  The  limple  divifors  of  each  of  the  quantities  are     Tunda- 
to  be  taken  out,  the  remainders  in  the  fevcral  opera-   mental  n- 
tions  arc  alfo  to  be  divided  by  their  limple  divifors,  and  P'"''""-' 
the  quantities  arc  always  lo  be  ranged  according  to  the         "'"" 
powers  of  the  fame  letter. 

The  limple  divifors  in  the  given  quantities, or  in  the 
rcmaiiiJers,  do  not  atfc^'l  a  compound  divifor  which  is 
wanted;  and  hence  alfo,  to  make  tlic  divilionfucceed, 
any  of  the  dividends  may  be  n\ul!iplicd  by  a  limple 
quantity.  Belides  the  limple  divifors  in  the  remainders 
not  being  found  in  the  divifors  from  which  rhey  arifc, 
can  make  no  part  of  the  common  mcafure  fought  ;  anil 
for  the  fame  reafon,  if  in  fuch  a  remainder  there  be 
any  compound  divifor  which  docs  not  meafurc  the  di- 
vifor from  which  it  proceeds,  it  may  be  taken  out. 

Examples. 

j»' — b')a' — 2iit>+l>'  (i 
a'  — b' 


— 2ah-\-2b'  Remainder  which, 
divided  by — zh  is  a — b)  a' — b'  (o-)-^ 
a' — b' 


If  tiic  quantities  given  are  8a- li' — io^*'-»-2*'',  and 
<)a*b — 9a'^'-t-3a*»'  —  ■^ab' .  The  1  mi  pie  divifors  be- 
ing taken  out,  viz.  2b'  out  of  the  tirft,  it  becomes 
40- — ^ab  +  b',  and  ^ab  out  of  the  fecond,  it  is 
3<j'  —  ^a'b.^b' — b'.  As  the  latter  is  to  be  divided 
by  the  former,  it  muft  be  multiplied  by  4,  to  make 
the  operaiion  fucceed,  and  then  it  is  as  follows  : 

4«' — 5<»M-^')  12a' — 130*^4^^' — 4^'  (■}a 
I24»  —  i^a'b+iab' 


■^a'b-^-ab' — 4^' 

This  remainder  is  to  be  divided  by  b,  and  the  new 
dividend  multiplied  by  3,  to  make  the  divifion  pro- 
ceed.    Thus, 

la'-^-ab — 4^')  laa" — Ijai-j-q*'  (4 
l2d'-t-4ai — 16^' 


— 19^^-1-19^' 

and  this  remainder, divided  by — I9i,gives<? — ^,Which 
being  made  a  divifor,  divides  ^a'+ab — 4b'  without  a 
remainder, andtherefore  a — b  is  the  greatcft  compound 
divifor  :  but  there  is  a  limple  divifor  b,  and  therefore 
a — bxb  is  the  greateft  common  meafure  required, 

Prob.  II.   To  reduce  a  FraHioii  to  itl  Ivwefi  Terms. 

Rule.  Divide  both  numerator  and  denominator  by 
their  greateft  common  meafurc,  which  may  be  found 
by  prob.  I.     - 

Thus,  _Z£f_:r— ,  2 5#£  being  the  greatcft  common 
I2ibcx      sx 

-b'       a'+b' 


meafure, . 


.  alfo. 


a '  — a  't>'         "' 
8u-b' — loab'     +2b*  Sab — 2b' 

common  meafurc  being  a — OX^f  by  Prob.  i. 

Prob. 


Part  [. 

Funda- 
mental 0- 
perationj. 


Prob.    ill.  To 


rtJ.iCi   an   Iitttgtr 
FraBion. 


L       G 

ti  thi   Farm  of  a 


B       R 


405 


'  Ruh.  Multiply  the  given  integer  by  any  quantity  Tor 
a  numerator,  and  let  that  quantity  under  the  pro- 
duft  for  a  denominator. 

ma  .    a' — i' 

Thus,  azi — ,    a+a:z r— 

in  a — *. 

Cor.  Hence,  in  the  following  operations  concerning 
fractions,  an  integer  may  be  introduced  ;  for,  by  this 
problem,  it  may  be  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  fraclion. 
The  denominator  of  au  integer  is  generally  made  i . 

Prob.  W.To  ndutt  FraCliont  luith  diffsreiii  Dencvii- 
iiators  to  Fraclio.li  of  equal  Value,  that  fhall  have  ihi 
fame  Bc):o?>iinator. 

Rule.  Multiply  each  numerator,  feparatcly  taken,  into 
all  the  denominators  but  its  own,  and  the  products 
fltall  give  the  new  numerators.  Then  multiply  all 
the  denominators  into  one  another,  and  the  product 
Ihall  give  the  common  denominator. 


Example.     Let  the  fradiotisbe-' -'    -1    they     are 

0  d  J 

^     „.      ,  ,        adf,  bcf,  tide. 

rcfpcawely  equal  to^  -i-  _ 

The  reafon  of  the  operation  appears  from  the  prece- 
ding propofition  ;  for  the  numerator  and  denominator 
of  each  fraction  are  multiplied  by  the  fame  quantities ; 
and  the  value  of  the  fraftions  therefore  is  the  fame. 

Prob.  V.  To  addandfubtrali  Frailitni.. 

Rule.  Reduce  them  to  a  common  denominator,  then 
add  or  fubtract  the  numerators  ;  and  the  fum  or  dif- 
ference fetover  the  common denoriiinator is  thefuni 
or  remainder  required. 

Ex.  Add  together  I'i'l' the   hm  isf^l±fM±!±., 
^  b  d  f  baf 


-  the  diftercRce  is  

d  id^. 


From  -  fubt. 
b 

From  the  nature  of  diviiion  it  is  evident,  that,  when 
feveral  quantities  are  to  be  divided  by  the  fame  divi- 
for,  the  fum  of  the  quotients  is  the  fame  with  the  quo- 
tient of  the  fum  of  the  quantities  divided  by  that  com- 
mon divifor. 

In  like  manner,  the  difference  of  two  fractions  ha- 
vingthe  fame  denominator, is  equal  to  the  difference  of 
the  numerators  divided  by  that  common  denominator. 

Cor.  1.  By  Cor.  Prob.  3.  integers  may  be  reduced 
to  the  form  of  fradions,  and  hence  integers  and  frac- 
tions may  be  added  and  fiibtrafted  by  this  rule.  Hence 
alfo  what  is  called  a  mixt  quantity  may  be  reduced  in- 
to the  formo  fa  fration,  by  bringing  the  integral  part 
into  the  form  of  a  fracflion,  with  the  fame  denominator 
as  the  fradlional  part,  and  adding  or  fubtrafting  the 
numerators  according  as  the  two  parts  are  connected 
by  the  figns  -t-  or  — . 

and    <>_  "'-^.'^ 


Thus,  ^+P=— ^- 


• — a--\-!:-_a'+/<' 
la  ~      2« 


Cor.  2.  A  fraction,  whofe  numerator  is  a  compound     FunJa- 
quantity,  may  be  dillinguilhcd  into  parts,  by  dividir.g  m'nt'l  "- 
the  numerator  into  fcvcral  parts,  and  fetiing  each  over  t^"''°g»- 
the  original  denominator,  and  uniting  the  new  frac- 
tions (reduced  if  neceffiry)  by  the  figns  of  their  nu- 
merators. 

-T-i,.,,.    "' — 'i^b+i'      «"        2^b   ,    i'_a        ,   ,   b' 
Thus,  — i — +  —  =  _  —^  +  — 

2i  2ti         2x        2  J       2  2a. 


P.103.  VI.  To  tnultiply  FraCliont. 

Rule.  Multiply  their  numerators  into  one  another,  to 
obtain  the  numerator  of  tlie  produifl  ;^nd  the  deno- 
minators, multiplied  into  oncanother,  tiall  give  the 
denominator  of  the  product. 


a-\-b     a — b     a' — b' 

~r  '~r~  cd. 


r-     a     c     ac 
Ex.i-X-— — 
b     d     bd. 

For,  if- is  to  be  multiplied  by  c,  the  produ,^  isff  . 

b  i 

but  if  it  is  to  be  multiplied-only  by-  the  former  pro- 

d 

duftmull  be  divided  by  d,  and  it  becomes  ff  (Cor.    2. 

bd 
to  the  preceding  problem.) 

Or,  let-— w,  and-—';.     Then  kzd>m,  and  czid/:, 
b  d 

and  ac-=J)dvin,  and   {tun— )-)<.-— -f- 
b     d     bd- 

Pros.  VH.  To  div'tdt  Frailiai;i. 

Rule.  Multiply  the  numerator  of  the  dividend  by  the 
denominator  of  the  divifor  ;  their  product  Ihall  give 
the  numerator  of  the  quotient.  Then  r.uihiply  the 
denominator  of  the  dividend  by  the  numerator  of 
the  divifor,  and  their  produd  Ihall  give  the  denomi- 
nator. 

Or,  Multiply  the  dividend  by  the  reciprocal  of  the  di- 
vifor ;  the  product  will  be  the  quotient  wanted, 

Thus,niffi-£x* 
bjd\ad   d     a- 

For,  if-- is  to  be  divided  by  a,  the  quotici;t  is —  ; 
a  da 

bat,- is  to  be  divided,  not  by  a,  but  by-;   therefore 

d  i) 

the  former  quotient  mud  be  multiplied  by   b,  and  ic 

.    be 
IS  — 
da. 

Or,  let  -—rn,  and-=Ar  j    then  a^bm,    and  c^j/a  ; 

b  d 

alfo  adzdbd/u  and  bi^kdii  ■,  thcrcfor«i 


(^•lii  _\ii  _tc 
\bdm~  )ti~  ad 


Sciolii 


By  thefc  problems,  the  four  fuaJamental  operations 
may  be  perforp'rj,  when  a.  y  terms  of  the  original 
quantities,  or  <u  iliofc  which  arife  in  the  courfc  of  the 
operation,  arc  fractional. 

Ex- 


40  6 


MiJlt. 2 — 


Prod. —  _ 

6x'         2 


•2fl' 


6<*x' 


— ax+x' 

ilX .V  ■ 

2X' 

2y'  +  2xJ 

a 

2X' 

—  ^^.^^ 

a 

2.V' 

2X« 

^^^ 

a 

tf  ' 

+ 

i::,&c. 

a' 

This  quotient  becomes  a  fcrics,  of  which  the  law 
•of  continuation  is  obvious,  without  any  farther  opera- 
tion. 

In  fuch  cafes,  when  we  arrive  at  a  remainder  of  one 
term,  it  is  commonly  fet  down  with  the  divifor  below 
it,  after  the  other  terms  of  the  quotient,  which  then 
becomes  a  mixt  quantity.     Thus  the  laft  quotient  is 

2  V  * 

alfo  expreflcd  by  a — x-i-—^ 


CHAP.    II. 
Of  Proportion. 

By  the  preceding  operations  quantities  of  the  fame 
kind  may  be  compared  together. 

The  relation  arifing  from  this  comparifon  is  called 
ratio  or  proportion,  and  is  of  two  kinds.  If  wc  confi- 
der  the  difference  of  the  two  quantities,  it  is  called 
arithmetical  proportion  ;  and  if  we  confidcr  their  quo- 
tient, it  is  called  geometrical  proportion.  This  laft  be- 
ing moft  generally  ufcful,  is  commonly  called  fimply 
proportion. 

I.  Of  Arithmetical  proportion. 

Definition.  Whcnof  fourquantitiesthe  difFerenceof 
the  firft  and  fecond  is  equal  to  the  difference  of  the 
ihird  and  fourth,  the  quantities  are  called  arithmetical 
proportionals. 

Cor.  Three  quantities  may  be  arithmetically  propor- 
tional, by  fuppofiDg  the  two  middle  terms  of  the  four 
to  be  equal. 

Pri.p.  In  four  quantities  aritlimetically  proportion- 
al, the  fum  of  the  extremes  is  equal  to  the  fum  of 
the  means. 

Let  the  four  be  a,  k,  c,  d.  Therefore  from  Def. 
a — b^u — d;  to  thefe  add  b+d  and  a+dzilH-c. 


BRA.  Part.  I. 

Car.   I.    Of  four   arithmetical  proponionals,  any  OfPropor- 
threc  being  given,  the  fourth  may  be  found.  fio"- 

Thus,  let  a,  h,  c,  be  the  ift,  2d,  and  ijth  icrnis,  and 
let  X  be  the  third  which  is  fought. 

Then  by  def.  a+i.—b-\-x,  and  x=ui+c — b. 

Cor.  2.  If  three  quantities  be  arithmetical  propor- 
tionals, the  fum  of  the  extremes  is  double  of  the  mid- 
dle term  ;  and  hence,  of  three  fuch  proportionals,  any 
two  being  given,  the  third  may  be  found. 

2.  Of  Geometrical  Proportion. 

Definition.  If  of  four  quantities,  the  quotient  of  the 
firft  and  fecond  is  equal  to  the  quotient  of  the  third 
and  fourth,  thefe  quantities  are  faid  to  be  ingeometri- 
cal  proportion.  They  are  alfo  called  proportionals. 
Thus,  if  a,  b,  c,  d,  arc  the  four  quantities,  then 

f  =1,  and  iheir  ratio  is  thus  denoted  a  :  i  :  :  c  :  d. 
6     d' 

Cor.  Three  quantities  may  be  geometrical  propor- 
tionals, viz.  by  fuppoling  the  two  middle  terms  of  the 
four  CO  be  equal.     If  the  quantities  are  a,  b,  c,  thea 

_=_,  and  the  proportion  is  exprefled  thus,  a  :  b  :  c. 
b     c 

Prop.  I.  The  produiJl  of  the  extremes  of  four  quan- 
tities geometrically  proportional  is  equal  to  the  pro- 
dud  of  the  means ,  and  converfely. 

Let  a:b:  :  c:  d. 

Then  by  Def.  t-=.'L 
b     d 

and  multiplying  both  by  bd,  adzibc. 

If    ad  — be,    then    dividing    by    hd,  -—^  that  is, 

b     di 
a:  b  :  :  c  :  d. 

Cor.  I.  The  produft  of  the  extremesof  three  quan- 
tities, geometrically  proportional,  is  equal  to  thefquarc 
of  the  middle  term. 

Cor.  2.  Of  four  quantities  geometrically  proportion- 
al, any  three  being  given,  the  fourth  may  be  found. 

Ex.  Let  a,  b,  c,  be  the  three  firft  :   to  find  the  4th, 
Let  it  be  x,  then  a:  b  :  :  c  ■  x,  and  by  this  propofition, 
ax— be 

and  dividing  both  by  a,  x— — 

This  coincides  with  the  Rule  of  Three  in  arithme- 
tic, and  may  be  confidered  as  a  demonftration  of  it. 
In  applying  the  rule  to  any  particular  cafe,  it  is  only 
to  be  obferved,  that  the  quantities  muft  he  foconneft- 
ed  and  fo  arranged,  that  they  be  proportional,  accord- 
ing to  the  preceding  definition. 

Cor.  5.  Of  three  geometrical  proportionals,  any  two 
being  given,  the  third  may  be  found. 

Prop.  I  J.  If  four  quantities  be  geometrically  pro- 
portional, then  if  any  equimultiples  whatever  be  taken 
of  (he  firft  and  third,  and  alfo  any  equimultiples  what- 
ever of  the  fecond  and  fourth  ;  if  the  multiple  of  the 
firft  be  greater  than  that  of  the  fecond,  the  multiple  of 
the  third  will  be  greater  than  that  of  the  fourth  ;  and 
if  equal,  equal  ;   and  if  Icfs,  lefs. 

For,  let  a,  b,  c,  d,  be  the  four  proportionals.    Of 

the 


B       R 


f  Equa-  the  firft  and  third,  ma  and  tnc  may  reprefcnt  any  cqui- 
tion».      multiples  whatever,  and  alfo  ub,  nd,  may  reprefcnt 

— " any  equimultiples  of  the  fecond  and  fourth.     Since 

a  :  b  :  :  c  :  d,  ad'=Jic  ;  and  hence  multiply  by  vin, 
miiad'=jn>ibc,  and  therefore  (Conv.  Prop,  i.) 
ma  :  lib  :  :  tiic  :  nd ;  and  from  the  definition  of  pro- 
portionals, it  is  plain,  that  if ///a  is  greater  than  nb, 
VIC  muft  be  greater  than  ud  ;  and  if  equal,  equal  j  and 
if  Icfs,  Icfs. 

Prop.  III.  If  four  quantiiics  are  proportionah,  they 
will  alfo  be  proportionals  when  taken  alternately  or  in- 
verfcly,  or  by  compofition,  or  by  divilion,  or  hy  con- 
verfion.  Sec  Dcf.  13.  14.  15.  16.  i  7.  of  Book  V.  of 
Euclid,  Simfon's  edition. 

By  Prop.  II.  they  will  alfo  be  proportionals  accord- 
ing to  Dcf.  5.  Book  V.  of  Euclid  ;  and  therefore  this 
propofition  is  demonftratcd  by  propofuions  16,  B.  18, 
17,  £.  of  the  fame  book. 

Otherwifc  algebraically. 

Let  a:  b  :  :  c  :  d,  and  therefore  ad'^.bc. 
Altern.  a  :  c  :  :  b  :  d 

Invert.  b  :  a  :  :  d  :  c 

Divid.  a — b  :  b  :  :  c — d  :  d 

Comp.  a+b  :  b  :  :  c+d  :  d 

Convert,      a  :  a — b  :  :  c  :  c — d 

For  fince  ad=J>c,  it  is  obvious,  that  in  each  of  thefe 
cafes  the  produfi  of  the  extremes  is  equal  to  the  pro- 
duft  of  the  means  ;  the  quantities  are  therefore  pro- 
portionals. (Prop.  I.) 

Prop.  IV.  If  four  numbers  be  proportionals,  accord- 
ing to  Def.  5.  B.  V.  of  Euclid,  they  will  be  geome- 
trically proportional,  according  to  the  preceding  defi- 
nition. 

i//.  Let  the  four  numbers  be  integers,  and  let  them 
be  a,  b,  c,  d.  Then  if  b  times  a  and  b  times  c  be  ta- 
ken, and  alfo  a  times  b  and  a  times  d,  lince  ba  the 
multiple  of  the  firfl  rs  equal  to  ab  the  multiple  of  the 
fecond,  be  the  muliiple  of  the  third,  nnift  be  equal  to 
ad  the  multiple  of  the  fourth.  And  fiiicc  bc^ad,  by 
Prop.  I.  a,  b,  c,  and  d,  mull  be  geometrical  proporti- 
onals. 

idly.  If  any  of  the  numbers  be  fraftional,  all  the 
four  being  multiplied  by  the  dcnonii".aiors  ofthe  frac- 
tions, they  continue  proportionals,  according  to  Dcf.  5. 
B.  V.  huclid  (by  Prop.  4  ..f  that  book)  >  and  the 
four  intei^er  quantities  produced  being  fuch  propor- 
tionals, they  will  be  geometrical  proportionals,  by  the 
firrt  part  of  this  prop.  ;  and  therefore,  being  reduced 
by  divifionto  their  original  form,  they  nianifclUy  will 
remain  proportionals,  accoulingto  ibi  algebraical  de- 
finition. 

CHAP.    III. 

Sect.  I.  OJ  En iiaiiom  in  general,  and  oj  the  Solution 
oj  fitnple  E.juatioiii. 

Definitions. 

f^  An   Equation  may  in  general  be  defined  to  be  a 
proporuiou  alfcrting  the  equality  of  two  quantities; 


407 


and  is  cxpreflTed  by  placing  the  lign  =  between  Of  Equa. 
them.  tlont. 

2.  When  a  quantity  Aands  alone  upon  one  fide  of  an  ''""^^ 
equation,  the  quantities  on  the  other  fide  are  faid  to 

be  a  valheoi  it.     Thus  in  the  equation  xz;i-|-^ d, 

X  ftands  alone  on  one  lide,  and  b-\-y — d  is  a  value 
of  it. 

3.  When  an  unknown  quantity  is  made  to  ftand  alone 
on  one  fide  of  an  equation,  and  there  are  only  known 
quantities  on  the  other,  that  equation  is  faid  to  be 
TifiAved;  and  the  value  of  the  unknown  quantity  is 
called  a  ro',t  of  the  equation. 

4.  Equations  containing  only  one  unknown  quantity 
and  its  powers,  are  divided  into  orders,  according  to 
the  higlicrt  power  of  the  unknown  quantity  to  be 
found  ill  any  of  its  tcrius. 

IfthchighcftpowcrofTift,       pThe  Y.-C  Simple, 
iheuiiknownquaiui-  >2d,        S-quation  -^  Quadratic, 
ty  in  .Tuy  term  be  the  ^3d,&c.  ^iscallcd(^  C .bic,  &c. 

But  the  exponents  of  the  unknown  quantity  are  fup- 
pofcd  to  be  integers,  and  the  equation  is  fuppofcd  to 
be  cleared  of  fractions,  in  which  the  unknown  quanti- 
ty, or  any  of  its  powers,  enter  the  denominators. 

Ti                   3'^' — ^-       ,■      ,              •                   J 
iJius,  x-^-uzz ^is  a  iimplc  equation;   ^x =I2» 

when  cleared  of  the  fra(51ion  by  multiplying  both 
iidcs  by  2.v,  becomes  6.\ '  —  5=24.v  a  quadratic. 
•V' — 2A*:z.v' — 20  is  an  equation  of  the  fixth  order,  &c. 

.^s  the  general  relations  of  quantity  which  may  be 
treated  of  in  alsjcbra,  arc  alnioftuniverfally  either  thai; 
of  equality,  or  fuch  as  may  be  reduced  to  that  of  c- 
quality,  the  doctrine  of  equations  becomes  one  of  the 
chief  branches  of  the  fcicncc. 

The  moft  common  and  ufeful  a^Vplication  of  alcebra 
is  in  the  inveftigation  of  quantities  that  are  unknown, 
from  certain  given  relations  to  each  other,  and  to  fuch 
as  arc  known  ;  and  hence  it  has  been  called  the  analj' 
tical art.  The  equations  employed  for  cxpreffing  ihefc 
relations  nuift  therefore  contain  one  or  more  unknowa 
quantities  ;  and  the  principal  bufinefsof  this  art  will 
he,  the  deducing  equations  containing  only  one  un- 
known quantity,  and  refolving  tbeni. 

The  folution  of  the  different  orders  of  equations  will 
be  fuccclTively  explained.  The  preliminary  rules  in  the 
following  fection  are  ufcfil  in  all  orders,  and  arc  alone 
fufiicieut  for  the  folution  of  iimplc  equations. 

§  I.  Of  fiiHple  Equations,  and  tkeir  Rtfolution. 

Simple  equations  are  refolvcd  by  the  four  fundamen-" 
t.al  operations  already  explained  ;  and  t!ic  application 
of  them  to  this  purpofc  is  contained  in  the  following 
rules. 

Rule  1.  Any  quantity  may  be  tranfpofed  from  one  lije 
of  an  equation  to  the  other,  by  changing  its  fign. 

Thus,  if  3.V — 10— 2V-4-5 
Then,  3.V — 2.v=io-(-5  or  .t=i5 
Thus  alfo,  J\+fc.;-|-2j; 
By  tranfp.  5.v=:a — b. 

This  rule  is  obvious  from  prob.  i.  and  :.  ;  for  it  is 
equivalent  to  adding  equal  quantises  to  both  fides  of 
tiic  equation,  or  to  fubtrafling  equal  quantities  from 
boili  llJcs. 

Cor. 


LOS 


of  Kqua- 

Ciuni. 


a 
xr:zab-\rac 


A       L       G       1 

Cor.  The  figns  of  all  tlie  terms  of  an  equation  may 
be  r  lunge  J  into  the  contrary  ligns.and  ii  will  continue 
to  be  true. 

Rult   2.  Any  qmntiiy  by  which  the  unknown  qiian- 
iJiy  is  multiplied  may  be  taken  away,  by  dividing 
all  t'lc  other  quantities  of  the  equation  by  it. 
Thus,  if  axr=i 


Alfo,  if  mx+nb-=:am 

nb 

i.H — zza 

m 

■  For  if  equal  quantities  are  divided  by  the  fame 

quantity,  the  quotients  arc  equal. 

Rule  ?.  If  a  lerm  of  an  equation  is  fraftional,  its  de- 
nominator may  be  taken  away,  by  multiplying  all 
the  other  terms  by  it. 

.Thus,  if  -=^+'^  Alfo,  It  a—-c 

ax — bzzcx 
And  by  tranf.  ax — cx=i 
b 

And  by  div.  x-=. 

'  a — c 

'  For  if  all  tiic  terms  of  the  equation  are  multiplied  by 
•.  the  fame  quantity,  it  remains  a  true  propofitiou. 

Corollary  to  the  three  lajl  Rules. 

If  any  quantity  be  found  on  both  fides  of  the  equa- 
tion, with  the  fante  lign,  it  may  be  taken  away  from 
both.     (Rule  I.) 

Alfo,  if  all  the  terras  in  the  equation  arc  multiplied 
or  divided  by  the  fame  quantity,  it  may  be  taken  out 
of  them  all.     (Rule  2.  and  5.) 

Kx.  If  5v-t-a3:^-i-i,  then  3.v=/'. 

\i 2ax-\--!,aL—ma+a\  then  zxJflk—i/i+a. 

-^  r        416  . 

If -  —  — ,  then  .V — t,—  \b. 

3       3      3 

Any  fimple  equation  maybe  refolved  by  thefe  rules 
in  the  following  manner,  i//,  Any  fractions  may  be 
taken  away  by  R.  '5.  2<i'A',  All  the  terms  including 
the  unknown  quantity,  may  be  brought  to  one  fide  of 
the  equation,  and  the  known  terms  10  the  other,  by 
R.  I.  Lafllji,  If  the  unknown  qu.'intity  is  multiplied 
by  any  known  quantity,  it  may  be  made  to  ftand  alone 
J)yR.  2.  and  the  equation  wiJlthcn  be  refolved.  Def.  3. 

Examples  of  fimple  Eqiiathvs  refolved  by  thefe  Rules,. 
I. 
lf3x+S=v.t-9 
R.  I.  2.v=4 


B 


R.  2 


x^i^2 
2 


II. 


If  5.v_lf-H2=^+:6 

^x       e,  '■ 
R.  I.  5.V— 2- =14 

2  3 

R.  3.  30X — 15X — Sa=:84 


R       A. 

Or 


R. 


7x=84 
84    , 
7 
III. 


Ifi-(-?=.6 

X      4 

R.  3.  £2-1-9=64 

X 

R.  3.    20-J-9v=:^^ 
R.  I.  20=iiJC 


R.  2.  . 


_20_4 


\  2.  SolutiouoJ  Queftioiis  producing  jimpte  EquaHom. 

From  the  refolution  of  equations  we  obtain  the  re- 
folution  of  a  varie  y  01  ufelul  problems,  both  in  pure 
mathematics  and  pliyfics,  and  alio  in  the  practical  arts 
loundcd  upon  thefe  fcicnccs.  In  this  place,  we  con- 
lider  the  application  of  it  to  thofe  queiiions  where  the 
quantities  arc  cxprcfTcd  by  numbers,  and  their  magni- 
tude alone  is  to.be  confidtrcd. 

When  an  equation,  containing  only  one  unknown 
quantity,  is  deduced  from  the  queflion  by  the  follow- 
ing rules,  it  is  fometimej  called  i.  final  equation.  If  it 
be  lin  pie,  it  may  be  refolved  by  the  preceding  rules  ; 
but  if  it  be  of  a  fuperior  order,  it  mull  be  refolved  by 
the  rules  afterwards  to  be  explained.  The  examples  in 
this  chapter  are  fo  contrived,  that  the  final  equation 
may  be  fimple. 

The  rules  given  in  this  feftion  for  the  folution  of 
queflions,  though  they  contain  a  reference  to  limple 
equations  only,  are  to  be  confidered  as  general,  and  as 
applicable  to  queRions  which  produce  equations  of  any 
order. 

General  Rule.  The  unknow-n  quantities  in  thequeftion. 
propofcd  mull  be  expreffcd  by  letters,  and  the  rela- 
tions of  the  known  and  unknown  quantities  con- 
tained in  it,  or  the  conditions  of  it,  as  they  are  call- 
ed, mull  be  exprclFed  by  equations.  Thefe  equa- 
tions beingrcfolyed  by  the  rules  of  this  fciencc,  will 
give  the  anfwerof  the  queflion. 

For  example,  if  the  queflion  is  concerning  two  num- 
bers, they  may  be  called  x  and^,  and  the  conditions 
from  which  they  arc  to  be  invelligated  muft  be  expref- 
fible  by  equations. 

Thus,  if  it  be  required  that  the 
fum  of  two   numbers  fought! 
be  60,  that  condition  is  ex-  ( 
pre  (led  thus 
•  If  their  difference  mufl  be  24,  then 
If  their  product  is  1640,  then 

If  their  quotient  muit  be  6,  then 


x-^y—(>o 


xy—ib^O 

y 

If  their  ratio  is  as  3  to  2,  then  7  

x  :_)-::  3  :  2,  and  therefore     \        '  ~^^ 

Tliefe  are  fome  of  the  relations  which  arc  nioft  ea- 
fily  exprcllcd.  Many  others  occur  which  are  lefs  ob- 
vious ;  but  as  they  cannot  be  dcfcribed  in  particular 
rules,  the  algebraical  cxpreflion  of  them  is  belt  explain, 
cd  by  examples,  and  mufl  be  acquired  by  experience. 


Part  I. 


A 


A  dirtind  conception  of  the  nature  of  the  qucflion, 
aiidof  the  relations  of  the  feveral  quantities  to  which 
'  it  refers,  will  generally  lead  to  the  proper  method  of 
gating  it,  which  in  eff'edl  may  be  conddcred  only  as  a 
tranflation  from  common  language  into  that  of  alge- 
bra. 
Cafe  I.  When  there  is  only  one  unknown  quantity  to 

be  found. 
Rule.  An  equation  involving  the  nnknown  quantity 

mull  be  deduced  from  the  queftion  (by  the  general 

rule).     This  equation  being  rcfolved  by  the  rules  of 

the  laft;  fcftion,  will  give  the  anfwer. 

It  is  obvious,  that,  when  there  is  only  one  unknown 
quantity,  there  mud  be  only  one  independent  equation 
contained  in  thequeftion;  for  any  other  would  be  un- 
iicccirary,  and  might  be  contradiclory  to  the  former. 

Exavtp.  r.  To  find  a  number,  to  whicli  if  there  be 

Let  his  firfl;  flock  be 

Of  which  he  fpends  the  firft  year  L.ioo,  and  } 

there  remains  j 

This  remainder  is  incrcafed  by  a  third  of  it-  J 

fclf  \ 

The  fecond  year  he  fpends  L.ioo,   and  there  1 

remains  J 

He  incrcafes  the  remainder  by  one-third  of  7 

it  5 

The  third  year  he  fpends  L.ioo,   and  there  ) 
remains.  \ 

He  increafes  it  by  one-third  i 

But  at  the  end  of  the   third  year  his  flock  is  ") 
doubled  ;  therefore  5 

By  R.  3. 
ByR.  I. 
By  R.  2. 

Therefore  his  flock  was  L.i48oi  which  being  tried, 
anfwers  the  conditions  of  the  queilion. 

Cafe  \\.  When  there  are  two  unknown  quantities. 
Rule.  Two  independent  equations  involving  the  two 
unknown  quantiiics,  mufl  be  derived  from  the  quc- 
flion. A  value  of  one  of  the  unknown  quantities 
mufl  be  derived  from  each  of  the  equations:  and 
thefe  two  values  being  put  equal  to  cacli  other,  a 
new  equation  will  arife,  involving  only  one  unknown 
quantity,  and  may  therefore  be  rcfolved  by  the  pre- 
ceding rule. 

Two  equations  mufl  be  deduced  from  the  queftion  : 
for,  from  one  including  two  unknown  quaiuitics,  it  is 
plain,  a  known  value  of  either  of  them  cannot  be  ob- 
tained, more  than  two  equations  would  be  unncccfla- 
ry  ;  and  if  any  ihird  condition  wci  c  adiuned  at  plea- 
fure,  moil  prubably  it  would  be  inconlillent  with  the 
otlier  two,  and  a  qucflion  containing  three  fuch  con- 
ditions would  be  abfurJ. 

It  is  to  be  obferved,  however,  that  the  two  condi- 
tions, and  hc.tce  the  two  equations  cxprefTing  them, 
mufl  be  independent  ;  that  is,  the  one  mull  not  be  de- 
dncible  from  the  other  by  any  algebraical  rcafoning  : 
for,  otherwife,  there  would  in  effcift  be  only  one  equa- 
Vet.  I. 


E       B       R       A. 

added  a  half,  a  third  part,  an.d  a  fourth  part  of  it- 


fclf,  the  fum  will  be  50 
Let  it  be  2 


then  half  of  it  is  f,  a  third  of  it  -, 
3  3 


&c. 


Therefore,  z  J lI+Z— jo 

2     3     4 
242  -H  122+82-^-61=1200 
502=1200 
2=24. 
If  the  opertaion  be  more  complicated,  it  may  be 
ufeful  to  rcgiflcr  the  feveral  ftcps  of  it,  as  ia  the  fol- 
lowing 

Exatnp.  2.  A  trader  allows  L.TOO/t";-  annum  for  the 
expcnces  of  his  family,  and  augments  yearly  that 
part  of  his  ftock  whicli  is  not  fo  expended  by  a  third 
of  it ;  at  the  end  of  three  years  his  original  flock 
was  dunbkd.     What  had  he  at  firil .' 


2~.  — 100 
Z I0O+- 

42 — 400 


I  9 
lio 

II 


-TOO     .43  —  4CO 


3 

r — 700 


-100=- 


3 
■  700 


4? — 700     162 — sSoo' 


r62 — 2S00 


9 
162—57: 


9 
162—: 


7CO 


9 

- 100=  • 

9 
16.-: — 5700    64^ — 148CO 


64c 


27 


27 


-i4!^oo 


27 
642 — 14900=542 
102=14800 
2=1480 

tion,  under  two  different  forms,  from  which  no  fola- 
tion  can  be  derived. 

Exanp.  3.  Twoperfons,  A  and  R,  were  talking  of 
their  ages  :  fays  A  to  B,  Seven  years  ago  I  was  juR 
three  times  as  old  as  you  were,  and  fevcn  years 
hence  1  Ihall  be  jufl  twice  as  old  as  you  will  be.  I 
demand  their  prcfent  ages. 

Let  the  ages  of  A 

and  B  be  refpec-  ^    i  x  andjp 

tively  _ 

Seven    years    ago  1 

they  were  3 

Seven  years  hence  "; 

they  will  be  \ 

Therefore  by  Qiie.  ] 

I.  and  2.  j 

AlfobyQucft.2.  ■; 
and  3.  J 

By  4.  and  tranfp. 

By  5.  and  traul'p. 

By  6.  and  7. 
Tranfp.  and  8. 

By  9.  and  6.  or  7. 

The  ages  of  A  and  B  then  are  49  and  31,  which  an- 
fwer the  conditions. 

5  F  The 


y — 7  and> — 7 
x  +  ^  and>  -H  7 
4'  .V— 7=  3  X^— 7=  ?>— 2 1 

5j  x+7=2x/?7=2;+i4 

6|  t  =  3>— 14 

7|  .x  =  2j+ 7 

8l  3_r— i4  =  2.v  +  7 

9|.)=2I 

10  x  =  49 


410 


A       L      G       I 

Thccpcraiioii  mi-^lit  have  been  a  little  fliortcned  by 
fiiluiaiftiiig  the  4th  from  5th,  and  tliiis  14  =  — .)  +  35  ; 
and  hciice.r  =  2i.  ihcreferc  (by  6th)  x=  (?)  — 14) 
=  49. 

F.xa7!ip.  4.  A  gentleman  diftiibuting  money  among 
fomc  poor  people,  found  he  wanted  los.  to  be  able 
to  give  J  s.  to  each  ;  therefore  lie  gives  each  4  s.  on- 
ly and  finds  he  has  js.  left To  Hud  the  number 

of  lliillings  and  poor  people. 

If  any  queftioii  fjch  as  this,  in  which  there  are  two 
qnamiiif  s  fought,  can  be  refulved  by  means  of  one  let- 
ter, the  folution  is  in  general  more  limple  than  when 
two  arc  employed.  There  muft  be,  however,  two  in- 
dependent conditions  ;  one  of  which  is  ufed  in  the  no- 
tation of  one  of  the  unknown  quantities,  and  ihc  other 
gives  an  equation. 

Let  the  number  of  poor  be 
The  number  of  fliirings  will  be 
The  number  of  fliillitigs  is  alfo 
By  2.  and  3. 
Tranfp. 

The  number  of  poor  therefore  is  i  j,  and  the  num- 
ber of  (hillings  i^  (42-1-5  =  )  65,  which  anfwer  the 
conditions. 

Exanip.  5.  A  courier  fcts  out  from  a  certain  place,  and 
travels  at  the  rate  of  7  miles  in  j  hours  ;  and  8  hours 
after,  another  fetsout  from  the  fame  place,  and  tra- 
Ycls  the  fame  road,  at  the  rate  of  5  miles  in  3  hours: 
I  demand  how  long  and  how  far  the  firll  mull  travel 
before  he  is  overtaken  by  the  fccond  ? 

Let  the  number  of  hours 
which  the  lird  travelled  be 

Then  the  fecond  travelled 

The   lirft   travelled   feven 

miles    in   5   hours,    and  ^    ;    ( j  :  7  :  :j  :)  7)'niiles 
therefore  in^  hours  )  j 

In  like  manner  i)ie  fecond  J  ^  /,.,..  o.^5.>■ — 1° 
travelled  in^ — 8  hours 

But  they  both  travelled  the 


BRA. 


Part  I. 


independent  equations  may  be  derived  from  a  qucflion  Of  Equa- 
as  there  arc  unknown  quantities  in  it,  thcfc  quantities     *'°"'- 
may  be  found  by  the  refolution  of  equations.  '' 

Exanip.  6.  To  find  three  numbers,  fo  that  the  firft, 
with  half  the  other  two,  the  fecond  with  one  third 
of  the  other  two,  and  the  third  with  one  fourth  of 
the  other  two,  may  each  be  equal  to  34. 

Let  the  numbers  be,  x,y,  z,  and  the  equations  arc 

y  +  = 
■V-) =  34 


iz 

2,,-Z to 

4J=— lo=4r.f  J. 


fame  number  of  miles 
therefore  by  3.  and  4.      j 

Mult. 

Tran-fp. 

Divid. 

The   firft  then   travelled 

(^ — 8  =)  42  liours. 

The  miles  travelled  by  each 


iS-.T- 


(3:j::^-S:) 
miles 

IZ 

5 


J)— 40 


3 


25/ 200ZZ2TJ' 

4  )  =200 
J  =50 

50  hours,    the   fecond 


(f=^-=) 


70. 


Cafe  III.  When  there  are  three  or  more  unknown 
quantities. 

Hu/^.  When  there  are  three  unknown  quantities,  there 
mud  be  three  independtni  equations  arihng  from  the 
quellion  ;  and  from  each  of  thefc  a  value  of  one  of 
llic  unknown  quantities  mud  be  obtained.  By  com- 
paring thefc  three  values,  two  equations  will  arife, 
involving  only  two  unki'.own  quantities,  which  may 
therefore  Le  rcfolvcd  by  the  rule  for  Cafe  2. 
In  like  manner  may  the  rule  be  extended  to  fuch 

qneft.ions  as  contain  four  or  more  unknown  quantities  ; 

and  hence  it  may  be  inferred.  That,  when  jud  as  many 


From  the  id 

From  tl  e  2d 
From  t.ic  3d 

From  4th  and  5th 

7rii reduced 

5  =  6,  and  reduced 

8  and  9 

loth  reduced 

By  8  and  5 


-v=  102 — 3_>' — I 
.V  =  1 36 — 42 — y 
68— J— 2  _ 


J'  = 


2 

136 — z 

i2— 34 


=  102  —  3^—2 


2 

2_34_ 


156 K 


a  5 

152 — 170=272 — 22 

172  =  442  or  «=  26 
y  =  22  and  A  =10 


Examji.  7.  To  find  a  number  confiding  of  three  places, 
whofe  digits  are  in  aritjimetical  proportion  j  if  this 
number  be  di\  idtd  by  the  fum  of  its  digits,  the  quo- 
tient will  be  48  ;  and  if  from  the  number  be  fub- 
tratled  19S,  the  digits  will  Le  inverted. 

Let  the  3  digits  be 


Then  the  number 

is 
If  the  digits  be  ) 

inverted, itis  j 
The  digits  arc 

in  ar.   prop. 

therefore 


By  quedion 
By  quedion 


From  6  and  tranf 

Divid.  by  ()<) 

From  4 

8  and  9 

Tranfp, 

Mult.  5 

Tranfp. 

8  and  iifubdit 

for  .V  and/ 
Tranfp. 

Divid. 


\ 


I  OO.V  -(-  1 0  V  -\-  z 
100Z+  IC>  +x 

.V  -f  2  =  2J> 

ioo.v-t-iq)'+  ; 


-  =  48 


.V  +y  +z 

[OO.V -I-  IO)-|-2 198=  100- 

4-  \oy  +  x 
7;99.v  =  99=4-198 

S  .V  =2-1-2 

9.v=2/— r 

I  O  2y — 2  =  2-1-2 
Il')=2-t-I 

12  loo.v-MOj  -(-2=48.v-t-48>-t-48z 
52x=  38/ -H  472 

14  522-1- io4=-82-t- 384-472 

rj  352=z66 

161  ^;  =  (2-H=)3 

(^  X  =  (z -H  2  =)  4 

The  number  then  is  432,  v.hick  fuccceds  upon  trial. 

Ic 


Part  I. 


A      L       G       1 

It  fometimes  happens,  that  all  the  unknown  quan- 
tities, when  there  arc  more  than  two,  are  not  in  all 
the  equations  exprclliiig  the  conditions,  anti  therefore 
tlie  preceding  rule  cannot  be  literally  followed.  The 
folution,  however,  will  be  obtained  by  fuch  fubftitu- 
tions  as  arc  ulcd  in  Kx.  7.  and  9.  or  by  fiuiilar  opera- 
lions,  which  need  not  be  particularly  dcfcribed. 

Corollary  to  the  preceding  Rules. 

It  appears  that,  in  any  qucftion,  riicrc  muft  be  as 
many  independent  equations  as  unknown  quantities  ; 
if  there  arc  not,  Uicn  the  queftion  is  called  iiidetintii- 
tiate,  becaufc  it  may  admit  of  an  infinite  number  of 
aufwers  ;  lince  the  equations  wautinj;  may  be  alFumcd 
at  plcafure.  There  maybe  other  circumftances,  how- 
ever, to  limit  the  anfwcrsto  one,  or  aprecifc  number, 
and  which,  at  the  fame  time,  cannot  be  directly  ex- 
prelfcd  by  equations.  Such  are  tlicfc,  that  the  num- 
bers mufl  beintegers,  fquares,  cubes,  aad  manyotlicrs. 
The  folution  of  fcich  pioblcnis,  which  arc  alfo  called 
ttiofihaiitiiie,  fliall  be  conlidered  afterwards. 

Sihotium, 

On  many  occafions,  by  particular  contrivances,  the 
operations  by  the  preceding  rules  may  be  much  abrid- 
ged. Thishowcvcr,  mullbe  left  to  the  fkilland  praftice 
of  the  learner.     A  few  examples  arc  the  following. 

1.  It  is  often  eafy  to  employ  fewer  letters  than  there 
are  unknown  quantities,  by  exprcfTing  fonic  of  ihcm 
from  a  limplc  relation  toothers  contained  in  the  con- 
ditions of  the  quellion.  Thus,  the  folution  becomes 
more  eafy  and  elegant.     (See  Ex.  4.  5.) 

2.  Sometimes  it  is  convenient  to  exprefs  by  letters, 
not  the  unknown  quantities  thcmfelves,  but  fome  o- 
ther  quantities  conne(5led  with  them,  as  their  funi, 
difference,  &c.  from  which  they  may  be  eafily  derived. 
(See  Ex.  i.  of  chap,  j.) 

In  the  operation  alfo,  circumftances  will  fuggefl  a 
more  eafy  road  than  that  pointed  out  by  the  general 
rules.  Two  of  the  orijjinal  equations  may  be  added 
together,  or  may  be  fubiraiJlcd  ;  fometimes  they  mufl 
be  previoufly  multiplied  by  fome  quantity,  to  render 
fuch  addition  or  fubtradion  effectual,  in  exterminating 
one  of  the  unknown  quantities,  or  othcrwife  promo- 
ting the  folution.  Subflitutions  may  be  made  of  the 
values  of  quantities,  in  place  of  quantities  themfelves, 
and  variousothcr  fuch  contrivances  may  be  ulcd,  which 
will  render  the  folution  much  lefs  complicated.  (See 
Ex.  3.  7.  and  9.) 

Sect.  II.  dnirat  Solution  of  Problems. 

In  the  folutions  of  the  quellions  in  the  preceding 


BRA. 


411 


part,  the  given  quantities  (being  numbers)  dilappear   Of  Equa- 
iii  the  lafl  conclulion,  fo  that  no  general  rules  for  like      tlons. 
cafes  can  be  deduced  from  them.     But  if  letters  arc  '      '■'—~' 
ufed  to  denote  the  known  quantities,   as  well  as  tlic 
unknown,  a  general  folution  may  be  obtained,  becaufe, 
during  the  whole  courfe  of  the  operation,  they  retain 
their  original  form.     Hence  alfo  the  connexion  of  ihc 
quantities  will  appear  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  difcover 
the  ncceflary  limitations  of  the  data,  when  there  arc 
any,  which  is  cllential  to  the  pcrfedl  foliuion  of  a  pro- 
blem.    Krom  tills  method,  too,  it  is  eafy  to  derive  a 
fynthetical  demonflration  of  the  folution. 

When  letters,  or  any  other  fuch  fymbols,  arc  em- 
ployed to  exprefs  all  the  quaniiticsi  the  algebra  is  fome- 
times calledy^.-c/o«;  or  literal. 

Examp.  8.  To  find  two  numbers,  of  which  the  fum 
and  diiferencc  are  given. 

Let  /  be  the  f;ivcn  fum,  and  d  the  given  difference. 
Alfo,  let  X  aUv!/  be  the  two  numbers  fought. 

-y-d 


Whe 


dk-y-s—f 

2y=j — d 

,_s—d 


And  .='±L 

Thus,  let  the  given  fum  be  100,  and  the  diflcrcncc  2.4. 
Then  ..(l±i=i!i.)6..,=  (i:^^=|  =  )38: 

In  the  fame  manner  may  the  canon  be  applied  to  a- 
ny  other  values  of  s  and  d.     By  reverling  the  Aeps  iu 

the  operation,  it  is  eafy  to  fliow,  that  if  x—1 and 

2 


J': 


ference  d. 


.,  the  fum  of  x  3.\\Ay  mufl  be  /,  and  their  dif- 


Exawp.  9.  If  A  and  B  together  can  perform  a  piece 
of  work  in  the  time  «,  A  and  C  together  in  the 
time  b,  and  B  and  C  together  in  the  time  c,  in  what 
time  will  each  of  them  perform  it  alone  .' 

Let  A  perform  the  work  in  the  time  x,  B  in/,  and 
C  iu  z  ;  then  as  the  work  is  the  fame  in  all  cafes,  it 
may  be  reprefcnted  by  unity. 

3  E  2  Br 


412 

of  Equa- 

tio:is. 


A 


E 


By  the  qucftion  ^ 


Mult.  7tli  by 


I (<!  I  : 

I 
2  0- :  I 

3(x:i 
4U  :  I 


Mult.  8th  by ff  1 1 


^ 

y/iu  d  days 

s 

5  in  a  days 

:*:)*  = 

1^ 

/!\nb  days 

0 

C  in  b  days 

,.oi= 

tJ 

B  in  cdays 

„:)i=^ 

0 

C  in  c  days 

z:  I  and  a/  +  ax~yy 

Mult.  9th  by — 

Add  loth, 

I  nil,  1 2th, 
From  13th  fubt. 

twice  loih 
P'loni  I  ;[hfubt 

twice  I  ith 
Kjonvi^thfiibt. 

twice  I2lh 


12 


(>■ 


-+- 
.V       ^ 

_-l =  I  and  bz  +  ^>;  =  xz 

—  +  —  —  I  and  c:  +  y  =  zy 
y       =_ 

■lie      a!>c 

—  +  —  —  be 

^      y 

abc  .  aic 
1 =<JC 

X  z 

abc  ,   abc 

h—  =''b 

y        2 

labc  ,   O-abc  ,  2aAc 

-  + + zzbQ-¥ac  +  ab 

y         = 


14 


15 


16 


2  :lbc 


lobe 

y 

2ubc 


—  ac+ab — be  Si:  — 


lab: 


—  bc-\-ab — acScj  — 


ac+ub  —  b- 
2abc 


=bc  +  ac — ribSc  x  = 


bc  +  ab- 
Ijib: 


-lie 


Example  in  uumb-"'^ 


54 
«nd<r  =  10;  then  x=  14— >>  = 


bc-^  ac  — *'b 

Let  d=  8  days,  i  =  9  days, 

2^  7 

17_^,    and  z  —  23 — . 


49  41  31 

It  appears  likcwife  that  a,  b,  c>  mull  be  fuch,  that  the 
produft  of  any  two  of  them  niuft  be  lefs  than  the  I'um 
of  thcfc  two  niiiltiiJlicd  by  the  third.  This  is  necef- 
fary  to  give  politive  values  of  x,y,  .nnd  z,  which  alone 
can  take  place  in  this  queftion.  Belides,  if  *,j,  and  = 
be  alTuined  as  any  known  numbers  whatever,  and  if 
values  of  a,b,  and  c  be  deduced  from  ilcps  7th,  8th, 
and  9th,  of  the  preceding  operation,  it  will  appcoi", 
that  a,  b,  and  c  will  have  the  property  required  in  the 
limitation  here  mentioned. 

If  a,  b,  and  t  were  fuch.  that  any  of  the  qnantities, 
x,y,  and  z,  became  equal  to  o,  it  implies  that  one  of 
the  agents  did  nothing  in  the  work.  If  the  values  of 
any  of  thcfe  quantities  be  negative,  the  only  fuppofi- 
tion  which  could  give  them  any  meaning  would  be, 
that  fome  of  the  agents,  inftcad  of  promoting  the 
work,  cither  obflrudcd  it,  or  undid  it  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent." 

Examp.  10.    In  qucftion  5th,  let  the  firft  courier  tra- 
vel/) miles  in  n  hours  ;  the  fccond  r  miles  in  j  hours; 
let  the  interval  between  their  fetting  out  be  a, 
Then  by  working  as  formerly, 
qra 


BRA.  Part  I. 

If  particular  valocs  be  infcrtej  for  thefe  letters,  a  Of  involu- 
pariicular  foluiiou  will  be  obuincj  for  that  cafe.     Let  ''o"  ^"'' 
ihcm  denote  the  numbers  in  Example  5.  Evolution. 

^,             /    <ira             J  X  J  X  8         aoo     \ 
Then<  =  (— i = — = =  )  Jo. 

\v—["    sxs  — 7x3     4     ) 

Here  it  is  obvious,  that  yrmull  be  greater  than^i> 
clfc  the  problem  is  impofliblc  ;  for  then  the  value  of 
y  would  either  be  infinite  or  negative.  This  limita- 
tion appears  alio  from  the  nature  of  the  quciUon,  as 
the  fccond  courier  mull  travel  at  a  greater  rate  than 
the  firll,  iu  order  to  overtake  him.     For  the  rate  of 

the  firft  courier  is  to  the  rate  of  the  fecond  as^  to  _ 

?         ' 
that  is.  Zips  to  qr  ;  and  therefore  qr  mull  be  greater 

than /J. 

Schoitum, 

Sometimes  when  there  are  many  known  quantities 
in  a  general  foluiion,  it  may  (implify  the  operation  to 
cxprcfs  certain  combinations  of  them  by  new  leiicrs, 
flill  to  be  confidered  as  known. 

CHAP.     IV. 

Of  Involution  and  Evolution. 

In  order  to  refolve  equations  of  the  higher  orders, 
it  is  nccelTary  to  premife  the  rules  of  luvolution  and 
Evolution. 

Lemma. 

Tlie  reciprocals  of  the  powers  of  .i  quantity  may  be 
exprclTed  by  that  quantity,  with  negative  exponents 
of  the  fame  denomination.     That  is,  the  Itries  a,  1, 

-,    J.,    JL,  _L,&c.maybccxprcfledbya',a°,d — ', 
a      ti'      a'     t^ 
a—',  a— J,  <7— ■",  Sfc. 

For  the  rule  for  dividing  the  powers  of  the  fame 
root  was  to  fubtrafl  the  exponents  ;  if  then  the  index 
of  the  divifor  be  greater  than  that  of  the  dividend,  the 
index  of  the  quotient  mull  be  negative. 

Thus,  —-a'—^  =a—' .     Alfo,  — =— . 
-;5=<i"' — '"—a°.      And,   —=:  i.  and  fo  on  of  others. 

Cor.  I.  Hence  any  quantity  which  multiplies  either 
the  numerator  or  denominator  of  a  fraction,  may  be 
tranfpofed  from  ouc  to  the  other,  by  changing  the 
fign  of  its  index. 


-,&c. 


Thus,  —  =:a;;— ■.    And— =— — 

Cor.  2.  From  this  notation,  it  is  evident  that  thefe 
negative  pc-wers,zi  liiey  arc  called,  are  multiplied  by 
adding,  and  divided  by  fubtraJling  their  exponents. 

Thus,  a- 


Xa — '  —  a — '. 

Or,±x-L=-L=a_'. 
a'      a'      "< 

-—a'  Or,  —  )-  — =<?' 


l.OJ 


Part  I. 

of  Involu- 

tiun  and 

Evolution. 


B       R 


I.    Of  IliVdlutio/l. 

To  find  any  power  of  any  quantity  is  the  bufinefa 
""  of  involution. 

Caf^  I.  Wlicn  the  quantity  is  Cmple. 

Rule.  Multiply  the  exponents  of  the  letters  by  the  in- 
dex of  the  power  rtqiiircJ,  and  raifc  the  coefficient 
to  the  funic  power. 

Thus,  the  2d  power  of  d  is  a"  x'^a' 
The  ?d  power  of  2<3'  is8a'x'=8<»' 
The  5d  power  of  3^^'  is  27a'x'^'X'=27'»'^'. 

For  the  multiplication  would  be  performed  by  the 
continued  addition  of  the  exponents  ;  and  this  multi- 
plication of  them  is  equivalent.  The  fame  rule  holds 
alfo  when  the  figns  of  the  exponents  are  negative. 

Rule  for  the  figns.  If  the  fign  of  the  given  quantity 
is  ■\;  all  its  powers  muft  be  poiltive.  if  the  fio-u 
is  — ,  then  all  its  powers  whole  exponents  are  even 
numbers  are  pofitive  ;  and  all  its  powers  whofc  ex- 
ponents arc  odd  numbers  are  negative. 

This  is  obvious  from  the  rule  for  the  figns  in  multi- 
plication. 

The  laA  part  of  it  implies  the  mod  extenfive  ufc  of 
the  figns  -(-  and  — ,  by  fuppofmg  that  a  negative 
qnantity  may  exift  by  itfclf. 

Cafe  2.  When  the  quantity  is  compound. 

R:ilc.  Tlie  powers  muft  be  found  by  a  coniinual  mul- 
tiplication of  it  by  itfclf. 

Thus,  the  fquarc  of  x-f--  is  found  by  multiplying 

it  into  itfclf.     The  product  is  jr'-f-a.v-|-fL  The  cube 

4 

of  .r-t-_  is  got  by  multiplying  the  fquarc  already 

2 

found  by  the  root,  &c. 

Fraflions  arc  raifcd  to  any  power,  by  rai/ing  both 
numerator  and  denominator  to  that  power,  as  is  evi- 
dent for  the  rule  for  multiplying  fractions  in  Chap.  I. 

^  2-       .  . 

The  involution  of  compound  quantities  is  rendered 
much  ealjer  by  the  binominal  theorem  j  for  wUcU  fee 
Chap.  VI. 

Note.  The  fquare  ot  a  binominal  confifts  of  the 
fquares  of  t\ro  parts,  and  twice  the  product  of  the 
two  parts. 

II.  Of  Evolution. 

Evolution  is  the  rcvcrfe  of  involution;  and  by  it 
powers  are  rcfolvcd  into  their  roots. 

Def.  The  root  of  any  quantity  is  cxprclTed  by  placing 
before  it  ^  (called  a  raiiicut  jigu)  with  a  fmall  fi- 
gure above  it,  denoting  the  denomination  of  tliat 
root. 

Thus,  the  fquare  root  of  a,  is  y/a'or  -fa 

The  cube  root  of  be,  is  ^bc" 

The  4th  root  of  «j'^ — x^,  is  V^ '  i>-~>^ * 


The  z'.th  root  of  c" — s'.-,  is  -J  c' J:'. 

General  Rulefr  the  Signu 

1.  The  foot  of  any  pofitive  power  may  be  f  itlicr  pofi- 
tive or  negative,  if  it  is  denominated  by  an  cvcii 
nuiiibcr  ;  if  the  root  is  denominated  by  an  odd  num- 
ber, it  is  pofitive  only, 

2.  If  the  power  is  negative,  the  root  alfo  is  uegitive, 
wjien  it  is  denoraiii-itcJ  by  an  odd  number. 

3.  If  the  power  is  negative,  and  the  denomination  of 
the  root  even,  then  no  root  caii  be  aifigncd. 

This  rule  is  cafily  deduced  from  that  given  in  invo- 
lution, and  fuppofcs  the  fame  extenfive  \.\(e  of  the  figns 
-Hand —  If  it  is  applied  to  abllraiil:  quanii:ics  in 
which  a  contrariety  cannot  be  fuppofcd,  any  ro<.t  of 
a  politivc  quantity  mull  be  polirive  only ;  and  any  root 
of  a  negative  quantity,  like  itfclf,  is  unintelligible. 

Ill  the  laft  cafe,  though  no  root  can  be  alligiicd,  ytt 
fometinies  it  is  convenient  to  fct  the  radical  fign  before 
the  negative  quaniiiy,  and  then  it  is  called  an /«.;/> (-j7^/i 
or  imaginary  root. 

The  rooi  of  a  pofitive  power,  denominated  by  an 
even  number,hasofteii  thclign  — *—  before  it, denoting' 
that  it  may  have  cither  +  or  — . 

The  radical  fign  may  be  employed  to  exprefs  any 
rootof  any  quantity  whatever  ;  but  fometimes  therooc 
may  be  accurately  found  by  the  following  rules  ;  and 
when  it  cannot,  it  may  often  be  more  conveniently  cx- 
prcflcd  by  the  methods  now  to  be  explained. 

Cafe  I.     When  the  quantity  is  fimple. 

Rtile.  Divide  the  exponents  of  the  letters  by  the  in- 
dex of  the  root  required,  and  prctix  the  root  of  the 
numeral  coefficient. 

1.  The  exponents  of  the  letters  may  be  multiples  of 
the  index  of  the  root,  and  the  root  of  the  coefficient 
may  be  extra<fted. 

Thus,  the  fquare  root  of  a'  —  n'' >— /»■ 

■^Jlla'  —  la''  ■^.■i^a'- 

■Ja-b'--  =a'  b  '''==±zai'. 

2.  The  exponents  of  the  letters  may  not  be  mclil- 
ples  of  the  index  of  the  root,  and  then  they  become 
fradions  ;  and  when  the  root  of  the  coefficient  cannot 
be  extracted,  it  may  alfo  be  exprcirtd  by  a  fradional 
exponent,  its  original  index  being  underllood  to  be  I. 

Thus,  -JiGa'T^—^^i 

■i/lax'  zz^''  a^x=    .jTK.a'^x. 

As  evolution  is  the  reverfe  of  involution,  the  reafon 
of  the  rule  is  evident. 

The  root  of  any  fraction  is  found  by  cxtraifting  that 
root  out  of  both  numerator  and  denominator. 

Cafe  II.     Wlicn  the  quantity  is  compound, 

I.  To  cxtraift  the  fquarc  root. 

Rale.     I.  The  given  quastity  is  to  be  ranged  accord- 
ing to  the  powers  of  the  letters,  a;  \^.  divifion. 

Thfs, 


Of  IlJTnlu. 

tion  and 

r.v<il..«ion. 


414 

Oi'  Involu- 

tivii  anj 
l-.voluiion* 


A 


Tims,  in  the  example  a'  •\-2ab+bt,  the  quantities 

arc  ra!i;)cd  i:i  iliis  nuiiiicr. 

2.  The  fqviarc  root  is  to  be  c-xtraftcd  out  of  the  firft 
term  (by  preceding  rules),  which  gives  the  tint  part 
of  the  root  fought.  Subtrart  its  fquarc  from  the 
given  i|'i,iuii(y,  and  divide  the  firll  term  of  the  re- 
mainder by  double  the  j>art  already  found,  and  tiie 
qnoricnt  is  the  fecond  term  of  the  root. 
Thus,  in  this  exam['lc,  the  remainder  is  za!'+b'  -, 

and  2. li  being  divided  by  za,   the  double  of  the  part 

fou 


F.volutiun. 


E      B       R       A.  Part  I. 

In  cvohition  it  will  often  happen,  that  the  opera-  Of  Involu- 
tion will  not  terminate,  and  the  root^will  be  cxprcfled   ''°n  ^'id 
by  a  fcries. 

Thus,  the  fquarc  root  of  «'-t-.x"  becomes  a  fcries. 

a'  +x'(a-i — 

a' 


_ —  +  — - — ,  &c. 

8a'        iba' 


id  2. li  being  divided  by  2<?,   the  double  of  the  part  ^ 

unJ,  gives  +l>  for  the  fecond  part  of  the  root.  2a +  11     \  *  +  a:' 
Aild  this   fecond   part  to  double  of  the  firll,  and  2a      1 

inukiply  their  fum  by  the  fecond  pan:   Siibirjctthc  v       /   _    ,      x< 

produA  from  the  hit  ren;aindcr,  and  if  nothing  re-  ^^^/    ~'^ '  "*" — ' 


im 

prodi 

main,  the  fquarc  root  is  obtained.  But,  if  there  is 
a  remainder,  it  nuift  be  divided  by  the  double  of  the 
parts  already  found,  and  the  quotient  would  give  the 
tliird  part  of  the  rootj  and  fo  on. 
In  the  laft  example,  it  is  obvious,  thai  a+i  is  the 
fquarc  rout  fought. 

The  entire  operation  is  as  follows. 


a'+2ai-i-f 
a' 

■  !+/^\  +  2a6+6' 
X^v      2^6+i' 


f,i+i 


x> — rtV  -)-fl(  .V  — 
.V  4  V 


2.V'  —  -     \- 

■-0 


-ax'  +  — 


-.V  +  fl 


The  rcafon  of  this  rule  appears  from  the  compofi- 
tion  of  a  fquarc. 

2.  To  extrad  any  other  root. 

Rn/e.  Range  the  quantity  according  to  the  dimen- 
fionsof  its  letters,  and  extraft  the  faid  root  out  of 
the  iirft  term,  and  that  (hall  be  the  firft  member  of 
the  root  required.  Then  raife  this  root  to  a  dinicn- 
fion  lower  by  unity  than  the  number  that  denomi- 
nates the  root  required,  and  multiply  the  power  that 
arifcs  by  that  number  itfclf.  Divide  the  fecond 
terin  of  the  given  quantity  by  the  produft,  and  the 
quotient  ihall  give  the  fecond  member  of  the  root 
required. — In  like  manner  are  the  other  parts  to  be 
found,  by  confidcring  thofc  already  got  as  making 
one  term. 

Th'JS,  the  fifth  root  of 
ti'  +  Sa'i+lOa'/,'  +  \0.-i'i'+S.:6'+i<(^a+l' 


Sa'      )>.<•* 

And  a-i4  raifed  to  the  jth  power  is  the  given  quan- 
tity, and  therefore  it  is  the  root  fought. 


2a  + \* — 

a         Sa'        I  /\a' 

lx_fl   )=-- _!l -f-.il. 


•  +  -!-—__.,  &C. 
8rf'        64a' 

The  cxtradion  of  roots  by  feries  is  much  facilitated 
by  the  binomial  theorem  (Chap.  vi.  Se6I.  ;?.)  By  li- 
milar  rules,  founded  on  the  fame  principles,  arc  the 
roots  of  numbers  to  be  extradled. 

III.     Of  Surds. 

Def.  Qiiantitics  with  frafliional  exponents  arc  call- 
eAfurds,  or  iiiipcrficl  powers. 

Such  quantities  are  alfo  called  irrational ;  m  oppo- 
fition  to  others  with  integral  exponents,  which  arc 
called  rational. 

Surds  may  becxprefTed  cither  by  tlie  fraftional  ex- 
ponents, or  by  the  radical  iign,  the  denominator  of 
the  fraction  being  its  index  ;  and  hence  the  orders  of 
furds  arc  denominated  from  this  index. 

In  ihefoUowingoperations,  however,  it  is  generally 
convenient  to  ufe  the  notation  by  the  fractional  expo- 
nents. 

a'—    ■J a.  'J^b' zziba'' .       \lu'b' ■=.a'*h'* . 

The  operations  concerning  furds  depend  on  the  fol- 
lowing principle  :  If  the  numerator  and  denominator 
of  a  fradional  exponent  be  boili  multiplied  or  both  di- 
vided by  the  fame  quaniity,  the  value  of  the  power  is 

m  mc  m 

the   fame.     Thus  J' —  O^ :    for    let  cP  —  h;    then 

a'^'—b",  and  d"'—lf',   and  extrading  the   root  nc, 

a':t=b"S  =  b=a1 
en        wc  n. 

Levi.  Arational  quantity  may  be  put  into  the  form 
of  a  furd,  by  reducing  its  index  to  the  form  of  a  frac- 
tion of  the  fame  value. 

Thns  a— a''  =  -Ja' 

a'h—a'^b'—    \'a"b' 

Prob.  I.  To  rsduce  furds  of  different  denominations  to 
others  of  the  fame  value  And  of  the  fame  denomination. 

Rule. 


Parti.  A       L        G        ] 

or  Involu.  Rule.     Reduce  the  fraclional  exponents  to  others  of 
tion  anil        the  fame  value  and  having  the  fame  common  dcno- 
Evniution^      minaior. 

3-7—  ■  ,• 

Ex.      -Ja,       y/0'  or  a^,  *f 
h\ita''  —  a^  and  b'^  =^'. 

therefore  V^and    ^b'    arc   rcfpeflivcly  equal    to 
•J/a'   and    y/b* 

Prob.  II.     To  multiply  and  divide  finds. 

I.  When  they  arc  furds  of  the  fame  rational  quantity, 
add  and  fubtrail  their  exponents. 

Thus,  fl'x<J^  =  a^  +  '=<»' '  =' V^~ 


y/a'—b' 


'i; 


■—a' — y'lj  z:'  y/j'. — b' 


i^a- — b'         "—l>'% 

2.  If  they  are  fiirds  of  different  rational  quantities,  let 
them  be  brought  to  others  of  the  fame  denomina- 
tion, if  already  they  are  not,  by  prob.  I.  Then,  by 
inultiplying  or  dividing  thcfe  rational  quantities, 
their  produft  or  quotient  may  be  fet  under  the  com- 
mon radical  fign. 


Thus,  V^x  '/b-a'"b-'  =  ,/jrpr 
— V    a+b       ^ 


^la-- 


\i  the  furds  have  any  rational  coefficients,  their 
produd    or    quotient    mull    be    prefixed.       Thus, 

a  •Jmy.b'Jn-^.ab^liKn.  It  is  often  convenient, 
in  the  operations  of  this  problem,  not  to  bring  the 
fiirds  of  iimple  quantities  to  the  fame  denomination, 
but  to  exprefs  their  product  or  quotient  without  the 
radical  lign,  in  the  fame  manner  as  if  they  were  ra- 
tional quantities.     Thus,  the  produft  in  Ex.  i.  may 

be   a"'^°,  and  the  quotient  in  Ex.  3.  a^^» 

Cor.  If  a  rational  coefficient  be  prefixed  to  a  radical 
fign,  it  may  be  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  fard  by  the 
lemiifa,  and  multiplied  by  this  problem  ;  and  convcrfc- 
ly,  if  the  quantity  under  the  radical  fign  be  divifiblc 
by  a  pcrfeft  power  of  the  fame  denomination,  it  may 
be  taken  out,  and  its  root  prefixed  as  a  cocthcient. 

a^b—^ii'b;  1  X    %/"=    -J^a. 


Coiiv.  .Ja'b^  —  ab  .Jb ;  .Ji^j' — %a'b  —  la^l zb. 

Even  when  the  quantity  under  the  radical  lign  is  not 
divKible  by  a  perfctt  power,  it  may  be  ufeful  fonic- 
timcs  to  divide  furds  into  tlicir  component  fadlors,  by 
revcrling  the  operation  of  this  problem. 


:       B       R       A, 

Prob.  III.  To  involve  or  evolve  Surli. 

This  is  performed  by  the  fame  rules  as  in  other 
quantities,  by  multiplying  or  dividing  their  exponents 
by  the  index  of  the  power  or  root  required. 

The  notation  by  negative  exponents,  rncn'ioncj  in 
the  lemma  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter,  i-  appli- 
cable to  fractional  exponents,  in  the  fauic  UMUncr  ^s 
to  integers. 

Scholium. 

The  application  of  the  rules  of  this  chapter  to  the 
rcfolving  of  equations,  fhall  be  explained  in  the  fuc- 
cceding  chapters,  which  treat  of  the  folution  of  the  dif- 
ferent claflcs  of  them  ;  but  fome  examples  of  their  ufe 
in  preparing  equations  for  a  folution  are  the  following. 

If  a  member  of  an  equation  be  a  furd  root,  then  the 
equation  may  be  freed  from  any  furd,  by  bringing  that 
member  firft  to  ftand  alone  upon  one  fide  of  the  equa- 
tion, and  then  taking  away  the  radical  lign  from  it, 
and  railing  the  other  iide  to  the  power  denominated  by 
the  index  of  that  furd. 

This  operation  becomes  a  necefury  flep  towards  the 
folution  of  an  equation,  when  any  of  the  unknown 
quantities  are  under  the  radical  fign. 

Example.     If;/x' — w  ^^yzza+y 
Then  jVx' — a-  ■=.^^y 
and  9x1:'  — " '  —a'  — 2tt\  +y • 

If  the  unknown  quantity  be  found  on"y  under  tiie 
radical  fign,  and  only  of  the  firfl  dimcnlion,  the  equa- 
tion will  become  Iimple,  and  may  be  rcfolved  by  the 
preceding  rules. 


Thus  Vib  =  V''X^i,    '  y/a'b — bx-  =  >  ./bu />.x 


Of  fnv.ilu- 
tinn  3nJ 

Evulurio!-, 


Thus,    if  'V/p-f  i6-»-3  =9 
Then  V4X+T6  zi  4 
And  4.V  -)-  16  =  64 
4.V  =  48 
And  x  =  12 

If  '"Va-  X — 6'  X  —a 
Then  a'  x—b'xzza"" 


tT 


a'—b' 


If  the  unknown  quantity  in  a  final  equation  has 
fraclional  exponents,  by  means  of  the  preceding  rules 
a  new  equation  may  be  fublUtutcd,  in  which  the  ex- 
ponents of  the  unknown  quantity  are  integers. 

Thus,  if  xT+3j:' =10,  by  reducing  the  furds  to 

the  fame  denomination,  it  becomes  a'^ -f.  i.v'  =io- 

and  if  =  =  X',  then  z'+  is*  =  ,0  ;  and  if  this  equa- 
tion be  rcfolved  from  a  value  of  =,  a  value  of  x  may  be 
got  by  the  rules  of  the  next  chapter.     Thus  alfo,  if 

x  +  2x^—i!,x^—ioo.  If  .v''  =  ;,  this  equation  be 
comes  2*-»-  22  ' — iz'  =  ico. 

In  general,  \ixt-\-x^  —  a.  by  reducing  the  furds 
J         //  " 

to  the  fame  denomination  xtZ  +  x2I^—a,     and   if 

»q  qri 

X——  -,  thcu  the  equation  is  s"  -»-  ;""  z:^,  in  w'.  ich 

l'..0 


4i6  'fA      L      G 

Kquaiions.  the  exponents  of  z  arc  integers ;  and  z  being  found,  x 

is  to  be  found  from  the  equation  at — =3. 

?" 

CHAP.     V. 

Cquations  were  divided  into  orders  according  to 
ihcliigliediiidtxof  the  unknown  quantity  inany  icrni. 
(chap.  ;;.) 

Equations  arc  cither  pure  or  aJfiHed. 

Def.  I.  A  pure  equation  is  that  in  which  only  one 
power  of  the  unknown  quantity  is  found. 

2.  An  adlelled  equation,  is  that  in  which  different 
powers  of  the  unknown  quantity  arc  found  in  the  ic- 
vcral  terms. 


E      B       R       A. 


/;'. 


b—e 


■^  =  JtL: 


m      I- 

/  1/  —  t 


Thus,  a'  +ax 

quations. 
And  X' — ax  —  i, 


zzi',  ax' — i'  —m'  +  \'  are  pure  e- 

X '  +  .\ '  r:  r  7,  are  adfcfled. 

1 .  Soliilion  of  pure  Equations. 

Rale.  Make  the  power  of  the  unknown  qitantity  to 
/land  alone  by  the  rules  formerly  given,  and  then  ex- 
tract the  root  of  tlic  fame  denomination  out  of  boih 
fides,  wliich  will  give  the  value  of  the  unJinown 
quantity. 


Ex  A 


■I  r  L  E  s . 


Ua' 


ax'  ■=!! 

1 

ax" — izzx"" — c 

ax' =6' 

— a' 

ax'"—x''---b—c 

The  index  of  the  power  may  alfo  befraftional  ;  as 
in  the  Isil  example  //i  may  be  any  number  whatever. 
Let  OT  =  ^,  then  as  before, 

h-c 


And.v  = 


Sometimes  different  powers  of  the  unknown  qiian- 
tiiy  are  found  in  the  equation,  yet  t)ie:feveral  terms 
may  form  on  one  fide  a  perfect  power,  of  which  the 
root  being  cxtraded,  the  equation  will  become  fimple. 

Thus,  if  *' — 12*'  4-48x1398,  it  is  eafy  to  ob- 
fcrve  tiiat*'  — 12.»:'  -I- 48jt- — 64  =  34  ;  forming  acom- 
plete   cube  j    of    which  the  root    being    extraded, 

.V— 4=    ^34-     And*=:4+.   v/p,- 

Exajiip.  I.  To  find  four  continued  proportionals,  of 
which  the  fumof  the  extremes  is  56,  and  the  fum 
of  the  means  24. 

To  refolve  the  qneffion  in  general  terms,  let  the  fum 
of  the  extremes  be  a,  the  fum  of  the  means  b,  and  let 
the  difference  of  the  extremes  be  called  r,  and  the  dif- 
Icrence  of  tlie  means/. 


The  proportionals  are 

Mult,  by  2  and  dill 
From  the  three  firil 
From  the  three  lall 
3d  added  to  4th 
4th  fubt.  from  3d 

6th  reduced 

7th  fnbfl.  for  z  in  jth 

Tranfp.  and  divide  8th  by  • 


In  numbers 


Then  by  Ex.  8.  chap.  3. 

}-z     /'+y 


b — y  _  t< 
2  2 

a-^z  ■■^b-¥y  '■  b—y  :  a- 
ab — ay-\-bz — zy—b '  +2by+y  ' 


ai+ay — bz — :/nzi"- 
2ab — 22)'— 2^ '  +2y ' 
2*2 — 2a)=44)' 

2iy+ay 
z=  -^-7 


-2by+ji ' 


2ab—2X 


2by 


'j^=2b^+,r 


.tb'—b'  =  ^by'+ay' 

ab'—i' .•^A-.-J'lEEEL 


.  rr^y'  2\\iy  : 


lb-Ira  ■^2^+"       

fab'—b'       I    I "—''  I    32    _ 


12 


Hence  the  four  proportionals  ars  J4,  18,  6,  2  ;  and 
it  appears  that  b  mufl  be  greater  than  a,  otherwifc 
the  root  becomes  impolfible,  and  the  problem  would 
alfo  be  impoffible  ;  which  limitation  might  be  deduced 
alfo  from  prop.  2$.  V.  of  Euclid. 

2.  Solution  ofa.ifeliei  Quadratic  Equations. 

Adfcc^ed  equations  of  different  orders  are  refolvcd 
by  different  rules,  fuccelTively  to  be  explained. 

An  adfcded  quadratic  equation  (commonly  called  a 
quadratic)  involves  the  unknown  quantity  itfelf,  and 
alfo  its  fquare :  It  may  be  refolvcd  by  the  following 


■ib 
b 


Rule.  I.  Tranfpofe  all  the  terms  involving  the  nn- 
known  quantity  to  one  lidc,  and  the  known  terms 
to  the  other  ;  and  fo  that  the  term  containing  the 
fquare  of  the  unknown  quantity  may  be  pofitive. 

2.  If  the  fquare  of  the  unknown  quantity  is  multiplied 
by  any  coefficient,  all  the  terms  of  the  equation  arc 
to  !)e  divided  by  it,  fo  that  the  coefficient  of  the 
fquare  of  the  unknown  quantity  may  be  i. 

5.  Add  to  bo;h  fides  the  fquare  of  half  the  coefficient 
of  the  unknown  quantity  itfelf,  and  the  fide  of  the 
equation  involving  the  unknown  quantity  will  be  a 
complete  fquare. 

z^.  Extrai5t 


A       L       G 

A.  ExiJail  the  fquiire  root  from  both  liilcs  of  the  c- 

•   quaiioii,  by  which  it  becomes  finijilc,  and  by  tranf- 

pufing  the  abovcmcntioned  half  coefficient,  a  value 

of  the  iiuknown  quantity  is  obtained  ill  liiiowu  terms, 

and  therefore  the  equation  is  refolved. 

The  reafon  of  this  rule  is  manifefl  from  the  conipo- 
fiiion  of  the  I'quaru  of  a  binomial,  for  it  conliftsof  the 
fqiiarcs  of  the  two  ])arts,  and  twice  the  produA  of  the 
iwa  parts.   [Nou,  at  the  end  of  Chap.  IV.) 

The  different  forms  of  quadratic  equations,  cxprcf- 
fcd  in  general  terms,  being  reduced  b/chc  firitaudfc- 
rond  parts  of  ihe  rule,  are  thefe  ; 

I .       .V  ■  +  ax  ~  i4  ■ 


E       B       R       A. 


4'7 


3- 
Cafe  I. 


— axz: — b 
+  axzzb' 
a' 


+_=:^'+: 


2  V 4 

.v==t=    Ib^+tL-'. 

V  4        : 

Cafe  2.       x'—ax~b' 


x'-ax+'H-b'-^t. 


2  -^ J 

.=z±=!=     A- +11 

2  V  A 


Cafe  3.       X' — axzz — b' 


X' — .JX+ — •=. —  —  (' 


2  V     4. 


2  V    4 

Of  thefe  cafes  it  may  be  obferved, 
7.  That  if  it  be  fiippofcd,  that  the  fquare  root  of  a 
)»efitive  quantity  may  be  cither  pofttive  or  n<fj;ative,  ac- 
cording to  the  moll  cxtcnfive  ufc  of  the  ligus,  every 
quadratic  equation  will  have  two  roots,  except  fuch  of 
the  third  form,  whole  roots  become  irapoffiblc. 

2.  It  is  obvious,  that,  in  the  two  firll  forms,  one  of 
:h?  roots  mufl  be  pofiiive,  and  the  other  negative. 

3.  la.  tic  third  form,  il— ,  or  the  fq^arc  of  half. 

4 
the  coefRcieutof  the  unknown  quantity,  be  greater  than 
i',  tilt  known  qiantity,  ibc  two  roots  will  be  poli- 

tivc.     If  1- be  equal  to  ^',  the  two  rooi^  thca  be- 

come  equal. 

But. i£iathr»  third  raCc is  Isfs  than   b',    the 

ouantity  und«r  the  radical  lignbccomcs  negative,  and 
the  two  roots  are  therefore  iuipoffiblc  This  may  be 
eafily  (howu  to  arifc  from  an  impolEble  fiippoiitioii  in 
tlic  urigiiul  cqiiatiui), 

4.  If  (he  equation,  however,  cxprels  the  xaluion  o£ 
magnitudes  a bilraaiy  conliJered,  where  acojitririciy 
caiinot  by  fjppcfcd  to  take  place,  ihe  negative  roots 
cannot  be  of  ufc,  or  rather  there  are  no  facli  roots ; 

Vol.  I. 


for  then  a  negative  quantity  by  iifclf  is  uniutelligible,  Hquatlon. 

and  therefore  the  fquare  root  of  a  pofiiive  quantity  "      ' 

nmil  be  pofuive  only.     Hence,  in  the  two  firil  cafes, 

there  will  be  only  one  root ;  but  in  the  third,  there 

will  be  two.     For  in  this  third  cafe,  x' — ax=. — b' , 

or  ay. — x'~b',  it  is   obvious   that  x  may   be  either 

greater  or  lefs  than  \a,  and  yet  nx  may  be  poUii^e  ; 

and  hence  « — >y.rziax — x'  may  alfo  be  pofiiive,  and 

may  be  equal  to  a  given  politive  quantity  b '  :  therefore 

the  fquare  root  of  .x' — ax-{-ia'  may  be  cither  x~-\a 

or  [a — X,  and  both  thefe  quantities  allb  politive. 


Let  then  x 


-1-    711 -: 
2        V    4 


b'   and  X—. 


and  hence. 


hlL—b'.    Alfo  let  1—xz:    I—  —  1 
V    4  2  ^4 

X—- —    / ^•,and  thefe  are  the  fame  twopniiiive 

roots  as  were  obtained  by  the  general  rule. 

The  general  rule  isufually  employed,  even  in  quc.- 
flions  where  negative  numbers  cannot  take  place,  and 
then  the  negative  roots  of  the  two  firll  forms  arc  nc- 
gledcd.  Somttimcsonc  only  even  uf  the  politive  root? 
of  the  third  cafe  can  be  ufed,  and  the  other  may  be 
excluded  by  a  particular  condition  in  the  qucitioi'. 
When  an  inipolfiblc  root  arifcs  in  the  lolution  of  a 
qucftion,  and  if  it  be  refolved  in  general  terms,  the 
ncccflary  limitation  of  the  data  will  be  dilcovtrcJ. 

When  a  queflion  can  be  fo  ftatcd  as  10  produce  -j, 
pure  equaiioil,  it  is  generally  to  be  preferred  to  an  ad- 
feded.  Thus  the  queftiou  in  the  preceding  feclion, 
by  the  moft  obvious  notation,  would  produce  an  ad- 
fefted  cquatioQ. 

2.  Scliition  oj  Qu  eft  torn  prfitludng  Qvadrat'.t  EqiiaU'itu. 

The  exprefllon  of  the  conditions  of  the  queftion  by 
equations,  or  the  Haling  of  it,  and  the  rcduciiuu  like- 
wife  of  thefe  equations,  till  we  arrive  at  a  quailratic  c- 
quation,  involving  only  one  unknown  quamity  and  its 
lquare,are  ctrcrtcd  by  the  fame  ruks  \v  hich  were  givca 
for  the  folutioQ  of  fimple  equations  in  Civip  f.iL 

Examp.  2.  One  lays  out  a  certain  futn  of  nionty  ia 
goods,  which  he  (old  again  for  L.24,  arid  gained  as 
much  per  cent,  as  the  goods  coft  him  :  1  demand 
what  they  toft  him  \ 

If  the  money  laid  \ 

out  be  3 

The  gain  will  be 
But   this  gain  is  ~i 
0':24— j::  100:)  j 
Therefore   by      ) 

qucftion  5 

And  by  mult,  and  ir. 
Completing  the   ~) 

fquare  3 

F.xtr.  the  roet 
Tranfp. 


24— ..>! 

;  400^  ?  cq»i 


ypr  ofnr. 


_24oo — rcoji, 


.)  '-Hocj  rr  2400 

^'+  icoi  +  5a/=:240C+25co 

:        =49-0      

J +5<i=  ;-i=V490>^=  70 
iS    ^=:=!=:70 — 50  =  3001:— 120- 

Thc  anfwer  is  :ol  which  fticcceds.  The  other 
root,  —  120,  has  nu  phce  in  this  example,  a  negative 
number  being  here  uniutclliirible. 

Any  qiiadiatic  equation  may  be  refolved  slfo  by  the 

general  canons  at  the  beginning  of  this  fcdiqn.    That 

3  G  arilitig 


4-1 B 


L 


E 


jDquatioct.  ariiiiigfrom  this  qiicftion,  (No.  y.)  belongs  tu  Cafe  I. 
'  and  rfr:  100,  i' =2400;  therefore. 


00  , 


/  ' ^^    +  2400:^:20  or  —  120  as  before. 

Excmp.  3.  What  two  numbers  are  ihofe,  whofc  dift'er- 
cncc  is  I  J,  and  hilf  of  whufc  produfl  is  equal  to  the 
cube  ot  the  Iclfcr  ? 


Let  the  IcfTer  lumiber  be  i 
1  he  greater  is  2 

By  qiieftion 


Divide  by  *and  mult, 
by  2. 

4th  prepared 
Complete  fquarc 
Ext.  -J. 
Tranfp.     - 


.V+I5 


;r+I5=2X- 

2    2 
2    16 

r      _._ 


2 
II 

4 


I  . 

■76' 


.121 
"  16 


*  =  3  or  —  i 

2 


Therefore  by  queflion  i 
Complete  the  fquare    2 

Ext.  V~ 

Tranfp. 

And  the  other  number 


ax. — X'  =^  or  X' 


— ax  + = * 

4       4 


2  V    4 

2         V  4 


B       R.       a:  Partr. 

By  inferting  numbers,  y  —  T\  or  29  and  a — .v=:29  i;.iii»tioin. 
or  71,  fothat  tlie  two  numbers  fought  are  71  and  29.  '       ^f—' 
Hire  it  is  to  be  obfervcil,  that  b  imift  not  be  greater 

thanl_,  clfc  the  roots  of  the  equation  would  be  im- 

4 
poflible  ;  that  is,  the  given  produfl  muft  not  be  great- 
er thau  the  fquarc  of  half  the  given  fum  of  the  num- 
bers fought.  This  limitation  can  eafiiy  be  fliown  from 
other  principles  ;  for,  the  grcated  poiFible  product  of 
two  parts,  into  which  any  number  may  be  divided,  is 
wlien  each  of  them  is  a  half  of  it.     If  b  l>e  equal  to 


f_,  there  is  only  one  folution,  and  .v  =  _, 
4  2 

a 


alfo  a — .V 


Examp.  J.  There  are  three  numbers  in  continual  ge- 
ometrical proportion  :  The  fum  of  the  firfl  and  fc- 
condis  10,  and  ihe  diffcrcnceof  the  fecond  and  third 
is  24.     What  are  the  numbers  \ 

Let  the  firft  be        i   z 

2  10 — 2 

3  ?4— 2 

• 202-4-100  =  342 2' 


The  numbers  therefore  are  3  and  18,  which  anfwer 
tkc  conditions.  This  is  aii  example  of  Cafe  2d,  and 
tl'c  negative  root  is  negleded. 

A  folution,  indeed,  may  be  reprefented  by  means  of 

he  negative  root  —  i;  for  then  the  other  number  is 

..,+  ij  =  )_I+ij  — i£.     Andlx^ix  — £,  ise- 
2  2  222 

qual  to  the  cube  of — 1.    Such  a  folution,  though  ufe- 

lefs,  and  even  abfurd,  it  is  plain  mud  correfpsnd  to  the 
conditions,  if  thofe  rules  with  regard  to  the  ligns  be 
ufed  in  the  application  ofit,  by  which  it  was  itfelf  de- 
duced. The  fame  obfervation  may  be  extended  even 
to  impoflible  roots  ;  which  being  alfumed  as  the  anfwer 
of  aquellion,  mufl,  by  revcrfing  the  (leps  of  the  inve- 
ftigation,  corrtfpond  to  the  original  equations,  by 
which  the  conditions  of  that  queflion  wcreexprefled. 

Examp.  4.     To  find  two  numbers  whofe  fum  is  100, 
and  whofc  produift  is  2059. 

Let  the  given  fum  100  =  ^,  the  product  2059  =  1^, 
and  let  one  of  the  nun\bers  fought  be  x,  the  other  will 
be  a — X.     Their  produd  is  ax — .v. 


Thcfecond  willbe 
And  the  third 
Since  z  :  10 — 2  : 

34—2 
Tranfp. 
Divid. 


-ax~ — b 


■■\ 


Compl.  the  fquare 

Extract  the  -J 
Tranfp. 


:ii=25 


or  2. 


f     22' J42= 100 

6  2" — 272= — 50 

2-_27=+ilT=^-50=^2 
2I      _4_  4 

._27__j_     /529_^_23 
2  ^4  2 

2  2 

But  though  there  are  two  pofitive  roots  in  this  equa- 
tion, yet  one  of  them  only  can  here  be  of  ufe,  the  o- 
ther  being  excluded  by  a  condition  in  the  queflion. 
For  as  the  fum  of  the  tirll  and  fecond  is  10,  25  can- 
not be  one  of  them  :  2  therefore  is  the  firfl,  and  the 
proportionals  will  be  2,  8,  32. 

This  rcftridion  will  alfo  appear  from  the  explana- 
tion given  of  the  third  form,  to  which  this  equatioa 

belongs.     For  2  may  be  lefs  than  iZ,  but  from  the 

2 
firfl  condition  of  the  queftion  it  cannot  be  greater ; 

hence  the  quantity  2* — 272-4-—  can  have  only  one 

2) 

27 
fquare  root,  viz - — 2  ;  and  this  being  put  equal  to 

2 

J  ^'1,  we   have  by  tranfpofition  z=:_ — 11=2, 
^4  22 

which  gives  the  only  juft  folution  of  the  queflion. 

From  the  other  root,  indeed,  a  folution  of  the  que- 
flion may  be  reprefented  by  means  of  a  negative  quan- 
tity. If  the  firfl  then  be  2j,  the  three  proportionals 
will  be  2  J, — 15,  9.  Tliefc  alfo  niufl  anfwer  the  con- 
ditions, according  to  the  rules  given  for  negative 
quantities,  though  fuch  a  folution  has  no  proper 
meaning. 

Befides,  it  is  to  be  obfervcd,  that  if  the  following 
queftion  be  propofcd,  '  To  find  three  numbers  in  geo- 
metrical j)roportion,  fo  that  the  difterence  of  the  i/l 

and 


Parti:  A      L      G       ] 

Equation*  and  2d  maybe  10,  and  the  fumof  the  2d  and  3d  may  be 

' V '  24/ the  equation! :  flep  6th  will  be  produced  ;  tor,ii  the 

ift  be  =,  the  fecond  is  z — 10,  and  the  third  34 — 2,  and 
therefore  343 — 2'  =z'  —  20^+100,  the  very  fame  c- 
quation  as  in  flep  4th.  In  this  qucltion  it  is  plain  that 
the  root  25  only  can  be  ufclul,  and  the  three  propor- 
tionals arc  25,  15,  9. 

But  the  nccclFary  limitations  of  fuch  a  problem  are 
properly  to  be  derived  from  a  general  notation.  Let 
the  fiim  of  the  two  firll  proportionals  be  a,  and  the 
difference  of  the  two  lall  h.  If  a  is  not  greater  than 
t;  the  firfl  term  muft  be  tlic  Icafl ;  but  h" «  be  greater 
than  b,  the  firll  term  mull  be  either  the  greatefl  or  the 
lea  ft. 

When  the  firfl  term  is  the  leaft,  the  proper  nota- 
tion of  the  three  terms  is  z,  a — z,a-irb — z,  and  the 


equation  when  ordered  is  2" — — —  2  =  — — 

22 


If  the 


lirfl  term  be  the  greatefl,  and  then  a  is  greater  than  b, 
the  notation  of  the  terms  is  2,  a — z,  a — b — 2,  and  the 

correfponJing  equation  is  z*  —  1 :3 — _  . 

2  3    . 

Of  the  firfl  of  thefe  equations  it  may  be  oblerved, 
that  whatever  be  the  value  of  a  and  b,  the  fquarc  of 

— i_,  viz.  of  half  the  cotfhcient  of  2,  is  greater  than 

— ,  and  therefore  the  roots  arc  always  pofTible,  If  the 

fquare  be  completed,  and  the  roots  extracted,  rhey  be- 

-lf±i-=2^ilt^l^,  andil±f 

4  4*4" 


come 


V37+A)  _- 8rt' 


But  in  this  cafe  2  is  the  lead  of 
4 
the  three  terms,  and  therefore  a  is  greater  than  2x,  or 

f  is  greater  than  2  ;  much  more  then  is  ^        .  great- 
er than  z  ;  and  therefore  the  fecond  root  only  can  be 


admitted,  and  2  — 


■ia-k-b- 


^a. 


:^'—Sa' 


is  the  on- 


ly proper  fohuion. 

In  the  fecond  equation,  fincc  a  is  greater  than  b, 

^       -  muA  be  always  pofitive,  and  therefore  the  equa- 

2 
lionisncceirarilyof  ihc  third  form.     But  the  roots  arc 

pofllble  only  when  ■ ''      I     is  not  lefs  than  f-,    that 

4    1  2 

is,  when  a'  +b'  is  not  Icfs  than  .6a6,  or  when  /i — b  is 

not  Icfs  than  1^ ab.     When  the  roots  are  poifible,  2 

may  be  either  grcatcror  lefs  thanlfZI-,    and    hence 

4 
each  root  gives   a  proper  fohition  j  therefore,    z  zz 

ya — bz±:z^  7,^—  ^' — '•'■u' . 


Ex.  Let  a=:40  and  ^r:-6.  The  firft  term  in  this 
cafe  may  be  allunied  either  as  the  grcatell  or  the  Icall. 
And,  tirll,  if  z  be  the  grcjtrfl,  the  roots  of  the  equa- 
tion will  be  pollible,  fincc  [a'-^b'—)  I'f^d  is  greater 
than  (6<j^=:)  1440.  The  two  values,of  2  are  32  and 
25,  and  ihc  proportionals  arc  either  32,  8,  j,  or  2  j, 
15,  9.    aa'/c.  If  2  be  alFiiined  the  leall  of  the  propor- 


i       B       R       A. 

tionals,  (he  two  roots  of  the  equation  arc  pofllble,  but 
one  of  them  only  can  be  applied;  which  is  17.63J 
nearly  ;  and  the  iliree  proportionals  are  17.63  j,  22.36  j, 
and  2S.365,  nearly,  the  roots  of  the  equation  being  iu- 
comwcalurdte. 

In  like  manner  may  the  limitations  of  the  other 
quciUou  abovcmentioncd  be  afcertained. 

I  hough  the  preceding  quellions  have  been  fo  con- 
trived that  the  anfwers  may  be  integers,  yet  in  practice 
it  will  moll  commonly  happen  that  they  niuft  be  furds. 
When  in  any  quellion  the  root  of  a  number  which  is 
not  a  perfect  fquare  is  to  be  Ci-.tratted,  it  may  be  con- 
tinued in  decimals,  by  the  common  arithmetical  rule, 
to  any  degree  01  accuracy  which  the  nature  of  the  fub- 
jeirt  may  require. 

Scholium. 

An  equation,  in  the  terms  of  which  two  powcr^ 
otily  of  the  unknown  quantity  are  found,  and  fuch  that 
the  index  of  the  one  is  double  that  of  the  other,  may, 
by  the  preceding  rules,  be  reduced  to  a  pure  equation, 
and  may  ihcrelore  be  relblved  by  \  I.  of  this  chapter. 

Such  an   equation  may   generally  be  rcprefented 

thus : 


419 


li<luatioo« 


Andx"  (=z)=:=i=zf=i=^l_=r=A' 


Therefore   xz 


Exnvip.  15.  To  lind  two  numbers,  of  which  the  pro- 
ducl   is  IQO,   and  the  dilfercncc  of  their   fquarc-, 
roots  3. 

Let  the  Icfs  be  x,  _  100 
the  greater  is 

Byqneftioil  j  L£_ ^J x  —  x 

^  X 

[  o — .V  =  5  vT  =:  3.rT 


3  2 

.x  =  4  or  X  — 25, 


and  .t"'  =  2  or- 


If  A=4,  the  other  number  is  2J  ;  and  this  is  the 
proper  folution,  forx  wasfuppofcd  to  be  ihc  Icall.  Ja 
this  cafe,  indeed,  tlie  negative  root  of  the  equation 
being  applied  according  to  the  rules  tW  negative  quan- 
tities, gives  a  pofuive  anfwer  to  the  queltiou  ;  and  if 
i  =  2j,  the  other  number  is  4. 

The  fame  would  have  been  got,  by  fubftituiing  in 
the  general  theorem  vi  —  \y  az:;,  and  i^'nio;  or,  if 
the  lefs  number  had  been  called  .v,  the  equation  would 
not  have  had  fractional  exponents. 

CHAP.     VI. 
Of  hidetervunate  Prtbltms. 

It  was  formerly  obferved  (Chap  III. J,  that  if  there  ■ 
arc  more  unknown  qnantitics  in  a  quefUoa  than  cqua- 
3  G  2  tious  • 


420 

liitletcrmi- 

n:.ic  Vto- 

hlcms. 


A       L       G       E       B 

lion;  l»y  wliiclt  tnijrr  rdhv:CTi>s  avc  <rxi»rcrt(M<,  it  is  inde- 
tcrniiiicd  ;  or  h  m^y  idmit  of  an  Lnfiiiiie  imiuberof 
jiiifwcr^.  Other  ciiCiimftaaccs,  however,  iiKSiy  limit 
tlic  niiniUer  in  a  certain  mai'i>cr  ;  and  titrfcnrc  v.irioi>s, 
according  to  the  nacnic  o(  the  prihlcm.  Tlic  contri- 
vances by  which  (uch  problems  arc  refolved  arc  (o  very 
didtrcu'iii  different  cafes,  that  they  camtot  becora- 
•f  rc'heiided  in  general  nibs. 
Exanip.  I.  To  divide  a  given  fqiiarc  number  into  two 

j'arts,  each  of  which  Ihall  be  a  f.]iuire  number. 

There  arctwo  quantir'isifiiuelu  iiiilusaiieftion,iad 
there  is  only  or. c  equation  cxprciliugtUoir  relation  ; 
but  it:is  required  alTu  that  they  may  be  rationfA,  which 
circumftancc  cannot  be  cxpreUed  by  an  equation  :  ano- 
ther condition  therefore  mult  be  aflumcd,  in  fucfc  a 
manner  as  to  obtain  a  foliuioti  in  rational  numbers. 

Lot  the  given  fqiiare  be  a'  r  let  one  of-thc  fquares 
fought  be  V,  the  other  is  «• — x'.  Let  r* — a  aUb 
be  al!d«  of  rhis  laft  lqu»rc,  therefore 

r '  X '  —--irxa-^-a '  —a '  — .v  * 
Bvtranfp.  r'A- -f-*'=2r*a 

D'ividcby*  r'x-^x-ira 

Therefore  *— 


•R       A. 

I,  or  a  numhcr  dlvifiblc ly  4. 


Then 


J!-t-t» 


aad 


Pact  I. 

« — V  ^n(^elc^nli- 


r-+I 


l^CI 


And  rx 
therefore  be 


alTunicd  at  pkafure,  and 


2ra 
r'+i, 


r'^a — a 


which  muft  always  be  rational,  will  be  the 

fides  of  the  two  fquares  required. 

Thus,  if  a' =  too  ;  then  if  r=?,  the  fides  of  the 
two  fquares  are  6  and  8,  for  36+6  4=  100. 

Alfolet  <j' =64.     Then  if  rr:  2,   the  fides  of  the 

.  52    „ . 24    „„,To24,  576     1600      , 

•  Squares  arc  ;_  and  _  ;  and 1+- — = —64. 

'  5  J  25         25         2j 

The  reafon  of  the  alTumption  of  rx — a  as  a  fide  of 
the  fquarc  a' — *:',is  that  being  fquared  and  put  equal 
to  this  laft,  the  equation  manife/Uy  will  be  fimple,  awl 
the  root  of  fuch  an  equation  is  always  rational. 

Examp.  2.  To  find  two  fquare  numbers  whofc  differ- 
encc  is_givcn. 

Let  X'  and>'  be  the  fquare  numbers,  and  a  their 
difference. 


Put 


S-+-- 


-=*> 


—  X 


and  I 


■-y 


zv  —  {x'—y'  =  )^. 
If  X  axi&j  are  required  only  10  be  rational,  then  take 
V  at  pleafure,  and  «=:_,  whence  x  and  j"  are  known. 

V 

But  if  X  and  J'  arc  required  to  be  whole  numbers, 
take  for  2  and  v  any  two  factors  that  produce  a,  and 
arc  both  even  or  both  odd  numbers.  And  this  is  pof- 
frble  only  where  a  is  cither  an  odd  number  greater  than 


i,  2 

srcthe  nambcrs  foug;ht. 

•  For  fh;  prodii(51  -of  two  odd  fnirabcrc  Tis  odd,  nnd 
that  of  two  even  aumbcrs  is  diviliblc  by  /].     ^Ifo,  if 

z  and  V  arc  botli  odd  or  Loth  even,' '.  and  5     " 

2  2 

•niufl  be  integers. 

Ex.  I.  IxazziT,  lake  0  =  1,  tJicn  z:^7;  and  the 
/guarcs  are  1^6  and  169.  Or  a  may  be  9  and  v  —  ^, 
and  then  the  Iquarcs  acc  ;6and  9. 

2.  \(  azz.12,  take  »  =  2,  and  2:::6  ;  and  the  fquares 
avc-i6  and  4. 

Exami.  3.  To  find  a   fum  of  money  in  pounds  and 
fliilliags,  whofc  half  is  jull  its  rcvcrfe. 

Note.     The  rcverfc  qf  a  fum  of  money,  as  ■81.  las. 
.is  lal.  Ss. 

Let  X  be  tjie  pounds  and  ^  the  fliillings. 
Theifum  required  is  20x-f-y 
Itsireverfcis       -       aq)H-x 

Therefore  -    l£ilti  =  2q)+x 
2 
20x-j-_>'=4q>+2x 

i8x=:39/ 
x:>:  :  (39:  18::)  13  :6 

In  this  equation  there  are  two  unknown  quantities  ; 
and,  in  general,  any  two  numbers  of  which  the  pro- 
portion is  that  of  13  to  6  will  agree  to  it. 

But,  from  the  nature  of  this  qucflion,  13  and  6  are 
the  only  two  that  can  give  the  proper  aiifwer,  viz. 
13I.  6s.  for  its  reverfe  61,  13s.  is  juft  its  half. 

The  ratio  of  x  and^  is  expreflcd  in  the  loweft  inte- 
gral terms  by  13  and  6  ;  any  other  cxpreflion  of  ii,  as 
the  next  greater  26  and  12,  will  not  fatisty  the  pro- 
blem, as  12I.  26s.  is  not  a  proper  notation  of  money 
in  pounds  aud  Ihillings. 

CHAP.    vn. 

Demoiifl  rations  of  Theorems  by  Algebra. 

Algebra  may  be  employed  for  the  dcmonftration 
of  theorems,  with  regard  to  all  thofe  -quantities  con- 
cerning which  it  may  be  ufed  as  an  analyfis  ;  and  from 
the  general  method  of  notation  and  rcafoning,  it  pof- 
fclles  the  fame  advantages  in  the  one  as  in  the  other. 
The  three  firft  feftions  of  this  chapter  contain  fome  of 
the  moft  fimple  properties  of  feries  which  are  of  fre- 
quent  ufe  ;  and  the  lafl,  mifcellaneous  crumples  of  the 
properties  of  algebraical  quantities  and  numbers. 

I.  Oj  Arithmetical  Series, 

Def.  When  a  number  of  quantities  increafe  or  de- 
creafe  by  the  fame  common  dificrence,  thty  form  aa 
arithmetical  feries. 


naic  Pro- 
blem!. 


1,  ti+6,  a-^i,  «+3^»  6fC,  X,    X — b,  X — 7^, 

2>  3,  4;  5>  *>  &c.  and  8,  6,  4,  2,  &c. 

Prof.  In  an  aruhmctical  feries,  the  fum  of  the  firft 

and 


Thus, 
&c. 
Alfo,  I, 


Parti. 


O       E       B       R 


42* 


I^cmoii-    a.3  J  :lail.t3r.a»s  J3  equal  .to  the  rt'um  of  any  -two  ir.tcrme- 
ftrjtion  of  iUitc  terms,  c^iiatly  tii'Uiu  from-tlic  extreme- . 
n>e»rei>i»._      Lci-thc  Arft  term  be  ^,  ilie  IM'U:,  aiid  /'  tU':  com- 
mon dilicrencc  ;.tht(i  a-/ri  wili  be  tic  Tccoiid,  and  a — 1> 
the  lad  but  one,  Sec. 

TlllJS,  a,  a  +  i,  a+2^,  a-^i!>,  a+^i,  &C. 
X,  X — ;i,  X — 2^,   X — ji,  X — ni,  &c. 

Itis  plain,  fhattbe  lerms  in-thc  fimc  perpenciiciiUr 
•faiik  are  equally  dilhint  fromthc  c-Ktrmics  ;  and  tiiat 
ilie  film  uf  any  twoinit.is  aj^x,  the^um  of  the  firft 
and  'I all. 

Cor.  I.  Hence  the  fum  nf  all  the  terms  of  an  arirh- 
<nictical  fcries  Ls  equal  to  the  fum  of  the  firlt  and  lad, 
taken  half  as  often  as  there  arc  terms. 

Therefore  if  «  be  the  number  of  terms,  and  /  llic 
_^_    ft 
Aim  of  thc.fcrics; /  =  rt  +  x  Xj.      \£  nzzo,  then  s  — 

e  • 

■Ccrr.  2.  The  fame  notation  being  underftood,  fincc 
any  term  in  tlie  feries  confifts  of  a,  the  firfl  term,  to- 
gether with  6  taken  as  often  as  the  number  of  terms 

preceding  it,    it  follows,  that  x=a  +  ,, — 1x3,  and 
hence  j  =  aT+^^oT^X  - ;  °^  ^y  multiplication,  i=. 

2 


2tJ!i-i-ii '  h — iii 


Therefore  from  the  firft  term,  the 


fComroon  difFereuc*,  and  numberof  terms  being  given, 
xb-C  Aim  msy  be  found. 

Ex.  Required  the  fum  of  50  t«rms  of  the  feries  2, 
/),  6,  8,  &c. 

2x2x50+501x2 — 50x2     5100 
.= =^-=2550. 

Cor.  3  Of  the  firft  terra,  common  dilicrcncc,  fum 
and  number  of  terms,  any  three  being  given,  the 
fourth  may  be  found  by  refolving  the  preceding  equa- 
tion ;  a,  b,  s,  and  n,  being  fucceflively  eonlid';r€d  as 
the  unknown  quantity.  In  the  three  firft  cafes  the 
equation  is  finiple,  and  in  the  laft  it  is  quadratic. 

II.    ^fCecmttrical  Ssrifs 

Def.  When  a  number  of  quantities  incrcafcby  the 
fame  multiplier,  or  dccrcafe  by  the  fame  di\  ifor,  they 
form  a  geometrical  feries.  This  common  multiplier 
or  divifor. is  called  ihc  comtnon  ratio. 


a 

r 


_,   _,   &c. 


Thus,  a,  ar,  ar\  &c. 

y,  ^,  A>  8.  «'c- 

Fro/t.i.  The  product  of  the  extremes  in  9.  geome- 
trical feries  is  equal  to  the  prouuft  of  any  two  terms, 
^quaUy  diftant.from  the  extremes. 

jLet  iibe  the  firft  ttrm,^  thcjaft,  r  the  cooimsn  ra- 
tio :  then  the  feries  is^ 

a,  ar,  ar' ,  ar' ,  ar* ,  &c 

.>■      .y      Jl.     2L     I!, 
^'  7'    r"    r'l  f'   '^'^■ 

It  is  obvious,  tliat  any  term  in  the  npper  rank  is 
equally  diftsnt  from  the  beginning  as  that  below  it 


'l;<i£ors 


frorathceiid  ;  and  ilif:  (>ro«lufl(»faii])r.iwoi«ch.is;-i«.r  iiemop- 
A.H  ny,  the  produa  of  ihc.firA  411 J  kft.  nirjuog  or 

I  rofi.  II.  The  fum  of  a  p^eomctric^I  f^irs  wsnting 
the  firft  term,  is  cqiil  10  the  fum  of  all  but  the  lafl 
term  nuihiplicd  hy  thcconimo;!  ratio. 

For,  alliiming  tlie  preceding  notation  of  a  feries,  ir 
■is  plain,  that 


ar-^ar'.^.ari ,  Ice. 


-»-— +-r+  —try  — 

I  •         r  I 


—  ryCa-har-^-ar' ,  &c.    .   +i--f.^4.2.4.i 
'■'        '»        r'       r 

Cor.  I.     Therefore /being  tlie  fum  of  the  feries, 

j>r — a 

1 — vX.r—-' — a.     Aaatzi 

•  r — I 

Hence  J  can  be  four.d  from  a,  y,  and  r  ;  and  any 
three  of  the  four  being  given,    the  fourth  may  be 

found. 

C^'r.  2.  Since  the  exponent  of  r  in  any  term  is  cqiul 
to  the  number  of  tcrnis  preceding  it ;  hence  in  the  lait 
term  its  exponent  will  be  // — i  ;  the  laft  ter.ii,  ilierc- 

// — t  ar" — a  r" — i 

fore,)— ^r         ,  andi  =  - ^ay. llcncc 

'  I  —  t  r — I  • 

of  thefe  four,  /,  a,  r,  ti,  any  three  beiug  given,  the 

fourth  may  be  found  by  the  foluiion  of  equations.     If 

«  is  not  a  fmall  number,  tlie  cafes  of  this  problem  will 

be  moft  conveniently  rcfolvel  by  logaritlims;  and  of 

fuch  foliitions  there  are  examples  in  the  appendix  to 

this  part. 

Cor.  3.     If  thcXerics  decreafes,  and  the  number  of 

terms  is  infinite  ;  then,  according  to  this  notation,  a 

the  leaft  term  will  be  o,  and /=;■  ■_•■,  a  finite  fum. 

Ex.  Required  the  fum  or  the  fcries  r,  j,  i,  ;,  &c, 

to  infinity. 

1x2 
Here_y=i,and  r  — 2.    Therefore  j  j.  '—i. 

"What  are  called  in  arithmetic  rtpeathig  and  circula- 
ting dictwa/s,  are  truly  geometrical  decresiing  feriefcs, 
and  therefore  may  be  fummed  by  this  rule. 

a        ' 
Thus. 333,  Scc^  —  **"  7^+' &<:•  is  a  geometrical  fe- 

ric3  in  which  y=-i  and  r=ioj    therefore  s  zz~ — - 
■'      JO  ' — ' 


5XIO 


lOXtO — 1 


24 


Thus,  alfo,  .2424,  &c.  =— ,  forherc^=-JLan4 

3?  too 


r—ioo  ;   therefore  s  — 


24x100 


100x100 — I      99     35 

III.     Of  InfiKitc  Series. 

It  was  obfcrvcd  (Chap.  I.  and  IV.),  thr.t  in  miny 
e.ifes,  if  the  divifion  and  evolution  of  compound  quan- 
tities be  actually  performed,  the  quotients  and  roots 
can  only  be  cxpreifed  by  a  fcries  t»f  terras,  which  may 
be  continued  ad  infiaitum.  By  comparing  a  fcv/  of 
the  firft  teres,  tie  law  of  the  progrc^ion  of  fuch  a  fe- 
ries 


422  /\         L>         Vj 

Demon-    ries  will  frequently  be  difcovcrtJ,  by  wliicli  it  may  be 
flratioiiof  coniiuucii  without  any  farther  operation.     When  this 
t  hcortm5.  (.a„];,;t  be  done,  the  work  is  much  facilitated  by  fcvc- 
ral  methods ;  the  chief  of  which  Is  that  by  the  binomi- 
al theorem. 


T  H  F.  o  R  E  .M .  y^/!j  binomial  (  as  a^-b1  may  ie  raifnd  !s 
any  l^f.ucr  (ni)  liy  the  folkviiiig  rules. 

1.  From  infpccting  a  table  of  the  powers  of  a  bino- 
mial obtained  by  multiplication,  it  appears  that  the 
tcrn\s  without  their  cocliicienis,  are  a™,  a'"  '/', 
<r—'b',  a'-'—'t',  &C. 

2.  The  coefficients  of  thefe  terras  will  be  found  by 
the  following  rule. 

Divide  the  exponent  of  a  in  any  term  by  the  cxpontiit 
of  b  iiicrcafcd  by  i,  and  the  quotient  mullipiitd  by 
the  coefficient  of  that  term  will  give  the  coefficient 
of  the  next  following  terra. 

This  rule  is  found,  upon  trial  in  the  table  of  powers, 
to  hold  univcrfally.  The  coefficient  of  the  firft  terms 
is  always  I,  and  by  applying  the  general  rule  now  pro- 
pofcd,  the  coefficients  of  the  terms  in  order  will  be  as 


E       13       R 


Part  I. 


follows  :  I,  m,  mx ,  mye.- x >  S''^-     They 

may  be  more  conveniently  exprciTed  thus:  i.  Aw,  B>! 


-I  711- 

-,  Cx— 


.   Dx ■">  S:c.  the  capitals  denoting 

'  4  . 


the    preceding    coefficient. 


Hence  a+i\'"  —  a' 
m — 2  „ 


Amar—'bJ^-  Bx- — ixa"'— ^'+Cx 

2-  3 

This  is  the  celebrated  binomial  theorem 


b' 


Sec.  This  is  the  celebrated  binomial  theorem.  It  is 
deduced  here  by  induction  only  ;  but  it  may  be  rigidly 
demonftratcd,  though  upon  principles  which  do  not 
belong  to  this  place. 

Cor.  I.  As  ;//  may  denote  any  number,  integral  or 
fradional,  pofuiveornegative  ;  hence  the  divifion,  in- 
volution, and  evolution,  of  a  binomial,  may  be  perform- 
ed by  this  theorem. 

■^b  +  l 

2 

X X«      '^'+»  ^c.    This  beii^  applied  to  the  ex- 

4 

tradion  of  the  fquarc  roorof/j'+x'  (by  infertinga' 
for  a  and  Jt'  f6r  t),  the  fame  feries  rcfults  as  formerly 
(Chap.  IV,) 

£x.  2.     If is  to  be  turned  into  an  intinite  fe- 

I — J- 


£x.l.     Let  «=^,  then  a  +  b'l  =a''-{ — a~ 


ries,  fince 


-=iXi — ''I     ",  Iet/J=i,  b— — r,  and 


m— — 1 ;  and  the  fame  feries  will  arife  as  was  obtained 
by  divifion  (Chap.  I.). 


In  like  manner  ■-= 


■J21Z — 2' 


,{zzr'y.irz—z'\     ')may 


be  expreffed  by  an  infinite  feries,  by  fuppofing  a=:2rz, 

^— 2  ■ ,  and  m— — ;,  and  then  multiplying  that  feries 

by/-'. 

Cor.  2.  This  theorem  is  ufeful  alfo  in  difcovering 
the  Jam  of  an  infinite  feries  produced  by  divifion  or 
evolution.  Thus,  the  feries  exprcffing  the  fquarcroot 


of  d'  +x ' ,  conlills  o{a,  ii.gctl,er  with  a  feries  of  frac-  Demon- 

tions;  in  the  numerators  of  wiiicliare  the  even  powers  Ifationof 

of  X,  and  in  the  ilcnominators  the  odd  powers  of  a.  rhcorcma. 

The  numeral  coefficients  of  the  lerms  of  the  whole  fe-  "       ' 


ries,  as  deduced  by  the  theorem,  will  be  :  i,  + 
ixi  ixi.;!  ixi  ?.j 


2x1 

2.2X1.2  '  "^2.2.2XT2.3'  272^2.2X172.3.4'  ' 
the  point  being  ufcd  (as  it  often  is)  toexprtfs  the  pro^ 
duel  of  the  numbers  between  which  it  is  placed.  The 
law  oi  coiuiiiuation  is  obvinus  ;  and  the  Itrics  may  be 
carried  on  to  any  number  ot  terms,  without  uliug  the 
theorem .  Hence  alio  the  coefficicni  of  the  nth  term  is 
IXI. 5. J  &c.  .  .  (a_2  terms) 

"1^=^^1.2.3.4  6:c.  (/.-,;      '   ^"^  "  ''  "^  '^  "  "  '*' 
even  number,  and  —  if  «  is  oi'd. 

//o/^.  If  the  binomial  is<74-#,thcl!gusofthc  termsof 
anypowcrarcallpulitivejil  it  isw — ithcklteniate  terms 
arc  negative,  btginaing  at  the  fecond.  'f  hi.-,  tlieortni 
may  be  applied  to  quantities  which confUt  of  more  than, 
tuopanb,by  fuppoliiigihem  diitiaguilhediuto  tuo,  and 
then  fubitituiiug  for  the  powers  of  tliefc  compound 
parts  their  values,  to  be  obtained  alio,  it   required,- 

from  the  theorem.     Thus,  a-\-i+ci'=u^l+^  • 

Scholtia/i, 

An  infinite  feries  may  itfelf  be  multiplied  or  divided 
by  another  ;  it  may  be  involved  or  evolved  :  and  va- 
rious other  operations  m.ny  be  performed  upon  it  which 
areneccliary  in  tlie  higher  parts  of  algebra.  The  me- 
thods for  finding  the  fum  depend  upon  other  prin- 
ciples. 

IV.  Propertits  of  Numbers. 

TheoR.  I.  The  fum  of  two  quantities  viultiplied  by 
their  difference  is  equal  to  the  difference  oj  their 
fqtiares. 

Let  the  quantities  be  reprcfented  by  a  and  b,  then 
a+by.a — bzza' — b' ,  as  appears  by  performing  the 
operation. 

Car.  \i  a  and  b  be  any  two  quantities  of  which  the 
fum  may  be  denoted  by  i,  the  difference  by  d,  and 
tlieir  produd  by/,  then  the  following  propoliiioas  will 
be  true. 

I.  <j-'-4-i'=j' — 2p  -2.  a' — b--=jd 

3.  a'+b'zzs' — ■^ps  4.  a^ — b'zzs'd — dp 

5.  fl<4-^«=j<  —  4ps'+2p'      6.  a* — b*=J^d — 2sdp,&cc. 

It  is  unnceellary  to  cxprcfs  ihefe  propofitions  in 
words,  and  the  demonAraiions  are  very  cafy,  by  rai- 
fmg  a-\-b  to  certain  powers,  and  making  proper  fub- 
Aitutions. 

The  OR.  II.  The  fum  of  any  number  of  terms  (n)  of 
the  odd  numbers  I,  3,  5.  *"<;•  beginning  tnith  I,  is  e- 
qualto  thefquare  oj  that  number  (n). 

In  the  rule  for  fumming  an  arithmetical  feries,  let 
a—\,  fc2,  and //=//,  and  the  fum  of  this  feries  will 

bci=2ff--^"-=— =^-.aE-D- 

2  2 

Thbor- 


A       L       G       I 

Th  Eoa.  ni.  'J'he  diffcrenc;  of  any  t'wofquari  numbers 
is  equal  to  ths  fum  oj  the  two  roots,  together  luith 
twice  the  Juvi  oj  the  numbers  in  the  natural feale  be- 
tween the  two  roots. 

Let  ihc  one  number  be  />,  and  the  other  /■+/?,  the 
int-niic  ii  le  numbers  zve  p+l ,  p+i, .  .  .&c. /■+// — I. 
The  ditf'crtnce  of  the  fquares  of  the  given  numbers  is 
2pn+n  • ;  l..f  fumof  the  two  roots  is  a/'+'J,  and  twice  the 
fum  of  the  lLG\i::sp+i-i-p-{-2  ..  ■&€./+//— I  is  (  by 
Cor.  I.  ift  Sect  of  this  Chap.)  2/  =  2/'+//X« — i,  viz. 
the  fum  of  the  firll  and  lift  nmliiplicd  by  the  number 

of  terms,  and  it  is  plain  that  2/>+;;+2/H"'-'X" — ^  — 
3f>i+n'.     Therefore,  &c. 

Le?ri.  I.  Let  r  be  any  number,  and  «  any  inte- 
ger, j" — I  is  divilibicby  /  —  i. 

The  quotient  will  be  r"  ' +r"  *,  Sec.  till  tie  in- 
dex of  r  be  o,  and  then  the  lall  term  of  it  will  be  i  ; 
for  if  this  ferics  be  multiplied  by  the  divifor  r — i,  it 
will  produce  the  dividend  r" — i .  It  will  appear  alfo  by 
performing  the  divilion, and  infcrting  for/;  any  number. 

Lem.  2.  Let  r  be  any  number,  and  ;;  any  integer 
odd  number,  r"+l  is  diviiiblc  by  r+i.  Alio,  if  «  is 
any  even  number,  ;" — i  is  diviiiblc  by  r+i. 

The  quotient  in  both  cal'cs  is  ;" — ' — r" — '-(- 
r» — '  &c.  till  the  exponent  of ;- be  o,  and  the  laft  term 
r°  =:  I.  If  this  feries  confiftof  anodd  number  of  terms, 
and  be  multipl  ed  by  r+l  the  divifor,  the  product  is 
r"+l  the  dividend.  If  the  feries  conlilt  of  an  even 
uumbcr  of  terms,  the  produd:  is  i" — t  ;  but  it  is  plain 
that  the  number  of  terms  will  be  odd  only  when  n  is 
odd,  and  even  only  when  n  is  even.  The  conclulion 
will  be  manifeft  by  performing  the  divilion. 

Lem.  3.  If  r  is  the  root  of  an  arithmetical  fcale, 
any  number  in  that  fcale  may  be  rcprcfented  in  the  fol- 
Inwing  manner,  a,b,  c,  &c.  being  the  coefficients  or 
digits,  a-^br-^cr'  +dr'-{-er' ,  &c. 

Theor.  IV.  Jf from  any  number  in  the  general fcali 
now  dflribeii,  the  fum  oj  its  liigits  be  fubtraCied,  the 
remainder  is  divijibte  by  r —  1 . 

The  number  is  a+bi+cr'+dr' ,  &c.  and  the  fum 
of  the  digits  is  a^h-^-c+d,  &c.  Subtrading  the  lat- 
ter from  the  former,  the  remainder  is  br — '+<■;•'  — 
ol-a'r' — </,  &C.  zzbxnr — i+cxr"  —  1+Jx>  '  —  I,  &C. 
But,  (by  Lem.  I.)r" — i  is  divifiblebyr — i,  wh.itever 
integer  number/;  maybe,  and  therefore  any  multiple 
of  r"' — I  is  alfo  divifiblc  by  r — I  :  Hence  each  of  the 
terms,  AX'' — i,  cX'"  —  i,  &c.  is  Jiviliblc  by  r — i, 
and  therefore  the  whole  is  diviiiblc  by  r — i. 

Cor.  I.  Any  number,  the  fum  of  whole  digits  is  di- 
vifible  by  r — l,  is  itfelf  diviiiblc  by  r — t.  Let  the 
number  be  called  M  and  the  fum  of  the  digits  D  ;  then 
by  this  prop.  A' — D  is  divillble  by  r — i,  and  D  is  fup- 
pofcd  to  be  diviiiblc  by  r — i  ;  therefore  it  is  plain  that 
A^nnJll  alfo  be  diviiiblc  by  r — i. 

Cor.  2.  Any  number,  the  fum  of  wliofc  digits  is  di- 
viiiblc by  an  aliquot  part  of  r — i,  is  alfo  divifible  by 
that  aliquot  part.  For,  let  TV  and  D  denote  as  before  ; 
and  fuirc  N — D  (Theor.  4.)  is  diviiiblc  by  r — i,  it  is 
alfo  divifible  by  an  aliquot  part  of  r — i  ;  but  D  is  di- 
YJIiblr  by  an  aliquot  part  of  r — i,  therefore  ^is  alfo 
diviiiblc  by  that  aliquot  part. 


L       B       R       A. 

Cor.  3.  This  theorem,  with  ihc  corollaries,  rcl.ites 
to  any  fcale  wh;iiever.     It  includes  therefore  the  wcli 
known  property  of  9  and  of  3  itsaliq'iot  part,  in  ikc  '_ 
decimal  Icalc  ;  for,  fiiice  r  —  io,  r — 1=9. 

Theor.  V.  In  any  number,  if  from  th:  fum  of  the  o- 
ejjicicnts  of  the  odd  [xjiutrs  of  x  the  fum  oj  t'lc  ca^fic  - 
ents  of  the  even  powers  bcfubtraOcd,  and  the  nmum- 
der  added  to  the  number  itfclj',  the  fum  will  be  divi- 
fible by  r-t-  I. 

In  the  number  «-f5r-f-c/'-t-(//'-»-cr'-j-/"r>,8ic.  the 
fum  of  the  coefficients  of  the  odd  powers  of  r  is  i-j-i 
■^f,  &c.  the  fum  of  the  coefficients  of  the  even  powers 
of  r  is  ^-1-c-t-f,  &c.  If  the  latter  fura  be  fubtrafted 
from  the  former,  and  the  remainder  added  to  the  given 
number,  it  makes  brJrb-\rcr' — c-t-//r'+(/-f-fr' — e-irfr^ 

Jrf,  &c.  —by.i  +  T->rcXr  — I +;/X'-- -l-H-.'Xr'  —  H- 
yX'  +1.  &c-  B"t  (by  Lem.  2.)  r-H,  r" — r,  r»-f-r, 
&c.  are  each  diviiiblc  by  r+'»  ^^"^  therefore  any  mul- 
tiples of  them  are  alfo  diviiiblc  by  r-j-i,  hence  the 
whole  nutnber  is  diviiiblc  by  ;--(-i. 

Cor.  I.  If  the  dilferencc  of  the  fum  of  the  even  di- 
gits, and  the  fum  of  the  odd  digits  of  any  number  be 
diviiiblc  by  r+i,  the  nunibcritlclf  is  divifible  by  r-H. 

Let  the  fum  of  the  even  digits  (that  is,  the  coelii- 
cients  of  the  odd  powers  of  r)  be  D,  the  fum  of  the 
odd  digits  be  d,  snd  let  the  number  be  N.  Then  by 
the  theorem  N-k-D — (/is  diviiiblc  by  r-n,  and  it  is 
fuppofcd  tliat  D — dis  divilible  by  r-t-i ;  therefore  A' 
is  divilible  by  r+i. 

Cor.  2.  In  like  manner,  if  D — d  is  divifible  by  an 
aliquot  part  of  ;-j-r,  A' will  be  divifible  by  that  aliquot 
part. 

Cor.  3.  If  a  number  want  all  the  odd  powers  of  r, 
or  if  it  want  all  the  even  powers  of  r,  and  if  the  fum  of 
its  digits  be  diviiiblc  by  /•+!,  that  number  is  divilible 
by  r+i.  • 

Cor.  4.  In  the  common  fcale  r-f-i  =  11,  which  there- 
fore will  have  the  properties  mentioned  in  this  theorem, 
and  the  corollaries.  Thus,  in  the  number  64834,  the 
fum  of  the  even  digits  is  7,  the  fum  of  the  odd  digits 
is  18,  and  thcditfcrcncc  is  1 1,  a  number  divilible  by  11, 
the  given  number  therefore  (Cor.  i.)  is  divilible  by  11. 
Thus  alfo,  the  fum  of  the  digits  of  7040308  is  divilible 
by  II,  and  therefore  the  number  is  divilible  by  11. 
(Cor.  3-) 

Scholium. 

Thefe  theorems  relate  to  any  fcale  whatever,  and 
therefore  the  properties  of  r — i  in  Theor.  4.  would  in 
a  fcale  of  eight  belong  lofevn:,  and  thofc  in  Theor.  5. 
to  nine.  If  twelve  was  the  root  of  the  fcale,  the  for- 
mer properties  would  belong  to  eleven,  and  the  latter 
to  thirteen. 

APPENDIX  to  Part  I. 

Algebra  may  be  employed  in  expreffing  the  re- 
lations of  magnitude  in  general,  and  in  reafoning 
with  regard  to  them.  It  may  be  ufed  jn  deducing  not 
only  the  relations  of  number,  but  alfo  thofc  of  exten- 
fion,  and  hence  thole  of  every  fpecics  of  quantity  tx- 
prcdiblc  by  numbers  or  extended  magnitudes.  In  this' 
appendix  arc  mentioned  feme  examples  of  its  applica- 
tion to  other  putts  of  mithematics,  to  phylics,  and  to 

the 


42.^ 


4^4 

Appliratr 

oD  to  Gc- 

onwu-y. 


A       L       G       E 

the  prailkal  rakiilationsof  Inilincfs.  Tbf  j  rtncipks 
and  iuppolition.s  peculiar  lo  thti'i;  fiibjcds,  which  Jie 
,  iiccfiikry  in  dirccling  both  liic  algebraical  operations, 
and  the  conclr.lions  to  be  drj'.i-ii  from  tbeni,  ai^e  bcic 
sira'.iitd  as  juA  and  proper. 

1,   yipplicat'on  af  Algthra  to  Ceometrx. 

Algel-ra  has  been  fucccftfully  applied  to  alinoft  eve- 
ry branch  of  mathematics  j  and  the  princi;  ks  of  theic 
branclKS  arc  often  advaiiiagccully  introduced  into  al- 
j^ehr.iical  calculations. 

The  application  of  it  Ko geomrtry  has  been  thefoarcc 
of  great  improvement  iri  both  thefc  fcicncts:  on  ac- 
count ol  its  extent  and  importance  it  is  here  omitted, 
and  the  principle?  of  it  arcinore  particularly  explain- 
ed in  the  third  part  of  thtlc  elements. 

In  this  place  ihill  be  given  an  example  of  the  i(fc  of 
logarithms  in  refolving  certain  alirebraical  qiitdions. 

N.fjti.  Whrn  logarithms  arc  iiicd,  let  (/.)  de- 
note Liie  logaritiim  of  ary  qiiautiiy  before  which  it  is 
placed. 

£.v.  To  find  the  number  of  terms  of  a  {jcometrical  fc- 
ries,  of  wiiich  the  faiy  is  511,  the  tirft  term  i,and 
the  commuji  ratio  a. 


B       R 


A. 


Part?  I. 


From  feet 
and  ill  this  pi 
be  found.     By  reducing  the  equation  /'  = 


that  .  =1'. 


chap.  6.  it  appears 

r — I 
,  s,  r,  and  a  are  given,  and  «  is  to 
_.<xr — l+a 


But 


and  from  the  known  property  of  logarithms  7iy(.Lr  — 

l.sy.r — I  +a — l.a,  and  n-=.l.sy.r — i-\-a — /.a. 

TTr 

here  j  =  5ii,  a  —  i,  r:z2,  and   n—  '.     ^  — 

/.2. 
•J.  7(392700, 


o.  3010300 


=9. 


In  like  manner  may  any  fuch  equation  be  refolved, 
when  the  only  unknown  quantiiy  is  an  exponent,  and 
when  it  is  the  exponent  only  of  one  quantiiy. 

Ex.  2.  An  equation  of  the  following  quadratic  form 
e'-=i=:2bu'—  -ztzzc  may  be  refolved  by  logarithms,   iil, 

by  fcholiumot  Chap.  V.  ^^ >— >,— *— .y/,' -s— .■     ^nd 

then  X  is  difcovered  in  the  fame  manner  as  in  theprc- 
leding  example.  Thus,  let  a  =:  2,  ^=  10,  and  c  — 96 
ind  the  equation  2.  " — 20x2?= — 96.  iH,  a^nio^i: 

—  /  8 

^4=  12  or  8.    If  2*  =  S  then  A=  —  =  3  and  2*. — 

/.2     ■ 
ieX2'=:  —  96  is  a  true  equation.     If  2*=:i2,  then 

_/.i2_i.o79i8i2  „  ,   ,  .  ,       ,    . 

.V— ^ =  3.5849,  and  this  number  being 

ijfcrtcd  tor  .rill  the  given  equation,  by  means  of  loga- 
rithms, will  anfwcr  the  conditiofli^ 

£x.  3.  1  he  fum  of  2000I.  has  been  out  at  intcreft 
for  a  certain  time,  and  500I.  has  been  at  inttfcft  dou- 
ble of  that  time,  the  whole  arrcar  nosv  due  reckoning 
4  ffr  ct >it.  compound  iiitcreil,  is  6000I.  What  were 
the  times  ? 

By  the  rules  in  the  third  part  of  this  appendix  for 
compound  intcrell,  it  is  plaia  that  if  V?  =  1.04,  and  the 
time  at  which  the  2000I.  is  at  intereft  be  x,  tlie  arr-ar 
uf  it  will  be  2oooX''f''-  The  arrear  of  the  500I.  is 
500X-S**;  hence  5ooxy?'*-f2ooox^*-6ooo.  This 

3 


2  y        .  ,       Applicali- 

-=17.67,-1- nearly,  <„Vt„  i..hy. 

flCI- 


rtfolvcd  gives  yf'  =:2aud.T: 

that  is,  17  years  and  8  months  nearly,  and  the  double  ^ 
is  35  years  and  4  months  ;  which  anfwcr  the  cciidi- 
lioiis. 

It.   /Ipplicathn  if  jllgehra  to  T hyfics. 

I'hyfical  quantities  which  cm  be  divided  into  parts, 
that  have  proportions  to  each- ether,  the  fame  as  the 
propcriioiis  of  lines  to  Hues,  or  of  numbers  to  mim- 
btrs,  may  be  cxprtUtd  by  lines  ^and  numbers,  and 
therefore  by  algtbraiu^l  quantities.  Hence  ilicfe  lua- 
tlieiiiaiical  noiaiionsniay  be  conlidticdas  the  mcafures 
of  fuch  phylitalquaiitiats  ;  they  may  bt  rc.iloiied  up- 
on according  to  tiie  piiuciples  of  algebra,  and  from 
fuc  h  rcafoiiiugs,  row  relations  of  the  quantities  which 
ihcy  reprtreni  may  be  difcovered. 

In  tliufc  branches  of  natural  pliilofophy,  therefore, 
in  which  the  circumllaiiccs  of  the  phenomena  can  be 
properly  cxpreifcd  by  numbers,  or  geometrical  magni- 
tudes, algebra  may  be  employed,  both  in  promoting 
thu  invcitigatiou  of  phyllcal  laws  by  experience,  and 
alio  in  deducing  the  neceilary  conlcquences  of  laws 
iuvelligatcd  and  prcfumed  to  be  juft. 

It  i*to  be  obferved  likewife,  that  if  varioue  hypo- 
ihefcs  bcaniimcd  concerning  phyfical  quantities,  with- 
out regard  10  what  takes  place  in  nature,  tlieir  coufc- 
qucuccs  may  be  demonltratively  deduced,  and  thus  a 
fcience  may  be  eltabiilhed,  which  may  be  properly  cal- 
led viiith^vtaticat.  The  ufc  of  algebra  in  this  fcience, 
which  is  fomttimes  called  Thtoreticat  Mechanic!,  is 
obvious  from  tlie  principles  already  laid  down. 

In  conducting  tiiefe  inquiries,  it  is  to  be  ohfcrved, 
that,  for  the  lake  of  brevity,  the  language  of  algebrai- 
cal operation  is  often  ulcd  with  regard  to  phyfical 
quantities  themftlves;  though  it  is  always  to  be  under- 
Itood,  that,  in  flriA  propriety,  it  can  be  applied  on- 
ly to  the  mathematical  notations  of  thcfe  quantities. 

licfore  illuArating  tliis  application  of  algebra  by  ex- 
amples, it  may  be  proper  to  explain  a  method  of  Ha- 
ting the  proportion  of  variable  quantities,  and  reafon- 
ing  with  regard  lo  it,  which  Is  of  general  ufe  ia  na- 
tural philofophy. 

1.  Of  ttn  ProptrtioH  of  variabit  QflanMies. 

Mathematical  quantities  are  often  fo  conncfted,  that 
when  the  magnitude  of  one  is  varied,  the  magnitudes 
of  tjie  others  are  varied,  according  to  a  determined 
rule,  'i  hus,  if  two  ftraighr  lines,  given  in  pofition, 
intcrfeft  each  other  ;  and,  if  a  ilraiglii  liue,  cutting 
botlr,  moves  parallel  to  iifclf,  the  two  fcj^mcnts  of  the 
givei>  lines  between  their  inccrfeflion  and  the  moving 
line,  however  varied,  M-ill  always  have  the  lame  pro- 
portion. Thus  alio,  if  an  ordinate  to  the  diameter  of 
a  parabola  move  pirallel  to  itfelf,  the  abfcifs  will  be 
increafed  or  diminilhed  in  proportion  as  the  fquare  of 
the  ordinate  is  increafed  or  diminirtied. 

In  like  manner  may  algebraical  quantities  be  connec- 
ted. \f  x,y,  E,  Stc.  reprefentany  variable  quantities, 
\s\\\\ta,  h,  c,  reprefent  fuchas  are  conftaiit  or  invari- 
able, then  an  equation  containing  two  or  more  variable 
quantities,  with  any  number  of  conflant  quantities, 
will  exhibit  a  rehtion  of  variable  quantities,  fiuiilar 
to  thofe  already  mentioned.  Thus,  liax—hy,  then 
X  :  y  wb  :  a,  thit  is,  x  haa  aconllant  proportipn  toy, 

in 


A       L       G       E 

in  whstcfvcr  way  thefe  two  quaiiriiics  may  be  varied. 
.  Likcwife,irx>'=*'iJ,  ilujn^'  •.a'::b:x,ory'  :  -: 


:  i,  that  is,  ^'^  has  a  conlUiit  proportion  to  the  rL-ci- 

b 
procalofx,  or  y'  is  iiicrcafed  in  the  fame  proportion 
as  X  is  dimirviflicd,  and  convtrftly.     It  is  uccttflify  to 
jrciiiifc  the  following  dcfiniiious. 

Dtfiiiitiirns. 

I.i-t  there  be  any  Tiuiiiber  of  variable  qii.iiullics,  K, 
T,  Z,  V,  &c.  conneclcil  i;i  fuch  a  manner,  that  when 
A' becomes  x,  T,  Z,  f,  &c.  become  refpcd'.vely/,  2, 
V,  &c.  And  let  a,  /,  c,  &c.  reprcfont  any  conilant 
quantities,  whether  given  or  unknown.     Titcn 

1.  If  two  variable  quantities  A' and  1"  arc  fo  con- 
acfted,  tliat  whatever  be  the  vahics  of  .v  and/,  K  :  x 
:  :  r.-  ^jthisproportioniscxprcftcd  thus,  A'=l',  and  A  is 
faid  to  be  dncfhr  a  ^,  or  fliortly,  A' is  faid  ta  be  «i  T. 

2.  If  two  variable  qiiantities  X  and  Tare  fo  connec- 

Ted,thatA^:  K-.-.y:  r,ov  A:  r  :  :JL  :  ^,  their  relation  is 

tliBS  cxprcffcd,  A'=:-yr ;  and  Xis  faid  to  be  inverf.i'y, 

or  reciprocally  as  T. 

5.  h"  X,  i",  Z,  are  three  variable  quantities,  fo  con- 
neftedthatA':*  : :  YZ  :>z,Thcirrclriioniifoexpreircd, 
X—tZ,  and  \  is  faid  to  be  dtrc8ly  ai  T  and  Z,  jointly ; 
or  if  is  faid  to  -Tic  as  T  and  Z. 

4.  'If  any  Mtmibcr  of  variable  qaanriiies  as   K, 

YZ  V" 
T, Z.,V,  8cc.  arcfoconneaed,  that  AT:  xy  : : rll-! 

rz 

tken  lCY——ji^,  and  KY  is  faid  wte  dircftly  as  YZ, 

and  iiiverfely  as  7%  or  more  explicitly.  A'  and  Y  joint- 
ly,  are  dircUly  as  Y  and  Z  jointiy,  and  inverfely  as  V. 

In  like  manner  arc  other  c^-nibinati'ons  of  variable 
qualities  denoted  and  cxpre lltd. 

It  is  to  be  obfcrved  alfo,  the  fame  definitions  take 
place,  when  the  variable  quantities  arc  iv.ul.iplied  or 
divided  by  any  conftant  quantities.  Thus,  \i aX  laxx: 

■=r!  -  then  «A  —-^,  &c. 
Y  y  Y' 

5.  Let  the  preceding  notation  of  proportion  be 
called  a  froportionat  equation  (a),  the  equation  for- 
merly treated  of  being  in  this  place,  for  the  fake  of 
diftindion,  called  abfotuts. 

Cor.  Every  abfolute  equation,  containing  more  than 
one  variable  quantity,  may  be  confidered  as  a  propor- 
tional equation;  and  in  a  proportional  equation,  if  at 
any  particular  correfponding  values  of  the  variable 
tjuantities,  the  equation  becomes  abfolute,  it  will  be 
nniverfally  abfolute. 

Pr(^p.  I.  If  oiie  fide  of  a  proportional  equation  be 
either  multiplied  or  divided  by  any  coiillant  quantity, 

it  will  continue  to  be  true.     Thus,  if  A'= JL,    then 
Vol.  I. 


X  = 


BRA. 

"j^..     For  fincc  A=^V  (Def.  3.)  X  :  x  :  -.y-.j, 

it  follows,  (Chap.  II.)  that  A' :  x  :  :  fl  :ll,  therefore 

bT    tij 

(De/.  4.)  JC  =  |y 

Trap.  2.  If  the  two  fides  of  a  proponional  cqnatiou 
be  both  multiplied,  or  both  divided  by  the  fame  qiiaa- 
tity,  it  will  continue  to  be  true. 

i//.  If  the  quantity  be  coiiAant,  it  is  iiianifefl  from 
Prop.  I. 

2:/,  If  the  quantity  be  variable,  let  X~T,  and  Z  a 
•variable  quantity,  then  XZ—YZ.  Kor^  (ince  A'^I", 
(Def.  2.)  A':  x:  :  Y:y  ;  multiply  the  antecedents  by  Z, 
and  the  confequcuts  bv  x,  then  XZ  :  xz  :  :  YZ  :yz, 
therefore  (Def.   J.)  XZ-YZ.     la  like  mamier,  if 

'z   z 

Cor.  Any  variable  q'lantity,  which  is  a  faftor  of  one 
fide  (3f  a  proportional  equation,  may  be  made  to  Hand 

Z  Z 

alone.    Thus,  if  AT=:-^,  then  X  =— :—;    alfo     Z~ 


XYV;   and   Y- 


Z  Z 

-j-p-,  and  alfo  F=-jj:' 


F.<)u»- 


&C.     Hence 


alfo,  if  one  fide  of  a  proportional  eqnation  be  divided 
by  the    other,    the  quotient  is  a  conftant  quaiuit/j 

ViZ.   I. 

Prop.  3.  If  two  proportional  equations  have  a  com- 
mon l;de,  the  remaining  two  iiJcs  will  form  a  propor- 
tional equation.  Alfo,  that  common  (ide  will  be  <u 
the  fam  or  difference  of  the  other  uvo. 

Thus,  if  XzzY,  and  Y=Z,  then  A=Z.  For 
X :  X : :  Y:y,  and  Y :  y  : : Zc, therefore  multiply ingthcfe 
ratios,  XY:  xy  :  :  YZ  -.^z,  and  by  dividing  antecedents 
and  confeq-)enTs,A'  -.x-.-.Z  :  r, therefore (Ucf.  2.)  .V=r. 

Likewife,  if  X=Y,  and  Yz=.Z,  2  =A=i=Z.  For, 
fincc  A :  -x  .!  1":^  :  :  Z  :  s.  (Chap,  il.)  Y:^::  Xz:i=.Z  : 
x=±=2,  therefore  (Def.  5.)  Y=X=i=Z. 

Cor.  Hence,  one  fide  of  a  proporiionil  equation  will 
be  as  the  fum,  or  as  the  diftcrciice  of  the  two  fides  ; 
and  the  fum  of  the  twa  fides  will  be  as  their  diffcren.c. 
Thus,  if  A=r-j-Z,  then  A^A'+r-i-Z  and  A=A: 
—Y—Z,  and  alfo  A-<-2 +Z=A'— 2"— Z. 

Prep.  4.  If  the  two  fides  of  a  proportional  equation 
be  refpci'lively  multiplied  or  divided  by  the  two  fides 
of  any  other  proportional  equation,  the  produds  or 
quotients  will  form  a  proportioual  equation. 

Thus,  if  X-Y,  and  Z-/',  then  XZ-YV.  For 
fmceA':.v:  :  r:.)',and  Z  :  r  :  : /':f,by  muliiplyingthefc 
proportions  (Chap.  I.  II.)  AZ  -.xz::  YV  -.yv,  ihtrc- 
fore  {Def.  5.)  AZ=r/'.  In  ILke  manner  in  the  cafe 
of  divifion. 

^'"■-  '-.y^f  two  fides  of  a  proportional  equation 
may  be  railed  to  any  power,  or  any  root  may  be  e.\- 
trafted  out  of  both,  and  the  equatioa  will  continue  to 
be  true. 

Thus,  if  A=}',  then  XTzi.Y'' -,  for  fince  A"-7", 
3  H  A  :  V 


(a  )  Thefe  terms  arc  ufed  only  with  a  view  to  give  more  precifion  to  the  ideas  of  beginners.  In  order  to 
avoid  the  ambiguity  in  the  meaning  of  the  fign  -  fome  writers  employ  the  charader  a,  to  den.-te  condattt 
proportion  ;  but  this  is  fcldom  neccilary,  as  the  qDaiuitics  compared  are  generally  of  different  kinds,  and  the. 
relation  cxprefled  IS  fulficicntly  obvious.     Sec  Emcrfon's  MaOicnutics,  vol   I 


ia6 


(  f  Ei^tia- 
tii>r.5. 


A        L-       C',        1:. 

.\  :  .N :  :  3'  :/,an  J  therefore  A'"  :  .v" : :  T"'  ■.)"■ ;  ilwrrefoix 

'  X-zzT".     And,  if  A'-r,  alfo  A"::!'*. 

C'r.  2.  If  two  proportional  equations  have  a  com- 
mo:i  liJc,  that  I'lite  vmU  he  as  the  fqiiare  root  of  the 
prodiiifl  cfthc  other  two.  Thus  if  X—Y,  aiiil  J— Z, 
hy  this  Prop.  I'-XZ,  and  (Cor.  i.)  T-y/xZ- 
Hcnrc  alfo,  in  this  c«fc,  ^/A2=A==Zj  for  (I'rop. 
J.)  7=A'=!=Z.  . 

Cor.  ;.  If  one  fide  of  a  proportional  equation  be  a 
(z&.or  oV  ii  fide  of  another  proponional  equation,  the 
rcma'tnino  lideof  the  former  niny  he  iiifertedin  theLr- 
tcr,  ill  place  of  that  laftor.     Thus,  if  X—ZY,  and 

Z-^,  thtn  X—  J-,  as  appears  by  multiplying  tlie 

two  equations,  and  dividing  by  Z. 

Vi ri''.  5.  Any  proportional  equation  may  be  made  ^ 
sbfoluie,  by  nmlliplying  one  fide  by  a  coaliaut  quan- 
tity. 

Thus,  if  A'=r,  then  let  two  particular  correfpond- 
intivaluesofthcfc variable  qiiantiticf  bcafltinied  ai,con- 
ilant,  and  let  them  be  a  and  !>,  then  X  :  a:  -.Y :  b,  and 

Xhzz-iY,  or  A=rx-,  5"  abfoliitc  equation. 

b 

Scboliu?!!. 

1.  If  there  be  two  variable  phyfical  quantities,  ci- 
ther of  the  fame,  or  of  dirtcrent  kinds,  which  arc  fo 
'  wiiutiflcd,  that  when  the  one  is  iiicreaftd  or  diininilh- 

cd,  the  other  is  incrcafcd  or  diminilhcd  in  the  fame 
proportion  ;  or,  if  the  magiiitudcs  of  the  one,  in  any 
two  fuuatiuns,  have  the  fame  ratio  to  each  other,  as 
the  magnitudes  of  the  other  in  the  corrcfponding  litua- 
tions,  the  relation  of  the  mathematical  meafurc  oi  ihcfc 
quantities  may  be  exprcli'cd  by  a  proportional  equa- 
tion, according  to  Dcf.  i. 

2.  If  two  variable  phyiical  quantities  be  fo  connec- 
ted, that  the  one  incnafts  in  the  fame  proportion  as 
thcothcrisditiiinilhed,  aiidconverfcly  ;  or,  if  [hcniag- 
iiiiudcs  of  the  one,  in  any  two  fitnaiions,  be  rtcipro- 
lally  proportional  to  the  magnitudes  of  the  otiur,  in 
tlic  coi  refponding  fitnations,  the  relation  cf  tiicir  iiua- 
furcsmay  be  exprtfltd  by  a  proporiional  equation,  ac- 
cording to  Def.  2. 

^.  If  three  variable  phyfical  quantities  are  fo  connec- 
ted, that  one  of  them  is  incrcafcd  or  diminillicd,  in 
proportion  as  both  thtothers  are  increafcd  ordimiiiilh- 
td  ;  or,  if  the  magnitudes  of  one  of  them,  in  any  two 
iituations,  have  a  r^uio  which  is  compounded  of  tlric  ra- 
tios of  the  magniiudcs  of  the  other  two,  in  the  corrc- 
fponding fitnations  ;  tJie  relation  cf  the  mcafurcs  of 
ihcfc  three  may  be  cxpref;ed  by  a  proportional  equa- 
tion, according  to  Dcf.  3. 

4.  In  like  manner  m:iy  the  relations  of  other  com- 
binations of  pliylicpl  quantities  be  exprelfed  according 
M  Dcf.  4.  And  when  thcfe  proportional  eqdations 
are  olitaincd,  by  rcifoning  with  regard  to  thcin,  ac- 
i-ordingto  the  preceding  propofitions,  new  relations  of 
the  phylical  quantities  may, be  deduced. 

2.  Examplit-  of  Fhjfcal  Problems. 

The  ufc  of  algebra,  in  natural  philofophy,  may  be 
properly  illullratcd  by  fome  examples  of  phyfical  pro- 
tltms.  Tbefolutionoffuch  problems  muA  be  derived 
irom  kuowu  pliylicil  laws,  which,  though  ultimately 


11       A. 


I';irt  r, 


f jju Jtil  on  experience,  ai  e  here  a/Tained  as  principles.   Of  Equa- 
anJreafoncditpou  raathcmaticajly.     Thecxperiments     tions. 
by  which  the  principles  are  afccrtained  admit  of  vari-  ^ 

oui  dcj^recs  of  accuracy  ;  and  on  the  degree  of  phyfical 
•accuracy  in  the  principles  will  depend  the  phyfical  ac- 
curacy of  the  conclulions  mathematically  deduced  from 
them.  If  the  principles  are  inaccurate,  the  conclufions 
intift,  in  like  manner,  be  inaccurate  ;  and,  if  the  limits 
of  inaccuracy  in  ihci>rinciplcscan  be  afccrtained,  t!ie 
corrtfponding  limits,  in  the  contlufiona  derived  from 
them,  may  likcwife  be  calculated. 

Exttvrp.  I.  Let  agUfstiibc,  ao  inches  («)  long,  be 
filled  with  mercury,  excepting  P  inches  (^b) ;  and  let 
i:  be  invericd  as  in  the  Toricelliin  cxpcririicnt,  fo 
that  the  8  inches  of  common  air  may  ri.fc  to  the 
top  :  It  is  required  to  find  at  what  height  the  mer- 
cury will  remain  fufpcnded,  the  mercury  in  the  ba- 
ronietcr  being  at  that  time  28  inches  [d]  high. 

The  folution  of  this  problem  depends  upon  the  fol- 
lowing principles :  « 

I.  'liic  preifure  of  the  atmofpherc  is  meafarcd  by 
the  column  of  mercury  in  the  barometer  ;  and  the  eli- 
flic  force  of  the  air,  iu  its  natural  llatc,  which  refills 
this  prcffure,  is  therefore  lueafurcd  by  the  f:.mc  co- 
lumn. 

2  in  different  flatcs,  the  elafiic  force  of  the  air  is 
reciprocally  as  the  fpaces  which  it  occupies. 

3.  In  this  experiment,  the  mercury  which  remains 
fufpcnded  in  the  tube,  together  with  the  elaftio  force 
of  the  air  in  the 'top  of  it,  being  a  counterbalance  to 
the  prcfiurc  of  the  atmofpherc,  may  therefore  be  cx- 
prelFcd  by  the  column  of  mercury  in  the  barometer.' 

Let  the  mercury  in  the  tube  be  .v  inches,  the  air  in 

the  top  of  it  accupics  now  the  fpacc  a^x  ;  it  occupied 

-formerly  b  inches,  and  its  elafiic  force  was  d  inches  of 

mercury:  Now, tlicreforc,tht  force  mull  bc(<7 — x:b::d:) 

inches.     (2.)    Therefore   {3.)   x+-         ~- 


.-d. 


a — X 

This  reduced,  and  putting  a+J-=:2m  the  equation  is 
X' — imy.zzibd — ad. 

This  rcfolvcd  ^vit%  xzz,ii-=±=.^m'-\-bd — ad. 

In  numbers     -     -     >crr/'i4  or  14. 

One  of  the  roots  44  is  plainly  excluded  in  this  cafe, 
and  the  other,  14.  is  the  true  anfwcr.  If  the  column 
of  mercury  .v,  fufpcnded  in  the  tube,  were  acounterba- 
hnce  to  the  preifure  of  the  atmofpherc,  cxprefl'cd  by 
the  height  of  the  barometer*/,  tOj;etherwith  the  mea- 
fure  of  the  elafiic  force  of  ^  inches  of  common  air  in 

the  fpace  x — a,  that  is,  if  .vz:fi'-f — : — ,  or  x — ^ 

* — u  .V — a 

d,  the  equation  will  be  the  fame  as  before,  and  the  root 
44  would  be  the  true  anfwt  r.  But  the  experiment  in 
this  quedion  does  not  admit  of  fuch  a  luppofilion. 

Lxavip.  2.  The  diflance  of  the  earth  and  moon  (r/), 

and  their  quantities  of  matter  (/,  l\,  being  given,  to 

find  the  point  of  equal  attraftion  between  them. 

Let  the  diflance  of  die  point  from  the  earth  be  x: 

Its  diflance  from  the  moon  will  be  therefore  </ — a-.  But 

gravitation  is  as  the  matter  dirediy,  and  as  the  fquare 

ofthediflaiiec//;»<;r/(^/)';  thcreforethe  tarth'sattrsclion 

is  as  ;  and  the  moon's  attraction  is  a:; ^ .    But 

X '  d —  xj ' 

theft  are  here  equal ;  therefore, 


Part  I. 

Of  Fqua- 
tionii. 


■-y-vl" 


and ' 


y/t  _i// 


d—x 


Tills  equation  reduced  irivcs  x-=.  ,-  .     . — 

Or  mult,  numerator  and  dtnomiuator  1    _<!t — Jy/il. 
\^-^  /T—yjT  \  T—t 

In  roiuui  numbers,  let  i/rr6o  ftniidiamctcrs  of  the 
eiirth,  /=4o,  /=:r,  then  jr=j2  femidiamcters  nearly. 
There  isaiiother  point  beyond  the  moon  at  which  tjie 
attrattions  .ire  equal,  and  it  would  be  foundby  inittiiig 
the  fquarc  root  of  d — .'|*  to  be  x — d,  which,  in  this 

cafe,  would  be  a  pofitive  quantity;  andthenx~.         — 

—  72  nearly.  If  the  quantities  had  been  multiplied 
before  extrading  the  fqaarc  roots,  the  a  'fedcd  quadra- 
tic would  have  given  the  fame  two  roots. 

Examp.  3.  I^ft  a  flonc  be  dropt  into  an  empty  pit; 
and  let  the  time  from  the  droppingof  it  to  the  hear- 
ing the  fodud  from  the  bottom  be  given  :  To  find 
the  depth  of  the  pit. 

Let  the  given  time  be  a.-  let  the  fall  of  a  heavy  body 
in  the  ill  ftcond  of  time  (16.122  feet)  he  i :  alfo,  let 
the  motion  of  found  in  a  feoon'j  (1142  feet)  he  c. 
Let  the  time  of  the  Hone's  fall  be    -     ilx 
The  time  in  which  the  foundof  it  moves 

to  the  top  is  -  -  Tit — X 

The  dcfcciit  of  a  falling  body  is  as  tht 

fquare    of  the  time,    therefore   the 

depth  of  the  pit  is  ( t '  :  x"  :  :  1^  :  )    J&x" 
The  depth  from  the  motion  of  found  is 

alfo  .  .  .  ij  ca — ex 

Therefore  3  and  4  -  -  '.bx'—ca- 

Tliis  equation  being  refolvcd,  gives  the  value  of  r, 
and  from  it  may  be  got  bx'  or  ai — ex,  the  depth  of  the 
pit. 

If  the  time  is  10',  then  x— S.S'j  nearly,  and  the 
depth  is  127?  feet. 

There  arc  fevcral  circumflances  in  this  problem 
which  render  the  conclufion  inaccurate. 

r.  'I'he  v  dues  of  c  and  Ir,  on  which  the  folntinn  is 
founded,  are  derived  from  experiments,  which  arc 
fubjeiSt  to  confiderable  inaccuracies. 

2.  The  rcfiltancf  of  the  air  lias  a  great  efFeft  in  re- 
tarding the  defccnt  of  heavy  bodies,  when  the  velocity 
becomes  fo  great  as  is  fuppofcd  in  this  qiicflion  ;  and 
this  circumliance  is  not  regarded  in  the  foluiion. 

3.  A  fniall  error,  in  making  the  experimeiu  to 
which  thisqucftion  relates,  produces  a  great  error  in 
the  conclufion  This  circuniAance  is  particularly  to 
be  attended  to  in  all  pliyli:al  problems;  and,  in  the 
prefcnt  cafe,  witliout  TioiiJng  the  preceding  imper- 
fei^iohs,  an  error  of  hilf  a  fecond,  in  eilimating  the 
time,  makes  an  em  r  of  above  too  ftet  in  the  cxprcf- 
fion  of  the  depth  of  the  pit. 

III.  Of'L.iereft  and  Annuities. 

The  application  of  algebra  to  the  calculation  of  in- 
tcvefls  and  annuities,  will  furuilh  proper  examples  of 
its  ufc  in  bufinefs.  Algebra  cannot  determine  the  pro- 
priety or  jullicc  of  the  common  fuppofitions  on  which 
thefc  calculations  arc  founded,  but  only  the  ncccflary 
conclulions  rcfulting  from  thcni. 


E       B       R       A.      ■ 

Notation. 

In  the  followingthcoremslct/ denote  ar.y  principil 
fum  of  which  il.is  the  unit,  /  tiic  lime  during  wliich 
it  bears  intcrell,  of  which  one  year  ihallbc  the  unit,  r 
the  rate  of  in:crell  of  il.  for  one  year, and  let  she  the 
amount  of  the  principal  fum/  with  its  intcrell  for  thn 
lime  /  at  the  rate  r. 

I.  Of  Simple  Intircft. 

i:=f-\-ptr,  and  of  thefe  four,  /,  p,  t,  r,  any  three  be- 
ing given,  the  fourth  may  be  found  by  refolving  a  fiiii- 
plc  equation. 

The  foundation  of  the  canon  is  very  obvious  ;  for 
the  intereil  of  1 1.  in  one  year  is  r,  for  /  years  it  is  tr, 
and  for  p  pounds  it  is  pir ;  ihe  whole  itnount  of  prin- 
cipal and  iutercft  muft  therefore  be  p+ptrzzs. 

II.  Of  Compound  iiiteyep. 

V/hen  the  (implc  intereftat  the  end  of  every  year  is 
fuppofcd  to  be  joined  to  the  principal  fiim,  and  both  10 
bear  intcreft  for  the  following  year,  money  is  faid  to 
bear  compound  intereft.  The  fame  notation  being 
ufcd,  let  i-\.!—R.     Then  s—'Rt. 

For  the  liniple  intcrcfl  of  il.  in  a  year  is  r,  and  tli; 
new  principal  fum  therefore  which  bears  interefl  di:- 
ring  the  I'econd  year  is  ( i+i  —  )  R  ;  the  inttrert  01  A' 
for  a  year  is  rR,  and  the  araojnt  of  pvincip.-d  and  in- 
tereftat theend  of  the  2dyear,  isR+'-R-=R-A\+-—R'  ■ 
In  like  manner,  at  the  end  of  the  *d  year  it  is  A »,  at;  J 
at  the  end  of/  years  it  is  A'-',  and  for  the  fnm  p  it  is 
/>/?'=/. 

Cor.  I.  Of  tiicfc  four/,  ^,  ^,  J,  any  three  being  gi- 
ven the  4th  may  be  found.  Wlifn  /  is  not  very  fmali, 
the  folution  will  be  obtained  moll  conveniently  by  lo- 
garithms. "When  A  is  known  r  may  Lc  found,  and 
converfely. 

Ex.  If  jool.  has  been  at.intereC  for  21  years,  the 
whole  arrear  due,  reckoning  4;  per  cent,  compound 
intereft,  is  1263.121.  or  1260I.  2s.  jd.  In  this  cafe 
pzz^oo,  A=:i.o4J  and  /=2i  and  s—xi'to  \2,  and 
any  one  of  thcfe  may  be  derived  by  the  theorem  front 
the  others  being  known.  Thus,  to  find  s  -,  I  Rt:^!^: 
/./(■=  21  X0.0191 163  =0. 401442':,  therefore  A'  — 
2.520242  and   i—{pR'=i)   500x2.520242=1260.121. 

Cor.  2.  The  prefent  worth  of  a  fum  (s)  in  revcrr;on 
that  is  payable  after  a  certain  time  /  is  found  thus.  Let 
the  prcfc  't  worth  be  v,  then  this  money  improved  by 
compound  intereft  during  /  produces  xRt,  which  mull 

be  equal  to  /,  and  if  xK*  =  s,  x^  — 

A'» 


Cor.  3.  The  time  in  which  a  fum  is  doubh  d  at  com- 
pound intereft  will  be  found  thus.    pRtrzip  and  Rt—2 

I    2 
and  /  =  J ;  thus,  if  the  rate  is  5  per  cent.  ;:=:.o j  and 

/.A 


0.30I05CO 


=  14.2066,  that  is  14  years  and 


/.  1.05      C.021 1893 
75  days  nearly. 

S,:/)o/iti//t. 

Many  other  fuppofitions  might  be  made  with  regard 

to  the  improvement  of  money  by  compound  intereft. 

The  intereft  might  be  fuppofcd  to  be  joined  to  thr  cx- 

pit.-;!,  and  along  with  it  to  bear  inttreft  at  ihe  cud  of 

3  H  3  every 


4^3  A       L      G       E 

Of  Ecjui-  ev«ry  month, at  the  end  of  every  djy,  or  even  at  the 
tio""!      end  wi  every  iiiftant,  and  f'litablc  calciilaiioiis  niighi  1)C 
"       "       'forincil;  but  thefc  fappoliiious,  being  fcldoni  uled  in 
practice,  arc  omitted. 

III.  Of  Annuities. 

An  annuity  is  a  payment  made  annually  for  a  cer- 
tain term  of  years,  and  the  chief  problem  with  regard 
to  it  is,  '  lodcirnnine  its  prefent  worth.'  Tlie  fiip- 
polition  on  which  the  fohuion  proceeds  is,  that  the 
money  received  by  the  feller,  being  improved  by  liiiu 
in  a  certain  manner  during,  the  coniiiiu.iiicc  ot  the  an- 
nuity, amounts  to  the  famefum  as  the  fcvcnilpiyracnts 
received  by  the  ptirchafer,  improved  in  the  lame  man- 
ner. The  fuppolitions  with  regard  to  the  improve- 
ment may  be  various.  What  is  called  the  vnthoi  of 
fmpic  ititerejl,  in  which  finiplc  iiucrcft  only  is  reckon- 
ed upon  the  parch.ife-nioncy,  and  fimple  intercft  on 
each  annuity  from  the  time  ofpaymcnt,  is  lb  minifcll- 
ly  unequitable,  as  to  be  univerfally  rejected  ;  and  tiie 
fuppoiition  which  is  now  generally  admitted  in  prac- 
tice, is  the  highcll  improvement  poLlible  on  both  tides, 
viz.  by  compound  intercll.  As  the  taking  compiumd 
intercll  is  prohibited  by  law,  the  realizing  of  this  fup- 
pofed  improvement  requires  punctual  payment  of  in- 
rereft,  and  therefore  the  intcreft  in  fuch  calculations 
is  ufually  made  low.  Even  with  this  advantage,  it 
can  hardly  be  rendered  cffcdualin  its  full  extent ;  it 
is  however  univerfally  acquiefccd  in,  as  the  moP.  pro- 
per foundation  of  general  rules,  and  when  peculiar 
circumftanccs  require  any  different  hypothclis,  a  fuit- 
ible  calculation  may  be  made. 

Let  then  the  annuity  be  called  n,  and  let/  be  the 
prefcnt  worth  of  it  or  purchafe-money,  t  the  time  of 
its  continuance,  and  let  the  oihcrlctters  denote  as  for- 
merly. 

The  ftllrr,  by  improving  the  price  received  />,  at 
compound  intercfh,  at  the  time  the  annuity  ceafcs,  has 
pHt. 

The  pnrchi.fer  is  fuppofed  to  receive  the  firft  annu- 
ity a  at  the  end  of  the  firil  year,  which  is  improved  by 
him  for  / — i  years;  it  becomes  therefore  (Th.  2.) 

He  receives  the  2d  annuity  at  tlie  end  of  the  2d 
year,  and  when  improved  t — 2,  it  becomes  aKt — '. 

Tiie  third  annuity  becomes  aRt — ^,  &c. 

The  Lift  annuity  is  fimply  a,  therefore  the  wliole 
amount  of  the  improved  annuities  is  the  geometrical 
I'eries  a+aK-^ali ' ,  &c.  .  .  aRt — ' .     The  fum  of  this 

-I. 


feries,  by  Chap.  VI.  Sccl.  2.  is  a:X-!:Zl=ax— 

R —  I 


But, from  the  nauire  of  the  problem,/ ^'n^x 

Ri~\  I 

— — =axi  —  _ 


A/- 1, 


and  hence />  =  <-/ X- 


The  fame  ccmclyfion  rcfults  from  calculatin;^  the 
prefcnt  v.'orth  of  the  fcvcral  annuitic:,  confidered  as 
funis  payable  in  reverllon. 

Cor.  I.  Of  the  four;*,  a,  R,  t,  aiiy  three  being  gi- 
ven, the  fourth  may  be  found,  by  the  folution  of  equa- 
tions ;  /  is  found  caiily  by  logarithms,  .ft  or  r  can  be 


BRA.  Part  I. 

found  only  by  refolving  an  adfcftcd  equation  of  the  Of  Equ*- 

t  order.  tioiiB. 

Cor.  2.  If  an  annuity  has  been  unpaid  for  the  term  " ^ 

t,  the  arrcar,  reckoning  compouud  iiucreft,  will  be 

•     Rt—i 

ay. 

I" 

Cor.  2.  The  prefcnt  worth  of  an  annuity  in  rever- 

fion,  that  is  to  commence  after  a  certain  time  ('.),  and 

then  to  continue  /  years,  is  found  by  iubtracting  the 

prefcnt  worth  for  n  years  from  the  prefeiu  worth  for 

r;+f  years,  and  then 

At — I  I 

/>  =  axtL-.Lz:aXl  —  ~ 
ri\l+n  A I 

TF"- 

Alfo  of  R,  t,  u,  a,  p,  any  four  being  given,  t&c  fifth 
may  be  found. 

Cor.  4.  If  tlic  annuity  is  to  continue  for  ever,  then 
Ri — I  a:ul  Kt  may  be  conlidcrcd  as  the  fame  ;  aud 
*_         A'— !=<» 
rAt         r 

Cor.  5.  A  perpetuity  in  revcrfion  ^hy  Car.  5.)  fince 

R'—i  =  Rt,  hpzzJf—. 

'        '         rK" 

T  roh.  When  12  years  of  a  leafe  of  21  were  expired, 
a  renewal  for  the  fame  term  was  granted  for  loool.  ; 
8  years  are  now  expired,  and  for  what  fum  nuift  a  cor- 
refponding  renewal  be  made,  reckoning  5  per  cetti. 
compound  intercfl  ? 

From  the  firft  ti'anfa<5lion  the  yearly  profit  rent  inuft 
be  deduced ;  and  trom  this  the  proper  iinc  in  the  fe- 
cond  may  be  computed. 

In  the  firft  bargain,  an  annuity  in  reverfion  for  12 

years,  to  commence  9  years  hence,  was  fold  for  loool. 

the  annuity  will  therefore  be  found  by  dr. :;.  in  which 

rR" 
all  the  quantities  are  given,  but<;=:/'-i- . 

I 

and  by  inferting  numbers,  viz.  p—\ooo,  tzz\2,  »=:<), 
rzz.os,  and  ^=1.05;  and  working  by  logarithm;) 
'!zzx  75. 029:1:1751. — 7d. 

Next,  having  found  a,  the  fccond  renewal  is  made 
by  finding  the  prefcnt  wnrih  of  tlie  annuity  «  in  rever- 
hon,  to  commence  1 3  years  hence,  and  to  lall  8  years. 
In  the  canon  [Cor.  3.)  iiifcrt  fur  a  17J.029,  and  kt 
/=S,  /.=I3,  and  r—.os  as  before,  />=599. 93=599!. 
18s.  6id.     The  fine  required. 

.^s  tJiefe  computations  often  become  troublcfomc, 
and  arc  of  frequent  ufc,  all  the  common  cafes  are  cal- 
culated in  tables,  fiomvvhich  the  value  of  any  annuity 
for  any  time,  at  any  intcrtft,  may  eafily  be  found. 

It  is  to  be  obfervcd  alfo,  that  the  preceding  rules 
are  computed  on  thefuppofitiun  of  the  annuitiesicing 
paid  yearly  ;  and  iherel'orc,  if  they  be  fuppofed  to  be 
paid  half  yearly,  or  quarterly,  the  coijclulions  will  bo 
fomcv/hat  diftercnt,  hat  they  maybe  eallly  calculated 
on  the  preceding  pri;uiples. 

The  calculations  of  life  annuities,  depend  partly  np- 
cn  the  principles  now  explained,  andpanlyoii  pliyii- 
cal  principles,  from  the  probable  iluration  of  humaa 
life,  as  (Udactd  from  bills  of  mortality. 

PART 


Part  II. 


L 


B       II 


4-9 


R 


11. 


Of  the  General  Properties  and  Refolutions  of  Equations  of  all  Orders. 


c  H  A  P.    1 

Of  the  Origin  and  Compofition  of  Equations  ;  and  oj  the 
Signs  and  Cotjficiints  oj' their  teims. 

IN  order  to  rcfolve  the  higher  orders  of  equations, 
and  to  invcllii^ate  their  general  afre«$lions,  it  is  pro- 
per firfl  to  conlidcr  their  origin  from  the  toinbination 
of  interior  equations. 

As  it  would  be  ioipoffible  to  exhibit  particular  rules 
for  the  foUition  of  every  orderot  equations,  their  num- 
ber being  indefinite  ;  tiicrc  is  a  ncccinty  of  deducing 
rules  from  their  general  properties,  which  may  be  c- 
qually  applicalile  to  all. 

In  the  application  of  algebra  to  certain  fuljccls,  and 
cfpccially  lo  geometry,  there  may  be  an  oppofition  in 
the  quaniiiies,  analogous  to  that  of  addition  and  fub- 
tradion, which  may  therefore  be  exprelled  by  the  ligns 
-1-  and  — .  Hence  thtfc  figns  may  be  nndcrllood  by 
abftraiftioii,  to  denote  contrariety  in  general  ;  and 
therefore,  in  this  method  of  treating  of  equations,  ne- 
gative roots  are  admitted  as  well  as  podtivc.  lu  many 
cafes  the  negative  will  have  a  proper  and  determinate 
meaning ;  and  when  the  equation  relates  lo  magnitude 
only,  where  contrariety  cannot  be  fuppofed  to  exift, 
thefe  roots  are  neglected,  as  in  the  cafe  of  quidratic 
equations  formerly  explained.  There  is  bclides  this 
advantage  in  admitting  negative  roots,  that  both  the 
properties  of  equations  from  which  their  ref)hition  is 
obtained,  and  ulfo  thofe  which  are  ufcful  ia  the  many 
cxteufive  applications  of  algebra,  become  more  fiuiple 
and  general,  and  are  more  calily  deduced. 

Ill  thi?  general  method,  all  the  terms  of  any  equation 
arc  broui'lit  to  one  fide,  and  the  equation  is  cxpreiled 
by  making  them  equal  to  o.  Therefore,  if  a  root  of 
tile  cijiuuiou  be  inferted  iurtead  of  (v)  ilie  unknosvn 
quantity,  the  pofiave  terms  will  be  equal  to  the  nega- 
tive, and  liic  wliole  mud  be  equal  to  o. 

Dil.  When  any  equation  is  put  into  tliis  form,  the 
lerin  in  which  (v)  the  unknown  quantity,  is  of  ihc 
highcrt:  power,  is  called  the  Firfi;  that  in  which  the 
index  of  .V  is  lefs  by  i,  is  the  Second,  and  fo  on,  till  the 
Lift,  into  which  the  unknown  quantity  does  not  enter, 
and  which  is  called  the  Abfotiitt  Term. 

Pi-op.  I.  If  any  number  of  equations  be  multiplied 
together,  an  equation  will  be  produced,  of  v.  hich  the 
tiimenfion  (a)  is  equal  to  the  fiini  of  thcdiincniions  of 
the  equations  mulliplicd. 

If  any  number  of  fimple  equations  be  inuliiplied  to- 
gether, as  v — <T^o,  ■■< — I'zzo,  X — <,=",  &c.  it  is  obvi- 
ous, that  the  product  will  be  an  equation  of  a  dimcn- 


fian,  containing  as  many  units  as  tlicrc  are  fimplc  eqia- 
tious.  In  like  manner,  if  higher  equations  are  multi- 
plied togetlicr,  a<  a  cubic  a:!d  a  quadratic,  oneof  tkc 
fifth  order  is  produced,  and  fo  on. 

Conveifily.  An  equation  of  any  dimcnfion  is  coiili- 
dcrcd  as  compounded  either  of  fimple  equations,  or  cf 
others,  fuch  that  the  fum  of  their  dimeniions  is  equal 
to  the  dimcnfion  of  the  given  one.  By  the  refolution 
of  equations  thcfe  inferior  equations  are  difcuvcred, 
and  h'j  invclligaiing  the  coiupoiicnt  limplc  equations, 
the  roots  of  any  higher  cqi'.ation  arc  found. 

Cor.  I.  Any  equation  admits  of  as  many  folutions, 
or  has  as  many  roots  as  there  are  limple  equations 
which  compofc  it,  that  is,  as  there  arc  units  in  the  di- 
mcnfion of  it. 

Cor.  ^•  And  convcrfely,  no  equation  can  have  tr.orc 
roots  than  the  units  in  its  dimcnfion. 

Cor.  3.  Imaginary  or  impollible  roots  tnuA  cnccraii 
equation  by  ]>airs  ;  for  they  arifo  from  quadratics,  in 
whicli  both  the  roots  arc  fuch. 

Hence  alfo,  an  equation  of  an  even  dimcnfion  may 
have  all  its  roots,  or  any  even  numbcrof  them  impof- 
fible,  but  an  equation  of  an  odd  dimcnlion  mufl  at  icail 
have  one  polfiblc  root. 

Cor.  4.  The  roots  are  cither  pofitive  or  negative, 
according  as  the  roots  of  the  fimple  equations,  from 
which  they  are  produced,  are  politivc  or  negative. 

Cor.  5.  When  one  root  of  an  equation  is  difcovcrcd, 
one  of  the  fimple  equations  is  found,  from  which  the 
given  one  is  compounded.  The  given  co'iation,  there- 
fore,  being  divided  by  this  limplc  equation,  will  give 
an  equation  of  a  dimenfiou  lower  by  i.  Thus,  any 
equation  may  be  depreflcd  as  many  degrees  as  there 
are  roots  found  by  any  method  whatever 

I  rop.  II.  To  explain  the  general  properties  of  the 
figns  and  coefficients  of  the  terms  of  an  equation. 

I.ct  .V — arzo,  x — fco,  .x — c=o,  x — dzzo,  &e.  be 
fmiplc  equations,  of  which  the  roots  are  any  politivc 
quantities  +a,  -f-*,  +c,  -hJ,  &c.  and  let  x+r/.=o, 
x+"~o,  &c.  be  fimple  equations,  of  which  the  roots 
are  any  negative  quantities  — k, — n,  &c.  and  let  any 
number  of  thefe  equations  be  multiplied  together,  iS  in 
the  following  table  : 


X-v — C-=0 


-ex 
-tix+:ip 


=0,  a  Qiiadraiit. 


yy—r=o 


f  a)  The  term  dimenficn,  in  this  tveaiifc,  is  ufed  in  fenfcs  fonuv  iiat  different,  Ian  fo  as  not  to  rrcale  iinjr 
atnUiguity.  lu  this  chapter  it  means  either  the  order  of  an  equation,  or  the  number  deno'tini!  that  rrdrr, 
wl.kh  was  formerly  defined  to  be  the''  *"  ^    .  . 

(iou. 


-----  .    -^ ,         _.  ....         ..vw.         ......v..!.^         ......  -.--., 

ligncfl  exponent  of  the  unknown  quantity  in  any  term  of  the  cqu*- 


43'=' 


Of  Eqna-    —x' — a 
tioiis.  —  -' 


E       13       R       A. 


X-V — uoci/,—0,   i 
(liiijiiaJraiic, 


from  this  table  it  is  plain, 

1.  i  hut  in  a  cuiii)iletceciiuiioiulie  number  of  terms 
is  always  greater  by  unit  than  ilic  dimcnlion  of  ihc 
equation. 

2.  Tlie  coeflicicnt  of  the  firll  term  is  i. 

Th«  coctiiciciit  of  liie  iecond  term  is  the  fum  of  all 
the  rootj  {a,  b,  c,  w,  &c.)  with  their  ligns  changrd. 

The  coefficient  of  I  lie  third  term  is  the  fum  of  all 
the  producls  that  can  be  made  by  multiplying  any  two 
of  the  roots  together. 

The  coeilicicnt  of  the  fourth  terra  is  the  fum  of  all 
the  products  which  can  be  made  by  multiplying  tou;c- 
thcr  any  three  of  the  roots  with  ihiir  ligns  changed; 
and  fo  of  o'.hcis. 

The  laft  term  is  the  product  of  all  the  roots,  with 
their  figns  changed. 

3.  Yxom  induction  it  appears,  that  in  any  equation 
(the  terms  being  regularly  arranged  as  in  the  prece- 
ding example)  there  arc  as  many  politivc  roots  as  there 
are  changes  in  the  fignsof  the  terms  from  +  to  — , 
and  from  —  to  -(-  ;  and  the  remaining  roots  arc  nega- 
tive.    The  rule  alfo  may  be  dcmonilrated. 

Note.  The  impolliblc  roots  in  this  rule. are  fuppofed 
to  be  either  pofitivc  or  negative. 

In  this  example  of  a  numeral  equation  x'— lox^-l- 
5;x- — 5Oi-|-24=:0,  the  roots  are,  -fi,  +2,  +5,  -4-4, 
and  the  preceoingobfervations  with  regara  to  the  figns 
and  coefficicnis  take  place. 

Cor.  If  a  term  of  an  equation  is  wanting,  the  pofi- 
tive  and  negative  parts  of  its  coefficient  muft  then  be 
equal.  If  there  is  no  abfolute  term,  then  fomc  of  the 
roots  mull  be  =0,  and  tb.e  equation  may  be  dcprelftd 
by  dividing  all  the  terms  by  the  lowell  power  of  tiic 
unknown  quantity  in  anyof  tliem.     In  this  cafe  alfo, 

X 0=0,  X — 0=0,  &c.  may  be  confidered  as  fo  many 

of  the  component  fimple  equations,  by  which  the  given 
equation  being  divided,  it  will  be  dcprclFcd  fo  many 
degrees. 


CHAP.     II. 

Cfth:  Trainformation  of  Equations. 

There  arc  certain  transformations  of  equations  ne- 
ceffary  towards  ihcir  folution  ;  and  the  moftufefulare 
contained  in  the  following  proportions. 

Prop.  I.  The  affirmative  roots  of  an  equation  be- 
come negative,  and  t!ie  negative  become  affirmative, 
by  changing  the  figns  of  the  alternate  terms,  begin- 
ning with  the  fecond. 

Thus  the  roots  of  the  equation  x* — x' — \()%'-^e.^x 


Part  II. 

—  5,  wheress  the  roots  of  of  Equa- 
— 49X — l^—o,  ai  c  — I,  —      t'fr.s- 


— ;o=9  arc  +1,  +2,  -f: 
the  equation  x'-f*' — 19 

2,  —3.  +J- 

The  rcafini  of  this  is  derived  from^hc  eompofiiion 
of  the  coefficients  of  thcfc  terms,  which  confifl  of 
ciinibinaiions  of  odd  iiunibcrsol  the  rooir,,  as  explain- 
ed in  the  preceding  C  ha^^tcr. 

Pr:f.  1.  An  equation  may  be  transformed  into 
another  that  fliall  have  iis  roots  greaicr  or  Uisih.iti  the 
roots  of  the  given  equation  by  fome  given  diiierence. 

Let  X  be  the  unknown  quantity  of  the  equation, 
and  e  the  given  ditfc rcncc ; te t  j ~.v —*—!:, the. 1  rzzyzi^c; 
aiulif  for  x  and  itspoAcr  in  the  given  equation, _y=Jz:f 
and  its  powers  beinfcrttd,  a  new  equation  will  arilc, 
in  which  the  unknown  quaiiiiiy  is/,  and  its  value  will 
;.f  1 — *—' :  that  is,  its  roots  will  diftiir  from  the  roots 
of  the  given  equation  by  r. 

Let  the  equation  propofcd  be  x' — px'+qx — »~o. 
of  w  hich  the  roots  mult  be  diminilhcd  by  e.  By  in- 
fertiug  for  x  and  its  powers _y-f-^  and  its  powers,  ilic 
cquaiioii  required  is. 


+  'jy  +  ?'■  C 


Cor.  t.  From  this  transformation,  the  fecond,  or 
any  oilier  intermediate  term,  m..y  be  taken  away; 
granting  the  refoLuion  of  equations. 

Since  the  coefficients  of  ;dl  the  terms  of  the  tranf- 
formcd  equation,  except  the  firft,  involve  the  posvers 
of  f  and  known  quar.iities  only,  by  putting  the  coef- 
ficient of  any  term  equal  to  o,  and  refolving  that  cquar 
tion,  a  value  of  c  rajiy  be  determined  ;  which  being 
fubdituted,  will  make  that  term  to  vaniih. 

Thus,  in  ihis  example,  to  take  away  the  fecond 
term,  let  its  coefficient,  j.- — /-^o,  and  f::z^/>,  which 
being  fubftitutcd  for  e,  the  new  equation  will  want 
tlic  fecond  term.  And  univerfally,  the  coefficient  of 
thelirA  term  of  a  cubic  equation  being  i,  and  x  being 
the  unknown  quantity,  the  fecond  term  may  be  takerl 
away  by  fuppoling  xzz) -z^zi'p ,z:±^p  being  the  coeffici- 
ent of  that  term. 

Cor.  2.  The  fecondjerm  m»y  be  taken  away  by  the 
folutiwi  of  a  fimple  equation,  the.  third  by  the  folution 
of  a  quadra^iic,  and  fo  on. 

Cor.  3.  if  the  fecond  term  of  a  quadratic  equation, 
be  taken  away,  it  will  become  a  pure  equation,  and 
thus  a  folution  of  qudratics  will  be  obtained,  which 
coincides  with  the  folution  already  given  in  Part  I. 

Cor.  4.  The  lalt  term  of  the  transformed  equation 
is  the  fame  with  the  given  equation,  only  having  e  in 
place  of  X. 

Prop.  3.  In  like  manner  may  an  equation  be  trans- 
formed into  another,  of  which  the  roots  ffiall  be  equal 
to  the  roots  of  the  given  equation,  multiplied  or  di- 
vided by  a  given  quantity. 

Let  *  be  the  unknown  letter  in  the  given  equation, 
and  )■  that  of  the  equation  warned  ;  alfo  let  i:  be  the 
given  quantity. 

To  multiply  tlic  roots  let  s.-^y  and  x  -zlZ-, 


To  divide  the  roots  let  — —j,  and  x~ye. 

e 


Then 


Pait  II.  '  A        L        C        I: 

Of  Tqua-       yijen  fubftituic  fur  x  anJ  its  powers,  Z_  or   re  and 

t:or»,  f         * 

^  *'  '  i:s  powers,  and  the  new  equation  of  which  j>  is  the 
uiikno'.i-n  quantity  will  have  the  property  rtquired. 
..  Cor,  I  By  this  propofiiion  an  equation,  in  which 
the  coefficient  di  the  firfl  term  is  any  known  quanti- 
ty, as  a,  may  be  trar.sformed  into  another,  in  whith 
tiic  coefficient  of  tlic  (^rll  term  Ihall  be  unit.  Thus, 
let    the    equation    be   nx' — p'+jx — rzro.      Suppnlc 

}—jx,   or  xzz-L,  and  for  x  and  its  powers  iiitcrt-_ 


and  its  powers,  and  the  equation  becomes- li— + 

a'      a' 

iL — 1—0,   or/' — p)'-i-^a_\ — a'l—o.     A!fo,  let   the 


eq'jati>>n  be  5.t' — 6.t* +  7.v — jc^ojaad  U  xzz-,  then 

7>— 6/'+3J>— 7JC=0. 

Cor.  2.  If  the  two  transformations  in  Prop.  2.  and 
?.  be  both  required,  they  may  be  performed  either 
fejiaratcly  or  together. 

Thus,  if  it  is  required  to  transform  the  equation 
ax' — pxf+(jx — r=o  into  one  wliich  (hall  want  the 
focond  term,  and  in  which  ihe  coefficient  of  the  lirit 

y 
term  fliall  be  I  ;  let  x—-,  and  lhen>' — py'-\-qaji — 

a'rz=o  as  before;  then  let  >=2+5/',  and  the  new 
equation,  of  which  2  is  the  nnknown  quantity,  will 
want  the  fccond  term,  and  the  cuffficicr.t  o{  z- ,  the 

highefl;  termis  I.     Or,  if  x=^^ — —,   the   fame   equa- 
tion as  the  laft  found  will  arife  from  one  operation. 
£x.    Let  the    equation   be  5x" — Gx'  +  yx — jo=:o. 

If.\='l,   then  _)' — 6)*+35j' — 750=0.     And   if  j~ 

5 
=+2,    z'+2^z — 696=0.      Alfo,    at   once,    let    x= 

- — ,  and  the  equation  properly  reduced,  by  bring- 
ing; all  the  terms  to  a  common  denominator,  and  then 
calling  it  off,  will  be  z'+2'}z — 696=0,  as  before. 

Co'-.  3.  If  there  are  fraftions  ii*.  an  equation,  they 
may  be  taken  away,  by  multiplying  tl-.e  equation  by 
the  denominators,  and  by  ibis  propofition  the  equa- 
tion may  then  be  transformed  into  another,  without 
fraftions,  in  which  the  coefficient  of  the  Urd  term 
is  t.  In  like  manner  may  a  furd  coefficient  be  taken 
away  in  certain  cafes. 

Cor.  4.  Kencc  alfo,  if  the  coefficient  of  the  fcccnd 
term  of  a  cubic  equation  is  not  diviiible  by  3,  the 
fra^ions  thence  ariling  in  the  transformed  equation, 
wanting  ihe  fccond  term,  may  be  taken  away  by  the 
preceding  corollary.  But  the  fecond  term  alio  may  be 
taken  away,  fo  that  there  Ihall  be  no  fuch  fractions  in 

the  transformed  equation,by  fuppofing  v~  "        '  <'~*~p 

3 
being  the  coefficient  of  the  fecond  term  of  il-.e  given 
equation.     And   if  the  equation  ax' — px'-\-,jy. — r=o 
be  given,  in  which /5  Is  not  Jivii.blt  by  ,,  by  fuppcfuig 

xzi — '->  the  transformed  equation  reduced  is  z>  — 


I>  K  A. 

term,  and  tlic  eoefficientj  of  the  other  tet 

inicgcrs,  tlic  coemci.r.ts  >>f  the  givci  t. 
alio  luppofcd  integers. 


;/   -t-<j..y.X2 — 2/*>-f9c/o — 27''''=0:    wanting     the 
fccond  term,  having  one  for  the  ccctEci'jDt  of  the  firfl 


C'l-mra/  Coroi'/arjr  tq  Prop.  I.  2.  ^.. 

If  ihe  roots  cf  any  of  iLefc  transformed  tqnalioiis 
be  found  Ly"  any  mtihod,  tlie  roots  of  the  orij;ii.ui 
_cquat!(m,  from  v.hich  they  were  derived,  wtil  e  :(:!y 
be  found  from  the  liriplceqiaiions  expreinng  their  re- 
lation. Thus,  if  8  is  fouiid  to  be  a  root  of  the  trans- 
formed equation  z'+z^z — 696=0  (Cor.  2.  prop.  3.) 

Since  x—1 ,  tlie  correfponding  root  of  the  given 

equation  ^x' — Gx'+ix — 3o  =  on;uflbe — 1^=2.     It 

is  to  be  obfcrved  alfo,  that  tlie  reafor.ing  in  Prop.  2. 
and  5.  and  the  coroliaries,  may  be  extended  to  any  or- 
dcr  of  equations,  thoiigh  in  them  it  is  ap^jlicd  chiefly 
to  cubics. 

C  H  .\  P.    III. 

Of  the  Refofutior:  of  Equation, 

From  the  preceding principlcsand operations, rules 
may  be  derived  for  rcTolving  equations  of  all  orders. 

I.  Cardan's  Rule  fur  Cubic  Equation. 

The  fccond  term  of  a  cubic  equation  being  taken 
away,  and  the  coefficient  of  the  fi-ft:  term  being  midc 
I,  (by  Cor.  I.  Prop.  2.  and  Cor.  i.  Prop.  3.  Chap.  11.) 
it  miy  be  generally  reprcfcnted  by  x',+3j7v-f-2'  =0  j 
the  lign  -H  in  all  terms  denoting  the  addition  of  tlicai, 
with  their  proper  figns.  Let  x=7/7-f//,  and  alfo  mn 
=  —  q  ;  by  the  fub.titution  of  thefe  values,  an  equa- 
tion of  the  6th  order,  but  of  the  quadratic  form',  is 
deduced,  which  gives  the  values  of  m  and  n  \  and 
hence, 

(.T.-i-n  =  )  .V  =    V— r-H V'  '  +y  '  -f  ^yJ—r—J?^^'  ; 

_    9 
or  .-=    ;,_,+  ^,._^^,_  ^_^_^^-=== 

Cor.  I.  In  the  given  equation,  if  37  is  negative,  and 
if  r=  islefsthan  y',  this  exprcffion  of  the  root  involves 
impoffiblc  roots  ;  while,  at  the  fame  time,  ail  the  roots 
of  th.1t  equation  arc  poffible.  The  reafon  is,  that  in 
this  method  of  folution  it  is  ncccflary  to  fuppofc  that 
X  the  root  may  be  divided  into  two  pans,  of  which 
the  produift  is  q.  But  it  is  eafy  to  fiiow,  that  in  this, 
which  is  called  the  irreducitli  cafe,  it  cannot  be  done. 

For  example,  the  cquaiion  (Ex.  3.  Sedl.  3.  of  this 
Chapter),  x'  — 156-^560=0,  belongs  to  the  irredu- 
cible cafe,  and  the  three  roots  are  -4-4,-1-10,  —  14  ; 
and  it  is  plain  that  none  of  thefe  roots  can  be  divided 
into  two  parts  [m  and  >:),  ef  which  the  proJu^  can 

for  the  greateft  pro- 

duft  from  the  divifiun  of  the  greateft  root — :.;,  is 
—  7X — 7=49  Icfs  than  52. 

If  (lie  cube  root  of  the  compound  furd  can  be  cx- 
tratteu,  the  impoffible  parts  baUuce  each  tthcr,  and 
the  true  root  is  obtained. 

Tilt  geometrical  problem  of  the  trifcflion  of  an 

arch 


be  equal  to  ( — cj—)ll^—  52 
3 


^32  A        L        Li         J 

of  E>vj»    arc'n  is  reiolvird  .li^r'oriiCilly,  I'y  a  cubic  eqiiaiion  of 
tions        ihii  form;  and  hence  the  foundation  of  the  ru'.e  for 
■'      '  rrfolvii'.^  ;ia  equation  belonging  to  this  cafe,  by  a  ts.- 
bl:  of  lujirs. 

Cor.  2.  Kitqusilratic  eqiiarioriS  may  be  reduced  to 
<-'jbies,  and  may  therefore  bt  le'olvcd  by  thisri.U'. 

Soivi*  oihef  cljircs  of  eqn.itions,  too,  n.ay  be  rclol- 
vtd  by  par:  i-ular  rules;  butthtfc,  and  every  o:her  or- 
>Vr  of  ffjijalions,  arc  toinmonly  rtijivc J  by  the  gene- 
ral r'llc.,   which  inuviir  tqiully  applied  io  all. 


B       R       A. 


Pait  II 


H.  S: 


F„/e 


are  conimenfu- 


iile  I.  Al!  the  terms  <»f  tlir  et^uatian  being  brought 
to  one  (it!r,  find  all  the  divifors  of  the  abfolutc  term, 
ftnU  fubftitaie  ihcra  fiiccciTivcly  in  the  equation  for 
the  unknown  <jnanti;y.  That  divifor  which,  Tab- 
ftitiUtd  in  this  manner,  gives  the  refuit  =o,  fliaU 
be  X.  root  of  the  equation. 


Ex.  \.    X'  —  5iJx' +  2a'.v— ?<»'(i  1  _ 


The  fimple  literal  divifors  of  — 2a'l>  arc  a,  b,  2^, 
;i,  any  of  which  may  be  infcrtcd  for  x.  Suppofing 
y~-\-a,  the  tquation  becomes 

-»_j«»4.2i'-2«''^  ^vhich  isobviou!ly=o. 
Ex.2.  x^—2x' — 33x+90=o. 


The  divifors  of  90  are  i,  I,  3,  5,  (>,  9,  10,  r  J,  iS,  Of  Equs- 

30,    45,   00.  HOBS. 

The  firftof  thefc  divifors,  which  being  infcricd  for        ~ 
X,  will  make  (he  rcfult  =0,  is  +  3  j  +  5  is  another  ; 
{.lul  it  is  plain  the  laft  4'ooi  mud  be  negative,  and  it  is 
—  6. 

When  3  is  difcovered  to  lie  a  root,  <hc  given  equa- 
tion may  be  divided  by  .v — 5=0,  and  the  rcfult  will 
be  aqnadraiic,  which  liciu^rcfolved  willgivc  tiieotlier 
two  roots,  +  J  and  — 6. 

The  reafou  of  the  ttile  appcTrs  fr«:n  ihe  property 
of  the  abfolutc  term  formerly  dcfincti,  viz.  ihat  it  it 
the  produft  of  all  the  roots. 

To  avoid  the  inconvenince  of  trying  many  divifors, 
this  method  i.s  flwrtencd  by  the  following 

Uti/i  2.  Snbflitntc  in  place  of  the  unknown  qumtrTjr 
fucceilively  three  o^rinore  ;ernis  of  the  progrellioa, 
1,0,  —  I,  &c.  and  find  all  the  divifors  of  the  Aims 
that  rcfuU  ;  then  take  out  all  the  ai  ithm<!iicai  pro- 
grelfions  that  can  bc-foiind^mongthcfcdiviforswhorc 
common  diflcrence  is  i,  and  th-c  values  nt  x  will  te 
among  thofc  terms  of  the  prngruSons  which  art  tfec 
divifors  of  the  rcftik  ariling  from  the  fibfUturion  of 
.v  =  o.  When  the  fcries  increases,  the  rootswifi  be 
pofuive  J  and  when  it  iJccreafes,  chc  roots  will  -bt 
negative. 

Examp.  Let  it  be  required  to  find  a  root  of  the  equa- 
tion x> — X' — ioa:4-6  =  o. 


The  operation  is  thus  ; 


Sufpij:: 


ktjiiit.  I  Divifnrs. 


x-=.  I 


X' — X'  —  TOy-l-6 


'AI 


41,  2,  4, 


+  14 


i>  2,  3,6, 

'.  2,  7,  1 4. 2 


Ar.  fro'. 


In  this  example  there  is  only  one  progrcliion,  4,  3, 
2  ;  and  therefore  3  is  a  root,  and  it  is  — 3,  iiuce  the 
ferits  dccrcafes. 

It  is  evident  by  the  rules  for  transforming  equa- 
tions (Chap.  II.),  that  by  infertingfor  x,  -^  i  (=4-;) 
the  refult  is  the  abfolutc  term  of  an  equation  of  which 
the  roots  are  let's  than  the  roots  of  the  given  equation 
by  I  (=:•).  Cor.  4.  Prop.  2.  When  jc=o  the  refult 
is  the  abfohue  term  of  the  given  equation.  When  for 
X  is  infcrted  — i  (= — :)  the  refult  is  the  abfolutc 
term  of  an  equation  whole  roots  exceed  the  roots  of 
the  given  equation  by  i  (=<)•  Hence,  if  the  terms 
of  the  fcries  1,0,  — i,  — 2,  &c.  be  infcrted  fucccf- 
llvciy  for  X,  the  refults  will  be  the  abfolute  terms  of 
fo  many  equations,  of  which  the  roots  form  an  incr«a- 
ling arithmetical  ferics  with  the  dllfcrence  i.  Butas 
the  commenfiiratc  roots  of  thcfc  equations  muft  be  a- 
mong  the  divifors  of  their  abfolute  terms,  hence  they 
mull  be  among  the  aritlimctical  progreflions  found  by 
this  rule.  The  roots  of  the  given  equation  therefore 
are  to  be  fought  for  among  the  terms  of  thefe  progrcf- 
iions  which  are  divifors  of  the  refult,  upon  the  fuppo- 
fition  of  x  —  o,  becaufe  that  refult  is  its  abfolute  term. 

It  is  plain  that  the  progreffions  niufl  always  be  in- 
crealing,  o.-ly  it  is  to  be  obfervcd,  that  a  dccreafing 
ferics  with  the  lign  -f-  becomes  incrcafing  with  the 
.'scrw  — .     Thus,  in  the  preceding  example,  — 4,  — 3, 


— 2,  is  an  increafing  fcries,  of  which — 3  is  to  be 
tritd,  and  it  fucceeds. 

If,  from  the  fubflilutten  of  three  terms  of  the  pro- 
gredion,  r,  o,  — l,  &c.  there  arifc-  a  number  of  arith- 
metical fcricfes.  by  fubftitiiting  more  terms  of  that 
progreflion,  fome  of  the  feriefes  will  break  oft,  and, 
of  courfc,  fewer  trials  will  be  nccelfary, 

III.     Esamflis  oj Qutfliom  producing  the  higher  Equtt' 
tionj. 

Eanp.  I.  It  is  required  to  divide  16  1.  between  two 
perfons,  fo  that  the  cube  of  the  one's  fliarc  may  ex- 
ceed the  cube  of  the  other's  by  :86. 

Let  the  gi-catcr-iliarc  be  x  pounds, 
And  the  Icfs  will  be  16 — x  ; 


By  thequeftion,  .v' — 16 — .v|»=386 
And  by  Inv.  2x5 — 48.V'' 4-768): — 4096=386 
Tranfp.  and  di  vide  x= — 24x'+384v — 2241=0. 

Suppof.  ReJitUs.  Diviforj, 

Ifx=     I;  -     iSSo     -  1,2,4,5,8,10,20. 

*■=     o;  -     2241     -  1,3,9,27,83. 

X——1 :  -     26J0    -  I,  2,  5,  lo,  2j,  J3. 

Where  8,  9,  10,  differ  by  i  ;  therefore  -t-9is  to  be 
tried;  and  being  infcrted  for  v,  the  equation  is=o. 
The  two  liurcs  then    arc  9  and  7  which    fuccccd. 

Since 


BRA. 


433 


Of  Equa-  Since  j^=:9  ;    x—^—o,   is  one  of  the    limple    equa- 
tions,     tions  from  which  ihis  cubic  is   produced,  therelore 


«— 9 


-—X'  —  i5x-{-249:=0.    And  the 
two  roots  of  this  quadratic  arc  impofllble. 
Examp.  2.     What  two  numbers  are  thofe  whofc  pro- 
diia  niiiUipliedby  the  greater  will  produce  435,  and 
their  difference  multiplied  by  the  lefs  20  ? 

Le{  the  greater  number  be  x,  and  the  Icfs^. 
Then  by  quell.     \\—       _\  ._,^ 


x'^- 


;'+4q>*+40O 


>' 


40J 


^•*+4q>i '4-400    40  J 


Therefore 
And  -  - 
Alfo  -  - 
Therefore 

y  > 

Mult,  and  tranfp._)'<+40)" — 40^+400=0. 

This  biquadratic,  refolved  by  divifors,  give?/=3  : 

and  therefore  .v=9.     Alfo< i^ —i — -^—j  ' 

J—S 

This  cubic  equation  has  one  pofitivc  incommenfurate 
root,  viz.  1. 1 1 4,  &c.  which  maybe  found  by  the  rule 
in  the  next  fedlion,  and  two  impofTible.  The  incom- 
menfurate root/=i  ^11 4,  &c.  gives  .r  =19.067,  &c.  and 
thefe  two  anfwer  th'e  conditions  very  nearly. 

Examp.  3.  The  fum  of  the  fquares  of  two  numbers 
208,  and  the  fum  of  their  cubes  2240  being  given, 
to  find  them. 

Let  the  greater  be  '-\-y,  and  the  lefs  x — y. 
Then  .v+j  )  +x  — }]'=2x'+2y '  =  208 
Hcncc^  '=104 — X ' 

Alfo  X-4-/1'  +v— /)'  =  2X'+6.v_)''=2240 

•Subflitutc  for/"  its  value  and  2v'+624v — 6x'=:2240. 

This  reduced  gives  x>  —  i  j6x-f-56o=o. 

The  roots  of  this  eqiiation  are  -4-  10,  +  14,  — 14.  If 
szz  10,  then/=2  ;  and  the  numbers  fought  are  12  and 
8,  which  give  the  only  jufl  lolution.  Ifx=:4,  then 
j'=:S8  and  )='v'88.  The  numbers  fought  arc  there- 
fore 4+ VgS  and  4 — VSS.  The  la/l  is  negative,  but 
th«y  anfwer  the  conditions.     Laflly,  if  x= — 14,  then 

y'— — 92,  hence  /  =:V^^^^^,  is  impoffible  ;  but  Hill 
the  two  numbers — T4-(-V — 92,  — 14 — ^ — 92,  be- 
ing infertcd,  would  anfwer  the  conditions.  But  it  has 
been  frecjucntly  obfcrved,  that  fuch  folutions  arc  both 
ufelcfs  and  without  meaning. 

IV.     Solution  of  Equations  by  Approximation. 

By  the  former  rules,  the  roots  of  equation,  when 
they  arc  commcnfurate  may  be  obtained.  Thcfc, 
however,  more  rarely  occur  ;  and  when  they  are  in- 
commenfurate, wccan  find  only  an  approximate  value 
of  them,  but  to  any  degree  of  exaftnefs  required. 
There  are  various  rules  for  this  purpofc  ;  one  of  the 
moft  fimplc  is  that  of  Sir  Ifaac  Newton,  which  Ihail  be 
now  explained. 
Vol.  I. 


Livima.     If  any  two  numbers,  being  iafened  for  Of  E<ia»- 
the  unknown  quantity  (x)  in  any  equation,  give  re-  ,  ""^'     , 
fults  with  oppoiite  ftgns,  an  odd  numl>er  of  roots  mull 
be  between  thcfc  numbers. 

This  appears  from  the  property  of  the  abfoKite 
term,  and  from  this  obvious  maxim,  that  if  a  number 
of  quantities  be  multiplied  together,  and  i*'  tlie  fi;^ns 
of  an  odd  number  of  them  be  changed,  the  lign  of  the 
product  is  changed.  For,  wiien  a  potitivc  quiutily  is 
infertcd  for  x,  the  refult  is  the  abfolutc  ■. ;  m  of  art 
equation  whofc  roots  are  lefs  than  the  re  '-i  jf  the  gi- 
ven equation  by  that  quantity  (Prop.  2.  Lor.  3.  Chap. 
II.)  If  the  refult  has  the  fame  fign  as  the  gi/en  ab- 
folutc term,  then  from  the  property  of  the  abfo'ute 
term  (Prop.  2.  Chap.  I.)  either  none  or  an  even  num- 
ber only  of  the  pofiiive  roots,  have  had  their  figns 
changed  by  the  transformation  ;  but  if  the  refult  has 
an  oppofite  fign  to  that  of  the  given  abfolutc  term,  the 
figns  of  an  odd  number  of  the  pofitive  roots  mull  have 
been  changed.  In  the  firfl  cafe,  then,  the  quantity 
fubllitutcd  muft  have  been  either  greater  th«n  each  of 
an  even  number  of  the  politive  roots  of  the  given  equa- 
tion, or  lefs  than  any  of  them  ;  in  the  fecond  cafe,  it 
mull  have  been  greater  than  each  of  an  odd  number  of 
the  politive  roots.  h\\  odd  number  of  the  pofitive 
roots,  therefore,  mufl  lie  between  them  when  they 
give  rcfuhs  with  oppofite  figns.  The  fame  obfervatioa 
is  to  be  extended  to  the  fubllitution  of  negative  quan- 
tities and  the  negative  roots. 

From  this  lemma,  by  means  of  trials,  it  will  not  be 
difficult  to  find  the  neareft  integer  to  a  root  of  a  given 
numeral  equation.  This  is  the  firfl  Hep  towards  the 
approximation  ;  and  both  the  manner  of  continuing  it, 
and  the  reafon  of  the  operation,  will  be  evident  from 
the  following  example. 

Let  the  equation  be  at' — 2x — 5=0. 

1 .  Find  the  ncarell  integer  to  the  root.     In  this  cafe 

a  root  is  between  2  and  3  -,  for  thefe  numbers  being 
iufcrted  for  x,  the  one  gives  a  pofitive,  and  the  other 
a  negative,  refult.  Either  the  number  above  the  root, 
or  that  below  it,  may  be  affumcd  as  the  firll  value  ; 
only  it  will  be  more  convenient  to  take  that  which  ap- 
pears to  be  nearefl  to  the  root,  as  will  be  manifell  from 
the  nature  of  the  operation. 

2.  Suppofe  x-=.2-¥f,  and  fubllitute  this  value  of  >■ 
in  the  equation. 

X'-     8+i2f+6ff+J' 

—  2V=— 4—2/ 

X'  —  2x— 5= — i+icj+6J-+/'=o. 

Asyis  lefs  than  unit,  its  powers/"'  and/"'  may  be 
neglcftcd  in  this  firll  approximati  .11,  and  \of=.i,  or 
f—o.i  nearly,  therefore  x  =  2.i  nearly. 


;.  As  /=o.i  nearly,  let  f=.i+g,  and  inferi 
value  ofy  in  the  preceding  equation. 

/'=    o.ooi-J-  o.o-^£+o.^g'+6j^' 
6f'-=     0.06  +  i.2^-|-6j' 
lofc     I         +10^ 


thi.>; 


+  iof — 1=     C.OOI-I-I  I.2-!    -1-6. 


and  ncgleding^'  and  ^'as  very  fniall  o.6i-t-ii.25|^ 
?  I  =0, 


434 


A 


G 


E       B       R       A. 


^pplica-  ^j.  ^_— o.o5r_ — ^^  ,jj,jj.j.^     fzzo.l+r- 

t.on  to  (;c-  11.2^ 

omeirj-.    _      ,^  neirly,  and  .\=i.0946  nearly. 

4.  This  operation  may  be  coniiuucJ  to  any  length, 
as  by  fiippoiM'.g  ^— — ooi4+A,  and  fo  on,  and  the 
value  of  .'c=2.C94J5i47  nearly. 

By  tbc  firft  opcraiioii  a  nearci-  value  of  x  may  be 
found  tiius  ;   lince/=.  t  nearly  and   — i  +  loj'+fi/'  + 

f'=o,J= J—^-rr>  t-'^i  ",  y=   _,    '^  _     ..=.094 


1*.+')/+/'  10+.6+.01 

true  to  the  lail  ligure,  and  x  =  2.094. 


Part  III. 


In  the  fame  manner  may  the  root  of  a  pure  eipiaiion    AppUca- 
be  feund,  and  this  gives  an  eafy  method  of  approxi-  •'''■i  to  0«- 
mating  to  the  roots  of  numbers  whicii  are  not  perfect    onctry, 
powers.  ^       ' 

This  rule  is  applicable  toniimtral  eqij.itions  of  every 
order;  and,  by  Jlliiming  a  general  equation,  general 
rules  may  be  deduced  for  appro.ximatiiio;  to  the  roots 
of  any  propofed  equation,  iiy  a  fimilar  method  \vc 
may  approximate  to  the  roots  of  litei-al  cqaaiious, 
which  will  be  cxprclfed  by  intinitc  ferics. 


R 


III. 


OftKe  Application  of  Algebra  to  Geometry. 


C  II  A  i>.     I. 
Ctnerat  Princifl:i. 

GEOMETRY  treats  both  of  the  magnitude  aiid 
P',>!itioiicf  extcanon,  and  their  conncflions. 

/\lj;el)ra  treats  only  of  magnitude  j  therefore,  of 
the  relations  which  fubfift  in  geometrical  figures,  thofe 
of  magnitude  only  can  be  immcJiatcly  cxpreiFed  by  al- 
gebra. 

The  oppofiie  pofiiioti  of  ftraight  lines  may  indeed 
be  exprcilcd  (imply  by  the  Itgn-.  4-  and  — .  But,  in 
order  to  exprcfs  the  various  otlur  politions  of  geome- 
trical (igares  by  algebra  from  the  principles  of  geome- 
try, fome  relations,  of  magnitude  mull  be  found,  which 
depend  upon  ihefe  pofitions,  and  which  can  be  exhi- 
bited by  t()Uations:  And,  convcrfcly,  by  the  fame 
principles  may  the  polilionsof  figures  be  inferred  from 
the  equations  denotin:;  fuch  relations  of  their  parts. 

Though  this  application  of  algebra  appears  to  be 
indireet,^yet  fnch  i^  the  fimplicity  of  the  operations, 
and  the  ptncriil  nature  of  its  theorems,  that  invclliga- 
tions,  clpeeially  in  the  higher  p:;rt3  of  geometry,  are 
generally  caller  and  more  expeditious  by  the  alge- 
braical method,  though  Itfs  elegant  thin  by  what  is 
purely  geometrical.  The  connedioiis  alfo,  and  ana- 
logies of  the  two  fciences  eftabliUied  by  this  appli- 
cation, have  given  rife  to  many  curious  fpcculations. 


Geometry  has  been  rendered  far  more  cxtcnfivc  and 
ufeful,  and  algebra  itfclf  has  received  conlidcrabU  im- 
provements. 

I.     Of  (hi  Algibra'ical  Exbnjjiton  oj  Geometrical  Mag- 
iiilti.iei. 

A  If  Hi,  whether  known  or  unknown,  is  reprefcnted 
by  a  linglc  letter  :  a  lidang'.t  is  properly  expretfcd  by 
the  product  of  the  two  letters  reprefeiuing  it3  lidcs  : 
raid  a  rcBunp/jlar  faraUel<i('iped  by  the  producl  of  three 
letters;  two  of  which  reprcfent  the  lidesofany  of  its 
re^l  iiigular  Lafcs,  and  the  third  the  altitude. 

Thti'c  are  the  mofb  (imple  exprclllons  of  geometrical 
ma,Tnitudes  ;  ^nd  any  other  which  has  a  known  pro- 
portion to  thefe,  may  in  like  manner  becxprcircd  al- 
gebraically. ConvcrfJy,  the  geometrical  magnitudes, 
reprefcnted  by  fuch  algebraical  quantities,  jnay  be 
found,  only  thealgebrnical  dimenllons  above  the  third, 
not  having  any  correfponding  geometrical  dimenlions, 
mad  be  exprciic-d  by  proportionals  (a). 

The  oppodte  pofnion  of  Uraight  lines,  it  has  been 
remarked,  may  be  exprelfcd  by  the  iigns  -i-  and  — . 

Thus,     let    a    point    A    be    given    in    the    line 


P 


A 


M 


B 


AP,  any  fegnient  AP  taken  to  the  right  hand  being 
confidered  as  politive,  a  fegment  Ap  to  the  left  is  pro- 
perly 


(a)  All  algebraical  dimcnfions  abcve  the  third  mufl  be  exprelfed  by  inferior  geometrical  dimcnfions  ;  and 
though  any  algebraical  quantities  of  two  or  three  dimcnfions  may  be  immcJiutely  exprefTed  by  furfaces  and 
lolids  refpeftivcly,  yet  it  is  generally  necellary  to  exprcfs  them,  and  all  fuperi<ir  dimenlions,  by  lines. 
,  If,  iii  any  geometrical  inveftigation  by  algebra,  each  line  is  exprelfed  by  a  lin.;le  letter,  and  each  furface  or 
folid  by  an  algebraical  quantity  of  two  or  three  dimenlions  rcfpeftively,  then  whatever  legitimate  operations 
are  performed  with  reg  .rd  to  them,  the  terms  in  any  equation  derived  will,  when  properly  reduced,  be  all  of 
the  fame  dimenfion  ;  'and  any  fuch  equation  may  be  calily  expreiTed  geometrically  by  means  or  proportionals, 
as  in  the  following  examp'e. 

Thus,  if  the  algebraical  equation  a-  ■^b'—c''  —d*,  is  to  be  exprefled  geometrically,  a,  b,  c,  d,  being  fup- 
ofed  to  reprefent  ilaight  lines;  let  a  :  *  :  e:J  -.g/m  continued  proportion,  the  1  a*  :  i"  :  :  a:g  and  a*  :  a«-f- 
'  :  ta-.a+a  ;  then  let  a  :  c  :  f>  :  i  :  /,  3r.d  a'  :  c'  :  :  a  :  /  ;  alfo,  let  c  :</:«:«: />,  andt'  :  d*  :  :  c  :/>,  ore*  :  c* 


pof( 

:  a  :  a^g  ;  then  \ci  a  :  c  :  h  :  k  :  i,  and  a'  :  c*  :  :  a  :  I  -,  alio,  letc  :  n  :  m  :  n  :  p,  ana  t-  :  a-  : 

d*  :  :  c:  c — p.     By  combining  the  two  former  proportions  (Chap.  II.  Part  I.),  c'  :  a*  +i*  :  :  t  -jf+g,  and 

combining  the  latter  with  this  lalt  found,  c'— i'-  a' -[■  b'  :  :  c—pY.!  ■  fX  •'+.?:  '-iccfore  c—px!=-cy.a+j,    and 
c  :  c—p  :  :  I  :  a+g.  ^^ 


Part  I  If.  A       L       G 

Applica-   j'crly  rcprefciitcci  by  i  n.-g.iiivx  qi.mtily.     If  a  and  i 

tion  toCc- npicfcni  two  lines;  ai'd  ir,  upon  the  iiuc  ABfroiii 

"'"<•"•>•     (lie  |inirit  A,  AP  be  fikcii  towarJs  the  rigiir  equal  :o 

^         a,  it  may  i^c  cxj>rclTcd  by  +a ;  then  PM  taken  to  the 

left  an(lc([u.'il  to  ^,  willbt  properly  rcjrcfeutcd  by  — />, 

for  AM  is  equal  to  a — ^.     It  a—h  then  M  \.ill  fail 

upon  A,  anj  a — /'=:o.     By  the  fauic  noiation,   if  i 

is  greater  than  a,  M  v.  ill  fall  to  the  lei't  of  A  ;  ant!  ia 

this  cafe,  if  2tf=:i,.and  if  Pp  be  taken  equal  to  i,  then 

(« — ^=)  — a  will  reprcfcni  Ap,  which  is  equal  to  a, 

unJ  fituatcii  to  tlic  left  of  A.     Thii  iilcof  the  iigns, 

lio'.vcvcr,  ill  particular  cafes,  may  b:  prccladtd,  or  in 

fon>c  mcafurc  rcftr.'.incd. 

The  pofitions  of  ^c-cnietricarfigurcs  are  fo  varions, 
that  it  is  impoinblc  to  give  general  rules  for  the  alge- 
biai'.al  expreliion  of  thcai.  The  foriov.i:;garc  a  tew 
examples. 

An  angle  is  exprcifcd  by  the  ratio  of  its  fine  to  the 
radius  ;  a  rigi'.t  angle  in  a  triangle,  by  putting  the 
Iquarcs  of  the  two  tides  iqual  to  the  Iqiiarc  of  the  hy- 
pothenufc  ;  the  polition  of  points  is  afcertaincd  by  the 
perpendiruUrs  from  them  on  lines  given  in  polition  ; 
the  pofition  of  lines  by  the  angles  which  they  make 
with  given  lines,  or  by  the  perpendiculars  on  them 
from  given  points;  the  fimilarity  of  triangles  by  the 
proportionality  of  their  fides  which  gives  an  equation, 

&.C. 

Thcfeand  other  geometrical  principles  nnifl  be  em- 
ployed both  in  the  denionihation  of  theorems  and  in 
the  folurion  of  problems.  The  geometrical  propofition 
muft  firft  be  exprcii'cd  in  the  algebraical nianncr,  and 
the  refult  after  the  operation  muft  be  exprcllcci  gee- 
mctrically. 

II.     Th  Demonftratiqn  of  Thtorems. 

All  propofuions  in  which  the  proportions  of  mag- 
nitudes only  arc  employed, alfo all  propolitions  expref- 
ling  the  relations  of  the  fegments  of  a  ftraigiu  line,  of 
their  fquarcs,  redangles,  cubes,  and  parallelepipeds, 
are  deinonftratcd  algebraically  with  great  eafc.  Such 
demonltrations,  indeed,  may  in  general  be  conllde'red 
as  an  abridged  noiation  of  what  arc  purely  Geome- 
trical. 

This  is  particularly  the  cafe  in  thofe  propofitions 
which  may  be  geometrically  deduced  withoMt  any  con- 
(Irudion  of  llie  fquares,  rectangles.  Sec.  to  which  they 
refer.  From  the  firfl  propofition  •-•f  the  fecond  book 
of  Euclid,  the  nine  following  may  he  eafily  derived  in 
this  manner,  as  they  may  be  conli'li'Ted  ss  proper  ex- 
amjilcs  of  this  uiofl  obvious  application  of  algebra  to 
gtumccry. 

If  certain  pofitions  arc  either  fuppofed  or  to  bi  in- 
ferred in  a  theorem,  we  inuA  find,  according  to  the 
preceding  obiervations,  the  connc~iion  between  thefe 
portions  and  firh  relations  of  magnitude  as  can  be  rx- 
ptelTcd  and  rcafoned  upon  by  algebra.     Tl;c  algcbrai- 


B       11       A. 


43: 


cil  dtiiK'iifiraiior.s  of  the  li'.h  and  ijiii  propofitions  Applici- 
iif  the  2d  book  of  Jt'uclid,  require  only  the  47th  of  the  t;<'rito  Ge- 
1.  LI.     TIic  jjthand  ;6thofihc  3J  book  reqairecnly  /"""O" 

the  ?.  III.  iA.  and  47.  1.  LI.  ' ""      ' 

From  a  few  (.imple  gcometricjl  princij^les  alone,  a 
number  of  concliidoi.s,  v.ith  regard  to  lig.ires,  may  be 
deduced  by  algebra  ;  and  to  this  in  a  great  meafurc 
is  owing  the  extenlivc  ufe  of  this  fcicnce  i".  gcotreiry. 
If  other  more  remote  geoinetiic.".!  prir.ci^Iciarc  occa- 
fionally  introduced,  the  algebraical  calcula;ions  may  be 
much  abridged.  The  fame  is  to  be  obfcrvcu  in  the 
f<ilutiuu  of  problems  ;  but  f  ich  in  general  arc  Ids  ( b- 
vious,  2iid  more  propcriy  belong  to  the  ftrifl  geo;r.c- 
trical  method. 

III.  Of  Ih:  Solufun  ofFroblsvn. 

I'pon  the  fame  principles  are  geometrical  problems 
to  be  fcfolvcd.  Theprolkmis  fuppofed  to  be  con- 
fiructcd,  and  propcralgcbriicalnoiationsofthe  known 
and  unkr.own  magniiiides  are  to  be  fought  for,  by 
means  of  which  their  connexions  nay  be  ixprcfled  by 
equations.  It  may  firft  be  remarked,  as  was  done  in 
the  cafe  of  iheorems,  that  in  thofe  problems  which  re- 
late to  tbedivifioirs  cf  a  line  and  the  proportions  of  its 
parts,  the  expreilion  of  the  quantities,  and  the  dating 
their  relations  by  equations,  are  fo  eafy  as  not  to  re- 
quire any  particulardirections.  But  when  various  po- 
litions  of  geometrical  ilguresar.d  ihtir  prtj-crtics  are 
introduced,  the  folution  requires  more  atteraion  and 
Ikiil.  No  general  rules  can  be  given  on  this  fnbjccl,  but 
the  following obfervations  may  beof  ufc. 

I.  The  conflrutiion  of  the  problem  being  fuppofe-f, 
it  is  of:en  farther  ncceffary  to  produce  fom.e  of  the 
lines  till  they  meet  ;  to  draw  new  lines  joining  remark- 
able points  ;  to  draw  lines  from  fuch  points  perpendi- 
cular or  pirallel  to  other  lines,  and  luch  other  opera- 
tions as  fcem  conducive  to  the  finding  of  equations; 
and  for  thispurpofe,  thofe  efpecially  are  to  be  employ- 
ed which  divide  the  fchemc  into  triangles  ih.at  are  gi- 
ven, riglit  angled  or  finiilar. 

z.  It  is  often  convenient  to  denote  by  letters,  rot 
the qjantjties  particularly  fought,  bill  fouie  otbeisfroir. 
which  they  can  eafily  be  deduced.  The  fame  may  be 
obfcrved  of  given  quai:tiiies. 

'.  The  proper  notation  hcing  made,  the  recefiary 
equations  are  to  be  derived  by  the  iifc  of  the  moft  fim- 
pie  geometrical  principles;  fuch  as  tlie  addition  and  fab- 
iraftion  of  lines  or  of  fquares,  the  proportionality  of 
lilies,  particularly  of  the  fides  of  limilar  triangles,  &c. 

•l-  Tlieie  mil!',  be  as  ir.any  independent  equations  as 
thtrc  are  unknown  quaniiiies  aiTr.nied  in  tiic  invefliga- 
lion.  and  from  ihcfe  a  f.nal  equation  may  be  inferred 
by  the  rules  of  Part  I. 

Jf  the  final  equation  from  the  problem  be  refolved, 

the  roots  may  often  be  exhibited  geometrically  ;  but 

the  gconictrii..il  conllruftion  cf  problems  mav  be  ef- 

;  1  2  ■    fcclcd 


If  any  known  line  is  alfnmed  as  i,  as  its  powers  do  not  appear,  tiie  terms  of  an  equation,  including  any  ot 
them",  may  be  of  very  dificrcnt  dinu-nli-ms  ;  and  before  it  can  be  pnperly  exprefTed  by  georietflcsl  magriiiides, 
the  deficient  dimcnfiuiis  miif!  b;  lupplied  l.y' powers  of  the  i.  When  an  equation  has  been  derived  from  .:cu- 
r'ctrical  relations,  the  line  rlcnotini*  i  is  kliown  ;  and  wlicn  ai;2lhinicd  cquxiiuu  is  to  be  exprcifed  by  the  rela- 
tions of  geometrical  ivagniludes,  the  i  is  10  be  alfnmed. 

In  this  maniirr  may  any  finglc  power  be  cxpreffcd  by  a  line.  }f  it  is  x' ,  then  to  \,x  find  four  q^uantities  in 
continued  pro,-ovtion  ;  f)  t'lj*  i  :  v  :  ;;.■ :  r:  :  p  -.ij,  ihca  I  :  r.  1  :  I '  =  x" ,  or  f=.v'  :  and  fo  of  others. 


L       G 


E 


13       R       A. 


Part  lir. 


i.ca-    fic'lrd  alfo  without  rifolviiig  the  equation,  and  even 
.  O*-  wiilioai  dcJucing  a  final  equation,  by  the  methods  at- 

•     icrwards  to  be  txplaincd. 

^  If  the  liiial  equation  is  liraplc  or  quadratic,  the  roots 
being  obtained  by  the  common  rules,  may  be  geome- 
trically exiiibitcd  by  the  lindmg  of  proportionals,  and 
the  addition  or  fubtraition  of  fquares. 

By  infertinj;  numbers  for  the  unl^nown  quantities, a 
numeral  expreliion  of  the  quantities  fought  will  be  ob- 
tained i'y  refolvinsi  the  equation.  But  in  order  to  de- 
termine l'j;nc  particulars  of  the  problem  belidcs  finding 
the  unknown  quantities  of  the  equation  it  may  be  far- 
ther necellury  to  make  a  fimplc  conlirudion  ;  or,  it  it 
is  required  that  every  thing  be  cxprelfed  in  numbers, 
to  fubllitutc  a  new  calculation  in  place  of  that  con- 
ftrudion. 

Pros.  I.  To  divide  a  given  (Iraight  tine  AB  into  two 
parti,  fo  that  the  reCiaugU  contained  by  the  -whale  tine 
and  one  of  the  parti  tnay  be  equal  to  thefqiiare  of  the 
other  part. 

This  is  prop,  nth  II.  B.  of  Eucl. 


C 


li 


Let  C  be   the  point  of  divifion,  and  let  AB=i», 
AC:::r,    and    then    CB=a — x-     From    the   problem 

a' ax—x'  ;  and  this  equation  being  rcfolvcd  (Chap. 

V.  P.  II.)  gives  x—.::t^^T'+-iJ-a 
4     2 

The  qiantity   Va'-f^.  is   the  hypothcnufc  of  a 

4 
right-an,;Ud  triangle,  of  which  the  two  fides  are  a  and 

t,  and  is  thcrctorc  calily  found  ;  -  being  taken  from 
2  2  . 

trbis  line,  gives  x=AC,  which  is  the  proper  folution. 
But  if  a  line  AC  be  taken  on  the  oppofitc  fide  of  A, 
andcqualtothcabovementioned  hypothcnufc, together 

with!l,  it  will  rcprcfent  the  negative  root—    "'  +^' 
2  4 
f,  and  will  give  another  folution ;  for  in  this  cafe 

2 

alfo  ABxBC=AC'.  But  C  is  without  the  line  ABj 
and  therefore,  if  it  is  not  confuiered  as  making  a  divi- 
fion of  AB,  this  negative  root  is  rcjefted. 

This  fohitiou  coincides  with  what  is  given  by  Eu- 
clid.    For  y/u^+a-  is  equal  (fee  the  fig.  of  Prop.  1 1  th 

4 
II.  B.  Eucl.  Simfon's  edit.)  to  EB  or  EF,  and  there- 
fore    x=v/^^+^f  =  EF— EA=AF  =  AH;     and 

4      2 
the  point  H  correfponds  to  C  in  the  preceding  figure. 

Bcli.les,  if  on  (EF+EA=)  CF  (inftead  of  EK— 
EA=FA)  a  fquarc  be  defcribed  on  the  oppoiite  fide 
ofCF  from  AG,  BA  produced  will  meet  a  fide  of  it 
in  a  point ;  which  if  it  be  called  K,  will  give  KBxBA 
=KA'.  K  correfponds  to  C,  and  this  folution  will 
corrcfpond  with  the  algebraical  folution  by  means  of 
the  neg^ative  root. 

If  CB  had  been  called  x,  and  AC=/i — x,  the  equa- 
tion would   be    axzza' — 2ax^x' ,   which   gives   x— 


folutions  derived  from  them  coincide  with  the  prcce-    Applica- 
ding.     If  the  folution  be  confined  to  a  point  within  »'""  to  G«- 
thc  line,  then  one  of  ihcfc  poliiivc  roots  mull  be  re-    """try. 
jcitcd,  for  one  of  the  roots  of  the  compound  fquarc 

from  wliich  it  is  derived,  x — ^,  is  a  negative  quantity 

2 

which  in  this  llrift  hypothcfis  is  not  admitted.  In 
fuch  a  problem,  however,  both  conflruftionsare  gene- 
rally received,  and  confidcred  even  as  necell'ary  to  a 
complete  folution  of  it. 

If  a  folution  in  numbers  be  required,  let  AB=io, 
thcu.v::;^:=y/i25 — J.  It  is  pl.iin,  whatever  be  the 
value  of  AB,  the  roots  of  this  equation  arc  incommen- 
furate,  though  they  may  be  found,  by  approximation, 
to  any  degree  of  exac'tncfs  required.  In  this  cafe,  a=: 
— <— t  i.x»r,3 — 5,  nearly  ;  that  is  At=6.i8o3,ncarly-j 
and  AC  =  l6. 1803,  nearly. 

Prob.  II.     In   a  given   Triangle  ABC  to  infcribe  a 
Square. 

Suppofe  it  to  be  done,  and  let  it  be  EFHG.  From 
A  let  AD  be  perpendicular  on  the  bafc  BC,  meeting 
EF  in  K. 

Let     BC=a, 

and  AD=/>,  both 
of  which  are  gi- 
ven bccaufc  the 
triangle  is  given. 
Let  AK  be  allu- 
med  as  the  un- 
known quantity, 
becaufe  from  it 
the  fquare  can 
calily  be  conflruc- 
tcd  ;  and  let  it  be  _ 
called  X.  Tlicn  ;g 
(  KD=:EG=)  EF 
-p~x. 

On  account  of  the  parallels  EF,  BC,  AD  :  BC  :  : 
AK  •   EF  ;  that  is,  />  :  a  :  :  .v  :  p — x,  and  p' — pxziax, 

which  equation  being  rcfolved,  gives  x=-.£ 

Therefore  x  or  AK  is  a  third  proportional  to />-(-/» 
and /I,  and  may  be  found  by  11.  VI.  El.  The  point 
K  being  found,  the  conllrudion  of  the  fquarc  is  fuf- 
ficiently  obvious. 

Prob.  111.  Jn  the  right-angled  Triangle  ABC,  the 
Bafc  BC,  and  the  Sum  of  the  Perpendicular  and 
Sidei  BA-t-AC-t-AD  being  given,  to  find  the  Trian- 
gle. 

Such  parts  of 
thistriangleareio 
be  found  as  arc 
neceffary  for  de- 
fcribing  it :  The 
perpendicular.AD 
will  be  fufficient 
for  this  purpofe  ;  ^ 
and  let  it  be  call- C 
cd   x:  Let  AB-f- 


lill,  in  which  both  roots  arc  pofitivc,  and  the    ^^^    p^^  ^Qx^^b ;    therefore    Bh-¥hC-a-x. 

Let 


Part  II  f. 


A 


G 


B       R 


A. 


437 


Applicati-  Let  BA— AC  be  denoted  by^,  then  BA=:1±Z_J1, 

oit  to  ue-  '  2 

ometry. 


'and  AC=. 


^ni.     But  [47.  I.  El.]  BC'  =  BA- 
2 
.+AC  ' ,  which  being  cxprefled  algebraically,  becomes 


i>-  = 


_a+) — X.' 


-)■,' 


Like- 


3       1  2       I  2 

wife,  from  aknown  propertyof  rigbt-angledtriangles, 

BCxAD  =  BAxAC;  that  is,  !)x-('!^^~-y. 


a — y — X  _  N"  ■  — 2ax-\-x '  — y ' 


•-)- 


V 

This 


laa 


equation 

2^4 
being  multiplied  by  2,  and  added  to  the  former,  gives 
b'+2bx  —  a' — 2ax-\-x' ,  which  being  rcfolvcd  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  of  Part  I.  Chap.  V.  gives  x—a+b — 

Toconflrua  this  :  a+^is  the  fum  of  the  perimeter 
and    perpendicular,    and    is   given;     -J  2ab-\-2b'  ■= 

^ a-^by.2h  is  a  mean  proportional  between  a-\-b  and 
lb,  and  may  be  found  ;  therefore,  from  the  fum  of  the 
jierimetcrand  perpendicular  fubiract  the  mean  propor- 
tional between  the  faid  fum  and  double  the  bafc,  and 
the  remainder  will  be  the  perpendicular  required. 

From  the  bafe  and  pependicular  the  right-angled 
triangle  is  eafily  conftructcd. 

In  numbers,  let  BA-|-AC-f-AD=  i8.8  =  «  j  BC  = 
10  =  *;  then  AD  =  a-H^— V2ai-H(;'  =28.8  — Vjy^ 
=:4.8=>r,  and  BA-f-AC  =  f4.  By  either  of  the  tirft 
equations ^ '  =2^ "  +'iax — a '  — * '  —4  and ^=;B A — AC 
=  2;   therefore  BA=8,  and  ACziS. 

The  geonietricalexj'relfionof  the  rootsof  final  equa- 
tions ariling  from  problems  may  be  found  without  re- 
folving  them  by  the  interfedion  of  geometrical  lines. 
Thus,  the  roots  of  a  quadratic  are  found  by  the  in- 
terfeftions  of  the  circle  and  ftraight  line,  thofe  of  a 
cubic  and  biquadratic,  by  the  interfeiflions  of  two  co- 
nic feciions,  &c. 

The  folution  of  problems  may  be  effeded  alfo  by 
the  interfedions  of  the  /oci  of  two  intermediate  equa- 
tions without  deducing  a  final  equation.  But  thefc 
two  lad  methods  can  only  be  underilood  by  the  doc- 
trine of  the  loci  of  equdtions. 

CHAP.     II. 
Of  the  Definition  of  Lines  by  Equations. 

Lines  which  can  be  mathematically  treated  ofmuft 
be  produced  according  to  an  uniform  rule,  which  de- 
termines the  pofitijii  of  every  point  of  them. 

This  rule  conllitutes  the  .iefir.iiwn  of  any  line  from 
which  all  its  other  properties  arc  to  be  derived. 

A  ftraight  line  has  been  conliderej  as  fo  limple  as 
to  be  incapable  of  definition.  The  curve  lines  here 
treated  of  ire  fuppofcd  to  be  in  a  plane  ;  and  are  de- 
fined eithi  r  from  the  fcdion  of  a  iolid  by  a  plane,  or 
more  univcrfally  by  fomc  continued  motion  in  a  plant. 


according  10  particular  rules.     Any  of  the  properties  Aij.!icati. 
which   are  (hown  to  belong  peculiarly  to  fuch  a  line,  '^^  '•*  Ge- 
may  lie  alFumeu  alfo  as  the  definition  of  it,  from  which  .  °°"^"y- 
all  the  others,  and  even  what  upon  other  ocrafionsniay 
have  been  conlidered  as  the  primary  definition,  may  be 
demonllratcd.    Kence  lines  may  be  defined  in  various 
methods,  of  which  the  inoft  convenient  is  to  be  deter- 
mined by  the  purpofc  in  view.     The  fiinpliciiy  of  a 
definition,  and  the  eafc  with  which  the  other  proper- 
ties can  be  derived  from  it,  geiicrally  give  a  prefe- 
rence. 

Definitions,  i.  When  curve  lines  are  defined  by  e- 
quations,  they  are  fuppofed  to  be  produced  by  the  ex- 
tremity of  one  flraight  line,  as  PM  moving  in  a  given 
angle  along  another  llraighi  line  AB  given  in  polition, 
which  is  called  the  bafe. 


-^ 


2.  The  ftraight  line  PM  moving  ilor.g  the  ether,  is 
called  an  O'din.^!:,  and  is  ufually  denoted  by  _). 

3.  The  fegment  of  the  bafe  AP  between  a  given 
point  in  it  A,  and  an  ordinate  PM,  is  called  an  Ahfcifs 
with  refpecl  to  that  orcinate,  and  is  denoted  by  x. 
The  ordinate  and  abfcifs  together  are  called  Co-^rd.- 
nates. 

4.  If  the  relation  of  the  variable  abfcifs  and  ordi- 
nate AP  and  P.M,  be  cxprelfcd  by  in  equation,  which 
befides  .v  and  y  contains  only  known  quantities,  the 
curve  MO  defcribed  by  the  extremity  of  the  ordinate, 
moving  along  the  bafc,  is  called  the  L^j.-.j  of  that  e- 
quation. 

5.  If  the  equation  is  finite,  the  curve  is  called  A!- 
geiraicat  (a).  It  is  this  elafs  only  whiciiis  herecoc- 
iidered. 

6.  The  (//V//e?/y7o;.'j  of  fuch  equations  are  cAimatcd 
from  the  highelt  fura  of  the  exponents  of*  and^  ii 
any  term — According  to  this  difinition,  the  terr'S 
X*,  x'y,  x-y ,  xy>,y'  are  all  of  the  fame  dimenfior. 

7.  Curve  lines  are  divided  into  ordni  from  the  J;- 
menfions  of  their  equations,  when  freed  from  fratli- 
ORS  and  fuids. 

In  ihcfe  general  definitions,  the  ftraight  line  is  fup- 
pofed to  be  comprehended,  as  it  is  the  iocus  of  fiiiiplc 
equations.     The  loci  of  quadratic  equations  arc  ihowii 

to 


(a)  The  f-rras  Ceometrici/ und  Aigibra-ca!,  as  appl  ed  to  curve  lines,  are  ufed  in  different  fenfes,  by  dif- 
fcre.it  v..  iters;  there  are  feveral  othrrclaffes  of  curves  belides  whar  is  here  called  alircbraica),  v/bich  can  be 
treated  of  mathematically,  and  even  by  means  of  algebra.     Sec  Scholium  at  the  en<!. 


I'll  toGe- 

(■mrtry. 


A 


].       C       K 


to  he  ilie  ror.ic  fcflioiis,  \\l^:;h  arc  iitiitc  cii-J  liias 
cf  the  ficoiul  orJcr,  ftc . 

It  is  CuHlciriul)'  I'Uiin  from  ilic  iiiiturc  of  an  cqua- 
rion,  cont^iuiiig  two  vaiiul)lc  qnj.  :iiiiti;,  llial  it  UiUjl 
(kuriiiiuc  the  iioliiion  ol  every  p  lir.t  I't'  the  (.rrvc,  ilc- 
ilrift)  vy  ii  in  ihf  inaiiiKr  uou  (.itfcilbtd  :  1""J  iiaiiy 
]'::nicii!:ir  kr.mvn  \aiuc-  of  one  "f  the  variabli;  qiuiui- 
lics  as  X  l)c  afliinicd,  ilic  ei](i3iioii  will  then  have  one 
unknown  qiiaDtiiy  only,;i'.id  being  rervJlved,  will  give  a 
prccife  luimberof  eorrcl'jionding  v allies of_>,\\  hie h  dr- 
tcrniiiic  io  many  points  of  the  curve. 

As  every  ]>oiiit  of  the  locus  of  an  cqiiaiion  has  tl:C 
fame  general  property,  it  niilftbc  one  curve  only,  and 
from  this  equation  all  i:s  properties  may  be  derived. 
It  is  plain  alfo,  that  ;iny  rtirvc  line  dchncd  from  the 
inoijun  of  a  point,  according  to  a  fixed  rule,  mufl  ci- 
ther return  into  itfclf,  cr  be  extended  nd  iiifiitiium 
\\\\\\  a  continued  curvature. 

The  cqu.-!lion,  however,  is  fuppofcd  to  be  irrcdu- 
ci'jlc  J  bccanfe,  if  it  is  no:,  the  locus  v.ill  be  a  combi- 
nation of  inferior  lines  :  but  the  combination  will  pof- 
fcfs  lj;e  general  properties  of  the  lines  of  the  order  of 
the  given  cquaiior.. 

It  is  to  be  obfcrvfd  all  along  that  the  pofitivc  va- 
lues of  the  ordinate,  asPM,  being  taken  upwards,  the 
negative  Pin  will  be  p!:ccd  downwards,  on  the  oppofitc 
(i.lc  of  tlie  bifc  :  and  if  pofiiive  values  of  the  abfcifs, 
ss  /M',  be  aliiimcd  to  the  right  from  its  beginning, 
the  negative  valurs.  A/'  will  be  upon  the  left,  and 
from  ihefe  i!ie  points  of  the  curve  M,  k,  on  that  lidc 
are  to  be  determined. 

In  the  general  definition  cf  curves  it  is  nfual  to  fup- 
.  pofe  tlie  co-ordinates  to  be  at  right  angles.  If  the 
iocus  of  any  equation  be  dcfcribed,  and  if  tlie  abfcifs 
bf  ailhmcd  on  another  bafe,  and  the  ordinate  be  pl.iccd 
at  a  diiiercnt  angle,  the  new  equation  exprcfling  their 
relation  though  of  different  form,  will  be  of  the  fame 
orderas  the  ori;;inal  equation  ;  and  likcwife  will  have, 
in  common  with  it,  iholc  inopcnics  which  diliinguilh 
the  equations  of  that  particular  curve. 

This  method  of  defining  curves  by  equations  inay 
not  be  the  fitt- A  for  a  full  inveftigation  of  the  proper- 
lies  of  a  particular  curve  ;  but  as  thtirnumber  is  with- 
out limit,  fiich  a  minute  inquiry  concerning  all,  would 
l.c  nut  only  ufclcfs,  but  impoflible.  It  has  this  great 
advantage,  however,  that  many  of  the  general  atfec- 
tions  of  all  curves,  and  of  the  diflincl  orders,  and  alfo 
fome  of  the  moll  iifcful  (v.operiics  of  particular  ciirvts, 
may  be  eafily  derived  from  it, 

J .  The  Dttsrm'mation  of  the  Figure  of  a  Curve  from 
lis  EquatUn!. 

The  general  figure  of  the  curve  may  be  fouiid  by 
r.;bf;ilutiiig  fucrcliively  particular  values  of  .v  the  ab- 
fcifs, and  iinding  by  the  reiolution  of  thefe  equations 
the  correfpouding  values  of  V  the  crdiiiate,  andcf  con- 
fequence  fo  many  points  of  the  curve.  If  numeral  va- 
lues be  fublliiutcd  for  v,  and  alfo  certain  numbers  for 
the  knov.'U  letters,  the  refolution  of  the  equation  gives 
i'.uireral  exprcllions  of  the  ordiuates  ;  and  irom  ihcfc, 
by  means  ofr-alcs,  a  mechanical  dcfcription  of  the  curve 
wili  be  obtained,  which  may  often  be  ufeful,  boih  in 
pointing  out  the  general  nifpofition  of  the  figure,  and 
aifo  in  the  prai."ical  applications  of  geometry. 


or.iftr^. 


13        R        A.  Part    III. 

Some  more  general  fuppofitions  nir.y  be  I'f  iifc  in  .\ppUcati- 
dcieniiiiiingilic  figure  ;  but  thefe  can  be  (iiggcAc.i  on-  <ii  to  Gc- 
ly  fioui  the  particular  form  of  the  equaiiou  in  view.    "''""■'" 
Ky  fupi  oiing  x  to  have  certain  rehitions  to  the  known 
(]u.i:ititics,  the  values  ofv  may  become  more  fimplc, 
and  tiic  equation  may  be  reduced  to  fuoh  a  form  as  lO 
f.iow  the  c'irct^iion  of  the  curve,  and  fome  of  its  obvi- 
ous properties. 

The  following  general obfcrvations  may  alfobcliid 
down  : 

1.  If  in  any  cafe  a  value  of_)i  vaniflies,  then  the  curve 
nuets  the  bafe  in  a  point  determined  by  the  corre- 
fpouding value  of  X.  Hciicc  by  putting  .tso,  the 
roots  of  the  equation,  wliich  in  ihat  fitu.ition  are  va- 
lues of  x,  will  give  the  diflanees  on  the  b.ife  from  the 
point  allumcd  as  t!ie  beginning  of  .v,  at  which  the 
curve  meets  it. 

2.  If  at  a  particular  value  of  x,  y  bfcomes  infinite, 
the  curve  has  an  iitlinite  arc,  and  the  ordinate  at  ihat 
point  becomes  an  afymptote. 

3.  If  when  X  becomes  infinitely  great, ^'  vaniflies,  the 
bafe  becoi'.ies  an  afymptote. 

4.  If  any  value  of  J  bi  comes  impolliblc,  thenfoma- 
jiy  interfections  of  tlic  ordinate  and  curve  vaiiilh.  If 
at  any  v^liie  of  .v  all  the  values  of  v  become  impo/fiblc, 
the  ordinate  does  not  there  meet  the  curve. 

5.  If  two  values  of  v  ijtcome  equal  and  have  the 
fame  fign,  the  ordinate  in  iImi  (ituation  either  touches 
the  curve,  or  partes  through  an  iiitirfet'lion  of  two  of 
its  branches,  which  is  called  a  pm.lltim  duplex,  or 
through  an  oval  become  intinitcly  little,  called  i  fuiic- 
turn  C0!:jugalu>/i. 

In  like  manner  is  a  puunum  triplex,  &c.  to  be  de- 
termined. 

Tlie  following  example  will  illultratx;  this  Joflrinc : 
Let  the  equation  be  ay — xy"^x'^-\-bx'  : 

Ldff:audj==tz  r> 


Therefore,^'  —'. 


i'+bx 


=  ^Jl 


-X.v. 


Let  AB  be  affiimcd  as  a  bafe  on  which  the  abfciflcs 
are  to  be  taken  from  A,  and  the  ordinates  pcrpelidi- 
cjlar  to  it. 

Since  the  two  values  of y  arc  equal,  but  have  oppo- 
lite  figus  ;  PM,  and  Pm  which  reprefcnt  them,  inuft 
be  taken  equal  to  each  other  on  oppofitc  fides  of 
AB;  and  it  is  plain  that  the  parts  of  the  curve  on 
the  two  lidcs  of  AH,  mull  be  every  way  fireilar  and 
equal. 

If  X  is  made  equal  to  a,  then  j— .v      '  +  '' 

"^  o 
which  is  an  algebraical  expreflion  for  infinity  ;  there- 
fore if  AC  is  taken  equal  to  u,  the  perpendicular  CD 
will  become  an  afymptote  to  t^e  curve,  v'hich  will 
have  twointiuiic  arcs  (Obf.  2.).  L  x  is  greater  than 
a,  the  quantity  under  the  raoical  fign  becomes  nega- 
tive, and  the  values  cf^  are  impofliblc  ;  that  is,  no 
part  of  the  curve  lies  beyond  CD.      (4.) 

Both  bianche*  of  il^e  curve  pafs  through  A,  fince 
j~o,  whenxno.  (i.)  Let  x be  negative,  andj— r±=x 

the  valQcs  of  j  will  be  I'ofliblc,  if  x  is  not 

greater  than  b;  bi.t  if  i— ^,  thcn_>=o,  and  if  xisgieat- 


II. 


E       B       R 


A. 


439 


er  thai  ^,  the  values  of;- becoms  inipoiKIble  ;  that  is, 
-it  the  abl'cifs  A/'  be  tnkcu  to  the  left  of  A,  a:id  Icfs 
than  J,  tliere  will  be  two  real  cqijal  values  of_y,  viz. 
PM,  tm  on  the  oppniitc  fiJes  as  before;  if  AE  be 
taken  ei^jnl  to  i  tlie  curve  will  pafs  thrpugh  E,  and  no 
pare  of  ii  is  beyond  E.  (r.  and  4.) 


T-B 


The  portion  betweeh  A  and  E  is  bailed  a  Nodus. 

Ify  be  put  =0,  then  the  vilues  of  v  arc  o,  o,  — i. 
*rhat  is,  the  curve  paflcs  twice  through  A,  or  A  is  a 
punftiiin  duplex,  and  it  pafTes  alfo  throuj^h  E  as  be- 
fore, (r.) 

The  mechanical  dcfcriptiou  of  curves  mcr.tioned  in 
the  beginning  of  this  fection,  may  be  ilhlflrared  by  the 
■preceding  example.  For  this  purpofe,  kt  any  nume- 
ral values  of  a  and  b  he  allunied  ;  and  if  ficcciltve  nu- 
meral values  of  r  be  infcited,  coriefpondiufj  numeral 
values  of  y  will  be  obtained,  by  which  io  many  points 
in  the  curve  may  be  conflrutted. 

LetACr:*r:io;  A  £  =  :'=:  12;  and,  firfllct.\  =  i,£hcn 

.  /.Y  +-/'  Vi^  ,  ,  .  •   , 

y  —  -:±=.xj — — —zzi=.  —  —  =±=^1.2  nearly,    which 
^  a — >:  3 

gives  the  length  of  the  ordinates  when  the  abfcifs  is  i; 

and  in  the  fame  nianmr  sre  the  ordinates  to  be  found 

when  Y  is  2,  •;,  or  n:\y  other  number.     Thus,  if  .\r:6, 

thcn^'  =  =±=6x    — =12.73  nc.irly  ;  and  if  AP  be 

taken  from  the  fcale  of  equal  parts  (according  to  which 
A  Band  A  E  are  Hrppofcd  to  be  laid  down)  and  equal 
to6,  thcnPM,  Pw,  btiuT  taken  fro -1  the  lame  fcale, 
each  equal  to  1:73,  will  give  the  points  of  the  curve 


M,  m.  In  like  manner 

3.58,  nearly;  and  if  Ar=9,  then  I'M,  /"'/«  being 
taken  from  the  fan^c  fcale  equal  to  3.58,  will  give  the 
points  M,  7/1.  In  the  fame  manner  may  any  number 
of  points  be  found,  and  ihefc  being  joined,  will  give  1 
rcprcfentationof  the  curve,  which  will  be  more  or  icfs 
jufl,  according  to  the  ni'mbcr  of  points  found,  and  the 
accuracy  of  the  fevcral  operations  employed. 

By  the  fame  methods  the  locus  of  any  other  eqaa- 
titni  is  to  be  traced  :  Thus,  by  varying  t!ie  former  e- 
quation,  the  ligurc  of  its  lo:us  will  be  varied.  If  ,^=:o, 
ilun  ihc  point  A  and  E  coincide,  the  nodus  vanillies, 
and  A  is  called  a  cu/ph. 


If  ^  is  negative,  then  Eiitoilic  right  of  A,  ^vliicli  Ai-plics- 
v/ill  now  be  a  puuctuui  cu;iju;i;a;um.     The  reft  of  the  «•<»•  to  G-- 
curve  will  be  between  E  and  C,  ind  CD  becomes  an    "■•"f'-y.^ 
aflyuiptote. 

Ifii— othcn — r)"r:<' — bx'  or ji"=.i^ — x' ,  wbitli 
is  an  equation  to  the  circle  of  which  ^=A£  is  the  c:ia- 
nietcr. 
II,    General  Propeitifs  of  Ctiivei  fitm  ikcir  Eiiuathm. 

The  general  properties  of  equations  lead  to  the  g.- 
neral  aflet'lions  of  curve  lines.      For  Exim^/lc, 

A  rtraight  line  may  niccia  curve  in  ai  n^ary  point; 
as  there  are  unif;  in  the  dimenlioii  of  its  equiti  jn  ;  fc- 
fo  many  roots  may  th.it  equation  have.  An  afyiii;'- 
totc  may  cut  a  curve  line  in  as  many  points,  excepiin;j 
two,  as  it  has  dimcniions,  and  no  more.  The  fame 
may  be  obfcry'cd  of  the  tangent. 

Impoliil  Ic  loots  enter  an  equation  by  psirs  ;  t-lu  re- 
forc  the  intcrfeclioiisof  the  ordinate  and  crr.-e  muit 
vanilli  by  pairs. 

The  cui  vcs  of  which  the  number  exprclTmg  the  or- 
der is  odd,  mrid  l.avc  at  leaft  two  iniinitc  arcs  ;  for  ih-: 
abfcifs  may  b«  foafluuied,  that,  for  ever/  value  of  it, 
cither  poj'iiivc  ir  negative,  there  mult  be  at  leaft  one 
value  of 7,  &c. 

The  praportics  of  the  coellicieno  of  ihc  terms  of 
equations,  mcniicncd  Part  H.  Chap.  I.  furnilh  a  great 
number  of  the  curious  and  univerfal  properties  of  curve 
lines.  For  example, the  Iccond  term  of  an  equation  is 
the  fum  of  the  roots  with  ilic  figns  changed,  and  if  tlic. 
fccond  tennis  win.iing.the  poli<ivc  and  negative  rout;; 
muft  be  equal.  From  this  it  is  eafy  to  dcrvonflratc, 
"  That  if  cich  of  t>vo  parilkl  (^raight  lines  meet  .'t 
curve  line  in  as  many  points  as  it  has  dimcniions,  and 
if  a  ftraight  line  cut  thefe  two  parallels,  fo  that  the  fum 
of  the  ftgments  of  each  on  one  (Ide  be  equal  to  the 
fuui  of  the  fegmciits  on  the  other,  this  flriigiit  line 
will  cut  any  o'thcr  line  parallel  to  thefe  i.i  the  fame 
manner."  Analogous  properties,  with  many  otiur 
confequcnees  from  ihem,  may  be  deduced  from  the 
coHipolition  of  the  coeflicicnts  of  the  other  terms. 

r.hny  properties  of  a  particular  order  of  curves  may 
be  ir.ferred  from  the  properties  of  equations  of  that  or- 
der. TIius,  "  If  a  ;;raight  line  cut  a  curve  of  the 
third  order  in  ihrce  points,  and  if  another  ftraight  line 
be  drawn,  making  a  given  angle  with  the  former,  and 
cuttipgihc  curve  alfo  in  tlirec  points, the  parallelopipcd 
by  the  fegments  of  oneof  thefe  lines  between  its  inier- 
feetion  with  the  other,  and  the  points  where  itmctts 
the  cnrvc,  will  be  to  the  par-llclopip'-d  by  the  like  feg- 
ments of  the  other  line  in  a  given  ratio."  This  de- 
pends upon  the  compoliiion  of  the  abfolute  term,  aud 
may  be  extended  to  curves  of  any  order. 

III.  Th;  Subdiviftit  if  Curves. 

As  lines  arc  divided  into  orders  from  thedimenfions 
of  their  equations,  in  like  manner,  fromthc  varictiesof 
the  tnuitioiis  of  any  order,  may  ditfijrent  ^g-^/.vrj  and 
//>■  f.f/ of  that  order  be  uiftin;;uilhed.  an.!  fro;'-  the  pe- 
culiar propcrti>-s  of  thefe  varieties,  may  the  afTedio.-.s 
of  the  parii'-ular  curves  be  difcovcred. 

For  this  purpofe  a  complete  general  equation  is  af- 
fumed  of  that  ordc  r,  and  all  the  varieties  in  the  terms 
and  coefficients  v.hich  canatfe.'l  the  figure  of  the  locus 
are  tnumeraicj. 

Ic 


iiix-try. 


440  A       L       G       E       B       R 

Applia-  It  wa>  formerly  cbfcrvcj,  ilut  the  equations  belong- 
ion  to  Ge-  i;Tg  to  any  one  curve,  may  be  of  various  forms,  accord- 
ing; to  ibe  jiDlidon  of  t  ;e  baff,  a:ul  the  arj,^le  which 
the  or.liiiatc  makes  witii  it,  though  they  bcallof  tlic 
f.imc  oviicr,  and  have  jllo  ctrtiiii  properties,  w  liich  di- 
lii:igiiiih  ihem  from  tlic  other  cquiions  of  that  or- 
lier. 

The  locus  of  fimple  equations  is  aPrai^^ht  lim.  There 
are  tki ;c  fpccics  of  lines  of  llic  fccoud  order,  which 
arc  calily  liiowii  to  be  the  c'inicf:8ions,  reckoning  the 
cirdcanJ  tU'pfc  robe  one.  iS;'f«/;--/g^/fliecii  shave  ■ 
been  niimbcreJ  of  the  third  order  :  And  as  the  fiipc- 
rior  orders  become  too  numerous  to  be  particularly 
reckoned,  it  is  nfual  only  to  divide  them  into  certain 
general  claflcs. 

A  complete  arringcraent  of  the  curves  of  any  order 
would  fiirni'ih  canons,  by  wliich  the  fpccies  of  a  curve 
whofe  equation  is  of  that  order  might  be  found. 

IV.  Of  th:  place  of  Curva  difir.:d  from  other  priii- 
ciplii  ill  thi  Aigtbiakal  S\ficm. 

If  a  curve  line  be  defined  from  the  fec'lion  of  a  folid, 
or  from  any  ruledirt'erent  from  what  has  been  here  fup- 
pofed,  an  equation  to  it  may  be  derived,  by  which  its 
order  nvA  fpecies  in  the  algebraical  fydem  may  be 
found.  .And,  for  this  purpofc,  any  bafe  and  any  angle 
of  the  co-ordinates  may  be  afliimed,  from  which  tnc 
equaiio.i  may  be  mod  ealily  derived,  or  may  be  of  the 
mofl  liraple  form. 

Tlic  three  Conic  SeHioiu  are  of  the  fccond  order,  as 
their  eq;ialions  are  univcrfilly  quadratic  ;  the  Ci{foiJo{ 
the  ancients  is  of  tlie  third  ordcV,  and  the  42d  fpecies, 
accordingtoSirlfaacNewton'senumeration  ;  thisis  the 
curve  defined  by  the  equation  in  page  459, col.  l.par.ult. 
when  t=o.  The  curve  dclincaied  above  in  the  fame 
page,  is  the  4Tfl  fpccics.  When  t  is  negative  in  that 
eq.iation,  the  locus  is  the  4;d  Ipecies.  The  Conchoid 
of  Nieomedes  is  of  the  fourth  order;  the  Cajfniiaii 
curve  is  alfoof  the  fourth  order,  &c. 

It  is  to  be  obferved,  that  not  only  the  firll  definition 
of  a  curve  may  be  exprefled  by  an  equition,  but  like- 
wife  any  of  thofe  theorems  called  loci,  in  which  fonie 
property  is  demonflrated  to  belong  to  every  point  of 
the  curve.  The  cxprclRon  of  thefepropolitions  by  c- 
quations,  is  fomeiimcs  difficult  ;  no  general  rules  can 
be  given  ,  and  it  muftbelefttoihe  fkilLand  experience 
of  the  learner. 

Scholium. 

This  method  of  treating  carve  lines  by  equations, 
befidcs  the  ufes  already  hinted  at,  has  many  others, 
which  do  not  belong  to  this  place  ;  fuch  are,  the  find- 
ing the  tangents  ofcurvcs,  their  curvature,  their  areas 
and  lengths,  S;c.  The  fohition  of  thefe  problems  has 
been  acconiplilhed  by  means  of  the  equations  to  curves, 
though  by  employing,  concerning  them,  a  method  of 
rcafoning  dijTcrent  from  what  has  been  here  explained. 

CHAP.     III. 
I.  Coiiflrriftioii  of  the  Loci  of  Equations. 

The  dcfcriptio".  of  a  curve,  according  to  the  defini- 
tion of  it,  is  affjmed  in  geo  ■.■.•.  ;r/  a:;  ^ populate. 

If  the  properties  of  a  piirticular  curve  arc  invefti- 
gatcd,  it  willuppcar  that  it  maybe  defcribcd  from  s 


Part  rir. 


variety  of  data  d  fFcrent  from  thefe  afTumeJ  in  th'"  po-    Applici- 
llulate,  by  demonflrating  the  dependence  of  th;  for- ''""  '•  '''" 
nier  upon  the  latter.  omttry.  ^ 

As  the  definitions  of  a  curve  may  be  various,  foalfo 
may  be  the  poflulatcs,  and  a  definition  is  frequently 
chofenfrom  themode  ofdcfcription  conneCled  with  it. 
The  particular  objtft  ia  view,  it  was  formerly  remark- 
ed, mufl  determine  the  proper  choice  of  a  definition  ; 
the  ilmplicity  of  it,  the  eafe  with  which  the  other  pro- 
perties of  the  figure  may  be  derived  from  it,  and  fome- 
times  even  the  cafe  with  which  it  can  be  executed  me- 
chanically, may  be  conlidcred  as  important  circuui- 
flances. 

In  the  flraight  line,  the  circle,  the  conic  fedlions, 
and  a  few  curves  of  the  higher  orders,  the  mofl  conve- 
nient definitions,  and  the  poftulates  connected  with 
them,  are  generally  known  and  received.  An  equation 
to  a  curve  may  alfo  be  allumed  as  a  definition  of  it ; 
and  the  defcription  of  it,  according  to  that  definition, 
may  be  cotifidered  as  a  populate  :  but,  if  the  geome- 
trical condruiSlion  of  problems  is  to  be  invefligated  by 
means  of  algebra,  it  is  often  ufeful  to  deduce  from  the 
equation  to  a  curve,  thofe  data  which,  from  the  geo- 
metrical theory  of  the  curve,  arc  known  tobenecef- 
fary  to  its  defcription  in  the  original  pofliilatc,  or  in 
any  problem  founded  upon  it.  This  is  called  C(/«y?r2/f- 
ting  the  locus  of  an  equation,  and  from  this  method  are 
generally  derived  the  moll  elegant  conftruflions  which 
can  be  obtained  by  the  ufe  of  algebra.  In  tlie  follow- 
ing fcclion,  there  is  an  example  of  a  problem  rcfolved 
by  fuch  couftruflions. 

Sometimes  a  mechanical  defcription  of  a  curve  line 
defined  by  an  equation  is  ufeful  ;  and  as  the  exhibition 
of  it,  by  fuch  a  motion  as  is  fuppofcd  in  that  definition, 
is  rarely  pra(5hicable,  it  generally  becomes  necelfary  to 
contrive  fome  more  fimple  motion  which  may  in  effc6l 
correfpond  with  the  other,  and  may  dcfcribe  the  curve 
with  the  degree  of  accuracy  which  is  wanted.  Fre- 
quently, indeed,  the  only  method  which  can  be  conve- 
niently praclifed,  is  the  finding  a  number  of  points  in 
the  curve  by  the  rcfolution  of  numeral  equations,  in 
the  manner  mentioned  in  Se..^.  i.  of  this  Chapter,  and 
then  joining  thefe  points  by  the  hand  ;  and  though  this 
operati(m  is  manifeftly  iinpcrfeil,  it  is  on  fome  occa- 
fions  ufeful. 

II.  Soluti'iit  of  Problems. 

The  (nlution  of  geometrical  problems  by  algebra  is 
much  promoted,  by  dcfcribing  the  loci  of  the  equati- 
ons arifing  from  thefe  problems. 

For  this  purpofc,  equations  are  to  be  derived  accor- 
ding to  the  methods  formerly  defcribed,  and  thentobe 
reduced  to  two,  containingcach  the  fame  two  unknown 
quantities.  The  loci  of  thefe  equations  are  to  be  de- 
fcribed, the  two  unknown  quantities  being  confidered 
a«  the  co-ordinates,  and  placed  at  tlie  fame  angle  in 
both.  The  co-ordinates  at  the  interfedion  of  the  loci, 
will  be  common  to  both,  and  give  a  folution  of  the 
problem. 

The  (implicity  of  a  conftruiSion  obtained  by  this 
method,  will  depend  upon  a  proper  notation,  and  the 
choice  of  tl.e  eqiations  of  which  the  loci  are  to  be 
defcribed.  Tbei'c  will  frcqu'.ndy  be  different  from 
what  would  be  proper  in  a  different  method  of  folu- 
tion. 

Pros. 


Part  III. 


A       L       G 

Prob.  IV\  To  fir.i  Point  Y  in  the  Baf:  of  the  given 
'Triangle  ABC,  fo  thai  the  Sunt  of  the  Squarei  of 
F£,  VO'dia-vii  f'ro7>i  it  perfendiciilar  upon  the  two 
Sides,  may  be  equal  to  a  given  Space. 

Draw  BH,  CG perpendicular  on  the  two  fiJes,  and 
IptFD-v,  F£=v, 
BK=z,  BC=  'b, 
BH=/.,  CGz:  r, 
an<lilicgiven  fpacc 
FD'+KE  ~m'. 
From  lirailar  tri- 
angles 2  :  .V  :  :  b:r, 

and  z— — 
r 
Alfo* — z:y  wb-.p 

and  z'=.b  —    — 

therefore  — =  b — 

r 

^L  Thatis>=/. 

—  — ,  an  equation  tea ftraight line. 

But  v+^'r^w^  ofwhich  the  locus  is  acirclc,  ha- 
ving m  for  the  radius.  By  conflrucling  theft  loci, 
their  intcrfcdion  will  give  a  folution  of  the  problem. 

Let  KL=CG   (rr^r)   be  at   right  angles  to  LM=: 
BH  (=/>),  join  KM 
to  which  let  LN  be 
parallel;   LN  is  the 
locus  of  the  equation 

)—t — lI;  for  let  any 

r 
line  OPQ,be  drawn 
parallel  to  LM,  if  KP 

-V,  then   PQ,=  ^' 

andQP=LM=^, 
therefore  PO=)'=/- 

r. 

About  the  centre 
K,  with  a  dillancee- 
qiial  to  the  line  ra,  let 
arirclchcdcfcribed ; 
that  circle  willbe  the 
locus  of  the  equation 
m^—x'-\-y'  i  for  it  is 
plain  that  if  OP  be 
any  perpendicular  from  the  circumference  upon  KL, 
KP  being -v,  OP  will  be_>'.  Either  of  the  points, 
therefore,  in  wiiich  ihefe  two  loci  interfccl  each  other, 
as  O,  will  give  OP  an  ordinate  in  both  equations,  KP 
being  the  common  abfcifs  ;  therefore  KP,  OP  are  the 
two  perpendiculars  required,  from  which  the  point  F 
is  eaiily  found.  ' 

The  conftruction  might  have  been  made  on  figure  i  ft, 
witli  fewer  lines.  Il  the  circle  touches  LN,  there  is 
only  one  folution  which  is  a  minimum;  and  if  the  circle 
docs  not  meet  LN,  the  problem  becomes  impoljiblc. 

When  the  circle  touches  LN,  the  radius  in  mud  be 
equal  to  the  perpendicular  from  K  on  LN,  or  frcm  L 
Vox.  \. 


E       B       R       A. 

•n  KM.     This  perpendicular  is  equal  to. 


1'r 


^p'+r' 


a  fourth  proportional  to  MK,  KL,  and  LM,  and  its 
fquare  therefore  is  the  leafl  fum  of  the  fquares  of  the 
perpendiculars  from  a  point  in  the  bafe  on  the  two 
lides. 

It  i.-.ay  be  remarked  alfo,  that  the  pointwhich  gives 
the  fum  of  the  fquares  a  minimum, is  found  by  dividing 
the  bafe,  in  the  proportion  of  the  fquares  of  the  two 
fides  of  the  triangle  ;  and  this  is  cafily  demonftrated 
from  the  preceding  conftruftion, 

PaoB.  v.     Betvieen  two  given  Lines  to  find  tvo  mean 
Proportionals.  • 

Let  the  lines  be  a  and  b,  and  let  the  two  means  be 
>rand_>;  therefore  a  :  .V  :_>:  i,  and  hence  <y=jf,  and 
by=.y' ,  which  arc  both  equations  to  the  parabola,  and 
are  eafily  conftrudled.  The  co-ordinates  at  the  inter- 
feiflion  of  thcfc  two  loci  will  be  the  means  required. 

If  one  unknown  quantity  only  is  alTumed,  or  if  it  is 
convenient  to  deduce  a  final  equation  containing  only 
one,  the  conftruclion  of  the  roots  is  to  be  obtained  b/ 
the  method  mentioned  in  the  next  fedion. 
Scholium. 

The  conftrudlionsof  the  twopreceding  problems  arc 
geometrical ;  but  it  is  fometimesconvcnicRt  to  have  a 
practical  folution,  by  the  mechanical  defcription  either 
of  the  algebraical  lines  employed  in  the  geometrical  fo- 
lution, or  of  other  geometrical  lines  by  which  it  can 
be  efFeifted.  But  few  of  thefe  are  tolerably  accurate  ; 
fo  that,  in  general,  by  means  of  calculatien,  the  prac- 
tical operations  are  all  reduced  to  what  may  be  per- 
formed by  a  ruler  and  acompafs. 

III.  CotiPruOion  of  Equations. 

The  roots  of  an  equation,  containing  only  one  un- 
known quantity,  may  be  found  by  the  inierfe(5tion  of 
lines,  the  produd  of  whofe  dimenllons  is  equal  to  tlie 
dimcnfion  of  that  equation.  And  hence  problems  arc 
refolvcd  withoutan  algebraical  folution  of  the  equation 
arifing  from  them. 

Thus  cubic  and  biquadratic  equations  may  be  con- 
llruded  by  the  interfedions  of  two  conic  fedions  as 
the  circle  andparabola,  whichare  generally  aflumed  as 
being  mofl  eaiily  dcfcribed. 

In  order  to  find  thefe  conftrudions,  a  new  equation 
is  to  be  afiiimcd,  containing  two  variable  quantities, 
one  ofwhich  is  the  unknown  quantity  of  the^iven  c- 
quation,  and  the  other  by  fubllitiition  is  to  beinfcrtcd 
alfo  in  the  given  equation  ;  the  intcrfcdion  of  the  loci 
of  thefe  equations  will  exhibit  the  roots  required. 

Canons  may  be  devtfcd  for  the  conllrudion  of  par- 
ticularorders,  without  afniming  the  r.ew  equaticn. 

The  final  equatjim  from  prob.  5.  would  be  x'-=a' !•, 
which  being  conftrudcd  according  to  the  rules,  exhi- 
bits the  common  geometrical  folution  of  that  problem 
by  the  circle  and  paralxila. 

if  an  equation  be  afliimed,  as  a)~\',  the  other  by 
fubftitution  becomes  xy=iiib  ;  tlic  locus  of  the  former  is 
a  parabola,  and  of  die  latter  an  hyperbola,  one  ot'iis 
aliyniptotcs  being  the  bafe,  and  tiic  co-ordinates  at 
their  intcrfcdion  will  rcprcftnt  rand) ;  the  firltotihc 
two  means  is  v,  anJ  in  this  cafej?  is  the  other. 

3  K  Equ- 


443  A        I.       G        E 

Api'lici-       Equaiions  alfo  ini^ht  be  ailiimcd  fo  as  to  give  a  fo- 
tioo  >o  Gj-  lutioaot'this  jiroblcm  by  other  combinations  of  two  of 
omttry.    [|i£.  conic  fcclions,  oncot'ihcm  not  being  the  circle. 
'^  As  geomcti -cal  magnitudes  may  be  rcprtlcntcd  by 

algebra,  fo  algebraical  (^nantiiies  and  numbers  may  be 
reprcfcnted  by  lines.  Hence  this  conftrnciion  of  equa- 
tions has  fonietimcs  been  ii'fcd  as  an  cafy  method  of 
approximation  to  the  roots  of  numeral  equitions.  Kor 
this  purpofe,  the  iiccelfary  ftraight  lines  mult  be  laid 
down  by  means  of  a  fcale  of  equal  parts,  and  the  curve 
lines,  on  whofcinterfcction  the  condruction  depends, 
mud  be  aiflually  dcfcribed  ;  the  linear  roots  being  mea- 
fured  on  the  fcale  will  give  the  numbers  required. 
Thcfc  operations  may  be  performed  with  fufHcicnt  ac- 
curacy for  certain  purpofci ;  buF  as  they  depend  on 
mechanical  principles,  the  approximation  obtained  by 
them  cannot  be  continued  at  pleafure  ;  and  hence  it  is 


li 


R.       A. 


Part  III. 


feldopi  ufed,  except  in  finding  the  lirft  ftep  of  an  ap-    Applica- 
proxiniation,  which  is  to  be  carried  on  by  other  nic-  'i""  '"  Ge« 
thods.  civ.ttry. 

Scholitivi. 

If  the  rtlation  between  the  ordinate  and  abfcifsbo 
fixed,  but  not  cxprciri'ile  by  a. finite  equation, the  curvt 
is  called  AL-cbii/iiia/  (a)  or  Traiifccr.dintui,  This  clafs 
is  alfo  foraetimes  defined  by  equations,  by.  fuppoling 
eitlicr  X  or  y  in  a  finite  equation  to  be  a  curve  line,  of 
which  the  relation  to  a  liraight  line  cannot  be  exprcf- 
fed  in  finite  terms. 

If  the  variable  quantities  x  or^'  enter  the  exponents 
of  any  term  of  an  equation,  the  locus  of  that  equation 
is  called  an  Exponential  Curve. 

Many  properties  of  thtfc  two  clallts  of  curves  may 
be  difcovcred  trom  their  equations. 


Aljedo 

I 

Algiabarii 


A     L     G 

ALGEDO,  the  running  of  a  gonorrhoea  (lopping 
fuddcnly  after  it  appears.  When  it  thus  ftops,  a  pain 
',  reaches  to  the  anus,  or  to  the  tefticles,  without  their 
being  fwellcd  ;  and  fometinies  this  pain  reaches  to  tlie 
bladder  ;  in  which  cafe  there  is  an  urging  todifcharge 
the  urine,  which  is  with  difficulty  palFcd,  and  in  very 
fmall  quan:i;ici  at  a  time.  The  pain  is  continued  to 
the  bladder  by  the  urethra  ;  to  the  anus,  by  the  acce- 
Jcratory  luufclcs  of  the  penis  ;  and  to  the  tefliclcs,  by 
the  vafa  ilet'crentia,  and  vcficulje  feminales.  In  this 
cafe,  calomel  repeated  fo  as  to  purge,  brings  back 
the  rujHiiiig,  and  then  all  diliiculty  from  this  fymptom 
ccafcs. 

ALGENEB,,!  fixed  ftar,  of  the  fecond  magnitude, 
in  Perfeus's  right  (ide  ;  its  longitude  is  27'  46'  12" 
of  Taurus,  snd  its  latitude  30°  05'  28"  north,  ac- 
cording to  Mr  Klamftead's  catalogue. 

ALGEZIRA,  a  town  of  AndahUia  in  Spain,  with 
a  port  on  the  coafl;  of  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.  By 
this  city  the  Moors  entered  Spain  in  713  ;  and  it  was 
taken  from  them  in  1  544,  after  a  very  long  liege,  re- 
markable for  being  the  fir  ft  in  which  cannon  were  made 
ufc  of.  It  was  called  Old  Gibraltar,  and  is  about  four 
leagues  from  the  New.  W.  Long.  5.  2.  N.  Lat. 
36.  o. 

ALGHIER,  or  A LGERi,  a  town  in  Sardinia,  with 
a  biihop'sfee,  upon  the  weAern  coalt  of  the  illanj,  be- 
tween Safleriand  Bofa.  Though  it  is  not  large,  it  is 
well  peopled,  and  has  a  commodious  port.  The  coral 
Allied  for  on  this  coafl  is  in  thehighelt  efteemof  any  in 
the  Meditcrrantan.     \V.  Long.  4.  2.  Lat  36.  o. 

ALGIABARII,  a  Mahometan  fciSt  of  predeftinari- 
ans,  whoattribute  all  the  aftions  of  men,  good  or  evil, 
to  the  agency  or  ititiuence  of  God.  The  Algiabarii 
Hand  oppofed  to  the  Alkadarii.  They  hold  abfo- 
lute  degrees  and  phyfical  premotion.  For  the  juftice 
<f  God  in  punilhing  the  evil  he  has  caufed,  they  re- 
folvc  it  wholly  into  liis  abfolute  dominion  over  the 
creatures. 


A     L     G 

ALGIERS,  a  kingdom  of  Africa,  now  one  of  the    Algiers. 

llates  of  Barbary According  to  the  latcfl  and  bell  >— v— — 

computations,  it  extends  460  miles  in  length  from  eafl 
to  well,  and  is  very  unequal  in  breadth  ;  fome  placcsbe- 
ingfcarce  40  miles  broad,  and  others  upward  of  100.  Ic 
lies  between  Long.  l.  o.  and  9.  37.  W.  and  extends 
from  Lat.  o.  o.  to  36.  50.  N. — It  is  bounded  on  the 
north,  l)y  the  Mediterranean  ;  on  the  call  by  the  river 
Zaine,  the  ancientTufca,  which  divides  it  from  Tunis; 
on  the  well,  by  the  Mulvya,  and  the  mountains  of  Tra- 
va,  which  feparatc  it  from  Morocco  ;  and  on  the  fouth 
by  the  Sahara,  Zaara,  or  Numidian  dcfcrt. 

The  climate  of  Algiersisinmofl  places  fo  moderate,  climate 
that  they  enjoy  a  conflant  verdure  ;  the  leaves  of  the  and  folk, 
trees beingiieitherparchcd up  by  heat  in  funimer,  nor 
nipped  by  the  winter's  cold.  They  begin  to  bud  in 
February  ;  in  April  the  fruit  appears  in  its  full  bigncfs, 
and  is  commonly  ripe  in  May.  The  foil,  however,  is 
exceflively  various  ;  fome  places  being  very  hot,  dry, 
and  barren,  on  which  account  they  are  generally  fuf- 
fered  to  lie  uncultivated  by  the  inhabitants,  who  arc 
very  negligent.  Thefe  barren  places,  efpccially  fuch 
as  lie  on  the  fouthern  fide,  and  arc  at  a  great  dillance 
from  the  fea,  harbour  vail  numbers  of  wild  creatures, 
as  lions,  tigers, buffaloes,  wild  boars,  ftags,  porcupines, 
monkeys,  oflriches,  &c.  On  account  of  their  barren- 
nefs,  they  have  but  few  towns,  and  thofe  thinly  peo- 
pled ;  though  fome  of  them  are  fo  advantageoully  litu- 
ted  for  trading  with  Bildulgerid  and  Ncgroland,  as  to 
drive  aconfiderable  traffic  with  them. 

The  Algerine  kingdom  made  formerly  a  confidcr- 
able  part  of  the  Mauritania  Tingitana  (See  Mauri- 
tania), which  was  reduced  to  a  Roman  province  by 
Julius  Caefar,  and  from  him  alfo  called  Mauritania 
Cttfarienfii. — In  the  j^eneral  account  of  Africa,  it  has 
been  noticed,  that  the  Romans  were  driven  out  of 
that  continent  by  the  Vandals;  thefe  by  Belifarius, 
the  Greek  emperor  Judinian's  general;  and  the  Greeks 
in  their  turn  by  the  Saracens.     This  lafl  revolution 

happened 


(a)  The  term  Mechanical,  in  this  place,  is  ufed  merely  as  the  name  of  a  particular  clafs  of  curves,  without 
implying  that  they  have  any  more  dependence  on  the  principles  of  Mechanics  or  Phyfics  than  the  algebraical 
curves  wkicli  hare  been  treated  of. 


A  L  C 


[     4-13     ] 


A  L  G 


Algieri.    liipi»cnc<i  about  ihc  middle  of  the  fcvcntli  cciuury  ; 
' — -' —    and  the  Arabs  coiuiiuicd  maltcrs  of  the  country,  di- 
vided inio  a  great  number  of  petty  kingdoms  or  iUtts, 
3         uiidei'ciiicfsof  thtir  o'vn  choolijig,  till  the  year  1051. 
AhuTcie-  This  year,  one  Abubckcr-bcn-Omar,  or,  as  the  Spa- 
5enfubduc»  niQi  authors  call  him,  /^bu  Tex;jian,  an  Arab  of  the 
the  Arab    Zinhagian  tribe,  being  provoked  at  ihc  tyranny  of 
priHces.      tiiofe  defpots,  gathered,  by  the  help  of  his  marabouts 
or  faints,  a  molT powerful  &rniy  of  malcontents,  in  the 
fouthtrn  provinces  of  NumiJia  and  Libya.     His  fol- 
lowers were  nicknamed  Marabitei  or  Mdiabitis ,-  by  the 
Spaniards,  AhnoraviHes  ;   probably  from  their  being 
allembled  principally  by  the  faints  who  were  allocallcd 
Hlorabitei.     The  khalif  of  Kaycm's  forces  were  at 
this  lime  taken  up  with  quelling  other  revolts  in  Syria, 
Mefopotaniia,  &c.  and  the  Arabs  in  Spain  engaged  in 
the  moft  bloody  wars  ;  fo  that  Tcxcficn  having  nothing 
to  fear  from  them,   had  all  the  fucccfs  he  could  wilh 
againft  the  Arabian  cheyks  or  pctiy  tyrants,  w  horn  he 
defeated  in  many  battles,  and  at  laft  drove  them  not 
only  out  of  NumiJia  and   Libya,  but  out  of  all  the 
wedern  parts,  reducing  the  whole  province  of  Tingi- 
tania  under  his  dominion. 

Texefien  was  (uccecded  by  his  fon  Yufef,  or  Jofeph, 
a  brave  and  warlike  prince.  In  the  beginning  of  his 
reign,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  city  of  Morocco, 
which  he  defigned  to  make  the  capital  of  his  empire. 
While  that  city  was  building,  he  fent  fome  of  his  ma- 
rabouts ambalfadors  to  Trcmecen  (now  a  province  of 
Algiers),  at  that  time  inhabited  by  a  powerful  and 
infolcnt  fc6l  of  Mahometans  called  Zeueii.  The  de- 
fign  of  this  cmfcafly  was  to  bring  them  back  to  what  he 
called  the  tniejaith  ;  but  the  Zeneti,  defpiling  his  of- 
fers, alfemblcd  at  Amaf,  er  Amfa,  their,  capital,  mur- 
dered the  ambafladors,  and  invaded  JofcpU's  dominions 
with  an  army  of  jo,ooo  men. 
Zcnelide-  Tht  king  hearing  of  their  infamous  proceedings, 
ftroyed.  fpcedily  muftered  his  army,  and  led  it  by  long  marches 
into  their  country,  deflroying  all  with  hrc  and  fword  ; 
while  the  Zeneti,  inftead  of  oppoling  his  progrtfs,  re- 
tired as  faft  as  poflible  towards  Fez,  in  hopes  of  recei- 
ving alfiftancc  from  thence.  In  this  they  were  miferably 
deceived  :  the  Kezzans  marched  out  againll  them  in  a 
hoftilc  manner  ;  and  coniiug  up  with  the  unhappy  Ze- 
neti, encumbered  with  their  families  and  baggage, and 
ready  to  expire  with  hunger  and  wearinefs  they  cut 
them  all  to  pieces,  except  a  fmall  number  who  were 
inoltly  drowned  in  attempting  to  fwim  acrofs  a  river, 
and  ionie  others  who  in  their  flight  perifhcd  by 
falliugfrom  the  high  adjacent  rocks.  In  the  mean  lime 
Jofeph  reduced  their  country  to  a  mere  dcfart  :  which 
was,  however,  foon  peopled  by  a  numerous  colony  of 
Ffzzans,  who  fettled  there  under  the  proieclionof  the 
reigning  kings.  In  this  war  it  is  computed  that  near 
a  million  of  the  Zeneti,  men,  women,  and  children, 
loft  their  lives. 

The  refllcfs  and  ambitions  temper  of  Jofeph  did  not 
iet  him  remain  long  at  peace.  He  quickly  declared 
war  againft  the  Fez/au«,  reduced  them  to  become  his 
tributaries,  and  extended  his  conquefts  all  along  the 
Mediterranean.  He  next  attacked  fome  Arabian  cheyks 
who  had  not  yet  fubmiltcd  lohisjurifdidion  ;  and  pur- 
fiied  thrm  with  fuch  fury,  that  neither  the  Libyan  dc- 
farts,  nor  ridges  of  the  moft  crag<>y  rocks,  could  fhel- 
terthem  from  his  arms.  He  attacked  them  in  fuch  of 


4 
Sharift  of 
Hafcen 
who. 


AJgerinei 
in  lianjrer 
from  the 
Spaniards. 


theirretrciti,  caftUj,  and  fortrcHci,  as  svcrc  till  then    A'gKn. 

ciecmcd  imprcguablt  ;  aiul  at  laft  fubdued  them,  to  the  ' 

great  grief  01  the  other  African  n;itions,  who  were 
greatly  annoyed  by  the  ravages  committed  by  his  na- 
mcrous  forces. 

Thus  was  founded  the  empire  of  the  Morahiies  : 
wliich,  however,  was  of  no  long  duration  ;  that  race 
being  in  the  12th  century  driven  out  by  Mohavcdi  t, 
a  marabout.  '1  his  race  of  ])riefts  was  expelled  by  Ab- 
dulac  governor  of  Fez  ;  and  he,  in  the  13th  century, 
ftripprdof  his  new  conquefts  by  the  Sliarifsof  Haf.en, 
the  defcendants  of  thole  Arabian  princes  whom  Abu- 
Texehcn  had  formerly  expelled. 

The  better  to  fecurc  their  new  dominions,  the  Sha- 
rifs  divided  them  into  feveral  little  kingdoms  or  pro- 
vinces ;  and  among  the  reft  the  prefent  kingdom  of 
Algiers  was  divided  into  four,  namely,  Trii/iece/i,Ti:- 
iiez,  Aighis  proper,  and  Diij<:}tih.  The  four  rirft  mo- 
narchs  laid  fo  good  a  foundation  for  a  lafting  balance 
ofpowerbetween  theirlitilekingdoms,  that  they  con- 
tinued for  fome  centuries  in  mutual  peace  and  amity  ; 
but  at  length  the  king  of  Tremeccn  having  ventured 
to  violate  fome  of  their  articles,  Abul-Farez,  king  of 
Tenez,  declared  war  againft  him,  and  obliged  liim  t'> 
becom.e  his  tributary.  This  king  dying  foon  after,  and 
having  divided  his  kingdom  among  his  three  for.s,  new 
difcords  arofe  ;  wliich  Spain  taking  advantage  of,  a 
pow'crfulfteet  and  army  was  fent  againft  Barbary,  un- 
der the  Count  of  Navarre,  in  1505.  This  commander 
foon  made  himfelf  maftcr  of  the  important  cities  of 
Oran,  Bujeyah,  and  fome  others  ;  which  fo  alarmed 
the  Algeriucs,  that  they  put  themfcl vcs  under  the  pro- 
tettion  of  Selim  Eutcmi,  a  noble  and  warlike  .■\rabiaii 
prince.  He  came  to  their  afliftancc  with  a  great  num- 
ber of  his  braveft  fubjects,  bringing  with  him  his  wife 
Zaphira,  and  a  fon  then  about  12  years  old.  Thiis 
however  was  not  fuflicicnt  to  prevent  the  Spaniards 
from  landing  a  number  offerees  near  Algiers  that  fame 
year,  and  obliging  that  metropolis  to  become  tributary 
to  Sjiain.  Nor  could  Prince  Sclim  hinder  them  from 
building  a  ftrong  fort  on  a  fmall  illand  oppolitc  to  riic 
city,  which  tctrilied  their  corfairs  from  failing  either 
in  or  out  of  the  harbour. 

To  this  galling  yoke  the  Algerincs  were  obliged  to 
fubmit  till  theyear  1516  ;  when,  hearing  of  the  death 
of  Ferdinand  king  of  Spain,  they  fent  an  embalfy  to  s 
Aruch  Barbarojfay  who  was  at  this  time  no  lefs  dread-  Invite  l'..-u- 
ed  for  his  valour  than  his  furprili.ig  fucccfs,  and  was  I'arofl*. 
then  fent  on  a  cruize  with  a  fquadrou  of  galleys  and 
barks.  The  purport  of  the  embalfy  was,  tint  he  IhoulJ 
come  and  free  them  from  the  Spaniih  yoke  ;  for  which 
they  agreed  to  pay  him  a  gratuity  anfwcrablc  to  (o 
great  a  fcrvice.  Upon  this  lUrbaroda  imuteJiitdy 
difpatched  18  galleys  and  ;?o  barks  to  the  afliftancc  of 
the  Algerincs ;  while  he  himlVlf  advanced  towards  ihe 
ciiy  withSooTurks,  ;ooo  Jigclitts,  and  2ocoMoorilh 
volunteers.  luftead  of  takijig  the  iicareft  road  to  Al- 
giers, he  direiftcd  his  courfc  towords  .'•/•^rJJ^:^/,  where 
Hajfcn,  another  itvacA  corfair.had  fettled  hinifi  If.  Him 
he  furprifed,  and  obliged  tofurrendcr  ;  not  wi  ho.it  a 
previous  promifc  of  friendfliip  :  bat  iiofoontr  had  Bar- 
barolla  got  him  in  his  power,  than  the  cut  offhis  head  ; 
and  obliged  all  H^llan's  Turks  to  follow  hi;n  in  his 
new  expedition. 

On  Birbarofla's  approach  to  Algiers,  lieM'asmetby- 
3  K  2  prince 


A  L  C 


[     444     ] 


y\  L  G 


Algiert, 

7 
Hi<  ircach 
try  aiiU 
cruelty. 


prince  Kuiemi,  autiiilcil  by  all  ihc  I'coj'lc  of  iliat  me- 
inpolis,  jrvcal  an  J  liuall  ;  wlio  looked  for  deliverance 
from  tliii  abandoned  villain,  wlioni  liicy  accouiucd  in- 
vincible.  He  was  conducted  into  the  city  amidll  tl\c 
acclamations  of  the  people,  and  lodged  in  one  of  the 
lioblcfl  apartnicMts  of  prince  Kuiemi's  place,  where 
he  was  treated  \vjih  the  j;reatell  marks  of  dillincHun. 
Elated  beyond  nicafurc  with  this  kind  reception,  Bar- 
biroli'a  formed  a  dcfign  of  becominj;!;  kin^  of  ^Ij^icrs  ; 
and  fearing  fomc  oppoliiion  from  the  inhabitants,  on 
account  of  tiic  excelles  he  fiitfered  his  foldiers  to  com- 
jnit,  murdered  prince  Kiitcmi,andcaufed  hinifclf  tobe 
proclaimed  king  ;  his  Turks  and  Moors  crying  out  as 
lie  rode  along  ihc  Ihetts,  "  Long  live  King  Arnch 
Barbaroll'a,  the  invincible  king  of  Algiers,  the  chojln 
of  God  to  deliver  the  people  from  the  opprclilonof  the 
Chriiiians  ;  and  dcdrucfion  to  all  that  liulloppofe,  or 
rcfiifc  to  own  him  as  their  lawful  fovcreign."  Thefc 
lall  tlireatcning  words  fo  intiniiJatcd  the  inhabiiants, 
already  apprehen  live  of  a  general  mall'acre,  that  he  was 
jmnic.iiatcly  acknow  ledged  king.  The  unhappy  prin- 
cefs  Zaphira,  it  is  faid,  poifoncd  hcrfelf,  to  avoid  tlie 
brutality  oft  !iis  new  king,  whom  (he  uufucccfsfullyin- 
deavourcd  to  flab  with  a  dagger.  * 

Barbarolfa  was  no  looncr  feaiej  on  the  throne,  than 
he  treated  his  fubjeOils  with  fucli  cruelty,  that  theyufcd 
tolhut  up  their  houfes  and  hide  thcmfelvcswhen  he  ap- 
peared in  public.  In  confcquence  of  this,  t;  plot  was 
foon  formed  againll  him  ;  but  beingdifcovercd,  he  eau- 
fcd  twenty  of  the  principal  confpirators  to  be  behead- 
ed, their  bodies  to  be  buried  in  a  dunghill,  and  laid  a 
heavy  fine  on  thofe  who  furvived.  This  fo  terri.'ied  the 
Algerines,  that  they  never  afterwards  durlt  ratempt 
any  thing  againll  either  Barbarolfa  or  his  fuccelfors. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  fon  of  prince  Eutenii  having 
fled  to  Oran,  and  put  himfelf  under  thcprote<5lion  of 
the  marquis  of  Gomarez,  laid  before  that  nobleman  a 
plan  for  putting  the  city  of  Algiers  into  the  hands  of 
the  king  of  Spain.  Upon  this,  young  Selim  Eutcnii 
was  fcnt  to  Spain,  to  lay  his  plan  before  cardinal  Xi- 
mcncs  ;  who  having  approved  of  it,  fcnt  a  fleet  with 
J  0,000  land  forces,  under  the  command  oiDoi  FrnKcif- 
CO,  or,  as  others  called  him,  Z)<!«  D'ngo  de  I  'era,  to  drive 
out  the  Turks,  andrcftore  the  young  prince.  But  the 
fleet  was  no  fooncr  come  within  fight  of  land,  than 
it  was  difpcrfed  by  a  llorm,  and  the  greatcfl  part  of 
the  fliips  dalhcd  againll  the  rocks.  Mofl  of  the  Spa- 
niards were  drowned;  and  thefewwhoefcapcd  toiliore 
were  cither  killed  by  the  Turks  or  made  Haves. 

Though  Barbarolfa  had  nothing  to  boafl  on  this  oc- 
tafion,  hispride  and  infolcncc  were  now  fwclledtofuch 
a  degree,  that  hciniagined  himfelf  invincible,  and  that 
the  very  elements  confpired  to  make  him  fo.  The  A- 
rabians  were  fo  much  alarmed  at  his  fucccfs,  that  they 
implored  the  ainflance  of  Hamidcl  Abdes  king  of  Tc- 
ncz,  to  drive  the  Turks  out  of  Algiers.  That, prince 
readily  undertook  to  do  what  was  in  his  power  for  this 
purpofe,  provided  they  agreed  to  fettle  the  kingdom 
on  himlclf  and  his  dcfcendants.  This  propofil  being 
accepted,  he  immediately  fct  out  at  the  heid  of  10,000 
Moors  ;  and,  upon  his  entering  the  Algcrinc  domini- 
ons, was  joined  by  all  the  Arabians  in  tiie  country. 
Barbarolfa  engaged  him,  only  with  1000  Turkilli  nuif- 
qneteers  and  ?oo  Granada  Moors;  totally  defeated  his 
Humerous  army  ;  purfucd  him  to  the  very  gates  of  his 


capital,  wliicli  lie  ealilymaue  himlVIf  mafltr  of  ;  and,     Algien. 

having  given  it  up  to  be  jdundered  l)  I'.is  Turks,  obli-  ' 

gcd  the  inhabitants  to  acknowledge  him  as  their  fuve- 
reign.  This  victory,  however,  was  chieHy  owing  to 
tile  advantage  which  his  troops  had  from  their  hrc- 
arins  ;  the  enemy  having  no  other  weapons  than  ar- 
rows and  javelins. 

Nofooner  was  Barbarolfa  become  maflerof  the  king- 
dom of  lenez,  than  he  received  an  embally  from  the 
inhabitantsof  Tremecen;inviting  him  tocome  to  tiie ir 
allillanceagainfl  their  then  reigning  prince, with  whom 
they  were  diliatisricdon  account  of  his  having  dethro- 
ned his  nephew,  and  forced  him  to  fly  to  Oran:  ottcr- 
iug  him  even  the  fovercignty,  in  cafe  he  accepted  of 
their  propofal.  The  kingof  I'rcmeccn,  not  fufpecling 
the  treachery  of  his  hibjcfts,  met  the  tyrant  with  an 
nrmy  of  6000  horfc  and  3000  foot :  but  Barbarolfa's 
artillery  gave  him  Inch  an  advantage,  that  the  king 
was  at  length  forced  to  retire  into  the  capital ;  which 
he  had  no  fooner  entered  than  his  head  was  cut  (iff",and 
lent  to  Barbarolfa,  witha  frcdi  invitation  to  come  and 
take  poircllion  of  tlie  kingdom.  On  his  approach,  he 
wasmctby  thcinhabitanis,whomhcreceived  withgreac 
complaifance,  and  many  fair  proniifes  ;  but  beginnint; 
to  tyranni/.e  as  ufual,  his  newfabjccts  foon  convinced 
him  that  they  were  not  fopallivc  as  the  iniiabitantsof 
Algiers.  Apprehending,  therefore,  that  his  reign 
might  prove  unenfy  and  precarious,  he  entered  into  an 
alliance  with  the  king  of  Fez  ;  after  which,  he  took 
care  lofccurc  thercfl  of  the  cities  in  his  new  kingdom 
by  garrifoning  them  with  his  own  troops.  Some  of 
thcfe,  however,  revolted  foon  after  ;  ivpon  whicli  he 
fcnt  one  of  bis  corfairs,  named  f.fcaiidir,  a  man  no  Icfs 
cruel  than  himfelf,  to  reduce  them.  ThcTremcccni- 
ans  now  began  to  repent  in  good  earncll  of  their  ha- 
ving invited  (uch  a  tyrant  to  their  allillance;  and  held 
confultations  on  the  mofl  proper  meansof  driving  hini 
away,  and  bringing  back  their  lawful  prince  Abnclien 
Men  ;  but  their  cabals  being  difcovf  red,  a  great  nuni- 
berof  the  confpirators  were  mallacrcd  in  the  mofl  cruel 
manner.  The  prince  had  the  good  luck  to  efcape  to 
Oran,  and  was  taken  under  the  protedion  of  the  mar- 
quis of  Gomarez,  who  fcnt  immediate  advice  of  it  to, 
Charles  V.  then  lately  arrived  in  Spain, with  a  power- 
ful fleet  and  army.  That  monarch  immediately  order- 
ed the  young  king  a  fuccour  of  10,000  men,  under  the 
command  of  the  governor  of  Oran  ;  who,  under  the 
guidance  of  Abuchen  Men,  began  his  march  towards 
Trcraccen;,and  in  their  way  they  were  joinedby  prince 
Selim,  with  a  great  number  of  Arabs  and  Moors.  The 
firft  thing  they  refolved  upon  was,  to  attack  the  im- 
portant fortrefs  of  C.^/^v,  fiiuated  between  Trcmecen 
and  Algiers,  and  commanded  by  the  corfair  Efcander 
at  the  iiead  of  about  joo  Turks.  They  inverted  it 
clofely  on  all  (ides,  in  hopes  Barbarolfa  would  come  out 
of  Trcmecen  to  its  relief,  which  would  give  the  I're- 
mecenians  an  opportunity  of  keeping  him  out.  That 
tyrant,  however,  kept  clofc  in  his  capital,  being  ein- 
barraflcd  by  his  fears  of  a  revolt, and  the  politicdclays 
of  the  king  of  Fez,  who  had  not  fent  the  auxiliaries 
he  pron-.ifed.  The  garrifon  of  C'alau,  in  the  mean 
time,  made  a  brave  defence;  and,  in  a  fally  they  made 
at  night,  cut  off  near  300  Spaniards.  This  encouraged 
them  to  venture  a fecond  time  ;  but  they  were  nowre- 
pulfcd  with  greatlofs,and  Efcander  himfelf  wounded: 

foon 


A  L  G 


[     445      ] 


A  L  G 


foon  after  which,  they  furrciidcrcd  upon  honourable 
■'  terms;  but  were  all  mallacred  by  the  Arabians,  cxcci)t 
16,  who  clung  clofe  to  the  ftirrups  of  the  king,  anduf 
the  Spauilh  general. 

Barb.irofla  being  now  informed  that  Abnchcn  Men, 
with  his  Arabs,  accompanied  by  the  Spaniards,  were 
in  full  march  to  lay  fiegc  to  Tremcccn,  thought  pro- 
per to  come  out,  at  the  head  of  1 500  Turks  and  5000 
Moorifli  horfc.in  order  to  brtak  his  way  ihrough  the 
enemy  ;  but  he  had  not  proceeded  far  from  the  city, 
before  his  council  adviftd  him  to  return  and  fortify 
hinifelf  in  it.  This  advice  was  now  too  laic  ;  the  in- 
habitants bcingrefolved  to  keep  him  ont,and  open  their 
gates  to  their  own  lawful  prince  as  foon  as  he  appear- 
ed. In  this  diflrcfs  Barbaroffa  faw  no  way  left  but  to 
retire  to  the  citadel,  and  there  defend  hin-.ftlf  ;iU  he 
could  find  an  opportunity  of  flealing  out  with  his  men 
and  all  his  trcafure.  Here  he  defended  hinifelf  vigo- 
Toully  ;  but  his  provifions  failing  him,  he  took  advan- 
tage of  a  fubtarraneous  back- way, which  he  hadcaufcd 
10  be  digged  up  for  that  purpofc,  and,  taking  his  im- 
mcnfe  treafurc  with  him,  flole  away  as  fecretly  as  he 
could.  His  riight,  however,  was  foon  difcovcred  :  and 
he  was  foclofcly  purfi;cd,  that  toamufe,  as  hehopcd, 
the  enemy,  he  caufedagreatdeal  of  his  money,  plate, 
jewles.  Sec.  to  be  fcatterej  all  the  way,  thinking 
they  would  not  fail  to  Hop  their  purfait  together  it  up. 
This  ftratagcm, however,  failed,  through  the  vigilance 
ofcheSpanilh com mander.who being  hi uifclfat  the  head 
of  the  purfuers,  obliged  them  to  march  on,  till  he  was 
come  up  clofe  to  him  on  the  banks  of  the  Hucxda,  a- 
bout  eight  leagues  from  Tremecen.  Barbirolfa  had 
juflcroffed  the  river  with  his  vanguard,  when  the  Spa- 
niards came  up  with  his  rcaron  thcothcrlide,  and  cut 
them  all  off;  and  thencroinng  the  water,  overtook  him 
ata  fmall  diftancefrom  it.  Here  a  bloody  engagement 
enfued,  in  which  the  Turks  foughtlikeas  many  lions; 
but,  being  at  length  overpowered  by  numbers,  they 
were  all  cut  to  pieces,  and  Barbarofla  among  the  reft, 
in  the  44ihyear  of  hisage,  and  four  years  after  he  had 
raifcd  himfelf  to  the  royal  title  of  Jigel  of  the  adja- 
■  cent  country;  two  years  after  he  had  acquired  ihe  fo- 
vercignty  of  Algiers,  and  fcarcc  a  twelvemonth  after 
the  reduction  of  Tremecen.  His  head  was  carried  to 
Tremecen,  on  the  point  of  a  fpear;  and  Abuchcn  Men 
proclaimed  king,  to  ihejoy  of  all  the  inhabitants.  A 
few  daysafter  the  light,  the  kingofF'ez made  his  ap- 
pearance at  the  head  of  20,000  horfe,  near  the  field  of 
battle  ;  but  hearing  of  Barbaroffa's  defeat  and  death, 
inarched  off  with  all  poflible  fpced,  to  avoid  being 
attacked  by  the  enemy. 

The  news  of  Barbirofla's  death  fpread  the  utmoll 
conllcrnation  among  the  Turks  at  Algiers  ;  however, 
they  caufed  his  brother  Hayradin  to  be  immediately 
proclaimed  king.  The  Spanifli  commander  now  fent 
back  the  emperor's  forces,  without  making  any  at- 
tempt upon  Algiers  ;  by  which  liclolt  theopportunity 
of  driving  the  Turks  out  of  tliat  country  ;  while  Hay- 
radin, juflly  dreading  the  confequencesof  the  tyranny 
of  his  officers,  fought  the  protei^ionof  the  Grand  Sig- 
nior.  This  was  readily  granted,  and  hinifelf  appointed 
balhaw  or  viceroy  of  Algiers  ;  by  which  means  he  re- 
ceived fuch  confiderable  reinforcements,  that  the  un- 
happy Algirines  durfl  not  make  the  lead  complaint  ; 
and  fuch  numbers  of  Turks  rcfortcJ  to  him,  that  he 


was  not  only  capable  of  keeping  ihe  Moors  and  i*rabs    A'igicn, 
in  fubjcclion  at  home,  but  of  annoying  ilic  ChriAians  ''      '■'~~' 
at  fea.     His  firft  ftep  was  to  take  the  Spanilh  fort  Hc  uVr* 
abovemcntioned, which  was  agrtat  nnifanrc  tolas  me-  thcSpaiifii 
tropolis.    Tiie  Spaniards  held  uut  to  ibe  lalt  cxtrcnii-  fort. 
ty  ;  but  being  all  llain  or  wounded,  Hayradin  cafily 
became  mailer  of  the  place. 

Hayradin  next  fet  about  building  a  ftrongmole  for 
the  fafciy  of  his,  fliips.  In  this  he  employed  3o,oco 
Chriiiian  llaves,  whom.hc  obliged  to  work  without  in- 
termiflion  for  threeyears  i  inwhichiiaie  theworkwas 
completed.  He  then  caufed  the  fort  he  had  taken 
from  the  Spaniards  to  be  repaired,  and  placed  a  ftro:;^ 
garrifon  in  it,  to  prevent  any  foreign  vellcls  from  en- 
tering the  harbour  without  giving  an  account  of  thcni- 
fclvcs.  By  thefc  iv/o  important  works,  Hayradin  loon 
became  (ireaded  not  only  by  the  Arabs  and  Moors,  but 
alfo  by  tiiC  maritime  Chriftian  powers,  efpecially  the 
Spaniards.  The  viceroy  failed  not  to  acquaint  the 
Grand  Signior  witii  his  fucccfs,  anriobtaincd  from  him 
a  frelh  fiipply  of  money,  by  which  he  was  enabled  10 
build  aflronger  fori,and  to  erect  batteries  on  all  places 
that  migiu  favour  the  landing  of  an  enemy.  All  ihefc 
havclince  rcceivedgreater  improvements  from  time  to 
time,  as  often  as  there  was  occafion  for  tliem.  j, 

In  the  mean  ti:iic  theSiltan,  either  out  of  a  fenfe  of  succeeded 
the  great  ferviccs  Hayradin  had  done,  or  perhaps  out  bj-  Hafiaa 
of  jcalonfy  lell  he  fliould  make  tiimfclf  independent,' '^S*- 
raifcd  Haynidin  to  the  dignity  of  balhaw  of  the  em- 
pire, and  appointed  Hafl'an  Aga,  a  Sardinian  rcne- 
gado,  an  intrepid  warrior,  and  an  experienced  officer, 
to  fuccecd  him  as  balhaw  of  Algiers.     Halfan  had  no 
fooner  taken  polTeffionof  his  new  government,  than  ha 
began  to  purfiie  his  ravages  on  the  Spanilh  coaft  with 
greater  fury  than  ever;  extending  them  to  the  ecclcli- 
aftical  ftate,    and  other  parts  of  Italy.      Bat  Pope 
Paul  1 11.  being  alarmed  at  this,  exortcd  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  to  fend  a  powerful  fleet  to  fupprefs  thofe 
frequent  and  cruel  piracies;  and,  that  nothing  might 
be  wanting  to  render  the  intcrprifc  fuccefsful,  a  bull 
was  publilhed  by  his  holinefs,  wherein  a  plenary  ablo- 
lution  of  fins,  and  the  crown  of  martyrdom,  wjs  pro- 
mjfcd  to  all  thofe  who  either  fell  in  battle  or  were 
made  flavcs  ;  the  emperoron  his  part  needed  no  fpur;        i» 
and  therefore  let  failat  the  head  of  a  powerful  fleet  Charle* 
confiftinsi  of  1  20  fliips  and  20  gallics,  having  on  board  ^' ,  '  '^" 
30,000  chofen  troops,  an  immente  qt:antity  of  money,  j,jj,|(t 
arms,    ammunition,  &c.      In  this  expedition  many  Al<'iers. 
young  nobility  and  gentry  attended  as  volunteers,  and 
among  thefe  many  knights  of  Malta,  fo  remarkable 
for  their  valour  againll  the  enemies  of  Chriiiianity. 
Even  ladies  of  birth  and  charai5tcr  attended  Charles  in 
his  expedition,  and  the  wives  and  daughters  of  the  of- 
ficers and  foldiers  followed  them  with  a  dcllgn  to  fettle 
in  Barbary  al'ter  the  conqucft  was  linilhed.    All  thefc 
meeting  with  a  favourable  wind,  foon  appeared  before 
Algiers;  every  (hip  difplaying  the  Spanifli  colours  on 
the  Hern,  and  another  at  the  head,  with  a  crucitix  to 
ferve  them  for  a  pilot.  tj 

By  this  pro^'igious  armament,  the  Algerincs  were  Algiers  m 
thrown  into  the  utmoft  conflcrnation.  The  city  was  Rreatcon- 
furroundcd  only  by  a  W'all  with  fcarce  any  outworks,  fltrnation. 

The  whole  garrifon  conlillcd  of8ooTurksand6oco 
Moors  without  fire-arms,  and  poorly  difciplined  and 
accoutred  ;  the  rcil  of  their  forces  being  difperfed  in 

the 


A  L  c; 


[  446  1 


A  L  G 


14 

I'revcntcd 
hy  a  mad 
priiphct 
iVom  f'lr- 
rcQJer.ng. 


Spaiiifh 
fleet  <i:- 
ftroycd  by 
a  Uorm. 


:6 
Siege  of 
Algiers 
Tailed. 


I  he  n;;ui  [v  i\  i^';c■^.  ul  ihc  l,iii^ik>i\i,  to  k  vy  llic  iifual 
cribiic  on  ihe  Arabs  aiiJ  Muor^.  JlicSpjuiarUbliiiid- 
rd  V. iiliouC  u;i:ioii[iuii,  and  iiiiiiicdialily  Lutilc  a  lurt, 
uiidciibccaiiiioiiotv/iiith  ilifycncampcd).ind  divcritd 
ihcco-.iile  oi'j  Ipring  which  lujjplicd  the  city  witit  \va- 
li-r.  Bciiig  now  reduced  lotlic  utinoll  diltrcfi,  Haf- 
laii  received  a  (;iii\mons  to  I'urrciuler  at  dilcretioii,  on 
j'.iia  of  being  put  to  the  ('word  with  all  the  g-irriion. 
The  herald  wasordirred  to  extol  the  vail  power  ot' the 
cnij>eror  both  by  Ic.i  and  hnd,  and  to  exhort  him  to 
return  to  the  Chiiltiau  religion.  But  to  this  llail'in 
only  replied,  that  he  nuill  be  a  madman  who  would 
pretend  loadvile  an  enemy,  and  that  the  advil'td  nuilt 
llill  ael  n-.orc  madly  wiio  would  takecounlclol  luchan 
advil'er.  lie  was,  however,  on  the  point  ot  furrendcr- 
iiig  the  city,  when  advice  was  brought  him  that  the 
lorces  belonging  to  the  wcftern  govcninienl  were  in 
full  march  towards  the  place;  upon  which  it  was  refol- 
ved  to  defend  it  to  the  uunolt.  Charlei,  in  the  mean 
lime,  rcfolvuig  upon  a  general  allault,  kept  a  conltant 
hringupon  the  town  j  wijich,  from  the  weak  defence 
made  by  the  gaaifoti,  he  looked  ujion  as  already  in  his 
hands.  But  while  the  dou-waii,  or  Algerine  fenate, 
were  deliberating  on  the  mofl  proper  means  of  obtain- 
ing an  honorable  capitulation,  a  mad  prophet,  attend- 
ed liy  a  niuhiludeof  people,  entered  the  ali'embly,  and 
foretold  the  fpecdy  delhuction  of  the  Spaniards  before 
the  end  of  the  moon,  exiriing  the  inhabitants  to  hold 
out  till  that  time,  'lliis  prediction  was  foon  accom- 
j>lilhedina  very  liirprifing and niiexpce'ted manner: for, 
on  the  2Sth  of  October  1541,3  dreadful  llorm  of  wind 
rain,  and  hail,  arofc  from  the  north,  accompanied  with 
violciu  fliocks  of  earthquakes,  and  a  difmal  anduni- 
vcrfal  darknefs  botli  by  fca  and  land  ;  fo  that  the  fun, 
moon, and  clcnicuts,ftemcd  to  combine  together  for  the 
dcftrudion  of  the  Spaniards.  In  that  one  night,  fonie 
f  jy  in  Icfs  than  half  an  hoar,  86  Ihi,  3  and  i  5  galleys, 
.wcredeftroyed.with  all  their  crews  and  military  llores; 
by  which  the  army  on  Ihore  were  deprived  of  all  means 
of  fubfiiting  in  thefe  pans.  Their  camp  alfo,  which 
fpread  itfelf  along  the  plain  under  the  fort,  was  laid 
quite  underwater  by  the  torrents  which  defccnded  from 
the  neighbouring  hills.  Many  of  the  troops,  by  try- 
ing to  remove  into  fomc  better  fituation,  were  cut  in 
pieces  by  the  Moors  and  Arabs  ;  while  fevcral  galleys, 
and  other  ve(rels,cndeavouringtogain  fomc  neighbour- 
ing creeks  along  the  coa(ls,\vere  immediately  plunder- 
ed, and  their  crews  malfacred  by  tlie  inhabitants. 

The  next  morning  Charles  beheld  the  fea  covered 
with  the  fragments  of  fo  many  lliips,  and  the  bodies  of 
men,  horfes,  and  other  creatures,  fwimming  on  the 
waves  ;  at  which  he  wasfo  dilheartned,  that  abandon- 
ing his  tents,  artillery,  and  all  his  heavy  baggage,  to 
the  enemy, he  marched  at  the  head  of  his  army  .though 
in  no  fniall  diforder,  towards  cape  Malnbux,  in  order 
to  reimbark  iii  thofe  few  vellcls  which  had  outwcath- 
ercd  the  llorm.  But  Hailan,  whohad  caufcd  his  moti- 
ons to  be  watched,  allowed  him  jufl  time  to  get  to  the 
Ihore,  when  he  fallied  out  and  attacked  the  Spaniards 
in  the  niidll  of  their  hurry  and  eonfuiion  to  get  into 
their  Ihips,  killing  great  numbers,  and  brinoingaway 
a  llill  greater  number  of  cajitives  ;  after  which  he  re- 
turned in  triumph  ro  Algiers,  where  Jie  celebrated 
with  great  rejoicings  his  happy  deliverance  from 
fuch  diflrefs  and  danger. 


Soon  after  this,  the  prophet  r,-//}/,  who  had  f  jretoLl     Alglcn. 
thcdeflratlioiiof  the  Spaniards,  was  not  only  declared     — ■'—' 
the  deliverer  of  his  country,  but  had  a  confiJcrable  The''  A 
gratuity  decreed  him,  with  the  liberty  of  c.\erciliug  proph" 
his  prophetic  function  uumolelled.     It  was  not  long,  rewarded, 
however,  before  the  marabouts,  and  fome  interpreters 
of  the  law,  made  a  Itrong  opp  >;uion  again  il  Jtim  ;  rc- 
monllrating  to  the  balhiW,  how  ridiculous  and  fcan- 
dalous  it  was  tothtirnation,  loafcribe  the  deliverance 
of  it  to  a  poor  fortune-teller,  which  had  been  obtained 
by  tlie  fervent  prayers  of  an  eminent  faint  of  their 
ownprofcliion.  But  though  thebathawand  his  douwan 
feemed,  out  of  policy,  to  give  into  his  lail  notion,  yet 
theimpreflion  which  Yufcf's  prediiitions  and  their  late 
accomplilhpients  had  madeujion  the  minds  of  the  com- 
mon people,  proved  too  flrong  to  be  eradicated  ;  and 
the  fpirit  of  divination  and  conjuringhas  lince  got  in- 
to fuch  credit  among  them,  that  not  only  their  great 
llatefmen,  but  their  priefls,  marabouts,  and  fantoons, 
have  applied  thcmfelvcs  to  that  lludy,  and  dignified  it 
with  the  name  Mjh'jt/t.-t'i  Revelations.  ig 

The  unhappy  Spaniards  had  fearcc  reached  their  Frelh  cala» 
fliips,  when  they  were  attacked  by  a  frefli  llorm,  inn>'t'5»of 
which  fevcral  more  of  them  perilhed  ;  one  fliip  in  par-  ^h'Span- 
ticular,  containing  700  foldiers,  belides  failors,  funk '  '" 
in  the  ctnperor's  light,  without  a  polliiiility  of  faving 
a  lingle  man.  At  length,  with  much  labour,  they 
reached  the  port  of  Bujeyah,  at  that  lime  poUcired  by 
the  Spaniards,  whither  Hallan  king  of  Tunis  foon  af- 
ter repaired,  with  a  fupplyof  provilionsfor  the  empe- 
ror,who  received  him  gracioully, with  frelh  all'urances 
ol  his  favourand  protection.  Here  he  difmilFed  the  few 
remains  of  the  Maltcfe  knights  and  their  forces,  who 
'  embarked  in  three  Ihattered  galleys,  and  with  much 
dirticulty  and  danger  reached  their  own  country. 
Charles  himfelf  flaid  no  longer  than  till  the  i6ih  of 
November,  when  he  fet  fail  for  Carthagcna,and  reach- 
ed it  on  the  25th  of  the  fame  month.  In  this  unfortu- 
nate expedition  upwards  of  laolhips  and  galleys  were 
loll,  above  300  colonels  and  other  land  and  fea  officers, 
8coo  foldiers  and  marines,  belides  thofe  dcllroyed  by 
the  enemy  on  the  reimbarkation,  or  drowned  in  the 
laft  llorm.  The  number  of  prifoners  was  fo  great,  that 
the  Algerincsfold  forac  of  them,  by  way  of  contempt, 
for  an  onion  per  head.  it 

HalTan,   elated  with  this  viflorv,  in  which  he  had  Haffanre. 
very  little  fhare,  undertook  an  expedition  againft  the  '^""*  ^'^ 
king  of  Tremccen,who,  being  now  deprived  of  the  af-  '"'"*°* 
liflance  of  the  Spaniards,  was  forced  to  procure  apeace 
by  paying  a  vail  fum  of  money, and  becoming  tributary 
to  him.     The  balhaw  returned  to  Algiers,  laden  with 
riches  ;  and  foon  after  died  of  a  fever,  in  the  66th  year 
of  his  age.  ...  jo 

From  this  time  the  Spaniards  were  never  able  to  g„:jyai, 
annoy  the  Algerines  in  any  conliderablc  degree.     In  taken  from 
1555,  they  lofl  the  city  of  Bujeyah,  which  was  taken  the  Sjiani- 
by  Sathu  Rati,¥.3.SAn't(\.\cct:Sor;  who  next  year  fet  out  ards. 
on  a  new  exi'edition,  which  he  kept  a  fecret,  but  was 
fufpefled  to  be  intended  againll  Oran  :   but  he  was 
fcarcely  got  fourleagues  fiom  Algicrs.w  hen  the  plague 
which  at  that  time  raged  violently  in  the  city,  broke 
out  in  his  groin,  and  carried  him  off  in  24  hours.  HalTanCor- 

Immediately  after  his  death  the  Algerine  foldicry  („  chofen 
chofc  a  Corlican  renegado,   HalFan  Corfo,  in  his  room,  balhaw  by 
till  they  fliould  receive  further  orders  from  the  Porte,  the  Jani- 

jje  farics. 


21 
Soperfedcd 
by  Tckclli, 
■who  puts 
l)im  to  3 
cruelUcath. 


A  L  G  [4, 

Algiers.    Hedid  iiocacccpt  of  the  badiawfliip  v.ithoiit  agood  deal 

>/ '  of  difficulty  ;  b-.it  imnudiately  proiccuted  the  intended 

expedition  ag;i:.Il  Cran,  dilpatching  a  racirengcr  to 
acquaint  the  Porte  wiili  whnt  had  happmed.  They 
had  hardly  begun  their  hollilitics  againll  the  place, 
whcnordcrscanic  from  tlie  Porte, cxprcfilyforbidd^wi; 
Haflaii  Ccrfo  to  begin  the  liege,  or,  it  he  had  begun  it, 
ei.joining  him  to  raifc  it  iinnicdistcly.  This  news  was 
received  with  great  grief  by  the  whole  fleet  and  army, 
as  they  thought  ibenifelves  furcoffucccfs,  thegarrifoii 
being  at  that  time  very  weak.  Nevcrthclcfs,  as  they 
dared  not  difobey,  the  liege  was  immediately  raifed. 
Corfo  had  hardly  enjoyed  his  dignity  four  months, 
before  news  came,  that  eight  galleys  were  bringing  a 
new  bafiiaw  to  fuccecd  him  ;  one  Tskilli,  a  principal 
Turk  of  the  Grand  Signior's  court  :  upon  which  the 
Algerines  unanimoully  rclblved  not  to  admit  him.  By 
tlie  treachery  of  the  Levantine  foldicrs,  however,  he 
was  admitted  at  lafl,  and  the  unfortunate  Corfo  thrown 
over  a  wall  in  which  a  ntiniber  of  iron  hooks  were  fix- 
ed ;  one  of  which  catching  the  ribs  of  his  right  lide, 
he  hung  three  days  in  the  moft  exquifitc  torture  be- 
fore he  expired. 

Tckelli  was  no  fooner  entered  upon  his  newgovern- 
ment,  than  he  behaved  with  fuch  cruelty  and  rapaci- 
oufncfs,  that  he  was  airaflinatcd  even  under  the  dome 
of  a  faint,  by  Yufcf  Calabres,  the  favourite  renegado 
of  HalTan  Corfo  ;  wlio  for  this  fcrvicc  was  unani- 
moudy  chofcn  balhaw,  but  died  of  the  plague  fix  days 
after  his  election. 

Yufef  was  fncceeded  by  HalTan  the  fon  of  Hayra- 
din,  who  had  been  formerly  recalled  from  his  balhaw- 
fhip,  when  he  was  fuccceded  l)y  Sclha-Rais  ;  and  now 
had  the  good  fortune  to  get  himfclf  reinflated  in  his 
employment.  Immediately  on  liis  arrival,  he  engaged 
in  a  war  with  the  Arabs,  by  wliom  he  was  defeated 
with  great  lofs.  The  next  year,  the  Spaniards  under- 
took an  expedition  againll  Moftagan,  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  count  d'Alcandela  ;  but  were  utterly  de- 
feated, the  commander  himfelf  killed,  and  12,000  ta- 
ken prifoners.  This  difailer  was  owing  to  the  incon- 
fiderate  raflmefs,  or  rather  madnefs,  of  the  comman- 
der ;  which  was  fo  great,  that,  after  finding  it  impof- 
fible  to  rally  hisfcattered  forces,  he  rndied,  fword  in 
hand,  into  the  thickellof  the  enemy's  ranks,  at  the 
head  of  a  fmallnumber  of  men,  crying  out,  "St  Jago  ! 
St  Jago  !  the  victory  isours,  the  enemy  is  defeated  ;" 
foon  after  which  he  was  thrown  from  bis  horfe,  and 
trampled  to  death. 

HalFan  having  had  the  misfortune  to  difobligc  his 
fubjefls  by  allowing  the  mountaineers  of  Cuco  to  buy 
ammunition  at  Algiers,  was  fent  in  irons  to  Conftan- 
tinople,  while  the  aga  of  the  Janifarics,  and  general 
HafTan  fcnt  °f '1"^  land  forces,  fupplicd  his  place. — HalTau  eafily 
in  irons  to  found  means  to  clear  himfclf ;  but  anew  bafliaw  wasap- 
Coiiftinti-  pointed,  called  Achmet  ;  who  was  no  fooner  arrived, 
""P'"-'-         than  he  fent  the  twodcinity-ba'iawstoConllantinople, 
where  their  heads  were  iirui.kotf. — Achmet  was  a  man 
of  fuch  infatiablc  avarice,  that,  upon  his  arrival  at  Al- 
giers, all  ranks  of  people  came  in  Ihoals  to  make  him 
prcfcnis  ;  which  he  the  more  greedily  accepted,  as  he 
had  bought  his  dignity  by  the  money  he  had  amafied 
while  head  gardener  to  the  Sultan.     He  enjoyed  it, 
however,  only  four  months  ;  and  after  his  death,  the 
ftate  was  governed  other  four  mor.ths  by  his  lieutenant; 

3 


HalTan 
rcinllated. 


24 
Spaniards 
defeated 
with  great 
Daughter. 


17     ]  A  L    C} 

when  Halfen  was  a  third  lime  fent  viceroy  to  Algiers,     Algicr«. 

where  he  was  received  with  ilic  grcatcll  demouftra-  ' >^ — ' 

tions  of  joy.  o  •  ^n      1 

rr-i  ■  -r    ■         .  ....   /I-  •  RfinUateJ. 

The  nrit  enttrpiife  in  whrcli  HalTan  eng.iged,  was        j^ 

the  liege  of  Marfalquivcr,  fiiiiatcd  near  ihc  city  Oran,  sieve  of 
which  he  dcligucd  to  invert  imnicdiatcly  after.  The  Marfilqai- 
army  etnphiytd  in  this  liege  confilicd  of  26,oco  foot"""- 
and  10,000 horfe,  belides  which  he  had  a  ricct  conlift- 
ing  of  32  galleys  and  galliots,  together  with  three 
French  vellclsl;idcn  with  bifcuit,  oil,  and  other  provi- 
fmns.  The  ciiy  was  defended  by  Don  Martin  dc  Cor- 
dova, brotherof  the  Count  d'Alcandela,  who  had  been 
taken  prifoner  in  the  battle  where  ihat  nobleman  was 
killed,  but  had  obtained  his  liberty  from  the  Algerincs 
with  immenle  funis,  and  now  made  a  moll  gallant  de- 
fence againft  the  Turks.  The  city  was  attacked  with 
the  utmoft  fury  by  fea  and  land,  fo  that  fevcral  breaches 
w  ere  made  in  the  walls.  The  Turkilh  llandards  were 
fcveral  times  planted  on  the  walls,  and  as  often  dif- 
lodged  ;  but  the  place  mufl  have  in  the  end  fubniiited, 
had  not  flalTan  been  obliged  to  rnife  the  liege  in  hallc, 
on  the  news  that  the  famed  CJcnoefc  admiral  Doriawas 
approaching  with  confiderable  fnccours  iror.i  Italy. 
The  fleet  accordingly  arrived  foon  after  ;  but  milling 
the  Algerinegallies,  bore  away  for  Pennon  de  Vclcz, 
where  they  were  fhamefuUy  rcpulfed  by  an  handful  of 
Turks  who  garrifoned  that  place  ;  which,  however, 
was  taken  the  following  year.  jg 

In  1567,  HalTan  was  again  rec.iUcd  to  Conftanti-  Haflan 
iioplc,  where  he  died  three  years  after.  He  was  fuc-  ap^'"  f*' 
cceded  by  Mahomet,  Avho  gained  the  love  of  the  Al-  "lied, 
gcrines  by  fcveral  public-fpiritej  a<5lions.     He  incor- 
porated the  Janiiariesand  Levantine  Turks  together, 
and  by  that  mcuis  put  an  end  to  their  dilTcnli)ons,which 
laid  the  foundation  of  tiie  Algerine  independency  on 
the  Porte.     He  likewifc  added  feme  confiderable  for- 
tifications to  the  city  and  caftlc,  which  he  de'igned  to        ij 
render  impregnable.  But  w'hi'e  he  was  thus  fludying  John  Gaf- 
the  intercl:  of'.nlgiers,  one  John  Gafcon,  a  bold  Spa-  con's  hold 
nifli  ailventurer,  formed  a  delign  of  furpriling  the  whole  ^'''T'  'o 
piratic  navy  in  the  bay,  and  fetting  them  on  fire  in  the  '"■'^.''''=  ■■^'_- 
night-time,  when  they  lay  defcncclcfs,  and  in  their  ^'""'  "'" 
firfl  fleep.    For  this  he  had  not  only  the  pcrmiffion  of 
king  Philip  II.  but  was  furnilhed  by  him  with  proper 
verfcls,  marincri,  and  fireworks,  for  tlie  execution  of 
his  plot.  With  thcfehcfct  fail  for  Algiers  in  the  molt 
proper  fea'on,  viz.  the  beginning  of  O.-tobcr,  when 
moft,  if  not  all  the  lliips  lay  at  anchor  there  ;  and  ea- 
fily failed  near  enough,  unfiifpctlcd,  to  view  their  man- 
ner of  riding,  in  order  to  catch  them  nappinp,  at  a 
time  when  the  greater  part  of  their  crew  were  diiperfcd 
in  their  quarters.  He  came  accordingly,  unperceivcd 
by  any,  to  the  very  mole-gate,  and  difperfed  his  men 
with  their  fire-works  ;  but  to  their  great  furprifc,  they 
found  them  fj  ill  n-.ixed,  that  they  could  not  with  all 
their  art  make  them  take  fire.  In  theraean  time,  Gaf- 
con took  it  iiuo  his  head,  by  way  of  bravado,  to  go  to  do  at'thr 
the  mole-gate,  and  give  three  loud  knocks  at  it  with  city^atc. 
the  pommel  of  Iiis  d.aggcr,  and  to  leave  it  fixed  in  the 
gate  by  its  point,  that  the  Algerincs  might  have  caufc 
to  remember  him.  This  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  do 
without  meeting  with  any  diiiurbance  or  oppolition  : 
but  it  was  not  fo  with  bis  men  ;  for  no  fooner  did  they     v 
findiheirendcavoursunfucccfsful,  thanthey  ni.:dc  fuch 
a  bufilc  as  quickly  ak-.nv.cd  tlic  guard  p.-^fted  0:1  tlic  ad- 

jaien: 


Hisbrav. 


A  L  G 


I 


3> 
I»  takcu 
and  put  to 
death. 


Ali'ieH.  jaccnibaftion,  from  whicli  the  uproar  qiiickl}[  fjircaJ 
itftlfihro'  the  whole  garrifon.  Gaftoii,  now  findinfr 
himfcUin  the  utmod  danger,  failed  away  wiihallpol- 
(iblc  hafle  :  but  he  was  piirlued, overtaken,  and  brought 
back  a  prifoncr  to  Mahomet ;  wfio  no  fooner  juji  hiin 
into  his  power,  than  he  iinmedialcly  cauCcd  a  gibbet 
of  conlitlcrable  heiglu  to  be  erected  on  the  fi)ot  where 
Gafcon  had  landed,  ordering  him  to  lit  hoided  up,  and 
hung  by  the  feet  to  a  hook,  that  he  might  die  in  ex- 
quilite  torture  j  and  to  fliow  his  refentir.ent  and  con- 
tciTiptof  the  king  hjs  mafter,  he  ordered  hiscommiliion 
»o  be  tied  to  his  toes.  He  had  not,  however,  hung 
long  in  that  ftate,  wlien  the  captain  who  took  him,  ac- 
tonipanicd  by  a  numberof  other  corfairs,  interceded  fo 
llron;;ly  in  his  behalf,  that  he  was  taken  down,  and 
put  under  the  care  of  fomcChrillian  furgeons  ;  but  two 
days  after,  fonie  Moors  reporting  that  it  was  tlie  com- 
mon talk  and  belief  in  Spain,  that  the  Algerines  durfl 
not  hurt  a  hair  of  Gafcon's  head,  i!-c.  the  unfortu- 
nate Spaniard  was  hoifted  up  by  a  pulley  to  the  top 
of  the  execution-wall,  and  let  down  again  upon  the 
Jiook,  which  in  his  fall  catched  him  by  the  belly,  and 
f;<!vc  him  fueh  a  wound,  that  he  expired  without  a 
groan.—  — Thustnded  the  expedition  of  John  Gafcon, 
which  has  procured  him  a  place  among  the  Spanifli 
martyrs  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  /Mgcrines  look 
npon  hisdifappointment  to  have  been  miraculous,  and 
owing  to  the  efficacious  proteilion  of  the  powerful 
faint  SidiOvtededJa,  whule  prayers  had  before  raifed 
fuch  a  terrible  ftorm  againfl  the  Spanilh  tieet. 

Mahomet,  being  foon  after  recalled,  was  fuccced- 
cd  i)y  the  famous  rencgado  Ochali,  who  reduced  the 
kingdom  of  Tunis  ;  wliich,  however,  remained  fub- 
jcit  to  the  viceroy  of  Algiers  only  till  the  year  1586, 
when  a  balhaw  of  Tunis  was  appointed  by  the  Porte. 

The  kingdom  of  Algiers  continued  to  be  governed, 
till  the  beginning  of  the  fcvcnieenth  century,  by  vice- 
roys or  bafiiaws  appointed  by  the  Pone  ;  concerning 
whom  we  \\x\i\  nothing  very  remarkable,  further  than 
that  their  avarice  and  tyranny  was  intolerable  both  to 
the  AltTcrines  and  the  Turks  thenifelves.  At  lafl,  the 
Tiirkiih  Janifaries  and  militia  becoming  powerful  c- 
iiongh  to  fiipprcfs  the  tyrannic  fvvay  of  thtfe  bafiiaws, 
.nnd  the  pcc'ple  being  aliiiort  txhaullcd  by  the  heavy 
taxes  laid  upon  them,  the  former  rcfolvcd  to  depofe 
ihefc  petty  tyrants,  and  fet  up  fomc  officers  of  their 
own  at  the  head  of  the  realm.  The  bcter  to  fucceed 
in  this  attempt,  the  miliiiafenta  deputation  of  fomc  of 
iheir  chief  members  to  the  Porte,  to  complain  of  the 
avarice  and  oppreflion  of  thcfe  bafhaws,  who  funk  both 
the  revenue  of  the  ftate,  and  the  money  ren'.i:  ted  to  it 
from  Conftantinople,  into  their  own  coffers,  which 
ihould  have  been  employed  in  keeping  up  aad  paying 
the  foldicry  :  by  which  means  they  were  in  continual 
danger  of  being  overpowered  by  the  Arabians  and 
Moors,  who,  if  ever  fo  little  ofTifled  by  any  Chriilian 
power,  would  hardly  fail  of  driving  all  the  Turks  out  of 
the  kingdom.  They  reprefented  to  the  Grand  Vizir 
how  much  more  honourable,  as  well  as  c^.ficr  and 
cheaper,  it  would  be  for  the  grand  Signior  to  permit 
them  10  choolV  their  own  dcy,  or  governor,  from  among 
thcnifcIvcs,  whofc  intereflit  would  then  be  to  fee  that 
the  revenue  of  the  kingdom  was  ri;^htly  applied  in 
keeping  up  its  forces  complete,  and  in  fupplying  all 
other  cxigcncicsoftheflatc,wiihout  any  farther  charge 

2 


4S     ]  A  L  G 

or  trouble  totlic  Porte  than  that  of  allowing  them  its 
protci^lion.  On  their  part,  they  engaged  always  to 
acknowledge  the  Grand  Signiors  as  their  fovcreigns, 
and  to  pay  ihem  their  ufual  allegiance  and  tribute,  to 
rcfpeil  their  balhaws,  and  even  to  lodge  and  maintain 
them  and  their  retinue,  in  a  manner  fuitable  to  their 
dignity,  at  their  own  charge.  The  bafliaws,  however. 
Were,  for  the  future,  to  be  excluded  from  aflifting  at 
any  but  general  douwans,  unlefs  invited  to  it ;  and 
from  having  the  liberty  of  voting  in  them,  unlefs  when 
their  advice  wasafked.ortheintcreft  of  the  Porte  was 
likely  tofuifer  by  their  lllence.  All  otiicr  concerns, 
which  related  to  the  government  of  Algcrics,  were  to 
be  wholly  left  under  the  diredlon  of  the  dey  and  his 
douwan. 

Thcfe  propofals  having  been  accepted  by  the  Porte, 
the  deputies  returned  highly  fatisScd  ;and  having  noti- 
fied their  new  privileges,  the  great  douwan  immediate- 
ly proceeded  to  the  tlcflion  ef  a  dey  from  among 
thenifelves.  They  compiled  a  new  fet  of  laws,  and 
made  feveral  regulations  for  the  better  fupport  and 
maintenance  of  this  new  form  of  government,  to  the 
obfcrvalion  of  which  they  obliged  all  their  fubjeets  to 
fwear  -,  and  the  militia,  navy,  commerce,  &c.  were  all 
fettled  pretty  nearly  on  the  footing  upon  which  tlicy 
now  are,  and  which  Ihall  be  afterwards  defcribed  ; 
tho'  the  fubfequent  altercations  that  frequently  hap- 
pened between  the  bafhaws  and  dcys,  the  one  endta- 
vouring  to  recover  their  former  power,  and  the  other 
to  curtail  it,  caufcd  fuch  frequent  complaints  and  dif- 
contents  at  the  Ottoman  court,  as  made  them  fre- 
quently repent  their  compliance. 

In  the  year  1601,  the  Spaniards,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Doria  the  Gcnotfc  admiral,  made  another  at- 
tempt upon  Alj^iers,  in  which  they  were  more  fortu- 
nate than  ufual,  their  fleet  being  only  driven  back  by 
contrary  winds,  fo  that  they  came  off  without  lofs. 
In  1609,  'h^  Moors  being  expelled  from  Spain,  flock- 
ed in  great  numbers  to  Algiers  ;  and  as  many  of  them 
\Verc  very  able  failors,  they  undoubtedly  contributed  to 
make  the  Algerine  fleet  io  formidable  as  it  became 
foon  after  ;  tho'  it  is  prob.iblc  the  frequent  attempts 
made  on  their  city  would  alfo  induce  them  toincreafe 
their  fleet.  In  1616,  their  fleet  confifted  of  40  fail  of 
fliips  between  aooand  400  tons,  their  admiral  500 tons. 
It  was  divided  into  two  fquadrons,  one  of  18  fail,  be- 
fore the  port  of  Malaga  ;  and  the  other  at  the  Cape  of 
Santa  Maria,  between  Lifbon  and  Seville  ;  both  of 
which  fell  foul  on  all  Chriflian  (liips,  both  Englifli  and 
French,  with  whom  they  pretended  to  be  in  friend- 
lliip,  as  well  as  Spaniards  and  Portugucfe,  with  whom 
they  were  at  war. 

The  Algerincs  were  now  become  very  formidable  to 
the  European  powers.  The  Spaniards,  who  were  moft 
in  danger,  and  Iraft  able  to  cope  with  them,  folicited 
the  ailiiiance  of  England,  the  pope,  and  other  ftaies. 
The  French,  howcvci;,  were  the  firft  who  dared  to 
fhow  their  rcfcntmcnt  of  the  perfidious  behaviour  of 
thcfe  n.ifcreants  ;  in  161 7,  M.  Beaulieu  was  fent 
againfl:  them  with  a  fleet  of  50  men  of  war,  who  de- 
feated their  fleet,  took  two  of  their  vefFels,  while  I  heir 
admiral  funk  his  own  fliip  and  crew,  rather  than  fall 
into  his  enemies  hands. 

In  1620,  a  fquadron  of  Englifh  men  of  war  was 
fcni  againfl  Algiers,  under  the  touduil  of  Sir  Robert 

Manfcl  : 


Algitrs. 


Alpcrinci 
allowed  to 
chufc  their 
own  dcys. 


.■?3 
They  grow 
formidable! 
to  the  Eu- 
ropeans. 


A  L  G 


[    449     ] 


A  L  G 


34 
An  Englilh 
fquadrua 
'cm  a^ainfl 
the  rflge- 
riaei. 


Manfel :  but  of  this  expedition  we  hive  no  other  ac- 
count, than  that  it  returned  without  doing  any  thing  ; 
and  tlieAlgcrincs,  becoming  more  and  more  infolciit, 
openly  defied  all  the  European  powers,  the  Dutch  on- 
lycxccptcd  ;  to  whom,  in  162J,  ihcy  lent  apropolal, 
dircc'lcd  to  the  prince  of  Orange,  that  in  cafe  they 
would  lit  out  20  fjil  of  fhips  the  foUowingyear,  upon 
any  good  fcrvicc  againll  the  Spaniards,  they  would  join 
them  with  60  fail  ot  their  own. 

The  next  year,  tkc  Coulolies,  or  Cologlits  (thcchil- 
dren  of  fuch  Turks  as  had  been  permitted  to  marry  at 
Algiers),  who  were  enrolled  in  the  militia,  having 
fcized  on  the  citadel,  had  well  nigh  made  themfelves 
mailers  of  the  city  ;  but  were  attacked  by  the  Turks 
and  renegadoes,  who  defeated  them  with  terrible 
llaugbtcr.  Many  fcores  of  them  were  executed  ;  and 
their  heads  thrown  in  heaps  upon  the  city-walls,  with- 
out the  caftern  gate.  Part  of  the  citadel  was  blown  up; 
and  the  remaining  Coulolies  were  difmilTed  from  the 
militia,  to  which  they  were  not  again  admitted  till  long 
after. 

In  162;,  the  Algerines  and  other  Hates  of  Barbary 
threw  oft  their  dependence  on  the  Porte  altogether,  and 
fct  up  for  themfelves.  What  gave  occalion  to  this  was 
the  25  years  truce  which  Sultan  Araurath  IV.  was  o- 
bliged  to  make  with  the  emperor  Ferdinand  II.  to  pre- 
vent his  being  overmatched  by  carrying  on  the  war  a- 
gainfl  him  and  the  fophi  of  Perlla  at  the  fame  time.  As 
this  put  a  ftop  to  the  piratical  trade  of  the  Algerines, 
they  proceeded  as  abovementioned  ;  and  rcfolvcd,  that 
whoever  delired  to  be  at  peace  with  them,  murt,  di- 

Itinflly  and  fcparately,  apply  to  their  government 

No  fooner  was  this  refolution  taken,  than  the  Alge- 
rines began  to  make  prizes  of  feveral  merchant  fliips 
belonging  to  powers  at  peace  with  the  Porte.  Nay, 
having  feizcdaDutchlhipand  poleacrc  atScanderoon, 
they  ventured  on  Ihore  ;  and  finding  the  town  abandon- 
ed by  the  Tnrkilh  aga  and  inhabitants,  they  plunder- 
ed all  the  magazines  and  warehoufcs,  and  fct  them  on 

fire About  this  time  Lewis  XIII.  undertook  to  build 

a  fort  on  their  coalls,  inftead  of  one  formerly  built  by 
the  Marlilians,  and  which  they  had  deniolilhed.  This, 
after  fome  difficulty,  heaccomplillicd  ;  and  it  was  call- 
ed the  Btiftion  of  France  :  but  the  lltuation  being  after- 
icrwards  foand  inconvenient, theKrcnch  purchafed  the 
port  of  La  Calle,  and  obtained  liberty  to  trade  with 
the  Arabians  and  Moors.  The  Ottoman  court,  in  the 
mean  time,  was  fo  much  embarralTed  with  the  Perliaii 
war,  that  there  was  noleifure  to  check  the  Algerine 
piracies.  Thisgave  an  opportunity  to  the  vizir  anJo- 
thcr  courtiers  tocompound  matters  with  thcAlgcrines, 
and  to  get  a  Iharc  of  their  prizes,  which  were  very  con- 
liderable.  However,  for  form's  fake,  a  fcvcre  repri- 
mand) accompanied  with  threats,  was  f«nt  them  ;  to 
which  they  replied,  that  "thcfe  depredations  deferved 
to  be  indul'^cd  to  them,  feeing  they  were  tlieonly  bul- 
wark againil  the  ChriAian  powers,  efpccially  againft 
theSpaniards,the  fworu  cnernies  of  the  Mollem  name." 
Adding,  that  "  if  they  iTiould  pay  a  puniftiUous  regard 
to  all  that  would  purchafc  peace,  or  liberty  to  trade 
with  the  Ottoman  empire,  they  would  have  nothing  to 
do  but  fct  fire  to  all  their  iiiipping,  and  turn  camel-dri- 
vers for  a  livelihood." 

In  the  year  165 y,  four  younger  brothers  of  a  good 
iamily  in  France,  entered  into  an  undertaking  fo  de- 
Iperate,  that  perhaps  the  annals  of  knight-errantry  can 
Vol.  I. 


fcarce  furnifh  its  equal — This  was  no  lefs  than  to  re- 
tort the  piracies  of  the  Algerines  upon  theinfclvi.j  .aad 
as  they  inJilcriminatcly  took  the  lhip.i  jf  all  natiom, 
fo  were  thefe  heroes  iiidifcriminatcly  to  take  the  Qiips 
belonging  to  Algiers  ;  and  this  with  a  fmall  frigate  of 
ten  guns  ! — In  this  ridiculous  undertaking,  100  volun- 
teers embarked  ;  a  Maltefc  commiiiion  was  procured, 

together  with  an  able  mailer,  and  36  mariners They 

had  the  good  fortune,  on  their  f.rii  fttiingout,  to  take 
a  fliip  laden  with  wine,  on  the  Spauilh  coalh  :  wi;h 
which  they  were  fo  much  elated,  that  three  days  after 
they  madlycncounteredtwolargeAlgcrinecorfairs, one 
of  20  and  tiic  other  of  24  guns,  both  well  manned, 
and  commanded  by  able  otficcrs.  Thefe  two  large  vcf- 
fels  having  got  the  fmall  frigate  between  them,  plied 
her  fnrioully  with  greet  Ihot,  which  loon  took  oifher 
main  mall:  notwithllanding  which,  the  French  made  fo 
dcfpcrate  a  rclillance,  that  the  pirates  were  notable 
to  take  them,  till  the  nolle  of  their  tire  brought  tip  five 
more  Algerines;  when  the  French  veifel,  being  almoll 
torn  to  pieces,  was  boarded  and  taken.  The  ysung 
knighis-crrant  were  punilhed  for  their  temerity  by  a 
dreadful  captivity,  from  which  they  redeemed  them- 
felves in  1642  at  the  price  of  6000  dollars. 

The  Algerines  profccuted  their  piracies  with  im- 
punity, to  the  terror  and  difgrace  of  the  Europeans, 
till  the  year  1652;  whena  French  fleet  beingacciden- 
tally  driven  to  Algiers,  the  admiraltook  it  intohis  head 
to  demand  a  rcleafe  of  all  the  captives  of  his  nation, 
without  exception.  This  being  refufed,  the  French- 
man without  ceremony  carried  otf"  the  Turkiih  vice- 
roy, and  his  cadi  or  judge,  who  werejull  arrived  from 
the  Porte,  with  all  (heir  equipage  and  retinue.  The 
Algerines,  by  way  ofreprifal,  furprifed  the  Baflionof 
France  already  mentioned,  and  carried  off  the  inha- 
bitants to  the  number  of  600,  with  all  their  etfecls  ; 
which  fo  provoked  the  admiral,  that  he  fesit  them  word 
that  he  would  pay  them  another  vilit  the  next  year 
with  his  whole  fleet. 

The  Algerines,  undifmayed  by  the  threats  of  the 
Frenchadmiral,  fitted  out  a  fieetof  1 6  galleys  and  gal- 
liots, excellently  manned  and  equipped,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Admiral  Hali  Pinchinin. — The  chief  delign 
of  this  armament  was  againd  the  trcafure  of  Loretto  ; 
which,  however,  they  were  prevented  by  contrary 
winds  from  obtaining.  Upon  this  they  made  a  defcent 
on  Puglia  in  the  kingdomof  Naples  ;  where  they  rava- 
ged the  whole  territory  of  Necotra,  carrying  ofFa  vail 
number  of  captives,  and  among  them  fome  nuns.  From 
thence  fleering  towards  Dalmatia,  they  fcoured  the 
Adriatic;  and  loading  themfelves  with  immcnfe  plun- 
der, left  thofc  coalls  in  the  utraoll  conilernitiou  and 
refentmcnt. 

At  ialt  the  Venetians,  alarmed  at  fuch  terrible  de- 
predations, equipped  a  fleet  of  28  fail,  under  the  com- 
mand of  admiral  Capcllo,  with  exprcfs  orders  to  burn, 
link,  or  take,  all  tlie  Barbary  corl'airs  he  met  with,  ei- 
ther on  the  open  feas,  or  even  in  the  Grand  Si^jnior's 
harbours,  purfuani  to  a  late  treaty  of  peace  with  the 
Porte.  On  the  other  hand,  the  cajitain  baihatv,  who 
had  been  lent  out  with  the  Turkifli  ticet  to  chafe  the 
Florentine  and  Maitele  crullers  out  of  the  .-Archipe- 
lago, undcrllanding  that  the  Algerine  fquadrouwas  To 
near,  fent  t.xprcfs  orders  to  the  admiral  to  come  to  his 
alfitlancc.  Pinchinin  readily  agreed  ;  but  having  tirll 
refolvcJ  on  a  defcent  upon  the  illami  of  LiiTa,  or  Lili- 
3  L  na. 


UffjJtrnc 
•iKilcrtl- 
kingof  f«ut 
y«iung-r 
brother-. 


J7 
A  French 
admiral 
curies  of 
thcTurkilh 
balhiw, 


38 
TheAIje- 
rincs&t  out 
a  fornit'ia. 
hie  flee, 


J9 

Which  is 

totiUy 
denroyed 
by  ihe 
Veiiitiin!. 


A  L  G 


[     450     1 


A  L  G 


Algiers. 


40 
Algiers  in 
he  utnioft 
cunfuCon 
at  the 


41 
Thoy  ftt 
out  3  QC  w 
fleet. 


n.i,  belonging  to  the  Venetians,  he  was  overtaken  by 
Capclli),  t'rom  whom  he  retirej  to  Valona,  a  ica-porc 
belonging  to  the  Grand  Signior,  w  hither  the  Venetian 
admiral  purliicil  him  ;  but  the  rnrkilh  governor  rctn- 
iiiigtoejert  the  pirates  according  to  the  articles  ot  tiie 
peace  between  the  Ottoman  coiiriand  Venice,  CapcUo 
was  obliged  to  content  liiiurdt' with  watchiiigtheiu  tor 
foiuc  time.  I'iiichinin  wasl'ooa  weary  of  rcitraiiit,  and 
ventured  out  ;  wlieu  an  engagement  immediately  cu- 
fued,  in  which  the  Algeriaes  were  defeated,  and  live 
ot  their  vcllels  difablcd  ;  with  the  lofs  of  i  500  men, 
Turks,  and  Chrillian  Haves;  beUdesi6oo  galley-ilaves 
who  regained  their  liberty.  Pinciiinin,  after  this  de- 
feat, returned  to  Vallona,  where  he  was  again  watched 
byCapello;  but  the  latter  had  not  lain  long  at  his  old 
anchorage  before  he  received  a  letter  from  the  fenate, 
deiiring  him  to'make  no  fartlier  attempt  on  the  pirates 
at  that  lime,  for  tear  of  a  rupture  with  the  Pone.  This 
was  followed  by  akttcrfrom  the  governor  of  Valona, 
deliring  him  to  take  care  leA  he  incurred  the  Sultan's 
difplcafure  by  luchinfults.  The  brave  Venetian  was 
forced  to  comply  ;  but,  rtfolving  to  take  fuch  a  leave 
of  the  Algerines  as  he  thought  t!iey  dclcrvcd,  obferved 
how  they  had  reared  their  ten  ts,  and  drawn  their  booty 
and  equipage  along  the  ll>ore.  He  then  kept  tiring  a- 
mong  their  tents,  while  Ibme  well-manned  galliots  and 
brigantincs  were  ordered  among  their  lliippiiig,  who 
attacked  them  with  fuch  bravery,  that,  without  any 
great  lofs,  they  towed  out  their  16  galleys,  with  all 
their  cannon,  lloies,  &c. — In  this  lalt  engagement,  a 
ball  from  one  of  the  Venetian  galleys  happening  to 
Jlrike  a  Turkilh  mofque,  the  whole  adion  was  conli- 
dcred  as  an  infult  upon  the  Grand  Signior.  To  conceal 
this,  Capcllo  was  ordered  to  fink  all  the  Algcrine 
Jhipshe  had  taken,  except  the  admiral  j  which  was  to 
be  conducted  to  Venice,  and  laid  tip  as  a  trophy.  Ca- 
pello  cameoff'with  a  fevere  reprimand  ;  but  the  Vene- 
tians were  obliged  to  buy,  with  joo,ooo  ducats,  a  peace 
from  the  Porte.  ThcGrandSignioroffered  to  repair  the 
lofsof  the  Algerines  by  building  ten  galleys  for  them, 
upon  condition  that  they  fliould  continue  inhisfcrvicc 
till  the  end  of  the  enfuingfummer ;  but  Pinchinin,  who 
knew  how  little  the  Algerines  chofc  to  lie  under  obliga- 
tions to  him,  civilly  declined  the  offer. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  news  of  this  defeat  and  lofs 
filled  Algiers  with  the  utmoft  grief  and  confulion.  The 
whole  city  v.'ason  the  point  of  a  general  infurrcdion, 
when  thebadiawanddouwan  iil'uedout  a  proclamation, 
forbidding,  not  only  complaints  and  outcries,  under  the 
ft vertfl penalties;  but  all  perfons  whatever  to  take  their 
thumbs  from-wUhin  their  girdles,  while  they  were  de- 
libenuing  on  this  important  point.  In  the  mean  time, 
they  applied  to  the  Porte  for  an  order,  that  the  Vene- 
tians fettled  in  the  Levant  Ihonld  make  up  their  lofs. 
But  with  this  the  Grand  Signior  refufed  to  comply, 
and  left  them  to  repair  their  lolfes,  as  Well  as  build  new 
Ihips,  in  the  belt  manner  they  could.  It  was  not  long, 
however,  before  they  had  the  fatisfaflion  to  fee  one  of 
iheir  corfairs  land,  with  a  frelli  fupply  of  600  Haves, 
whom  he  had  brought  from  the  coail  of  Iceland,  whi- 
ther he  had  been  directed  by  a  mifcreant  native  taken 
on  board  a  Danilh  Uiip. 

Our  pirates  did  not  long  continue  in  their  weak  and 
defcncelefs  flate  ;  being  able,  at  the  end  of  two  years, 
to  appear  at  fca  with  a  fleet  of  65  fail.    The  admiral 


Pinciiinin  equipped  four  galliots  2.1  his  own  expence  ;     Argim. 

with  wiiich,  in  conjuucUoii  with  liie  Chiayai;,  or  fc-  " >< *" 

crctary  of  t lie  balhaw  of  1  ripoli,  he  made  a  fccouJ  cx- 
curlioii.     This  I'mall  fqiiadron,  confilling  of  hve  gal- 
leys and  two  briganiines,  fell  in  with  an  Eiigluh  ihip  of 
40  guns;  which,  however,  Pinchinin's  captlins  rtiu- 
fcd  to  engage;   but  being  afterwards   reproachcj  by 
him  for  tlicir  cowardice,  they  I'worc  to  attack  the  next       4. 
Chrillian  ihip  which  came  in  their  way.T  his  happened  Fivcofiheirr, 
to  be  a  Dutch  merchantman,  of  28  guns  and  40  men,  galleys  de- 
deeply  laden,  and  unable  to  ufe  h  r  I'ails  by  reaf.m  of ''^^"='^ ''y  * 
a  calm.   Pinchinin  immediately  fuminoncd  her  to  fur-  '■'''"!' 
render  ;  but  receiving  an  ironical  anl\vcr,drcw  up  Ins  ^^^^^ 
fquadron  in  form  of  an  halt-moon,  that    they   might 
pour  their  Ihot  all  at  once  into  their  aJverfary.  This, 
however,  the  Dutchman  avoided,  by  means  of  a  breeze 
ofwind  which  fortunately  fprung  up  and  enabled  hint 
to  turn  his  ihip;   upon  which  the  gallays  ran  foul  of 
cacli  other. — Upon  this,  Pinchinin  ran  liis  own  galley 
along  iidc  of  the    merchantman,  the  upper  deck  of 
which  70  Algerines  inimcdiaiely    took   polfcifton  of, 
foine  of  them  cutting  the  rigging,  and  others  plying 
the  hatches  with  hand-grenadocs  :  but  the  Dtitchmeu 
having  fecured  themfelves  in  their  clofe  quarters,  be- 
gan to  tire  at  the  Algerines  on  board,  from  two  pieces 
of  cannon  loaded  with  fmall  Ihot ;  by  which  they  were 
all  foon  killed,  or  forced  to  fubuiit.    Pinchinin,  in  the 
mean  time,  made  fevcral  unfuccefsful  attempts  to  re- 
lieve his  men,  as  well  as  to  furround  the  Dutchinaa 
with  his  other  galleys  :  but  that  ihip  lay  fo  deep  in  the 
water,  that  every  Ihot  did  terrible  execution  among  the 
pirates  ;  fo  that  they  were  obliged  to  remove  fanher 
off.     At  lalf  the  Dutch  captain,   having  ordered   his 
guns  to  be  loaded  with  cartouches,  gave  them  fuch  a 
parting  volley  as  killed  200  of  thcDi,  and  fent  the  reft 
back  to  Algiers  in  a  moll  difmal  plight; 

But  iji'ugh  Pinchinin  thus  returned  indifgrace,  the 
reft  of  the  tiet  t  quickly  came  back  with  vail  numbers- 
of  llaves,  and  an  immenfe  quantity  of  rich  fpoils;  info- 
much  that  the  Englilh,  french,   and  Dutch,  were  o- 
bliged  to  cringe  to  the  mighty- Algerines,  who  foir.c- 
timcs  vouchfafed  to  be  at  peace  with  them,  but  fwore 
eternal  war  againft  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy,  whom 
they  looked  upon  as  the  greatcft  enemies  10  the  Maho-       ^, 
metaii   name.     At  laft  Lewis  XIV.  provoked  by   the  Prcpara. 
grievous  outrages  committed  by  the  Algerines  on  the  tions 
coafts  of  Provence,  andLaiigiiedoc,  ordered,  in  i68i,>i  ^o'""'^ 
conliderable  fleet  to  be  fitted  out  againft  them,   under  f^'*'"'^t^v- 
the  Marquis  du  Q_iiefne.  vice-admiral  of  France.    His    "** 
firftexpediiion  wasagainft  a  numberof  Tripolitan  cor- 
fairs ;   who  had  the  good  fortune  to  outrow  him,  and 
ihelter  themfelves  in  the  iiland  of  Scio  belonging  to 
the  Turks.   This  did  not,  however,  prevent  him  from 
purfuing  them  thither,  and  making  fuch  terrible  Hrc 
upon  them  as  quickly  dedroyed  14  of  their  velFcls,  bc- 
fidcs  battering  the  walls  of  the  caftle.  44 

This  feverity  feemcd  only  to  be  deligncd  as  a  check  Algiers 
to  the  piracies  of  the  .  Jgerines  ;  but,  finding  they  ftill  bombarded 
continued  their  outrages  on  the  French  coaft,  he  failed  i°''f'"'?. 
to  Algiers  in  Auguft  1682,  cannonading  and  bombard    p^i'jV  " 
ing  it  fo  furiouily,  that  the  whole  town  wasin  rianics  ill 
a  very  little  time.     The   great  mofque  was  b.iitercd 
down,  and  moft  of  the  houfes  laid  in  ruins,  infomuch 
that  the  inhabitants  were  on  the  point  of  abandoning 
the  place ;  when  on  a  fuddcn  the  wind  turned  about, 

aiii 


A  L  G 


[     451      ] 


A  L  G 


Algicri. 

45 
AlgTlnts 
comi'.rt 
(Irtadful 
ravai,'cs  in 
France. 


46 

The  .ity  a- 
eaiii  bnm- 
oarded. 


47 
Set  on  fire 
and  alniofl 
dtftroyed. 


and  obliged  Du  Quefiie  to  return  to  Toulon.  The 
Algcrincs  immediaitly  made  rcprifals,  by  fending  a 
nuinbcrof  galleys  ano  galliots  tothc  coaftsof  Provence, 
where  they  coniraitttJ  the  moil  dreadful  ravages,  and 
brought  away  a  val>  nu;  ber  of  captives  :  upon  which 
a  new  arman:ent  was  ordered  to  be  got  ready  at  loii- 
lon  and  Marleillcs  againft  the  next  year;  and  the  Al- 
gerincs,  having  received  timely  notice,  put  thcmfelvts 
into  as  good  a  Itatc  of  defence  as  the  time  would  allow. 

In  May  1685,  Du  Qiiefnc  with  his  fquadron  call 
anchor  before  Algiers  ;  where,  being  joined  by  the 
Marquis  D'Affranville,  at  the  head  of  five  Aout  vcf- 
fcls,  it  was  refolvcd  to  bombard  the  town  next  day. 
Accordingly  too  bombs  were  thrown  into  it  the  lirft 
day,  which  did  terrible  execution;  while  thebclicged 
made  fome  hundred  difchargesof  their  cannon  againft 
them,  without  doing  any  conlider^blc  damage.  The 
foliowingnightb  the  bombs  were  apain  thrown  into  the 
city  in  fuch  numbers,  that  the  dcy's  palace  and  other 
great  edifices  were  almofldertroycd;  fonieofthcir  l)at- 
icries  were  difmountcd,  and  feveral  velfelsfunk  in  the 
port.  The  dey  and  Turkith  balhaw,  as  well  as  the 
whole  foldiery,  alarmed  at  this  dreadful  havock,  im- 
mediately fued  for  peace.  As  a  preliminary,  the  im- 
mediate furrenderwas  infilled  on  of  j11  ^hriflian  cap- 
tives who  had  been  taken  fighting  under  the  French 
flag  ;  which  being  granted,  14a  of  them  were  imme- 
diately delivered  up,  with  a  promife  of  fending  him 
the  remainder  as  foon  as  they  could  be  got  from  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country.  Accordingly  Du  Qiiefnc 
fcnt  his  commiifary-general  and  one  of  his  engineers 
into  the  town  ;  but  with  cxprefs  orders  10  infift  upon 
thecielivery  of  all  the  French  captives  without  excep- 
tion, together  with  the  etJedls  they  had  taken  from 
the  French  ;  and  that  Mezomorto  their  then  admiral, 
.ind  Hali  Rais  one  of  their  captains,  fliould  be  given 
as  hoflages. 

This  lafl  demand  having embarraffed  the  dey,  he  af- 
fembled  the  douwan,  and  acquainted  them  with  it: 
upon  which  Mezomorto  fell  into  a  violent  palFion,  and 
told  the  airenibly,  that  the  cowardice  of  tliofe  who  fat 
at  the  helm  had  occafioned  the  ruin  of  Algiers  ;  but 
that,forhispart.he  would  never  confint  todelivcr  up 
any  thing  that  had  been  taken  from  the  French.  He 
immediately  acquainted  the  foldicry  with  what  had 
paiTed;  which  fo  exafparated  them, that  they  murdered 
the  dey  that  very  night,  and  on  the  morrow  chofe 
Mezomorto  in  his  place.  This  was  no  fooner  done, 
than  he  cancelled  all  the  articles  of  peace  which  had 
been  made,  and  hoililities  were  rencv.cd  with  greater 
fury  than  ever. 

The  French  admiral  now  kept  pouring  in  fuch  vol- 
leys of  bombs,  that,  in  lefs  than  three  days,  the  great- 
eft  part  of  the  city  was  reduced  to  aflies,  and  the  fire 
burnt  w  ith  fuch  vehemence,  that  the  fea  was  enlight- 
ened with  it  for  more  than  twoleagues  round.  Mezo- 
morto. unmoved  at  all  thefedifafters,and  the  vaflnum- 
ber  of  the  (lain, whofe  blood  ran  in  rivulets  along  the 
ftrccts  ;  or  rather,  grown  furious  and  defpcrate,  fought 
only  howto  wrciik his  revenge  on  theeiiemy;  and, not 
content  with  cauling  all  the  Frencli  in  the  city  to  be 
cruelly  murdered,  ordered  their  conful  to  be  tied  hand 
and  foot,  and  faftened  alive  to  the  mouth  of  a  mortar, 
from  whence  he  was  (liut  away  againfl  thcirnavy — 
By  this  piece  of  inhumanity  Du  Qiicfnc  was  fotxjl'- 


pcrated,  that  he  did  not  leave  Algiers  till  he  had  ut-    Al;;«ri. 
tcrly  dcflroyed  all  their  fortificatio.is,  Ihipping,  almoft  •'      ' 

all  the  lower  part,  and  aliove  two  thirds  of  the  upjcr 
part,  of  the  city  ;  by  which  means  it  became  little  clfc 
than  a  heap  of  ruins.  ^g 

The  haughty  Algerines  were  now  thoroughlf  con-  Algcnnet 
vinced  that  they  were  not  invincible  ;  and,  therefore,  fue  for 
immediately  fcnt  an  embalfy  into  France,  begging  in  r""* 
the  moft  abjeft  terms  for  peace  ;  which  Lewis  imme- 
diately granted,  to  their  inexprelliblt  joy.  They  now 
began  to  pay  fome  regard  to  other  nations,  and  to  be 
a  little  cautious  how  they  wantonly  incurred  their  dif- 
pleafure.     The  tirft  bombardment  by  the  French  had 
fo  fir  humbled  the  Algerines,  that  they  condcfcendcd 
to  en  tcr  into  a  treaty  with  England;  which  was  renew- 
ed,upon  terms  very  advantageous  to  the  latter, in  1686. 
It  is  not  to  be  fuppofed,  however,  that  the  natural  per- 
fidy of  the  Algerines  would  difappcar  on  a  fiddcn  ; 
notv.ithftanding  this  treaty,  therefore,  they  lofl  no 
opportunity  of  making  prizes  of  the  Engliih   fliips        45, 
when  they  could  con /cnicntly  come  at  them.     Upon  Seven  of 
fome  infringementof  this  kind.  Captain  Beach  drove  thc.rOiiin 
adore  and  burnt  fcvenoftheir  frigates  in  1^.95;  v.hich  '""^"^.''^, 
produced  arenewal  of  the  treaty  five  years  after  :  but  '^^    ''"  ' 
it  was  not  till  the  raking  of  Gibraltar  and  Port  Ma- 
hon,  that  Britain  could  have  a  fuflicient  check  upon 
them  to  enforce  the  obfervation  of  treaties  :  and  thefc 
have  fince  proved  fuch  reftraints  upon  Algiers,  that 
they  flill  continue  to  pay  a  greater  deference  to  the 
Englifh  than  to  any  European  power.  5° 

The  prcfent  century  furniflies  no  very  remarkable  c-  F^»p""'o= 
vents  with  regard  to  Algiers;  except  the  takingofthe  ^Jj^f^j^ 
famed  cityof  Oran  from  the  Spaniards  in  i  708  (which  bafluw. 
however  they  regained  in  1737),  and  the  expuWionof 
the  Turkilh  balliaw,  and  uniting  his  office  to  that  of 
dey  in  i7fo.     This  introduced  the  form  of  govern- 
ment which  Aill  continues  in  Algiers.  51 

The  dey  is  now  abfolute  mon:irch  ;  and  pays  noo-  Rc»en««*. 
ther  revenue  10  the  Porte,  than  that  of  a  certain  num-  *'<^-°' ''"•* 
ber  of  fine  boys  or  youths,  and  fome  other  prefents  '^•' 
which  are  fent  thither  yearly.  His  own  income,  pro- 
bably rifcsand  falls  according  to  the  opportunities  he 
hath  of  fleecing  both  natives  and  foreigners;  whence  it 
is  varioufly  computed  by  different  authors.  I')r  Shaw 
computes  the  taxcsofthe  whole  kingdom  to  bring  into 
the  treafury  nomorethan  300,000  dollars;  but  fjppofes 
that  the  eighth  part  of  the  prizes,  t!ic  efJefls  of  thofc 
perfons  whodie  without  cliildren,  joined  to  the  yearly 
contributionsraifcd  by  tlic  government,  prefents  from 
foreigners,  fines  and  opprcflions,  may  bring  in  about 
as  much  more.  Both  the  dey,  and  officers  i;nder  hici, 
enrich  themfclves  by  the  famelaudahle  methods  of  ra- 
pine and  fraud  ;  which  it  is  no  wonder  to  find  the  com- 
mon people  praftifing  upon  one  another,  and  efpecially 
upon  flrangers,  feeing  they  themfclves  are  inipoverifh- 
ed  by  heavy  taxes  and  the  injufUcc  of  thofe  who  arc 
in  authority. 

We  have  already  hinted,  that  the  firft  dcys  were  c- 
Icdled  by  the  militia, 'vho  were  then  called  the  dcurj^i: 
or  common-council.  This  elcflivc  body  was  at  firil 
conipofed  of  800  militia-officers,  without  whofe  con- 
fent  the  dey  could  'o  nothing  :  and  upon  fome  urgent 
occalions,  all  the  officers  rcliding  in  Algiers,  amount- 
ing to  above  ijco,  were  fummoned  to  alfil^^.  But 
(ince  the  dcys,  who  may  be  compared  to  the  Dutch 
3  L  3  Stallholders, 


A  L  G 


[     4^     ] 


A  L  G 


Algiers. 


Strin<;e 


the  dou 
wan. 


Stadilioldcrs,  have  become  more  powerful,  the  dou- 
wan  is  principally  compofcd  of  50  chiak-bafliaws,  or 
colonels,  with  now  and  then  the  nuifti  and  cadi  upon 
fonic  emergencies  ;  and  on  the  election  of  a  dey,  the 
whole  foldiery  are  allowed  to  come  and  give  their  votes. 
All  the  regulations  of  (late  ought  to  be  determined  by 
that  all'cmbly,  before  they  pals  into  a  law,  or  the  dey 
Tiaih  power  to  put  them  in  execution  :   but,  for  many 
years  back,  the  douwan  is  of  fo  little  account,  that  it 
is  only  convened  out  of  formality,  and  to  giveaflent 
to  what  the  dey  and  his  chief  favourites  have  concerted 
beforehand.  The  methodof  gathering  the  votes  in  this 
nuthod  of  augnft  allcnibly  is  pcrfedly  agreeable  to  the  charaiUr 
patlicring    of  thofc  who  conipofc  it.     The  aga,  or  general  of  the 
tli<r  votesof  janifarics,  or  the  prelidcnt />ro  wm/'o/\r,   lint  propofes 
thcqueRion.wliich  is  immediately  repeated  with  a  loud 
voice  by  the  chiak-balliaws,  and  from  them  echoed  a- 
gain  by  four  officers  called  haJJjaldalas,  from  thcfe 
the  qiieflion  is  rcpc;ncd  from  one  member  of  the  dou- 
wan to  another,  with  flrange  contortions,  and  the  mofl 
hideous  growlings,  if  it  is  not  to  their  liking.      From 
the  loudnefs  of  this  growling  noifc,  the  aga  is  left  to 
gutfs  as  well  as  he  can  whether  the  majority  of  the  af- 
fcmbly  are  plcafed  ordifplealed  with  the  queftion;  and 
from  Inch  a  prepoderous  method,  it  is  not  furprifing 
that  thefe  airemblits  lliould  fcklom  end  without  fome 
tumult  or  difordtr.  As  the  whole  body  of  the  militia 
is  concerned  in  the  elcdlion  of  a  new  dey,  it  is  feldom 
carried  on  without  blows  and  bloodlhed :  but  when 
once  the  choice  ismade,   the  pcrfon  elefted  is  faluted 
with  the  words  Ali-a  Barick,  "  God  blefs  you,  and 
profpcr  you  ;"  and  the  new  dey  ufually  caufcs  all  the 
officers  of  the  douwan  who  had  oppofcd  his  election  to 
be  (Iranglcd,  tilling  up  their  places  with  thofe  who 
had  been  moll  zealous  in  promoting  it.  From  this  ac- 
count of  the  elcclion  of  the  deys,  it  cannot  be  expec- 
ted that  their  govermcnt  IhouUl  be  at  all  fecurc  ;  and 
as  TJiey  arrive  at  the  throne  by  tumult,  difordcr,  and 
Woodllied,  they  arc  generally  deprived  of  it  by  the  fame 
means,  fcarcely  one  in  ten  ofthcin  having  the  good 
fortune  to  die  a  natural  death. 

In  this  country  it  is  not  to  be  cxpefted  that  juftice 
will  be  adminillcrcd  with  any  degree  of  impartiality. 
The  Mahometan  foldiery,  in  particular,  arc  fo  much 
favoured,  that  tiicy  arc  feldom  put  to  death  for  any 
crime,  except  rebellion;  in  whith  cafe  they  arc  either 
flrangled  with  a  bn\v-llring,or  hanged  to  an,irun  hook. 
In  Idler  oif'enccs,  they  arc  fined,  or  theirpay  flopped; 
and  if  officers,  they  are  reduced  to  the  Ration  of  com- 
mon foldiers,  from  whence  they  may  gradually  raife 
ihcmfelvcsto  their  former  dignity.  Women  guilty  of 
•adultery, have  a  halter  tied  about  their  necks, with  the 
other  end  fallened  to  a  pole,  by  which  they  are  held 
under  water  till  they  are  fiiflbcated.  The  baflinado  is 
likewife  infiiclcd  foriuiall  offences;  and  is  given  either 
i.pou  the  belly,  bick,  or  fulcs  of  the  feet,  according  to 
ilie  plcafure  of  the  e.uli  ;  who  alio  appoints  the  num- 
ber of  flrokes.  Thefe  fomctimes  amout  to  200  or  ?oo, 
iccording  to  the  indulgence  the  ofTcnder  can  obtain 
cither  b,»  bribtiy  or  friends  ;  and  hence  he  often  dies 
under  this  puni!hmcnt,  for  wmt  of  powerful  enough 
advocates.  Bi.t  the  moll  terrible  puniflimeuts  are  thefe 
illflicicd  upcn  thejcws  orChrillians  who  fpcak  agaiiill 
Mahontet  or  his  religion;  in  which  cafe,  they  mnfl  ci- 
ther tarn  Mahometan,  or  be  impaled  alive.     If  they 


.'J 
Piitiilh- 
mcnis,  Ac, 


iffice»«- 


afterwards  aportatize,  they  are  burned  or  roafled  all vf,    Algier». 

or  clfc  thrown  down  from  the  top  of  the  city-walls  * ' 

upon  iron  hooks,  where  they  are  caught  by  different 
parts  of  their  body,  according  as  they  happen  to  fall, 
andlbmetiraesexpircin  thcgreatcfttorinents  ;  though 
by  accident  they  may  be  put  out  of  pain  at  once,  as  we 
have  already  related  of  the  Spanilh  adventurer  John 
Gafcon.  This  terrible  punilhment,  however,  begins 
now  to  be  difufed.  ,4 

The  officer  next  in  power  to  the  dey  is  the  aga  of  Ag»of  the 
the  janifaries,  who  is  one  of  the  oldeft  officers  in  the  iinti»ric» 
army,  and  holds  his  poll  only  for  two  months.    He  is  and  other 

then  iuccecded  by  the  chiah,  or  next  fenior  officer n>il'»T 

During  the  two  months  in  which  the  aga  enjoys  h  is  dig-  ' 
nity,  the  keys  of  the  metropolis  arc  in  his  hands  ;  all 
military  orders  arc  illucd  out  in  his  name  ;  and  the  fen- 
tence  of  the  dey  upon  any  otiending  foldier,  whether 
capital  or  not,  can  only  be  executed  in  the  court  of 

his  palace As  foou  as  he  is  gone  through  this  fhort 

office,  he  is  confidercd  as  mazoul,  or  fupcrannuatcd  i 
receives  his  pay  regularly,  like  the  reft  of  the  militia 
every  two  moons;  is  exempt  from  all  other  duties,  ex- 
cept when  called  by  the  dey  to  affift  at  the  grand  coun- 
cil, to  which  lie  hath,  however,  a  right  to  come  at  all 
times,  but  hath  no  longer  a  vote  in  it. — Next  to  the 
again  dignity,  is  the  fccretary  of  Hate,  whoregiftcrs 
all  the  public  ails  ;  and  after  him  are  the  30  chiahs 
or  colonels,  who  litucxt  to  the  aga  in  the  douwan, 
and  in  the  fame  gallery  with  him.  Out  of  this  clafs 
are  generally  chofen  thofe  who  go  embafladors  to  fo- 
reign courts,or  who  difpcrfc  the  dey 's  orders  through- 
out the  realm . — Next  to  them  are  Sooballuck-baffiaws, 
or  eldeft  captains,  who  arc  promoted  to  that  of  chiah- 
bafhaws,  according  to  their  fcniority.  The  oldack- 
baffiav/s,  or  lieutenants,  arc  next;  whoamonnt  to  400, 
and  are  regularly  raifed  to  the  rank  of  captains  in  their 
turn,  and  toother  employments  in  the  ftate,  according 
to  their  abilities.  Thefe,  by  way  of  diftinclion,  wear 
a  leather  flrap,  hanging  down  to  the  inidle  of  their 
back.  One  rule  is  ilrictly  obfcrved  in  the  rotation  of 
thefe  troops  from  one  deputy  to  a  higher;  viz.  the  right 
of  fcniority  ;  one  fingle  infringement  of  which  would 
caufe  an  iufurrcftion,  and  probably  cofl  the  dey  his 
life.  Other  military  officers  of  note  are  the  vekelards, 
or  purveyors  of  the  army  ;  the  peys,  who  arc  the  four 
oldcil  foldiers,  and  confequcntly  the  nearefl  to  prefer- 
ment ;  the  foulacks,  who  are  the  next  in  fcniority  to 
them,  and  arc  part  of  the  dey's  body-guard,  always 
marching  before  him  when  he  takes  the  field,  and  dif- 
tinguiflied  by  their  carbines  and  gilt  fcymiters,  with  a 
brafs  gun  on  their  caps ;  tlie  kayts,  or  Turkilh  fol- 
diers, each  band  of  wlioni  have  the  government  of  one 
or  more  adowars, or  itinerant  villages,  and  collcdl  their 
taxes  for  the  dey  ;  and  the  fagiards,  or  Turkiffi  lance- 
men,  100  ofwhom  always  attend  the  army,  and  watch 
over  the  water  appointed  for  it.  To  thefe  we  may  add 
the  beys,  or  governors  of  the  three  great  provincesof 
the  realm.  All  the  abovcnieiuioned  officers  ought  to 
comj'ole  the  great  douwan  orcoujicil  abovemeutioncd; 
but  oiily  the  jochiah-bafliaws  have  a  right  tofit  in  the 
gallery  next  .".jtcr  the  dey  ;  the  rcll  are  obliged  to 
Hand  on  the  Hoor  of  the  hall,  or  council-chamber, 
with  their  armsaerofs,  and,  asiiuich  as  poJiible,  with- 
out motion  ;  neither  are  they  permitted  to  enter  with 
their  fwords  on,  for  f»ar  of  a  tumult.     As  for  thofc 

Mho 


A  L  G 


t     453     ] 


A  L  G 


Algieri. 


the  king- 


56 
Rivirs, 


who  have  any  matters  to  tranfacl  with  the  douwan, 
ihey  mull  flaiid  without,  let  tlie  weather  be  ever  fo 
bad;  and  there  they  are  commonly prcfcnted  with  c«/- 
fee  by  fomc  of  the  interior  officers,  till  they  are  dil- 
.       iniflcd. 
DIvlQon  of     The  kingdom  of  Algiers  is  at  prefent  divided  into 
three  provinces  or  diflridts,  viz.  the  caftcrn,  wellcrn, 
andfouthern.  The  caftcrn,  or  Levantine  wovernracnt, 
which  is  by  far  the  nioft  conliderablc  of  the  three,  and 
is  alfocalledjB?)//cif,containsihc  towns  of  Boano,Con- 
Aantina,  Gigcri,  Bujeyah,  Stcifa,  Tcbef,  Zanioiira, 
Bifcara,  and  Necanz,  in  all  which  the  Turks  have 
their  garrifons  :  befides  which,  it  includes  the  two  an- 
cient kingdoms  of  Cuco  and  Labcz,  though  indepen- 
dent of  the  Algerinc  government,  to  whofe  forcas 
their  country  is  inaccclUble  ;  fo  that  they  ftill  live  un- 
der their  own  cheyks  chofcn  by  each  of  their  adowars 
or  hords.     To  thefe  we  may  add  a  French  failory  at 
Cailo,  under  the  direftionofthe  company  of  the  French 
BaAion. — The  wcftern  government  hath  the  towns  of 
Oran,  Trcmecen,  Moflagan,  Tcnez,  and    SccrcUy 
with  its  caftle  and  garrifon. — The  fouthcra  govern- 
ment hath  neither  town,  village,  nor  even  a  houic, 
all  the  inhabitants  living  in  tents,  which  obliges  the 
dey  and  his  forces  to  be  always  encamped. 

The  moft  confiderable  rivers  of  Algiers  are  the  Zha, 
or  Ziz,  which  runs  acrofs  the  province  of  Trcnicccn, 
and  the  dcfert  of  Anguid,  falling  into  the  Mediterra- 
nean near  the  townof  Tabccrita,v.'hcre  it  hastlic  name 
of  Strut.  (2.)  The  Haregol,  fuppofcd  the  Sign  of  Pto- 
lemy, comes  dov/n  from  the  great  Atlas,  crofles  the 
dcfart  of  Anguid,  and  falls  into  the  fea,  about  five 
leagues  from  Oran.  {3.)  The  Mina,  fuppafed  the  C^_;- 
Unuitii  of  Ptolemy,  a  large  river,  which  runs  through 
the  plains  of  Bathala,  and  falls  into  the  fea  near  the 
town  of  Arzcw.  Tliis  river  hath  lately  received  the 
name  of  Cena,  who  rebuilt  the  town  of  Bathalah  af- 
ter it  had  been  deftroyed.  (4.)  The  Shclif,  Zilef,  or 
Zilif,  dffccndiiig  from  the  mount  Gnancxen's,  runs 
through  fomc  great  dcfarts,  the  lake  Titteri,  the  fron- 
tiers of  Trcnitccn  and  Tenez,  falling  into  the  fea  a 
little  above  the  city  of  Mollagan.  (5.)  The  Celcf, 
fuppofcd  to  be  ihc  Carthena  of  the  ancirnts,  falls  into 
the  fea  al>oiit  three  leagues  well  of  Algiers,  after  a 
Jhort  courfe  of  18  or  20  leagues.  (6.)  Tlic  Hued-al- 
quivir,  fuppofcd  to  he  the  Nalahata,  or  Najaha,  of  the 
ancients,  and  culled  by  ihe  Europeans  Zitiganir,  runs 
down  with  a  fwifi  courfe,  through  fomc  high  moun- 
tains of  Cuco,  and  falls  into  the  fta  near  Bujeyah. 
Harbour  of  "^^''"Ift 'lie  city  of  Bujcvali  was  in  the  haiid^  of  the 
Uujcyah  Chriftians,  the  mouth  01  tiiis  river  was  fo  thojkcd  up 
will)  fand,  llial  no  vefftl  could  come  up  into  11 :  but  i;i 
1555>  very  foon  after  it  was  taken  by  the  Moors,  the 
great  rains  fwellcd  it  to  fuch  a  degree,  that  all  the  fand 
and  mud  was  carried  off  ;  fo  that  galleys,  and  other 
veflcls,  have  ever  fincc  entered  it  with  cafc.v.liert  they 
lie  fiiff  from  florms,and  all  winds, but  that  which  blows 
from  the  north.  (7.)  .Suf-Gemar,  or  Suf-Ginimar  al 
Rumnicl,  fuj'pofed  to  be  the  v^w/v/a^a  of  l'tokmy,haih 
its  fourcc  on  mount  Auras,  on  the  confines  of  rttlas  ; 
thence  runs  through  Tome  barren  plains,  and  the  fri;it- 
ful  ones  of  Conftantina.  where  its  ftrcam  is  greatly 
increafcdby  fomc  other  rivers  it  receives  ;  from  tlicnce 
running  northward,  along  the  ridges  of  fomc  liii'h 
mouTitains,  it  falls  icto  the  fea  a  liiiic  caft  of  Gijci  i. 


57 


cleared  by 
accident. 


^8.)  The  Ladag,  or  Ludeg,  runs  down  frem  mount    Algi'erf. 

Atlas  through  part  of  ConUantina,  and  falls  into  the  ^ ^" — 

fea  a  little  eaftward  of  Bona.  (9.)  Guadi,  or  Gaudcl 
Barbar,  fprings  from  the  head  of  Orbus,  or  Urbs,  in 
Tripoli,  runs  through  Bujeyah,  and  falls  into  the  fea 


near  Tabarea. 


J8 


Bcfides  thefe  there  are  many  others  of  lefs  note  ;  of  Account  of 
which,  however,  we  do  not  find  that  the  Algerines  a-  ihecoifjirt, 
vail  themfclves  as  they  might  do,  their  genius  leading  C'^imcr". 
them  too  much  to  the  piratical  trade  to  mind  any  real 
ad\  antagc  that  might  be  derived  from  their  own  coun- 
try. The  corfairs,  or  pirates,  form  each  a  fmall  re- 
public, of  which  the  rais  or  captain  is  the  fuj)rerae 
balhaw  ;  who,  with  the  officers  under  him,  forma  kind 
of  douwan,  in  which  nvtry  matter  relating  to  the  vcf- 
fcl  is  decided  in  an  arbitrary  way.  Thefe  corfiirs  arc 
chiefly  inftrumental  in  importing  whatever  commodi- 
ties arc  brought  into  the  kingdom  either  by  wsy  of 
uicrchandifc  or  j'rizes.  Thcle  con  lift  chiefly  of  gold 
and  (ilver  ftufFs,  danialks,  cloths,  fpices,  tin,  iron,  jHa- 
ted  brafs,  lead,  quick lilvcr,  cordage,  fail-cloth,  bullets, 
cochineal,  linen,  tartar,  alum,  rice,  fugaV,  foap,  cot- 
ton raw  and  fpun,  copperas,  aloes,  brazil  and  log. 
Wood,vcrmilijn,&c.  Very  fcwconimodiiies,  however, 
are  exported  fro;u  this  part  of  the  world  :  the  oil,  wax, 
hides,  pulfc,  and  corn  produced,  being  but  barely  fufri- 
cicnt  tofupply  the  country  ;  though,  before  the  lofs  of 
Oran,  the  merchanis  have  been  knownto  (hip  oft  from 
one  or  other  of  the  ports  of  Barbary  fcveral  thoufand 
tons  of  corn.  The  confumption  of  oil,  though  here  in 
great  abundance,  is  likewife  fo  conliderablc  in  this 
kingdom,  that  it  is  fcldom  permitted  to  be  fliipped  off 
for  Europe.  The  other  exports  confift  chiefly  in  oft- 
liches  feathers,  copper,  ruggs,  lilk  fallies,  embroide- 
red handkerchiefs,  dates,  and  Chriftiin  flives.  Some 
manufaiihires  in  filk,  cotton,  wool,  leather,  &c.are 
carried  on  in  this  country,  but  moftly  by  the  Spaniards 
fettled  here,  cfpecially  about  the  metropolis.  Carpets 
are  alfo  a  manufaflure  of  the  country,  which,  though 
much  inferior  to  thofe  of  Turkey,  both  in  beauty  and 
fincnefs,  are  preferred  by  the  people  10  lie  upon,  on 
accountof  their  briii?  both  chca|>cr  and  fofter.  There 
Were  alio,  at  Al,;icrs,  looms  for  volvct,  ufuiies,  and 
other  wrought  lilks  ;  and  a  co.->rfe  fort  of  linen  is  liiic- 
wife  made  in  moft  parts  of  tjie  kingdom.  The  country 
furniflics  no  materials  for  (hip-building.  Tliey  h.ivc 
neither  ropes,  tar,  fail.';,  anchors,  nor  even  iron. 
When  they  can  procure  enough  of  new  wood  to  form 
the  main  timbers  of  a  fliip,  they  f  ipply  the  rrft  from 
the  materials  of  prizes  which  iltey  have  m^de  ;  and 
thus  find  the  fecret  of  projucini'  new  and  fwifi  fail- 
ing vcUlIs  from  the  ruins  of  tiie  nid.  Of  all  the  ftaics 
oil  the  coall  of  Barbary,  the  Algerines  are  the  ftrong- 
clt  St  fea. 

The  inhabitants  along  the  fra-coafts  are  a  mixture  .  ,  ^f 
o(  ilifFercnt  nations  ;  but  chiefly  Moors  and  Morefcos 
driven  out  of  Catalonia,  Arragon,  and  other  parts  of 
Sp-iin.  llcie  arc  alfo  great  numbers  of 'lurks,  who 
conic  from  the  Levant  lofcek  thtsir  fo'cune  ;  cs  well  as 
multitudes  of  j(  ws  and  Chrifijaus  takea'at  fea,  who 
nrc  brought  liiiher  to  be  (old  for  llavcs.  The  Hc.-e- 
bcrs  are  ("onic  of  the  moft  ancient  inh.;lJr.4Ltt  oi'  the 
country  ;  and  are  fuppofei  to  be  derccticcd  froi;!  the 
ancient  Subeans,  who  came  hi:::cr  from  Arabia  ftlix, 
under  '.he  condnfl  of  one  o;  iJ.iir  prir.ees.  0:l)crs  bc- 


58 


A  L  G 


I     454     ] 


A  L  G 


A'-Kirri.    lifvf  ihcm  10  be  fomeofthc'Canaaniccs  driven  out  of 

^ ■  I'alclHiic  by  Jolluia.  'J'liefe  arc  difperlcJ  uUovcr  Bar- 

baiy,  and  divulcJinio  a  multitude  of  tribes  under  their 
rt.pcdivt  rliicfs:  molt  of  them  inhabit  the  moantaiiious 
parts,  fonic  range  from  place  lo  place,  and  live  in  iciits, 
or  portable  huts,  oihcrsin  fcutiere.l  villagcsahiy  liavc, 
nevcrthcicl's,  kept  thenilelvesfor  the  inoft  part  trom 
intermixing  with  other  nations.  The  Bcrcbcrs  arc 
reckoned  the  richcllof  all,  go  belter  cloatheJ,  and  car- 
ry on  a  much  larger  tralHc  of  cattle,  bides,  \\  ax,  ho- 
ney, iron,  and  other  commodities.  They  have  alfofomc 
artitictrs  in  iron,  andfonie  nianufadurers  in  the  wca- 

*  ving  branch. — The  name  oi  Binbir  n  fuppofed  to 

have  been  oiiginally  given  tliem  on  account  of  their 
being  firfl  fettled  in  fojne  defart  place.  Upon  their  in- 
creafmg  in  proccfs  of  time,  they  divided  thcmfclvcs 
into  live  tribes,  probably  on  account  of  religious  dif- 
firciiccs,  called  l\\c  Zinhagians,  Mufa7nidini ,  Zeiuti, 
Hoiires,  and  Covttres  :  and  thcfc  having  produced  600 
f.unilies,  fubdividcd  thcmfclves  into  a  great  number 

of  petty  tribes To  thcfe  we  may  add  the  Z-Moviahs, 

by  European  authors  called  Azuagms,  or  Alfagues, 
who  arc  likcwife  dilpcrfed  over  moll  parts  of  Barbary 
and  Nuniidia.  Great  numbers  of  thcfe  inhabit  the 
mountainous  parts  of  Cuco,  Labez,  &c.  leading  a  wan- 
dering paltoral  life. — But  the  moll  numerous  inhabi- 
tants arc  the  Moors  and  Arabians.  The  former  are  ve- 
ry (lout  and  warlike,  and  Ikilful  horfemcn  ;  but  fo  ad- 
dicted to  robbing,  that  one  cannot  fafcly  travel  along 
the  country  at  a  dillancc  from  the  towns  without  a 
guard,  or  at  Icall  a  marabout  or  faint  for  a  fafcguard. 
For  as  tlicy  look  upon  thcmfclves  to  be  the  original 
projirietorsof  the  country,  and  not  only  as  difpoirelfed 
by  the  rcll  of  the  inhabitants,  but  reduced  by  them  to 
the  lowcfl  flatc  of  poverty,  they  make  no  fcruple  to 
plunder  all  they  meet  by  way  of  rcpriGil.  The  inhabi- 
tants, in  general,  have  a  pretty  fair  complexion  ;  they 
.Tre  robulland  well  proportioned.  People  of  diflinflion 
wear  their  beards  ;  they  have  rich  clothes  made  of  iilk, 
embroidered  withtlowersof  gold,  and  turbans  enrich- 
ed with  jewels.  The  Turks,  who  compofe  the  milita- 
ry force,  have  great  privileges,  pay  no  taxes,  are  ne- 
verpublidy  punilii'  d,  and  rarely  in  private.  The  low- 
cfl foldicr  domineers  over  the  mod  diflinguilhed  Moors 
at  plcafurc.  If  he  finds  them  better  mounted  than  him- 
fclf,  he  exchanges  horfes  without  ceremony.  The 
Turks  alone  have  the  privilege  of  carrying  fire-arms. 
Many  good  qualities,  however,  dillinguifli  them  in 
fpite  of  this  exccfs  of  dcfpotifm.  They  never  game 
for  money,  not  even  for  trifles  ;  and  they  never  pro- 
fane the  name  of  the  Ueity.  They  foon  forget  their 
private  quarrels  ;  and  after  the  firfl  paroxyfm  of  re- 
fcnimeiu  is  over,  it  is  infamy  for  a  Turk  to  keep  in 
remembrance  the  injuries  he  has  received.  In  this  re- 
fpecil  certainly  they  are  Icfs  barbarous  than  other  na- 
tions that  boall  of  their  civilization.     See  Moors. 

ALGIERS,  a  city,  the  capit.;!  of  the  above  king- 
dom, is  probably  the  ancient  h'jfium  :  by  the  Arabians 
called  Algczair,  or  rather  Al-Jdzier,  or  Al-'Jizerjh, 
i.  e.  the  ijlaiid,  becaufe  there  was  an  idand  before  the 
city,  to  which  it  hath  been  lince  joined  by  a  niolc.  It 
is  built  on  the  declivity  of  ;i  hill  b\  the  fca-llde,  in  the 
form  of  an  amphitheatre  :  at  fea,  it  looks  like  the  top- 
fail  of  a  fllip.  The  tops  of  the  houfes  are  quite  fiat  and 
white  ;  infomucb,  that  when  it  is  firft  difcovered,  one 


would  take  it  to  be  a  place  where  they  bleach  linen.  Algiers. 
One  houfe  riles  above  anoiher  in  fuch  a  manner  that  X 
ihcy  do  not  hinder  each  other's  profpedl.  The  llreeis 
areio  narrow,  that  they  will  fcartc  admit  two  perfons 
to  walk  a-buaA,  and  the  middle  part  is  lower  than 
the  fides.  When  any  loaded  bcalls,  fuch  as  camels, 
horfes,  mules,  or  all'es,  pais  along,  you  arc  forced  to 
iland  up  dole  to  the  wall  to  let  them  pafs  by.  There 
is  but  one  broad  llreet,  which  runs  through  the  citjr 
from  call  to  welt,  in  which  arc  the  fliopsot  the  prin- 
cipal mcrchants,and  the  market  for  corn  andothcr  com- 
modities. The  lower  part  of  the  walls  of  the  city  ar<: 
of  hewn  llone,  and  the  upper  part  of  brick  :  they  arc 
30  ftct  hi;jh  on  the  land  (ide,  and  40  towards  the  fi-a  < 
the  follcs  or  ditches  are  twenty  feet  broad,  and  fcvcn 
deep.  'I'herc  is  no  fweet  water  in  the  city  ;  and  tho' 
there  isa  tankorciitern  in  every  houfe,  yet  they  often 
want  water,  becaufe  it  rains  but  feldoin  :  the  chici  I'up- 
ply  is  from  a  fpring  on  a  hill,  the  water  of  which  is 
conveyed  by  pipes  to  above  a  hundred  fountains,  at 
which  a  bowl  is  fallened  for  the  ufe  of  palfeiigcrs.  The 
common  refcrvoir  is  at  the  cndof  tJie  mole,  where  the 
Ihips  take  in  their  water.  Every  one  takes  his  turn  at 
thefe  places,  except  the  Turks,  who  are  firft,  and  the 
Jews  lafl.Thcre  are  five  gaies.which  arc  open  fromfun- 
rifing  tillfun-fctting  ;  and feven  forts,  orcallles,  with- 
out the  walls,the  grcattll  of  which  is  on  theniole  with- 
out the  gate,  all  of  which  are  well  fupplicd  with  great 
guns.  There  are  ten  large  mofques,  and  fifty  Imall 
ones  ;  three  great  coUcgesor  public  fchools,and  agreat 
number  of  petty  ones  for  children.  The  houfes  are 
fquare,and  built  of  llone  and  brick,  with  a  fquare  court 
in  the  middle,  and  galleries  all  round.  There  arc  faid 
to  be  about  100,000  inhabitants  iit  the  city,  compre- 
hending 5000  jcwiflt  families,  belidcs  Chriftians. 
There  arc  fourfundics,  or  public  inns,  fuch  as  are  in 
Turkey  ;  and  fix  cazcrnes,  or  barracks,  for  the  unmar- 
ried Turkilh  foldiers,  which  will  hold  600 each.  There 
are  no  inns  for  Chriftians  to  lodge  at  ;  but  only  a  few 
tippling  huts  kept  by  (laves,  for  the  accommodation  of 
Greeks  and  the  poorer  fart  of  travellers;,  where  any 
thing  may  be  had  for  money.  Here  arc  bagnios,  or 
public  baths,  in  the  fame  manner  as  in  Turkey,  at  a 
very  moderate  rate.  The  women  have  baths  of  their 
own,  where  the  men  dare  not  come.  Without  the  city 
there  are  a  great  number  of  fepulchres,  as  alfo  cells  or 
chapels,  dedicated  to  marabouts,  or  reputed  faints, 
whichthewomen goto vilit  every  Friday.  ThcTurkilh 
foldiers  are  great  tyrants  ;  for  theynotonly  turn  others 
out  of  the  way  in  the  (Ircets,  but  will  go  to  the  farm- 
houfes  in  the  country  for  twenty  days  together,  living 
on  free  quarters,  and  making  ufe  of  every  thing,  not 
excepting  the  women.TheAlgerinescai,as  in  Turkey, 
fitting  crofs-legged  round  a  table  about  four  inches  high, 
and  ufe  neither  knives  nor  fork  ;  before  they  begin,  c- 
very  one  fays  Be  ijmc  Allah,  "  in  the  name  of  God." 
When  they  have  done,  a  Have  pours  water  on  all  their 
hands  as  they  fit,  and  then  they  walli  their  mouths. 
Their  drink  is  water,  Iherbet,  and  coffee.  Wine  is  not 
allowed,  though  drank  immoderately  by  Ibme.  The  pro- 
fpef;  ofthe  country  and  fea  from  Algiers  is  very  beau- 
tiful, being  built  on  the  declivity  of  a  mountain  :  but 
the  city,  though  for  fcveral  ages  it  has  braved  fome  of 
the  rrtateft  powers  in  Chritlciidom,  itisfai;!,  could 
make  but  a  faint  defence  againft  a  regular  liege  ;  and 

that 


A  L  G 


[     455     ] 


A  L  H 


Algol,      (hat  three  Eiiglifli  fiuy-gun  ihips  might  baitcrit  about 
Algon-juins  the  cars  of  its  imubitaiitj  from  tii-  harbour.     Iffo, 

' -^ '  the  -Spaniards  mull  have  been  very  deficient  cither  in 

courage  or  conduct.  They  attacked  it  in  the  year 
1 775,  by  land  and  by  fea,  but  were  repulfcd  with  great 
lols ;  though  they  had  near  20,OwO  foot  and  2000 
horfe,  and  47  king's  Ihips  of  dittercut  rates  and  346 
tranfports.  In  the  year  \  783  and  1 784,  they  alio  re- 
newed their  attacks  by  lea  to  deltroy  the  city  and  gal- 
leys ;  but,  alter  fpcndiug  a  quantity  of  ammunition, 
bombs,  6cc.  were  torctd  to  retire  without  cither  its 
capture  or  cxiiuttion.  The  mole  of  tlie  harbour  is 
500  paces  in  length,  extending  from  the  continent  to 
a  im;ill  iilaud  where  there  is  a  calUc  and  large  battery. 
E.  Long.  3,  30.  N.  Lat.  36.  40. 

ALCjOL,  a  fixed  liar  of  the  third  magnitude,  call- 
ed Midufa's  head,  in  the  conltellation  Pcrfeus  ;  its 
longitude  is  21''  50'  42"  of  raurus,  and  its  latitude 
238  23'  47"  north  j  according  to  Klanulead's  cata- 
logue. For  an  account  of  its  changes,  period,  and  o- 
ther  circumflances,  fee  Astronomy  (Indi^x.) 

ALGONQUINS,  a  nation  in  North  America,  who 
formerly  poilelFcd  great  trads  of  land  along  the  north 
fliore  of  the  river  St  Lawrance.  For  a  lOng  time  they 
had  no  rivals  as  hunters  and  warriors,  and  w«re  long 
in  alliance  with  the  Iroquois  ;  whom  they  agreed  to 
protect  from  all  invaders,  and  to  let  them  have  a  (hare 
of  their  venifon.  The  Iroqiiois,on  theotjjer  hand,  were 
to  pay  a  tribute  to  their  allies,  out  of  the  culture  of  the 
earth  ;  and  to  perform  for  there  all  the  menial  duties, 
fuch  as  flaying  the  game,  curing  the  fleih,  and  dreliing 
the  Ikius.  Bydcgrces,  however,  tlic  Iroquois alTociated 
in  the  hunting  matchcsand  warlike  expeditions  of  the 
Algonquius  ;  fo  that  they  foon  began  to  fancy  them- 
felvesaswell  qualified,  either  for  war  or  huniii.g,  as 
their  neighbours.  One  winter,  a  large  detachment  of 
both  nations  having  gone  out  a-hunti;ig,and  (ecured,as 
they  thought,  a  vait  quan  iiyofgame,  fix  young  Al- 
go  :quinsand  as  many  Iroquois  were  lent  out  to  begin 
the  Uaughter.  The  Algouq-iini,  probably  became  a 
little  jealousof  their  alTociatrs,  upon  fteiag  a  few  elks, 
defiled  the  Iroquois  to  return  on  pretence  that  they 
would  have  futlicient  employment  in  liaying  the  game 
they  Ihould  kill;  but  after  three  Jays  hunting,  having 
killed  none,  the  Iroquois  exulted,  and  in  a  day  or  two 
privately  fct  out  to  hunt  for  ihcnifelves.  The  Algon- 
quius were  fo  exafperated  at  feein^  their  rivals  return 
laden  with  game,  that  the)  murdered  all  tlie  hunters 
in  the  night-time.  The  Iroquois  diifembled  their  re- 
fcntment ;  but  in  order  to  be  revenged,  applied  theni- 
fclves  to  fiudy  the  art  of  war  as  pradifed  among  thofe 
favage  nations.  Being  afraid  of  engaging  with  the 
Algouquins  at  firll,  thev  iricd  their  prowefs  on  other 
inferior  nations,  and,  when  they  thought  thenifclves 
fuliiciently  expert,  attacked  the  Algonquins  with  fuch 
diabolical  fury,  aslhowed  they  could  be  fatisned  with 
nothing  lefs  than  the  extermination  oi  the  whole  race; 
which,  had  it  not  been  for  the  interpolition  of  the 
French,  they  would  have  accompliflied — The  few  Al- 
gonquin nations  that  are  now  to  be  feen.  feem  entirely 
ignorant  of  a:>;ritulture,  and  fubiirtby  filhingaud  hunt- 
ing. They  allow  themfelves  a  plurality  .of  wives  .  n  it- 
withftandingwhich,theydailyi!ecreaft  in  populoufnefs, 
few  or  none  of  their  nations  containing  above  6000 
fouls^  and  many  of  them  uoi  2000.  Their  language  is 


one  of  the  three  radical  ones  in  North  America,  being      Algor 
underflood  from  the  river  St  Lawrance  to  the  Miliif-         I 
fippi.  Alhambra. 

ALGOR,  with  phyficians,  an  unufaal  coldncfs  in         '      ' 

any  part  of  the   body. 

ALoORITHM,  an  Arabic  word  exprelllve  of  nu- 
merical computation. 

ALGUAZIL,  in  the  Spanifli  polity,  an  ofEcer 
whofe  bufinels  it  is  to  fee  the  decrees  of  a  judge  exe- 
cuted. 

ALHAGI,  in  botany,  the  trivial  name  of  a  fpecies 
of  hedyfarum.     See  Hedysarum. 

ALHAMA,  a  very  pleafant  lown  of  the  kingdom 
of  Granada,  in  Spain,  lituatcd  in  the  midll  of  fome 
craggy  mountains,  about  2J  miles  S.  W.  of  Granaila, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Frio,  in  W.  Long.  i.  jo. 
N.  Lat.  36.  J9.  and  having  the  finefl  w^rm  baths  in 
all  Spain.  It  was  taken  from  the  iVIoors  in  1481. — 
The  inhabitants,  though  furprifcd,  and  the  town  with- 
out a  garrifon,  made  a  gallant  defence:  but  being  at 
length  forced  to  fubmit,  the  place  was  aba.idoned  to 
the  pillage  of  the  Lhriftian  foldiers  ;  who,  not  fatisficd 
with  an  immenfe  quantity  of  gold  and  jewels,  made 
llavesof  upwards  of  3000  of  the  inhabitants. 

ALH.'^MBRA,  the  ancient  fortrel's  and  refidencc 
of  the  Mooriih  monarchs  of  Granada.  It  derives  its 
name  from  the  red  colourof  the  materials  which  it  was 
origi'ia:ly  built  with,  Alhambra  lignifying  a  red  hoiife. 
It  appears  to  a  traveller  a  huge  heap  of  as  ugly  build- 
ings as  can  well  be  feen,  all  huddled  together,  fcem- 
ingly  without  the  lead  intention  of  forming  orn  habi- 
tation out  of  them.  The  walls  are  entirely  unorna- 
mented,  all  gravel  and  pebbles,  daubed  over  with  pla- 
llcr  by  a  very  courfe  hand  :  yet  this  is  the  p^ilace  of 
the  Mooriih  kings  of  Granada,  indifputably  the  mofl 
curious  place  within  that  exifls  in  Spain,  perhaps  ia 
the  world.  In  many  countries  may  be  feen  excellent 
modern  as  well  as  ancient  architecture,  both  entire  and 
in  ruins;  but  nothing  to  be  met  with  any  where  elfc 
can  convey  an  idea  of  this  edincc,  except  the  decora- 
tions of  an  opera,  or  tlie  talcs  of  the  genii. 

Palling  round  the  corner  of  the  emperor's  palace, 
one  is  admitted  at  a  plain  unornamentcd  door  in  a  cor- 
ner. On  my  firft  vilit,  fays  Mr  Swinburne,  I  conicfs  Tr^.!.'i  i.^ 
I  w-as  ftruck  with  amazement,  as  1  rtept  over  the  Sfjia. 
threlliold,  to  find  myfclf  on  a  fudJen  iranfported  into 
a  fpecies  of  fairy  land.'  The  firll  place  you  come  to 
is  the  court  called  the  commu/ja  or  J^I  mcyhcar,  th^t  is 
the  ct!/i:uo>i  baths  ,  an  oblong  fquarc,  with  a  deep  ba- 
fon  of  clear  water  in  the  middle  ;  twoflightsof  marble 
fleps  leading  down  to  the  bottom  ;  on  each  fide  a  par- 
tc-rc  of  tiw  vc  rs,  and  a  row  of  orangc-trces.  Roun.l 
the  couic  runs  a  perillyle  paved  with  marble  ;  the 
arches  bear  upon  very  (light  pillars,  in  proportions 
and  ilyle  ditferent  from  all  the  regular  orders  of  ar- 
chitecture., i  hecieliugsaiid  walls  are  incrullated  with 
fret-work  in  llncco,  fo  minute  and  intricate,  tliat  the 
moll  pa;iciit  draughtfman  would  find  it  diiEcult  to 
followit,  unlets  be  made  himfelfmaller  of  the  gene  al 
plan.  This  would  facilitate  the  operation  exceedingly  ; 
for  air  Mils  work  is  frequently  and  regularly  rcpcatcJ 
at  certain  dill.inces,  and  has  Dcen  executed  by  means 
of  fquare  mould b  applied  fuccelTivcly,  and  the  parts 
joined  togetlier  witli  (he  utnioil  nicety.  In  every  di- 
vilion  arc  Arabic  fcntcuccs  of  diflercut  lengths,  mofl 

ot 


A  L  II 


[     45<3     3 


A  L  H 


Alb»mbra.  of  ihrin  cxpreffivf  of  the  following  moaiiings  :  "Tnerc 
' — ■'  is  no  conqiicior  bill  Ood  ;"  or,  "  Obedience  and  ho- 
nour to  our  Lord  Abouabdouli."  The  ceilings  arc 
gilt  or  painted,  and  time  has  caufed  no  diminution  in 
the  frclhncfs  of  their  colours,  though  conflantly  expo- 
fed  to  the  air.  The  lower  part  of  the  Walls  is  luofaic, 
dilpolcd  in  faniartic  knots  and  fclloons.  A  work  io 
novel,  io  cxquifitcly  tinilhed,  and  fo  ditfcrent  from  all 
that  he  had  ever  fetn,  muft  attord  a  llranger  the  molt 
agreeable  fcafations  while  hctreadsthisinagic  ground. 
The  porches  at  the  ends  are  more  like  grotio-work 
than  any  thing  cU'e  to  whicli  they  can  be  compared. 
That  on  the  right  hand  opens  into  an  oftagon  vault, 
under  the  emperor's  palace,  and  forms  a  perfcdt  whif- 
pcringgallery,  meant  to  be  a  communicstion  between 
the  othcts  ol  both  houfes. 

Oppoiite  to  the  door  of  the  communa  through  which 
you  enter,  i^  another  leading  into  the   quarto  di  los 
liones,  or  apartment  of  the  lions  ;  which  is  an  oblong 
court,  100  feet  in  length  and  so  in  breadth,  environ- 
ed with  a  colonnade  7  feet  broad  on  the  iides  and  lo 
at  the  end.     Two  porticoes  or  cabinets  about  15  feet 
fquare,  projeft  into  the  court  at  the  two  extremities. 
The  fquare  is  paved  with  coloured  tiles  ;  the  colonnade 
with  white  marbl'.-.  The  wallsare  covered  five  feet  up 
from  the  ground  with  blue  and  yellow  tiles,  difpofed 
chcqucrwife.     Abov'c  and  below  is  a  border  of  fmall 
cfcutchtons,  enamelled  blue  and  gold,  with  an  Arabic 
motto  on  a  bend  ;    llgnifying,    <'  No  conqueror  but 
God."     The  columns  that  fupport  the  roofand  gal- 
lery arcof  white  marble,  very  llender,andfantaftically 
adorned.     They  are  9  feet  high,   including  bafe  and 
capital,  and  Si  inches  diameter.    They  are  very  irre- 
gularly placed  ;  fomctiaits  fingly,  at  others  in  groups 
of  three,  but  more  frequently   two  together.     The 
width  of  the  horfe-ftioe  arches  above  them  is  four  feet 
two  inches  for  the  hirge  ones,  and  three  for  the  fmaller. 
The  citling  of  the  portico  is  finilhcd  in  a  much  finer 
and  more  complicated  manner  than  that  of  the  coni- 
mana,  and  the  ftucco  laid  on  the  walls  with  inimitable 
delicacy  ;   in  the   ceiling  it   is  fo  artfully  frolled  and 
handled  as  to  exceed  belief.     The  capitals  are  of  va- 
rious dcfigns,  though  each  delign  is  repeated  fcveral 
limes  in  the  circumference  of  the  court,  but  not  the 
leall  attention  has  been  paid  to  placing  them  regularly 
or  oppofite  to  each  other.     Not  the  fmalleft  reprefcn- 
tation  of  animal  life  can  be  dilcovered  amidft  the  va- 
rieties of  foliages,  grutefques,  and  ftrange  ornaments. 
About  each  arch  is  a  large  fquare  of  arabcfqnes,  fur- 
rounded  with  a  rim  of  charatlers,  that  arc  generally 
quotations  from  the  Koran.     Over  the  pi!l.-.rs  is  ano- 
ther fquare  of  delightful  filligrcc  work.     Higher  up 
is  a  wooden  rim,  or  kind  of  cornice,  as  much  enriched 
with  carvin;;  as  the  llucco  that  covers  the  part  under- 
neath.     Over  this  projet^s  a  roof  of   red  tiles,    the 
only  thing  that  disfigures  this  beautil'ul  fqaare.    This 
ugly  covering  is  modern,  put  on  by  ordtrof  Mr  Wall, 
the  late  prime  miniller,  whoa  few  years  ago  gave  the 
Alh.-.mbra  a  thorough  repair.     In  Moorilh  times,  the 
building  was  covered  with  large  painted  and  glazed 
tiles,  of  which  feme  few  are  flill  to  be  fcen.     In  the 
centre  of  the  court  arc  twelve  ill-made  lions  muzzled, 
their  fore  parisfmooih,  their  hind  parts  rough,  which 
bearuponihcir  backs  an  enormous bafon,  outofwhich 
a  Icikr  rifts.    W  hile  the  pipes  were  kept  in  good  or- 

I 


dcr,  a  great  volume  of  water  was  thrown  jp,  that  fall- .-Mhambri, 

ing  down  into  the  bafons,    paffed  through  the  bcalls,  ^— ^^ ' 

and  ifliied  out  of  their  mouths  into  a  large  refervoir, 
where  it  communicated  by  channels  with  the  jet  d'eaus 
in  the  apartments.  This  fountain  is  of  white  marble, 
embcUiilicd  with  many  fefloons  and  .'Arabic  dillichs, 
thus  tranOated  : 

"  Sceil  thou  not  how  the  water  flows  copioufly  like 
the  Nile?" 

"  This  rcfembles  a  fea  walhing  over  its  fliores, 
threatening  (hipwreck  to  the  mariner." 

"This  water  runs  abundantly,  to  give  drink  to  the 
lions." 

"  Terrible  as  the  lion  is  our  king  in  the  day  of 
battle. 

"  The  Nile  gives  glory  to  the  king,  and  the  lofty 
mountains  proclaim  it." 

"  This  garden  is  fertile  in  delights  :  God  takes  care 
that  nonoxious  animal  (hall  approach  it." 

"  The  fair  princcfs  that  walks  in  this  garden,  co- 
vered with  pearls,  augments  its  beauty  fo  imich,  that 
thou  may'ft  doubt  whether  it  be  a  fountain  that  flows, 
or  the  tears  of  her  admirers." 

Pairing  along  the  colonnade,  and  keeping  on  the 
fouth  fide,  you  come  to  a  circular  room  ufcd  by  the 
iven  as  a  place  for  drinking  cofFce  and  forbets  in.  A 
fountain  in  the  middle  refrethcs  the  apartment  in  fum- 
mer.  The  form  of  this  hall,  the  elegance  of  its  cu- 
pola, the  cheerful  diftribution  of  light  from  above,  and 
the  exquifite  manner  in  which  the  ftucco  isdefigned, 
painted,  and  finilhed,  exceed  all  powers  of  defcription. 
Everv  tiling  in  it  infpires  the  moll  pleafing,  voluptu- 
ous ideas  ;  yet  in  this  fweet  retreat  they  pretend  that 
Abouahdoulah  alTembled  the  Abencerrages,  and  cau- 
fed  their  heads  to  be  ftruck  ofFinto  the  fountain.  Con- 
tinuing your  walk  round,  yon  arc  next  brought  to  z 
couple  of  rooms  at  the  head  of  the  court,  which  are 
fuppofed  to  have  been  tribunals,  or  audience-chambers. 
Oppofite  to  the  Sata  dc  los  Abcncerragt:  is  the  en- 
trance into  the  Terra  di  las  dos  hermaiias,  or  the  tower 
of  the  two  (illers  ;  fo  named  from  two  very  beautiful 
pieces  of  marble  laid  as  flags  in  the  pavement.  This 
gale  exceeds  all  the  reft  in  profulion  of  ornaments, 
and  in  beauty  of  profpedt  which  it  affords  through  a 
range  of  apartments,  where  a  multitude  of  arches  ter- 
minate in  a  large  window  open  to  the  country.  In  a 
gleam  of  funlhine,  the  variety  of  tints  and  lights 
thrown  upon  this  enfilade  are  uncommonly  rich.  The 
firft  hall  is  the  concert  room,  where  the  women  fat; 
the  mulicians  played  above  in  four  balconies.  In  the 
middle  is  ajet  d'eau.  The  marble  pavement  is  equal 
to  the  fincllexifling,  for  the  fizeof  the  flags  and  even- 
nefs  of  the  colour.  The  two  fifters,  which  give  name 
to  the  room,  are  liobs  that  mcafure  ij  feet  by  7^, 
without  flaw  or  ftain.  The  walls,  up  to  a  certain 
height,  are  mofaic,  and  above  are  divided  into  very 
neat  compartments  of  ftucco,  all  of  one  dcfign,  which 
isalfo  followed  in  many  of  the  adjacent  halls  and  gal- 
leries. The  ceiling  is  a  fretted  cnvc.  To  prcfervc 
this  vaulted  roof,  as  wellasfomeof  the  other  principal 
cupolas,  the  outward  walls  of  the  towers  are  raifed  10 
feet  above  the  top  of  the  dome,  and  fupport  another 
roof  over  all,  by  which  means  no  damage  can  ever  be 
caufcd  by  wet  weather  or  excelfive  heat  and  cold. 
From  this  hall  you  pafs  round  the  little  myrtle-garden 

of 


A  L  H 


I     457     ] 


A  L  I 


Al»rabr~  of  Llndaraxa,  into  an  additional  building  made  to  the 

' " '  cult  end  by  Ciiarlcs  V  .  The  rooms  arc  fmall  and  lo.v. 

His  dear  motto,  P/ui  ulna,  appears  on  every  beam. 
Tliis  leads  to  a  little  tower,  projcdling  from  the  line  of 
tlic  north  wall,  called  Ettocador,  or  the  drciling  room 
of  the  fiiltana.  It  is  a  fmall  fquare  cabinet,  in  the 
niiJdleof  anopcn  gallery,  from  which  it  receives  light 
by  a  door  and  three  windows.  The  look-out  is  charm- 
ing. In  one  corner  is  a  large  marble  rtag,  drilled  full 
of  holes,  through  which  thcfmoke  of  perfumes  afcen- 
ded  from  furnaces  below ;  aud  here  it  is  prefumed,  the 
Moorilh  queen  was  W'ont  to  lit  to  fumigate  and  fwetten 
her  pcrfon.  The  emperor  saufed  this  pretty  room  to 
he  painted  wiihrepreleutationsof  his  wars,  and  a  great 
variety  of  grotefques,  which  appear  to  be  copies,  or 
at  Icaft  imitations,  of  thofe  in  the  loggie  of  the  Vati- 
can. From  hence  you  go  throu'gh  a  long  paliagc 
to  the  hill  o(  amballadors,  which  is  magniticently  de- 
corated with  innumerable  varieties  of  mofaics,  and  the 
niottosofall  the  kings  of  Granada.  This  long  narrow 
antichambcr  opens  into  the  communa  on  the  left  hand, 
and  on  tlic  right  into  the  great  audience-hall  in  the 
towerof  Comarcs  ;  a  ivoble  apartment,  36  feet  fquare, 
36  high  up  to  the  cornice,  and  i3  from  thence  uutotije 
centre  of  the  cupola.  The  walls  on  three  fides  are  15 
feet  thick,  on  the  other  9  ;  the  lower  ringe  of  win- 
dows 13  feet  high.  The  whole  wall  is  inlaid  with 
juofaic  of  many  colours,  difpofcd  in  intricate  knots, 
flars,  and  other  figures.  In  every  part  various  Arabic 
fcntences  arc  repeated. 

Having  thus  completed  the  tower  of  the  upper  a- 
partments, which  are  upon  a  levelwith  the  oliiccs  of  the 
tjie  new  palace,  you  dcfcend  to  the  lower  rioor,  which 
conlilled  of  bedchambers  and  fummer-rooms  :  the  back 
ftairs  and  paflagcs,  that  facilitated  the  intercourfc  be- 
tween ihcm,  are  without  number.  The  mod  remark- 
able room  below  is  the  king's  bedchamber,  which 
communicated  by  means  of  a  gallery,  with  the  upper 
flory.  The  beds  were  placed  in  two  alcoves,  upon  a 
laifed  pavement  of  blue  and  white-tiles  ;  but  as  it  was 
repaired  by  Philip  V.  who  palled  fome  time  here, 
it  cannot  be  faid  how  it  may  have  been  in  former 
times.  A  fountain  played  in  the  middle,  torcfrclh 
iTic  apjriinent  in  hot  weather.  Behind  the  alcoves 
arc  fmall  doors,  that  conduct  you  to  the  royal  baths. 
Thefe  confift  of  one  fmall  cloftt  wiih  marble  ciflerns 
for  walhing  children,  two  rooms  for  grown  upperfons 
and  vaults  for  boilers  and  furnaces  that  fupplied  ihe 
batlis  v.ith  water  .ind  the  (loves  with  vapours.  The 
troughs  are  formed  of  large  ll^bs  of  white  marble;  the 
walls  are  bciutilicd  with  party  coloured  earthenware; 
light  is  admitted  by  holes  in  the  coved  ceiling. 

Hard  by  is  a  w  hifperinggallcry,  and  a  kind  of  laby- 
rinth, faid  to  have  been  made  for  the  reception  of  the 
women  and  children.  One  of  the  pail'ages  of  commu- 
nication is  fenced  off"  with  a  ilrong  iron  grate,  and 
called  the  pTifoii  cftbe Jultana;  but  it  feems  more  pro- 
bable that  it  was  put  up  to  prevent  any  body  irom 
climbing  up  into  t!ie  women's  quarter. 

Under  the  council-room  is  a  long  ilip,  called  thi 
king's  ji lids  i  and  adjoining  to  it  are  fcvcral  vaults,  faid 
to  be  the  place  ol  bjrial  of  the  royal  family.  In  the 
year  iS7-ii  fo'ir  fcpulchrcs  were  opened;  but  as  they 
contained  nothing  but  bones  ar.d  alius,  were  i:iiu:edi- 
ately  clofcd  again. 
Vei..  1. 


The  dcfcription-of  the  Alharabra  may  be  fioifiicd 
by  obfcrviug  how  admirably  every  thing  was  planned 
and  calculated  for  rendering  this  palace  the  raoll  vo- 
luptuous of  all  retirements;  what  plentiful  fupplies  of 
water  were  brought  to  refrcQi  it  iu  the  hot  months  of 
fumnier  ;  what  a  freecireulationef  air  was  contrived, 
by  the  judicious  difpoihion  of  doors  and  windows  ; 
what  fliady  gardens  of  aromatic  trees  ;  what  noble 
views  over  the  beautiful  hills  and  fertile  plains  !  No 
wonder  the  Moors  regretted  Granada  ;  no  wonder 
tlicy  flill  otf'er  up  prayers  to  God  every  Friday  for  the 
recovery  of  this  city,  which  they  elleem  a  terreftrial 
paradife.     See  Granada. 

ALI,  gives  denomination  to  a  feft,  or  divilion, 
among  the  Mahometans,  who  adhere  to  the  right  of 
fuccemon  of  Ali  the  fourth  calijjh  or  fiiccelTor  of  Ma- 
homet,and  to  the  reform  of  Muifulmanifm  introduced 
by  him.  The  fectaries  of  Ali  are  more  particularly 
called  Schiitis  ;  and  flan  J  oppofcd  to  the  Stntnitss,  or 
fed  of  Oniar,  who  adhere  to  the  law  as  left  by  Maho- 
met, Abubeker,  and  Omar.  Ali  was  eoufin  of  Maho- 
met, and  fon-in-law  of  that  prophet,  having  married 
his  daughter  Fatimah.  After  Mahomet's  death,  great 
difputesarofe  about  the  fucceiTion.  Many  ilood  for  All; 
but  Abubeker  was  preferred,  and  cleded  the  firft  kalif. 
Ali  took  his  turn,  after  the  death  of  Othraan — The 
Perilansare  the  chief  adherents  to  the  feet  of  Ali,  w  hom 
they  hold  to  havefceen  the  legitimate  fucceflbrof  Maho- 
met, and  Abubeker,  an  ufurpcr.  On  the  contray,  the 
Turks  are  of  the  fcct  of  Omar;  and  hold  Ali  in  execra- 
tion, having  raifcd  a  furious  civil  war  among  the  Muf- 
fulmans.  The  dilUnguilhing  badge  of  the  followers  of 
Ali  is  a  red  turban,  which  is  worn  by  the  Perfians,  who 
are  hence  called  in  derilion,  by  the  Turks,  Kiflbachi, 
q.  d.  nd-hiads.  Ali  is  reputed  the  author  ot  feveral 
works,  particularly  a  Ccntiloq aiura,  in  great  efteem 
among  the  Arabs  and  Pcrlians,  part  of  which  has  been 
publiihed  in  Englifli  by  Mr  Ockley. 

ALJAMEIA  is  a  name  which  the  Morifcoes  in 
Spain  give  to  the  language  of  the  Spaniards.  Among 
other  articles  agreed  on  by  the  junto,  which  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  15:6,  in  favour 
of  the  Morifcoes,  this  was  one.  That  the  Morifcoes 
Iliould  no  longer  fpeak  Algavarcia,  i.  e.  Moorilh  or 
Arabic  ;  but  iliould  fpeak  Aijamcia,  i.  e.  Spani;h,  as 
it  was  called  by  the  Moors,  and  all  their  writings  and 
contracts  ihould  be  in  that  language. 

ALIAS,  in  law,  a  fecond  or  farther  writ  iffued  from 
the  courts  of  Weltminfter,  after  a  capias,  &e.  fued 
out  with  lint  effect. 

ALIBI,  in  law,  denotes  the  abfcnce  of  the  accufed 
from  the  place  where  he  is  charged  with  having  com- 
mitted a  crime  ;  or  his  being  f^it'A^r.',  as  the  word 
imports,  at  the  time  fpecitied. 

ALICANT,  a  large  fea  port  town  in  the  province 
of  Valencia  and  territory  of  Segura.  It  is  feate.'  be- 
tween the  mountains  and  the  fea,  and  has  a  calUe 
deemed  impregnable.  The  port  is  dctended  by  three 
baftionsfuruillied  with  artillery.  Toprcvent  thcviiits 
of  the  Algcrine  pirates,  watch-towers  were  built  to 
give  notice  of  the  approach  of  an  encmy'4  lliip.  It 
was  taken  from  the  Moors  in  1264.  The  calile  was 
taken  by  the  E'lgliih  in  1 706;  and  held  out  a  fici;e  or' 
twoyearsbetore  it  was  retaken  by  thcKrcnch  and  Spa- 
niards, aadat  kit  furrendered  upon  honourable  terms, 
;M  ■■•>'■':■ 


A  L  I 


[     4S8     1 


A  L  I 


after  part  of  the  rock  was  blown  up  on  which  the 
csfllc  flool,  and  thegovcriior  killed.  The  hoafcs  arc 
high,  and  will  built ;  and  a  very  great  trade  is  carried 
oil  htic,  panic iilarly  in  uinc  and  fruit.  It  is  fcatediu 
the  Mediterranean,  on  a  bay  of  the  fame  name,  57 
miles  rorth-e.ift  ofMurcia,  and  75  fouth  of  Valencia. 
W.  Long.  o.  36.  N.  Lat.  38.  34. 

ALICrtTA,  a  mountain  of  Si  :ily,  near  the  valleys 
Mazara  and  Noto,  upon  which  was  lituaied  (at  is  gc- 
neral'v  thouj_flit)  the  fanioiis  Dcdalion,  where  the  ty- 
rant Phalaris  kept  lu;>  brazen  buil. 

Alicata,  a  town  of  Sicily,  rtniBrkablf  for  corn  and 
good  wine.  It  was  plundered  by  the  Turks  in  i  J43  ; 
and  is  fcated  on  a  fort  of  pcninfida  near  the  fea,  twcn- 
ry-t\vo  milts  S.  E.  of  Girgenti.  £.  Long.  15.  20. 
jN.  Lat.  37.  II. 

y/LJCfTTA  Chiavtys,  was  a  fort  of  vcfl  with  llceves, 
worn  by  the  Roman  boys  till  the  age  of  thirteen,  at 
wliicli  time  they  put  0:1  \.\\c  ptieuxtu. 

ALIEN,  in  law,  implies  a  perfon  born  in  a  flraagc 
country  not  within  the  king's  allci^iap.cc  ;  in  conira- 
diftinc.'ion  10  a  denizen,  or  natural  ftibjcc^.  The  wurd 
is  formed  from  the  Latin  ahui ,  •♦anoiiitr  ;"  q.  d.one 
born  in  another  country.  An  alien  is  incapable  of  in- 
heriting lands  in  Britain  till  naiiirclized  by  an  a<St  of 
parliament.     No  alien  is  iiititlcd  to  vote  at  the  elec- 
tion of  nienibcrs  of  piirliament  ;  nor  can  he  cnjuy  any 
otiicc,  or  be  returned  on  any  jury,  uulefs  where  an 
alien  is  party  in  a  caufc,  when  iheinqucft  iscoir.pofed 
of  an  equal  number  of  denizens  and  aliens.   Tlie  rca- 
I'oRS  for  eftablilhing  thefc  laws  were,  that  every  man 
is  prcfumed  to  bear  faith  and  love  10  that  prince  und 
country  where  he  recivcd  protedlion  during  his  infan- 
cy ;   and  that  one  prince  might  not  frttlc  fpies  in  ;  no- 
iher's  country  ;  but  chiclly  that  the  rents  and  revenues 
of  the  country  might  not  be  drawn  to  the  fubjecU  of 
another.  Some  have  thought  that  tiie  laws  agiinft  a- 
licns  were  introduced  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  v.  hen 
a  law  was  mxde  at  tlie  parliament  of  Walling  ford,  for 
the  expulUou  of  grangers,  in  order  to  drive  away  the 
Flemings  and  Ficards  introduced  into  the  kingdom  by 
the  wars  of  king  Stephen.  Others  have  thought  that 
the  origin  of  this  law  was  more  ancient  ;  and  that  it 
is  an  original  branch  of  the  feudal  law  :  for  by  that 
law  no  man  can  purchufe  any  lands  but  he  mufb  be  obli- 
ged to  do  fealty  to  the  lords  of  whom  the  lands  arc 
holdcn  ;  fo  that  an  alien  who  owed  a  previous  faith  to 
another  prince,  could  not  take  an  oath  of  ndelity  in 
another  fovertign's  dominions.    Among  the  Romans, 
only  the  Ci-j.s  Komani  were  cflecmed  freemen;  but 
when  their  territories  increafed,  all  the  Italians  were 
made  free,   under  the  name  of  LaUin,  tho'  tliey  had 
not  the   privilege  of  wearing  gold  rings  till  the  time 
of  Jultiiiian.     Afterwards  all  born  within  the  pale  of 
the  empire  were  confidercd  as  citizens. 

ji.it:H-Duty,z\\  impoft  laid  on  all  goods  imported 
by  aliens,  over  and  above  the  cnfloms  paid  for  fuch 
goods im}orted  by  Ameri-ans.md  on  An.erican bottoms. 
Aut^n^-Duty  in  Britianis  called />■.■///  cufloms,  and 
navigatkn-diiiy. — Kilh dried  or  faked,  and  cod-tifli  or 
herring  not  caught  in  BriiilTivelTtls  and  cured  by  llri- 
lilh,pay  a  double  alunsclhty. — On  what  footing  aliens 
)»re  permitted  to  import  foreign  connnodities  into 
Great  Britain,  fee  Duty. 

jiuc.'i-Priorics,  akind  of  inferior  monaftcrics,  for- 


merly very  numerous  in  England,  and  fo  called  from  AlJcnatmn 
their  belonging  to  foreign  abbeys.  Aliment. 

ALIENATION,  in  law,  denotes  the  aft  of  making         •'      ' 
over  a  man's  property  in  land,  tenements,  die.  to  an- 
other perfon. 

Ai.iBNATiON  in  mortmain,  is  making  over  lands, 
tenements,  &c.  to  a  body-politic,  or  to  a  religious 
hoiifc,  for  which  the  king's  lice  nee  muft  tirll  be  obtain - 
ed,  tJihcrwife  the  lands,  &c.  alienated  will  be  forfeited. 
^'ii.it.NATios  in  fee,  is  the  felling  the  fee  liniple  or" 
any  land,  or  other  incorporeal  right.     All  perfons 
W'ho  have  a  right  to  lands  may  generally  alien  them 
to  others  ;  but  fomc  alienations  are  prohibited  :   fuch 
as  alienations  by  tenants  for  life,  &c.  whereby  they  in- 
cur a  forfeiture  of  their  eftate.     By  the  flatuti;  of  Ed- 
ward I.  a  bar  was  put  to  alienations  by  what  we  call 
entails,  which  is  an  expedient  for  procuring  perpetui- 
ties in  families  ;  but  counter  expedients  were  devifed 
to  defeat  this  intent,  and  a  practice  was  introduced  of 
cutting  olt  entails  by  ■finci,  and  of  barring  remainders 
and  reverfions  by  recoveries.  The  Itatute  for  aliena- 
tions in  Henry  Vll's  tin'.e  had  a  great  etfeit  on  the 
conllitution  of  England ;  as,    among   other  regula- 
tions of  that  reign,  it  tended  10  throw  the  balance  of 
power  more  into  the  hands  of  the  people.     By  the 
flat.  12  Car.  II.  cap.  24.  fines  for  alienations  'are  ta- 
ken away.     Crown  lands  are  only  alienable  under  a 
faculty  of  perpttuiil  redemption.    The  council  of  La- 
teran,  held  in  11 23,  forbids  any  clerk  to  alienate  his 
benefice,  prebend,  or   the  lii\e.     By  thelawsof  the 
ancient  Jews,  lands  could  only  be  alienated  for  the 
fpace  of  50  years.     At  each  return  of  the  jubilee  all 
returned  again  to  the  primitive  owners,  or  their  dc- 
fcendants,  to  v.  lion!  the  lands  were  originally  allotted 
at  the  firfl  diftribiition  of  Canaan. 

y4l.lEKATi<^.\-0ipce,  is  an  office  to  which  all  writs  of 
covenants  and  cr.try,  upon  which  tines  are  Icvii'd,  and 
recoveries  fuftercd,arc  carried,  10  have  fincsfor  alie- 
nation fet  and  paid  thereon. 

/\LIMENT,  (from  alo  to  nonrifh),  implies  food 
both  folid  and  liquid  :   from  v.hich,  by  theproeefsof 
digellion,  is  prepared  a  very  mild,  fwcct,  and  whitiih 
liquor  refemblini^  milk,  and  di/linguiflied  by  the  name 
of  chyle  ;   which  being  abforbed  by  the  lafleal  veins, 
by  them  conveyed  into  the  circulation,  and  there  affi- 
milated  into  the  nature  of  blood,  aflbrds  that  fupply 
of  nutrition  which  the  continual  wafte  of  the  body  is 
found  to  require.— Next  tn  air,  food  is  the  mofb  nccef- 
fary  thing  for  the  prcftrvation  of  our  bodies:   and  as 
on  tiie  choice  thereof  our  health  gre?tly  depends,  it  is 
of  great  importance  to  undcritand  in  general,  what 
is  the  properefl  for  our  nourilhment ;  and  in  particular 
deviations  from  health,  what  is  the  befl  adapted  to  re- 
ftore  us.   Our  blood  and  juictsnaturally  incline  to  be- 
come putrid  and  acrimonious:  frefri  chyle,  duly  recei- 
ved, prevent  this  defliuO-iivc  tendency,  and  prefcrvcs 
the  in  in  that  mild  ftate  which  alone  confjfls  with  health. 
An  animal  diet  affords  themofl  of  this  bland  nutritious 
mucilage :  watery  finidsdilute  the  too  grofs  parts,  and 
carry  off  what  is  become  unfit  forufe.    It  is  only  the 
fmall  portion  of  jelly  which  is  feparatcd  from  liie  fa- 
rinaceous parts  of  vegetables,  that,  after  being  much 
elaborated,  is  converted  into  the  animal  nature  ;  yet 
the  ufe  of  vegetables  prevents  both  repletion  and  a 
too  great   tendency  to  a  putrcfcent  scrimony  of  the 

blood 


A  L  I 


[     459     ] 


A  L  I 


Aliment,    blood.     In  hot  climates,  as  well  as  againll  the  coulli- 

^ V '  tutioiial  hcdt  of  particular  pcrfoiis,  vegetables  arc  ilc- 

niandcd  in  the  krgclt  I'roponioii ;  animal  fubllanccsaf- 
ford  the  highcit  rclilh  while  our  appetite  continues  ; 
but  will  fate  the  aj)pctitc  before  the  Itoniach  is  duly  hi- 
ed. Vegeiablcs  iv.ay  be  eaten  after  either  ilelh  or 
tiih  :  few  herbs  or  Iruits  Ltiate  fo  much  as  that  the 
i'loraach  may  not  be  filled  with  them,  when  it  is  alrea- 
dy fatisfied  with  flelh  orfilh;  whence  it  may  be  ob- 
(crvcJ,  that  no  diet  which  is  very  nourilhig  can  be 
eat  tofulr.efs,  bccaufe  its  nutritious  parts  arc  oily  and 
filiating. — Health  depends  almoft  wholly  on  a  proper 
crafis  of  the  blooJ  ;  and  to  prefervc  this  a  mixtuj"e  of 
vegetables  in  finnc  degree  is  always  required,  for  a 
l"Jthiiig  is  foon  the  conftquence  of  animal  food  alone. • 
hut  acrid  habits,  tjn^  receive  from  milk  and  vegetables 
what  is  .needti'.l  for  correding  their  exceu^js  ;  but  in 
cold.pituitous,  and  nervous  habits, who  want  mofl  nou- 
riliinicnt  from  Icalt  digellion,  and  from  the  fmallell 
quantity  of  food,  animal  diet  is  to  be  ufcd  inure 
freely. 

Thus  much  btiiigofTcrtd  as  general  principles  with 
refpedt  to  tkemattcrand  quality  of  ouralinieni,  tiic  va- 
letudinarian may  cafily  regulate  his  diet  with  fome  ad- 
vantage to  hJmfclf  by  an  attention  to  the  few  enfuing 
particulars.  In  winter,  catfreely,  but  drink  fparingly: 
roail  meat  is  to  be  preferred,  and  what  is  drank  Ihould 
be  rtrongcr  than  at  other  feafons.  lufummer,  Ictthinl 
determine  the  quantity  to  be  drunk  ;  cold  llomachs  ne- 
ver require  much  :  boiled  meats  and  vegetallcs,  if  not 
otherwife  contradicted,  n-;ay  now  be  more  freely  ufcd. 
Laxhabits  require  the  winter's  diet  to  be  continued  all 
the  year,  and  rigid  ones  fnould  be  confined  to  that  of 
I'lmmer.  Kat  people  fnould  laft  at  times,  but  the  lean 
iliould  never  do  lb.  Th»fe  who  arc  troubled  with  e- 
ruft.itions  occafioncd  by  tliiir  food,  iliould  drink  but 
little,  and  ufc  fomc  unaccuflonieilcxercilc.  Thcthirfly 
Ihould  driiik  freely,  but  eat  fparingly.  In  general,  let 
moderali  n  be  obfervtd  ;  andtho'  wodinncr  hath  been 
had,  a  light  fupper  is  at  all  times  to  be  preferred.  Af- 
ter very  high-feifoned  meats,  a  glalsof  wateraciduln- 
ted  with  the  acid  tlixir  of  vitriol,  or  in  very  weak 
flomaclis  the  fweet  elixir  of  vitriol,  is  far  more  allid- 
aut  to  thi  work  of  digellion  than  the  common  method 
of  taking  brandy.    See  further  Food  and  Drikk. 

Obligaiio'i  ofAuMEST,  in  Scots  law, the  natural  obli- 
gation on  parents  to  provide  theirchildreii  with  the  ne- 
celiaries  of  life,  &c.  See  Law,  Part  III.  N°clxxiii.  4. 

^i/.wtA"T/<R;//  //fr/,5:c.wercfertaiii  children  main- 
tained and  educated  by  the  munificence  of  the  empe- 
rors, iua  fortof  public  places,  not  unlike  our  hofpitals. 
— Trajan  was  the  lirll  that  brought  up  any  of  thefe  a- 
Jn/ientary  boys.  He  was  imitated  by  .Adrian.  Anto- 
ninus Pius  did  the  fame  for  a  number  of  maids,  at 
tbc  folicitation  of  Faufiina  ;  and  hence,  in  fomc  me- 
«lalsofihatemprcfs,wereadpvELi.AE  kavstini.wae. 
— Alexander  Sevcrus  did  the  like  at  the  requcll  of 
Maminxa  ;  and  the  maids  thus  educated  were  called 
Maminaianx. 

j^uiKE.\r.4Ry  DuO  ox  Canal,  is  a  name  given  by  Dr 
Tyfon  and  f'>'.ne  others  to  that  part  of  the  body  thro' 
which  the  food  palfes,  from  its  reception  into  the 
mouth  to  its  exit  at  the  anm  ;  including  \\\cgHla,  fto- 
mach,  and  intc.lines.     See  Anatomy. 

This  dud  has  been  faid  to  be  the  true  diorafteriftic 


the  jargon  of  t'ae  fciiools)  in  pro-  Alioitcta- 

I 

AM'313. 


of  an  animal,  or  (i 

priinn  quarto  modo  ;  there  b°ing  no  animal  wi'thouit, 
and  whatever  has  it  being  properly  enough  ranged  un- 
der the  clafs  of  animals.  Plant-,  receive  their  uoi-,ri::i- 
mcnt  by  the  numerous  fibres  of  their  roots,  but  iuvc 
no  common  receptacle  for  digeiling  the  <ood  re ccivcd, 
or  for  carrying  olfthe  recrements.  But  ia  ill,  eveti 
the  lowed  degree  cv  animal  life,  we  nay  cbferve  a 
ftoniach  and  iiitcUiRcs,cven  where  we  cannot  perceive 
the  lend  formation  of  any  organ  of  the  fcnfes,  unlefs 
that  common  one  of  feeling  as  in  oy  iters.  Phil.Tra:,f. 
rv«  269,  p.  776,  fcq. 

Dr  VVallis  brings  an  argument  from  tlie  ftruSure  of 
the  alimentary  tube  in  man,  to  prove  that  he  is  nat 
naturally  carnivorous;  to  which  DrTy  foil  makes  fomc 
objections.     V.  Phil.  Tranf.  N»  169,  p.  777. 

yfuMUxr^iKr  Lav.',  Lx  alhncntaria,  was  an  old  law 
amoug  the  Komans,  v. hereby  children  were  oLligcd 
to  h'lid  fullenancc  for  tlieir-parcnts. 

ALIftlON  Y,  in  law,  implies  that  allowance  which 
a  married  woman  faes  for,  and  is  iniitkd  to,  r.pon  any 
occalional  feparaii.ui  from  her  huibaad.  Sec  Liw. 
Part  111.  N-cIx.  13. 

A LIPIL ARIL'S,  or  Anpuus,  ia  Roiran  anti- 
quity, a  fcrvant  belongingto  the  baths,  whofc  bufincfs 
It  was,  by  means  of  waxen  plafters,  and  au  inftrumcnt 
cjUcd  volj'cllu,  to  take  utf  the  hairs  from  ihearv<-pits, 
and  even  arms,  legs,  Sec.  this  being  deemed  a  point  ot 
cUanlinels. 

ALIP  ri.RlUM,  oxnTTBffOT,  in  antiquity,  a  place 
in  the  ancient  faicjtr^t,  where  the  athl-.t^  we're  anoint- 
ed before  their excrcifes. 

ALl(^UANT  PART,  in  arithmetic,  is  that  number 
which  cannot  meafureany  other  exaftly  wiiliout  fomc 
remainder  Thus  7  is  an  aliquant  part  of  16  ;  for 
twice  7  wants  two  of  16,  and  three  limes  7  exceed* 
16  by  J. 

ALI()^LJOT  TART, isthatpartofa  number  orquanii- 
ty  which  will  exactly  nicafure  it  without  any  rcmaiu- 
dcr.  Thus  2  is  an  aliquot  part  of  4;  3  of  9;  4  of  16, 
Sec. 

ALISANDLRS,  or  Alexanders,  in  botanv.  Sec 
Smvrnium. 

ALISMA,  or  Water-Plantain:  A  getiiisof  the 
polygynia  order,  belonging  to  the  hexandria  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
Sth  Older,  Tcirapetakidea-.  The  charadcrsarc  :  The 
calyx  is  a  thrce-Ieaved  ptrianthium  :  The  corolla  c!\n- 
(ifts  of  three  roundilh,  large,  rt.t,  expanding  petals  : 
T  he  flaijj'tiia  conlift  of  lix  fabulatcd  fihmcnts  Ihortcr 
than  the  corolla  ;  the  anther*  arc  roundifli  :  1\\cpif- 
t'lUum  conlifts  of  more  than  fiveocrmina  j  the  flyli  arc 
fimplc,  the  ftignuta  obiufc  :  The  pcrajvpiuvt  coiifuls 
of  comj^relled  capfulce  :  1\\t  ftcdi  arc  fmall  and  foU- 
tary.     Of  this  genus  there  are  eight 

Species,  viz.  The  plantago,  or  great  water-plaintain 
which  grows  in  all  tlic  marlliy  parts  of  a-  itain  ; 
the  ranunculoides,  or  Icilcr  water-plantain  ;  the  nataiis 
or  creeping  water-plantain  ;  the  damafonium,  or  fiar- 
hcadcd  water-plantain  ;  all  which  are  natives  of  Hri- 
lain.  The  others,  t//«.  the  fi-^-va,  cordift)li3,  fulni- 
lata,  and  parnaliifolia,  are  natives  of  America,  where 
tlicy  arc  generHlly  found  in  ilagnaiing  wstcrs.  and  o- 
ther  fwampy  places:  fo  that  it  would  be  diiiicuk  to 
prelcrvc  them  in  Britain,  for  they  will  no:  live  ia  the 

open 


M; 


A   L  K 

Alifonti*  open  uir,  and  they  require  a  bo^  to  make  them  thrive : 
I         bat  as  tliey  are  j^lants  of  no  great  beauty  or  ufc,  it  is 
AlkaU.     fcarccly  worth  while  to  cultivate  them. 

"  '  ALlbO.N'l'LA,  or  ALiiUNTiA,  (anc.  geog.)  ;  a 
river  of  Belgic  GauJ,  now  ,•/_/./-•  ;  u  hich  riling  on  the 
borders  of  Lorrain,  and  running  through  the  ducliy, 
waters  ilie  city  of  Luxemburg,  and,  fwelkd  by  other 
rivulets,  falls  into  the  bur. 

ALITKS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  dcfignation  gi- 
ven" to  fuch  birds  as  afforded  matter  of  auguries  by 
their  riight. 

ALKAD.XRII,  a  feet  among  the  Mahometans  who 
deny  any  eternal,  fixed,  divine  decrees,  and  are  af- 
r^irters  of  free  will.  The  word  is  formed  from  the 
Arabic  alkadar,  which  lignilies  "  decree."  TheAlka- 
darii  are  a  branch  of  Mota.:alit;  s,  and  ftand  oppofcd  to 
the  Algiabarii.     See  Alg  iabarii. 

ALKAHEST,  or  Alga  h  est,  in  chemiflry,  an 
nniverfal  mcnftruum  capable  of  relolvingall  bodies  in- 
to their  Hrll  prir.ciples.  Van  Hclmont  pretended  he 
was  polTelicd  of  fuch  a  men/lnuim  ;  but,  liowevcr  cre- 
dulous people  might  be  impofed  ou  in  his  days,  the  no- 
tion is  now  become  as  ridiculous  as  the  philofopher's 
llonc,  the  ptrpetuum  mobile,  &c. — It  is  likewife  ufed 
b;  fome  authors  for  all  fixed  falts  volaiilizeid. 

ALKALI,  in  chemillry,  one  of  the  general  di- 
vilions  of  falts,  comprehending  ihat  clafs  of  chemical 
elements  which,  by  their  union  with  acids,  form /•irr- 
fed  neutrals,  in  oppoJition  to  the  falts  formed  of  acids 
with  metals  or  earths,  which  are  called  imperfeCi. 

Alkaline  falts  are  divided  into  two  kinds,  the  fixed 
and  volatile  ;  and  the  former  into  two  fpecics,  vege- 
table, and  mineral  or  fofhl.     All  of  thefc  podefs  fonic 
J         properties  in  common,  and   fomc  peculiar  to   each. 
P.'orerties  Thofe  which  they  have  in  common  are,   i.  An  acrid 
common  to  and  pungent  tafte,  which,  whenthc  falts  are  verypure 
all  the  al-    and  ftrong,  degenerates  into  abfolutc  caHfticity,   and 
kalinefalti.  ^voQid  ejitirely  dcftroy  the  organ  of  fenfation  if  long 
applied  to  it.  2.  A  tendency  to  dilfolve  animal  fubftan- 
ces,  and  reduce  them  to  a  gelatinous  fubflance,  which 
allof  them  will  do  when  very  flrong.     3.  An  attrac- 
tion fof  acids,  with  a  power  of  feparating  earths  and 
metals  from  them,  though  prcvioufly  combined  with 
the  fame.  4.  They  change  the  blue  vegetable  juices  to 
green  ;  the  green  to  yellow  ;  the  yellow  to  orange  ;  the 
orange  to  red  ;  and  the  red  to  purple.      5.  They  unite 
with  oils,  and  deftroy  or  caufc  to  fadealmoft  all  kinds 
of  colours  that  can  be  put  upon  cloth,  whence  their 
ufe  in  bleaching,  &c. 

The  properties  common  to  both  kinds  of  fixed  alk.i- 
tommon  to  lis  are,  i.  They  relifl  the  aflion  of  fire  to  a  great  de- 
thc  two  gree,  fo  that  they  can  calily  be  reduced  to  a  folid  form 
by  evaporating  any  liquid  in  which  they  happen  to  be 
dillolvcd.  2.  By  an  intenfe  fire,  they  flow  into  a  liquid 
which  concretes  into  an  hard  and  folid  mafs  in  the  cold, 
g. When  mixed  in  certain  proportions  with  thofe  earths 
or  flones  called  vitrifiable,  they  melt,  in  a  heat  Hill 
more  intenfe,  into  glafs.  5.  Mi.xed  with  anunoniacal 
falts,  with  animal  fubftances,  or  with  foot,  they  extri- 
cate a  volatile  alkali. 

The  volatile  alkali  differs  from  the  other  two  in  be- 
ing unable  to  redft  the  fire,  and  being  entirely  rcfol- 
vable  into  an  invifible  and  permanently  elaftic  fluid, 
called  by  Dr  Prieflley  alkaline  air.  In  confequence  of 
this  volatility,  it  always  affeils  the  olfaftory  nerves 


1 
Propenies 


fixed  al' 
kalis. 


Of  the  vo- 
latile al- 
kali. 


460     ]  A   L  K 

very  perceptibly,  .and  its  fmcll  is  the  general  criterion 
by  w  lijch  its  Arcngih  may  be  judged  of.  Its  attra^lion 
for  acids,  power  of  changing  colours,  &e.  arc  alfo  con- 
Itderably  weaker  tlian  thoi^c  of  the  fixed  alkalis. 

'1  hough  two  forts  of  voLtile  alkali  are  commonly 
fold  under  the  names  of  fpirits  of  h  irtiliorn  and  of  fal 
ammoniac,  the  one  differs  from  the  other  only  in  its 
degree  of  purity.  The  former  is  fo  called  from  its  being 
originally  made  from  the  horns  of  deer  ;  but  this  ma- 
terial has  long  been  laid  alide,  and  the  bones  of  hor- 
fcs,  the/;'//j,  as  they  are  called,  of  the  horns  of  cat- 
tle, the  parings  of  hoofs,  &c.  have  been  fubftituicH  in 
their  (lead.  This  kind,  however  carefully  prepared 
always  contains  a  portion  of  animal  oil,  the  fniell  of 
which  is  very  perceptible  ;  the  other,  prepared  from 
pure  fal  ammoniac,  is  totally  free  of  any  empyrcunia- 
tic  fmell,  and  is  as  pure  as  it  cin  be  obtained  by  any 
means  whatever. 

Etfervefcence  with  acids  was  formerly  fuppofed  to 
be  a  dillinguiiliing  property  of  alkalis,  though  it  was 
always  known  that  by  a  mixture  with  quicklime  they 
might  be  dejirived  of  this  property.  Dr  Black,  how- 
ever, has  fhown,  that  the  effcrvefcing  with  acids  is  no 
property  of  pure  alkali,  but  is  occalioned  only  by  the 
cfcape  of  fixed  air  from  it  :  of  confequence,  when 
quicklime  is  added,  which  attracts  the  whole  or  great- 
cfl  part  of  the  fixed  air,  no  ctfervefcence  can  be  per- 
ceived. In  the  ftate  in  which  the  fixed  alkalis  arc 
commonly  met  with,  indeed,  eftervefcence  with  acids 
may  be  faidtobc  an  efTeniial  property  ;  but  this  is  en- 
tirely owingto  the  caufe  ju.Q;  mentioned,  viz.  a  quan- 
tity of  fixed  air,  to  which  they  are  united  during  the 
proccfs  by  which  they  were  originally  formed.  Th"; 
quantity  of  this  air,  however,  is  never  fo  great  as  to 
faturaie  them  entirely  ;  on  the  contrary,  their  alkaline 
properties  are  always  very  perceptible,  and  they  arc 
commonly  faid  to  be  in  a  Ji/ild  Hate.  But  the  truth 
is,  that  now  they  are  in  a  kind  of  intermediate  flate 
between  what  may  be  called  perfeclly  mild  and  per- 
fe<5fly  cauftic.  In  their  perfcftly  mild  Hate,  they  are 
united  with  fuch  a  large  quantity  of  fixed  air  as  en- 
tirely overpowers  theiralkaline  properties  ;  and  there- 
fore they  arc  no  more  entitled  to  the  name  of  alkalis 
in  this  flate,  than  when  combined  with  the  marine,  ni- 
trous,  or  any  other  acid  ;  in  which  cafe  the  compounds 
are  called  neutral  falts.  But  it  is  a  much  more  labo- 
rious and  tedious  procefs  to  faturate  an  alkali  com- 
pletely with  fixed  air  than  with  any  other  acid  ;  nor 
does  it  very  eafily  retain  the  aerial  acid  after  it  has 
once  been  combined  with  it.  Hence  the  caullic  taftc 
and  properties  of  t!;  c  alkali  almoft  always  predominate, 
and  thefalt  contains  a  poriion  of  pure  and  cauftic  alka- 
li, to  which  alone  its  virtues  are  to  be  afcribed. 

Vegetable  alkali  is  obtained  in  its  greateft  purity  by 
deflagrating  nitre  with  charcoal,  provided  we  make  ufc 
of  no  more  of  the  latter  t  h  an -is  barely  fufficient  10  de- 
ftroy the  nitrous  acid.  It  is,  however,  a  very  dilhcult 
matter  to  adjull  this  proportion  with  fu/Ticient  ac- 
curacy ;  for  if  we  employ  too  mucli  charcoal,  the  fait 
will  be  conlidcrably  phlogiflicated  ;  if  toolittle,  fomc 
part  of  the  nitre  will  remain  iindecompofed.  Burnt 
tartar  therefore,  purified  by  folution  and  filtration,  may 
be  looked  upon  as  the  heft  alkali  we  have.  The  com- 
mon alkalis,  or  ajhcs  as  they  are  called,  and  faid  to  be 
obtained  from  the  afhes  of  vegetables,  arc  always  mix- 
ed 


Alkali. 


4 
Effervef- 
Cciicc  witli 
acids  not  a 
charafieri- 
ftic  of  al- 
kali. 


J 
Prepara- 
tion uf  the 
vegetable 
alkali. 


A  L  K 


[     461     ] 


A  L    K 


filkali.    e<\  with  much  plilogifton,  and  fonietimcs  with  lime, 

" •' —   fait,  croilier  heterogeneous  matters  J  for  which  rca- 

foii  they  arc  not  to  be  employed  in  the  nicer  chemi- 
cal experiments,  without  being  purified  by  fohiiionin 
water,  by  h'ltration,  and  cryltailizatioii.  The  purefl 
of  all  thcfe  falts  is  that  called  :he  blue  fearl,  impor- 
6  ted  from  Hungary. 
Ittpeculii>r  The  vegetable  alkali  when  thus  purified,  and  con- 
propcttica.  taining  near  one  half  its  weight  of  fixed  air,  is  of  a 
w  hire  colo\Tr  when  dry,  with  a  very  hot  and  caultic 
taftc,  polTclIi'.igin  an  eminent  degree  all  tliofe  q;jalitics 
which  have  been  afcribcd  to  the  alkaline  falts  in  ge- 
neral, it  T.v^i^pir  dciiquium  when  expofed  to  the  air  ; 
and  is  nfiially  incapable  of  being  eryftallizcd,  though 
i:  acq'jircs  this  property  after  being  employed  in  the 
reftirication  of  ardent  fpirit.  It  adheres  more  clofc- 
ly  to  acids  than  any  fubflancc  hitherto  difcovered  ; 
thougli.tVom  fome  experiments, Bergman  was  induced 
to  believe  that  pure  terra  ponderofa  attracted  acids  ftill 
more  powerfully.  But  this  has  been  difcovered  to  be 
a  niirtake  by  Dr  Withering,  who,  in  a  paper  publilhcd 
in  the  74th  volume  of  the  Philofjphical  Tranfitlions, 
Ihows,  that  iinlcfs  w  iiere  the  earth  is  united  with  vi- 
triolic acid,  not  only  the  vegetable,  the  foflil,  but  even 
the  volatile  alkali  in  its  pure  or  cauftic  ftate,  will  fepa- 
rute  it  from  any  other  with  w"hich  it  may  be  combined. 
Terra  ponderofa,  tlierefore,  will  always  deconipofc  vi- 
triolated  tartar,  Glauber's  fait,  or  vitriolic  ammoniac  ; 
whence  the  mirtake  of  this  celebrated  cheniifl  probably 
has  proceeded.  After  this  alkali  has  been  once  united 
with  marine  acid,  it  appears  to  have  undergone  fomc 
change;  for  the  fait  then  produced,  by  combining  it 
with  the  vitriolic  acid,  refembles  Glauber's  fait  almoft 
as  much  as  it  does  vitriolaied  tartar,  it  feenis  there- 
fore to  have  made  fome  approach  towards  the  nature 
of  fofni  alkali  ;  but  chemifls  have  not  inquired  what 
would  be  the  eonfequence  of  repeated  combinations  of 
■)  this  kind. 
Of  the  fof-  The  follil  alkali  differs  from  the  vegetable  in  having 
CJ alkali,  a  fmaller  attraflioii  for  acids,  in  being  nioreeafily  fu- 
fible  by  itfelf.  and  forminr^  a  more  foluble  compound 
with  the  vitriolic  acid.  It  is  alfo  eafily  cryftallizable, 
even  without  the  addition  of  more  fixed  air  than  it 
naturally  contains  :  and  experience  has  determined  it 
to  be  more  proper  for  glafs  or  foap  maiiufadures  than 
the  vegetable  alkali ;  for  which  reafon  the  demand  for 
g  it  is  very  conliderable. 
This  alkali  The  folTil  alkali  was  anciently  called  »<j//on  or  <;.'/'■■", 
and  is  fpoken  of  by  Pliny  and  Tacitus  as  an  ingredi- 
ent in  glafs,  &c.  and  the  fcriptures  inform  us  that  ir 
was  ufed  in  baths.  The  knowledge  of  this  fait  was 
lofl  in  the  general  obfcuration  of  fcicrce  which  took 
place  on  the  decline  of  the  Roman  em  ire  ;  nor  do  we 
find  it  mentioned  till  the  time  of 'he  Hon.  Robert 
Boyle  ;  and,  even  fincc  that  time,  though  M.  d'l  Ha- 
niel  gave  an  accurate  account  of  it  in  a  memoir  for 
the  year  1 736,  little  farther  notice  was  taken  of  it  till 
very  lately. 

We  are  no^v  certainly  informed  that  the  foffil  alkali 
is  found  native  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  which  ne- 
ny  partj  of  y^ ^  jj  (^j  ^3(j  ^^  j(],  (1,^  vegetable  alkali.  The  places 
the  wuild.  where  it  ab^inHs  moll  are,  Egypt,  the  country  of  Tri- 
poli in  Rai'biry,  the  peak  of  TeneritFc  in  one  of  the 
C  mry  iflani's,  Hungary,  feveral  of  the  provinces  of 
Ruflia,  fome  parts  of  Afia,  particularly  the  neighbour- 


knuwn  to 
tho  an- 
cicuts. 


Found  na- 
tive in  ma 


hood  of  Smyrna,  &e.  though  it  has  not  hitherto  teen     Alkali, 
found  in  any  of  the  weftern  eounrrics  of  Europe,  e.\-  ^      •j—' 
ccpiing  in  the  neighbourhood  of  volcanoes,  or  in  mi- 
neral waters  ;  and  in  thcfc  laft  only  in  \zx-j  fmall  quan- 

tity-  ,  lo 

The  great  fourceof  the  mineral  alkali, however, and  ijthebsCj 
from  whence  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  places  al-  of  common 
ready  mentioned  have  been  fupplicd  by  fome  unknown  '^'t. 
natural  operation,  is  the  water  of  the  ocean.  Follil 
alkali  is  the  n.uural  bilis  of  fea-falt  ;  and  could  any 
method  of  readily  procuring  it  from  this  fait  be  fallen 
upon,  it  would  no  doubt  be  a  molt  valuable  fecret. 
Hitherto,  however,  alithc  methods  ufed  with  any  fuc- 
ccfs  by  the  c'^emills  may  be  reduced  to  two.  i.  By 
mixing  the  nitrous  acid  v.ith  fea-falt  in  a  retort,  in  the 
proportion,  according  to  Dr  Vogcl,  of  four  of  the 
acid  to  one  of  the  fait,  and  diftilling  off  the  muriatic 
acid,  or  rather  aqua  regia,  which  will  be  produced  in 
the  proccfs.  The  reliduum  will  afford  a  cubical  nitre 
by  cryllallization,  from  whence  the  alkali  may  beob'- 
tained  pure  by  deflagrating  with  charcoal.  2.  By  ad- 
dition of  vitriolic  acid  the  fpirit  of  fea-falt  will  be  ex- 
pelled much  more  eafily,  and  at  a  cheaper  rare,  than 
by  the  nitrous  acid.  The  retiduum  atfords  Glauber's 
fait  in  great  plenty  :  this  being  melted  in  a  crucible 
with  a  fufiicienc  quantity  of  charcoal-daft,  forms  a 
hcparfulphuris  ;  which  being  decompofcd  by  means  of 
i!ie  vegetable  acid,  the  Utter  may  be  deflroyed  by  force 
of  tire,  and  the  alkali  obtained  in  purity.  For  a  fur- 
ther explanation  of  both  thefc  methods,  fee  the  arti- 
cle Ch  emistrv.  Index. 

The  demand  in  England  for  foflil  alkali  is  fi;p- 
plied  from  the  afiies  of  kali  and  other  fca  plants,  from 
which  it  is  feparatcd  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  vege- 
table alkali  from  the  alhesof  other  plants.  The  pureit 
kind  of  alhes  containing  this  fait  is  called yo.-/rt  or  ba- 
rilla, and  is  imported  chietlyfrom  foreign  countries  ; 
that  which  is  obtained  from  the  lea- weed  growing  on 
their  own  coafts,  and  known  by  the  name  oi kelp,  is 
excelTively  impure,  and  fearce  admits  of  being  tho- 
roughly analyfed  according  to  the  rules  of  chemiftry.         ,j 

Both  thcfe  alkalis  may  be  deprived  of  their  fixcil  Proprrtlrs 
air,  and  thus  rendered  pure  and  cauftic,  by  the  addi-  of  Soth  fix- 
tion  of  quicklime.  In  this  ftate  the  difference  between  "1  alkalis 
them  is  much  lefs  perceptible  than  in  any  other, though  ™.''''^"  '^•"'' 
the  addition  of  fixed  air,  or  any  other  acid,  always 
Ihows  that  no  cllcnnal  change  has  taken  place  in  either. 
In  iliis  highly  cauftic  ftate  they  deftroy  the  parts  of 
animals  in  a  manner  fimilar  to  that  of  fire  :  whence 
they  are  called  potmtial  cauteries,  as  the  former  is 
called  the  afhtti  cautery.  M.  Aiorveau  informs  us, 
that  on  digcfting  a  piece  of  beef  in  a  folution  of  cau- 
ftic vegetable  alkali,  the  liquor  foon  became  red,  and 
the  flefli  affiimed  the  form  of  a  fcmitranfparent  jelly, 
in  which,  however,  one  could  ealily  perceive  the  ra- 
mifications of  the  fmalltft  fibre  ;  and,  after  (lauding 
fome  months,  it  emitted  bnt  very  little  fmell.  The 
vegetable  alkali  is  commonly  made  ul'c  of  as  the  mate- 
rial for  the  common  caoilic  or  lapis  inJ^riLiHt  of  th- 
(hops;  for  the  preparation  of  vvhich,  fceCuF.  mistrv. 
IrJex.  Both  alkalis  attrad  moifture  from  the  air  when 
reduced  to  .1  f'lid  form  in  their  cauftic  ftate,  though 
neither  the  folfil  alkali  nor  its  combinations  do  fo'in 
any  other  cafe.  In  their  cauftic  ftate  alfo  thev  only 
nniie  with  oils,  or  diirolve  in  fpirit  of  wine ;  which  lail 

they 


A  L  K 


[     462     ] 


Alkai: 


mil<l  and 

CfiuHic 

Daes. 


ihey  liAvc  been  fuppofcd  to  piiiify,  though  it  is  raoic 

" ^^ ■  than  piobi  lie  tha  tht-y  decompofe  and  commuakaic 

II  difagrtcaUle  qualiiics  to  it. 
Volatile  a^  The  volatile  alkali,  when  procured  immediately  by 
kali  in  its  the  ditUUatiou  of  any  ral.flaucc  capable  of  yitking  it, 
is  obt:;ined  in  a  (iate  fimilar  to  that  iu  which  the  alka- 
lis are  iifiially  met  with,  viz.  half  mild  and  half  can- 
flic,  by  expcling  the  liipiid  alkali  to  a  great  quantity 
of  iixcd  air,  we  may  at  ialt  have  it  periecily  mild  and 
nentraliled  ;  in  wliich  ftate  it  appears  as  a  white  fait 
extremely  volatile,  though  lefs  i"o  than  the  pure  CLiuftic 
alkali.  It  dillblvcs  very  readily  in  water  ;  but  nnlefs 
fi)nie  caullic  fpirit,  or  lonie  lime  or  fixed  alkali  he  add- 
ed, in  order  to  abltraft  part  irf  the  fixed  air,  it  will 
fearcely  exhibit  the  characterirticofvolatilealkali, viz. 
a  pungent  and  urinous  linell.  T!ie  addition  of  fixed  air, 
however,  makes  very  little  diifercncc  with  regard  to 
the  chemical  combinations  of  this  fait  ;  for  as  fixed 
;ar  has  a  very  llcndcr  power  of  acidity,  it  is  expelled 
by  every  oilier  acid  with  the  greatcft  eafe,  and  the 
fame  combinations  formed  as  though  it  had  not  been 
prefent.  The  only  difl'f  rcr.ce  is,  that  wjien  a  mild  al- 
kali is  added  to  an  acid,  a  flrong  etFcrvcfccnce  takes 
place  by  rcafon  of  the  efcapcof  the  fixed  air  through 
the  liquid,  while  with  the  cauflic  alkali  the  mixtuic  is 
made  quietly  and  without  cliflurbancc. 

The  various  combinationsof  the  alkaline  falts  with 
the  different  acids,  and  the  neutral  compounds  thence 
refulting,  arc  exhibited  in  the  following  table. 

I.  Vegetable  fixed  alkali  combined  with 


Vitriolic  acid 
Nitrous  acid 
Marine  acid 
Acetous  acid 
Acid  of  tartar 
Acid  of  borax, 
Aci 


1 


\cidofphofphnrus  C  i 
iaccharincacid,?;c.j  1 
Atrial  acid  J 


'  Vitriolatcd  tartar. 

Nitre. 

Sal  digcflivus. 

Terra  foliata  tartari. 
^  Soluble  tartar. 
I    r  Anomalous  falts,  whofe 
I   i     properties  have   not 
I    (-     been  afceriaincd. 
l_Mild  or  aerated  alkali. 


2-  Fofiil  or  mineral  fixed  alkali  combined  with 

1 


Vitriolic  acid 
Nitrous  acid 
Marine  acid 
Acetous  acid 


Acid  of  tartar 
Acid  of  borax 

Acid  of  phofp  horns, 
Saech'.rineacid.Scc. 
Aerial  acid 


J 


f  Glauber's  fait. 

Cubical  nitre. 

Common  fait. 

A  fait  refcmbling  terra 
foliata  tartari, but  w  liich 
does  not  deliquate. 

Rochelle  f^lt. 

Borax. 

\  Unknown  falts. 
Mild  foffil  alkali. 


3.  Volatile  alkali  combined  with 
Vitriolic  acid  "] 


Nitrous  acid 

Marin*  acid 
Jicetous  acid 


fVitricJlic  ammoniac,  or 

(      Glauber's  fecret  fal 

i      ammSniac. 

J^  Nitrous  ammoniac,  or 

I       volatile  nitre. 

]  Common  fal  ammoniac 

[^Spiritus  mindcreri. 


A  L  K 


Volatile  alkali  combined  with 


Alltali. 


Acid  of  tartar 


Acid  of  borax 
Acid  of  pholphorus 


1 


I         1 


Saccharine  ; 
Aerial  acid 


xid,  &c. 


f  A  fait  whofe  properties 
I      have  not  been  i:..c;li- 
1       gated  ;   which    liioots 
into  fine  long  cryitals, 
and  does  not  dtliquate 
j      ia  the  air. 
I  An  anomalous  fait. 
)  Microcofiuic  fait,   or  cf- 
I       fcntial  Ialt  uf  urine. 
(  Anomalous  falts. 

Volatile  fal  ammoniac,  or 
[_     fait  of  hartlhorn. 


13 


Befides  their  attradion  for  acids,  the  alkalis  have  Attnilioiu 
alfo  an  atti'action  for  oils,  fulphnr,  and  fpirit  of  wine,  oi  the  ai- 
in  the  nn  ill  way,  when  tTie  falts  are  deprived  of  their  k^li'  for 
fixed  air  j   and  in  this,  as  well  as  the  dry  way,   with  vmousfub. 
feveral  metals,  and  vitriiiable  earths  and  floncs,  as  has  """"•• 
been  already  mentioned. 

With  oil  t!ie  vegetable  fixed  alkali  forms  a  foap, 
though  Ids  perfect  than  tliat  made  witli  the  cauflic  mi- 
neral alkali.  When  combined  with  fi.xed  air  they 
fcarcely  unite  with  oils.  Boiled  with  f\ilphur,or  melt- 
ed with  it  in  their  dry  flate,  they  unite  into  a  very  fe- 
tid compound  ci\\cAb-:par  Jhl/'huns,  whicll  is  folnblc 
in  water,  but  totally  and  very  quickly  decompofed  by 
the  contaft  of  air.  Vegetable  alkali  unites  v,ith  iron, 
tin,  and  zinc  ;  corrodes  copper,  and  runs  with  it  into 
a  liquor  of  a  deep  blue  colour,  and  joins  with  lead  iu 
fufion.  It  docs  not  adt  upon  gold  in  its  metallic  flate  ; 
but  if  afufficient  quantity  be  added  toafmall  folution  of 
gold  iu  aqua  regia,  the  calx  of  the  metal  will  be  firH 
precipitated  and  afterwards  diflolved. 

Vegetable  alkalis  a  principal  ingredient  in  the  pow- 
ders called/c/vc/,  nfed  for  the  fuiion  of  metalline  ores. 
It  promotes  thefnlion  of  earths,  and  forms  glafs  with 
tlie  cryibilline  kind.  It  is  foluble  in  an  equal  weight 
of  diflillcd  water  J  and,  when  expofcd  to  tlieair,  it 
foor.  attracts  nioifturc  from  it  and  riows  into  a  liquid. 
In  its  cauflic  flate  it  dilfolves  in  fpirits  of  wine,  and 
forms  with  it  a  red  tinfture  called  Van  HilmonC'i 
tm&iire  oj  fait  of  tartar,  formerly  ufed  Ixnh  as  an  in- 
ternal and  external  remedy,  but  now  fallen  iniodif- 
repute. 

FofTil  alkali  in  its  eanftic  flate  unites  with  oil  into 
an  harder  foap  than  that  made  with  vegetable  alkali. 
With  fulphur  it  forms  a  heapcr  fulphuiis  iu  the  fame 
manner  as  the  vegetable  alkali,  and  yields  a  tinsJlure 
with  fpirit  of  wine,  which  ditfr.'ves  part  of  the  fait 
whilft  hot,  but  lets  it  fall  again  in  a  eryftalline  form 
when  cold.  Gold,  filvcr,  or  quicklilver,  are  not  af- 
fefted  by  a  folution  of  this  fait  ;  but  copper  and  tin 
are  dilVolved  by  it  in  the  open  air.  It  affects  tin,  lead, 
regulus  of  antimony,  and  cobalt,  (lightly;  but  aeis 
powerfually  upon  zinc,  and  forms  a  kermes  mineral 
with  crude  antimony.  Copper,  iron,  bifmuth,  zinc, 
antimony,  and  regulus  of  cobalt,  fnfed  with  two  parts 
of  folTil  alkali,  are  almofl  entirely  dilfolvcd  in  aver/ 
flrongheat;  but  tin,  lead,  and  regulus  of  antimony, 
treated  in  the  fame  manner,  only  fuller  a  partial  fuln- 
tion. 
All  the  alkalis  are  of  conliderablc  iife  in  medicine, 

thougli 


A  L  K 


[    463     ] 


A  L  K 


14 
VIcdicjl 
jrtucs  (if 


15 
)o  not  aft 
s  3utir«p- 
ics  wlicn 
akcn  into 
he  human 
JOjly. 


thongh  tlie  particular  virtues  ofvcpef-tle  and  fcilil  al- 
kali iiavf  not  hitherto  been  propel  ly  alcertaincd.  It 
h  probable,  however,  that  there  i;)iill  be  a  condder- 
ablr  diveiiity  in  their  operations  on  tiic  iiunian  body, 
as  the  vcgciable  alkali  Ihcws  iUclf  fotr.iicli  more  acrid 
and  powcikil  than  the  folUl.  As  boiU  of  them  unite 
immediately  with  acids,  and  change  liuni  inio  mild 
neutral  falts  ;  hence,  if  any  of  the  ftrong  mineral  acids 
iliould  fall  upon  any  part  of  the  human  body,  and  be- 
gin 10  corrode  and  give  pain,  the  imincdiaic  applica- 
tion of  the  lixivium  tart^ti,  or  of  a  folution  of  any  of 
thole  aUalinefaltsin  waitr,  orofiiie  fajts  ihenifclves 
in  powder,  will  deP.roy  their  caullicity,  and  prevent 
their  doing  further  mil'chief :  Or  if  any  of  thcfc  acids 
(liould  drop  on  clothes,  linen,  or  other  lubflanccs,  and 
alkaline  (alts  arc  immediately  applied,  llicy  will  neu- 
tralize l  he  acid,  and  prevent  its  fui  ibcrcurrolion  :  Or 
if  a  pcrfon  (liould,  through  miltaiic,  f\\  illow  any  other 
corroiling  fait  which  an  alkali  will  dtcompoie,  the 
taking  down  into  the  llomach  ibluticns  of  the  alkaline 
lilts,  or  the  ialts  tiicmfclves  in  proper  doles,  arc  the 
inoll  likely  mcansofallbrding  relief,  if  not  given  too 
late  (a). 

Uoili  the  vegetable  and  foflil  alkali  applied  exter- 
nally in  a  caufiic  Hate,  firll  irritate  and  inflame  the 
fkin,  and  afterwards  act  as  fire  in  mortifying  and  dc- 
fivoyingit  ;  and  therefore  liavc  been  much  uled  by  fur- 
geons  for  opening  buboes  and  other  abf.eflts,  and  f»r 
caiing  away  proud  or  fungous  flefli  that  fprouts  out 
from  fores.  Various  formul.c  of  caufiic  alkalis  have 
been  employed  forthefc  purpofes,  of  which  an  account 
is  given  under  Chemistry  and  Phar?!acy. 

The  alkaline  falls,  when  much  diluted  v.ith  water, 
have  been  ufed  as  wafhcs  for  removing  pimples  from 
the  face  ;  but  if  fucii  walhes  are  continued  long,  they 
are  apt  tofpoil  the  fkin.  The  ancients  often  ul'ed  to 
dillolve  natron  (the  foflil  alkali)  in  their  baths,  and 
tftcenied  fuch  baths  ufeful  for  removing  itchings  of 
the  (kin,  ihe  fcab,  tlic  impetigo,  leprofy,  and  almoft 
all  forisof  cutaneous  eruptions;  and  they  employed 
li.itlis  of  the  fame  kind  for  promoting  fwcat,  a,Td  for 
curing  various  diforders.  They  mixeditlikcwifcwith 
turpentrnc,  with  oils,  and  with  fluffs  of  various  kinds, 
and  rubbed  or  applied  fuch  conipolitioris  to  the  fkin, 
for  removing  different  complaints,  to  heal  fores,  to 
flrengthcn  v.-eak  orr;bxed  parts, to  deflroy  thepoifon 
of  the  bite  of  a  mad  dog,  and  of  ferpents  ;  and  they 
cflceiiud  it  as  an  amidol?  againfl  many  other  poifons. 
It  has  been  proved  that  alkaline  falts  prcf  r\  e  animal 
fubftattccs  from  putrefadion  ;  on  which  account  fome 
praftitioners  have  concluded  that  they  2(51  as  ftrong 
antifeptic  remedies  v.hcn  Iwallowed  as  medicines,  and 
arc  taken  up  by  the  ladcal  vcifcls,  and  by  them  car- 
ried to  the  fubclavian  vein  to  be  nixed  with  the  blood. 
Jixperience, however,  hasfhown  that  they  nave  cfFciJls 
dirc(ftly  opjiolite,  and  that  by  liiraulatiiig  the  vefTcls 
and ijuickcning the ci/ci!;.ition,thcy  contribute  towards 


the  difToI'.ition  of  the  vital  fluid  .-•of  which  Dr  Morro     AW-.':, 
fays  he  has  fern  fcvcral  in  fiances.  "" — ^'~~' 

/.Ikalis  promote  the  fccretions  in  general  partici* 
hrly  by  th-r  kidneys  ;  but  by  the  help  oiWanii  liquors 
and  bcd-cloihcs,  their  operation  may  be  dirccled  to- 
wards the  (kin.  They  have  alfo  been  employed  in  cafes 
of  htariburn,  and  others  whcreanacid  jirevails  in  the 
flomach  and  bowels,  or  wheie  thcfc  orpins  ire  loaded 
with  vifcid  phlegm.  Tiicy  are  likewifc  given  v^-iih  a 
view  to  aflifl  the  operation  of  tlic  bile  whe.i  ii  is  too 
weak  and  inert,  either  by  theinfelves,  or  mixed  with 
I'urgative  or  other  medicines.  'J  lie  foflil  alkali  has 
been  alleged  to  be  a  more  powerful  folvent  of  the  hu- 
man calculus  than  the  vegetable,  though  perhaps  with- 
out anyjufl  foundation.  It  is  given  from  5  to  20  grains 
three  times  a-day  ;  and  in  foinc  cafes  even  to  do  .lie 
iliat  quantity.  It  may  be  taken  in  any  conii^un  li- 
ijuor,  or  in  clear  broth  made  of  lean  meat,  from  which 
the  fat  has  been  fkimmcd  off;  or  the  powdered  filts 
may  be  nude  up  into  pills  or  bolufes  mixed  with  li- 
quorice powder,  by  means  of  mucilage  of  gnm  Arabic 
or  conferve.  ,5 

The  vegetable  alkali  has  been  long  ufed  asa  diuretic  Age  ofcoa- 
in  d.-oplics  with  great  fuccefs ;   end  i)T  Monro  informs  TiSenb\c 
us,  that  he  has  fcena  number  of  cafes  of  anafarca  in  ufcindroi'- 
which  the  water  was  «rried  off  by  it.     As  diuretics,  *"'*'■ 
it  may  be  taken  from  ten  grains  to  half  a  drachm,  or 
more,  two  or  three  times  a-day,  mixed  with  fome  di- 
flillcd  water,  fyrup,  broth,  or  water-gruel,  or  with  twu 
ouncesofwhitewine,which  partly  neutralizes  the  fait. 
When  added  to  inl'ulionsofjunipcr  berries, broom  tops, 
horfc-radiih,  muflard-feed,winter's-bark,  &c.  in  wine 
Slid  beer,    they  prove  powerful  diuretics;    and   Dr 
Monro  gives  the  following  formula. 

"  Take  broom-tops,  horfe-radilh,  and  juniper-ber- 
ries, of  each  an  ounce  J  bruife  them  in  a  flone  or  marble 
mortar;  put  them  into  a  large  wide-mouthed  bottle, 
and  add  to  them  an  ounce  of  fait  of  tartar,  and  two 
quarts  of  Rhenilh  wine.  Infufc  them  for  four  days; 
decant  oti"  the  wine,  and  filter  it  through  paper  for 
ufe.  Two  or  three  ounces  may  be  taketi  three  or  four 
times  a-day." 

Or,  "  Take  an  ounce  of  cancUa  alba,  and  as  mucU 
muflard-fced  and  juniper-berries  ;  bruife  them  wellia 
an  iron  mortar,  and  add  an  ounce  of  puriticd  vco-ctablc 
alkali  with  two  quarts  of  porter;  infufe  for  four  days, 
and  filter  the  liquor  thioogh  paper;  let  the  patient 
take  a  wine  glafs-full  every  four  or  fix  hours." 

The  diuretic  powers  of  thcfc  medicines  arc  fome- 
timcs  increafed  by  opium,  and  they  have  been  fucccfs- 
fully  joined  with  ellential  oils  and  balfams.  i^ 

The  moll  remarkable  property  of  thcfc  f;iUs,  how-  Aa  excel- 
ever,  is  that  of  diifolving  the  human  calculus;  for  the  lent fi-lveiit 
difcovery  ofwliich,  Mrs  Stephens,  in  the  year  1740,  "'''"'''"" 
obtained  a  parliamentary  reward  of  joool.     At  that 
time  Dr  jurins  being  afllided  with  the  Aone,  tried  a 
numberofexperiiMcntson  thcfc  medicines;  from  which 
he  concluded,  that  their  efficacy  depended  entirely  on 

the 


(a)  With  regard  to  the  mineral  acids,  aa  exception  fecms  totake  place  if  oil  of  vitriol  in  its  concentrated 
ft;ite  Iho'ild  happen  to  be  fwallowed  ;  for  this  contracts  fuch  a  degree  of  heat  on  the  contatt  of  any  aqueous 
fluid  as  would  deflroy  the  patient,  independent  of  another  caufc.  An  inflance  we  have  fecn  where  a  perfoii 
tinhappily  miflook  a  bottle  of  oil  of  vitriol  for  water  in  the  night-time.  He  recovered  by  fwallowing  inlhnily 
a  great  quantity  of  milk.     Ano;hcr  recovered  by  drinking  a  bottle  of  t'lorcnccoil. 


A  L  K 


[     464     ] 


A  L  K 


Alkali,    tlie  alkaline  files  and  lime  which  they  contained  :  and 

— « '  therefore  he  began  to  try  wliat  eftci5ls  a  foaplcy  would 

have  on  himfelf.  At  fiill  he  took  only  a  fc.v  dro^^s, 
but  gradually  increafcd  his  dofc  till  he  came  to  an 
ounce,  and  fomciimcs  an  ounce  and  a  hall',  in  a  proper 
vehicle,  in  24  hours.  This  produced  the  diichargc  of 
fomefniall  calculi,  and  relieved  him  of  the  fyitiptoms 
ofthellone.  Dr  Hartley,  iikcwife,  laboured  under 
this  complaint  :  and  believing  that  the  efficacy  of  Mrs 
Stephens's  medicines  depended  on  the  foap,  lime,  and 
alkaline  falts  whicli  they  contained,  ordered  a  paile  to 
beprepared  for  himfelf,  made  of  eight  ounces  of  foap, 
one  of  oy(ler-llielllinie,a  drachm  of  fait  of  tartar,  and 
as  much  water  as  formed  the  whole  into  a  foft  niafs ;  of 
«'hich  he  took  largd  quantities,  and  found  himfelf 
greatly  relieved, though  not  cured,  asallonewas  found 
in  his  bladder  after  his  death.  Thefc  and  other  in- 
flances  of  fuccefs,  foon  brought  the  medicines  into  ge- 
neral ufe  :  but  though  many  found  relief  from  them, 
others,  particularly  thofc  who  were  aftliificd  with  the 
ftojie,  had  all  the  fymptoms  of  their  dillenipcr  aggra- 
vated, by  the  falts  rendering  the  blood,  and  other  li- 
quors of  the  body,  p.irticularly  the  urine,  fiiarpand  a- 
criJ,  fo  as  to  irritate  and  infiamc  the  bladder,  which 
was  already  in  too  irritable  r.  ftate,  from  the  conflant 
frirtion  of  the  calculus  lodged  within  it.  The  late  ex- 
periments of  Mr  Scheele  and  Sir  Torbtrn  Uergman, 
liowevcr,  have  made  it  evident,  that  the  human  calcu- 
lus is  coDipofed  of  a  concrete  acid  joined  to  a  fmall  por- 
tion of  animal  earth.  Mofl  people,  therefore,  who  are 
afiliflcd  with  the  floae  or  gravel,  wilh  to  try  the  effi- 
cacy of  thefc  remedies,  rather  than  fubmit  to  the  dan- 
gerotis  operation  of  lithotomy  ;  we  fhall  therefore  fub- 
join,  from  Dr  Monro,  the  foUowingdireftions  for  ma- 
king and  ufing  the  foap-lcy. 

<'  Take  of  fait  of  tartar,  eight  ounces;  of  frelh  quick- 
lime, four  ounces  ;  of  diftillcd  water,  a  quart:  mix 
for  waking  them  all  well  together  in  a  Kirgc  bottle,  and  let  them 
Hiid  ufing  i^and  for  24  hours;  then  pour  ofFthe  ley  and  liltfr  it 
the  foap-  tJijough  p..pcr, keeping  it  in  well-flopped  vials  for  ufe. 
Of  this  the  t!ofe  is  from  ;!0  drops  to  three  or  four 
drachms,  which  istobe  rtpcatcd  two  or  three  timesin 
the  day. 

"  One  of  the  bell  methods  of  taking  this  ley  is,  to 
mi;cthc  quantity  to  he  ufcd  in  the  day  with  three  pints 
of  plain  broth, which  has  been  made  wilh  the  lean  part 
of  veal,  \>'ith  r.ll  the  fat  or  oily  parts  feparatcd  from  it, 
by  puttingit,  when  made,  into  a  large  bowl,  andikim- 
miiig  them  oif  wilh  a  fpoon  when  cold,  and  to  drink, 
within  an  hour,  a  pint  of  this  broth  three  times  in  the 
day — eailyin  the  morning — at  noon — sndin  the  even- 
ing; aud  to  continue  the  ufe  of  this  medicine  for  three 
four,  or  more  months  ;  and,  during  this  courfe,  to  live 
on  fuch  things  as  IcaA  comueraft  the  operation  of  the 
iTieditine  :  to  take  forbreakfaft  fomc  plain  broth, fuch 
as  has  been  dtfcriliedjWith  dry  toafled  bread  or  bifcut: 
or  a  dilh  or  two  ot  tea  or  co'.fee  in  place  of  the  broth: 
for  dinner,  to  eat  the  lean  part  of  plain  boiled  or  roaft- 
ed  meat,  or  a  fowl,  with  their  own  gravy  or  jiice  for 
fauce  ;  and  to  eat  only  of  vegetables  which  contain  but 
little  acid,  fuch  as  potatoes,  &e.  and  to  ufe  for  drink 
toaft  and  water,  or  water  with  a  very  fmall  portion  of 
fpirit  in  it  ,  and  to  ab:t.iin  from  e^.ting  fruit  and  acef- 
fceut  vegetables,  fat  meat,  butter,  or  oil  ;  and  from 
drinking  wine,  beer,  cyder,  punch,  and  in  fliort  from 


18 
Monro's 
dire^ions 


uy 


taking  any  thing  which  i*lik(.ly  to  coanteraft  or  de-      Alkali, 
ftroy  ilic  ertects  01  ihc  icy."  > v — 

\\ith  leg'.r-  to  the  ufe  of  the  fjap  ley,  our  author 
obfcrvcs,  "  t.Tut  he  has  fccn  a  numuer  or  people  viho 
have  taken  it,  ba.h  lor  gravellilh  complaints  and  tor 
the  (lone  ;  that  many  of  thofc  who  had  gravel  were 
relieved,  and  fume  or  tlicm  fcemcd  to  be  cured  ;  that 
fonic  few  of  thole  who  hail  the  conhrmcdilone,rcccived 
coiilidersblerclief  lor  atime  frowiiti  ufe  :butthe  com- 
plaints afterwards  re  turned;nor  can  he  fay  that  one  com. 
plete  cure  was  made  ;  though  from  the  accounts  given 
by  the  late  Dr  W  hytt  of  Edinburgh,  and  others,  it 
ihould  appear  that  this  had  fometimcs  happened:  that 
in  many  cafes  of  flone  the  ley  occalioned  pain  and  ir- 
ritation, and  mtreafed  the  violence  of  the  fymptoms  fo 
much,  that  the  patients  were  obliged  to  lay  it  alide  ; 
and  that  this  happened  moll  frequently  where  the 
bladder  feenied  already  to  be  difeafed  from  the  irrita- 
tion of  the  Itoue  :  that  at  all  times  it  is  advifablc  to  lay 
aficle  this  medicine,  atleaflfora  time,  whciicvcrit 
irritates  and  occafions  pain,  or  where  there  are  appear- 
ancesof  it"  continued  ufe  having  broken  down  the  crafis 
of  the  blood.  ,x 

In/lead  of  the  foap-ley,  the  following  folution  of  Aerated 
vegetabk  alkali, fully  faturatcd  with  lixeu  air,has  been  vegetablt 
lately  recommended  as  apowcrful  folvent  ol  the  flone.  alkali  re- 
"  Take  two  ounces  of  fait  of  ta:tdr,  and  diiiolvc  it  in  V'T"""*' 
two  quarts  of  ttiftillcd  water,  and  then  faturatc  it  fully 
with  tixed  air  ;   and  let  the  patient  take  tight  ounces 
of  it  every  eight  hours.    But  though  many  cafes  have 
been  related  in  which  this  medicine  is  faid  to  have  been 
ferviceabIe,oilT  author fayshe  hisfccnonly  dliegentle- 
man  who  had  taken  it,  and  who  had  found  confider- 
able  relief  from  it.  Soap-ley  has  likewife  been  recom- 
mended as  a  folvent  of  bilious  calculi,  and  has  fomctimes 
been  of  fervice  ;  but  this  has  probably  arifca  more  from 
its  property  of  dillolving  thick  and  vifcid  humours, 
and  affilling  the  adion  of  the  bile,   than  by  ading  on 
the  calculi  thcnifelvcs. 

The  volatile  alkali  has  many  of  the  virtues  of  the  M^dicsl 
lixed^but  affects  anim^^l  fubltances,  particularly  in  its  virtues  ol 
cauflic  (late,  lefs  powerlully  than  they  do.   It  gives  a  the  volati 
brilk  and  ftrong  iliniulus  to  the  nerves  and  fibres  of  li-  alkali. 
ving  animals  ;  and  is  therefore  cmpl<)yed  in  difeafes 
where  the  pulfcis  lov/and  the  circulation  too  languid  ; 
in  low  fevers,  where  the  patient  is  in  danger  of  link- 
ing ;  in  apoplectic  and  lethargic  dilbrdcrs  of  elderly 
people  of phleginatic  habits,  in  paralytic  cales,  faint- 
ing fits,  &c.  w  hert  a  brilk  and  Itiiuulating  remedy  is 
wanted.    It  is  often  ufed  as  diaphoretic  and  fudorilic 
in  cafes  of  rheumaiifni,  in  the  end  of  fevers,  catarrhs, 
and  other  difeafes,  where  a  plentiful  diaphorcfis  or 
fweat  is  required  ;  and,  according  to  our  author,  it  is 
principally  owing  to  this  quality  that  the  alkalis  have 
obtained  their  reputation  ofbeing  etiicacious remedies 
againll  the  bites  of  l>rpents  aud  other  venomous  ani- 
mals.    It  is  equally  cihcacious  againft  mineral  acid 
poifons  with  the  tixed  alkali. 

It  now  remains  only  to  give  fome  accwint  of  the  o-  Qfi„jn  j,f 
rigin  i>f  the  alkalis,  or  lliat  procefs  by  which  they  arc  alkaline 
naturally  produced.     This  fubjeft,  however,  is  very  falts. 
much  involved  in  obfcurity  ;  nor  has  the  origin  of  fix- 
ed alkalis, at  leall,  beeuinveliigated  with  fuch  diligence 
and  fuccefs  as  that  of  the  acids.     Chcniifts  have  been 
dividedin  thciropinions,  whether  alkaline  falts  be  na- 
tural 


A  L  K 


[     46/    ] 


A  L  K 


iural  boilkSjOrlorracdbythc  force  of  lire,  uniting  the 
"  principles  of  which  they  confill  in  the  burning  or  liif- 
tiUing  the  fubllances  from  which  they  arc  got.  Jt  is 
generally  fuppofed  that  they  are  formed  by  the  force 
of  Hrc  iiuimatcly  uniting  an  earth,  an  acid,  and  an  ia- 
flammable  matter  together,  fo  as  to  form  an  alkaline 
fait,  which  is  fuppofed  to  be  compofcd  of  thefc  prin- 
ciples. Infupportof  this  opinion,  it  has  been  alleged, 
i .  That  the  fixed  vegetable  alkali  is  produced  by  burn- 
ing vcgetablcswhich  contain,the  principles  fit  for  form- 
ing thcfc  falts  ;  though  no  veftige  of  an  alkali  can  be 
uifcovcrcd  in  thcfe  vegetables  in  their  natural  flate. 
2.  That  the  ell'cntial  falts  of  vegetables,  which  contain 
an  acid  and  an  earth,  on  being  calcined  in  a  crucible 
with  charcoal,  yield  an  alkaline  fait.  3.  That  by  al- 
ternately allowing  tlie  vegetable  alkali  to  run  periJili- 
c]uium,  and  drying  it  again,  it  precipitates  a  quantity 
of  earth,  every  time  it  is  dillolved  ;  fo  that  the  whole 
of  the  fait  is  at  lall  reduced  tothiskind  of  earth,  while 
"  the  acid,  phlogiflon,  &c.  have  evaporated,  or  been  de- 
ilroycd  by  the  rcpeatedapplication  of  heat  for  drying 
the  fait.  4.  In  like  manner  the  volatile  alkali  is  pro- 
duced by  dilhlling  animal  fubftanccs  which  contain  the 
prinrjples  tit  for  producing  it,  thougii  no  marks  of  a 
volatile  alkalicould  be  difcovcred  in  ihefc  fubflances 
while  they  were  frefh. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  alTerted  that  the  al- 
kaline falts  obtained  by  burning  vcgeti;blcs,ordiliil'ing 
animal  fubAances,  exifled  origina.ly  in  the  materials 
from  which  they  are  procured  ;  that  they  were  gene- 
rated in  the  plants  by  the  procefs  of  vegetation,  and 
freed  by  the  tire  from  the  other  principles  which  dif- 
guifed  them.  In  fupport  of  this  opinion  the  following 
arguments  arc  made  ufc  of  by  MelFrs \V  eiglcb,  Rofen- 
ftiel,  Morveau,  &c.  i.  That  they  had  not  been  able  to 
procure  an  alkaline  fait  by  mixing  earths,  oil,  and  acids 
together,  and  fubjeiJling  them  to  the  moll  intenfe  tire. 
a.Thccrjrftals  of  tartar,which  were  formerly  believed 
to  be  pure  acid  falts,  have  been  found  by  late  experi- 
ments to  contain  avcgetable  alkali.  3.  The  vegetable 
alkaline  fait,  whrn  purified  is  always  of  the  fame  na- 
ture, from  whatever  fubftance  it  is  procured  ;  and 
therefore  mud  have  been  an  original  principle  or  body 
exiftingin  the  vegetables  from  which  it  is  procured  : 
for  had  it  been  produced  by  art,  it  would  have  varied, 
and  we  fhould  have  had  different  fpecics  of  it,  accor- 
ding to  the  principles  which  the  plants  contained. 
And,  4. The  neutral  falts  which  have  been  found  mix- 
ed with  the  afhes  of  plants,  as  vitriolated  tartar,  nitre, 
.ind  fi-a-falt,  are  likewifcflrong  proofs  of  the  original 
exillcnce  of  alkali  in  vtgetables. 

On  this  fubjed  Dr  Monro  obferves,  that  hitherto 
we  have  not  fufiicient  evidence  to  determine  pclitivcly 
whether  the  vegetable  alkali  be  produced  by  the  force 
offire,  or  if  it  cxilledoriginally  in  the  fubflances  from 
which  it  is  prepared,  though  he  is  inclined  to  favour 
the  former  opinion.  With  regard  to  the  volatile  al- 
kali, however,  we  have  abundant  evidence  ofitsbiiiig 
produced  from  fubflances  which  could  not  poffibly  be 
fuppofed  to  contain  it  originally.  Dr  Stahl  alfures  us, 
that  if  any  dry  fixed  alkaline  fait  be  well  rubbed  in  a 
mortar  with  fuch  a  quantity  of  oil  of  turpentine,  as  is 
fufiicient  to  make  it  of  the  conlillencc  of  a  pulp,  and 
digeficd  for  fome  weeks  in  a  cucurbit  orfciort,  we  ob- 
tain a  volatile  alkali.  MrGeoflroy  relates,  that  having 
Vol.  I. 


placed  a  l.'.rge  retort  in  a  fanj  furnace,  and  adiptej  a     A;i»Ti 
tubulated  receiver  to  it,  afterwards  heating  the  bot-         » 
toni  of  the  retort  red-hot,  he  put  into  it,  by  means  of  Alt-Siim* 
a  long  tube  riling  from  the  upper  pirt  of  the  neok,  a         '       ' 
powder  conipofed  of  etjuarparis  of  nitre  and  charcoal 
on  which  tlicre  came  over  into  the  receiver  a  liquor 
highly  impregnated  with  volatile  alkaii.  Carthcufer, 
in  the  fir  A  volume  of  his  Materia  Mcdica,  tells  us,  that 
if  two  parts  of  fait  of  tartar  be  mixed  with  one  of  ful- 
phur,  and  be  afterwards  dillilled,  they  yield  a  volatile 
alkaline  fait  and  fpirit.   Boerhaavc  and  Macqucr  have 
both  aflirmed,  that  the  vegetative  procefs  itfclf  produ- 
ces a  volatile  alkali ;  and  that  the  juices  got  by  bruiiing 
nuiflard.fecd  and  other alkalefcent  vegetables,  as  they 
are  called,  contain  a  volatile  alkali  which  etTcrvefces 
with  acids  :  but  this  is  denied  by  Carihcurcr  and  Vo- 
gtl,  who  afhrm  that  they  could  difcover  no  traces  of 
volatile  alkaiiin  their  juices  by  any  experiments  the/ 
made. 

But  whatever  may  be  concluded  from  the  exptricnee 
of  former  chemi  lis,  the  latedifcovcrics  of  Dr  PricfUey 
and  Mr  CavenJilh  havedccilively  fhewn,  that  the  vola- 
tile alkali  is  by  no  means  a  fimplc  element  or  natural 
principle,  but  a  compound,  and  which  may  be  ariiti- 
cially  prepared.  Dr  Prieflley  informs  us,  that  by  the  SeeAcroIo- 
union  of  nitrous  air  with  iron,  a  volatile  alkali  is  gene-  gy.  n"  149- 
rated;  and  Mr  Cavendifh,  that  by  the  adion  of  ;be 
electric  fluid,  or  pure  elementary  tire,  upon  phlogifli- 
catcd  air,  the  nitrous  acid  is  produced  :  the  volatile  al-  |'*  ^^  ' 
kali,  therefore,  muftbe  fuppofed  to  conliil  ultimately  °  '' 
of  phlogifticatcd  air  united  to  a  great  quantity  of  ele- 
mentary lire.  In  like  manner,  if  we  can  fuppofe  this 
fubtile  element  to  enter  into  the  fubllanccof  any  kind 
of  earth  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  exert  its  peculiar  aelion 
when  that  fubftance  is  applied  to  any  other,  we  may 
reafonably  conclude  that  the  fixed  alkalis  alfo  are  not 
fimple  and  permanent  principles,  but  capable  of  artifi- 
cial compolition  and  decompolition.  It  iscenain  that 
the  aftion  of  alkaline  falts  is  extremely  fimilar  to  that 
offire  ;  and  as  we  know  that  this  element  is  combined 
ilia /aU'.-t  Hate  with  fluids,  there  can  be  no  abfurdity 
in  fuppoling  it  capable  of  combiningalfowithfolids. 

Alkali,  or  Sal  K'aJi,  in  botany.     Sec  Salicor- 

NIA. 

ALKANET,  in  botany.     SeeAscHusA. 

ALKtKENCI,  in  botany,  the  trivial  name  of  a 
fpccies  of  phyfalis.     Ste  Physaiis. 

ALKtNNA,  in  botany.     See  Lawsonia. 

ALKERMKS,  in  pharmacy,  a  compound  cordial 
medici'ie  made  in  the  form  of  a  confcflon,  deriving  its 
name  from  the  kcrmes-berries  ufcd  in  its  compolition, 

ALKORAN.     See  Alcoran-. 

ALL-Hallows.     See  WLJ.-Sai)ili. 

y^LL-CijoJ.     SeeCHF-NoroDiuM. 

/tuL-H.al.     See  Heracleum  andSxACHTs. 

AtL-Saintt,  in  the  kalendar,  denotes  a  fcflival  ce- 
lebrated on  the  lint  of  November,  in  commemoration 
of  all  the  faints  in  general  ;  which  is  othen,vife  called 
^Likalhu-i,  The  number  of  faints  beinj  fo  exceffive- 
1  yuiultiplied,  it  was  found  tooburdcnfomc  to  dedicate 
a  feall-day  tn  e.-.ch.  In  reality,  there  are  not  oays 
enough,  fcarce  hours  enough,  in  the  year,  for  this 
purpofe.  Mcnce  an  expedient  was  had  rccourfe  to,  by 
comincmorcting  fuch  in  the  lump  as  had  not  their  own 
days.  Boniface  IV.  in  the  ninth  century,  introduced 
3  N  the 


/ 


A  L  L 


[     466     ] 


A  1. 


II 
Albtiut 


thf  (Vafl  of  .i' ;  Sr:/.tj  i:i  Ii^ly,  which  vvas  foon  a('u;r 
adoj-'.ed  Jiiio  the  other  chir/tacs. 

ALi.-i>Ai.\T!>  Bii) ,  i  l\y,:'aMi  harbour  near  St  Sal- 
vador iu  timW,  ill  b.  America,  on  the  AtLiuic  ocean. 
\V.  Long.  4o».  S.  Lat.  12". 

y^LL-^onis,  iu  the  calendar,  deiKitcs  a  fcaft-day, 
hfld  on  the  I'ccoiid  of  November,  in  coiu-.nciiioratioii 
ol'  all  the  fai'.htul  dcccaled. — The  fea(t  of  ftll-Souls 
washrlliriroJuctJ  in  the  eleventh  century, by  CiJiloti 
abbot  of  CK:iiy,  who  enjoined  it  on  his  own  order  : 
but  it  was  not  long  i>el'ore  it  bccaiiic  adopted  by  the 
miiTlibouring  chiii  clics. 

rtl.L-SPICE.     Sec  MvRi  us  and  Calycanthi's. 

ALLA,  or  .^i.lah,  the  name  by  which  the  pro. 
feilbisof  Mahonict-inifm  call  the  Supreme  Being. 

The  ternirf//'jis  Arabic,  derived  from  the  verb  <»/«/', 
to  adore.  It  is  the  fame  with  the  Hebrew  £/orf^, 
which  iigniiics  the  /idurubU  Being. 

ALL.'^MANDA,  in  botany;  a  genus  of  the  nio- 
liogyi'.ia  order,  bclonj^ing  to  the  pentandria  clal's  of 
plants.  The  eharatterbarc  :  The  catyx  is  a  tive-lcav'd 
perianthium  :  The  csrcZ/.TConllftsof  one  fuuuel-lhap'd 
petal ;  the  tube  cylindric  ;  the  border  ftmiquinqactid 
aiid  veniricofe  ;  the  divifions  expanding  and  obiufe  : 
The //a»/;//ji?  have  fearce  any  filaments;  the  atitherx 
sre  five,  arrow-fliaped,  converging,  in  the  ihioatofthe 
tube  :  The  fijliUum  has  an  oval  gcrmen,  girt  at  the 
bafe  with  an  annular  margin  ;  the  Itylus  is  filiform, the 
length  of  the  tube  ;  the  rtigma  is  headed,  and  contrac- 
ed  in  the  middle:  \\\t  i>irkarpiujn\%  an  orbicular, 
compreilcd,  brilUy  capfule,  containing  one  cell  with 
two  valves  :  1  \itj'icds  arc  imbricated,  orbr:ular,  flat, 
with  a  membranaceous  wing  on  the  margin,  and  are 
very  numerous.  There  is  but  one  fpecies,  the  cathar- 
tica,  a  native  of  Surinam. 

ALLANTOIS,  or  Allantoides,  a  gut-fhapcd 
velicle  invefling  the  fa?ius  of  cows,  goats,  Iheep,  &e. 
filled  with  an  urinous  liquor  conveyed  to  it  from  the 
urachus. — (See  Comparative  Anattviy).  Anatomifls 
are  not  agreed  whether  the  allantois  has  any  exill- 
cnce  in  the  human  fpecies  or  not. 

ALLATIUS  (Leo),  keeper  of  the  Vatican  library, 
a  native  of  Scio,  and  a  celebrated  writer  of  the  i  7th 
century.  He  was  of  great  fervice  to  the  gentlemen  of 
Port  Royal  in  the  controverfy  they  had  with  M.  Claude 
touching  the  belief  of  the  Greeks  wiiji  regard  to  the 
cucharill.  No  Latin  was  ever  more  devoted  to  the  fee 
of  Rome,  or  more  inveterate  againfl  the  Greek  fchif- 
niatics,  than  Allatius.  He  never  engaged  in  matri- 
mony, nor  was  he  ever  in  orders  ;  and  pope  Alexan- 
der VTI.  havingafkedhim  one  day,  why  he  did  not  en- 
ter into  orders  ?  he  anfwered,  "  Becaufe  1  would  be 
free  to  marry."  The  pope  rejoined,  <'  If  fo,  who  do 
you  not  marry?"  "Becaufe,"  replied  .'Allatius, "  I 
would  be  at  liberty  to  take  orders."  Thus,  as  Mr 
Bayle  obfervcs,  he  paffcd  his  whole  life,  wavering  be- 
twixt a  parilh  and  a  wife  ;  forry,  perhaps  at  his  death, 
for  having  chofenneitherof  them  ;  when,  iflie  had  fix- 
ed upon  one,  he  might  have  repented  his  choice  for  ;;o 

or/oyears If  ue  believe  John  Patricius,  Allaiius 

had  a  very  extraordinary  pen,  w  iih  which  and  no  o- 
iher,  he  wrote  Greek  for  40  years  ;  and  we  need  not 
be  furprifcd,  that,  when  he  loll  it,  he  was  fo  grieved, 
that  he  could  fcarcc  forbear  crying.  He  publilhcd  fcve- 
ral  mannfcripts,  fevcral  traullaiions  of  Greek  authors, 


Allay 


and  Icvcral  pieces  of  his  own  compoting.  In  his  coni- 
poliiions  he  is  thought  to  ihow  more  cruJicion  than 
judgnicnt:  he  ufed  alio  to  make  freqiknt  digrellions  Allccia 

troinoiieiubjcd  toanothcr.    HediedacKomt  in  1669,  ' "'" 

aged  83. 

ALLAY.     SecAiLOY. 

ALLtGAl  A,  a  svord  anci-ntly  fubftribcd  at  the 
bottom  of  refcripts  and  eoiillitutijiisof  the  emperors; 
isj'g'iata,  or  ujlatti,  was  under  other  inlhuaicnts. 

ALLEGEAS,  or  Ai.legias,  a  (birt'maiuil'acturcd 
in  the  Eaft-Indies.  There  arc  two  fojts  of  tjiem  : 
fomc  are  of  cotton,  andoihersoi  feveralkindsof  herbs, 
which  arefpiin  like  tlixand  htmp.  Ihcirlcngih  and 
breadth  are  of  eight  ells,  by  rive,  fix,  or  feven-cighths, 
and  of  twelve  ells,  by  three-fourths,  or  five-eighths. 

ALLEGIANCE,  in  law, is  t he  tic,  or /.Vjw://, which 
binds  the  liibjcrt  to  the  government,  in  return  for  that 
protection  uiiich  government  affords  the  fubject.  The 
thing  itlllf,  or  fubitaniial  part  of  it,  is  foutidtd  in  rca- 
fon  and  the  nature  of  government  ;  the  iiame  and  the 
form  arc  derived  to  us  from  ancient  Gothic  ufagc.  Un- 
der the  feudalfyflem,evcry  owntrof  land  held  tiicm  in 
fubjcction  to  fojne  fuperior  or  lord,  from  whom  or  from 
whole  anceftors  the  tenant  or  vadil  had  received  ihcm: 
and  there  was  amutuaUruit  or  confidence  fubfilling be- 
tween the  lord  and  valial,lhatihelord  ihouldprotett  ihc 
valial  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  territory  he  had  grunted 
h  im  ;an  d  on  the  other  hand, that  the  valTallhould  be  faith- 
ful to  the  lord,  and  defend  him  againfl  all  his  enemies. 
This  obligation  on  thepartof  the  valial  was  called  his 
fijibtas  or  fealty:  and  an  oath  of  fealty  was  required  by 
the  feudal  l,->w  to  be  tjken  by  all  tenants  to  their  land- 
lord, which  is  couched  in  almolt  the  fame  terms  as  the 
ancient  oath  of  allegiance;  except  that, in  the  ufualoa-th 
of  fealty,  tliere  was  frequently  a  favingor  exception  of 
the  faith  due  to  a  hiperior  lord  by  name,  under  whom 
the  landl'Td  himfclf  was  perhaps  only  a  tenant  or  vaf- 
fal.  But  when  the  acknowledgment  vvas  made  16  the 
abfohite  fuperior  himfclf,  who  vvas  vaflal  to  no  man,  it 
was  no  longer  called  the  oath  of  fealty,  but  the  oath  of 
allegiance  ,  and  therein  the  tenant  fwore  to  bear  faitii 
to  his  fovercign  lordjin  oppolition  toall  men,  without 
any  faving  or  exception.  Land  held  by  this  exalted 
fpecies  of  fealty,  was  czWtAfeudi/rn  ligiuvi,  a  liege  fee, 
the  vafialSi^cOT//;^///^/;,  or  liege  men  ;  and  the  fovereign 
their  dominus  ligius,  orliege  lord.  And  when  fovereign 
princes  did  homage  to  each  other  for  lands  held  under 
their  refpci^tivefovereignties,  adiilinftion  vvas  always 
made  between  fimpl:  homage,  which  was  only  an  ac- 
knowledgment of  tenure  ;  and  AV^f  homage,  which  in- 
cluded the  I'ealty  before-mentioned,  and  the  fervices 
confcquent  upon  it.  In  Britain,  it  becoming  a  fettled 
principle  of  tenure,  that  all  lands  in  the  kingdom  are 
holden  of  the  king  as  their  fovereign  and  Ic-d  para- 
mount, no  oath  but  that  of  fealty  could  ever  be  tak^n 
to  inferior  lords  ;  and  the  oath  of  allegiance  was  ne- 
ceffarily  confined  to  the  pcrfon  of  the  king  alone.  By 
an  calyanalogy,  the  term  allegiance  wiS  foon  brought 
to  fignify  all  other  engagements  which  arc  due  from 
fubjefts  to  their  prince,  as  well  as  thofe  duties  which 
were  fimply  and  nicrely  territorial.  And  the  oath  of 
allegiance,  as  adniiniilercd  in  England  for  upwards  of 
600  years,  contained  a  promife  "  to  be  true  and  faith- 
"  ful  to  the  kin  J  anil  his  heirs,  and  truth  and  faith  to 
<'  bear  of  life  and  limb  and  terrene  honour,  and  not  to 

"  know 


A   L  L 


L    A^n     1 


A    I.  L 


'ackJJcne 


illcgianre  "  know  or  licar  of  nny  ill  or  d^r.agc  iiittnJt    liim, 

— ^ '  "  v.'irlio'jt  defending  him  lhtrcfi.,ji."   Buc,  at  llic  rc- 

vol'vioii,  ihc  terms  of  this  oaili  being  thoitj^ln  j'crhaps 
to  favour  too  much  the  notion  of  uoii-rcliltancc,  tiie 
prcff  lit  form  was  introduced  by  the  convcniion  parlia- 
ment, which  is  more  general  and  iiidcrcrn.inaic  than 
the  former;  the  fiibjetlonly  proniiiing  "  tliat  he  will 
"  be  faiihfijl  and  bear  true  slUjiiance  to  the  king." 
without  mtiiiioiiin;;  "  his  heirs,"  orfpecifying  in  the 
Icalt  wherein  that  allegiance  conlifts.  The  oath  of  fu- 
premaey  is  pi  incipally  calculated  as  a  renunciation  of 
the  poj.c's  pretcmled  authori:y  :  and  the  oath  of  abja- 
ration,  introduced  in  the  reign  of  King  William,  viry 
amply  fupplics  the  loofc  and  general  texture  of  the  oath 
of  allegiance  ;  it  recogi.iziiig  the  right  of  his  majedy, 
derivid  under  the  aft  of  fcf.lcmcni  ;  engaging  to  fnp- 
port  him  to  the  utmofbof  the  jtiror's  power  ;  proraifing 
to  difdofe  all  traitcrous  confjiiracits  againlt  him;  and 
(Txprcfsly  renouncing  any  claim  of  the  dcfceiidants  of 
the  late  pretender,  in  as  clear  and  explicit  terms  asthc 
Engliih  language  can  furnilli.  This  oath  mull  be  ta- 
ken by  all  perfonsin  any  olJice,  truft,  or  employment  ; 
and  may  be  tendered  by  tuo  julliccs  of  the  peace  lo 
any  perfon  whom  they  Ihall  fulpcdofdifaffcdion.  And 
the  oath  of  allegiance  may  be  tendered  to  all  pcrfons 
above  the  age  of  twelve  ye.-.rs,  whether  natives,  deni- 
zens, or  aliens. 

But,  beiidts  thefe  exprefs  engagements,  the  lawalfo 
holds  that  there  is  an /ra/)//!^!/,  original,  and  virtual  i\- 
legiance,owing  from  every  AibjecUohis  fovereign,  an- 
tecedently to  any  exprefs  promifc,  and  although  the 
fubjeft  never  fwore  any  faith  or  allegiance  in  form. 
Thus  Sir  tdward  Coke  very  jufllyobferves,  that  "  ail 
fubjefls  are  equally  bounden  to  their  allegiance  as  if 
they  had  taken  the  oath  ;  bceaufc  it  is  written  by  the 
linger  of  the  law  in  their  hearts,  and  the  taking  of  the 
corporal  oath  is  but  an  outward  declaration  of  the 
fame." 

Allegiance,  both  cxprcfs  and  implied,  is  however  di- 
ftinguiihcd  by  the  law  into  two  forts  or  fpecies,  the  one 
natural,  the  other  local ;  the  former  beinjj  alfo  perpe- 
tual, the  latter  temporary. 

A'd/firij/allcgiance  isfuchasisduc  from  all  men  born 
witliin  the  king's  dominions  iininediatcly  upon  their 
birth.  Kor  ininicdiately  upon  their  birth,  they  are  un- 
der the  king's  protection  ;  at  a  time  too,  when  (during 
their  infancy)  thty  are  incapable  of  protecting  tnem- 
felves.  Natural  allegiance  is,  therefore,  adebt  of  gra- 
titude ;  which  cannot  be  Ibrfcited,  cancelled, or  alter- 
ed, by  any  change  of  time,  place,  or  circumftance,  nor 
by  ai'y  thing  but  the  united  concurrence  if  tbclcgi.la- 
ture.  A  Driton  who  removes  to  Krance,  or  to  China, 
owes  the  fame  allegiance  to  the  king  of  Britain  there 
as  at  home,  and  twenty  years  henceas  well  as  now.  For 
it,  is  a  principle  of  univcrfal  law,That  the  natiral-born 
fubjciiof  one  prinre  cannot  by  any  a>51  of  his  own,  no, 
not  by  fwcaring  allegiance  to  another,  put  otf  or  dif- 
cl)arge  his  natural  allegiance  to  the  former  :  for  this 
natural  allegiance  wa^intrinfic,  and  priniiiive,  and  an- 
tecedent to  the  other;  and  cannot  be  divcAed  without 
the  concurrent  acl  of  that  pripcc  to  whom  it  svas  firft 
due. 

Local  allegiance  is  Aich  as  is  due  from  an  alien,  or 
flrangtr  born,  for  fo  long  imc  a;  he  eoniiniies  within 
the  king's  dou.inioii  and  proteCiiotJ  :  and  \\  ccafes  the 


ii. il.il. t  l-.;!i  nij:.^<r  iranifersliiiiifi  Jl  Tn... unit  king-   All«K^r)'. 

dom  to  another,    ixaiural  ailcginncc  is  ihcrelore  per-  *~ — >^ ' 

petu:il,  and  local /tv/y.s»<»;_)  oi;ly  ;  and  th:'t  for  t!-.i«  rca- 
loa,  cvidciiily  founded  upon  the  nature  ofgoverninem, 
'J'hnt  allegiance  is  a  debt  due  from  the  fu!  ;ect,  irpou  art 
implied  contract  \sith  the  prince  ;  that  fo  long  a.s  the 
one  atflirds  protection,  fo  long  the  other  will  demean 
himftlf  faithfully. 

The  oath  of  allegiance,  or  rather  the  alli-g'i.ti:cc  ir- 
ftlf,  is  hild  to  l)c  applicable,  iiui  only  to  the  political 
capacity  of  the  king,  orreg..l  otiicc,  bat  to  his  natural 
ptrfon  and  blood  royal:  and  for  the  niifappiication  of 
their  allegiance,  viz.  to  ihc  regal  capacity  or  crown, 
excluliveof  the  perfon  of  the  king,  were  the  Spencers 
banifliedin  the  reign  of  Edward  11.  Awi  from  hence 
arofc  tb.it  priucij'le  of  perfonal  attachment  and  atr'cc- 
tionate  loyalty,  \\hich  induced  Eng'iihmeu  informer 
times  (and  if  oceafion  reqiired,  would  doubtlefs  in- 
duce their  fons)  lo  hazard  all  that  was  dear  to  ihcin, 
lite,  fortune,  and  family,  in  defence  and  fupport  of 
their  lif  gc  lord  and  fovereign. 

It  is  to  be  obferveJ,  however,  in  explanation  of  this  PiWiMt- 
alicgiance.  That  it  docs  not  preclude  refillance'to  the  '"[  ""''  •'"'- 
king,  when  his  niifconducl  or  weakncfs  is  fuch  as  to  '•"•'"''■•• 
make  refiftance  bcnefirial  to  the  community,  ft  fccins  ^'^{-^l  rj 
fairly  prcfunicablc,  that  the  convention  parliament,  „.  i4i| 
which  introduced  the  oath  of  allegiance  in  its  prefcnt 
form,    did  not  intend  to  exclade  all  rcfiftance;  fincc 
the  very  authority  by  w  hich  the  members  fat  together, 
w  as  itfclf  the  efted  of  a  fuccefsful  oppofition  to  an  ac- 
knoulcdged  fovereign. 

Again  :  The  allegiance  above  defcrihed  can  only  be 
underllood  to  fignify  obedience  to  lawful  commands. 
If,  therefore,  the  king  (hould  ilUiea  proclamation,  le- 
vying money  or  impofmg  any  ferviceor  reftraint  upon 
the  fubjed,  beyond  what  the  la\v  authorifcd,  there 
would  cxift  no  fort  of  obligation  to  obey  fuch  a  pro- 
clamation, in  confcqnenccof  having  taken  the  oath  of 
allegiance. 

Neither  can  allegiance  be  fuppofcd  to  extend  to  tlic 
king  after  he  is  actually  and  abfolutcly  depofed,  driven 
into  exile,  or  othcrwifc  rendered  incapable  of  exercif- 
ing  the  regal  office.  The  promife  of  allegiance  implies, 
iliat  tlie  ptrfon  to  whom  the  promife  is  made  continues 
king  :  that  is,  continues  to  cxercife  tiit  power,  and 
afford  the  protection,  which  belong  to  the  office  of 
king  :  for  it  is  the  poflcnion  of  thefe  which  makes 
fuch  a  particular  perfon  the  objcd  of  the  oath. 

ALLEGORY,  in  compofition,  confills  in  choodno- 
a  fccondary  fiibjrCt,  having  all  its  properties  and  cir- 
cumftanccs  refcmbling  thofcof  the  principal  fubjcft, 
and  defcribing  the  former  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  rc- 
prcfcnt  the  latter.  The  principal  fubjcCt  is  thus  kept 
out  of  view,  and  we  arc  left  todifcover  it  by  refleclion. 
In  other  words,  an  allegory  is,  in  every  rcfpecl,  fi- 
milar  to  an  hicroglyphical  painiing,  excepting  only 
that  words  are  ufcd  inflcad  of  colours.  Their  efFcds 
are  precifcly  tlie  fame:  An  hieroglyphic  railcs  two 
images  in  the  mind;  one  I'ecn,  that  rcprcfents  o:ie  that 
is  not  fecn  :  An  allegory  docs  the  fsme  ;  the  reprefcn- 
tative  fubjcd  isdcfcribcd,  and  the  refcmblance  leadsus 
to  apply  the  defcription  to  the  fubjeift  reprefented. 

Ther  t  cannot  be  a  finer  or  more  corred  allegory  than 
the  follow  ing,  in  which  a  vineyard  is  made  to7eprcfcnt 
God's  own  p'.(y'c  the  Jews  : 

3  N  2  '« Thoii 


A  L  L 


[     46«     ] 


ALL 


/>l'rpri.  "  Tlioii  hafi  brought  a  vine  i-ih  of  Ejrypt  ;  iliou 
•"-^ — ■■  "  hafl  call  out  the  heathen,  and  planted  it.  Thoudidft 
"  ciuiic  it  to  take  deep  root,  and  it  filled  the  land.  The 
"  hills  were  covered  with  its  IhaJow,  and  the  boujjhs 
'«  thtrcof  wcrclike  the  goodly  cedars.  Why  halt  thou 
*'  then  broken  down  her  hedges,  To  that  all  that  pals 
"  doplnck  her  ?  The  boar  out  of  the  wood  doth  wallc 
<•  it,  and  the  wild  brail  doth  devour  it.  Return,  wc 
"  beftech  ihec,  O  God  of  hofts:  look  down  from  hea- 
"  veil,  and  behold,  and  vilit  this  vine  and  the  vineyard 
"thy  lighi-hand  hath  planted,  and  the  branch  thou 
"  niidell  llrong  for  thyfelf."  l^fal.  Ixxx. 

Notliing  gives  greater  plcafure  than  an  allegory, 
when  tiie  reprefcntative  fnbjeft  bears  a  llroiig  analogy, 
in  all  its  circunil'tances,  to  that  which  is  reiircfciited. 
But  nioft  writers  arc  unliuky  in  their  choice,  the  ana- 
logy being  generally  fo  faint  and  obfcure,  as  raihcj-  to 
puzzle  then  to  plcafe.  Allegories,  as  well  as  meta- 
phors and  (iniilies,  are  unnatural  iu  exprelling  any  le- 
verc  palHon  which  totally  occupies  the  niiad.  Kor  this 
reafoM,  the  following  fpcech  of  Macbeth  is  judly  con- 
demned by  the  learned  author  of  the  Elements  of  Cri- 
licifui  : 

Metho;ight  I  heard  a  voice  cry,  Sleep  no  more  ! 
Macbeth  doth  murder  Sleep;  the  innocent  lleep  ; 
Sleep  that  knits  vp  the  ravell'd  llecve  of  Care, 
The  birth  of  each  day's  life,  fore  labour's  bath, 
Bah:i  of  hurt  minds,  great  Nature's  I'econ.l  courfe. 
Chief  liourilher  in  life's  feaft.  Ail  ii.  Si:.  5. 

But  fee  this  fubjeft  more  fully  treated  undcrthc  article 
JVI E  T  A  r  n  O  R  a/iii  Allegory . 

ALLEGRI  (Antonio),  called  Corregio  from  the 
place  of  his  birth,  an  cmineij^iillorical  painter,  was 
born  in  the  year  1494.  Being  defccnded  of  poor  pa- 
rents, and  educated  in  an  obfcnre  village,  he  enjoyed 
iioncof  thofe  advantages  which  contributed  to  form 
ihc  other  great  painters  of  that  illulbious  age.  He 
law  none  of  the  ftaiues  of  ancient  Greece  or  Rome  ; 
nor  any  of  the  works  of  the  eflablillicd  fehools  of 
Home  and  Venice.  But  Nature  was  his  guide  ;  and 
Corregio  was  one  of  her  favourite  pupils.  To  exprcfs 
the  facility  with  which  he  painteJ,  he  ufcd  to  fay  that 
he  always  had  his  thoughts  ready  at  the  end  of  his 

pencil. 

The  agreeable  fmilc,  and  the  profulion  of  graces 
which  he  gave  to  his  madonas,  faints,  and  children, 
iiavc  been  taxed  with  being  fometimes  unnatural  ;  but 
ftill  they  are  amiable  and  feducing  :  An  eafy  and  flow- 
ing pencil,  an  union  and  harmony  of  colours,  and  a 
pcrfc<flintelligcnceoflightandlhade,gaveana(loni(li- 
ing  relief  to  all  his  piduies,  and  have  been  the  admi- 
ration both  of  his  colemporarics  and  his  fucceffors. 
Annibal  Caracci,  who  flourilhed  jo  years  after  him, 
fludied  and  adopted  his  manncn  n  preference  to  that 
•of  any  other  maftcr.  In  a  letter  to  his  coulin  Louis, 
4»e  exprclies  with  great  warmth  the  impreffion  which 
•was  made  on  him  by  the  firfl  light  of  Corregio's  paint- 
ings:" Every  thing  which  I  fee  here  {fayshe)afloni{h- 
es  mc  ;  particularly  the  colouring  and  the  beauty  of  the 
children.  They  live — they  breathe — They  fniile  with 
fo  much  grace  and  fomuch  reality,  that  it  isimpodible 
CD  refrain  from  fmiling  and  partaking  of  their  enjoy- 
ment. My  heart  is  ready  to  break  with  grief  when  I 
think  on  the  unhappy  fate  of  jioor  Corregio — thatfo 
wondtrfnl  atnan  (if  he  ought  not  rather  tobc  called  au 


angel)  IhouldtinJIh  his  days  fo  mifcrably,  in  a  country    Alkgr 
where  his  talents  were  never  known  !" ' >/- 

From  want  of  curiolity  or  of  rcfolutioii,  or  from 
want  of  patronage,  Corregio  never  vilitcd  Rome,  but 
remained  his  ^^  hide  life  at  Parma,  where  the  art  of 
painting  waslitllcellcemed,and  ofcoufci^uence  poorly 
icwardtd.  This  concurrence  of  unfavourable  circum- 
Itanccs  occalioned  at  lall  his  premature  death  at  the 
age  of  40.  He  was  employed  to  paint  the  cupola  of 
rile  cathedral  at  Parma,  the  fubjecl  of  which  is  an  af- 
funi|Hionof  the  Virgin  ;  and  having  executed  it  in  a 
manner  that  has  long  been  the  admiration  of  every  j>er 
foil  of  good  tafle,  for  the  grandeur  of  delign,  and  cfpc- 
cially  for  the  boldnefs  of  the  fore-lhortenings  (an 
art  which  he  tirfl  and  at  once  brought  to  the  utmoft 
perfection),  he  went  to  receive  his  payment.  The 
canons  of  the  cliurch,  either  through  ignorance  or 
bafenefs,  Ibuiid  fault  with  his  work  ;  and  although  the 
price  originally  agreed  upon  had  been  very  uioiieratc, 
they  alltdgei#tliat  it  was  far  above  the  merit  of  the 
artiil,  and  forced  him  to  accept  of  the  paultry  fuin  of; 
20olivres  ;  which,  to  add  to  ihe  indignity,  they  paid 
hiin  in  copper  money.  To  carry  home  this  unwcriliy 
load  to  his  indigent  wile  and  children,  poor  Corregio 
had  to  travel  fix  or  eight  miles  from  Parma.  Ihc 
weight  of  his  burJen,  the  heat  of  the  weather,  and 
his  chaj^rin  at  tliis  vil'ain.'us  treatment,  immediately 
threw  him  iyto  apicurify,  whicli  in  three  days  put  an 
end  to  his  lile  and  his  misfortunes.  . 

Kor  the  jirefervation  of  this  magnificent  work  the 
world  is  indebted  to  Titian.  As  he  palled  through 
Parma,  in  the /////(^  of  Charles  V.  he  run  iiillantly  to 
fee  the  c/)c-/W//j"t^  of  Corregio.  Wliilc  he  was  at- 
tentively viewing  it,  one  of  the  principal  canons  of  the  • 
church  told  hinuhat  fuch  agroiefque  performance  did 
not  meritliis  notice, and  that  they  intended  foon  tohave 
the  whole  defaced.  "  Have  a  care  of  what  you  do 
(replied  the  other),  if  I  were  not  Titian,  I  would  cer- 
tainly with  10  be  Corregio." 

Corregio's  exclama.ion  upon  viewing  a  pifture  by 
Raphael  is  well  known.  Having  long  been  accuftom- 
ed  to  liear  the  moll  unbounded  applaufc  bellowed  on 
the  works  of  that  divine  painter,  he  by  degrees  be- 
came lefs  delirous  than  afraid  of  feeing  any  of  them. 
One,  however,  he  at  laA  had  occallon  to  fee.  He 
examined  it  iittentively  for  fonie  minutes  in  profound 
filcnce  ;  and  then  with  an  air  of  fatisfaclion  exclaim- 
ed, /  am  ftill  a  pnhJer.  Julio  Romano,  on  feeing 
fomc  of  Corregio's  pidures  at  Parma,  declared  they 
were  fuperior  toany  thing  in  painting  he  had  yet  be- 
held. One  of  thefc  no  doulit  would  be  the  famous 
Virgin  and  Child,  with  Mary  Magdalene  and  St  Jc- 
rora  :  But  whether  our  readers  are  to  depend  npon  his 
opinion,  or  upon  that  ot  Lady  Millar,  who  in  her 
Lfttirs  from  Italy  gives  a  very  unfavourable  account  of 
it,  we  fhall  not  prefume  to  determine.  This  lady, 
however,  fpeaks  in  a  very  different  flyleof  the  no  lefs 
famous  hiotte  or  Night  of  Corregio,  of  which  Ihe  faw 
only  a  copy  in  the  Duke's  palace  at  Modena,  the  ori- 
ginal having  been  fold  for  a  great  fum  of  money  10 
the  king  of  Poland.  "  It  furprifcs  me  very  much  . 
(fays  flic),  to  fee  how  different  the  characters  are  in 
this  piflure  from  that  which  I  already  have  defcribcd 
to  yon.  The  fubjefb  is  a  Nativity  ;  and  the  extraor- 
dinary beauty  ol  this  picture  proceeds  from  the  clair 

obfcure  r 


ALL 


r  469  ] 


ALL 


AUegro  obfctrt :  there  arc  two  different  lights  introduced,  by 
I  nicans  of  which  the  pcri'onagcs  arc  viliblc  ;  iumcly,thc 
AUeluiih.  jjgi^j  proceeding  froiuthe  body  ol"  the  child,  and  the 
'  "  '  moon-light.  Thcfe  twoare  [irclerveddilUncl,  aadpro- 
tUice  a  mod  wonderful  ctfctl.  The  cliild's  body  is  lo  lu- 
minous, that  the  fuperticies  is  neatly  tranlpareiit,  and 
tlic  rays  of  light  emitted  by  it  arc  vcrihcd  in  tlie  ctfcCt 
they  produce  upon  the  furroundingobjciits.  They  arc 
not  rays  dillin.t  and  fcparate,  like  liiofc  round  tlie 
face  of  a  fun  that  indicates  an  infuraucc-oriicc  ;  nor 
linear,  like  thole  proceeding  from  the  man  in  the  al- 
manack ;  but  of  a  dazzling  brightnefs  :  by  their  lignt 
you  fee  clearly  the  face,  neck,  and  hands,  of  tiic  Vir- 
gin (the  reft  of  the  perfon  being  in  llrong  lliadow), 
the  faces  of  ihc  pajl an  who  crowd  round  the  child, 
and  particularly  one  woman,  who  liolds  her  hand  be- 
fore her  face,  led  her  eyes  ihould  be  fo  dazzled  as  to 
prevent  her  from  beholding  tlie  Infant.  'J'his  is  a 
beautiful  natural  adlion,  and  is  moll  ingenioully  intro- 
duced. The  draw  on  which  the  chila  is  laid  appears 
gilt,  from  the  light  of  his  body  lliiniiig  on  it.  Tlic 
moon  lights  up  tlie  back-ground  of  the  picture,  which 
rcprtfcnts  a  landfcape.  Every  object  is  diiliiicl,  as  in 
a  briglit  moon-light  night ;  and  there  cannot  be  two 
ligjusin  nature  moieilirtcrcnt  than  thole  which  appear 
in  the  fame  picture.  The  virgin  and  the  cliild  are  of 
the  luoft  pertecl  beauty.  There  is  a  great  variety  of 
characJter  in  thcJift'erent  perfoiis  preleiit,yet  that  uni- 
formity common  to  j11  hcrdfincn  and  i)eafants.  In 
fliort,  this  copy  is  fo  admirable,  that  I  was  quite  lorry 
to  be  obliged  to  lolV  light  of  it  fo  foon  ;  but  I  never 
lliall  forget  it.  The  duke  of  Modena,  for  whom  Cor- 
regio  did  the  original  pioUire,  gave  him  only  6oolivres 
of  France  for  it  ;  a  great  fuin  in  thofe  days  :  but  at 
prcfent,  what  ought  it  to  cod  ?"  This  great  painter's 
death  happened  in  1534. 

ALLKGRO,  in  mulic,  an  Italian  w-ord,  denoting 
that  the  part  is  to  be  played  in  a  fprightly,  briik,  live- 
ly, and  gay  manner. 

Pir/  /Illecro,  lignilies,  that  the  part  it  is  joined  to 
fhould  be  fung  or  played  quicker  ;   as 

I'oco  pill  Allegro  intimates,  that  the  part  to  which 
it  refers  ought  to  be  played  or  fung  only  a  little  more 
bri/kly  than  allegro  alone  requires. 

ALLEIN  (Jofeph),  the  foil  of  Tobias  AUein,  was 
born  in  the  Devizes,  in  Wiltlhirc,  in  163:!,  and  edu- 
cated at  Oxford.  In  1655,  he  became  allidant  to  Mr 
Newton,  in  Taunton-Magdalcn,  inSomcrlctihirc  ;  but 
was  deprived  for  non-conformity.  He  died  in  1668, 
3ged  35.  He  was  a  man  of  great  learning,  and  greater 
charity;  preferving,  though  anon -con  form  id  and  afe- 
vere  fuflerer  on  that  account,  great  refptcl  for  the 
church,  and  loyalty  to  his  fovcreign.  He  wrote  levc- 
ral  books  of  piety,  which  arc  highly  cdccmed;  but 
his  Aiarvi  to  iiticoiiveiteil  fiiiiiers  is  more  famous  than 
the  red.  There  have  been  many  editions  of  this  little 
pious  work,  the  falc  of  which  has  been  very  great ;  of 
the  edition  1 6  72, there  were  20,000  foldjof  that  of  1675, 
with  this  title,  ^4 poe guide  to  heaven,  50,000.  There 
wasalfoa  large  impreflion  of  it  with  itsfirdtitlcin  1720. 

ALLELUIAH,  or  Halleluiah,  a  word  (igni- 
fying,  praife  the  LortJ,  to  be  met  with  cither  at  ihe 
beginning  or  end  of  foine  pfalms  :  fuch  is  plalm  cxlv. 
and  ihofe  that  follow,  to  the  end.  Alleluiah  was  fung 
upon  folcmn  days  of  rejoicings,  Tobit  xiii.  12.  St  John 


in  the  Revelations  (xix.  i,3,4,6.)fays,  that  he"  heard  AIIcm»aJ 
a  great  voice  of  much  peojilc  in  heaven,  who  faid,  Al-  II 

Icluiah  ;  and  the  four  and  tvventy  elders,  and  the  four  ■^^''"- 
beads,  fell  down  and  worfhippcd  God  tliat  fat  ou  the  * 
throne,  faying  /lllcluiah.'"  This  hymnof  joy  and  prai- 
fcs  was  trantferrcd  from  the  fy  nagoguc  to  the  church. 
St  Jerom  tells  us,  that  at  the  fuucial  of  tabiola  fevc- 
ral  pfalnis  were  fung  with  loud  alltluiahs  ;  and  that 
the  monks  of  I'aledinc  were  awakened,  at  their  mid- 
night watcliings,  with  ihc  linging  of  alleluiahs.  So 
much  energy  ha=  been  obftrvcd  in  this  lerui,  that  the 
ancient  church  thought  proper  to  prefervc  it,  without 
tranllating  it  cither  into  Greek  or  Latin,  for  fear  of 
impairing  the  genius  and  foftnefs  of  it.  The  fourth 
council  of  Toledo  has  prohibited  the  ufe  of  it  in  tinics, 
of  Lent,  or  other  days  of  fading,  and  in  the  ceremo- 
nies of  mourning  :  and,  according  to  tlie  prcfent  prac- 
tice of  the  Romilli  church,  this  word  is  never  repeated 
ill  Lent,  nor  in  the  obfequics  of  the  dead  ;  nutwith- 
daadi  g  which,  it  is  ufed  in  the  niafs  for  the  dead, 
according  to  the  mofarabic  ritual, at  the  introit,  wh.tu 
they  fing,  Tu  cs  part.o  mea,  Domine,  AlUUiia,  inter- 
raviViiitium,  j^ilUiiia,  AUetuia.  The finging alleluiali 
was  oftentimes  an  invitaiory  or  call  to  each  other  to 
praife  the  Lord. 

ALLEMAND   a  fort  of  grave  folcn;n  mufic,  with 

good  meafure,  and  a  llow  movement It  is  alfo  a  brifk 

kind  of  dance,  very  common  in  Germany  and  Swit- 
zerland. ^ 

ALLEMANNIC,  in  a  general  fenfe,  denotes  any 
thing  belonging  to  the  ancient  Germans.  Thus,  we 
meet  witli  /\lleniannic  ]iidi.ry,  Ajlcmannic  language, 
Allemannic  law,  S:c. 

ALLEN  (John)  archbiihop  of  Dublin  in  the  reign 
of  king  Henry  VIII.  was  educated  in  the  univcrlity 
of  Oxford  ;  from  whence  removing  to  Cambridge,  he 
there  took  the  degree  of  ba-  hclor  of  laws.  He  was 
fenr  by  Dr  Waih.m,  archbilliop  of  Canterbury,  to 
the  pope,  about  certain  matters  relating  to  the  church. 
He  continued  at  Rome  nine  years,  and  was  created 
dodtor  of  laws  ;  either  there  or  in  fome  other  uiiivtr- 
fity  of  Iialy.  After  his  return,  he  was  appoinict! 
chaplain  to  Cardinal  Wolfcy,  and  was  conimill'ary  or 
judge  of  his  court  as  legate  a  lulere ;  in  the  execution 
of  which  office  he  was  iufpccted  of  great  diflionedy, 
and  even  perjury.  He  aflilted  the  cardinal  in  viliting, 
and  afterwards  fupprefiing,  40  of  the  fmallcr  nionade- 
ries,  for  the  ereiition  of  his  college  atOxfordand  that 
at  Ipfwicii.  The  cardinal  procured  for  him  the  living 
of  Dalby  in  Leiccderlhire,  though  it  belonged  to  the 
madcr  and  brethren  of  the  hofpital  of  Biirion  Lazars. 
About  the  Litter  end  of  the  year  ijij  he  was  incor- 
porated doctor  of  laws  in  the  univerlity  of  Oxford. 
On  the  i?ih  of  March  i  52S  he  was  confccrated  arch- 
biihop of  Dublin,  in  tlie  room  of  Dr  Hugh  Inge  de- 
ccafed  ;  and  about  the  fiurn;  time  was  made  chancellor 
of  Ireland.  He  wrote,  1.  E^-i/lo/a  tie  I\i//ii  fignifie^- 
tioneaflipa  ei  pajfiva  ;  penned  by  Liui  at  the  lime  when 
he  received  the  archicpifcopal  pall.  2.  De  ctHCiietuJi- 
nibiii  ac  patniis  in  tuitoriij  canjii  olferi' audit.  He  • 
wrote  alfo  fcvcral  other  pieces  rel.iting  to  tlic  church. 
His  death,  which  happened  in  J.ily  1554,  w'as  very 
tragical:  for  being  taken  in  a  time  of  rebellion  l-y 
Thomas  Fitzgerald,  cldcd  fon  to  the  carl  of  Kildare, 
he  was  by  his  command  mod  cruelly  murdered,  being 

briir.ed 


ALL  [     47 

Allen     biaine  J  like  an  ox,  at  Tariaii'.e  in  Ireland,  in  il:c  58ih 
J         year  of  iiis  age.      The  phcc  where  tlic  murder  w,iS 
/■'.Lrioii.  c.rar.iiiitd  was  aturwarus  hedged  ia,ov<r^rowii,  atid 
'       ^         ua.rcqucnted,  in  detella'iioii  ottiic  fact. 

A^LEN  (Thoiius),  a  t'amousmathcinaticiaii  of  ihc 
T6:h  ctiujry,  born  at  Ltoxeitr  in  Statt'ordlhire  the 
2IU  of  December   154;.     He  was  adr.iitted  fchoUr 
of  Trinity-college  Oxford  the  4th  of  June  1561  ;  and 
in  15A7  tooli  Li.->  dcgric  of  mailer  of  arts.     In   1570 
he  quitted  liio  college  and  fcUowlhip  and  rciircd  to 
Gloncelter-hall ;  where  he  lladicd  very  clcifcly,  and  bi-- 
ian>c  famous  for  his  knowledge  in  antiquity,  philofo- 
phy,  and  mathematics.  Having  received  an  invitation 
from  Henry  earl  of  Nortiiiiniberland,  a  great  Iriend 
and  patron  of  the  mathematicians,  he  fpent  fome  time 
at  the  carl's  hoiife,  where  he  became  acquainted  with 
t!iofccckbratedmathtmaticiausihoraas  Harriot,  John 
Dee,  VV  alter  Warner,  and  Naihanicl  Torpoi  ley.  Ko- 
licrt  carl  of  Lticertcr  had  a  particular  eftecui  for  Mr 
-■Mien, and  would  have  conferred  abilhopric  upon  him, 
biit  hii  love  of  folitudc  and  retirement  made  him  de- 
cline the  oiler.     His  great  Ikill  in  the  mathematics 
made  tl:e  ignorant  and  vulgar  look  upon  him  as  a  ma- 
j',iciiin  or  conjurer  :  the  author  of  a  book  iniitlcd  Lei- 
c:Jlei  's  CoK:f!jo/!U'ea7i/!,liasa.ccording\y  accufed  him  with 
iifmg  the  art  of  figuring,  to  procure  the  carl  of  Lci- 
celler's  unlaw  fuldeligus.and  endeavouring  by  the  black 
art  to  bring  about  a  match  betwixt  him  and  Queen 
Elizabeth.     But  without  pretending  to  point  out  the 
abfurdity  of  (he  charge,  it  is  certain  tliat  the  earl  pla- 
red  fuch  confidence  in  Allen,  that  noihing  material  in 
the  flate  was  tranfaclcd  without liis knowledge;  and  the 
earl  had  conrtant  information,  by  letter,  from  Mr  Al- 
len, of  what  palled  in  the  univcrlity.     Mr  Allen  was 
very  cniiousand  indefatigable  in  collefling  fcattered 
inanufcripts  relating  to  hiflory,  antiquity,  allronomy, 
philofophy,  and  mathematics  :   thtfe  collections  have 
been  quoted  by  fcveral  learned  authors,  Sec.  and  uien- 
tioned  to  have  been  isi  the  Bibliotheca  Alleniana.   He 
publilhed  in  Latin  the  fecond  and  third  books  of  Clau- 
dius Ptolemy  of  Pelulium,  Couch iiii:g  the   "judgment 
if  ikc  Stars,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  of  the  Qjja- 
Jripaitile Cctifiruflioii,  with  an  cxpolition.     He  wrote 
alfo  notes  on  many  of  Lilly's  books,  and  fome  on  Jolin 
Bale's  work  De  icr/ftoi  ii.is  Al.  Bnta/i/iite.     Having 
lived  to  a  great  age,  he  died  at  Gloucefler-hallon  the 
30th  of  September  1652. 

ALLENDORF,  a  fmall  town  in  the  circle  of  the 
Upper  Rhine,  and  in  the  landgravaie  of  HclFc-CalTel, 
remarkable  for  its  lalt-works  and  three  flonc-bridges. 
It  is  feated  on  the  river  Wefcr,  i  5  miles  eafl  of  Cali'el ; 
E.  Long.  10.  5.  N.  Lat.  51.  26. 

ALLEU,  a  river  which  runs  through  the  duchy  of 
Lunenburg,  and  falls  into  the  Wcfcr  a  little  below 
Verdcn. 

Ali.ep.,  £00.'/,  in  ancient  writers.  The  word 
uliir  fervcs  to  make  the  exprelTion of  fuperlative  figni- 
lication.  So,  a//t)-^(/C(./is  the  greatcit  good.  Some- 
times it  is  written  atJer. 

ALLERION,  or  Alerion,  in  heraldry,  a  fort  of 
eagle  without  beak  or  ftct,  having  noihing  perfect  but 
the  wings.  They  ditler  from  martlets  by  having  their 
wina;scxp'.nded,  whereas  thofe  of  thema'ile  tare  dole; 
and  denote  imperialifls  vanquilhed  and  difarmed  ;  for 
which  rcafou  they  arc  more  common  in  French  than  in 
German  coats  of  arms. 

2 


] 


ALL 


AI.LESTRY  (Richard,  D.  D.)  an  eminent  di\i:-.c, 
bor:'.  it  Uppiiigtou  in  Shroplhirein  March  i6i9,\\as 
educated  in  the  gramlnar-lchool  at  Covciiiry,  ai:d  af- 
tcrwardsatChriii-church  in  Oxford.  Hi5parts,\\hich 
\\c  re  extraordinary,  were  improved  by  anolcfs  extra- 
ordinary iiiduftry.  He  took  up  arms  for  king  Charles  I. 
and  was  fometimcs  fcen  with  his  mulket  in  one  hand 
and  his  book  in  the  other.  He  was  very  active  in  the 
fcrvice  of  king  Charles  II.  before  his  reHoration,  and 
was  employed  by  the  royalills  in  tranfiiiting  bufincfj 
with  tt;at  prince  during  his  exile  j  but  was  atlall  feized 
at  Dover  by  a  party  of  foldicrs,  and  cummittcd  pri- 
foucr  to  Lam-bcth  hoi.fc,  where  he  was  confined  lixor 
eight  weeks:  but  foon  after  the  relloraiion  he  was 
made  canon  of  Chrift-church,  created  dodor  of  divi- 
nity, and  appointed  chajdain  in  ordinary  to  the  king, 
and  rcgius  profcifor  of  divinity.  In  1665  he  was  ap- 
pointid  j)r()Voll  of  Eton  college,  where  he  railed  the 
Jchool,  which  he  found  in  a  low  condition,  to  an  un- 
common pitch  of  reputation.  The  we/l  lide  of  the 
outward  quadrangle  of  that  college  was  built  from  the 
ground  at  his  cxpence.  'I  he  excellent  Dr  Hamn'ond, 
who  was  his  intimate  friend,  left  him  his  valuable 
library, %vhich  he  I'.imfelf  afterwards  bequeathed  tohis 
fucceli'brs  in  the  divinity  chair.  He  was  eminent  for 
his  piety,  benevolence,  and  integrity;  for  the  fmcerity 
01  his  fiicndihip,  and  his  dilinterefled  temper.  He 
wrote  fcveral  books  ;  and  a  colledion  of  his  fernions 
were  printed  after  his  dcceafe  by  Dr  Fell  bilhop  of 
Oxford.     He  died  Anguft  28.  1680. 

Allestry  (Jacob),  an  Englilh  poet  of  the  lall 
ceritury.  He  was  the  fon  of  James  Allellry,  a  book- 
fdlcr  of  London  who  was  ruined  by  the  great  fire  in 
1666.  Jacob  was  educated  at  VVedminiicr  fchool, 
entered  at  C'hrifl-church  Oxford,  in  the  act  term  1671 
at  the  age  of  18.  and  was  eledled  ftudent  in  1672. 
He  took  the  degree  in  arts;  was  mufic-reader  in  1679, 
and  terrje  tilius  in  16.S1  ;  both  which  offices  he  exe- 
cuted with  great  applaufc,  being  cdeemed  a  good  phi- 
lologift  and  poet.  He  had  a  chief  hand  in  the  verfcs 
and  paftoralsfpokcn  in  ihe  theatre  at  Oxford  May  21. 
168 1,  by  Mr.  W  illiam  Savile  fecond  fon  of  the  Mar- 
quis of  Halifax,  and  George  Cholmonddey  fecond 
fon  of  Robert  vifcount  Krlls  (both  of  Chri/l-church), 
before  James  dukeof  Yoik,  his  duchefs,  and  the  laJy 
Anne;  which  verfes  and  pallorals  were  afterwards 
printed  in  the  "  Examen  Poeticum."  He  died  October 
15.  1686,  and  was  buried  in  St  Thomas's  church-yard. 

ALLEV  EURE,  a  fmall  brafs  Swcdilh  coin,  worth 
about  ^d.  Englifh  money. 

ALLEVl.'^ TION,  denotes  the  making  a  thing 
li>;hter,  and  eaficr  to  bear  or  endure.  It  ftands  oppo- 
fed  to  aggravation. 

ALLEY  (William),  bifliop  of  Exeter  in  the  reign 
of  queen  Elizabeth,  was  born  at  Great  Wycomb  in 
Buckinghamlhire.  From  Eton  fchool,  in  the  year 
1 528,  he  removed  to  king's-coUege Cambridge,  where 
he  took. the  degree  of  liichelor  of  arts.  He  alfo  flu- 
died  fome  time  at  OxlV.rd;  afierwards  he  married,  was 
prefentcd  to  a  living,  and  became  azealuus  reformer. 
Upon  queen  Mary 'sacceifion  he  left  his  cure  and  reti- 
red into  the  north  of  England;  where  he  maintaiiicd 
his  wife  and  himfelf  by  teaching  aft hooi,  and  piacli- 
fmg  phyfic.  Queen  Elizabeth  afcending  :hc  throne, 
he  went  to  London,  where  he  acquired  great  reputa- 
tion by  reading  the  diviniiylcQure  at  St  Paul's,  and 

in 


ALL 


[     AV     J 


A  L  L 


Alley  111  July  1560  was  co.'ifccnj'.ctl  bilhop  ofE;;tcr.  He 
II  was  cicutcd  dodor  of  divinity  at  OxforJ  in  November 
Allcyn.  ij6r.  He  died  on  the  ijth  of  April  1J70,  and  was 
b.iricd  at  Lxtcr  in  the  cathedral.  He  wrote,  i.  Tht 
poor  man' i  library,  2  vol.  fol.  LoiiJ.  IS7I.  Thclc  vo- 
lumes contain  twelve  leclurcs  011  the  hrft  epiftle  of 
St  Peter,  read  at  Si  Paul's.  2.  A  H^bnw grammar, 
^V'llc^hcrit  v.asevcrpublilhcd  i>  u'lccrtain.  He  iraiif- 
htcd  ilic  Pcnratciich,in  tiie  verlionof  the  Bible  which 
was  unccrtikcn  by  queen  Elizabeth'^  coinn):uid. 

All£Y,  in  gardening,  a  (Iraij^ht  p»<-allel  wa'k, 
bounded  on  both  fides  with  trees,  llirubs,  8;c.  and 
ufaally  covered  v.  ith  gravel  or  turf. 

Alley,  anung  builders,  denotes  a  narrow  paiTage 
leading  from  one  place  to  another. 

Alley,  in  pcrlpciftive,  that  which,  in  order  to  h:ivc 
a  greater  appearance  of  Icngtii,  is  made  wider  at  tlie 
crhtrance  than  at  the  termination. 

Alley,  in  the  new  hufbanJry,  implies  the  vacant 
fpacc  between  the  outcrmofl  row  of  corn  on  one  bed 
and  the  ncarefl  row  to  it  on  the  next  parallel  bed  ;  and 
it  is  iifuaily  about  four  feet  in  breadth,  txthifivf  of 
the  partitions  between  the  rows  of  corn  in  tlie  beds. 
The  firfl  hoeing  of  wheal  is  performed  in  the  begin- 
ning of  winter,  and  the  earth  is  ploughed  away  from 
tiie  r>-)ws  into  the  intervals,  which  forms  fmall  ridges 
in  the  middle  between  the  double  rows.  The  fccond 
hoeing  is  in  the  fpring,  which  turns  it  back  to  the 
rovvs,lcavinga  furrowin  the  middle  of  the  alley.  The 
tliird  hoeing  is  from  the  rows,  after  the  wheat  has 
bloifomed  ;  this  turns  the  earth  into  the  intervals, 
forming  fmall  ridges  there,  as  at  the  firft  hoeing.  The 
fourth  hoeing  return^  the  earth  to  the  ridges,  which 
is  performed  a  month  or  more  after  the  thiid  liocing. 
This  commonly  finilbes  the  horft-hoeingS;  it' the  land 
is  in  good  heart ;  othtrwifc  one  or  two  more  hoei.igs 
are  necclFary. 

ALLEYN  (Edward),  a  celebrated  Englilh  adlor 
in  the  reigns  of  queen  Elizabeth  and  king  James,  and 
founder  of  the  college  at  Dulwich  in  Surry,  was  born 
at  London,  in  the  parilliof  St  Gotolph,  Sept.  i.  1566, 
as  .ippears  from  a  memorandum  of  his  own  wriung. 
Dr  Fuller  fays,  that  he  was  bred  a  Uage-p'ayer  :  and 
that  bis  father  would  have  given  him  a  liberal  educa- 
tion, but  that  he  was  not  turned  for  a  ferious  courfc 
of  life.  He  was,  however,  a  youth  of  an  excellent 
capacity,  a  cheerful  temper,  a  tenacious  memory,  a 
fwect  elocution,  and  in  his  pcrfonof  a  flately  port  and 
afpeCtjill  which  advantages  might  well  induce  a  young 
jnan  to  take  to  the  theatrical  profeflion.  By  feveral 
authorities  wc  find  he  niufl  have  been  on  the  llage  fome 
time  before  1592  ;  for  at  this  time  he  was  in  high  fa- 
vour with  the  town,  and  greatly  applauded  by  the  bcfl 
judges,  particularly  by  Ben  Johnfon. 

Haywood,  in  his  prolo.rae  to  Marloc's  Jew  of  Mal- 
ta, calls  him  Proteus  for  fliapcs,  and  Rofcius  for  a 
tongue.  He  ufually  played  the  capital  parts,  and  was 
one  of  the  original  aolors  in  Shakefpcare's  plays  ;  in 
fome  of  Ben  Johnfon's  he  wasalfoa  principal  perfor- 
mer :  but  wh.u  charatfters  he  pcrfonated  in  either  of 
thefc  poets,  it  is  dirticult  now  to  determine.  This  is 
owing  to  the  inaccuracy  of  iheir  editors,  who  did  not 
print  the  names  of  the  players  oppoiite  to  the  charac- 
ters they  pcrfiirmed,  as  the  modernciltomis.but  gave 
ope  general  lill  of  aclors  to  the  whole  fct  of  plays,  as 


in  the  old  folio  edition  of  Shal.cfpearc  ;  or  divided  one 
from  the  other,  fctting  the  dramatis  perfonss  before 
the  play;,  anil  the  catalogucof  performers  after  them, 
as  in  Johnfon's. 

It  uiay  appear  farpriruig  how  one  of  Mr  Allcyn's 
profcfllon  Awald  be  enabled  to  erc^t  fu:h  an  cdiSce  as 
Dulwich  College,  and  liberally  ciJow  it  for  the  main- 
tenance of  fo  many  ])erlo.is.  But  it  niutl  be  obfervcJ 
that  lie  had  fume  paternal  fortnne,  which,  though 
finall,  might  hy  a  foundation  for  hi,  future  afflucnct- ; 
and  it  is  to  be  prcfumed,  that  the  profits  he  receiv-.d 
from  ading,  to  one  of  his  provident  and  managing 
difpolition,  and  o.;c  who  by  h.is  excellence  in  phyin* 
drew  at'icr  him  fuch  crowds  of  fpcctator-!,  mufl  have 
coniiJcrably  improved  his  fortune  :  belidcs,  he  was  not 
only  an  aJtor,  but  mailer  of  a  playhoufc,  built  at  his 
own  cxpence,  by  which  he  is  fiiJ  10  have  araafTcd  con- 
fiderablc  wcaUh.  He  was  alfo  keeper  of  the  ki.ig'i 
wild  beafts,  or  miller  of  the  royal  bear-garden,  whicli 
was  frequented  by  vail  crowds  of  fpcclators  ;  and  the 
proritsariiingfrom  thefc  fportsarefiid  to havt  3inounr>- 
ed  to  500 1  per  annum.  He  was  thrice  mirricd  ;  and 
the  poriijns  of  his  two  firil  wives,  they  leaving  him 
flo  iifae  to  inherit,  might  probably  contribute  to  this 
bencfaolion.  Such  kind  of  donations  have  been  fre- 
quently thought  to  proceed  more  from  vanity  and  of- 
tentaiion  than  real  piety;  but  this  of  Mr  All-yn  has 
bccnafcribed  to  a  very  (inguUr  cau'e,  for  the  devil  has 
been  laid  to  be  the  lirft  promoter  of  it.  Mr  Aubrey 
mentions  a  tradition,  "  That  Mr  Alleyn  playing  a  dc- 
"  mon  with  fix  others,  in  one  of  Shakcfpeare's  plays, 
"  was,  in  the  mi.id  of  the  pby,  furprifcJ  by  an  ap- 
"  parition  of  the  devil  ;  which  fo  worked  on  his  f  m- 
"  cy,  tliat  he  made  avow,  which  lie  performed  by 
"  building  Dulwicli  College"  He  began  the  foun- 
dation of  this  college,  under  the  direc'lioa  of  Inigo 
Jo;ies,ii»  161 4  ,  and  the  buildings,  gardens,  &c.  were 
ti'nilhed  in  161  7,  in  which  he  is  faid  to  have  expended 
about  io,ocol.  After  the  college  was  built,  he  met 
with  fome  ditficulty  in  obtaining  a  charter  for  fettling 
his  lands  in  mortmain  :  for  he  propofed  to  endow  it 
with  8000 1.  per  annum  for  tlie  nuintcnince  of  one 
maflcr,  one  warden,  and  four  fellows,  three  where jf 
were  to  be  clergymen,  and  the  fourth  a  (kilful  orga- 
nid  ;  alfo  fix  poor  men,  and  as  many  women,  belides 
twelve  poor  boys  to  be  educated  till  the  age  of  four- 
teen or  fixtcen,  and  then  put  o  it  to  fome  trade  or  call- 
ing. ThcobHrut'lion  he  met  with  arofcfromthe  lord 
chancellor  Bacon,  who  wilhed  kingjames  to  fettle  pan 
of  thofe  lands  for  the  fupport  of  two  academical  lec- 
tures; and  he  wrote  a  letter  totheMarquiiof  Buck- 
ingham, dated  Auguft  iS.  1618,  intrcating  hl.n  to 
ufe  his  intcreft  with  his  M  ijcfly  for  that  purpofe.  Mr 
Alley  n'sfolicitation  was  however  at  lafl  complied  witli, 
and  he  obtained  the  royal  li:ence,  giving  him  tullpow. 
er  to  lay  his  foundation,  by  liis  M..jefty's  letter- patent, 
bearing  date  the  2iflof  June,  1619  by  virtue  whereof 
he  did,  in  the  chapel  of  the  fatil  new  hofpiial  at  Dul- 
wich, called  "  The  College  of  Gol's  Gift,"  on  the 
I  3th  of  September  following,  publicly  read  and  pub- 
liHicd  a  quadripartite  writing  in  parchment,  whereby 
he  created  and  eftabliihed  the  faid  college  ;  he  then 
fubfcribedit  wiili  his  name,"  and  fixed  his  feal  to  fe- 
veral parts  thereof,  in  prefence  of  feveral  honourable 
pcrfons,  and  ordered  copies  of  the  writings  to  four 

different 


AUe 


ALL 


[     472 


A  L  L 


AUeyti    difForent  pnriflies.  lie  was  binilVff  ;iic  firft  mafler  of 


II 

Ailiuitco. 


hii  colk-ne  i  fo  tl1.11  to  make  lUc  oi"  the  words  of  Mr 
Haywood,  one  of  his  conicaiporarics,  "  He  was  fo 
"  ini:i>'ltd  with  luiiiiility  aaJ  ch.iri  y,  that  he  became 
"  his  own  pciuioiier,  humbly  fubumtiug  hinifelf  to 
"  thiit  proportion  of  diet  and  clothes  which  he  had 
"  bellowed  on  others."  We  have  no  reafon  totliink 
heever  repented  of  thisdidi  ibiuiou  of  his  fubllancc; 
but  on  the  contrary,  that  he  was  entirely  fatisfied,  as 
appears  from  the  following  mcinorial  in  his  own  wri- 
ting, found  amongil  his  papers  :  "  May  26,  1620 — 
'<  My  wife  and  1  acknowleiJf;,td  the  tine  at  the  com- 
"  nion  picas  bar,  of  all  our  lands  to  the  college  :  blef- 
<'  fed  be  God  that  he  has  given  us  life  to  do  it."  His 
wife  died  in  the  year  1623  ;  and  about  two  years  af- 
terwards lie  married  Conflance  Kinchtoe, who  furvived 
hini,  and  rccilvcd  remarkable  proofs  of  his  aftedtion, 
if  at  Icait  we  may  judge  of  it  by  his  will,  wherein  he 
left  her  coniiderably.  He  died  Nov.  2;.  1626,  in  the 
6i(t  year  of  his  age,  and  was  buried  in  the  chapel  of 
his  new  college, where  there  is  a  tomb-llone  over  his 
grave,  with  an  infcription.  His  origir.al  Diary  is  alfo 
there  prefervcd. 

The  fubjoined  anecdote  is  entertaining  in  itfelf,  and 
Ihows  the  high  efietin  in  which  Mr  .-Mleyn  was  held  as 
an  adtor-:  '  Edward  Alleyn,  the  Garick  of  Shake- 
'  fpear's  time,  had  been  on  the  moll  friendly  footing 
'  with  our  poet,  as  well  as  Ben  Johnfon.  They  nfed 
'  frequently  to  fpend  tluir  evenings  together  at  the 
■■  lign  of  tlie  Globe,  fomewhcre  near  Black  Kriars, 
'  where  the  playhoufe  then  was.  The  world  need  not 
'  be  told,  that  the  convivial  hours  of  fuch  a  triunivi- 
'  rate  mud  be  pleafing  as  well  as  prohtablc,  and  may 
'  truly  be  faid  to  be  fuch  pleafures  as  might  bear  the 
•<  refleilllions  of  the  morning.  In  confequence  of  one 
'  of  thefemceiings.the  following  letter  was  written  by 
•<  G.  Peel,  a  Fellow  of  Chrill-chnrch  college, Oxford, 
'  and  a  dramatic  poet,  wh  <  belonged  to  the  Club,  to 
'  one  Marie,  and  intimate  of  his  : 
"  Friend  Marie, 
"  I  inuA  defyr  that  my  fyflcr  hyr  watch,  and  the 
"■  cookerie  book  you  proniyHd,   may  be  fente  bye  the 

"  man. 1  never  longed  for  thy  company  more  than 

-"  latt  night  :  we  were  all  very  mcrrye  at  the  Globe, 
"  when  Ned  Alleyn  did  not  fcruple  toafFyrme  plea- 
<'  fauntely  to  thy  Friendc  Will,  that  lie  had  ftolen  his 
"  fpeech  about  the  Qjialitycs  of  an  actor's  excellencye 
"  in  Hamlet  hys  Tragedyc,from  converfations  many- 
"  fold  whych  hud  palled  between  them,  andopiuyons 

"  given  by  Alleyn  touching  the  fubjede. Shake- 

"  fpcarc  did  not  take  this  talke  in  good  forte  ;  but 
"  Johnfon  put  an  end  to  the  flrife  with  wittylye  re> 
"  markingc.  This  aff'aire  iieedeth  no  Coiiti-ntion  ;  you 
"  p.oli  it  from  NeJ,  110  doubte  ;  do  not  marvtl :  Have 
"yon  not  pin  him  a^  tyviei  out  oj  number  ? — Believe 
•"  me  moll  fyncerilie,  yours,  C.  Pesl." 

ALLI.\,  a  river  of  Italy,  which  running  down  a 
very  fleep  channel  from  the  mountains  of  Crnflumi- 
iium,  mixes  with  the  Tiber  at  40  miles  from  Rome  ; 
famous  for  t!ie  great  fiaui^hter  of  the  Romans  by  the 
Gauls,  under  Breiinus  ;  hence  Ailienfn  dies,  an  un- 
lucky day,  (Virgil,  Ovid,  Lucan.)  Our  anceflors, 
fays  Cicero,  deemed  tlio  day  of  the  tight  of  yf//».-j  more 
fatal  than  tliat  of  taking  the  city. 

ALLIANCE,  in  the  civil  and  canon  law,  the  rcla- 

3 


tion  coiuraiTicd  between  two  perfouj  or  two  families    /ilU.incc 
by  marriage.  II 

Alliance  is  alfo  nfed  for  a  treaty  entered  into  by  Alligation. 
fovereign  princes  and  dates, for  their  mutual  fafety  and  "       ' 

defence. — In  this  fcnfe, alliances  may  be  dillinguilhcd 
into  fuclii   as  are  offcnlive,  whereby  the  coniradling 
parties  oblige  themfelves  jointly  to  attack  fonie  other 
power;   and  into  delcnlivc  ones,  whereby  they  bind 
themfelves  to  Hand  by  and  defend  each  oilier  in  cafe 
they  are  attacked  by  others Alliance,  with  the  an- 
cient Romans,  though  a  fort  of  fervitude,  was  much 
coveted.   Ariarathes,  we  are  told  by  Poly bius,  offered 
a  facriticc  to  the  gods  by  way  of  thankfgiving  for  ha- 
ving obtained  alliance.    The  reafon  was,  that  thencc- 
forvvards  people  were  fure  not  to  receive  any  injuries 
except  from  them. — There  vv-ere  different  iorts  of  al- 
lies :   fome  only  united  to  them  by  a  participation  of 
the  privileges  of  Romans,  as  the  Latiiii  and  Hernici; 
others  by  tht-ir  very  foundation, as  the  colonics;  others 
by  the  benefaiUonsihcy  received  from  them,  as  Maf- 
llniira,  Eumcncs,  and  Attains,  who  owed  tlicir  king- 
doms to  Rome  ;  others  by  free  treaties,  which  lad  by 
a  long  alliance  became  fubjctt.'^,  as  the  kings  of  Bithy- 
iiia,  Cappadocia,  Egypt,    and  mod  of  the  cities  of 
Greece  :  ladly,  others  by  compullive  treaties,  and  the 
law  of  fubjedlion,  as  Philip  and  Antiochus.      For  they 
never  granted  peace  to  an  enemy,  without  making  an 
alliance  with   him  ;   that  is,   they  never  fubdued  any 
people  without  uli:ig  it  as  a  means  of  fubduing  others. 
The  forms  or  ccremoniesofalliances  have  been  va- 
rious in  different  ages  and  countries.   At  prefent,  lign- 
ingandfwearing,fometimcsat  the  altar,  are  the  chief,- 
anciently  eating  and  drinking  together,  chietly  otfer- 
ingfacriiices  together,  were  thecudomary  rite  of  rati- 
fying an  alliance.     Among  the  Jews  and  Chaldeans, 
heifers  or  calves  ;  among  the  Greeks,  bulls  or  goats  ; 
and  among  the  Romans,  hogs  were  facrificedon  this 
occafion.     Among  the  ancient  Arabs,  alliances  were 
confirmed  by   drawing  blood  outot  the  palms  of  the 
hands  of  the  two  contracting  princes  with  a  (harp 
Hone,  dipping  herein  a  piece  of  their  garments,  and 
therewith  fmcaring  feveii Hones,  at  the  fame  time  in- 
voking the  gods  Vrotalt  and  Alilat,  /.  e.  according  to 
Herodotus,  Bacchus  and  Urania.     Among  the  people 
of  Cholchis,  the  confirmation  of  alliances  is  faid  to  be 
efieiTted  by  one  of  the  princes  offering  his  wife's  breafls 
to  the  other  to  fuck,  which  he  was  obliged  to  do  till 
there  ilFued  blood. 

Alliance,  in  a  figurative  fcnfe,  is  applied  to  any- 
kind  of  union  or  connection  ;  thus  we  fay,  there  is  an 
alliance  between  the  church  and  date. 

ALLIGATI,  in  Roman  antiquity,  the  bafeft  kind 
of  Haves,  who  were  ufually  kept  fettered.  The  Ro- 
mans had  three  degrees,  or  orders,  of  Haves  or  fer- 
vants  ;  the  fird  employed  in  the  iianagement  of  their 
edates  ;  thefecnnd  in  the  medial  or  lower  funclions 
of  the  family  j  the  third  called  alligati,  abovemen- 
tioncd. 

ALLIGATION,  the  name  of  a  method  of  folving 
allqueftions  that  relate  to  the  mixture  of  one  ingredient 
with  another.  Though  writers  on  arithmetic  general- 
ly make  alligation  a  branch  of  that  fcience  ;  yet,  as  it 
is  plainly  nothing  more  than  an  application  of  the 
common  properties  of  numbers,  in  orderto  folve  a  few 
qnellions  that  occur  in  particular  branchesof  bufinefs, 

wc 


ALL  [47 

HigMion  wc  clioorc  rather  to  keep  it  difliiiftfrom  the  fciencc  of 

— ' '  arithmetic. 

Alligation  is  generally  divided  into  rttcdial  or  allcr- 
7iatc. 

j^LLKATios  Medial,  from  the  rates  and  quantities 
of  the  liraplcs  given,  difcovers  the  rate  ofthemixturc. 
Rule.     As  the  total  (]>i:iniity  of  the  fimples, 
To  their  price  or  value  ; 
So  any  quantity  of  the  mixture. 
To  the  rate. 
Examp.     A  grocer  niixcih  30  lb.  of  currants,  at 
4d.  per  lb.  with  10  lb-  of  other  currants,  at  6d.  per 
lb.  :  What  isihe  value  of  i  lb.  of  the  mixture  .'    jinf. 

4id- 

lb.         d.  d. 

30,  at  4  amounts  to  120 


3    3 


ALL 


10,  at  6 


60 


40  J  80 

li.       d.         lb.       d. 
If  40   :   180  :  :    I  :    4| 
Note  I.    When  the   quantity  of  each  fimple  is  the 
fame,  the  rate  of  the  mixture  is  readily  found  by  adding 
the  rates  of  the  fimples,  and  dividing  their  fum  by  the 
number  of  fimplts.     Thus, 

Suppofeagroccrmixes  ftveral  fertsoffugar,  and  of 
each  an  equal  quantity,  viz.  at  Jos.  at  54s.  and  at 
60s:  per  cft't.  the  rate  of  the  mixture  will  be  54s.  £d. 
per  cwt. ;  for 

/.  h  d. 
50+54+60=164,  and  3)164)  54  8 
Note  2.  If  it  be  required  to  increafe  or  diminifh  the 
quantity  of  the  mixture,  fiy,  As  the  fum  of  the  given 
quantitiesof  the(imples,to  the  fevcral  quantities  given; 
fo  the  quantity  of  the  mixture  propofed,  to  the  quan- 
tities of  the  limples  fought. 

Note  3.  If  it  be  required  to  know  how  much  of 
each  fimple  is  an  afligned  portion  of  the  mixture,  fay, 
,  As  the  quantity  of  the  mixture,  to  the  fcveral  quan- 
tities of  the  limples  given  ;  fo  the  quantity  of  the  af- 
figned  portion,  to  the  quantities  of  the  fimples  fought. 
Thus, 

Suppofe  a  grocer  mixes  10 lb.  of  raifins  with  30  lb. 
of  almonds  and  40  lb.  of  currants,  and  it  be  demanded, 
how  many  ounces  of  cacli  fortare  found  in  every  pound 
or  in  every  16  ounces  of  the  mixture,  fay, 
Oz. 
80  :   10  :  :   16  :  2  raifins. 
So  :  50  :  :  16  :  6  almonds. 


40 


f6   :   3  currants. 


Proof  16 

Note  4.  If  the  rates  of  two  fimples,  with  the  total 
value  and  total  quantity  of  the  mixture,  be  given,  the 
quantjiy  of  Mch  limplc  may  be  found  as  follows,  viz. 
Slultiply  the  Idler  rate  into  the  total  quantity,  fub- 
trait  the  producl  from  the  total  value,  and  the  remain- 
der will  he  equal  to  the  produifl  of  the  cxccfsofthe 
hither  rate  above  the  lower,  rniltiplied  intoihc  quan- 
;;ty  of  the  highcr-pricedlimplc  ;  and  confcqurutly  the 
fiid  remainder,  divided  by  the  difference  of  the  rates, 
will  quote  the  faid  quantity.     Tlius^ 

Suppofe  1  grocer  has  a  mixture  of  400  lb.  weight, 
th.itcoft  him  7I.  los.  confiftiiigt>f  raifins  at  4d.  per  lb. 
Vol..  1. 


and  almonds  at  6d.  how  many  pounds  of  aliiiondsArerc  AlliTatina 
in  the  mixture.' 


/.     d. 
io=iSoo 
i6co 


400 
4 


6d, 
4d. 


1600  d.  2d. 


2)2oo(icolb.  of  almonds  at  6  d.  is 
And  30olb.  of  raiiins  at  4  d.  is 


L. 
2 
5 


/. 

10 

o 


Total  400  Proof  7  to 

Alucation  j^itcrnaif,  being  the  convcric  of  alliga- 
tion medial,  from  the  rates  of  the  fimples,  and  rate  of 
the  mixture  given,  finds  the  quantities  of  the  limples. 

Rules.  I.  Place  the  rate  of  the  mixture  on  the 
left  (ide  of  a  brace,  as  the  root ;  and  on  the  right  fide 
of  the  brace  fct  the  rates  of  the  fcveral  limples,  under 
one  another,  as  the  branches.  II.  Link  or  alli^ate  the 
branches,  fo  as  one  greater  and  another  Icfs  than  tlift 
root  may  be  linked  or  yoked  together.  III.  Set  the 
difference  betwixt  the  root  and  the  fcveral  branchcj 
right  againll  their  refpeffive  yoke-fdlows.  Thefe  al- 
ternate ditferencesare  the  quantities  required.  Note  I. 
If  any  branch  happen  to  have  two  or  more  yoke-t'.  1- 
lows,  the  difference  between  the  root  and  thefe  yoke- 
fellows mull  be  placed  right  againft  the  faid  branch, 
one  after  another,  and  added  into  one  fum.  2.  In  fomc 
qucftions,  the  branches  may  be  alligated  more  ways 
than  one ;  and  a  qucftion  will  always  admit  of  fo  many 
anf.vcrs  as  there  arc  different  ways  of  linking  the 
branches 

Alligation  alternate  admits  of  three  varieties,  viz. 
I.  The  quertion  may  be  unlimited,  with  rcfpeft  both 
to  the  quantity  of  the  fimples  and  ihat  of  the  mix- 
ture. 2.  The  qucftion  may  be  limited  to  a  certain 
quantity  of  one  or  more  of  the  fimples.  3.  The  quc- 
ftion may  be  limited  to  a  certain  quantity  of  the  mix- 
ture. 

Variety  I.  When  the  qucftion  is  unlimited,  with 
rcfpeft  both  to  the  quantity  of  the  fimples  and  thai  of 
the  mixture,  this  is  called  Allfgati'.n  Siwfle. 

Exanip.  A  grocer  would  mix  fngars,  at  5  d.  yd. 
and  lod.  per  lb.  fo  as  to  fell  the  mi.^tturc  or  compound 
at  8d.  per  lb. :  What  quantity  of  each  muA  he  take  ,' 

lb. 
■     5-^    2 

(;  ic-c/    3,1 

Here  the  rate  of  the  mixture  3  is  placed  on  the  left 
fide  of  the  brace,  as  the  root ;  and  on  the  right  lidc  of 
the  fame  brace  arc  fi.t  the  rates  of  the  fevcral  fimples, 
viz.  5,  7,  10,  underoae another,  as  the  branches;  ac- 
cording to  Rule  I. 

The  branch  10  being  greater  than  the  root,  is  alli- 
gated or  linked  with  7  and  5,  both  thefe  being  Icfs 
than  the  root  ;  as  direiflcd  in  Rule  II. 

The  difference  between  the  root  8  and  the  branch  5, 
viz.  3,  isfetrightagainftthisbranch'syokc-fcllow  10. 
The  difference  between  8  and  7islikewilc  fet  right  a- 
gainft  the  yoke-fcIlow  to.  And  the  ditlcrence betwixt 
8  and  fo,  viz.  2,  is  fet  right  againft  the  'wo yoke-fel- 
lows 7  and  5  ;   as  pnfcribed  by  Rule  III. 

As  the  braitch  lo  has  two  differences  on  the  right, 
3  O  viz. 


8. 


A  L  L 


[     47+     ] 


ALL 


Alliaafion.  viz.  ;  and  r,  they  arc  adJfd  ;  and  ihe  anfvver  to  the 

^ •  qiicftioii  is,  that  ilb.  at  5J.  2lb.  at  7J.  and  ^Ib.  at  loJ. 

V. ill  make  the  mixture  required. 

The  truth  and  rcaion  of  the  rules  will  appear  by  coii- 
(idering,  that  whatever  is  loft  upon  any  one  branch  is 
gained  upon  its  yoke-fellow.  Thus,  in  the  above  ex- 
ample, by  felling  41b.  of  lod.  fugar  at  8d.  per  lb. 
there  is  8d.  loll:  but  tin  like  Uim  is  gained  upon  its 
two  yoke- fellows  i  for  by  felling  2lb.  of  5d.  fugar  at 
8d.  per  lb.  there  is  6d.  gained  ;  and  by  felling  2lb.  of 
7J.  fugar  at  Sd.  there  is  2d.  gained;  and  6d.  and  2d. 
make  8d. 

Hence  it  follows,  that  the  rate  of  the  mixture  nuift 
always  be  mean  or  middle  with  re(pcv-t  to  (he  rates  of 
the  liniples  ;  that  is,  it  nuift  be  Id's  than  the  greatcll, 
and  greater  than  the  leall ;  otherwife  a  fohuion  would 
be  inipolllble.  And  the  price  of  the  total  quantity 
mixed,  computed  at  the  rate  of  the  mixture,  will  al- 
ways be  equal  to  the  fum  of  the  prices  of  the  fevcral 
quantities  call  up  at  the  refpeclivc  rates  of  the  fimplcs. 

Variety  II.  When  the  qucftion  is  limited  fo  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  one  or  iiiorcof  the  iimplcs,  this  is  call- 
ed Alligation  i  artial. 

If  the  quantity  of  one  of  the  fimples  may  be  limited, 
alligate  the  branches,  and  take  thdr  differences,  as  if 
there  had  been  no  fuch  limitation  ;  and  then  work  by 
the  following  proportion  : 

As  the  difference  right  ag.iinft  the  rate  of  the  fimple 
whofe  quantity  is  given, 

To  the  other  differences  refpeclively  ; 

Jio  the  quantity  given. 

To  the  feveral  quantities  fought. 

Examp.  h  diftiller  would,  with  40  gallons  of  brandy 
at  1 2S.  per  gallon,  mix  rum  at  7s.  per  gallon,  and  gin 
at  4s.  per  gallon  :  How  much  of  the  rum  and  gin  muft 
he  take,  to  fell  the  mixture  at  8s.  per  gallon  ? 
Cal. 
5     40  of  brandy.  ") 
4     q2  of  rum.        >  Aiif. 
4     52  of  gin.  ) 

Theopcration  gives  foranfwer,  j  gallons  of  brandy, 
4  of  rum,  and  4  of  gin.     But  the   queftion  limits  the 
quantity  of  brandy  to  40  gallons  ;  therefore  fay. 
If  5  :  4  :  :  40  :  ?2. 

The  quantity  of  gin,  by  the  operation,  being  alfo  4, 
the  proportion  needs  not  to  be  repeated. 

Variety  III.  When  the  qneftion  is  limited  to  a 
certain  quaiuiiy  of  the  mixture,  this  is  called  Alliga- 
tion Tot  ill. 

After  linking  the  branches,  and  taking  the  differ- 
ences, work  by  the  proportion  following  : 
As  the  fum  of  the  diilcrcnces. 
To  each  particular  ditferenec  ; 
So  the  civen  total  of  the  mixture. 
To  the  rcfpcAivc  quantities  required. 

F.vamp.  A  vintner  hath  wine  at  ^s.  per  gallon,  and 
would  mix  it  with  water,  foastomakea  compofition  of 
144  gallons.  Worth  2S.  6d.  per  gallon :  How  much 
;vine,  and  Low  much  water  mufl  he  take  ? 


CjI. 


8 


C    4V  4 


,^  iS^\3"l  1 20  of  wine.    1    ,    . 
3°{    o)  6  I     24  0fw.ier.  f^">'- 

36  I  1 44  total. 

I  iox  36=4520 

24+  0=       o 

Proof  144)4:520(3  J 
As  36  :  30 :  :  144  :  120 
As  36  :    6  :  :  144  :    24. 

There  being  here  only  two  liniples,  snd  the  total  of 
the  mixture  limited,  the  queftion  admits  bat  of  one  an- 
fwer. 

ALLIGATOPi,  in  zoology,  a  fynonyine  of  the  la- 
certa  crocodilus.     Sec  Lacerta. 

Ai.uaroR  Pear.     SeeLAURos. 

ALLiONIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  nionogy- 
nia  order,  belonging  to  the  tctrandria  elafs  of  plants  ; 
and  in  the  natur.d  method  ranking  under  the  4iili  m-- 
dtr,  Aggr€gat,r.  The  charafters  are  :  The  common 
calyx  is  oblong,  limple, three-do  wcrcd, five-parted,  and 
perlillent ;  the  properonc,  obfcu!e,aix)ve:  TIic  proper 
coi  oUa  is  monopetaluus  and  iunncl-lliaped  ;  the  mouth 
quiiiquclld  and  ercft  :  The  Jjatiiinu  conful  of  four 
brirtly  filaments,  longer  than  the  corolla,  and  bending 
to  one  iide  ;  the  anthera;  are  roundilh  :  The  pi/lillum 
has  an  oblong  gernien  beneath;  the //)•////  is  brift!y,and 
longer  than  the  llamina  ;  thelligmata  are  multitid  and 
linear:  There  is  no pericaipniw  :  'I'he  feeri  are  foli- 
tary,  oblong,  and  naked  :  The  rcceptaeiilum  is  naked. 
There  arc  two  fpecies,  the  violcacea  and  incarnata, 
both  natives  of  America. 

ALLIOTH,  a  liar  in  the  tail  of  the  greater  bear, 
much  ufc  for  finding  the  latitude  at  fca. 

ALLITERATION,  an  oriia:?ient  of  language 
chiefly  ufed  in  poetry,  and  conliiting  in  the  repetition 
of  the  fame  letter  at  certain  intervals.  Wc  do  not  re- 
member to  have  ever  feen  any  fatisfaftory  account  of 
alliteration  in  the  writings  of  the  critics.  They  feem 
to  have  palled  it  over  in  contemptuous  filence  ;  cither 
as  a  fall'c  refinement  or  as  a  mere  trille.  It  perhaps 
deferves  a  better  fate.  Many  chapters  have  been  com- 
pofed  on  quantity,  on  the  exprclTion  refulting  from 
diti'crent  arrangements  of  long  and  lliort  fyllables,  and 
on  the  pov.'ers  of  paufes  as  they  are  varioufly  placed, 
without  a  word  of  alliteraiion.  This  is  the  more  ex- 
traordinary, as  one  fliould  think  i:  impolUble  for  any 
man  to  examine  minutely,  and,  as  it  were,  diffeet  a 
number  of  verfes,  without  perceiving  the  valt  abund- 
ance of  this  ornament.  It  is  as  if  an  an  .tomift  fliould 
publifli  a  complete  table  of  the  arteries  in  the  human 
body,  and  affect  never  to  have  feen  a  vein  nor  a  nerve: 
for  it  may  be  afiirmcd,  with  fmall  danger  of  miftake, 
that  if  you  examine  any  numberof  verfes,  remarkable 
cither  for  fweetnefs  or  for  energy,  they  will  be  found 
in  fome  degree  alliterative.  We  do  not  pretend  to 
iiy,  that  the  fweetnefs  and  energy  of  verfificaiion  de- 
pends chiefly  on  this  circumllanee,  yet  we  cannot  help 
believing  that  it  may  claim  fome  ihare:  for  it  is  a  con- 
fiant  appearance,  as  far  as  we  have  ever  obferved,  that 
the  poets  whofe  fame  is  higheft  for  verfilication,  arc 
mod  extcnlive  dealers  in  this  article. 

The  trifling  poor  appearanceof  the  ornamen:  itfelf, 

upoa 


ALL 


[ 


Aliitcra-   Upon  .1  fnpcrficial  view,  and  the  frequent  abiifc  of  it 
t«n       arc  circiui!  fiances  i  II  Jcfdwl'.iclijrive  no  ciicouragcmetic 

' toa  lerioiisi'.iqiiiry  into  its  nature  and  operation.   How 

common  is  ittor  writers,  wlioalfe^t  to  be  comic,  when 
ia  wunt  of  oilier  nicans  i'or  vhum]^  a  fmilc,  lo  ufc  af- 
ffrtcd  alliteration  with  fucccfi.  but,  in  the  Jincarts, 
no  beauty  nor  grace  is  beyond  the  power  of  ridicnlc. 
The  noblell  anitiiJcs  in  painting  have  been  rendered 
laiigliable  by  caricatura.  t>t  I'aul  preaching  at  Athens, 
in  the  dcfign  of  Raphael,  appears  eleg;ant,  nobl-,  and 
in  fonic  degree  awful.  The  lame  apoltle,  reprcfented 
by  Hogarth  in  nearly  the  fame  attitude,  pleading  be- 
fore the  governor  Felix,  fcems  altogether  ridicuiou:i. 
iio  the  language  and  vcrliticaiion  of  Milton  ia  the  I'a- 
radil'e  Loll  appear  only  proper  for  the  moll  elevated 
fubjciSs.  In  the*  Splendid  Shilling  of  Philips,  they 
appear  equally  proper  for  the  lowcit.  So  fares  it  alfo 
with  alliteration.  Nor  ought  wc  to  be  mortified  at  the 
difcovcry,  that  much  of  the  delight  afforded  by  verfi- 
lication  arifes  from  a  caufc  fo  pitiful  as  the  repetition 
of  the  fame  letter  twice,  oroftncr,  on  the  accer.tcd 
parts  of  a  verfe  j  for  there  are  many  other  caufes  of 
plcafurc,  which,  when  thus  detected  and  taken  to 
pieces,  feem  equally  contempiule. 

We  apprehend  the  principal  operation  of  this  orna- 
ment to  be  quite  mechanical.  It  is  eafier  for  the  or- 
gans of  fpecch  to  refume,  ai  fliort  intervals,  one  cer- 
tain conformaiion,  than  to  throw  themfclves  into  a 
number  of  dilTerent  ones,  uneonnefted  and  difcordaiit. 
For  example,  a  fucctflion  of  labials,  interfperfcd  at 
regular  diflances  with  dentals  and  gutturals,  will  be 
more  ealily  pronounced  than  tiic  fucceffion  of  all  the 
three  at  random.  Sounds  of  which  the  articulation  is 
ea(iefl,arc  molt  completely  in  thcpowerofthc  fpcaker. 
He  can  pronounce  them  llowly  or  rapidly,  fofily  or 
with  force,  at  pleafure.  In  this  wc  imagine  the 
power  and  advantage  of  alliteration  is  founded  :  for 
we  would  not  lay  any  flrefs  on  the  pleafure  which 
can  refult  to  the  ear  from  the  repetition  of  the  fame 
letter.  It  has  been  compared  to  the  frequent  returns 
of  the  key-note  in  amulical  ftrain  ;  but  that  analogy 
is  extremely  faint.  'J"he  car,  we  prefume,  can  be 
pleafed  with  alliteration  only  in  fo  far  as  it  contributes 
to  ihefupperioreafmcfsof  recitation  ;  forwhat  is^reei- 
tcd  with  cafe  muft  be  heard  with  plcafurc. 

Thefe  remarks  might  be  confirmed  and  illuftrated 
by  numberlefs  palTages  from  the  beft  poets.  Some  few 
lines  will  fufiice,  taken  from  Gray, who  fcems  to  have 
pjid  particular  attention  to  this  grace.  He  profcllcd 
to  have  learned  his  vcrdtTcation  from  Dryden,as  Dry- 
den  did  from  Spencer;  and  thefe  three  abound  in 
alliteration  above  all  the  Knglilh  poets.  We  choofe 
Gray  for  another  rcafnn,  in  proof  of  what  we  men- 
tioned before,  that  allitcmtion  contributes  not  only  to 
l\\c  f-dicet>:cfi,  but  alio  to  the  ?7/."r?^,  of  vcrfification  ; 
for  he  ufcs  it  chicHy  when  he  aims  at  flrength  and 
buldnefs.  In  the  Sifl^r  OJei  (as  Dr  Johnfon  flylcs 
them),  almort  every  ilrophe  con:picnccs  and  concludes 
with  an  alliterative  line.  The  poet,  wc  fuppofe,  wifh- 
ed  to  begin  wkh  force,  and  end  with  dignity. 

"  ^uia  fcize  thee,  ruthlefs  king." 

"  To/ngh-born  A'oel's  Aarp,  or  foft  /,lewe/]yn's  /ay." 

"  Weave  the  warp,  and  meave  the  tiooi." 

*'  Stamp  weourvenj;caucc  Aep, and  ratify  hisi/oom." 


75     J  ALL 

"  llcgardlcfb  of  thc/weeping  whirlwind's /w?y." 
"That  hufh'd  in  grim  rr/oic,  e,\  cc.s  biscv'ning 
/rey.'. 

It  muft  Le  cblcrvcd  here,  that  wc  hold  a  verfe  all:- 
icraiivc  which  has  a  letter  rcpeatcj  on  its  acctn'.cd 
parts,  ahhoUj;h  thofc  parts  do  nvt  begin  words  ;  the 
repealed  letter  bearing  a  flrong  cnxlogy  to  the  bars  in 
a  uiufical  phrafc.  Gray  feems  to  have  had  a  partiju- 
lir  liking  loihcfc  fort  of  balanced  \c:fc3,  which  divide 
equaily,  and  of  which  the  oppolUc  fides  have  an  alli- 
terative rcfcniblance. 

''  Eyes  that^flow,  and  fangs  that^rin, 

"  Thoughts  that  (Jreathc,  a:id  words  that  ^arn." 

■"  A'auberk  cralh,  and  helmet  ring." 

All  thefe  lines  appear  to  us  to  have  a  force  and 
energy,  arifing  from  alliteration,  which  rendcrj  them 
cafy  to  be  recited  ;  or,  if  tiie  reader  pleafes,  miuthtd. 
For  the  fame  reafon  the  following  pa.Tage  appears  fal 
and  folcmn,  by  the  repetition  of  the  labial  liquid. 

"  /Ifcuntains,  ye  wourn  in  vain." 
"  jt/odred  whole  w^agic," — &c. 

If  alliteration  thus  contributes  to  enforce  the  ex- 
prcfTton-of  a  poetical  fentimeni,  its  ad  vantages  in  poetry- 
mull  be  confidcrablc.  It  is  not,  therefore,  unworthy 
a  poet's  regard  in  the  aft  of  eompolition.  If  two 
Words  offer  of  equal  propriety,  the  one  alliterative  the 
other  not,  we  think  the  firlt  ought  to  be  chofcn.  We 
would  compare  this  to  the  practice  of  fuguing  in  mu- 
'jc.  A  coinpofcr  who  aimsat  exprellion  will  not  hjr.t 
after  fugues  ;  but  if  they  of!er,  if  they  feem  to  arlfe 
fpon tan eoudy  from  the  fubje£t,he  will  not  rejeft  them. 
So  a  good  poet  ought  not  to  feleft  an  epithet  merely 
for  beginning  with  a  certain  Ic'.ter,  unlc fs  it  fuit  his 
purpolc  well  in  every  other  relpeft  ;  for  the  beauty  cf 
alliteration,  when  happy,  is  not  greater  than  its  de- 
formity when  affected.  \  couplet  from  Pope  will  ex- 
emplify both  ;  the  firft  line  being  bad,  and  the  fecond 

good : 

"  Eternal  beauties  grace  the  /hiniog/ccne, 

"  /"iclds  every  i-elh,  and  proves  for  evergreen." 

ALLIUM  (from  ix«»,  "  to  avoid  or  flinn,"  bccaufe 
many  ihun  the  fmellof  it).  Garlic  :  A  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  hexandria  clafs  of 
plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  in  the  9th 
order,  Spathacer.  The  characters  are  :  iLc  caijx  is 
a  common  fpatba,  roundilh,  withering,  and  multi- 
florous: The  corolla  coniifts  oi  lix  oblong  petals  :  The 
jlaiij-na  have  II.K  fubulatcd  filaments,  often  the  length 
of  the  corolla;  the  anibcra;  are  oblong  and  creel :  The 
fif.illiim  has  a  gcrmen  above,  (liorter,  nearly  three- 
cornered,  with  angles  engra\  e J  w  ith  a  line  ;  the  fly li 
arc  fimi'le,  the  fliginata  acute  :  The pericar/-iutn  is  a 
very  fliort,  broad,  tltree-lobedcapfulc,  with  three  cells 
and  three  valves  :  The/rftij  are  many  and  roundilh. 
Of  this  genus  no  fewer  than  40  different  Ipecies  arc 
enumerated  by  Linns:us,anung  which  he  iacladcs  the 
cepa  and  porrum,  or  onions  and  leeks. 

I.' The  fativum,  or  garlic,  has  a  bulbous  root,  of 

an  rrregnlar  roundilli  Ihape,  with  I'cvernl  fi'jresat  the 

bottom  ;  each  root  is  compofed  of  a  ntimbcr  of  IciTer 

bulbs,  called  c.'fff.'/  of  garlic,  inclofcd  in  one  common 

^  O   2  n'cmb';;ncus 


/.Ilifira 

lion. 
Allium, 


ALL 


[    476    3 


ALL 


Allium,  latmbjar.ous  c-u;ii,:!nd  cafily  fcjMrablc  from  one  anot'icr. 
'  •■f—^  h\\  ihc  parts  ol  ibis  plant,  but  more  cfpcci.lly  ibc 
roots,  have  an  acrimonious,  and  almollcaullic  tallc, 
\vith  a  llrong  oit'cnllvc  lincH,  wliicli  lalt  lias  induced 
iJioft  who  prcfcrved  Ionic  of  the  fpccics  in  gardcn^on 
account  of  tlitir  yellow  ilowcrs,  to  eradicate  tlieiii. 

This  pungent  root  warms  and  llimiilatts  the  folids, 
and  attenuates  tenacious  juices  ;  for  which  it  is  well 
adapted,  on  accoiint  of  its  being  very  penetrating  ;  in- 
foniuch  that,  when  applied  to  tlic  feet,  its  f;;ent  is 
foon  difcovcrcd  in  the  breath  ;  and,  when  taken  inter- 
nally, its  linell  is  conununicaicd  to  the  urine,  or  the 
matter  of  an  ilfuc,  and  pcrfpircs  through  the  pores  of 
ihcfkjn.  Hence,  in  cold  Icucophlegmaiic  habits,  it 
proves  a  powerl ul  expectorant,  diuretic,  and  tuimena  » 
gognc  ;  and,  if  the  patient  is  kept  warm,  fudoriiic. 
it  is  alfo  of  great  fervice  i.i  humoral  aUhmas  and  ca- 
larrhousjdifordcrsot  the  breall,  a;  din  other  difonlers 
proceeding  froniaiaxiiy  of  the  folids,  and  cold  llug^ilh 
indiipolitions  of  the  Hiiids.  It  is  alfo  frequently  ot  ler- 
viccir.  thcdropfy  ;  in  the  beginning  of  which  it  is  par- 
ticularly recommended  by  Sydenham,  as  a  warm 
Jtrengthening  medicine  :  we  have  even  many  examples 
where  it  acts  lo  powerfully  as  a  aiuretic,  as  to  eai  ry  otF 
all  the  water  ot  dropfies.  It  may  be  taken  the  length 
of  a  dramor  two  in  fubllancc  for  a  dofe. — There  is  a 
lyrup  and  oxyaicl  made  with  it,  which  may  be  em- 
ployed for  the  fame  purpofes  as  the  garlic  in  fub- 
llancc; but  they  are  inoilly  ufed  in  pulmonic  difirders. 
— Externally  applied,  it  inrtamcs  and  ulccrites  the 
Ikin,  and  is  fomeiimes  employed  for  this  u(e  in  fina- 
piims.  Ii  has  alfo  been  recommended  by  Sydenham 
as  a  mull  powerful  revcUcnt;  forvvhich  purpofc  he  was 
led  to  make  ufe  of  it  in  the  confluent  final  1-pox.  His 
method  was  to  cut  the  root  in  pieces,  and  apply  it, 
tied  in  a  linen  cloth,  to  the  foles  of  the  feet,  about  the 
eighth  day  of  the  difeafc,  after  the  face  began  tofvvcll ; 
renewing  it  once  a  day  till  the  danger  was  over. — 
When  made  into  an  unguent  with  oils,  and  apjilied 
externally,  garlic  is  faid  to  rcfolve  and  difcufs  cold 
tumours,  and  has  been  by  fome  greatly  celebrated  in 
cutaneous  diforders. 

The  acrimonious  qualities  of  this  root, however,  ren- 
der it  manifeflly  improper  on  many  occalions.  Its  li- 
beral ufc  is  apttooccalion  head-achs,Matuleiitics,thirll, 
febrile  heats,  inflammatory  diilempers,  and  fometimrs 
difchargcs  of  blood  from  the  hemorrhoidal  veUcls.  In 
hot  bilious  con  liitutions,  where  there  is  already  a  degree 
of  irritation,  where  the  juices  arc  too  ihin  and  acrimo- 
nious, or  the  viiccra  unfound,  it  never  fails  to  aggra- 
vate- the  diftcmper. 

In  Kajntfthatka,  the  allium  nrfini  m,  orwild  garlic, 
is  very  common  and  ufeful  in  medicine  as  well  as  food. 
Both  Rulhans  and  natives  gather  it  in  great  quaiuiiics 
for  winter  fervice.  They  rteep  ii  in  water,  then  mix 
it  with  cabbage,  onions,  and  other  ingredients,  and 
form  out  of  them  a  ragout  which  they  eat  cold.  It  is 
alfo  the  principal  remedy  for  the  fcurvy.  As  foon  as 
ibis  plant  appears  above  the  fnow,  they  feem  to  put 
this  dreadful  dil'irder  at  defiance,  and  find  a  cure 
ajmoft   initsworll  flages. 

Garlic  is  very  hardy,  and  will  thrive  in  almofl  any 
foil  or  liiuation.  It  is  cafily  propagated  either  by  the 
roots  or  feeds.  '  If  from  the  roots,  they  ought  to  be 
planted  in  autumn,  that  they  may  take  good  root  in  the 
ground  before  the  fpring,  which  is  nccclTary  to  make 


ihcni  flower  filling  the  following  fupimir.  Ifiltty  arc     /vlllui 

propagated  by  feeds,  liny  nuy  be  lown  on  a  border  of  "^ ^^ 

coraiiion  earth,  either  in  autumn  foon  alter  the  (ecds 
arc  ripe,  or  in  the  fpring  loilowingj  and  will  require 
no  farihi  r  care  than  to  keep  them  iltar  from  w  ceds. 
In  the  following  autun.n,  iluy  may  be  iranfplantcd 
into  the  bordtra  where  they  ere  to  remain. 

2.  1  be  afcaluiiicinii,  ortfchalot,  was  found  wild  in 
Pdlcitiue  by  Dr  ll.iiielquill.  1  he  root  ii  conglobate, 
toniilliiig  ot  many  ol  long  roots  bouiu'  together  by  tliii'. 
membranes.  £aeh  of  tlufc  fmall  rons  fends  forth 
two  or  three  tiltulous,  long,  awl  Ihujcd  leaves,  iiiuin^; 
from  aflituih,  and  aic  nearly  like  thofe  01  the  com  no;; 
onion.  The  fiower-ilem  Ihoots  iron)  a  nitmbraDacecu.: 
Iheaih  ;  is  round,  ahi.olt  naked,  and  ternjinated  by  :i 
globular  umbelof  flowers, which  hatccreCt,  purplilh, 

laiice- Ihaped  petals,  01  the  length  of  the  iU.m  ilia The 

root  ol'  this  fjtcits  is  very  pungent,  has  a  llrong  bni 
not  unpleafiiu  fmcU,  and  tiieielorc  is  generally  pre- 
ferred to  the  onion  for  making- high-flavoured  fouj'j 
and  gravies.  It  is  alfo  put  into  pickles,  and  in  the  haft 
Inditsthcy  ufe  an  abundance  of  it  lor  this  purpofc. 

3.  1  he  fcortkioprofuin,  or  rokambole,  grows  natu- 
ally  in  Denmark  and  Sweden.  It  halh  a  liea; t-fliapcd 
folid  root,  which  Hands  iidcwilV  of  the  Ualk.  The 
leaves  are  bioad,  and  arc  a.  little  crenaied  wi  their 
edges.  The  flowers  are  of  a  pale  purple  colour,  and 
colletted  into  a  gU  bular  head.  The  roots  arc  ufed 
for  the  lame  purpofc  as  the  former. 

4.  The  fchanoprtfum,  or  civcs,  is  an  inhabitant  of 
Siberia,  and  is  a  very  lin.ill  pl.-.nt  compared  wiih  llie 
former,  the  leaves  and  liemsftljom  exceeding  fix  in- 
ches in  Icngtli,  and  the  roots  never  producing  any 
bulbs.  The  leaves  are  aw  1-fliaped, hollow, and  the  ilem 
naked.  It  was  formcily  in  great  requell  for  mixing 
with  falads  in  the  fpring,  but  has  beenliltle  regarded 
lately.  Its  tallc,  lincU,  and  virtues,  are  much  the  fame 
as  thofe  of  the  common  onion.  It  is  propagated  liy 
parting  the  roots. 

5.  The  ccpa,  or  common  onion,  differs  from  the 
garlic  only  in  the  fwclli-ng  pipy  ilalk,  which  is  much 
larger  in  the  midle  than  at  either  end. —  From  whence 
this  was  firll  brought  into  turope  is  not  known  ;  but 
that  it  is  natural  to  Africa  is  beyond  a  doubt,  it 
beingevident  that  onions  were  eaten  by  the  Egyptians 
al)Ovc  2C00  years  before  Cbrifl  ;  and  they  make  a 
great  part  of  their  conflant  food  to  this  day  in  Egypt. 
JJr  Haflclquift  fays  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that 
the  Ifraclites  fliould  long  for  themaftcr  ihty  had  left 
this  place  ;  for  whoever  had  tailed  onions  in  Egypt 
mull  allow,  that  none  can  be  had  better  in  any  part  of 
the  univcrfe.  f!ere,  he  obferves,  they  arc  fweet,  in 
other  countries  they  are  naiifeous  and  llrong.  Here 
they  are  foft  ;  whcress  in  the  north  and  other  parts 
they  are  hard,  and  their  coats  focompatfl  that  they  are 
diflicult  to  digell.  They  eat  them  roaftcd,  cut  into 
four  pieces,  with  fome  bits  of  roafted  meat,  which 
tjie  Turks  call  kibab  ;  and  with  this  difli  they  are  fo 
delighted, that  they  vvilh  toenjuy  itin  paradife.  They 
likewife  make  a  fnipof  them  in  Egypt,  which  Haf- 
felquifl  fays  is  one  of  the  befl  dilhes  he  ever  eat.  The 
many  ways  of  dccfling  onions  in  Britain  are  known  to 
every  family  :  bjt  in  regard  to  w  holefomenefs,  there 
is  certainly  no  method  equal  to  boiling  ;  as  thus  they 
are  rendered  mild,  of  eafy  digellion,  and  go  off  with- 
out leaving  thofc  heats  in     the  flomach  and  bowels 

v.'hjcli 


ALL 


f     477     ] 


ALL 


AliiuB.  wliich  1I1C7  are  apt  to  do  any  Oilier  way.  Tlicir  na- 
"■^"^v—  mix  is  to  attenuate  thick,  vil'cid  juices  ,  confcqucniiy 
a  pltmit'ul  ulcof  [hem  in  cold  plikgnialic  conlli'.utions 
mull  prove  beneficial.  .>.any  people  fliun  them  on  ac- 
count of  the  (Irong,  dilagrteable  Imcll  they  commuiii- 
ca;c  to  the  breath.  I'liis  may  be  rcmeJicd  by  eating 
a  lew  raw  parlley  leaves  immediately  alter,  which  will 
effcciually  overcome  the  fceiit  ot  the  onions,  and  caulc 
ihcm  10  li:  more  eafy  on  the  lioraach. 

The  vaiieties  arc,  the  Srafburgh,  the  Spanifli,  and 
the  Egyptian  onion.  They  arc  propagated  by  feeds, 
which  Ihould  be  fown  the  latter  end  of  b'.cb'uary,  or 
the  beginning  of  IMarcii,  on  good,  light,  rich  ground, 
Well  dug  and  levelled, and  cleared  frcr;i  weeds.  They 
fliou.d  alio  be  fown  at  a  time  when  the  furface  of  ihc 
ground  is  no.  moid  ;  and  where  they  are  intended  for 
a  winter  crop,  they  mull  not  be  fown  too  thick.  The 
common  allowance  is  lix  pounds  of  feed  to  an  acre  ; 
though  fomc  allow  more,  in  order  to  have  a  crop  10 
draw  out,  which  they  call  aiUmgs.  In  about  lix 
weeks  after,  the  onions  will  be  up  and  forward  enougii 
10  hoe  ;  at  which  limc  the  weeds  Ihould  be  ligh  ly  cut 
up  with  a  fmall  hoe  about  two  inches  and  a  hjlf  broad, 
as  alfo  the  onions  thcmfclves  where  th'  y  gro-.v  tno  clofc 
in  bunches,  leaving  them  jt  this  rirll  tin.c  ai  leal!  two 
or  three  inches  apart.  ;  his,  if  propcily  performed, 
and  in  a  dry  fcifon,  will  prefervc  tnc  g.  our.d  clear  ot 
weeds  at  leafl  a  montii,  when  they  mult  be  hoed  over 
again,  leaving  them  at  tins  time  about  four  or  live 
inches  afunder.  In  ivs.  weeks  aficr  they  mull  be  hoed 
a  third  lime.  The  weeds  are  now  to  be  carefully  cut 
up,  and  the  oni  mis  linglcd  out  fo  as  to  leave  them 
about  lix  inches  fquare;  by  which  means  they  will 
grow  much  larger  thiU  if  left  loo  clofe.  This,  if  well 
performed,  in  cafe  ihe  weather  proves  dry,  will  keep 
the  oniohs  \.'u\  they  are  fit  to  pull :  but  if  the  wcaihcr 
ihould  prove  moill,  and  any  of  ihe  weeds  take  root 
again,  the  weeds  mull  be  pulled  out  with  the  hand  ; 
for  thc-ouions  having  now  begun  to  bulb,  mull  not  be 
dillurbtd  with  a  hoc.  Towards  the  middle  of  Augull 
the, onions  will  have  arrivcJai  their  full  growth,  which 
may  be  known  by  their  blades  falling  to  the  ground 
and  Ihrinking.  At  this  time,  therefore,  before  tlitir 
necks  or  bladcsare  withered  oti',  they  Qiould  be  drawn 
OUT  of  the  ground,  the  extreme  part  of  the  blade  cut 
off,  and  the  onions  laid  upon  a  dry  fpot  of  ground, 
obfcrving  to  turn  thcra  every  other  day  at  Icail,  to 
prevent  them  from  taking  root  again;  which  in  moifl 
W'ca'.herthey  would  be  apt  to  d;).  M  any  rrte,  they 
are  very  apt  to  grow  in  the  lofts  where  they  are  kept  all 
■wiiuer ;  the  moll  effectual  method  of  preventing  which 
is,  with  a  hot  iron,  (lightly  to  touch  their  beards  or 
roots,  which  will  etlctlually  prevent  their  fprouting  ; 
but  in  doing  this,  great  c.ijliofi  mull  be  uled  not  to 
fcorch  the  pulp,  for  that  will  caufc  tliem  loperilh  foon 
aftti-.  In  order  to  favc  feeds,  you  mult  iu  the  fpring 
make  choice  of  fome  of  the  largeft,  firmeftand  teil 
Ihaped  onions  (in  quantity  proportionable  to  the  feed 
you  intend  to  lave),  and  having  prepared  a  piece  of 
good  groiftd,  which  fhoujd  be  well  dag,  and  laid  out 
Ju  beds  about  three  feet  wide,  the  onions  mull  be 
planted  in  the  beginning  of  March,  in  the  following 
manner  :  Having  drained  .I'line  of  abont  four  inches 
within  the  tide  of  the  bed,  you  mull  with  a  fpaJc 
lirow  ovu  an  opening  fix  inches  deep,.  :he  length  of 


the  bed,  iJto  which  y.u  fnould  place  the  onions  with    Alliaci, 
iheir  roots  downward,   at  about  nine  inches  didaiicc     Allix. 

from  each  other ;  and  with  a  rake  draw  the  earth  iuio  ' " — 

the  opening  again  10  cover  the  bulos  :  then  proceed 
to  remove  the  line  again  about  a  foot  farther  back, 
where  you  uiuft  wake  an  opening  as  before,  and  fo 
again,  till  the  whole  is  linilhcd,  by  which  you  will 
have  fotir  rows  iu  cachbcU;  between  each  bed  ycu 
mult  allow  the  fpacc  of  two  feet  for  an  alley  to  go 
among  them.  In  a  month's  time  the  leases  will  ap- 
pear above  ground,  and  many  of  the  roots  will  pro- 
duce three  or  four  lUlks  each.  About  the  beginning 
of  June,  when  the  riowers  begin  to  appear,  the  ft-ilki 
mull  be  tied  to  Hakes  to  prevent  them  from  being 
broke  by  their  own  weight.  About  the  end  of  Au- 
gull the  feeds  will  be  ripe  ;  which  may  be  known  by 
the  opening  of  tiie  cells  which  contain  it,  and  it., 
changing  to  a  br.Avn  colour.  When  the  beads  arc 
cut  off,  they  DioulJ  be  fi>read  abroad  upon  coarfc 
cloths  in  the  fun,obferving  10  keep  it  under  Ihclter  ia 
the  night,  as  alfo  in  w tt  weather.  U  hen  the  heads 
arc  quite  dry,  the  fecdslliould  be  beat  out  from  tlicni  ; 
and  alter  being  cliared  troni  the  hufl-js,  and  cxpofed 
one  day  to  the  tun  to  Sxf,  they  may  be  put  up  in  bags 
for  ufe. 

Bclidcs  the  abovemeniioned  forts  of  onions,  the 
fc.illions  or  efcallions,  and  Wellh  onions,  were  for- 
merly in  great  repute.  The  former  is  a  fort  which 
never  forms  any  bulbs  at  the  roots,  aud  was  chiefly 
ufed  in  the  fpriiig  for  green  onions  ;  b.  t  is  now  be- 
come fo  fcarte  as  hardly  to  be  known.  Some  gar- 
der.rrs,  inftcad  of  the  fcallion,fub;iiiu:efjch  onions  as 
decay  and  f,  rout  in  the  houfc.  I  hefe  they  plane  i.T 
a  bed  early  in  the  fpring,  and  in  a  Ihort  time  they  be- 
come larjie  enough  for  nfe.  The  true  fcallion  is  eafily 
prop.i gated  by  parting  the  roots  either  in  the  fpring  or 
autumn;  but  the  latter  is  preferable.  The  roois  ihould 
be  planted  three  or  four  in  a  hole,  and  about  lix  iu- 
chesdjftance  every  way — ThcWeMh  onions  are  pro- 
pagated only  for  fpring  ufe;  they  never  make  any  bulbs, 
a-id  arc  ihereforc  l;t  only  to  be  ufcd  green  for  laiads. 
Thry  a.'-e  fown  in  the  end  of  July,  in  beds  about  three 
feet  and  a  half  wide.  In  a  fortnight's  time  they  ap- 
pear above  ground  ;  Lm  in  October  ihcir  blades  die, 
and  the  ground  be-romt s  ej^uitc  naked,  in  Jariuary, 
however,  they  wiUag.iin  appear  very  flroug,  and  in 
March  w  ill  be  tit  to  draw  for  young  onions. 

6.  The  porrum,  or  leek,  has  been  fo  long  cuhiTa- 
ted,  that  its  native  place  of  grow  ih  tannct  be  traced. 
It  is  und<:ubted!y  the  fame  as  that  mentioned  in  the 
clcvcr.:h  Ch.'.p  of  Numbers,  where  it  is  faid  the  If- 
raeliies  longed  for  leeks  hi  conjunction  with  onions. 
The  leaves  arc  much  of  the  fame  nat  Teas  thofe  of  the 
latter,  and  they  arc  yet  a  ce>nllant  dilh  at  the  tables  of 
the  Egyptians,  who  chop  then  fmall  and  then  eat 
them  with  theirmcat.  T.hcy  are  in  great  ellecm,  too, 
with  the  \Vcl!h,  and  their  generil  ufe  as  x  pot  herb  is 
well  known — The  culture  is  the  fame  with  that  of 
the  onion. 

.ALLIX  (Dr  Peter),  a  learned  Fre-Th  ?roteflanc 
divine,  boru  at  A!r:r<->t»  ii»  ♦r4i.  He  became  mini- 
ftcr  of  the  reformed  church  at  Houcn,  where  he  pub- 
liflied  many  learned  and  curious  pieces  ;  the  credit  of 
which  induced  the  reformed  10  call  him  foCharenton, 
abru:  a  leagu;  from  Pr-ris,  beii'g  the  principal  charch 

they 


A  L  L 


[     47^     ] 


A  L  L 


Alloa,     ihcy  had  in  France.   On  thr  revocation  (•{  ilu  ciiicl  ol' 

— -' '  iN-tntz,  he  rcliicJ  to  Knglaiiti  j   wlicre  he  (ludiccl  the 

language  with  fo  much  luccd's,  as  to  pu'ulilh  a  work, 
intillcd  Ri-Jicitions  on  the  Books  in  the  Holy  &ci  !jturi:s, 
to  (jlahttjh  the  Truth  of  the  Chiijiiaii  reli^ir,  2  vc.ls  ; 
which  he  dedicated  to  Janits  II.  aclitiowlcdging  his 
obliijaiion  to  that  jniiicc,  and  his  kind  bcluiviour  to 
the  diih-tll'ed  refugees  in  general.  He  svivte  Icvcral 
otiicr  triatilcs  relating  to  eccleli^Ilicilliillory  ;  wliicli 
rendered  him  as  iainous  in  England  as  in  France,  tor 
his  ingenious  and  folid  defences  of  the  ret'onntd  reli- 
gion. He  wa;>  coiMpliuicnied  with  the  degree  of 
D.  D.  and  in  169c  was  made  treafurerof  the  church 
ofSalilbury.    He  died  in  i  71  7. 

ALLOA,  or  Ali.o\v.\y,  a  fea-port  town  in  Scot- 
land, featcd  on  the  Forth,  about  20  miles  higher  up 
the  river  than  Leith,  and  five  miles  call  of  Stirling. 
It  is  a  populous  place  ;  has  two  market  days  in  the 
week  ;  and  is  remarkable  for  its  line  calUc  the  feat  of 
the  earl  of  Mar,  and  for  the  coal-mines  near  it.  The 
harbour  is  extremely  commodious,  \\  ith  great  depth 
of  water  ;  and  vcilels  are  expeditioully  loaded  with 
coals  from  the  pits  by  an  uncommon  waggon-way,  on 
which  one  horfc  draws  with  cafe  three  wa'4gons  at 
once,  each  waggon  containing  a  tun  and  a  lialf.  An 
excellent  dry  dock  has  alio  been  lately  ercCUd  here, 
capable  of  receiving  Ihips  of  the  greatell  burden. 
There  is  likcwife  a  large  glafs-houfe  for  blowing- 
bottles,  of  which  vclFils  are  fupplied  with  any  quau- 
lity  upon  the  ihortefl  notice. 

Tl'c  tower  and  lands  of  ^Alloa  were  exchanged  by 
David  II.  king  of  Scots,  amio  1^65,  with  Thomas 
Lord  Erlkine,  for  the  lands  andcllate  of  Strathgart- 
ncy  in  Pcrthihire  ;  and  iincc  that  time  the  cartle  of 
Alloa  has  been  the  favourite  relidenceof  the  family  of 
Mar.  The  fituation  is  uncommonly  beautiful.  The 
gardens  here  were  the  hril  that  were  laid  out  on  a 
great  fcale  in  Scotland  ;  and,  with  the  advice  of  Le 
Nsutrr,  were  indebted  to  the  talle  of  Joliii  the  late 
Earl  of  Mar,  who  began  to  plant  them  in  the  year 
1706.  They  cout.iin  about  40  acres  ;  and  would  have 
exhibited  to  Ur  Johnfon,  had  he  travelled  that  way, 
as  line  timber  of  lourfeore  yiars  growth  as  bis  favou- 
rite Eiigland  can  produce. 

The  tower  of  Alloa  is  89  feet  in  htight,  with  walls 
of  1 1  feet  in  thicivUcfs  ;  and  was  built  iil  the  end  of 
the  13th  century.  In  this  refidence  of  the  family  of 
Erfkinc,  many  oi  the  Scottilh  princes  received  their 
education,  having  been  for  more  than  two  centuries 
the  wards  of  the  Lords  Erlkine  and  Earls  oi'  Mar  ; 
whohcld  generally  tlic  cadle  of  Stirling,  and  frequent- 
ly the  three  piincipal  fortrclfesin  that  kingdom,  Edin- 
burgh, Stirling,  and  Dunbarton.  The  laft  heir  of 
the  Scottifli  monarchy  who  was  nuriured  there  was 
Henry  Prince  of  Wales  ;  whofe  cradle,  golf-clubs,  and 
other  infantine  and  youthful  remains,  are  prcfervcdby 
the  heirs  of  the  carls  of  Mar,  in  renicn;brance  of  that 
ipirited  and  promifing  prince  ;  of  whom  Dr  Birch  has 
vrcfcrved  feveralanccdotes  connected  withtheErfkines 

and  \i\i  rC'idcnce  at  Allo.i Among  other  remains  of 

antiquity  preferved  :«  Alloa. ir.  remembrance  of  the 
coiitidcncc  and  afieftion  which  fubfiiled  always  betwixt 
the  Stu.trt£  and  tlie  ErfKines,  is  the  private  lignet  of 
the  unfortunate  Mary,  which  flic  gave  to  the  regent 
Mar,  after  flic  was  obliged  by  ihc  treaty  of  Edinburgli 


to  dt  fill  froinv.'e-rir.g  the  arms  of  England  ill  the  f;rfi.  AUo'roges 
quarter  :  the  child's-chair  of  James  VI.  her  fon  ;  and         II 
the  fcllivc-chair  of  Thomas  Lord  LrikiJiethc  ftcond  .  Alloy. 
Earl  ot  Mar  of  the  name,  with  the  falhioi:able  grace 
carved  oii  it,  SoU  D<:o  Hoi.or  ctCloi/a. 

ALLOUKOGES  (Infcripiions,  Livy,  Vdkius, 
Florus)  ;  fioni  ^'llobrox  (Morace)  :  a  people  of  G,;liia 
Narbonenlis,fituated  between  the  rivers  Ifara  and  Rho- 
dauLis,  and  the  Lacus  Lcmauub ;  conimend<d  by  Ci- 
cero for  their  fidelity,  difcommcndtd  by  Horace  on 
account  of  their  fondncfs  for  novelty. 
,  ALDOCATION  denotes  the  admitting  or  allow- 
ing of  an  article  of  an  account,  efpccially  in  the  ex- 
chequer.    Kl:iCC, 

^LLOcATiosE  Fucknda,  is  a  writ  direftcd  lothc  lord 
treafurcr,  or  barons  of  tlie  exchequer,  commanding 
ihcmto  allow  an  accountant  fuch  fums  as  lie  haslaw- 
lally  expended  in  tlie  execution  of  his  office. 

ALLOCUTIO,  an  oration  or  fjjccch  of  a  general 
addrelfed  to  his  fuldicrs,  to  animate  then  to  fight,  to 
appcafe  fedilion,  or  to  keep  them  to  their  du'y.  A 
mount  of  earth  was  railed  upon  the  occafion,  as  it 
w  ere  a  kind  of  tribunal  of  turf.  From  this  tlic  gene- 
ral pronounced  his  harangue  10  the  army,  wiiich  was 
ranged  in  fcveral  fquadrons  round  him,  with  their  cap- 
tains at  their  head.  When  the  time  and  circumllances 
Would  not  admit  of  a  formal  harangue,  the  general 
Went  through  the  ranks,  and  called  each  by  his  name, 
putting  them  in  mind  of  tlicir  courage  upon  former 
oecalions,  mentioning  the  victories  they  had  won,  and 
making  promifcs  of  plunder. 

ALLOUIUM,  or  Alleud,  denotes  lands  which 
are  tlie  abfohuc  property  of  theirowner,  without  being 
obliged  to  pay  any  fervice  or  acknowledgment  what- 
ever to  a  fupcrior  lord.   See  Fee  and  Fevdal  Syjlem, 

ALLOPHYLLUS,  in  botany  :  a  genus  of  the 
inonogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  oftandria-clafs  of 
plants.  The  charadlers  of  which  are  :  the  calyx  is  a 
fonr-leaved  perianihium,  with  orbicular  leaflets,  the 
oppofiie  ones  lefs  :  Tlie  corolla  condds  oi  four  or- 
bicular equal  petals,  lefs  than  the  calyx  ;  the  claws 
broader,  the  length  of  the  fmallcr  leaves  of  the  calyx  : 
The  Jiamhui  confiil  of  eight  llendcr  filaments,  the 
length  of  the  corolla  ;  the  antheras  are  roundilh  :  The 
pijltthnn  has  a  round  didymous  germen  above  ;  the 
llylus  is  filiform,  and  loiigcr  than  the  flamina  ;  and 
the  Itigma  is  bifid,  with  revolutc  divitions.  There 
is  but  one  fpecics,  the  zeylanicus,  a  native  of  Cey- 
lon. 

ALLOTTING,  ox  y^i.uirxr.^T  of  Goods,  in  mat- 
ters of  commerce,  is  when  a  (hip's  cargo  is  divided  in- 
to feve:  al  parts,  bouglu  by  divers  pcrfons,  whofe  names 
are  written  on  as  many  pieces  of  paper,  which  are  ap- 
plied bvan  indifferent  perfon  to  the  feveral  lots  or  par- 
cels ;  by  which  means  the  goods  are  divided  without 
partiality,  every  man  having  the  parcel  which  the  lot 
■with  hi^  name  on  is  appropriated. 

ALLOY,  or  Allay,  properly  fignifies  a  propor- 
tion of  a  bafer  metal  mixed  with  a  finer  one.  The  al- 
loy of  gold  is  eltimatcd  by  carats,  that  of  filver  by 
penny-weights.  (See Gold,  &c.)  IndifFcrent  nations, 
different  proportijns  of  alloy  are  afed  ;  whence  their 
moneys  are  faid  to  be  ofdiflerent  degrees  of  finenefs  or 
bafenefs,  and  arc  valued  accordingly  in  foreign  ex- 
changes.— The  chief  reafons  alleged  for  the  alloying 

in 


A   L  M  [     479     ]  A   L   M 

of  coin  are:   i.  The  mixture  of  ihe  raetals,  which,  and  lix  or  feven  in  brjiJth.     They  are  exceedingly 

when  fnicUed  from  the  mine,  arc  not  pcrfeflly  jnirc.  fwifc,  and  are  otherwife called  caihuri. 
^''"''  2.  The  fa\in^  the  cxpc:icc  it  mull  oihcrwife  coll  if        ALMAGliST,  ia  matters  of  liieratjrc,  is  particu- 

thcy  wcr^  to  bs  refined.    3.  The  necellity  of  render-  larly  ufed  for  a  collcctioa  or  book  conipufcd  by  Ptole- 

ini;  them  harder,  by  mixing  fome  pirts  of  other  me-  my,  coniaiiiinjj  various  problems  of  the  ancients  both 

tals  with  them,  to  prevent  tiic  diminution  of  weight  in  gcoHutry  and  aAro'nomy. 

by  wearing  in  palling  from  hand  to  hand.     4.    ihe         Al).iagE5T  is  allj  ihe  title  of  other  colledions  of 

melting  ot  foreign  goid  or  coin  which  is  alloyed.     5.  this  kind.     Thus  Riccioli  has  pnblilhed  a  book  of  a- 

The  charges  of  coinage,  which  mull  be  made  good  by  ftrononiy,  which  he  calls  the  Ni-io  Aiinage  ji ;  and  Pluc- 

ihe  profit  arilin;^  from  the  money  coined.  6.  and  lalt-  Kcnct,  a  book  which  he  calls  .4h»a^:j!niii:  Boiauiciini. 
ly,  The  duty  belonging  to  the  fovercign,  on  account         ALMAGRA,  a  fine  deep  red  ochre,  with  feme  ad- 

of  the  power  he  has  to  caufc  money  to  be  coined  in  his  mixture  of  purple,  very  heavy,  and  of  a  denfe  yet  fri- 

doniinioiis.  able  ffnicture,  and  rough  dulty  furfacc.     It  ailheres 

In  a  more  general  fcnfe,  the  word  is  employed  in  very  firmly  to  the  tongue,  melts  eafily  and  freely  in  tlic 

chemiftry  tolignify  theanionofdifTcrcntmetallicmat-  mouth,  is  of  an  auitcre  and  llronj^ly  aftringent  taflc, 

tcrs — As  an  infinity  of  different  combinations  may  be  and  flainsthefkin  in  touching.  It  is  t!ic  Sil  /itt.cum  oi 


made  according  to  the  nature,  the  number,  and  the 
proportions  of  the  metallic  matters  capable  o(  being  al- 
loyed, we  (liall  not  here  enter  into  the  detail  of  the 
particular  alloys,  all  which  are  not  yet  nearly  known. 
Thofe  which  are  ufed,  as  Brc/iz.-,  Tombac,  Brafs, 
IVhiti  Copper,  &c.  may  be  found  under  their  particular 
names;  and  what  is  kni)wn  concerning  other  alloys 
may  be  found  under  the  names  of  the  different  metals 
and  fcmimetals. 

AI.LUM.     See  Alum. 

ALLU MINOR,  from  the  French  aluiner,  "  to 
lighten,"  is  ufed  for  one  who  coloureth  or  painieth 


upon  paper  or  parchment  ;  and  the  rcafon  is,  becaufe  when  the  fortrcfs  was  bedcgcd  by  an  army  of  jocr 

he  gives  light  and  ornament  by  his  colours  to  the  let-  horf;;  and  foot,  under  the  command  of  a  Monriih  ohi- 

ters  oroihcr  figures.    Such  ornaments  are  fiyled ;////-  cer  of  great  reputation;  but  the  prelate,  its  founder, 

7/ihiatioi;:.     The  word  is  ufed  in  flat.  i.  R.  III.  cap.  took  care  to  fupply  thofe  within  v.ithfucil  plenty  of  ne- 

9.  Bui  now  fuch  a  pcrfon  is  called  A!.;itner.  celFaries,  that  at  length  the  enemy  found  thenfelves 

ALLUSH,  (anc.  gcog.)     The  Ifraelites  being  in  obliged  to  raife  the  liege  and  retire  with  great  lofs. 

the  wildernefs  of  Shur,  departed  from  Dophkah,  and  ALPIANACK,  a  book,  or  table,  containinT  a  ca- 

went  to  Allufli,  from  whence  they  proceedcdtoRcphi-  Icndar  of  Jays  and  mouths,  the  riling  and  fettiiig  of 


dim  ;  Num.  xxxiii.  13,  14.  tufcbins  and  St  Jcrom 
fix  AlluHi  in  Idiimxa,  about  Gabalaor  Pctra,  the  capi- 
tal of  Arabia  Petrara.  In  the  accounts  of  the  empire, 
it  is  fituated  in  the  third  Palcfline  ;  and  by  Ptolemy, 
among  the  cities  of  Idumxa. 

ALLUSION,  in  rhetoric,  a  figure  by  which  fonic- 
tliing  is  applied  to,  or  underflood  of,  another,  on  ac- 
count of  fome  limilitudc  between  them. 


ALLUVION,  in  law,  denotes  the  gradual  increafe     fon  derives  it  from  the  Arabic  particle  a/,  and  th 


of  land  along  the  fca-lliore,  or  on  banks  of  rivers 

ALLY,  in  matters  of  polity,  a  fovereign  prince  or 
ftate  that  has  entered  into  alliance  with  others.  Sec 
Alliance. 

ALMACANTARS.  See  Almucantars. 
ALM.^CARRON,  a  fia-port  town  of  Spain,  is  the 
province  of  Miirci.i,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Guada- 
lantin.  It  is  about  twenty  miles  well  of  Carthagena, 
and  is  remarkable  for  the  prodigious  quantity  of  ahim 
found  in  its  territory.  W.  Long.  i.  15.  N.  Lat.  37. 
40. 


as  the  richell  lilver  mines  in  Europe 

ALMADIF,,  a  kind  of  canoe,  or  fmall  veflel,  about 
four  fathoms  long,  commonly  made  of  bark,  and  ufed 
by  the  negroes  of  Africa. 

Almadie  isalfo  the  name  of  a  kind  of  long-boats, 
fitted  out  at  Calicur,  which  arc  eighty  feet  in  length, 


the  ancients  :  it  ferments  very  violciitly  with  acid 
menllruums  ;  by  whi-  h  lingle  quality,  it  is  f  ifiieien:- 
ly  diAi-iguilheJ  from  the  Sil  Syr'unm,  to  which.it  iias 
in  many  rdpeds  a  great  alRnity.  It  is  found  in  iir.- 
menfe  quantities  in  many  parts  of  Spain  ;  and  in  An- 
dilulia  there  are  in  a  manner  whole  mountains  of  ir. 
It  is  ufed  in  painting,  and  in  medicine  as  an  aftringrnt. 
ALMAGIIO,  a  fortrefs  of  Spain,  the  capital  of 
one  of  the  dillriiits  of  La  Mancha.  It  w  s  bjilt  by 
the  archbilhop  Roderic  of  Toledo,  who  fiiiilhcd  it  in 
1 214,  and  put  a  conlidcrable  garrifon  into  it  to  rcflrairi 
the  incurlions  of  the  Moors.     This  was  h.irdly  do:u-, 


the  fun,  the  age  of  the  moon,  the  cclipfes  of  both  lu- 
minaries, &c.— Authors  are  di\ided  witli  regard  tothc 
etymology  of  the  word  ;  fome  deriving  it  from  thcA- 
rabic  particle  al,  and  viBnack,  to  count  ;  fome  from  al- 
manah,  new-year's  gif'ts,  becaufe  the  Arabian  artrolo- 
gers  ufed  at  the  beginning  ofthe  year  to  make  prefcnts 
of  their  ephemcridcs  ;  and  others,  from  the  Teutonic 
a/wfl;v/-<i<:^f:',obfervationsona!l  the  mouths.  Mr  John- 


Greek  fjLw,  a  month.   But  the  mofl  limple  etymology 
appears  from  the  common  fpelling  ;  the  word  lieiii.; 
compofcd  of  two    Arabic  ones,   Al   Manack,  which 
fignify //jcDwrj-.     All  the  claflcs  of  Arabs  arc  com- 
monly much  given  to  the  Ihidy  of  aflronomy  and  aflro- 
logy  ;   to  both  which  a  pafloral  life,  and  a  fort  of  huf- 
bandry,  not  only  incline  ihcm,  but  give  them  lime  and 
Icifure  to  apply  themfelves  to  them.  They  never  fow, 
reap,  plant,  travel,  b  lyor  fell,  or  undertake  any  expc- 
ditionormaitcr.withoutprcvioully  confultingtheflars, 
or,in  other  words,  their  almanacks,  or  fome  of  the  ma- 
ALMADE,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  La    kers  of  them.  From  ihcl'c  people,  by  their  vicinity  m 
Mancha,  in  the  kingdom  of  tallilc,  fituated  upon  the     Europe,  this  art,  no  lei's  ufcful  in  one  feiife  than  flnpid 
top  of  a  mountain,  where  are  the  moll  ancient  as  well     and  lidiculous  inanohcr.hath  palfcd  over  thither:  and 


thofe  ailronomical  compolitions  have  llill  every  where 
not  only  retained  their  old  Arabic  name  ;  but  were, 
like  theirs  for  a  long  while,  and  llill  are  among  many 
European  nations,  interfperfed  with  a  gre.-.t  number  of 
allrological  rules  for  planting,  fowing,  bleeding,  pur- 
ging, &c.  down  to  the  cutting  of  the  Ini-  and  paring; 

of 


A  L  M 


[     48 


Ainianack  oftlic  nails. —Ileg'oiiiontauusaYcnrs  :o  have  In  en  the 

■■  — ^ Jin!  ill  Eiiropc,  however,  who  re  Jr^ed  almanacks  into 

their  prel'ciu  t'orni  and  mcth  ni,  gavctlic  charadtcrs  of 
each  year  anil  month,  foretold  the  ecHpfcs  anu  other 
phafcs,  cahnlatedthc  motions  of  the  planets,  &c.  His 
iirit  ahi'.anack  w^s  lirfl  piilliflird  in  1474. 

Almanacks  differ  from  one  another,  chiefly,  incon- 
taininu'  feme  more,  otlicrs  fewer,  particnlars. 

The  clli  nti.l  part  is  the  calendar  of  months  and  ^iays, 
with  the  rill;!gs  and  ftttings  of  the  fun,  age  of  the 
moon,  &c.  To  thefc  are'addcd  various  parerga,  aftro- 
noniical,  meteoroloi>;ical,  clironologicai,  political,  ru- 
ral, &c.  as  calculations  and  accounts  of  cclipfcs,  folar 
in^'tlles,  pro^rnoUi  s  of  the  weather,  tables  of  tlic 
tides,  terms,  &c.  lilts  of  polls,  offices,  dignities,  pub- 
lic infiitutions,  with  many  other  articles  political  as 
well  as  local,  and  diilering  in  different  countries.— 
Agrc.it  variety  arc  annually  publillied  in  Britain  ;  fome 
for  biijdiii;;,  which  may  be  denominated  ho'A-altua- 
riach  :  others  in  h)oi"c  papers,  cdWeAJhsit-aimaKacks. 

The  modern  almanack  anfwcrs  10  the  FaJH  of  the 
ancient  Romans.     .Sec  Kasti. 

Coi/irt.'fiid'i  o/'Almanacks.     The  firft  thing  to  be 
donc'is,  (o  compute  the  fun's  and  moon's  place  for 
cacl-  day  of  the  year,  or  jt  may  be  taken  from  fomc 
I'-phcmeridesanil  entered  into  the  almanack;  next,  find 
■  rhc  dominical  letter,  and,  by  means  thereof,  diflribute 
the  calend-ir  into  weeks  ;  tl/cn,  having  computed  the 
rime  ofeallcr,  by  it  fix  theother  moveable  fcalls  ;  ad- 
ding the  immoveable  ones,  with  the  names  of  the  niar- 
^  tyrs;  the  rilingand  fcttingof  each  luminary, the  length 

'if  day  and  night,  the  alpcfts  of  the  planets,  the  pha- 
j'esof  the  moon,  and  the  fun's  entrance  into  the  car- 
dinal points  of  the  ecliptic,  /.  e.  the  two  equinoxes  and 
follUces.  (See  Astronomy, /'«^?;/.)  By  the  help 
o!  good  aftronomical  tribles  or  ephcmerides,  the  con- 
ftruaion  of  almanacks  is  extremely  eafy. 

In  Britain  almanacks  for  one  year  prnted  on  one 
fide  of  the  paper,  pay  of  the  duty  2d.  ;  thofc  for  more 
years  pay  for  three  years  id.  ;  but  perpetual  almanacks 
are  to  p;iy  only  for  three  years  at  ^d.  Out  of  the  du- 
liesby  this  airl  there  fiiall  be  paid  to  each  univerfuy 
L.  SCO  /'fr  ai:/i.  half  yearly, at  ^lidfummerand  Chrift- 
mas,  and  the  fiirphis  Ihall  be  paid  into  ihe  exchequer 
tog.)  to  the  linking  fund.  Selling  unihimped  almanacks 
incurs  the  fame  penalty  as  for  felling unilamped  nevvf- 
papcrs.  Almanacks  in  biblesand  common  prayer  books 
are  exempted. 

Ai.M.'iNACK,  among  antiqnaries,  is  alfo  the  name 
given  to  a  kind  of  iiillrument,  ulually  of  wood,  in- 
fcribed  with  various  figures  and  R-unic  characters,  and 
reprefcniingtlie  orderof  tlie  feads.  dominical  letters, 
daysof  the  week,  and  golden  number,  with  other  mat- 
!ers  iiecefTary  to  be  known  tliroughont  the  year  ;  ufed 
by  the  ancient  northern  nations,  in  their  computations 
of  lime,  both  civil  and  ecclefiaftical.  Almanacks  of 
this  kind  are  kn»wn  by  varions  names,  amongthe  dif- 
ferent nations  wherein  they  have  been  ufed  j  as  riin- 
ftocks.  primrtaries,  riinllocks,  runflafis,  Sc:/!!ones  Ru- 
Ktci,  Bucc-ili  Ai'valcs,  clogs,  &c.  They  appear  to 
have  been  ufed  only  by  the  .Swedes,  Danes,  and  Nor- 
wegians. From  the  fecoiul  of  thcfe  people,  their  ufe 
v.-as  introduced  into  England,  whence  divers  remains 
of  them  in  the  counties.  Dr  Plot  has  given  the  de- 
fcription  and  figure  of  one  of  thcfe  clogs,  found  in 

3 


o     ]  A  L  M 

StjfFordfliire",  under  the  title  of  The perpttnxl  Siajoid-  Almarza, 
Jhirc  Aiwanack.  The  external  figure  and  matter  of  Hcrcfy  uf 
ihtfc  calendars  appear  to  have  been  various.  Some-  Almanc. 
times  they  wefc  cut  on  one  or  more  woodeji  leaves, 
b'jund  together  after  the  manner  of  bocks  ;  fometimes 
on  the  fc.ibbardsof  fwords,  or  even  on  daggers  ;  fome- 
times on  tools  and  implements,  as  portable  ileelyards, 
hammers,  the  helves  of  hatchets,  flails,  &c.  Some- 
times they  were'made  of  brafs  or  horn  ;  i'ometimesof 
the  fhiifis  of  eels,  which,  being  drawn  over  a  Aick  pro- 
perly iiifciibed,  retained  the  impreflu>ns  of  it.  Bu: 
the  molt  ufual  form  was  that  of  walking  flaves,  or 
flicks,  which  they  carried  about  wiili  them  to  church, 
market,  See.  Kach  of  thcfe  Haves  is  divided  into  three 
regions  ;  whereof  the  firft  indicates  the  llgns,  the  fe- 
cond  the  days  of  the  week  and  year,  and  the  third  the 
golden  number.  Thecharadersengravenon  tliem  arc, 
in  fome,  the  ancient  Runic  :  in  others,  the  later  Gothic 
charaftcrs  of  Ullilus.  The  faints  days  arc  exprelfcd 
in  hieroglyphics,  lignificative  either  of  fome  endow- 
ment of  the  faint,  the  manner  of  his  martyrdom,  or 
the  like.  Thus,  againft  the  notch  for  the  firlt  of 
March,  or  St  David's  day,  is  reprefentcd  a  harp  ;  a- 
gainft  the  2Jth  of  October,  or  Crifpin's  day,  a  pair  of 
llioes.;  againft  the  loth  of  Augufl,  or  St  Lawrence's 
day,  a  gridiron  ;  and,  laftly,  againft  New-year's  day, 
a  horn,  the  mark  of  good  drinking,  which  they  gave 
a  loofe  to  at  that  feafon. 

AL.MANZA,  a  little  town  of  New-Caftile,  on  the 
frontiers  of  the  kingdom  of  VdlenciainSpain,  fituatcd 
in  W.  Long.  i.  19.  N.  Lat.  38.  54.  it  is  remarkable 
for  thcdefeat  of  the  allies  in  1707,  under  the  Marquis 
de  las  Minasand  the  Karl  of  Galway.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  thisaflion,  the  Englilh  troops  penetrated  thro' 
the  center  of  the  Spanidi  army  ;  but  the  Portugucfe 
cavalry  being  broken  by  the  Spanilh,and  the  French  in- 
fantry making  a  dreadful  fire  on  their  flanks,  the  allied 
army  wasat  laft  broken,  and  began  their  retreat  when 
ft  was  almoft  dark.  Colonel  Hill  carried  off  the  re- 
mains of  thirteen  battalions  towards  the  river  Xncar, 
which,  if  they  could  have  pafled,  they  might  have 
been  fafe  :  but  being  very  much  fatigued,  they  were 
obliged  to  halt  ;  by  which  meansthey  were  furround- 
ed,  and  forced  to  furrender  prifoners  of  war.  In  this 
battle,  the  allies  loft  120  ftandards,  together  with  all 
their  artillery  and  baggage  ;  a  great  number  were  kil- 
led, and  fevcralthoufands  taken  prifoners.  The  Mar- 
quis de  las  Minas  was  dangeroully  wounded  ;  and  his 
miftrefs,  in  the  garb  of  an  amazon,  killed  by  his  lide. 
The  Carl  of  Galway  had  two  cuts  crofs  the  face, 
which,  though  not  dangerous,  had  preveiited  him 
from  feeing,  or  giving  orders  properly. 

Heresy  of  ALMARIC,  a  tenet  broached  in 
France  by  one  Almaric,  in  the  year  1209.  It  eonlift- 
cd  in  aflirming,  that  every  Chriftian  was  actually  a 
member  of  Chrift  ;  and  that  without  this  faith  no  one 
coidd  be  faved.  His  followers  went  fartlier,  and  af- 
firmed, that  thcpowcrof  the  Father  lafted  only  during 
tiic  continuance  of  the  Mofaic  law  ;  tliat  the  coming 
of  Chrift  introduced  a  new  law  ;  that  at  the  end  of  this 
began  the  reign  of  the  Holy  Ghoft  ;  and  that  now 
confelRon  and  the  facraments  were  at  an  end,  and  that 
every  one  is  to  be  favcd  by  the  internal  operations  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  alone,  witliout  any  external  act  of  reli- 
gion.— Their  morals  were  asinfamous  as  their  doftrine 

was 


A  L  M 


[     481     ] 


A  L  M 


Almc     was  abfurd.  Their  tenets  were  condemned  by  apublic 

— V '  decree  of  the  council  ot'Sens,  in  the  year  1209. 

ALME,  or  Alma,  finging  and  dancing  girls  in 
Egypt,  who,  like  the  Italian  Improvifatari,  can  occa- 
Iloually  pour  fourth  "  unpremeditated  vcrfe."  They 
arc  called  Ahiit,  from  having  received  a  better  edu- 
cation than  other  women.  'I'hey  form  a  celebrated 
focicty  in  this  country.  To  be  received  into  it,  ac- 
cording to  Mr  Savary,  it  is  nccclfary  to  have  a  good 
voice,  to  underlland  the  language  wcil,  to  know 
the  rules  of  poetry,  and  be  able  to  compofe  and  ling 
couplets  on  the  fpot,  adapted  to  the  circumftances. 
The  Aime  know  by  heart  all  the  new  fongs.  Their 
memory  is  furnilhed  with  the  moll  beautiful  talcs. 
There  is  nofeltival  without  them  ;  no  entertainment 
of  which  they  do  not  conllitute  the  ornament.  They 
are  placed  in  a  roltruni,  from  whence  they  ling  during 
the  rcpaft.  They  then  defcend  into  th»  faloon,  and 
form  dances  whichhavenorcfemblance  to  ours.  They 
arc  pantomime  ballets,  in  which  they  rcprefent  tiie 
ufual  occurrences  of  life.  Thcmyfterics  of  love  too, 
generally  furnifli  them  with  fcenes.  The  fupplenefs  of 
their  bodies  is  inconceiveable.  One  is  aftonilhedat  the 
mobility  of  their  features,  to  which  they  give  at  plea- 
furc  the  imprelfion  fuitcd  to  the  charaflers  they  play. 
The  indecency  of  their  altitudes  is  often  carried  to  cx- 
cefs.  Their  looks,  their  gellures,  every  thing  fpeaks, 
but  in  fo  cxprelllve  a  manner,  that  it  is  impollible  to 
miflakc  them.  At  the  beginning  of  the  dance,  they 
lay  aiide  with  their  veils  the  modelly  of  their  fcx.  A 
long  robe  of  very  tiiin  (ilk  goes  down  to  their  heels, 
which  is  llightly  fallcneJ  with  a  rich  girdle.  Long 
black  hair,  plaited  and  perfumed,  is  rtowing  on  their 
Uioulders.  A  lliift,  tranlparent  as  guaze,  fcarctly  hides 
their  bofom.  As  thty  put  themfelves  in  motion,  the 
fhapes,  the  contours  of  their  bodies,  feem  to  develope 
themfelves  fuccelhvely.  Their  fteps  are  regulated  by 
the  found  of  the  flute,  ofcaftancts,  the  tambour  de 
bafque,  and  cymbals,  which  accelerates  or  retards  the 
meafurc.  Tliey  are  flill  further  animated  by  words 
adapted  to  fuch  fcenes.  They  appear  in  a  (late  of  in- 
toxication. They  are  the  Bacchants  in  a  delirium. 
It  is  when  they  are  at  this  point,  that  throwing  ort  all 
referve,  they  abandon  themfelves  totally  to  the  difor- 
dcr  of  their  fcnfes  ;  it  is  then  that  a  people  far  from 
delicate,  and  who  like  nothing  hidden,  redouble  their 
applaufes.  Thefe  Almc  arc  lent  for  into  all  tfie  ha- 
rams.  They  teach  the  women  tlie  new  airs  ;  they  a- 
mufe  them  with  amorous  tales,  and  recite  in  their  pre- 
fcnce  poems,  wliich  are  fomuch  the  more  interclli:ig, 
as  they  furnilli  a  lively  pidlurc  of  their  manners.  They 
initiate  them  into  the  mvRcriesof  their  art,  and  tench 
ihcm  to  contrive  lafcivious  dances.  Thefe  girls,  who 
have  a  cultivated  undcrllanding,  are  very  agreeable  in 
convcrfation.  They  fpcak  their  language  with  puri- 
ty. The  h.ibit  of  dedicating  themfelves  to  poetry  ren- 
ders the  foftellaud  moft  fouorous  cxprcyFions  familiar 
10  them.  Tliey  repeat  with  a  great  deal  of  grace.  In 
fniging,  nature  is  their  only  guide.  Sometimes  two 
of  them  ling  together,  butalwayswith  the  fame  voice. 
It  is  the  fame  with  an  orchertri,  where  all  theinllru- 
ments  playing  in  unifon  execute  the  fame  part. 

The  Alnit  alFift  at  the  marriage  ceremonies,  and 
march  before  the  bride,  playingon  inilruments.  They 
make  a  figure  likewifc  at  fimcrals,  and  accompany  the 
Vol.  I. 


procellion,  fingmg  forrowfulairs.     They  break  forth   Almcdij 
into  groans  and  lamentations,  and  give  every  fign  of         n 
griet  and  defpair.     Thefe  women  are  paid  Mcry  high,    Almcn>. 

and  fcldom  appear  but  aniongll  the  grandees  and  rich  ' " 

men. 

The  common  people  have  alfo  their  Alme.  They 
arc  girls  of  the  fecond  clafs,  who  try  to  imitate  the 
former;  but  they  have  neither  their  elegance,  their 
graces,  nor  their  knowledge.  They  arc  every  where 
to  be  met  with.  The  public  places  and  the  walks  about 
Grand  Cairo  are  full  of  them.  As  the  populace  re- 
quire allufions  Hill  more  llrongly  marked,  decency  will 
net  permit  the  relation  to  what  a  pitch  they  carry  the 
licentioufnefsof  their  gellures  and  attitudes. 

ALMEDIA,  a  frontier-town  of  Portugal,  in  the 
province  of  Tralos  Montes,  on  the  confines  of  Leon, 
where  there  was  a  very  brilk  aclion  between  theFrench 
and  Portuguefe  in  1663  j  17  miles  N.  W.  of  Cividad 
Rodrigo.   W.Long.  7.  10.  N.  Lat.  40.  41. 

ALMEHR.AB,  m  the  Mahometan  culloms,  a  nich 
in  their  inofques,  pointing  towards  the  kebla  or  temple 
of  Mecca,  to  which  they  are  obliged  to  bow  in  pray- 
ing.    See  Kebla. 

ALMEISAR,  a  celebrated  game  among  the  anci- 
ent Arabs,  performed  by  a  kind  of  calling  of  lots 
with  arrows,  llridly  forbid  by  the  law  of  Mahomet,  on 
account  of  the  frequent  quarrels occalioned  by  it. 

The  manner  of  the  game  was  thus  :  A  young  camel 
being  brought  and  killed,  was  divided  into  a  number 
of  parts.  The  adventurers,  to  the  number  of  feven, 
being  met,  1 1  arrows  were  provided  without  heads  or 
feathers  ;  feven  of  which  were  marked,  the  firflwith 
one  notch,  the  fecond  with  two,  the  third  with  three, 
&c.  the  other  four  hid  no  marks.  Thefe  arrows  were 
put  promifcuoully  into  a  bag,  and  thus  drawn  by  an 
inditfercnt  perfon.  Thole  to  whom  the  marked  ar- 
rows fell,  won  Iharcs  in  proportion  to  their  lot ;  the 
rell  to  whom  the  blanks  fell,  were  entitled  to  no  part 
of  the  camel,  but  obliged  to  piy  the  whole  price  of  it. 
Even  the  winners  tailed  not  of  the  flelli  themfelves 
more  than  the  loofers,  but  the  wliole  was  dillributed 
to  the  poor. 

ALMENE,  in  commerce,  a  weight  of  two  pounds 
ufed  to  weigh  latfronin  feveral  parts  of  the  continent 
of  the  v..  Indies. 

ALMEKIA,  a  fea-port  town  in  the  kingdom  of 
Granada  in  Spain,  plcafantly  lituated  in  a  fine  bay  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Ahncria,  on  the  Mediterranean  : 
\V.  Long.  3.  20.  N.  Lat.  36.  51.  This  town  is  by 
fome  thought  to  have  rifen  upnn  ii;c  ruins  of  the  an- 
cient Abdera,  and  was  formerly  a  place  of  great  con- 
fequcnce.  It  was  taken  from  the  NIoors  in  1147,  by 
the  emperor  Conrad  III.  in  conjundion  with  the 
French, Genocfc,  and  Pifans — It  was  at  that  time  the 
flrongell  place  in  Spain,  held  by  the  infidels;  from 
which  their  privateers,  whien  were  exceedingly  nume- 
rous, not  only  troubled  the  fea-coalls  inhibited  by  the 
Chrillians,  but  gave  equal  diilurbancc  to  the  maritime 
provinces  of  Prance,  Italy,  and  the  adjacent  illinds. 
The  city  being  well  fortified,  having  a  llrong  calllc, 
a  numerous  garrifon,  and  being  cxccllcnrly  provided 
with  every  tiling  necclfary,  made  a  vigorous  relillaiicc ; 
but  was  at  lall  taken  by  ilorin,  when  tlicviclorpui  t" 
the  fword  all  the  inhabitants  who  were  found  in  arms, 
dillributing  the  belt  part  of  ilie  plunder  among  his  .il- 
3  V  lies. 


A  L  M 


[     482     ] 


A  L  M 


Almiffa     lies,  whom  lie  lent  asvsy  ilioroughly  laiisiicd.     llie 
\         Gcnocfe,  panicukrly,  ac4uired  liere  that  emtiald  vcf- 
Almuner.  f^  1  „  i,ici,  jtin  remains  iu  their  iieafuiy,  and  is  deemed 
"        invaluable. 

Uponiis  icdiiflion  by  the  Chriljians' Almcria  be- 
came a  bilhoprtc  ;  but  is  at  prtfeiu  very  little  better 
than  a  village,  indifttrcuily  iii!wbited,andhas nothing 
to  tcltit'y  fo  much  as  the  probjbi'iity  of  its  former  great- 
nefs,  except  certain  circumllances  which  cannot  he 
effaced  even  by  the  indolence  of  the  Spaniards  ihcm- 
fclves.  What  ihefe  are,Udal  ap  Rhys,  a  Wellhman, 
thus  defcribes,  in  his  tour  through  Spain  and  Portugal. 
«'  Its  climate  (fays  he)  Is  fo  peculiarly  bltlfcd,  that 
one  really  wants  words  to  r xprcfs  its  charms  and  excel- 
lence. Its  fieKIs  and  meads  arc  covered  with  tfower« 
all  the  year  round  ;  they  are  adorned  alfo  with  palms, 
itiynles,plane-trces,oranges,andolives;  and  the  moun- 
tains and  promontories  near  it  are  as  noted  for  their 
producing  a  great  variety  of  precious  lloncs,  inlomuch 
that  the  next  promontory  to  is  is  called  the  C.'/c-  oj 
Cstii,  which  is  a  corruption  from  the  word  agates,  the 
hills  thereabouts  abounding  in  that  fort  of  precious 
Hones,  as  well  as  in  emeralds  and  amethyfls,  granites 
or  coarfe  rubies,  and  extreme  curious  alabafler  in  the 
mountains  of  Filaurc.s." 

ALMISSA,  a  fmall  but  flrong  town  at  the  moulh 
of  the  Cctina,  in  Dalmatia,  famous  for  its  piracies  ; 
len  miles  eaft  of  Spalatro.  E.  Long.  39.  33.  N.  Lat. 
43.  56. 

ALMOND,  the  fruit  of  the  alraond-tree.  See 
Amygdalus. 

Alm  OND,  in  commerce,  a  meafure  by  which  die  Por- 
(uguefe  fell  their  oil  ;  26  almonds  make  a  pipe. 

Aj-monds,  inanatoniy,  a  name  fometimcs  given  to 
two  glands,  generally  called  the  toiifh. 

Almonds,  among  lapidaries,  fignjfy  pieces  of  rock- 
cryflal,  iifed  in  adorning  branch-candleflicks,  &c.  on 
account  of  the  refemblanee  they  bear  to  the  fiuit  of  that 
name. 

ALMOND-Furnace,v.no\\g\cfintr^i\\A\  in  which  the 
flags  of  litharge,  left  in  rehning  fdvcr,  are  reduced  to 
lead  again  by  the  help  of  charcoal. 

ALMONDBUKY,  a  village  in  England,  in  the 
weft-riding  of  Yorklhire,  fix  niiksfrom  Halifax. 

ALP/'.ONKR,  in  its  primitive  fcnfe,  denotes  an  of- 
ficer in  religioushoafes,towhonibelonged  themanage- 
iTiCnt  and  diftribution  of  ihcalms  ofthehoule.  By  the 
ancient  canons,  nil  monaftcries  were  tofpend  at  lc;!fta 
tenth  pan  of  their  income  in  alms  to  the  poor.  The 
almoner  of  Si  Paul's  is  to  difpofe  of  the  monies  left  for 
chanty,  accordiiig  to  the  appoinimsnt  of  the  donors, 
to  bury  the  ptxir  who  die  in  the  neighbourhood,  and 
to  breed  up  tight  boys  10  linging,  for  the  ufe  of  the 
choir.  By  an  ancient  canon,  all  bilhops  arc  required 
to  keep  almoners. 

Lor  J  JfiKOXFS,  or  Lord  High  ^lmonf.R,  of  Eng- 
land, is  an  eccleliafticalofiicer,  generally  a  biHiop,  who 
has  the  forfeiture  of  all  deodands,  and  the  goods  of 
/t/oj  dc  fe.  which  he  is  to  diftribute  among  the  poor. 
He  has.alio,  by  virtucof  an  ancient  cuflom,  the  power 
of  giving  the  firfl  dilh  from  tlie-king's  table  to  what- 
ever poor  prvfon  he  pleafcs,  or,  inflead  of  it,  an  alms 
^1  money. 

•QrAatj^LHtosEK,  Clra/id  ^vMOi\iER,  in  France,  is 


the  higheft  cccle/iaflical  dignity  in  that  kingdom.  To   Alo»er.«r 
him  bolongs  the  fuperintendency  of  all  iiolpitals  and  II 

houfcs  of  lepers.     The  king  receives  the  facramcnt  AlmuciuBi. 
from  his  hand  ;  and  he  fays  mafs  before  the  king  in  " 

all  grand  ceremonies  and  folemnities. 

Almoner  is  alfo  a  more  falhionable  title  given  by 
fome  writers  to  chaplains.  In  this  fcnfe  we  meet  with 
almoner  of  a  reginiv-nt. 

ALMONRY,  or  Aumbry,  the  office  or  lodgings 
of  the  almont-r  ;  alfo  the  place  where  alms  arc  given. 
Sec  AuMBRT. 

ALMS,  a  general  term  for  what  is  given  out  of  cha- 
rity to  the  poor. 

In  the  early  ages  of  Chriftianity,  the  alms  of  the 
charitable  were  divided  into  four  parts  ;  one  of  which 
was  allotted  10  the  bilhop,  another  to  the  pricfls,  and 
a  third  to  the  deacons  and  fubdeacons,  which  made 
their  whole  fubliftcnce  ;  the  fourth  part  was  employed, 
in  relieving  the  poor,  and  in  repairing  the  churches. 

No  religious  fyftem  is  more  frequent  or  warm  in  its  - 
exhortations  toalms-giving  than  the  Mahometan.  The 
Alcoran  reprcfcnts  alms  as  a  neccllary  means  to  make 
prayer  be  heard.  Hence  that  faying  of  one  of  their 
khalifs  :  "  Prayer  carries  us  half-way  to  God,  farting 
brings  us  to  the  door  of  his  palace,  and  alms  irurodiiccs 
us  into  the  prefcnee-chamber."  Hence  many  illuftri- 
ous  examples  of  this  virtue  among  the  Mahometans. 
Hafan,  the  fon  of  Ali,  and  grandfon  of  Mohammed, 
in  particular,  is  related  to  have  thrice  in  his  life  divided 
his  fubftance  equally  between  himfelf  and  the  poor,  and 
twice  to  have  given  away  all  he  had.  And  the  gene- 
rality arc  fo  addifted  to  the  doing  of  good,  that  they 
extend  their  chariiy  even  to  brutes. 

Alms,  alfo  denotes  lands  or  other  effefts  left  to 
churches  or  religious  houfes,  on  condition  of  praying 
for  the  foul  of  the  donor.     Hence, 

Free  y^LMS  was  that  which  is  liable  to  no  rent  or 
fervicc. 

RcafoiiabU  j4lms  was  a  certain  portion  of  the  eflates 
ofinteflate  pcrfons,  allotted  to  the  poor. 

Alms-Box,  or  Chejl,  a  fmall  cheft,  orcoffir,  called 
bytheGreeksK;i3»Tjoy,wherein  anciently  the  alms  were 
colleftcd,  both  at  church  and  at  private  houfcs. 

The  alms- chc ft  in  Englilh  churches,  isaftrongbox, 
with  a  hole  in  the  upper  part,  having  three  keys,  one 
to  be  kept  by  the  parfon  or  curate,  the  other  two  by 
the  ciriuch-vvardcns.  The  eredlingof  fucb  alnis-chcfl 
in  every  church  is  enjoined  by  the  book  of  canons,  as 
alfo  die  manner  of  diftributing  what  i-s  thus  collected 
among  the  poor  of  the  parilh. 

ALMi-Hotifi:,  a  petty  kind  of  hofpital,  for  the  main- 
tenance of  a  certain  number  of  poor,  aged,  or  difabled 
pcojile. 

ALMUCANTARS,  in  aftronomy,  an  Arabic  word 
denoting  circles  of  the  fphtrepafling  through  the  cen- 
tre of  the  fun,  or  a  ftar,  parallel  to  the  horizon,  being 
the  fame  a^Parallels  of  Altitude.. 

ALMVCAKTARS-Staff,  is  an  inftrument  ufually  made 
of  pear-tree  or  box,  havingan  arch  of  1 5  degrees  ;  ufed 
to  take  obfervations  of  the  fun,  about  the  time  of  its 
rifing  and  fetting  ;  in  order  to  find  the  amplitude,  and 
confequently  the  variation  of  the  compafs. 

ALMUCIUM,  denotes  a  kind  ©f  cover  forthe  head, 
worn  chieriy  by  monks  and  ccclctiaftics:  It  was  of  1 

f^^uaM 


A  L  M 


[     4«3     J 


A  L  O 


Almugi™  fquarc  form,  and  fccms  to  have  given  rife  to  the  bon- 
I         nets  of  the  f  inie  fhapc  ftill  retained  in  univerliiics  and 
Alnwick,  cathedrals, 

■'* — ^^ '      ALMUGIM,  or  Almuc-tree,  a  certain  kind  of 

wood  mentioned  in  the  firfl  book  of  Kings,  (x.  it.) 
which  the  viilgatc  tran.lates  ligna  thyina,  and  the  Sep- 
tuagcnt  luroiighfwoofl.  The  Rabbins  generally  render 
II  coral ;  others,  f^owy,  brazU,  ox  pine.  Bmitisob- 
fcrvcd,  that  the  almug-trce  can  by  no  means  be  coral, 
becaufe  that  wood  is  not  fit  for  the  purpofcs  that  the 
Scripture  tells  cis  the  almug-trce  was  ufcd,  fuch  as  mu- 
lical  inllruments,  ftair-cafcs,  &c.  The  word  thyinum  is 
a  name  for  the  citron- tree,  known  lotlic  ancients,  and 
very  much  cflccmcd  for  its  fweet  odour  and  great 
beauty.  It  came  from  Mauritania.  The  almug-tree, 
or  almugim,  algumim,  or  fimply  gummim,  taking  <?/ 
for  a  kind  of  article,  is  therefore  by  the  bell  commen- 
tators underftood  to  be  an  oily  and  gummy  fort  of 
wood  ;  and  particularly  that  fort  of  tree  which  pro- 
duces the  gum  ammoniac,  which  is  alfo  thought  to 
be  the  fame  with  the  fliittim-wood,  whereof  there  is 
fuch  frequent  mention  made  by  Mofcs. 

ALMUNECAR,  a  fea-port  town  in  the  kingdom 
of  Granada,  feated  on  the  Mediterranean,  witha  good 
harbour,  defended  by  a  flrong  caftle,  30  miles  fouth 
of  Alhama.     W.  Long.  ?.  4J.  N.  Lat.  36.  50. 

ALNAGE,  orAuLNAGE,  the  meafuring  of  wool- 
len manufa&ures  with  an  ell.  It  was  at  firll  intended 
as  a  proof  of  the  goodnefs  of  that  commodity,  and  ac- 
cordingly a  feal  was  invented  as  a  mark  that  the  com- 
modity was  made  according  to  the  flatutc  -,  but,  it  be- 
ing now  polTiblc  to  purchafe  thefe  fcals,  they  are  affix- 
ed, whenever  the  venderplealcs,  toalldoathsindifcri- 
minately,  to  the  great  prejudice  of  the  Britilh  wool- 
len manufaflurcs. 

ALNAGER,  Alneger,  orAui.NEGER,q.  i.mea- 
furer  by  the  ell ;  (ignities  a  fworn  public  officer,  who  by 
himielf,  or  deputy,  is  to  look  to  the  alfizc  of  woollen 
cloth  made  throughout  the  land,  i.e.  the  length, width, 
and  work  thereof;  and  to  the  feals  for  that  purpofe 
ordained.  The  office  of  king's  alnagcr  fecms  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  ftatute  of  Richard  I.  A.  D. 
1197,  which  ordained,  tliat  there  fliould  be  only  one 
weight  and  one  nieafure  throughout  the  kingdom  ;  and 
that  the  cufloc'y  of  the  afllzc,  or  ftandard  of  weights 
and  mcafnres,  Ihould  be  committed  to  certain  perfons 
in  every  city  and  borough.  His  bufmcfs  was,  for  a 
certain  fee,  to  meafure  all  cloth  made  for  fale,  till 
the  office  was  aboliflied  by  the  ftaiatc  11  and  12  W. 
III.  cap.  30. 

ALNUS,  the  Alder-trke,  a  fpecics  of  bctula. 
See  Betula. 

Alnus,  ifi  the  ancient  theatres,  that  part  which 
was  moft  dittant  from  the  ftagc. 

ALNWICK,  a  thoroughfare  town  in  Northumber- 
land, on  the  road  to  Scotland.  Here  Malcolm,  king 
of  Scotland,  making  an  inroad  into  Northumberland, 
was  killed,  with  Edward  his  fon,  and  hiaarmy  defeat td 
by  Robert  Mowbray,  earl  of  this  county,  az/wo  1092. 
Likewife  William,  king  of  Scotland,  in  1 T  74,  ir.va- 
ding  England  with  an  army  of  So.ooo  mc.T,  was  here 
encountered,  his  army  routed,  and  himfclf  made  pri- 
foner.  The  town  is  populous,  and  in  general  well 
built;  it  Ljj  a  largetown-houfe,  where  the  quarter- 
fcflioDS  aad  county-court*  arc  held,  and  members  of 


parliament  defied.  It  has  a  fpaciouffquare,  in  which 
a  market  is  held  every  Saturday.  Alnwick  appears 
to  have  been  formerly  fortified,  by  the  vcftiges  of  a 
wall  ftill  vilible  in  inany  parts,  and  tliree  gates  which 
remain  almofl  entire.  It  is  governed  by  four  chamber- 
lains, who  arc  chofen  once  in  iwoytars  out  of  a  com- 
mon council,  conlilling  of  24  members.  It  is  orna- 
mented by  a  ftatcly  old  Gothic  caftle,  which  has  been 
the  feat  of  the  noble  family  of  Piercy,  earls  of  North- 
umberland. As  ilie  audits  for  reccijit  of  rents  have 
ever  been  ia  this  caftle,  ii  has  always  been  kept  in  to- 
lerable repair ;  and  not  many  ycarsago,  it  was  repaired 
and  beautified  by  the  duke  of  Northumberland,  w  ho 
made  \zr^  conlidcrablc  alterations,  upon  a  moft  elegant 
plan,  with  a  view  to  rcfide  in  it  fome  part  of  the  funi- 
mer-fcafon.  The  mannerof  making  freemen  is  pecu- 
liar to  this  place,  and  indeed  is  as  ridiculous  as  lingu- 
lar. The  perfons  who  are  to  be  made  free,  or,  as  the 
phrafc  is,  leap  the  v/cll,  aflfemblc  in  the  market-place, 
very  early  in  the  morning,  on  the  2Jth  of  April,  being 
St  Mark's  day.  They  appear  on  horfe-bick,  with  e- 
very  man  his  fword  by  his  fide,  drefled  in  «  bite,  and 
with  white  night-caps,  attended  by  the  four  chamber- 
lains and  the  caftle-bailitf",  mounted  and  armed  in  the 
fame  manner  ;  from  hence  they  proceed,  with  mulic 
playing  before  them,  to  a  large  dirty  pool,  called /^rirr- 
titan'i-vjitl,  wiiere  they  difmount,  and  draw  up  in  a 
body,  at  fome  diflance  from  the  water  ;  and  tiien  rulh 
into  it  all  at  once,  and  fcramble  through  the  mud  a3 
fall  as  they  can.  As  the  water  is  generally  very  foul, 
they  come  out  in  a  dirty  condition  ;  but  taking  a  dram, 
they  put  on  dry  clothes,  remount  their  horfes,  and 
ride  full  gallop  round  the  confines  of  the  diftrid  ; 
then  re-enter  th*  town,  fword  in  hand,  and  are  met 
by  women  drelled  in  ribbons  with  bells  and-garlands, 
dancing  and  (inging.  Thefe  are  called  iimba-xoafls. 
The  houfes  of  the  new  freemen  are  on  this  day  diftin- 
guifhed  by  a  great  holly-bufh,as  a  fignal  for  their  friends 
to  afTemble  and  make  merry  with  thera-fter  their  re- 
turn. This  ceremony  wasowingtoking  John, who  was 
mired  in  this  well ;  and  who,  as  a  punilhmcnt  for  not 
mending  the  road,  made  this  a  part  of  their  charter. 
Alnwick  is  310  miles  north  by  weft  from  London,  53 
north  ofNewcaftle,  and  29  fouth  of  Berwick.  W. 
Long.   I.  10.  Lat.  $5.  24. 

ALOA,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  a  feftival  kept  in  ho- 
nour of  Ceres  by  the  hulbandmen,  and  fuppofed  to  re- 
femblc  our  harvcll-home. 

ALOE,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  tiie  monopynia  or- 
der, belonging  to  the  hexandriaclafs  of  plants ,  anil,  in 
the  natural  method,  ranking  under  the  loth  order, 
C'jroiiariic.  The  characlers  arc  :  There  is  no  calyx  : 
The  aroJla  is  monopetalous,  crert,  iix-cleft,  and  ob- 
long ;  the  tube  gibbous  ;  the  border  fprcading,  and 
fniall;  with  a  ntdlary-bcaring  bottom:  The  flawrra 
confift  ol  fix  fubulatcd  filaments,  rather  furpatiing  ihc 
corolla  in  length,  and  infcrtcd  into  the  receptacles;  the 
anthcra:  arc  oblong  and  incumbent :  The  ftjlilli,i/i  has 
an  ovate  gcrmen  ;  the  ftylus  is  (imple,  the  length  of 
the  ftamina  ;  the  fligma  is  obtufc  and  trifid  :  The  pc 
ricarpiuhi  is  an  oblong  capfule,  three-furrowed,  three- 
celled,  ihrce-valved  :  ThcfeiJi  are  many  and  angular. 
Of  this  genus,  botanical  writers  cnuntcrate  ten  Ipe- 
cies  ;  of  which  the  moft  remarkable  are, 

1.  The  difticha,  by  fome  called  theyij/  ala,  by 
s  P  3  others 


A  L  O  [     4S4    ]  A  L  O 

This  fcldom  rifcs  above  two     in  an  airy  glafs-cafe,  in  which  there  is  a  (love,  to  make 


Aloe,  others  cabalime  aloe. 
'^~~'  /cct  high.  The  leaves  arc  very  broad  at  the  bale, 
where  they  clofcly  embrice  the  Halk,  and  gradual- 
ly decreale  to  a  point.  The  edges  are  let  with 
Iharp  fpincs,  and  the  under  leaves  fprcad  open  horizon- 
tally every  way.  Thefe  are  of"  a  dark  green  coloiir 
fpottcd  with  white,  fonicwhat  refembling  the  colour 
of  foft  foap,  from  whence  tlic  plant  got  ilie  name  of 
foap-ake.  The  flowers  grow  in  unibcls  on  the  tops  of 
the  Aalks,  are  of  a  beautiful  red  colour,  and  appear 
in  Autfuft  and  September.  2.  The  variegate,  or 
partridge-brealt  aloe,  is  a  low  plant,  fcldom  riling 
above  (fight  inches  high.  The  leaves  of  this  arc  trian- 
gular, and  curioudy  veined  and  ipotted,  fomewhat  like 
the  feathersof  a  partridge's  breaif.  The  liowcrs  grow 
in  very  loofc  fpikes,  and  are  of  a  fine  red  colour  tip- 
ped with  green.  %.  The  vifcofa,  with  funncl-fliaped 
llowers,  grows  near  a  foot  high,  with  triangular 
leaves  of  a  dark  green  colour.  The  flowers  grow 
thinly  upon  very  llender  footflalks,  are  of  an  herba- 
ceous colour,  and  their  upper  part  turns  backward. 
4.  The  fpiralis, with  oval  crenatedflowcrs, grows  fome- 
what like  the  former :  only  the  flowers  grow  upon  tal- 
ler flalks,  which  branch  out  and  grow  in  very  long 
clofe  fpikes.  J.  The  linguisformae,  or  tongue-aloe, 
has  itsleavcs  about  fix  inches  inlengtli,aad  fliapedlike 
a  tongue.  The  flowers  grow  in  llender  loofe  fpikes, 
each  hanging  downward,  of  a  red  colour  below,  and 
green  at  the  top.  6.  The  margaritifera,  or  pearl 
aloe,  is  a  very  beautiful  plant.  It  is  fmaller  than  mofl 
of  the  aloe  kind.  The  leaves  are  fliort,  very  thick, 
fharp  pointed,  and  turning  down,  with  a  large  thick 
end,  appear  there  trianguhr.  The  colour  of  the  leaves 
is  a  line  green,  flrippcd  in  an  elegant  manner  with 
white,  and  frequently  tipped  with  red  at  the  point. 
The  flower-Ilalk,  which  riles  in  the  midft  of  the  leaves, 
is  round,  fniooth,  of  a  purple  colour,  and  generally 
-about  eight  inches  high.  When  the  plant  has  been 
properly  cultivated,  the  flowers  are  Itriped  with  green 
and  white  ;  and  fometimes  they  are  entirely  white. 
This  aloe  is  lingular  in  not  having  the  bitter  relinous 
juices  with  which  the  leaves  of  moll  others  abound  ; 
when  a  leaf  of  this  fpecics  is  cut,  what  runs  from  it  is 
watery,  colourlcfs,  and  perfectly  iniipid.  7.  The 
pcrfoliata,  or  focotorine  aloe,  hath  long,  narrow, fuccu- 
Icnt  leaves,  which  come  out  without  any  order,  and 
form  large  heads.  The  ftalk  grows  :hree  or  four  feet 
'  high  ;  and  has  i\W),  three,  and  fometiiTies  four,of  thefe 
heads  l)ranching  out  from  it.  The  flowers  grow  in 
long  fpikes,  each  (landing  on  a  pretty  long  footflalk  ; 
they  arc  of  a  bright  red  colour  tipped  with  green, 
and  generally  appear  in  the  winter  feafon.  8.  The 
retuia,  or  cufhion  aloe,  hath  very  flwrt,  thick,  fucculent 
leaves,  comprclftd  on  the  upper  (ide  like  a  cufliion. 
This  grows  very  clofe  to  the  ground  ;  the  flowers  grow 
on  (lender  italks,  and  are  of  an  herbaceous  colour. 

Culture.  The  J  roper  earth  for  planting  thefe  vege- 
tables in,  is,  one  half  frelb  light  earth  from  a  com- 
mon, and  the  reft  an  equal  mixture  of  white  fca-fand 
and  lifted  lirae-robbilh.  This  mixture  Ihou Id  be  al- 
ways made  fix  or  eight  months  before  the  plants  are  to 
be  fet  in  it.  The  common  aloe  will  live  in  a  dry  green- 
houfe  in  winter  ;  and  may  be  placed  in  the  open  air  in 
f  imincr,  in  a  Qieliered  lituation,  but  mull  have  very  lit- 
tle water.     Moll  of  the  other  aloes  are  bed  preferved 


Aloe. 


a  little  fire  in  very  bad  weather.  The  tendered  kinds 
require  a  greater  Iharc  of  heat  to  prcfervc  them  in  win- 
ter, and  (liould  be  kept  in  a  good  dove,  in  a  degree  of 
heat  ten  degrees  above  temperate.  Many  otlier  kinds 
may  alfo  be  kept  in  this  heat ;  but  the  greater  the 
heat,  the  more  water  they  always  require.  About  the 
beginning  of  June,  it  is  ufual  in  England  to  fet  the 
pots  of  aloes  out  of  the  houfe  :  but  they  lliould  be  fet 
under  the  Ihelter  of  hedges  or  trees,  to  keep  them  from 
the  violence  of  the  fun  ;  the  rains  alfo,  which  ufually 
tall  in  this  and  the  following  month,  are  apt  to  rot 
them.  It  is  therefore  bed  to  keep  thera  under  cover 
the  greaied  part  of  the  year.  The  bed  time  to  Ihift 
thefe  plants  is  the  middle  of  July.  They  are,  on  this 
occalion,  to  be  taken  out  of  the  pots,  the  loofe  earth 
to  be  picked  from  about  their  roots,  and  the  decayed 
or  mouldy  parts  of  them  cut  olf  ;  then  a  few  dones 
are  to  be  put  at  the  bottom  of  the  pot,  and  it  is  to  be 
filled  with  the  compolition  already  dcfcribed,  and  the 
plants  carefully  put  in,  the  roots  being  fo  difpol'ed  as 
not  to  interfere  with  one  another.  I'hey  are  to  be 
carefully  watered  after  this,  at  times,  for  three  weeks, 
and  fet  in  a  Ihady  place.  The  common  kind  will  bear 
the  open  air  from  May  till  Oclobcr,  and  Ihould  be  fhif- 
ted  every  year.  All  the  aloes  are  propagated  by  ofF- 
fets,  or  by  planting  the  leaves.  The  off-lets  ijiouldbc 
taken  from  the  mother  plant,  at  the  time  when  it  is 
fliifted  :  they  are  to  be  planted  in  very  fraall  pots  of 
the  proper  mixed  earth  ;  and  if  that  part  of  them 
which  joined  to  the  mother-plant  be  obferved  to  be 
moid  when  taken  off,  it  (hould  lie  on  the  ground  in  a, 
fliady  place  two  or  three  days  before  it  is  planted,  o- 
therwife  it  will  rot.  After  planting  thefe,  they  Ihould 
remain  in  a  fliady  place  a  fortnight  ;  and  then  be  re- 
moved to  a  very  moderate  hot  bed,  plunging  the  pots 
therein,  which  will  help  their  drikingnew  roots.  To- 
wards the  end  of  Augud  they  mud  be,  by  degrees, 
hardened  to  the  open  air,  by  taking  off  the  glalTes  of 
the  hot-bed  ;  and  in  September  they  may  be  removed 
into  the  grecn-houfe. 

Propertici,  8e.c.  The  aloe  is  a  kind  of  fymbolic 
plant  to  the  Mahoraetants,  efpecially  in  Egypt,  and 
in  fome  meafure  dedicated  to  the  offices  of  religion  ; 
for  whoever  returns  from  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca, 
hangs  it  over  his  drcet-door,  as  a  token  of  his  ha- 
ving performed  that  holy  journey.  The  fuperditioas 
Egyptians  believe  that  this  plant  hinders  evil  fpirits 
and  apparitions  from  entering  the  houfe  ;  and  on  this 
account,  whoever  walks  the  llreets  in  Cairo,  will  find 
it  over  the  doors  both  of  Chridians  and  Jews.  From 
the  fame  plant  the  Egyptians  didil  a  water,  which  is 
fold  in  the  apothecaries  fliops  at  Cairo,  and  recommen- 
ded in  coughs,  hydcrics,  and  adhmas.  An  unexpe- 
rienced French  furgcon,  fays  HalTclquid,  gave  a  Cop- 
tite,  40  years  old,  afliicted  with  the  jaundice,  four  tea- 
cups full  of  the  didilled  water  of  this  fpecies  of  aloe, 
and  cured  him  in  four  days.  Thisremedy,  unknown 
to  our  apothecaries,  is  not  difficult  to  be  obtained,  as 
the  plant  might  ealily  be  raifed  in  the  warm  foutheru 
parts  of  Europe.     The  Arabians  call  mfabbara. 

Of  the  leaves  of  the  Guinea  aloe,  mentioned  by  Mr 
Adanfon  in  his  voyage  to  Senegal,  the  negroes  make 
very  good  ropes,  not  apt  to  rot  in  the  water. 

Dr  Sloanc  mentions  two  f</rts  of  aloe  j  one  of  which 

i& 


A  L  O 


[     485     ] 


A  L  O 


isufcd  for  fifhing-lines,  bow-ftrings,  /lockings,  and 
'  liammocks  ;  ihe  other  has  leaves  which,  like  thofe  of 
the  w  ild-piiic  and  banana,  hold  rain-water,  and  there- 
by aiibrd  a  very  neccll'ary  rc)'rc(l)n>ent  to  travellers  in 
hot  countries,  where  there  is  generally  a  fcarcity  of 
wells  and  water. 

Ill  Mexico,  the  magnet,  a  fpecies  of  aloe,  yields 
almoft  every  thing  neceii'ary  to  the  lite  of  the  poor. 
Befidcs  making  excellent  hedges  for  their  fields,  its 
trunk  fcrved  in  place  of  beams  for  the  roofs  of  their 
houfcs,  and  its  leaves  inllczd  of  tiles.  From  thofe 
leaves  they  obtained  paper,  thread,  needles,  clothing 
fhoes,  and  {lockings,  and  cordage  ;  and  from  its  co- 
pious juice  tJiey  made  wine,  honey,  fugar,  and  vine- 
gar. Of  the  trunk,  and  thickcft  pan  of  the  leaves, 
when  well  baked,  they  made  a  very  tolerable  dilh  of 
food.  LaAly,it  wasavery  powerful  medicine  in  fevcral 
diforders,  and  particularly  in  thofe  of  the  urine.  It  is 
alfo  at  prcfcni  one  of  the  plants  the  mod  valued  and 
moll  profitable  to  the  Spaniards. 

The  medical  fubllance  known  by  the  name  of  ahes 
is  the  infpillated  juice  of  feme  of  the  abovcmentioned 
fpccies.  The  ancients  diftinguiflied  twoforts  of  aloes: 
the  one  was  purcandof  a  ycllowifli colour,  inclining  to 
red,  refembling  the  colour  of  a  liver,  and  thence  na- 
med hepatic;  the  other  was  full  of  impurities,  and 
hence  fuppofed  to  be  only  the  drofsof  the  better  kind. 
At  prtfeni,  various  forts  are  met  with  in  the  Ihops  ; 
which  arc  diflinguifhed  either  from  the  pi  ices,  from 
thcfpecies  of  the  plants,  orfrom  fome  difference  in  the 
juices  themfelves.  Thcfc  may  be  all  ranged  in  three 
clafTes  ; 

I  j4loe  Perfoliata,  focotorine  aloe,  brought  from 
the  illand  Socotora  in  the  Indian  ocean,  wrapt  in  Ikins  ; 
it  is  obtained  from  the  5th  fpccies  abovcmentioned — 
This  fort  is  the  pureft  of  the  three  :  it  is  of  a  gloily 
furfacc,  clear,  and  in  fome  degree  pellucid  :  in  the 
lump,  of  aycllowilh  red  colour,  with  a  purple  caft  ; 
when  reduced  to  powder,  of  a  bright  golden  colour.  It 
is  hard  and  friable  in  the  winter,  fomewhat  pliable  in 
fummcr,  and  grows  foft  betwixt  the  fingers.  Its  tafle 
is  bitter,  accompanied  with  an  aromatic  flavour,  but 
infufficient  to  prevent  its  b'ing  difagreeablc  :  the  fmcU 
is  not  very  unpleafant,  and  fomewhat  refcmbks  that  of 
myrrh. 

2.  y^LOE  Hepatica,  hepatic,  Barbadoes,  or  common 
aloes(ihe  juice  of  a  variety  of  the  former) , is  not  fociear 
and  bright  as  the  foregoing  fort  ;  it  is  alfo  of  a  darker 
colour,  more  compaiJt  texture,  and  for  the  moft  part 
drier.  Its  fn.cll  is  much  llronger  and  more  difagrce- 
able  ;  the  tafle  intenfely  bitter  and  nafcous,  wiili  lit- 
tle or  nothing  of  the  fine  aromatic  fiavourof  the  foco- 
torine.— The  bell  hepatic  aloes  come  from  Barbadoes 
in  large  gourd-lhells;  an  inferior  forrof  it  (which  is  ge- 
nerally loft  and  clammy)  is  brought  over  in  calks. 

Of  the  cultivation  and  preparation  of  he;iaiic  aloes 
in  the  idand  of  Bardadocs,  we  have  the  following  ac- 
count in  the  LondoniVIcdical  Journal*.  '<Thc  lands  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  fea,  that  is,  from  two  to  three 
miles  which  are  rather  fubjcft  to  drought  than  other- 
wife,  and  are  fo  ftony  and  Ihallow  as  not  to  admit  of 
the  planting  of  fugar  canes  with  any  profpeft  of  fuc- 
cefs,  are  generally  found  to  anfwer  befl  for  the  aloe 
plant.  The  Hones,  at  lead  the  larger  ones,  are  firft 
picked  upland  either  packed  iu  heaps,  upon  the  moft 

I 


Ihallow  barren  fpots,  or  laid  round  the  field  cs  a  dry       AIo«. 

wall.     The  land  is  then  lightly  ploughed,  and  very  " ■> — 

carefully  cleared  of  all  noxious  weeds,  lined  at  one  foot 
dillance  from  row  to  row,  and  ihe  young  plants  fet, 
like  cabbages, at  about  five  or  fix  inci.es  dillance  from 
each  other.  This  regular  mode  of  lining  and  felting  the 
plants  ispradlifcd  only  by  the  moil  exact  planters,  in 
ord-crto  facilitate  the  weeding  of  them,  by  hand,  very 
frequently;  bccaufc,  if  they  are  notkejt  pcrfedily 
clean  and  free  from  weeds,  the  produce  will  be  but 
very  fmall.  They  will  bear  being  jdanted  in  any  fea- 
fon  of  the  year,  even  in  the  drielt,  as  they  willlive  on 
the  furfacc  of  the  earth  many  weeks  without  a  drop 
ofrain.  The  mod  general  time,  however,  of  planting 
them,  is  from  April  to  June. 

•«  In  the  March  following,  the  labourers  carry  4 
parcel  of  tubs  and  jars  into  the  field,  and  each  lakes  a 
dip  or  breadth  of  it,  and  begins  by  Upiug  hold  of  a 
bunch  of  the  blades,  as  much  as  he  can  conveniently 
grafp  in  one  hand,  while  \\  itb  the  other  he  cuts  it 
jail  above  the  furfaceof  the  earth,  as  quickly  as  poIS- 
ble  (that  the  juice  may  not  be  wafted),  and  then  pla- 
ces the  bhdes  in  the  tub,  bunch  by  bunch,  or  handlul 
by  handful.  When  the. firft  tub  is  thus  packed  quite 
full,  a  fecond  is  begun  (each  l.ibourer  having  two)  ; 
and  by  the  time  the  fecond  is  filled,  all  the  juice  is 
generally  drained  out  of  the  blades  in  the  firll  tub. 
The  blades  are  then  lightly  taken  out,  and  thrown  o- 
vcr  the  landby  way  of  niaaur*  ;  and  the  juice  is  pour- 
ed out  into  a  jar.  The  tub  is  then  filled  again  with 
blades,  and  fo  alternately  till  the  labourer  has  produ- 
ced his  jar  full,  or  about  four  gallons  and  an  half  of 
juice,  whichis  often  done  in  fix  or  fcven  hours,  and  he 
has  then  the  remainder  of  the  day  to  himfclf,  it  being 
his  employer's  interell  to  get  each  day's  operation  as 
quickly  done  as  polliblc — It  may  be  oi.,fervcd,  that  al- 
though alses  are  often  cut  in  nine,  ten,  or  twelve 
months  after  being  planted,  tliey  are  not  in  perfeclioii 
lill  the  fecond  and  third  year  ;  and  that  ihey  will  be 
produ<5livc  for  a  length  of  time,  fay  10  or  12  years, 
or  even  for  a  much  longer  time,  if  good  dung,  or  ma- 
nure of  any  kind,  is  ftrewed  over  the  field  once  i.T 
three  or  four  years,  or  oftner  if  convenient. 

"  The  alocjjice  will  keep  forfeveral  weeks  without 
injury.  It  is  therefore  not  boiled  till  a  fufficient  quan- 
tity is  procured  to  make  it  an  objetl  for  the  boilir.ir- 
houfe.  In  the  large  way,  three  boilers,  either  of  iron 
or  of  copper,  are  placed  toone  fire,  though  fome  have 
but  two,  and  the  Iniall  planters  only  one.  Ti;e  boiler* 
are  fille  :  with  the  juice  ;  and,  as  it  ripens  or  Lccomei 
more  iiifpilfated,  by  a  conflant  but  regular  f^re,  it  is 
ladled  forward  from  boiler  to  boiler,  and  frc ill  juice  i» 
rddcd  to  that  fariheA  from  the  fire,  till  ihc  juice  ia 
that  nearefl  to  the  fire  (by  much  the  fmalieft  of  the 
three,  and  commor.ly  called  by  the  name  oitjtih,  as 
in  the  manufaftory  of  fu;;ar)  becomes  of  a  proper  con- 
fii:e  icy  to  be  ikipped  or  ladled  o  it  into  gourds,  or  o- 
ther  finall  vellcls,  uftd  for  its  final  reception.  The 
proper  time  to  (kip  or  Udle  it  out  of  the  tatch,  is  wl>en 
it  is  arrived  at  what  is  termed  a  refin  height,  or  when 
it  cuts  freely  ,or  in  thin  flakes,  from  thecdgesof  afniall 
wooden  lliee,  that  is  dipptd'from  time  to  time  into  the 
tateh  for  that  purpofe.  A  little  lime-water  is  ufcd  by 
fome  aloe-boilers,  d*'.ring  the  protefs,  v.  hen  ihc  ebulli- 
tioa  is  too  great. 


A  L  O 


L   486    1 


A  L  O 


Aloe.  "  As  to  the  fiin-dricd  aloes  (which  is  moft  appro- 

— >/— '  vcd  for  medicinal  piirpofcs),  very  litlkis  made  in  Uar- 
badoes.  The  proccfs  is,  liowcvcr,  very  limplc,  though 
extremely  tedions.  1  he  raw  juice  is  cither  put  into 
bladders,  left  quite  open  at  top,  and  fufpcndcdin  the 
fun,  or  in  hroad  Ihallovv  trays  of  wood,  pewter,  or  tin, 
cxpofed  alfo  to  the  fun,  every  dry  day,  uniilalllhc 
fliud  parts  arc  exhaled,  and  a  perfcrt  re(in  formed, 
wl'/ich  is  then  packed  up  for  ufc,  or  for  cxporiaiion." 
The  Barbadoes  aloes  is  f.iid  to  be  common  alfo  in 
the  other  Well  India  iilands  ;  and  the  following  ac- 
count of  the  manner  of  preparing  it  in  Jamaica  is  gi- 
ven by  Dr  ^\' right  in  the  fame  volume  of  the  Medical 
Journal,  art.  i .  "  The  plant  is  pulled  up  by  the  roots, 
and  carefully  clcanfed  from  the  eartiior  oiher  impuri- 
ties. It  is  then  diced  and  cut  in  pieces  into  fniall 
hand-baikets  or  nets.  Thefe  nets  or  baikcts  arc  put 
into  large  iron  boilers  with  water,  and  boiled  for  ten 
minutes,  when  they  arc  taken  out,  and  freQi  parcels 
fnpplied  till  the  liquor  is  llrong  and  black.  At  this 
period  the  liquor  is  tiirown  througii  a  flraincr  into  a 
deep  vat,  narrow  at  bottom,  to  cool,  and  to  depolite 
itsfaculer.c  parts.  Next  day  the  clear  liquor  is  drawn 
offby  a  cock,  and  again  conimirted  to  the  large  iron 
vcffel.  Atfirft  it  is  boiled  brilkly  :  but  towards  the 
end  of  the  evaporation  is  (low,  and  requiresconftanily 
ftirring  to  prevent  burning.  When  it  bcco«)|f  of  the 
conlidancc  of  hcney,  it  is  poured  into  gourds  or  cala- 
bailies  for  file.     This  hardens  by  age." 

3.  WLOi.-Cai.>//h;a  {cl'\ii,cih-Minc,  or  horfe-aloc,  is 
fuppofed  to  be  a  coarfer  fort  obtained  from  the  fame 
fpccies  with  the  foregoing  ;  according  to  others,  it  is 
the  produce  of  the  dillicha.  It  is  chiefly  dillinguidi- 
cd  by  its  ftrong  rank  fmcll. 

All  thediffcrentkindsarcgum-rciins, which  contain 
more  gummous  than  refmous  parts.  Water,  when  of 
a  boiling  heat,  diffolves  all  the  foluble  parts  of  aloes  ; 
but  if  let  lUnd  till  it  grows  cold,  it  lets  drop  moll 
ofits  relin.  A  flrong  fpirit  dilTolves  and  keeps  fufpend- 
cdalmoftthe  whole  of  aloes,  though  it  contains  fnch  a 
large  portion  of  gummous  p.irts  ;  hence  it  is  evident, 
that  aloes  contains  fonu-  principle,  faline  or  other, 
which  renders  water  capable  of  diilblving  relin,  and 
fpirit  capable  of  dilfolving  gun. 

Aloe  is  a  ftimulating  rtomarhic  purge,  which  jjivcn 
in  fmall  quantity,  operates  mildly  by  Hool ;  but  in  large 
dofes  acTs  roughly,  and  often  occalionsan  irritation  a- 
bout  the  anus,  and  fometiiiies  a  difchargc  of  blood.  It 
is  a  good  opening  medicine, to  pe<>]'le  of  a  lax  li..bit,or 
•who  live  a  fedcntary  life  ;  and  tothofc  whofc  flomach 
and  bowels  arc  load  :d  witlv  phlegm  or  mucus,  or  who 
are  troubled  with  worms,  or  are  debilitated  ;  beeaufeat 
the  fame  rime  that  it  cirrics  offthofc  vifcid  humours 
which  pal!  the  appetite,  and  overload  the  iii:c(lines, 
it  fervcs  asa  flreiigthenerand  bracer.  In  Sn.alldofes, 
repeated  from  time  to  tin^e,  it  not  only  deanfes  the 
prima  vix,  but  likewifc  tends  to proinotc,  the  mcnftrnal 
difcharge  in  women  ;  and  therefore  it  is  frequently 
employed  in  chlorofis,  or  wliere  the  menflrua  arc  ob- 
flrU('led.  It  is  a  good  flomachic  purge,  and  is  given 
in  all  cafes  where  fuch  a  one  is  wanted  ;  but  it  is  look- 
ed npon  as  a  heating  medicine,  and  not  properin  bilious 
habits,  or  where  there  is  much  heat  or  fever ;  and  its 
continued  afe  is  apt  to  bring  on  the  piles. 

It  is  given  in  fubftancc  from  five  grains  to  a  fcrnple, 


though  formerly  itufcd  to  be  prcfcribed  in  dofes  of  two 
or  three  times  that  quantity  ;  but  thefe  large  dofes 
fomctimes  brought  on  troublefomc  fymptoms.  As  it 
is  a  llow  working  purge,  it  is  generally  taken  at  bed- 
time, and  it  operates  next  day. 

With  regard  to  this,  as  well  as  toall  other  rcfinous 
purges,  it  ought  to  be  obfervcd,  that  when  they  are 
given  in  fubllancc  without  any.mixturc,  they  arc  apt 
to  adhere  to  the  coats  of  the  intedines,  and  to  occafion 
griping  and  unealinefs;for  thefe  reafons  aloes  are  gene- 
rally mixed  with  fome  faponaccous  or  rcfolvent  body, 
to  deftroy  its  vifcid  tesacity,  before  it  is  given  in  fub- 
flancc.  The  fubftances  which  are  moll  ufed  for  this 
purpofearc,  a  fmall  quantity  of  the  fixed  alkaline  falts  ; 
foap  ;  the  yolk  of  an  egg  ;  and  gummous  vegetable  ex- 
tracts. Mr  Harton  alleges*,  that  by  triturating  aloes 
with  a  fmall  quantity  of  alkaline  falts,  its  tenacity  was 
more  effcrtually.dcltroycd  than  by  any  other  thing  he 
tried  :"  that  Caftile  foap  and  the  yolk  of  an  egg  an- 
fwcrcd  bed,  next  to  it :  that  manna,  fugar,  and  honey, 
were  far  inferior  to  them  ;  and  that  gummous,  or  mu- 
cous vegetable  extracts,  fuch  as  the  extrai.^s  of  gen- 
tian, or  of  liquorice  root,  triturated  with  the  aloes,  in 
the  proportion  of  one  part  of  the  cxtraft  to  two  of  the' 
aloes,  and  then  made  up  into  pills  with  a  fufficient 
quantity  of  fyrup,  dcflroyed  the  vifcidity  of  the  aloes, 
and  rendered  its  operation  mild. 

Socotorine  aloes  contains  more  gummy  matter  than 
the  hepatic  ;  and  hence  it  is  likcwife  found  to  purge 
more  and  with  greater  irritation.  The  firft  fort  there- 
fore is  mofl  proper  where  a  ftimulus  is  required,  as  for 
promoting  or  exciting  the  menftrual  dux  ;  whilft  the 
latter  is  better  calculated  to  aft  as  a  common  purge. 
Kor  the  aloetic  preparations,  fee  Pharmacy-  Judex. 

j^LOEH-Wood.  See  Xrut- Aloes. 

American  Aloe.     See  Agave. 

ALOGIANS,  in  church-hiftory,  a  feft  of  ancient 
heretics,  who  denied  that  JefusChrift  was  the  Logos, 
and  confequcntly  rejected  the  gofpel  of  St  John — The 
word  is  compounded  to  the  primitive*  andx«>ec,  q.  d. 
wiikoiit  Logos  or  Word. — Some  afcribe  the  origin  of 
the  name,  as  well  as  of  the  feifl  of  .Alogians,  to  Theo- 
dore of  Byzantium,  by  trade  a  currier  ;  who  having 
apoftatized  under  the  prefccution  of  the  emperor  Seve- 
rus,  to  defend  himfelf  again  ft  thofe  who  reproached 
him  therewith,  faid,  that  it  was  not  God  he  denied, 
but  only  man.  Whence  his  followers  were  called  in 
Greek  «xe>.ii;,  becaule  they  rcjciflcd  the  Word.  But 
other",  with  more  probability,  fuppofe  the  name  to 
have  been  firll  given  them  by  Epiphanius  in  the  way 
of  reproach.  Theymade  their  appearance  toward  the 
clofeof  the  fccond  century. 

ALOGOTROPHIA,  among  phyficians,  a  term 
fignifying  the  unequal  growth  or  nourilhmcnt  of  any 
part  of  the  body,  as  in  the  rickets. 

ALOOF,  liis  frequently  been  mentioned  as  a  fea- 
tcrm  ;  but  whether  juflly  or  not,  we  fliall  not  prcfume 
to  determine.  It  is  known  in  common  difcourfe  to  im- 
ply «/ (7  (////awe--;  and  the  refemblanccof  ilitphrafe^ife^ 
a  tnof,  and  keep  a  luff  ox  keep  the  luff,  in  all  probability 
gavcrifetothisconjeiflure.  If  it  wasreally  afea-phrafc 
originally,  it  fcems  to  have  referred  to  the  dangers  of 
a  lec-fliore,in  v.hich  fituation  the  pilot  might  naturally 
apply  it  in  the  fcnfc  commonly  undcrflood,  viz.  keep 
all  off,  or  quite  off:  it  is,  however,  never  exprcffed  in 

that 


'Trealift 
of  the  Ma. 
nufuUurt  of 

I747' 


A  L  O 


r  4-^1  ] 


ALP 


Al»pcce   that  maimer  by  fcamcn  now.    Sec  Lukk.    It  may  not 

I         oc  improper  tooblcrvc,  that  belidcs  uling  lliis  plirafe 

^'""'    .  in  the  lame  fcnfc  witli  us,  the  French  alfo  call    the 

weather- fide  ofalliip,  andtlic  wcaihcr-clucuf  a  courfc, 

//  /of. 

ALOPECE,  Alopecia  (aiic.  gcog.),  an  ifland 
placed  by  Ptolemy  at  the  mouth  ot  the  fanais,  and 
called  the  ilhnd  Tanaii  :  xvo'f/  i' Ijle  d.i  Renardi  (Bau- 
drand).  Alfu  aa  iilaiid  of  the  Bofphoras  Cimnierius 
(Pliny);  and  another  in  the  Kgcaa  fca,  over  againll 
Smyrna. 

ALOPECIA,  a  term  ufed  among  phylicians  to  de- 
note a  total  falling  otF  of  the  hair  trom  certain  parts, 
occalioncd  either  by  the  defect  of  nutritious  juice,  or 
by  its  vicious  quality  corroding  the  root-sofit,  and  lea- 
ving the  fkin  rough  and  colourlcfs. 

The  word  is  formed  from  aXMimg,  viilpes,  "a  ioyi.;" 
whofe  urine,  it  is  laid,  will  occaiiou  baldncfs  ;  or  be- 
caufe  it  is  a  difeafc  which  is  common  to  that  creature. 
It  is  directed  to  wafli  the  head  every  night  at  going  to 
bed  with  a  ley  prepared  by  boiling  the  aflics  of  vine 
branches  in  red  wine.  A  powder  made  by  reducing 
hermodaiJlyls  to  fine  flour,  is  alfo  recommended  for  the 
fame  purpofc. 

In  cafes  where  the  baldncfs  is  total,  a  quantity  of 
•  the  finell  burdock  roots  arc  to  be  bruifed  in  a  marble 
mortar,  and  then  boiled  in  white  wine  until  there  re- 
mains only  as  much  as  will  cover  them.  This  liquor, 
carefully  ftrained  off,  is  faid  to  cure  baldnefs,  by  walh- 
ing  the  head  every  night  with  fome  of  it  warm.  A 
ley  made  by  boiling  afliesof  vine  branches  in  common 
water,  is  aJfo  recommended  ■Aith  this  imcntioii.  A 
frefti  cut  onion,  rubbed  on  the  part  uiitil  it  be  red  and 
itch,  islikewife  faid  to  cure  baldncfs. 

A  multitude  of  fuch  remedies  are  every  where  to  be 
found  in  the  works  of  Valefcus  de  Taranta,  Rondclc- 
tius,  Hollerius,  Trincaveliius,  Celfus,  Senertay,  and 
other  prailical  phylicians.     See  alio  Buxus. 

ALOPECURUS,  or  Kox-tail  grass,  in  botany" : 
Agenusofthe  triandriadigyniaclafs  ;  and  in  the  na- 
tural method  ranking  under  the  4ih  order,  Cramina. 
Thecharadcrs  are  :  The  c<j.>.visa  fingle  flowered  bi- 
valve glume  :  The  corolla  iswne-valved  :  'Xhejiamina 
conlill  of  three  capillary  filaments ;  the  antherae  bifur- 
cated at  both  ends  :  The /!/fttllu>» ha  roundilh  germcn; 
there  are  two  llyli  ;  and  the  fligmaia  are  iimple  :  The 
perkarpium  is  a  corolla  doathing  the  feed  ;  and  the 
feed  is  (ingle  and  roundilh.  There  are  eight  fpccics, 
viz.  the  pratenlis,  or  meadow  fox-tail  grafs  ;  the  bul- 
bofus,  or  bulbous  fox-tail  grafs  ;  the  geniculatus,  or 
flotc  fox- tail  grafs  ;  and  the  myofuroides,  or  field  fox- 
tail grafs;  ihcfefour  grow  wild  in  Britain  :  iheagrellis, 
ihemonfpelienlis,  the  paniceus,  and  the  hordeiformis, 
arc  all  natives  of  France  and  the  font  hern  partsof  Eu- 
rope, except  the  laft,  which  is  a  native  of  India.  Sec 
Gras;!. 

ALOPEX,  in  zoology,  a  fpecies  of  the  canis,  with 
a  Arait  tall  and  black  tip.  It  is  commonly  called  tiie 
fiddfox. 

ALOSA,  the  (bad,  or  mother  of  herring*,  a  fpecies 
oftheclupca.    SccClupfa. 

ALOST,  a  town  in  FlanJers,  belonging  to  the 
houfe  of  Aullria,  fcated  on  the  ri\tr  Deader,  in  the 
midway  between  BrBllels  and  Ghent.  It  has  but  one 
fariik;  but  the  church  is  collegiate,  and  has  a  ptovoft, 

\ 


a  dean,  and  twelve  canons.    Here  is  a  coflrent  of  Car-     Alphi^ 
mclites,  another  of  capuchins,  another  of  bare-footed   Aipbiijct. 
Ciruiclitts,  three  nunneries,  an  liofpital,  and  a  coarcot  "       '*      * 
of  Guilkmins,  in  which  is  the  tonibof  Theodjrc  Mar- 
tin,  who  brought  ihe  art  of  printing  oat  of  German/ 
into  the  Losv  Countries.  He  wasafiiend  of  Erafiuui, 
who  wrote  his  epitaph.     E.  Long.  4.  10.  N.  Lat.  49. 

5  J. 

ALPHA,  the  name  of  the  firft  letter  of  the  Greek 
alphabet,  anfwcring  toour  A, — Asa  numeral,  it  flanils 
for  one,  or  the  firrt  of  any  thing.  It  is  piriicularl/ 
ufed,  amongancient  writers,  todcnote  the  chief  or  lirll 
man  of  his  clafs  or  rank.  Inthisfeufe,  the  word  Hand* 
co;iiradiilinguiIhed  from  b^ta,  which  denotes  the  fc- 
cond  perfon.  Plato  was  c.iUcd  the  Alpha  of  the  wits  : 
Eratoflhents,  keeper  of  the  Alexandrian  library.vi  honi 
fome  called  a  Second  Plaio,  is  frequently  named  Bet.'. 

AtPHAis  alfoufcd  todcnote  the  beginning  of  an/ 
thing.  In  which  fenfe  it  (lands  oppofed  :j  t,;iegu, 
which  denotes  the  end.  And  thtfe  tuo  letters  were 
made  the  fymbolof  Chriftianiiy  ;  andaccordingiy  were 
engravcnon  the  tombs  o(  the  ancient  ChriAians,  to  di- 
ftinguilh  tlieni  from  tliofcof  idolaters.  Wora'.cz,a  Spa- 
nilli  writer,  imagined  that  this  curtoni  or.ly  commen- 
ced lince  the  rife  of  Arianilai  ;  and  lliatit  was  peculiar 
to  the  orthodox,  who  hereby  made  cor.feliion  of  ihc 
eternity  of  Ciuill :  but  there  are  tombs  prior  to  the  age 
ofConflaniine  whereontlie  two  letters  were  found, be- 
lidcs  that  the  emperor  ju(l  mentioned  bore  them  on  his 
labarum  before  Arius  appeared. 

ALPHABET,  the  natural  or  cuflomary  ferics  of 
the  feveral  letters  of  a  language  (fee  Language  ani 
Writing).  The  word  is  formed  fromatpha  aiui  b.ta, 
the  firft  and  fecond  letters  of  tiicGrcck  alphabet.  The 
number  of  letters  is  different  in  the  alphabets  of  differ- 
ent languages.  The  Engliih  alphabet  contains  24  let- 
ters; to  wliich  if  wc  aid  j  and  v  confonant,  the  fum 
\\illbe26:  the  French  contains  23  ;  the  Hebrew, 
Clialdcc,  Syriac,  and  Samaritan,  22  each  ;  the  Arabic 
28  ;  the  PerJian  31  ;  the  Turkiih  13  ;  the  ''icorgiaa 
56  i  the  Coptic  33  ;  iheMufcovitc  43  ^the  Greek  24  ; 
the  Laiia  22  ;  the  Scalvonic  27  ;  the  Dutch  26  ;  the 
tpanilh  27  ;  the  Italian  20  ;  the  Eihiopic  and  Tarta- 
rian, eacli  202  ;  the  Indians  of  Bengal  21  ;  the  Bara- 
n)cfc  19.  The  Chincfe  have,  properly  (peaking,  no 
alphabet,  except  we  call  their  whole  language  by  that 
name  ;  llicirlcttcrsarc  words,  or  raihcrhicroglyphics, 
:  mounting  to  about  80,000. 

It  has  been  a  matter  of  confidcrabledifpute  whether 
the  method  of  exprclTing  our  ideas  by  vilible  fymbols, 
called /fVc/v,  be  reilly  a  hum.iii  invention;  or  whether 
we  ought  to  sliributc  an  art  fo  txcecdiUf^ly  iilcful,  to 
an  immediate  revelation  from  ihe  Deity. — Infavoarof 
the  latter  opinion  it  has  been  urged,  r 

1.  I'iic  five  books  of  Mofes  are  univcrfally  acknow-  .Aigum;i,t» 
ledged  to  be  the  moll  ancient  compodtions  as  well  aj-fc^  writing 
the  moft  early  fpecimcns  of  alphabetical  writing  wc      "^  *.  _ 
have.  If,  tiicrefore,  we  fiippofe  writing  to  be  the  re-  ijtiou. 
fult  of  human  ingenuity,  it  luuft  be  ditiercnt  from  all 
other  .trts,  having  been  brought  toperfcdion  at  once  ; 
as  il  feems  impolfible  to  make  any  real  improvement  on 
the  Hebrew  alphabet.  It  iiiay  indeed  be  replied,  that 
aiphabeticalcharaiiUrs  perhaps  have  cxi;!ed  many  ages 
before  the  wri'.ings«jf  Mofcs,  though  the  more  ancient 
fpecimcns  have  perilbed.     This,  however,  being  a 
-  mere 


ALP 


[     488     ] 


ALP 


Alphaliet  mere  Hul.ipportcJ  aflcnion,  without  any  liiftorjcal  tc- 
' — V—'  Itimony  to  corroboraie  it,  cannot  be  admitted  as  a 
proof.  Again,  fctting  alide  the  evidence  to  be  deri- 
ved from  Scripture  on  this  fubjeft,  the  limplicity  of 
manners  predominant  in  the  early  ages,  the  fmall  ex- 
tent of  the  inttllcihial  powers  of  manlcind,  and  tlic 
little  intercoiirfc  which  nations  had  with  one  another, 
which  would  fecm  more  parucul.irly  to  render  wriiing 
iieccllary,  car.  fcarce  allow  us  to  fuppofe  that  fuch  a 
com  pleK  and  cnrioiis  contrivance  as  alphabetical  writing 
could  be  invented  by  a  race  of  men  whofe  wants  were 
'fj  few,  their  advantages  fo  circumfcribcd,  and  their 
i.ieas  fo  limit'Cd. 

2.  If  alphabetical  writing  were  a  mere  human  in- 
vention, it  might  be  expected  that  diflcrcnt  nations 
would  have  fallen  upon  the  fameexpedient  independent 
of  each  other  during  the  compafs  of  fo  many  ages. 
But  no  fuch  thing  has  taken  place  ;  and  the  writing  of 
every  people  on  earth  may  be  referred  to  one  common 
originil.  If  this  can  be  proved,  the  argument  from 
fucceffive  derivation,  without  a  finglc  initance  of  in- 
dependent difcovery ,  mull  be  allowed  to  amount  fo  the 
very  hinliell  degree  of  probability  in  favour  of  our  hy- 
pothefis,  which  will  now  rcil  on  the  evidence  for  or 
againft  this  faft ;  and  which  may  be  fummed  up  in  the 
following  manner. 

Among  the  European   nations  we   find  none  who 
can  pretend  any  right  to  the  difcovery  of  letters.     All 
of  them  derived  the  art  from  the  Romans,  excepting 
only  the  Turks,  who  had  it  from  the  Arabians.    The 
Romans  never  laid  claim  to  the  difcovery  ;   but  con- 
feflfed  thn  they  derived  their   knowledge  from  the 
Greeks,  and  the  latter  owned  that  they  had  it  from 
the  Phosniciins  ;   who,  as  well  as  their  colonills  the 
Carthiginians,  fpoke  a  dialed  of  the  Hebrew  fcarcely 
varying  from  the  original.  The  Coptic,  or  Egyptian, 
refembles  the  Greek  in  moft  of  its  charaftcrs,  and  is 
therefore  to  be  referred  to  the  fame  original.     The 
Chaldec,  Syriac,  and  latter  Samaritan,  arc  dialeds  of 
the  Hebrew,  without  any  confulerable  deviation,  or 
many  additional  words.      The  Ethiopic  differs  more 
from   the   Hebrew,  but   lefs  than   the    Arabic  ;  yet 
thefe  languages  have  all  illued  from  t-iie  fime  flock,  as 
the  limiliarity  of  their  formation,  and  the  numberlefs 
words  common  to  them,  all  fufliciently  evince  ;  and  the 
Perfic  is  very  nearly  allied  to  the  Arabic.     Alterations 
indeed  would  naturally  be  produced,  in  proportion  to 
the  civilization  ofthe  feveral  nations,  and  their  inter- 
courfe  with  others  ;  which  will  account  for  the  fuperior 
copioufncfs  of  fom:  above  the  reft.     It  appears  then, 
that  all  the  languages  in  ufc  amongft  men  that  have 
been  conveyed  in  alphabetical  charii/ters,  have  been 
the  languages  of  people  connei^led  ultimately  or  im- 
mediately with  the  Hebrews,  who  have  handed  down 
iheearlicll  fpecimens  of  writing  to  poflcrity  ;  and  we 
have  therefore  the  grcateft  rcafon  lobelicve,  that  their 
jncrhod.  of  wriiing,  as  well  as  ihcir  language,  was  de- 
rived from  the  fauic  fource. 

This  propofiiiou  will  befanhcrconfirmed  from  cou- 
fidering  the  famenefs  of  the  artificial  denominations 
ofthe  letters  in  the  Oriental,  Greek,  and  Latin  lan- 
guages, accompanied  alfo  by  a  li.iiilar  arrangement, 
a%  alpha,  b:t:i,  Z^c.  It  may  (1:11  be  objcilcJ,  hov/- 
cvcr,  that  the  characters  employed  by  the  ancicnis  to 
difcriminate  their  letters  are  entirely  dilUmilar.  Why 


Ihould  not  one  nation,  it  may  be  urged,   adopt  from  Alphabet. 

the  other  the  modeof  cxprefling  the  art  as  well  as  the  " >^~~ 

art  itfclf  ?  To  what  purpofc  did  they  take  the  trouble 
of  inventing  other  charartcrs  .'  To  this  objettion  it 
may  be  replied,  i.  From  the  inftauce  of  our  own  lan- 
guage we  know  what  divcrlitics  may  be  introduced  in 
this  rcfpeft  merely  by  length  of  time  and  an  intcr- 
courfc  with  neighbouring  nations.  And  fuch  an  ctFed: 
would  be  more  likelj  to  take  place  before  the  art  of 
printing  had  contributed  to  cflablilli  an  uniformity  of 
charafter:  For  when  every  work  was  tranfcribcd  by 
the  hand,  we  may  ealily  imagine  how  many  variations 
would  arife  from  the  fancy  ofthe  fcribe,  and  the  mode 
of  writing  foconflantly  different  in  individuals.  2. This 
diverlity  might  fometlmes  arife  from  vanity.  When 
an  individual  of  another  community  had  become  ac- 
quainted with  this  wonderful  art,  he  might  endeavour 
to  recommend  himfelf  as  the  inventor  ;  and,  to  avoid 
detection,  might  invent  other  charaders.  g.Thecha- 
raiflers  of  the  alphabet  might  fometimes  be  accommo- 
dated as  much  as  poflible  to  the  fymbolical  marks  al- 
ready in  ufe  amongft  a  particular  people.  Thefe  ha- 
ving acquired  a  high  degree  of  fandity  by  the  ufe  of 
many  generations,  would  not  be  eafily  fuperfeded  with- 
out the  aid  of  fomc  fuel;  contrivance.  4.  This  is  fup- 
ported  by  the  tellimony  of  Herodotus  ;  who  informs 
us,  that  "  thofe  Phocuicians  who  came  with  Cadmus 
introduced  many  improvements  among  the  Greeks, 
and  alphabetical  writing  too,  not  known  among  them 
before  that  period.  At  firfl  they  ufed  the  Phoenician 
charafter  ;  butinprocefsof  time,  as  the  pronunciation 
altered,  the  ftandard  of  the  letters  was  alfo  changed. 
The  Ionian  Greeks  inhabited  at  that  time  the  parts 
adjacent  to  Phcenicia  :  who  having  received  the  art  of 
alphabetical  vvritingfrom  the  Phoenicians,;ufedit,  with 
an  alteration  of  fome  few  charaders,  and  confcffed 
ingenuoully,  that  it  was  called  Phoenician  from  the  in- 
troducers of  it."  He  tells  us  that  he  had  himfelf  feen 
the  charadcrs  of  Cadmus  in  a  temple  of  Ifmcnian 
Apollo  at  Thebes  in  Boeotia,  engraven  upon  tripods, 
and  very  much  refembling  the  Ionian  charailers.  5. The 
old  Samaritan  isprecifcly  the  fame  as  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage ;  and  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  does  not  vary 
by  a  linglc  letter  in  twenty  words  from  the  Hebrew  : 
but  ihe  characlers  are  widely  different  i  for  the  Jews 
adopted  theChaldaic  letters  during  their  captivity  at 
Babylon,  inllead  of  the  characlers  of  their  forefa- 
thers. 

3.  What  we  know  of  thofe  nations  who  have  con- 
tinued for  many  centuries  unconueifled  with  the  reft  of 
the  world,  llrongly  militates  againft  tiie  hypothecs  of 
the  human  invention  of  alphabetical  writing.  The 
experiment  has  been  fairly  made  upon  the  ingenuity  of 
mankind  for  a  longer  jicriod  than  that  which  is  fup- 
pofcd  to  have  produced  alphabetical  writing  by  regu- 
lar gradations  ;  and  this  experiment  determines  pe- 
remptorily in  their  favour.  The  Chincfe,  a  people 
famous  for  their  difcoveries  and  mechanical  turn  of 
genius,  have  made  fome  advances  towards  the  deline- 
ation of  their  ideas  by  arbitrary  figns  ;  but  havcnever- 
thelcfs  been  unable  toaccomplifh  thiscxquilite  device; 
and  after  fo  long  a  trial  to  no  purpofe,  we  may  rea- 
fonably  infer,  tliat  their  mode  of  v;riting,  which  is 
growing  more  intricate  and  voluminous  every  day, 
would  never  terminate  in  fo  clear,  fo  comparativel/ 

firaple. 


A  L   P 


[     489     ] 


A  L  P 


)!ul)cticalc!iaiaflers. 
of 


■ V '^'J  he  RicxicaMi,  I'o,  liid  ir.a.ic  iiy.nc  riidc  aiicinpti  o 

tlie  fiinckiuJ  ;  bu;  with  led  I'licccfs  tliaii  ilicCliiiicfc 
\V'ckii'nva!f>>,  that  hieroglyphics  were  i:i  ulc  a.iioiig 
the  Kgyptiaiis  po.lciiar  to  ihc  pnitticc  of  alph.;be;ical 
wri:i  ig  by  ihc  Jews;  b'.ii  whether  1  he cpifto!)ji;i^hy, 
ai  it  is  cailcJ,  of  the  furnicr  people,  which  wai  i;i 
vogue  dating  ihe  co:iiiiii!ancc  of  the  hieroglyphics, 
niiu-ht  1101  pofTtbly  be  a.iother  n.imc  for  alphabetical 
writing,  cannot  be  decided. 

4.  We  (liall  couCider  the  argument  on  which  the 
commonly  rcctivcd  fuppofitior.  entirely  depends  :  thit 
is,  the  natural  gradation  ilirongli  the  fevcral  fpcciesof 
fynibols  acknowledged  to  have  bccnin  nfe  with  various 
j-eople,  termimting  at  lull  by  an  eafy  trandiion,  in 
ilie  detedioiiofalphab;iic;il  charafters.  Thellixngth 
of  ti)is  argument  will  be  belt  iindcrllood  from  tliefol- 
It'wing  reprefentation. 

"I.  The  firfl  method  of  embodying  ideas  would 
be  by  drawing  a  rcprcfcnt.ition  of  the  objei51s  them- 
ftlvcs.  The  impcrfcttioniif  this  metiiod  is  very  ob- 
vious, both  on  account  of  its  tedioufnefs  and  its  iaa- 
bility  of  going  beyond  external  appearances  to  the 
abflrad  ideas  of  the  mind. 

"  2.  The  next  inetiiod  would  be  fomcwhit  more 
f^eneral,  and  would  fub.litutc  two  or  three  principal 
circumftanccs  for  tlie  whole  tranfaclion.  Sotwo  kings, 
for  example,  engaging  each  other  with  milit.iry  wca- 
I'ons,  might  fcrve  to  convey  the  idea  of  a  war  between 
the  two  narions.  This  abbreviated  method  vi'ould  be 
nioreexpediiious  than  the  former;  but  whatit gained 
in  eoncifencfs  would  be  loft  in  perfpicuity.  It  is  a 
defcri|'tion  more  compendious  indeed,  but  ftill  a  de- 
fcription  of  outward  objcds  alone,  by  drawing  tiicir 
refcmblance.  'I'o  this  iuad  may  be  referred  the  pic- 
ture-writing of  the  Mexicans. 

"  3.  The  next  advance  would  be  to  the  ufc  of  fym- 
bols :  the  incorporation,  as  it  were,  of  abflrafl  and 
complex  ideas  in  figures  more  or  lefs  generalized,  in 
proportion  to  tiie  improvement  of  it.  Thus,  in  the 
earlier  (tages  of  this  device,  a  circle  might  ferve  toex- 
prcfs  the  fun,  a  feniicircle  the  moon  ;  which  is  only  a 
contraflion  of  the  forej^oing  method.  This  fymbt>l- 
writing  in  its  advanced  ftate  would  become  more  re- 
fined, but  c^'.iginaiical  and  myflcrious  in  proportion  to 
its  refincntent.  Hence  it  would  become  lefs  lit  fur 
common  ufc,  and  therefore  more  particularly  ai>pro- 
priatcd  to  the  myfleries  of  philofophy  and  religion. 
Thus,  two  feet  Itanding  upon  water  fcrved  to  cxprcfs 
.in  impolfiiiility  i  a  ferpent  denoted  theoblique  trajec- 
tories of  the  heavenly  bodies;  and  the  beetle,  on  ac- 
count of  foine  fuppolcd  properties  of  liiat  infect,  fcrv- 
ed to  reprefent  the  fun.  The  Egyptian  hieroglyphics 
were  of  this  kind. 

"  4.  This  method  being  Aill  too  fubtilc  and  com- 
plicated for  common  ule,  the  only  plan  to  be  purfued 
was  a  redurtion  of  the  iirlt  (tagc  of  the  preceding 
method.  Thus  a  dot,  inflead  of  a  circle,  might 
lland  for  the  fin  ;  and  a  limilar  abbreviation  might  be 
extended  to  all  the  fymbols.  On  this  fchemc  every 
objed  and  idea  woulil  have  its  appropriated  mark  : 
thcfe  marks  therefore  would  have  a  multiplicity  pro- 
portionable to  the  works  of  nature  and  the  operations 
of  the  mind.  Tliis  method  was  likewife  praftifed  by 
the  Egyptians  ;  but  has  been  carried  to  yraicr  pcr- 

VCL.    I. 


A.lditional 
remark*  ia 
confimia- 
tion  of 
tlirfe  ar^u» 
meets 


f- .-I  ion  by  tlie  Cl.inefe.     The  voca'.''^i.ir_v  ot  ;:;e  iifc    Alj.r.jb;!. 

is  therefore  iufiuiic,  or  at  k-all  capjb'cof  b^'i.^j  ex-  ' ■^ ' 

fended  to  any  imaginable  length.  iJut  if  ue  co;uu.ir4 
this  tedious  andaukwird  contrivance  with  thca'.l^'ii'h- 
i^ig  brevity  and  perfpicuity  of  alph  ibcticil  wiitirig, 
vc  mufl  be  perfuadcd  that  no  two  thi<ig?  can  be  more 
diiiimilar;  and  that  the  tranlition  from  a  f. beniccon- 
ftantly  enlarging  itfelf,  andgrowi  g  daily  more  intri- 
cate, to  the  expreflim  of  every  poiiible  i  ica  by  the 
nioditied  arrangement  of  four-and-twenty  marks,  is 
not  fo  very  e^fyand  pcrccptibl  •asfomchav'-iip.agined. 
I'.ideed  this  fcems  (till  to  be  rather  an  exprclii^'n  of 
things  in  a  manner  limihr  to  the  fccond  flage  of  fym- 
bol-writiu^  than  the  tiotitication  of  ideas  by  arbitrary 
%ns."  , 

To  all  this  we  Ihall  fubjoin  the  following  remarks, 
which  fccm  to  give  additional  force  to  the  foregoing 
rcafoning. 

"  1.  Pliny  alTerts  the  ufeof  letters  tohave  been  eter- 
nal ;  which  (hows  the  antiquity  of  the  practice  to  ex- 
te;id  beyond  the  arra  of  authcniic  hiltory. 

"  2.  The  eabaliftical  doctors  of  the  T  vs  maintain, 
that  alphabetical  writing  was  one  of  *  e  ten  things 
which  God  created  on  the  evening  0/ tile  Sabbath. 

"  3.  Moll  of  tlie  profane  authors  of  antiquiiy  afcribe 
the  firfl  ufe  of  alphabetical  chara;ters  to  the  Egyp- 
tians ;  who,  according  to  fome,  received  them  from 
]\Icrcury  ;  and,  according  to  others,  from  their  god 
Teuth. 

"  4.  There  is  very  little  rcafon  to  fjppofe  that  even 
language  itfelf  is  the  c<fe<5t  of  hiimaii  ingenuity  and 
invention."  , 

Thus  we  have  ftated  the  arguments  in  favour  of  the  AnfMcrttu 
revel  ition  of  alphabetical  writing  ;  which  are  anfwer-  the  above 
ed,   by  thofc  who  take  the  contrary  lidc,  in  the  fol-  areumetiu. 
lowing  manner. 

I.  INIofes  no  wliere  fays  that  the  alphabet  was  a 
new  thing  in  his  time  ;  nor  does  he  give  the  lead  hint 
of  his  being  the  inventor  of  it.  The  firft  mention  we 
find  of  ■writing  is  in  the  17th  chapter  of  Exodus  ; 
where  Mofes  is  commanded  to  r.ir/.v  ;;.•  a  iooi  ;  and 
which  took  place  before  the  arrival  of  the  Ifraelitei 
at  Sinai.  This  Ihows  that  wri;ing  did  not  com- 
incnce  with  the  delivery  of  the  two  tables  of  the 
law,  as  f.;mc  have  fuppofcd.  Neither  are  we  ti 
conclude  that  the  invention  had  taken  place  only  a 
lliorl  time  before  ;  for  the  viriti'i^  in  a  book,  is  coia- 
jr.anded  as  a  thing  commonly  uiiderilood,  and  witll 
which  Mofes  was  well  acquainted.  It  is  plain,  from 
the  command  to  engrave  the  names  of  the  twelve  tribes 
of  Ifrael  upon  flones  liki  th:  oi^raviiigt  oj  a  fgint, 
that  wriiing  had  bcetj  known  and  practifed  among 
thein,  as  Well  as  other  natiuns,  long  bef>>re.  We  null 
alfo  remember,  that  the  people  were  co.TimmdcJ  to 
write  the  law  on  their  donrpofls,  Sec.  fo  tliat  the  art 
feems  not  only  to  have  been  known,  bat  univcrf^lly 
pra^tifed  among  them.  Unt  had  writing  beet:  a  new 
difcovery  in  tlie  time  of  Mofes,  he  would  probably 
have  commemorated  it  as  Well  as  the  other  inventions 
of  mufic,  &c. :  Nor  is  there  any  rcafon  to  fjppofe 
that  God  was  the  immediate  rcvealer  of  the  art  ;  for 
Mofes  would  never  have  omitted  to  record  a  circum- 
flancc  of  fucli  iinporiance,  as  the  nieniory  of  it  would 
have  been  rne  of  the  flrongcft  barriers  againft  idola- 
latry. 

;  Q,  Again 


Alohabet. 


A  L  P                    [     490    ]  ALP 

Again,  tliough  l'c\cral  profane  wriitrs  at tribuic  tJic  The  former  was  called  thcciirioUgic,  the  laucr  tIie//«-   Alrliabet. 

oriuin  of  Icucrs  10  the  goJs,  or  10  fonic  divine  perfoii,  fun/  liicroglyphic  ;  w  liichlafl  was  a  gradual  improve-  *— v ■ 

yei  this  is  no  proof  uf  its  being  adually  revealed  ;  Lut  nunt  on  the  lormcr.  'liiefc  ahcralitns  in  tlxmanncr 

only  that  the  original  inventor  was  unknown.     The  of  delineating  hieroglyphic  figures  produced  and  pir- 

Icarncd  bilhop  ol  Olouccllcrobferves,  that  the  ancients  feded  another  character,  called  the  ruiimiig-ka/jtl  of 

gave  nothing  to  the  gods  of  whofe  original  they  had  /A^/);t70ff;V//'/cj,refenibliiJgtheChii.efc  writing  jwhich 

any  records  ;   but  where  the  memory  of  the  invention  having  been  tirlt  lormcd  by  the  outlines  ot  each  figure, 

was  lofl,  as  of  feed-corn,  wine,  wrjling,  civil  focicty,  became  at  length  a  kind  of  ti.nik!  ;   the  natural  cItclHs 

S:c.  the  gods  feized  the  property,  by  tliatkind  of  riglit  of  which  were,  that  the  conllant  ufc  of  ihcm  would 

which  gives  flr.iys  to  the  lordof  the  manor.  take   off  the  attciuion  from  the   fymbol  and  fix  it  on 

As  neither  the  facrcd  nor  profane  hillori.ms,  there-  the  thing  lignilicd.     Thus  the  fludy  of  fyniLolic'  wri- 

fore,  have  determined  any  thing  concerning  the  in-  ting  would  be  much  abbreviated;   becaulc  the  writer 

veniion  of  letters,  we  are  at  liberty  to  form  what  con-  or  decyphcrer  would  then  have  little   to  do  but  to  re- 

jcdures  we  think  molt  plaiUiblc  concerning  the  origin  member  the  poweruf  the  fymbolic  mark  ;  whereas  bc- 

ofthem;  and  this,  it  is  thought,  might  have   taken  fore,  the  properties  of  the  thing  or  animal  delineated 

place  in  the  following  manner.  were  to  be  learned.     This,  together  with  the  other 

<'  I.  Men  in  their  rude  uncultivated  flate,  w^ould  marks  by  inflitution,  to  denote  mental  conceptions, 

have  neither  leifnre,  inclination,  nor  inducement,  to  would  reduce  the  characters  to  a  limilar  Itate  with  the 

cultivate  the  powers  of  the  mind  to  a  degree  futficient  prcfent  Chincl'e  ;   and  thefc  were  properly  what  the 

tor  the  formation  of  an^alphabet :   but  when  a  people  ancients  called /;/t/-6g-/)7>/i<.vj/.  We  arc  informed  by  Dr 

arrived  at  fuch  a  pitch  of  civilization  as  required  them  Robert  Huiitingdon,   in  his  account  of  the  Porphyry 

torcprefent  the  conceptions  of  the  mind  which  have  pillars,  that  there  are  fome  ancient  monuments  of  this 

no  corporeal  j  rms,    neceffity  would  occafion  further  kind  yet  remaining  in  igypt. 

exertions,  and  urge  them  to  tind  out  a  more  expcdi-  The  facrcd  book  or  ritual  of  the  Egyptians,  ac- 
tions manner  of  tranfaCting  their  bufmcfs  than  by  pic-  cording  to  Apuleius,  was  written  partly  in  lymbolic 
ture  writing.  and  partly  in  thcfe  hicroglyphiccharaders,  in  the  fol- 
"  2.  Thefc  excriions  would  take  place  whenever  a  lowing  manner:  "  He  (the  hierophant)  drew  out  cer- 
nation  began  to  improve  in  arts,  manufadures,  and  tain  books  from  the  fecret  repolitories  of  the  fanilu- 
commcrce  ;  .md  the  greater  genius  fuch  a  nation  had,  ary,  written  in  unknown  characters,  which  contained 
the  more  improvements  would  be  made  inthe  notation  the  words  of  the  facred  formula  compendioufly  ex- 
of  their  language  ;  whilfl  thofe  people  who  had  made  prefled,  partly  by  figures  of  animals,  and  partly  by 
Icfs  progrcfs  in  civilization  and  fcience,  would  have  a  certain  marks  or  noies  intricately  knotted,  revolving 
lefs  perfect  fyflem  of  elementary  characters  ;  and  per-  in  the  manner  of  a  wheel,  crowded  together,and  curled 
haps  advance  no  farther  for  many  ages  than  the  marks  inward  like  the  tendrils  of  a  vine,  fo  as  to  hide  the 
or  charafters  of  the  Chinefe.  Hence  we  may  fee,  meaning  from  the  curiolity  of  the  profane."  5 
that  the  buhnefs  of  princes,  as  well  as  the  manufac-  But  though  letters  were  of^reat  antiquity  in  Egypt,  Letters  not 
turesand  commerce  of  each  cnuniry,  would  produce  there  is  reafon  to  believe  that  they  were  not  firit  in-  mventcdio 
the  neceility  of  deviling  fome  expedilious  manner  of  vented  in  that  country.  Wr  Jackfon,  in  his  Chrono-  Ee)T'> 
communicating  information  loone  another."  logical  Antiquities,  has  endeavoured  to  prove, that  they 
The  art  of  writing,  however,  is  of  fo  great  ami-  were  not  invented  or  carried  into  Egypt  by  7"<j<??//  or 
quity,  and  the  early  hiftory  of  moll  nations  fo  full  of  Tholh,  the  firff  Hermes,  and  fun  of  Milraim,  who  lived 
fable,  that  it  mud  be  extremely  difficult  to  determine  about  500  years  after  the  deluge  ;  but  that  they  were 
what  nation  or  people  may  jnllly  claim  the  honour  of  introduced  into  that  country  by  the  fecond  Hermes, 
llie  invention.    13ut  as  it  is  probable  that  letters  were  who  lived  about  400  after  the  former.     This  lecond 

Hermes,  according  to  Diodorus,  was  the  inventor  of 
grammar  and  nnilic,  and  added  many  words  to  the  E- 
gyptian  language.  According  10  tlie  fame  author  alfo, 
he  invented  letters, rythm,  and  the  harmony  of  founds. 


the  produce  of  a  certain  degree  of  civilization  among 
mankind,  we  mull  therefore  have  rccourfe  to  the  hil- 
tory  of  thofe  nations  who  feem  to  have  been  firlt  civi- 
lized. 


Claim  of 
Ihc  Egyp 

lians  toth 
invention 
uf  letters 


The  Egyptians  have  an  undoubted  title  to  a  very  This  was  the   Hermes  fo  much   celebrated   by    the 

early  civilization  ;  andmanylcarnedmenhaveaitiibu-  Greeks,  who  knew  no  other  than  himfelf.     On  the 

e  tea  the  invention  oflcttcrs  to  them.  The  late  bilhop  of  other  hand,   Mr  Wife  alTerts  that  Mofes  and  Cadmus 

Gloucefler  contends,  that  Egypt  was  the  parent  of  all  could  not  learn  the  alphabet  in  Egypt ;  and  that  the 

the  learning  of  Greece,  and  was  refortcd  to  by  all  the  Egyptians  had  no  alphabet  in  their  time.    He  adduces 

Grecian  Icgillators,  naturalifls,  and  philofophers  ;  and  feveral  reafons  to  prove  tliat  they  had  none  till  they 

endeavours  to  prove  that  it  was  one  of  the  firft  civilized  received  what  is  called  the  Ccftic,  which  was  introdu- 

countries  on  the  globe.     Their  writing  was  of  four  ced  either  in  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies  or  under  Pfam- 

kinds  :    1.   Hieroglyphic;    i.  Symbolic  ;     ■^.  Efiflolic  ;  mitichus  or  Amalis  ;  and  the  oldell  alphabetic  letters 

and,  4.   Hierograiiivtaiic.     In  the  moft  early  ages  they  which  can  be  produced  as  Egyptian,  appear  plainly  to 

wrote  like  all  other   infant   nations,  by  pictures  ;   of  have  been  derived  from  the  Greek.     Herodotus  con- 

which  fome  traces  yet  remain  amongfl  the  hierogly-  felffs,  thatallhe  relates  before  the  reign  of  Pfammiti- 

phics  of  Horapollo,  who  informs  us,  that  they  repre-  chus  is  uncertain  ;  and  that  he  reports  the  early  tranf- 

feined  a  fuller  by  a  man's  two  feet  in  water  ;  fire,  by  anions  of  that  nation  on  the  credit    of  the  Egyptian 

fmoke  afeending,  &c.   But  to  render  this  rude  inven-  priells,  on  whicii  he  did  not  greatly  depend  ;  and  Ijio- 

tion  lef-s  incommodious,  they  foon  deviled  the  method  dorus  Siculus  is  faid  to  have  been  greatly  impofed  upon 

of  puuing  one  ihingof  limilar  qualities  for  another,  by  theiu.     Manctho,  the  oldclt   Egyptian  hiiloriau, 

uraiiflaccii 


ALP 


[     49^     ] 


ALP 


Alphabet,  tranflatcd  ihe  facred  regiflcrs  our  of  Egyptian  into 
'      "         Greek,  which  are  fai  J  by  Syncclhis  to  have  bcciT  writ- 
ten in  the  facred  letters,   and  to  have  been  laid  up  by 
the  fccond  Mercury  in  ihc  Kgypiian  temples.    He  al- 
lows the  Egyptian  gods  to  liavc  been  mortal  men  :  but 
his  liillory   was  very  much  currupred  by  the  Greeks, 
and  hath  bccncalled  inqucftion  by  fevcral  writersfrom 
the  account  wliicli  lie  hinifcll  gave  of  it.  After  Cani- 
byfes  had  carried  a.vay  the   Egyptian  records,    the 
jirieds,  to  fupply  ilicir  lofs,  and  to  keep  up  their  pre- 
leiidons  to  antiquity,  began  to  write  new  records  ; 
wliercin  they  not  only  unavoidably  made  great  mif- 
takes,   but  added  mucli  of  their  own  invention,  efpc- 
6         cially  a;  to  didaiit  limes. 
Clann  of  Tlic  Fhocnieians  have  likcwife  been  fuppofed  the 

tlic  Phccni-  inventors  of  letters  ;  and  we  hive  ihc  flrongefl  proofs 
nicians,  of  the  early  eivili/^ation  of  this  people.  'I  heir  mofl 
ancient  hillorian,  Sanclionialho,  lived  in  the  time  of 
Abitjalus,  father  of  Hiram  king  of  Tyre.  He  informs 
us,  thatlctters  were  invented  by  Taaul,  who  lived  in 
Phoenicia  in  the  12th  and  1 3tl)  generations  after  the 
creation.  "  Mifor  (fiys  he)  was  the  fon  of  Hamyn  ; 
the  fon  of  Mifor  was  Taant,  who  invented  the  lirfl 
letters  for  writing."  The  Egyptians  call  him  Thoth ; 
the  Alexandrians  Thoyth  ;  and  the  Greeks  Hirmes, 
or  Mercury.  In  the  time  of  this  Taaut  or  Mercury 
(the  grandfon  of  Ham  the  fonofNoali),  Phoenicia 
and  the  adjacent  country  was  governed  by  Uranus, 
and  after  him  by  his  fon  Saturn  or  Cronus.  He  in- 
vented letters  either  in  the  reign  of  Uranus  or  Cronus  ; 
and  flaid  in  Phoenicia  with  Cronus  till  the  jad  year  of 
his  reign.  Cronus,  after  the  death  of  his  fatlicr  Ura- 
nus, made  fevcral  ftltlemcnts  of  his  family,  and  tra- 
verfed  into  other  parts  ;  and  when  he  came  to  the  fouth 
country,  he  gave  all  Egypt  to  the  god  Tarutus,  that 
it  fliould  be  his  kingdom.  Sanclionijtlio  began  his 
hillory  with  the  creation,  and  ended  It  with  placing 
Taautus  on  the  throne  of  Egypt.  He  does  not  men- 
tion the  deluge,  but  makes  two  more  generations  in 
Cain's  line  from  Protagonus  to  Agrovenus  (or  from 
Adam  to  Noah)  than  IVIofes.  As  iiauchoniatho  has 
not  told  us  whether  Taaut  invented  letters  either  in 
the  reign  of  Uranus  or  Cronus,  "  we  cannot  err  much 
(fays  Mr  Jackfon)  if  we  place  his  invention  of  them 
550  years  after  tiie  Hood,  or  20  years  after  the  difper- 
fion,  and  2619  years  before  the  Chrillian  sera,  and  (ix, 
or  perhaps  ten  years,  before  he  went  into  Egypt." 
This  prince  and  his  poflerity  reigned  at  Thebes  in 
Upper  Egypt  for  15  generations. 

Several  Roman  authors  attribute  the  invention  of 
letters  to  I  lie  Phoenicians.  Pliny  fays  (a),  the  Phoeni- 
cians were  famed  for  the  invention  of  Icticrs,  as  well 
as  for  agronomical  obfervationsand  novel  and  marti-il 
arts.  Cunius  informs  us,  that  the  Tyriaii  nation  arc 
related  to  !)C  ihc  lirll  who  either  tauglu  or  learned  let- 
ters ;  and  Lucan  fays,  that  they  were  the  iirft  who  at- 
tempted to  cxprefs  founds  or  words  by  letters.  Eti- 
fcbius  alfo  tells  us  froui  Porphyry,  that  "  Sanchonia- 
tho  fludicd  with  great  application  the  writings  of 
Taaut,  knowing  tlut  lie  was  the  lirfl  who  invented 
letters." 


The  Greeks,  as  we  have  already  obfcrvcd,  knew  r.o  .Hi|i!iai,cc. 

older  Hermes  than  the  fecond,  who  lived  about  400  ' ^— 

years  after  the  Mezrite  Taaut  or  Hermes.  This  fe- 
cond Hermes  is  called  by  Plato  Thcuth,  and  counfcllor 
or  facred  feribe  to  king  Thanius  ;  but  it  is  not  fiiJ 
that  he  ever  reigned  in  Egypt  :  but  the  former  Taaut, 
or  Athothes,  as  Manttho  calls  him,  was  the  immedi- 
ate fucecllbr  of  Mcnes  the  lirft  king  of  Egypt.  1  his 
fecond  Mercury,  if  we  may  believe  Malttho,  compo- 
fed  fevcral  books  of  the  Egyptian  hiflory  ;  and  having 
improved  both  the  language  and  letter^  of  that  nation, 
the  Egyptians  attributed  the  arts  and  inventions  of  the 
former  to  the  latter.  'I'he  Plioenician  language  is  ge- 
nerally allowed  to  have  been  adi.ilettof  the  Hebrew  ; 
and  tho'  their  alphabet  does  not  entirely  agree  witii  the 
Samaritan, yet  there  is  a  great  fimilarity  between  them . 
Aflrononiy  and  arithmetic  were  much  cultivated  among 
them  in  the  molt  eai  ly  ages  :  their  fine  linen,  purple, 
and  glafs,  were  much  fuperior  to  thofc  of  other  na- 
tions; and  theirextraordinary  Ikill  in  architecture  and 
other  arts  was  fueh,  that  whatever  was  great,  elegant, 
or  pleafing,  whether  in  buildings,  appirel,  or  toys, 
wasdirtingiiilhedbytheepitlietofTyrianorSidonian; 
thefe  being  the  chief  citiesof  Phoenicia.  Thcirgreat 
proficiency  in  learning  and  arts  of  all  kinds,  together 
with  their  cngrolfing  all  the  commerce  of  the  welkrn 
world,  are  likcwife  thought  to  give  them  ajuflclaim 
to  the  invention  of  letters. 

The  Chaldeans  alfo  have  laid  claim  to  the  invention  of  the 
of  letters;  and  with  rcgar^!  to  this,  there  is  a  trndiiion  thaldtaiu. 
among  the  Jews,  Indians,  and  Arabians,  that  the  E- 
gyplians  derived  tlieir  knowledge  from  Abraham, who 
was  a  Chaldean.  This  tradition  is  in  fomc  degree 
confirmed  by  moft  of  the  wefteni  writers,  who  afcribe 
the  inventions  of  ari:hmetic  and  aUronomy  to  the 
Chaldeans.  Jofephuspofitivcly  aiferts,  tl)nt  the  Egyp- 
tians were  ignorant  of  the  fciences  of  arithmeiic^and 
artronomy  before  they  were  inllrudcd  by  Abraham  ; 
and  Sir  Ifaac  Newton  admits,  that  letters  were  known 
in  the  line  of  that  patriarch  lor  many  centuries  before 
Mofes.  The  Chaldaic  letters  appear  to  have  been  de- 
rived from  the  Hebrew  or  Samaritan  ;  which  src  ihc 
fame,  or  nearly  fo,  with  the  old  Phoenician.  Ezra  is 
fuppofed  to  have  exchanged  the  old  Hebrew  chara>;lers 
for  the  more  beautiful  and  commodious  Chaldce,  which 
are  flill  in  ufe.  Berofus,  the  xioft  ancient  Chaldean 
hiftorian,  who  was  born  in  the  minority  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  does  not  fa)  that  he  believed  his  country- 
men to  have  been  the  inventors  of  letters.  g 

The  Syrians  have  .alfo  laid  claim  to  the  invention  of  Of  the  S). 
letters.  It  is  certain,  irJced,  that  they  yielded  to "■'»•"• 
no  nation  in  knowledge  and  fkill  in  the  fine  arts. 
Their  language  is  faid  to  have  been  the  vernacular  of 
all  the  oriental  tongues,  and  was  divided  into  three 
dialects,  i.  The  Aramean,  ufed  in  Mefopotamia,  and 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Rolu  and  Edefa  of  Harram,  anj 
the  Outer  Syria.  2.  The  dialed  of  Paleftine  ;  fpoken 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Damafcus,  Mount  Libanus,  and 
the  Inner  Syria.  ;.  The  Chaldce  or  Nabathcan  dia- 
leiH:,  the  moll  iinpolillicd  of  the  three  ;  and  fpoken  in 
the  mountainous  pans  of  Allyria,  and  the  villages  of 
~  Q.  2  Irac 


(a)  See  above,  n°  2.  where  he  fays  that  the  knowledge  of  letters  was  eternal.     What  dependence  can  \vc 
|-Mit  in  the  tcflimony  of  fuch  a  writer  ? 


A  L  i' 


[    492     ] 


A 


Alphabet. 


Irac  oi  13,'.lyloiiia,     It   lias  b'.eii  gt.u  r.aly   bclitvc.l,  v.ords;  ihc  funih.ir.cntal  ]i;ut  bcjn;^bcii)j^  iliviUcc!  ii:lo 

t  iial  no  nation  of  equal  uniii|iiilyluil  unioic  ton  lidtrublc  three  clali'ts,  viz.  i. /."'/;««/,  tr  roots  of  vcibs;  2.iihubd, 

iraJc  than   the  Syrians:   ihcy  arc  I'nppoffd  to  have  or  orijjinal  nouns  ;  3.  £r;v  j,  or  j'articlts.     Tlitir  al- 

tirlt  brought  the  commodities  ol  I'crlu  and  India  iiiio  phabct  contains  50  Utters  ;  viz.  34  confonantsand  16 

the  weft  of  Alia ;  and  tlxy  fctni  to  have  carried  on  an  vowels.     They  alTcrt  that  they  were  in  j^'clicllion  of 

inland  trade  by  cn{?,ri)lJing  the  n  ivi^aiion  of  the  Eu-  Iciiers  before  any  oihtr  nation  in  the  world  :  and  iV!r 

i  hiites,  w  hilit  the  PhiKiiitians  traded  to  the  moil  di-  Halhcd  conjcdurcs,  tliat  the  long-boaikd  orii^inal  ci- 


Alphabt 


Of  the  111- 


(taut  countries.  Notwitlillanding  thefe  LircnmlUnccs, 
hov.-cver,  whi'.i  might  fccm  to  favour  the  claim  of  the 
iyriansj  theoldcll  charaders  ihty  have  are  but  about 
three  centuries  before  Chrift.  Their  letters  arc  of  two 
iorts.  I.  Tlie  Eftrangelo,  which  is  the  more  ancient  ; 
and,  2.  The  Klhito,  ilie  linii'Ic  or  common  character, 
which  is  the  more  e.X[<cdiiious  and  beautiful. 

We  miiA  next  cxiiniine  the  claims  of  the  Indians, 
whofc  j-retenfions  to  antiquity  yield  to  noothcr  nation 
on  earth.  ^\x  Halhed,  who  has  written  a  grammar  of 
the  Shaiifcrit  language,  informs  us,  that  ii  is  not  only 
the  grand  fource  if  Indian  literature,  but  the  parent 


\iliicationof  the  Egyptians  may  llill  be  a  maltcrof  dii- 
pute.  The  Rajah  of  Killiinagur  affirms,  that  he  has 
in  his  polTelfion  Shanfcrit  books,  where  theKgyptians 
arc  conrtanily  dcfci  ited  as  difciples,  notasinJlruelors  ; 
and  as  letkiiig  ia  lliiidollan  that  liberal  education,  and 
ihofe  ftienccs,  which  none  of  their  own  coiinirymen 
had  fiiilicicnt  kriowledge  to  impart.  Mr  Halhcd  hints 
alio,  that  the  learning  of  Hindollan  might  have  been 
tranfplanted  into  Kgypt,  and  thus  have  become  fami- 
liar to  Moles.  Scveri.1  auih  irs,  however,  are  of  opi- 
nion, that  the  anciclit  f^gyptians  polFciIcd  thcmfelves 
of  the  trade  of  the  E^all  by  the  Red  Sea,  and  that  they 
of  alTnoil  every  dialed  from  ilie  Perlian  gulph  10  the  carried  on  a  conlidcrable  traffic  with  the  Indian  na- 
Chir.efe  feas,  and  w  hiv  h  is  laid  to  be  a  language  of  the      lions  before  the  time  of  Scfoflris  ;    whom  they  luppof.' 


moft  venerable  antiquity.  Al  prefent  it  is  appropri 
aredtothe  religious  records  of  the  iiramins,aiid  tl  crc- 
fore  lliiit  in  their  libraries  ;  but  formerly  it  appears 
10  have  been  current  ever  tlie  greatcll  part  of  ihe 
eadcrn  world,  asiraccs  of  its  extent  may  be  found  ia 
almi'rt  every  dillrid  of  Alia. 

Mr  H<ilhect  informs  us,  that  "  .here  is  a  greax  limi- 
laritv  between  the  Shanfcrit  words  and  thofe  of  the 
Perl-an  and  Arabic,  and  even  of  Latin  and  Greek; 
and  thefe  not  in  technical  or  metaphorical  terms,  but 
in  the  main  ground-works  of  language  ;  in  monofylla- 
b'.es,  the  names  of  numbers,  and  tlic  appellations  of 
fuch  things  as  would  be  iirfbdifcriminatcd  on  the  im- 
mediate dawnof  civilization.  Thercfemblancc  which 
may  bcfeenofthe  characlcrson  thcmcdalsand  llgnets 
of  different  pans  of  Alia,  the  light  they  reciprocally 
throw  upon  one  aiKithtr,3nd  the  general  analogy  which 


to  have  been  cotemporary  with  Abraham,  though  Sir 
Ifaac  Newton  conjcclures  liim  to  have  been  theShilliak 
who  took  Jcrufalem  in  the  time  of  Rchohoam. 

In  the  year  1769,  one  of  the  facrect  books  of  the 
Gcnioos  called  Baga-jadavi,  tranllated  by  Meridas 
Poule,  a  learned  man  of  Indian  origin,  and  chief  in- 
terpreter to  the  fupreme  council  of  Pondicherry,  was 
fcnt  by  him  to  M.  Benin  in  France.  In  his  preface 
he  fays,  that  it  was  compofed  by  Viaflcr  the  fon  ot 
Bralima,  and  is  of  facrcd  authority  among  the  worlhip- 
pers  of  Vifchnow.  This  book  claims  an  antiquity  of 
5000  years  ;  but  M.de  Guines  has  Ihi.wn,  that  its  prc- 
ttnlions  to  fuch  extravagant  antiquity  arc  entirely  in- 
concliilivc  and  unfaiisfaclory  :  whence  we  may  con- 
clude, fays  Mr  Aftle,  that  though  a  farther  inquiry  in- 
to the  literature  of  the  Indian  nations  may  be  laudable, 


yet  we  mufl  by  no  means  give  too  eafy  credit  to  their 

they  all'bear  to  the  grand  prototype,  affords  another  relations  concerning  the  high  antiquity  of  their  ms- 

ample  field  for  curiolity.     The  coins  ofAllam,  Na-  nufcripts  and  early  civilization.  ,3 

paul,  Calhmiria,  and  many  other  kingdoms,  are  all  It  is  not  pretended  that  the  Perlians  had  any  great  letters  not 

llaniped  with  Shanfcrit  letters,  and  moltly  contain  ^1-  harning  among  them  till  the  time  of  Hyllafpes  the  invcmetl  in 

lulious  to  the  old  Shanfcrit  mythology.  The  fame  con-  father  of  Darius.  The  former,  we  are  told,  travelled  r'crlia  ; 

formiiy  may  t>eobfcrvcdin  theimpreliioiisoffcals from  into  India,  and  was  inftruerled  liy  the  Bramins  in  the 


Bootan  and  Thibet. 

The  country  between  tlie  Indus  and  Ganges  Aill 
preferves  the  Shanfcrit  language  in  its  original  purity, 
and  offers  a  great  number  of  b  'oks  to  the  perufal  of 
the  curious;  many  of  which  have  been  handed  down 
from  the  earlicft  periods  of  human  tradition. 

There  are  feven  different  forts  of  Indian  hand-wri- 
tings,all  com  pri  fed  under  the  general  term  of  AVra^orft', 
which  may  be  interpreted  ■mritiug.  The  Bramins  fay 
that  letters  were  of  divine  original  ;  and  the  elegant 
Shanfcrit  is  flyled  Dacb-tiaagorce,  or  the  writings  of 
die  Immortals,  which  might  not  improbably  be  a  re- 
jfinenient  from  the  more  limple  Nuagorce  of  former 
ages.  The  Bengal  Utters  are  another  branch  of  the 
fame  flock.  The  Braniins  of  Bengal  have  all  their 
Shanfcrit  books  copied  in  their  national  alphabet,  and 
they  tranfcribe  into  them  all  the  Dacb-naagorcemann- 
fcripts  for  their  own  jicrufal.  The  Moorilli  dialed  is 
that  fpccies  of  ITir.doflanic  which  we  owe  to  the  con- 
quedsof  the  Mahometans. 

The  ibinfcrit  language  contains  about  700  radical 


fciences  for  which  they  were  famed  at  that  time.  The 
ancient  Perlians  defpifed  richcsand  commerce, nor  had 
they  any  money  among  them  till  after  the  conquellof 
Lydia.  It  appears  by  feveral  infcriptions  taken  from 
the  ruins  of  the  palate  of  Perfepuljp,  which  wms  builc 
near  700  years  lefiirt  theChriftian  xra,  that  the  Pcr- 
fians  fomclimes  wrote  in  perpendicular  columns  like 
the  Chinefe.  This  mode  of  writing  was  tirft  ma.'e  life 
of  on  the  Hems  of  trees,  pillars,  or  obelilks.  As  for 
thofe  limple  characters  found  on  the  weft  lide  of  the 
ftair-cafe  of  Perfepolis,  foniehave  fuppofed  them  to  be 
alphabet  icjfome  hieroglyphic, an  dot  hers  antediluvian, 
DrHyde  pronounces  them  to  have  been  mere  whim- 
fical  ornaments,  though  the  author  of  Conjectural  Ob- 
fervationson  Alphabetic  Writing  fuppofes  them  to  be 
fragments  of  Egyptian  antiqiity  brought  by  Cambyfcs 
from  ihcfpoils  of  T lubes.  The  learned  are  generally 
agreed,  that  the  Perlians  were  l..ter  in  civilization  than 
many  of  their  neighbours  ;  and  they  are  not  fuppofed 
to  have  any  pretenlions  to  the  invention  of  letters. 
As  the  Arabians  have  been  in  poffcISon  of  the  coun- 
try 


ALP 


[     493     J 


A   L  P 


K 

Nor  by  the 
Arabians. 


oyiliey  now  iiiivabit  for  upwards  ol' 3  700  years,  wiih- 
out  being  iiiicrniixcd  with  foreign naiions, or  fabjugi- 
tcJ  by  any  oilur  power,  ihcir  language  mull  be  very 
ancient.  T  he  two  principal  dialeds  of  it  were  that 
fpokcn  by  the  Hamyariics  and  other  genuine  Arabs  ; 
and  that  of  the  Koreifli,  in  which  Mahomcl  wrote  the 
Alcoran.  The  former  is  named  by  oriental  writers 
the  Arabicof  Hiivnar  I  the  XiXX.v.t  ,thi  pun  fix  d^j;catid 
Arabic.  iMr  Ki  harjlbn  obferves,  as  a  proof  of  the 
richnefs  of  ti.ii  language-,  that  it  coiilills  of  2000  radi- 
cal words.  I'ncrnitians  and  hgypiians,  ail  bordered  upon  each 
The  old  Arabic  characters  are  faid  to  have  been  of  other;  and  as  the  Pha-nicians,  were  ihcgreatcltas  well 
very  high  antiquity  ;  for  EbnHafliem  relates,  that  an     ilic  moll  ancient  commercial  nation,  it  is  very  probable 


their  calculations;  and  v.e  havelhown,  that  ihtle  were  Alphabi: 

the  parents  of  letters.     Tl'is  circumftancc  greatly  fa-  ' ^ — 

vours  their  claim  to  the  invention  ;  becaulc  Chaidea, 
and  the  countries  adjacent,  arc  allowed  by  all  authors 
both  facrcd  and  prolane,  to  have  been  p:opled  before 
Egypt  ;  and  it  is  certain  that  many  nations  faid  to 
be  ciefcended  from  Shem  and  Japhcr,  had  their  let- 
ters from  the  Phcenicians,  who  were  dtfccndcd  fruu 
Ham.  ' 

"  It  is  obfervaUe,  that  the  Chaldeans,  rhe  Syrians, 
Phcrnitians  and  hgypiians,  ail  bordered  upon  each 


infcription  in  it  wjs  found  in  Yanian  as  old  as  the  days 
of  Joleph.  Hence  fome  have  fuppofcd  that  the  Ara- 
bians were  the  inventors  of  letters  ;  and  hi  r  Ifaac  New- 
ton is  of  opinion,  that  Mofcs  learned  the  alphabet  from 
the  Midianitcs,  who  were  Arabians. 

The  alphabet  of  ihc  Arabs  confills  of  28  letters  (i- 
milar  to  the  ancient  Culic,  in  v/hich  the  tirll  copies  of 
the  Alcoran  were  written.  The  prcfcnt  Arabic  cha- 
racters were  formed  by  tbn  Moklah,  a  learned  Ara- 
bian, who  lived  about  300  years  after  Mahomet.  1  he 
Arabian  writers  themfelvcsinform  us, that  their  alpha- 
bet is  not  very  ancient,  and  that  they  received  it  only 
a  Ihort  time  before  the  introduction  of  Illaniifm. 

On  this  account  of  the  prctendons  of  different  na- 
tions to  the  invention  of  letters,  Mr  Aftle  makes 
the  following  reflections.  "  The  vanity  of  each  na- 
tion induces  thrm  to  pret(md  to  the  molt  early  civili- 
zation ;  butfuch  is  the  uncertainty  of  ancient  hiflory, 
that  it  is  difficult  to  determine  to  whom  the  honour  is 
due.  It  (hould  fcem,  however,  that  the  contell  may 
be  confined  to  the  Egyptians,  the  l'hoc?iiicians,  and  the 
Chaldeans.  The  Greek  writers,  and  moll  of  ihofc 
who  have  copied  them,  decide  in  favour  of  Egypt,  be; 
caufe  their  information  is  derived  f'rom  the  t.gyptians 
tljcmlelves.  The  politiveclaimoflhe  Phoenicians  does 
not  depend  entirely  u;  on  the  teftiniony  of  Sanchonia- 
tlio  ;  the  eredit  of  his  liillory  is  fo  well  fipponcd  by 
Philo  of  Byblus  his  tranllator.  Porphyry,  Pliny,  Cur- 
tius,  Lucan,  and  other  ancient  writers,  .who  might 
have  fecn  his  works  entire,  and  whole  relations  defer  ve 
at  lead  as  much  creiiit  as  thofe  of  the  Ej;ypiian  aid 
Greek  writers.  It  mull  be  allowed,  that  Sanchonia- 
tho's  hiflory  contains  many  fabulous  .nccoants  ;  but 
docs  not  the  ancient  hillory  of  the  Egyptians,  the 
Greeks,  and  mod  other  nations,  abound  witli  them  to 
a  much  greater  degree  ?  The  fragmrnis  which  we 
have  of  this  mofl  ancient  hiflorian  are  chiefly  fun: ill; ed 
by  Eufebius,  who  took  all  polfiblc  advaniages  to  rc- 
prefcnt  the  Pagan  writers  in  the  worfl  light,  anti  to 
render  their  theology  abfurd  and  ridiculous. 

"  The  Phoenician  and  Egyptian  langtt..ges  are  very 
fiDiilar  ;  but  the  latter  is  faid  to  be  more  large  aird  full, 
which  is  an  indication  of  its  bciiiii  of  a  later  date.  Tlie 
opinion  ofMr  'Wife,  however,  thai  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians had  not  the  knowledge  of  letters  fcenis  to  be 
erroneous  ;  as  ihey  had  commercial  intcrcourfc  wi.h 
their  neighbours  the  Phoenicians,  they  probaLly  had 
the  knowledge  of  letiers,  if  ihcir  policy,  like  thai  of 


that  they  comn.unicaied  letters  to  the  Egyptians,  the 
j)orts  i)f  Tyre  and  Sidon  being  not  far  diflant  from 
each  other. 

"  Mr  Jatkfon  is  evidently  mifiakcn  when  he  favs, 
that  letters  were  invented  2619  years  before  the  bink 
of  Cbrift.  The  driugc  recorded  by  Mufcs  was  23491 
years  before  that  event:  and  if  letters  w<  re  not  invent- 
ed till  550  years  after,  as  he  aliens,  we  muJt  date 
their  difcovtry  only  1799  years  before  the  ChrilHau 
aera,  which  is  410  years  after  the  /cign  of  Menes  the 
firll  king  of  Egypt,  who,  according  to  Svncellus  and 
others,  is  faid  to  have  been  the  fame  pcr'tbn  with  the 
Mifor  of  Sanchoniatho,  the  Mizraim  of  the  Scriptures 
and  the  Oliris  of  the  Egyptians  :  but  whethcrihis  be 
true  or  not,  Egypt  is  frequently  called  in  Scripture r/i.- 
laud  of  IMlzruim. 

"  This  Mizraim,  the  fecond  fon  of  Amyn  or  Ham 
feated  hinifelf  near  the  ejurance  of  Egypt  at  Zoan,  in 
iheyear  before  Chrilt  2188,.  and  160  years  after  the 
flood.  He  afterwards  built  TlicLcs,  and  fome  fay, 
Meinphis.  Uefore  the  time  that  he  went  into  Egypt, 
his  fon  Taaut  had  invented  Utters  in  Pha'nicia;  and 
if  this  invention  took  place  ten  years  before  the  migra- 
tion of  his  father  into  Egypi,  as  Mr  Jackfon  iuppofes, 
we  II  ay  trace  letters  as  far  back  as  the  year  21  72  be- 
f  re  Chi  ill,  or  150  years  after  the  deluge  recorded  by 
Mofts  :  and  beyond  this  period,  the  written  ann.'ls  of 
mankind,  which  have  I  een  hitherto  tranfmiitcd  lo  us, 
will  not  enallt  i:s  to  trace  the  knowledge  of  them  ; 
though  this  want  of  materials  is  no  proi.f  that  Itticri 
were  not  known  inuil  a  century  and  an  half  afrer  the 
deluge.  As  for  the  pretenlionsof  the  Indian  nations 
we  muftbe  better  acquainted  with  theirrerorc's  before 
we.  can  adniitof  their  claim  to  the  tirll  jfe  of  letters  ; 
efpecially  as  none  of  their  manufcripts  of  any  great 
antiquity  have  ^syet  appeared  in  turi^pc.  1  iiat  the 
A  rabinis  were  not  I  he  inventors  ollcttcrs, has  appesrca 
by  their  own  confelfion. — Plato  fomewhere  n^eniions 
Hyperborean  letters  very  ditierent  fre»m  the  Greek  ; 
ihefe  might  have  been  the  charadcrs  ufed  by  the  Tar- 
tars or  ancient  Scythians. 

"  It  may  be  exneJled  that  fomeihing  Ih'.uld  be  fiid  '"»''"  "• 
concerning  thofe  b^oks  ineir.ioucd  by  fome  authors  to  "''"■ 
inve  l^ecn  written  before  liiedeluge.  Amongiiohers, 
Dr  Parfons,  in  his  Remains  of  Japhet,  p  3^'..  ;;9. 
fiippofcs  letters  to  have  been  known  to  Adam  ;  and 
the  Sabeans  produce  a  book  which  they  pretend  w.-.s 
written  by  Adam.     But  concerning thefe  we  have  1; 


t.i 
Ofanudi 


[he  Chinefc  at  this  day,  did  not  prohibit  the  ufc  of  guide  to  civeJl  us  any  more  than  concerning  the  fii;' 

'l*'^"''-  pofed  boe>ks  of  Enoch  ;   fome  of  which,  Orij-^in  tci's 

"  The  Chaldeans,  who  cultivated  aflronomy  in  the  rs,  were  found  in  Arabia  ?\lix,  in  the  don't'iion  of 

aioU  rtmote  ages,  \xM  fymbols  or  arbiirrry  nnrkf  in  the  quee;;  of  S;'bn,     Tcrialliia  affirjis,  that  he  faw 


ALP 


[     494     ] 


ALP 


Aljilialiet. 


14 

All  the  al- 
phabet.- in 
the  '  orld 
canri'it  he 
jiroved  to 
^rife  from 
one  orijji- 
i:al. 


and  red  fcvcral  pagrs  of  tbcm  ;  and  in  his  treatifc  De 
Habitii  Mulieriiiii,  lie  places  lliofc  books  among  the 
canonical  :  biu  St  Jcrom  and  St  Auflin  look  iipom 
tlicm  10  be  apocryphal.  William  Poflclliis  pretended 
to  compile  his  book  D;  Originikus  from  the  book  of 
Enoch  :  and  Thomas  Bangius  publilbed  at  Copenha- 
gen, in  1656,  a  work  which  coiiiains  many  lingular 
velatioMSConcerning  the  manner,  of  writingamongthe 
antediluvians,  which  contain  feveral  plcafant  ftories 
concerning  the  books  of  Enoch. 

"With  regard  10  this  patriarch,  indeed,  St  Judc 
informs  ns,  that  \\c  profhejial,  hat  he  docs  not  fay  that 
he  wrote.  The  writings,  therefore,  attributed  to  the 
antediluvians,  mufl  appear  quite  uncertain  ;  ibonghit 
might  be  impropcrtoaircrtihat  letters  were  unknown 
before  the  deluge  recorded  by  Mofcs." 

Our  author  proceeds  to  Ihow,  that  all  the  alpha- 
bets in  the  world  cannot  be  derived  from  one  origi- 
nal ;  bccaufe  there  area  variety  of  alpiialiets  ufed  in 
different  parts  of  Afia,  which  vary  in  name,  number, 
figure,  order,  and  power,  from  the  Phoenician,  ancient 
Hebrew,  or  Samaritan.  Jn  feveral  of  thefe  alphabets 
alfo,  there  are  maj-ks  for  founds  peculiar  to  the  lan- 
guige  of  the  eafl,  which  are  not  necellary  to  be  em- 
ployed in  the  notation  of  the  languages  of  Europe. 

None  of  the  alphabets  of  the  eaft  of  Perlia  have  any 
conne(5tion  with  the  Phoenicianor  its  derivatives,  ex- 
cept where  the  Arabicletters  have  been  introduced  by 
thcconqueltsof  the  Mahometans.  The  foundation  of 
all  the  Indiui  characters  are  thofe  c:i\\edjha/i/ait,  or 
fuiigfkrit.  This  (ignihesfomething  brought  toperl'ec- 
tion,  in  contradiflinftion  to  jiakrit  which  fignities 
vulgar  or  unpolilhed.  Hence  the  refined  and  religious 
language  and  charaders  of  India  are  called  Siingjkrit, 
and  the  more  vulgar  mode  of  writing  and  expreflion 
Prakrit.  From  this  Shanfcrit  are  derived  the  facrcd 
charafters  of  Thibet,  TheCadimirian,  Bengalefe.Ma- 
labric,  and  Tamoul;  the  Singalefe,  Sianicfc,  Maharat- 
tan,  Concanee,  ';c.  From  the  fame  fourcc  we  may 
derive  the  Tang^uic,  or  Tartar  characters,  which  are 
fimilar,in  their  grcaioutlines,  to  the  Shanfcrit;  though 
it  is  not  ealily  detirniined  which  is  derived  from  tlie 
other.  The  common  Tartar  is  generally  read,  like  the 
Chincfc,  from  top  bottom. 

There  arc,  however,  feveral  alphabets  ufed  in  diffe- 
rent parts  of  .^fia,  eiitirily  diiTerent  not  only  from  the 
Shanfcrit  and  all  thofe  derived  I'rom  it,  but  alfo  from 
the  Phopnicianatid  thofe  v/hich  proceed  from  it.  Some 
of  thefe  arelhealphabet  ofPegu,  the  5.;//JchaMfters 
nfed  in  the  Illind  of  Sumatra,  and  the  Ba^inau  or  Bo- 
man  charafters  ufed  in  fome  parts  of  Pegu.  Tiie 
names  and  powersof  the  letters  of  which  thefe  alpha- 
bets are  compofed,  differ  entirely  from  the  Pliccniciaii, 
or  thofe  derived  from  them.  It  is  impollildc  toalfiiVii- 
latc  their  forms,  and  indeed  it  is  by  no  means  eafy  to 
conceive  howth?  jolettersofthe  Schanfcrit language 
could  be  derived  from  the  Phcenician  alphabet,  which 
coEfifted  originally  only  of  I  5  ;  though  it  is  certain, 
that  by  far  the  greater  number  of  alphabets  now  in 
ufe  are  derived  from  the  ancient  Hebrew,  Phoenician, 
or  Samaritan. 


Mr  A  Ale  next  proceeds  to  confidcr  what  alphabets  arc  Alphabet. 

derivedfrom  the  Phoenician.  Thcichefuppofcsiohave ' 

been  immediately  the  ancient  Hebrew  or  Samaritan  ;  a  ,  I'l^,, 
the  thaldaic  ;  the  Baflulian  (a)  or  Spanifli  Photui- j^^^^j 
c  ian  ;  the  Punic,  Carthaginian,  or  Sicilian  ;  and  the  irom  the 
Pelafgian.  From  the  ancient  Hebrew  proceeded  the  I'hocnician, 
Chaldaic  or  fquare  Hebrew  ;  the  round  Hebrew  ;  and 
what  is  called  the  runniig  hui.d  'J  the  Rabbhis.  The 
Pelafgian  gave  birth  to  the  Ktrufcan,  Eugubian,  or 
Umbrian,  Ofcan,  Samnite,  and  Ionic  Greek,  written 
from  the  left.  From  the  Chaldaic  or  fquare  Hebrew 
are  derived  the  .Syriac,  and  the  ancient  and  modern 
Arabic.  The  Syriac  is  divided  into  the  Ertrangclo 
and  Mendajan,  and  the  modern  Arabic  has  given  rife 
to  the  Pcr/ian  and  Turkifli.  From  the  ancient  Arabic 
arc  deriveil  the  Kiific  or  Oriental,  the  Mauritanic  or 
Occidcut.il  ;  the  African  or  Saracen,  and  the  Moorifli. 
The  Ionic  Greek  gave  rife  to  the  Arcadian,  Latin, 
ancient  Gaulifli,  ancient  SpaniHi,  ancient  Gothic,  Cop- 
tic, Ethiopic,  Ruffian,  lUyrian  or  Sclavonic,  Bulga- 
rian and  Armenian.  From  the  Roman  are  derived 
the  Lombardic,  V'ifigothic,  Saxon,  Galilean,  Franco- 
Gallic  or  Merovingian,  German,  Caroline^  Capetian, 
and  modern  Gothic. 

The  Punic  letters  are  alfo  called  Tyrian,  and  were 
much  the  fame  with  the  Carthaginian  or  Sicilian.  The 
Punic  language  was  at  firfl;  the  fame  with  the  Phoeni- 
cian ;  it  is  nearly  allied  to  the  Hebrew,  and  has  an 
affinity  with  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac.  Some  remains  of 
it  are  to  be  met  with  in  the"  Maltefe.  To  make  a  com- 
plete Punic,  Carthaginian,  or  Sicilian  alphabet,  we 
mufl  admit  feveral  pure  Phoenician  letters. 

The  Pelafgi  were  likewife  of  Phoenician  original ; 
and,  according  to  Sanconiatho,  the  Diofcuriand  Ca- 
biri  wrote  the  firff  annals  of  the  Phoenician  hiftory ,  by 
orderofTaaut  the  inventor  of  letters.  They  made 
fliips  of  burthen,  and  being  cart  upon  the  coaft  near 
mount  Calius,  about  40  miles  from  Pelufium,  where 
they  built  a  temple  in  the  fecond  generation  after  the 
deluge  related  by  Mofes,  they  were  called  Pelafgi 
from  their  palling  by  fea,  and  wandering  from  one  coun- 
try to  another.  Herodotus  informs  us,  that  the  Pe- 
lafgi were  defcendants  of  the  Phoenician  Cabiri,  and 
that  theSamoihracians,  received  and  pra(;tifcd  the  Ca- 
biricmyfleriesfrom  them.  The  Pelafgic  alphabctprc- 
vailed  in  Greece  till  the  time  of  Deucalion,  when  the 
Pelafgi  were  driven  out  of  ThelFalyor  Oenotria  by  t  lie 
Hellenes;  after  which  fome  of  them  fettled  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Po,  and  others  at  Croton,  now  Cartona 
in  Tufcany.  1  heir  alphabet  confilled  of  16  letters, 
and  the  Tyrrhenian  alphabet, brought  into  Italy  before 
the  reiirn  of  that  prince,  confifledof  no  more  than  13. 
Deucalion  is  faid  to  have  reigned  about  S20  years  af- 
ter the  deluge,  and  1529  before  the  Chriftian  aera. 

That  the  Tyrrheni,  Tyrfeni,  or  Hetrufci,  fettled  in 
Italy  long  before  this  period,  appears  from  the  tefti- 
mony  of  Herodotus,  who  informs  us,  that  a  colony 
went  by  fea  from  Lydia  into  Italy  under  Tyrrhenus  ; 
and  Dionyflus  of  Halicarnallus  proves  that  many  au- 
thors called  them  Pelafgi.  He  then  cites  Hellanicus 
Lefbicus,  an  author  fomewhat  more  ancient  than  He- 
rodotus, 


(a)  The  Baflali  are  faid  to  have  been  a  Canaantifh  or  Phoenician  people  vvho  fled  from  Jolhua,  and  fettled 
afterwards  in  Spairi.  I 


ALP 


[     495     ] 


A   I,  P 


rodotas,  to  prove,  that  they  were  firft  called  I'elafyi 
7}irhtiu;  and  when  they  paircdinto  Italy,  they  fettlcrf 
ill  that  part  of  it  called  £truria.  Their  emigration 
took  place  about  I  he  year  ot"  the  world  2011,  or  1993 
years  before  thcChriflian  aera,  which  is  jjoyears  be- 
fore the  Pelaf^i  left  Greece.  Biihop  Cumberland  ad- 
duces many  proofs  tofhow  that  the  Tyrrhenians  origi- 
nally came  out  of  I-ydii  into  It.ily.  Several  Roman 
authors  alfo  fpeak  of  this  Lydian  colony  ;and  Horace 
compliments  his  patron  Moecenas  upon  his  Lydian 
dcfccnc  : 

Lydortim  quiciqiiid  Etru/cos 
hitoluit  fines,  nemo  pmerojior  cjl  t;. 

The  Etrufcan  letters  are  Peljfgic,  and  fevcral  of  the 
Etrufcan  infcriptions  arc  written  in  the  I'elafgic  lan- 
guage. '1  he  Roman  letters  arc  Ionic.  The  Ofcan 
language  was  a  dialett  of  the  Etrufcan  ;  their  charac- 
ters are  nearer  the  ionic  or  Roman  than  the  Etrufcan. 
There  is  alio  very  little  dirfcrence  between  the  Felaf- 
gian,  Etrufcan,  and  moftar.cicnt  Greek  letters,  which 
are  placed  from  right  to  left.  The  Arcadians  were  an- 
cient Greeks,  and  iifcd  the  Ionic  letters  ;  but  at  what 
time  they  began  to  write  from  left  to  right  is  not 
known,as  their  chronology  is  very  uncertain.  The  E- 
trufcan,  Ofcan, and  Samnitc  alphabets,are  derived  from 
the  Fclafgic  ;  they  differ  from  each  other  more  in  name 
than  in  form,  but  a  far  greater  number  are  derived  from 
the  Ionic  Greek ;  namely,  the  Arcadian,  the  Latin  or 
Roman,  and  the  others  already  enumerated.  The  Ru- 
nic is  immediately  derived  from  the  Gothic. 

According  to  Dionylms  of  Halicarnalfus,  the  firft 
Greek  colony  which  came  into  Italy  conlilled  of  Ar- 
cadians under  the  conduct  of  Oenotrus  the  fon  of  Ly- 
caon,  and  fifth  in  defcent  from  Phoroneus  the  firrt 
king  of  Argos,  who  reigned  about  566  years  before 
the  taking  of  Troy,  and  i  750  years  before  the  Chri- 
Aian  jera.  Thefe  Oenotrians  were  called  Aboriginei  ; 
and  after  they  had  been  engaged  for  many  years  in  a 
war  with  the  Siculi,  entered  into  an  alliance  with  a 
colony  of  the  Pelafgi,  who  came  out  of  Thellaly  into 
Italy,  after  having  been  driven  from  the  fomer  conn- 
try — About  1476  B.C. another  colony  of  the  Pelafgi, 
who  had  been  driven  out  of  ThclTaly  by  the  Curcies 
and  Leleges,  arrived  in  Italy,  where  they  aflifted  the 
Aborigines  to  drive  out  the  Siculi  ;  poirclling  thein- 
folvts  of  the  grcatell  part  of  the  country  between  the 
Tiber  and  the  Liris,  and  building  fevcral  cities.  So- 
linus  and  Pliny  tell  us,  that  the  Pelafgi  firil  carried 
letters  into  Italy  ;  and  the  latter  diflinguiihes  between 
the  Pelafgi  and  the  Arcades  :  fo  the  letters  firll  car- 
ried into  Italy  were  not  the  Ionic  Greek,  but  thofe 
moi  e  ancient  Pclafgiccharaderswhich  i  he  Pelafgi  car- 
ried with  them  before  Deucalion  and  Cadmus  are  faid 
to  have  come  into  Boeoiia  and  Thelfaly.  The  flory 
of  Cadmus  is  much  involved  ia  fable  ;  but  it  is  agreed 
by  mod  of  the  ancients,  that  the  children  of  Agenor, 
viz.  Cadmus,  Europa,  Phoenix,  and  Cilix,  carried 
with  them  a  colony  compofed  of  Phtcnicians  and  Sy- 
rians, into  Afia  Minor,  Crete,  Greece,  and  Lybia, 
where  they  introduced  letters,  mulic,  poetry,  and 
other  arts,  fciences,  and  cuftoms  of  the  Pha-nicians. 

Dionyfius  enumerates  the  following  Greek  colonies 
which  came  into  Italy  :  i.  The  Aborigines  under  Oe- 
notrus from  Arcadia.  2.  The  Pclafgic  colony  which 
came  from  Hoeinonia  or  Thelfaly.     ;.  Another  Arca- 


dian colony  T,Iiicli  camcwiiii  EvanJcrfiom  PaUntium. 
4.  Thofe  who  came  from  Pclopunnifus  with  Hercules  ; 
and,  J.  Thofe  whocamewi:  h. -Eneas  from  Troy.  It  is 
not  eafy  todifcover  whe::  thelonic  way  ofwritingfroui 
left  to  right  was  introduced  into  Italy  ;  but  it  fs  cer- 
tain, that  it  did  not  univerfally  prevail  even  in  Greece 
till  feveraLiges  after  it  was  found  out.  ThcAthenians 
did  not  comply  with  it  till  the  year  of  Rome  3  jo  ;  nor 
was  it  practiced  by  thcSamniics  even  in  the  6th  century 
of  that  city,  or  250  years  before  Chrift  :  for  M.  Gx- 
bciin.  Vol.  VI.pl.  2.  gives  us  thcSamnite  alphabet  of 
thatccntury,  wherein  the  Icurrs  are  placed  from  right 
to  left,  although  the  Ionic  way  of  writing  prevailed 
in  fome  parts  of  Italy  in  the  third  century  of  Roir.c. 
"  In  time  (faysPliny),  the  tacit  co:;fent  of  all  nations 
agreed  to  ufe  the  louic  letters.  The  Romans  eonfcnt- 
ed  to  this  mode  about  tlie  time  of  Tarquinius  Prifcus 
their  fifth  king."  The  letters  brought  by  Damaratus 
the  Corinthian,the  father  of  Tarqiiin,  Mr  Wife  thinki, 
murt  have  been  the  new  or  Ionic  alphabet,  and  not  the 
fame  with  that  brought  by  Evander  joo  years  before. 
After  the  Pioinaus  had  elhblilhed  the  ufe  of  the  Ionic 
leucrs,  they  feem  not  to  have  ac^suowledged  the  Pe- 
lafgian  and  Etrufcan  to  have  been  Gieek°alphabcts  : 
the  mod  learned  of  them  knew  none  older  than  the  I- 
onic,  as  appears  from  the  Greek  Parnefe  infcriptions 
of  Herodes  Atiicus.  This  learned  man,  out  of  a  re- 
gard to  antiquity,  caufed  the  oldeft  orthography  to 
beobferved  in  the  writing,  and  the  letters  to  be  deli- 
neated after  the  moll  antique  forms  that  could  be 
found  ;  and  they  are  plainly  no  other  than  the  Ionic 
or  right-handed  characlers. 

The  ancient  Gauliih  letters  are  derived  from  the 
Greek,  and  their  writing  approaches  more  nearly  to 
the  Gothic  than  that  of  the  Romans  :  this  appears  by 
the  monumental  infcriptionof  Gordi.ui,  med'cnger  tf 
the  Gauls,  who  fuff'cred  martyrdom  in  the  third  cen- 
tury with  all  his  family.  Thefe  ancient  Gauliih  cha- 
radtrs  were  generally  ufcd  by  that  people  before  the 
conqneft  of  Gaul  by  Cxfar  :  but  after  that  time  the 
Roman  letters  were  gradually  introduced.  The  anci- 
ent Spaniards  ufed  letters  nearly  Greek  before  their 
intercourfe  with  the  Romans.  The  ancient  Gothic 
alphabet  was  very  fnnilar  to  the  Greek,  and  is  attribu- 
ted to  Ulphilas,  bidiopof  iheGoths,  who  lived  in  Mx- 
lia  about  570  years  after  Chriil.  He  tranflated  the  Bi- 
ble into  the  Gothic  tongue.  This  circumftance  might 
have  occalioned  the  tradition  of  his  having  invciuc.l 
thefe  letters  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  thefe  characiers 
were  in  ufe  long  before  this  lime.  The  Runic  alpha- 
bet  is  derived  from  the  ancient  Gothic. 

The  Coptic  letters  are  derivedinimcdiaiely  from  the 
Greek.  Some  have  confounded  thei^iwith  the  ancient 
Egyptian  ;  but  there  is  a  szTy  material  difference  be- 
tween them.  The  Ethiopic  alphabet  is  derived  from 
the  Coptic. 

The  alphabet  proceeding  from  that  of  the  Scythians 
cftablidied  in  Europe,  is  the  fame  with  what  St  Cyril 
calls  the  Strvkn.  The  Ruffian,  Illyrian  or  Sclavonic, 
and  the  Bulgarian,  are  all  derived  from  the  Greek. 
TheArmenianletters  differ  very  much  from  the  Greek, 
from  which  they  are  derived,  as  well  as  from  the 
Latin. 

With  regard  to  the  alph.ibets  derived  from  the  La- 
tin, the  Lom birdie  relates  to  ther.ianufcripts  of  iialy  ; 

the 


Alphabrt. 


See  PIitt» 
XIandXII. 
for  fpeci- 
metx.f  the 
aiicioic 
alphabets 
here  eniu 
merited. 


16 

Alphabets 
derived 
from  the 
I.aun. 


ALP 


[    496     ] 


ALP 


Ali'lrt'ji-t.  tlic  V'ill^.itViC  tp  thofc  of  SpilLl  ;   lite   Saxoti  t'l  thofc 

—  of  Kii,;l.iiul  ;    liie  Ga  lituu  and  l"ra:ic.'-G  lUic  or  Mc- 

rovi.ig'.m  to  the  nuiuifciijns  of  Kr-incc  ;  chc  Gcrm.ui 
I J  tli.ifeolih.il  C'jmr.ry  ;  atid  the  Caroline  Capctian, 
aiiJ  Mod''rii  Goihk,  in  ah  the  coivini.-i  of  Europe 
nlio  rciJ  Laii:i.  The  firit  !ix  of  ihcfc  ali'Ixibets  are 
licforctheagc  of  Ch.i.rk-ms'jiic,  liicl.dl  tlirce  puftcrior 
1.1  it.  They  are  more  diltinguiihtd  by  their  iiaiiics 
ilimthe  forms  of  ilicir  characters,  aaJ  the  former 
iniiicute  allof  them  to  have  been  of  Koinan  cxtradion. 
Each  nation,  in  adopting  the  letters  of  the  Romans, 
added  thereto  a  nllc  and  manner  peculiar  to  iifclf, 
^\  hi:li  obvioudy  dittingiiiihed  it  from  tlic  wriiings  of 
all  other  people  ;  \\  hence  arofe  the  Jiircrencesbciwcen 
l!ic  wriiings  of  the  Loniliards,  Spaniards, Krencli, Sax- 
ons, Germans,  andCJotlis,  and  all  the  llrange  terms 
obfervcable  in  the  writings  of  the  t'rancic  Gauls  or  Me- 
rovingians ;  and  thofc  of  the  Carlovingians  their  fuc- 
cclli)rs  may  be  traced  from  the  fame  fonrce.  t'roni 
thefc  dillinftions  the  nxmt:  oi H.ilioiial ivntiug  was  de- 
ilvcd. 

The  wri.ing  of  Italy  was  uniform  till  the  irruption 
of  the  Go.hs,  who  disfigured  it  by  their  barbarous 
t  tile.  In  569,  the  Lombards,  basing  polielTed  them- 
felvcsof  all  Italy,  excepting  Home  and  Ravenna,  in- 
troduced that  form  of  writing  which  goes  under  their 
name  ;  and  as  the  I'opes  nfcd  the  Lombardic  manner 
in  their  bulls,  the  n imc  of  Rtinan  was  fometimes  gi- 
ven to  it  in  the  nth  century;  and  though  the  domini- 
(r-n  of  the  Lombards  coiuinued  no  longer  than  206 
vears,  the  name  of  their  writing  continued  in  Italy 
i'rom  the  7th  to  the  i^th  century,  and  thenceafed  ; 
when  learning,  having  declined  in  that  as  well  as  in 
(<ther  countries,  the  manner  of  writing  degenerated 
into  the  modern  Gothic. 

The  Vifigoths  iuiroJuced  their  form  of  wriiinginto 
Spain,  after  having  over-run  that  country  ;  but  it  was 
abolilhed  in  a  provincial  fyuod  held  at  Leon  in  1091, 
whenthe  Latin  characters  were  eftablilhed  for  all  pub- 
lic iaflruraents,  though  the  X'ifigothic  were  ulcd  in 
private  writings  for  three  centuries  afterwards. 

The  Gauls,  oa  being  Oibjccled  by  the  Romans,  a- 
dopied  their  manner  of  writing;  but,  by  fubfequent 
;idditions  of  their  own,  theircharaclers  were  changed 
into  what  is  called  the  Gallican  or  Roiuan  Gallic  mode. 
This  was  changed  by  the  Franks  into  the  Frauco-Cal- 
l:c  oi  Muroviiigian  \n<di,K.  of  \vri;ing,  being  pradifed 
under  the  K'rfigs  of  the  Merovingian  race.  It  took 
place  to'.vards  the  clofc  of  the  lixtii  century,  an'j  con- 
tinued till  (he  beginning  of  the  ninth. 

The  German  mode  of  writing  was  improved  by 
Charlemagne,  and  this  improvement  occafioned  ano- 
ther diftiiiiflion  in  writing  by  introilucing  thealpiiabet 
named  Caroinn,  which  declined  in  the  12th  century, 
and  was  fuccceded  In  ihc  13th  by  the  modcr]i  Gothic. 
In  Fr.ince  it  had  degenerated  by  the  middle  of  the 
10th  century,  but  was  reflored  in  987  by  Hugh  Ca- 
pet, whence  it  obtained  the  nan.e  tj(  Capitian.  h  was 
iifed  in  England  as  well  as  Germany  and  France. 

The  modern  (iothir,  which  fpread  itfclf  all  over 
Europe  in  the  12th  and  rqtli  centuries,  is  improperly 
named,  as  not  deriving  its  origin  from  the  writingan- 
ciently  ufcd  by  the  Goths.  It  is,  however,  the  worft 
and  rioft  barbarous  way  of  writing,  and  originated  a- 
roong  the  fchoolmen  in  the  cecliiicof  the  arts  ;  being 

"V  3 


indeed  nothing  elfe  than  Latin  wriiinr  dejcncratcJ. 
'It  began  in  l!i>;  i2-.h  century,  and  was  in  general  ufc, 
,  f  fpceijUy  among  monks  and  fchoolaien,  in  all  pjrts  of 
Europe,  till  the  rclloraii  on  of  arts  in  the  i  jth  ccntrry, 
and  continued  1  >nger  in  Germany  and  the  nortbcra 
nations.  The  llatuie  b  loks  arc  l:ill  printed  in  Gothic 
letters.  The  moll  barbarous  writing  of  the  f<;veni!i, 
eighth,  and  ninth  centuries,  was  preferable  to  the  mo- 
dern Gothi'.  It  is  divetiitied  in  fach  a  m  inner  as  can 
fcarce  admit  of  defcription  ;  and  the  abbreviations  ufed 
by  the  writers  were  fo  numerous,  that  it  became  very 
dilficuk  to  read  it ;  which  was  one  of  the  great  caufes 
of  the  ignorance  of  ihofe  times.  Along  with  this, 
however,  the  Lombardic,  Gothic,  Roman,  Caroline, 
and  Capeiian  modes  of  writing,  were  occafionally  ufcd 
by  i.i'Jiviiiuals. 

The  ides  that  all  the  alphabets  abovemeutioned  arc 
derived  from  the  Roman,  tends  to  prove  the  dillinftion 
of  national  w'riting,  and  is  of  great  ufe  in  difcovering 
the  age  of  manufcripts  :  for  lliough  we  may  not  be 
able  exac5lly  to  determine  the  time  when  a  manufcript 
was  written,  we  may  be  able  nearly  to  afcertain  its  age. 
For  example,  if  a  writing  is  Merovingian,  it  may  be 
declared  not  to  be  pop.erior  to  the  ninth,  nor  prior  to 
the  fiftli,  century.  If  another  be  Lombardic,  it  may 
beaftirmed  to  be  poflerior  to  the  middle  of  the  6th, 
and  prior  to  the  13th.  Should  it  be  Saxon,  it  cannot 
be  of  an  earlier  date  than  the  7th,  nor  later  than  a- 
bout  the  middle  of  the  12th. 

Having  conlidered  whence  the  alphabets  now  in  ufc 
throughout  the  various  nations  ofthc  world  are  derived, 
it  remains  tofiy  fomething  concerning  them  as  the  ele- 
ments of  words,  or  how  fir  they  are  capable  of  ex- 
prefling  thofe  founds,  which,  by  proper  combination 
and  arrangement,  conflitute  articulate  language.  The 
number  of  funple  founds  in  any  language  cannot  be 
very  numerous  ;  and  it  is  plainly  th'. fc  limple  founds  a- 
lonc  that  we  have  occalion  to  reprefcnt  by  alphabetical 
charadcrs.  Hence  the  perfon  whofirft  invented  let- 
ters, muft  have  been  capable  of  analyfing  language  in 
a  nianner  whicii  fcems  by  no  means  eafy  to  do,  and 
concerning  which  even  the  learned  among  ourfelves 
are  not  yet  agreed.  It  is  this  dilHculty  which  has  pro- 
duced the  great  diverlity  in  the  number  of  alphabetical 
characters  ufcd  by  different  nations  ;  and  where  we  fee 
a  vafl  number  of  them  ufed,  we  may  account  the  wri- 
ting not  the  better,  but  much  the  worfe  for  it  ;  and 
whoever  tlie  pretended  inventor  was,  it  is  more  rea- 
I'onable  to  fuppofe  that  he  disfigured  ?.n  alphabet  al- 
ready invented,  by  nnnecciFary  additions,  than  been 
the  author  of  one  himfelf. 

VV  lien  we  couiider  alphabetical  characters  as  thus  rc- 
ful  ting  from  an  analyfis  of  language,  it  will  by  no  means 
appear  probable  that  it  was  derived  from  a  gradual  and 
progrelliveopcraiion  of  the  human  mind  through  many 
ages.  There  is  not  the  lead  affinity  betwixt  reprefent- 
ing  any  objec't  by  a  pidure  and  finding  cut  the  founds 
which  compofe  the  word  by  which  it  i  t  xprefTed  ;  nor, 
though  a  nation  had  been  in  nfe  to  reprefent  things  ei- 
ther in  this  method,  or  by  any  kind  of  arbitrary  marks, 
for  thoufands  of  years,  could  the  one  ever  have  led  to 
the  other  Arbitrary  marks  mufl  always  be  the  fame 
with  piciurss  in  this  refpeft,  that  they  mull  always  be 
fixed  to  particular  objefts,  and  thus  be  incrcafedaa' //;//- 
tiiiurii.  Letters,  on  the  other  hand,  are  indifterciit  to 

all 


/.Inhabit. 


17 
Letters 
couM  not 
take  plice 
but  from  3 
decompofu 
tion  of  lau* 
guage. 


18 
Probably 
not  the  re- 
fult  of  a 
progretUve 
evolution 
of  the  hu- 
man pOWj 
ers. 


— ■ 1 —   - 

fejj/.vwj  w*i<^^/.  B,;ylfM/r 

£fru^///t 

GneruM     Gma/jn^ 

/.ahiv/m 

/^untrum 

Cioliirum    Ci^At/im 

T^uAmtiam 

I    A         X 

t 

X   / 

^ 

A 

A 

A 

^ 

^        V 

A 

2    H         ^9 

5        J 

1 

0 

i    ^ 

B 

B           B           b 

a 

^ 

",    C        7 

1 

1                 1             1 

1                i 

~1       r       c    >  ■  1 '      r 

1 

r. 

7 

4   D 

1 
^     i 

<\ 

9 

d 

1 

1 

x: 

^ 

5  i: 

r 

I,  3 

3 

a 

3  :' 

r    1    E       ^        e 

^^. 

^ 

6  o,-  \ 

7  I 

0     ' 

X 

Z    "^ 

8 

^      i 

■~  -1             J  - 

.0 

55 

\ 

f 

J 

i 

r 

1 
I 

\ 

\          1 

/ 

8    K 

1 

V 

b 

D 

A 

K. 

K 

FL 

^ 

9  I- 

A 

A^A 

£■,  X     v* 

J    ; 

AL-^:   1,         r     i    A 

X 

^w 

10  "Nl 

^ 

r  7 

>          M 

-^X     ! 

^M  1     M          V          H 

u. 

^M 

11   N 

> 

!?  y 

>       1      S 

"X 

>  KT     rr    1  r  ~^      H       t-T 

y? 

I'i    0 

17 

o 

0        0 

,        <^      \ 

C          0        t    ^  1  WuVdi     o 

1 

© 

1 

n  r 

1 

^     1 

1     "7    ''    r    n 

1           'i 

P-       f^(F 

f 

(1 

J^ 

H  R 

^ 

q 

9 

a 

1     A   •     P  ^ 

R          R 

A 

f ' 

2 

15    S 

VV 

w 

/ 

2 

^/ 

^        'S        .  ^ 

% 

16    T         /? 

X   V 

^       / 

1    r   ;  -e  T 

T 

>^         T            r 

^_^ 

Qj  y 

> 

P 

1 

1 

1 
9     

|a^^9l    'i 

1         1 . 

— 

s     •    '     '.    1 

1       1       1       1       1        1        1       1 
1      1      1      !      1      1       1     ' 

o 

i    ;  C 

'     !     i' 

( 

^       f      1        1        1        1        1         1         1        1        1        !        1      ■  '         ' 

-1  ?^  ::  s 

«ij  ^j^??;-v5<h 

Xrs,    r- 

<2;o;^w  ^^tc-^L-uJo: 

■•^-  '— 

4LPHABE  TA    ^1^-7' J  q  r/A 


Plate  XIJ 


J^///u7/m 

/?////gu/// 

O/ra/? 

.^fTf/f/yc/M  f. 

r'/////'./rrff7'r^. 

^nrm2£'fru/^oru//t 

3   X 

^    ? 

D     4 

:    ^ 

^    ^^  9  y 

>; 

©  o 
9 

2    7  > 

9\in  /I 

a 

CH>{ 
c    > 

y  8 
a  a 

A   '\    i 

^     ] 

C^       ( 

o  o    ] 

E^      ] 

V  \f     I 

G 

H      T 

B 

cf  4  T  ^  y  ^  t^ 

^  >  f  %  K'A  X)  X 

ajj,   g  ^  H^  0^   iq   u/ 

t^y  A^^  J33<5 
•^^  TYC?o/vpp 

A 

B 

Gh 
D 
E 

z 

H 
E 
Th 

I 

K 
I. 
M 
N 
S 
0 

p 

Is 
Q 

R 
Sd 

-»- 

A 

B 

Gh 

D 

E 

F 

V 

z 

H 

Th 

I 

K 
L 
M 

N 

S 

X 

R 

Ph 

Ts 

Q 

R 

Sch 
T 
0 

©  ©  e  o  o  4-^ 

Ti  1 1 '  \\\  m  ^^ 

xi  J  Si^o 

xQ99dc 

>'  /^  -T^    I  >- 

:  CC  C 

E  €6  6 

h     O  0 

[    m-T 

.  ,\\  ^ 

J  rr  ^ 

)      OO  UJ 

>    rj  rr 
^    ? 

L    rr 

'    -f  TT 

^  3^ 

V  V 

G  O 
O 

\    V 

XT  2 

»<  1 

/     •  I 
C      I 

vz    :^ 

^"^      I 

O      C 

Z'  P   E 

<; 

7 

1  7 

rr 

T  r 

(]  ^  a 

2 

T 

A    L     P  [       .1Cy 

Mrliul)ct.  alloljccls;  tind  llicrtforc, by  ilieircoir.liinat'foiis, which 

v/ ■  are  more  aiinurou.;  than  as  many  arl>iirary  marks  as 

\vc  could  rciiiciiiber,  may  cxin-clsall  ihcobjcits  in  na- 
ture. This  might  I'lirnilh  an  argument  of  Cunic  Urtii^^th 
for  the  divine  revelation  of  writing,  were  it  not  lliat 
other  arts  fceraingly  as  nfctul,  anci  as  diiKcult  to  be  in- 
vcirtcd,  hvc  been  cxprefsly  afcribcj  to  particular 
pcrlons  whom  we  cannot  foi>po{c  to  have  been  divinely 
inlpired.  Thus  metallurgy,  mnlic,  the  keeping  of 
cattle,  and  ufe  of  tents,  arc  all  afcribed  to  a  finglc  fa- 
mily ;  and  though  writing  i)e  not  cxprcfsly  mentioned 
as  an  invcation  in  Scripture,  there  is  no  re.ifon  to  have 
rrcourfe  to  a  revelation  for  it  as  long  as  tlit  human  fa- 
culties are  known  to  have  becnfudicicnt  for  the  inven- 
tion of  it.  Nevcrthclcfs,  if  \vc  ii'ke  a  review  of  the 
different  arts  which  mankind  hive  invented,  we  fliall 
find,  that  few  of  them  rcfuUsd  from  any  gradual  pro- 
grefs  or  cvoUitioii  of  the  po-.vers  of  the  iiuman  mind, 
but  rather  by  fome  fuddcn  and  alraofl  unaccountable 
turn  of  thought  in  an  individual.  Thus,  the  art  of 
printing,  little  inferior  iu  its  utility  to  that  of  writing, 
liy  hid  for  a^cs,  and  was  at  iall  invcHted  we  fcarce 
know  how  ;  fo  that  if  one  inclined  to  fuppofc  this  a 
divine  revelation,  he  could  be  .-'l  little  lofs  for  argu- 
ments to  fupport  his  hypothelis.  This  was  v.hai  all 
the  inventions  and  evolutions  of  human  powers  lince 
the  creation  had  never  been  able  to  acconiplilh  ;  yet 
nobody  believes  that  it  required  fupernatural  abilities 
to  be  the  author  of  this  art,  bccaufe  we  fee  plainly 
that  it  might  have  occurred  to  the  human  mind  from 
various fourccs,  and  arc  furpriled  that  it  did  notoccnr 
long  before.  In  like  manner,  the  method  of  account- 
ing for  the  cclclliil  motions  by  the  united  forces  of 
pr..jedion  and  gravitation,  was  no  refultofthe  pro- 
grcfs  that  mankind  had  made  in  fdence,  but  luckily 
occurred  to  Mr  Horrox,  without  any  thing  that  we 
know  10  dirciSt  him,  or  perhaps  from  caufcs  almoit  un- 
known to  himftlf.  Thus  alio,  the  llcam-engiue,  aero- 
flalion,  &c.  were  fuddenly  invented  only  by  a  (light  re- 
view of  principles  well  known  before,  and  which  had 
been  a  thoufuud  times  overlooked  by  thofe  who  might 
have  invented  botli.  Alphabetic  writing,  therefore, 
might  have  been  no  deduftion  from  hieroglyphic  or 
picture  writing,  from  which  it  iscll'enti.iUy  ditftrent; 
and  it  feems  to  be  fomc  confirmation  of  this,  that  all 
nations  whoever  pretended  to  the  invcnSion  of  letters, 
have  afcri'.cd  it  to  the  labours  of  one  particular  pcr- 
fo;i,  without  taking  notice  of  the  progrcfs  made  to- 
j,  wards  it  in  preceding  ages. 
)f  the  c'.e-  The  learned  author  of  Hermes  informs  us,  ihiit  to 
ncntriry  about  20  plain  elementary  founds,  we  owe  that  variety 
uunils  of  of  articulate  voices  which  have  been  fafficicnt  to  ex- 
angu'K^-  plain  the  fenii\uents  of  fuch  an  innumerable  multitude 
as  all  the  pafl  and  pre  ft  nt  generations  of  men.  Mr 
<iheridan  fays,  that  the  number  of  fiuijde  founds  in  our 
tongue  are  2'i  ;  while  Dr  Kcniick  f.iys,  that  wc  have 
onl/  n  diftinii  fpccies  of  articulate  iounds,  which  e- 
ven  by  coiitraition,  prolongation,  and  compolilion,  arc 
increafed  only  to  the  nun-.bcr  of  16  ;  every  fyllible  or 
articulate  found  in  our  languagt  bcinp,  one  of  the  num- 
ber. Kifnop  Wilkiiis  aud  i)r  William  Holder  fpcak 
of  ^■^  didiuel  founds. 

/•ftcr  the  analylis  or  dcfon^poHtion  oflangua.;e  in- 
to lite  elementary  founds,  the  ntxt  towards  the  nota- 
tion of  it  by  a,.hibctical  charaiicrs,  would  he  the  dt- 
Voi..  1. 


7     ]  ALP 

lineaiionofa  fcparate  mark  or  letter  to  reprefenr  each 
found  ;  which  marks,  though  lew  in  nu'iibcr,  would 
;'.lmit  of  fuch  a  variety  of  arrangements  an  J  combina- 
ii:>ns,  as  might  be  capable  of  producing  that  iudiiity  of 
articulate  founds  wl.icii  conipofc  language,  'i  he  ini^c- 
nious  Wachler,  in  his  Nature  et  Scnft„ra  Co>icori/ia, 
p.  64,  endeavours  to  Ihow,  that  ten  marks  or  charac- 
ters arc  fufficicnt  for  this  purpufc His  fcheinc  is  as 

follows : 


.A!i)!>j|i«t. 


Genus 

tikiura. 

iii.-Jlus.      t 

Vocal. 

0 

a.  e.  i.   (1.  i:.    j 

Guttural. 

9 

k.  c.  ch.      1 
q.g.  h.       ! 

Lingual. 

/I 

'•       ! 

Lingual. 

11 

d.t.      1 

Liiguil. 

~) 

'■       ! 

Dental. 

n 

f. 

Labial. 

3 

b.q. 

Labial. 

(J\ 

m. 

I  Labial. 

\=^ 

s.  ph.  v.  w.    j 

Mafal. 

A 

1           .. 

If  this  is  the  cafe,  then  the  moll  limplc  alphabet, 
which  conlilled  only  of  13  letters,  mult  have  been  a- 
bundintly  lufiicieut  to  anfwer  all  the  purpofcs  of  mau- 
kind,  and  much  ofour  twenty-four  letter  alphabet  may 
appear  fuperlluous.  That  able  mathematician  Tacquct 
has  calculated  the  various  combinations  of  the  24  let- 
ters, even  without  any  repetition,  to  amount  to  no 
fcxvrr  than62o,448,40i,73:?,2;9,4J9r?6o,ccOiWhilc 
C  lavius  makes  them  only  5,852,6 16, 733, 497, 664, oco. 
Either  of  thcfc  numbers,  however,  arc  htfinitc  to 
the  human  conceptions,  and  much  more  than  fufti- 
cieni  to  cxprefs  all  the  founds  that  ever  were  articula- 
ted by  man.  As  there  arc  more  founds  in  fomc  Ian-  vumbcrof 
guages  than  in  others,  it  follows  of  courfc,  that  tiic  ictrcrs  in 
nuuibcrof  tknientary  characlcrs,  or  letters,  mufl  vary  d.ftcreiit 
ia  the  alphabets  of  different  languages.  The  Htbrcw,  aiiihibcis. 
Sara  iriian,  andSyriaealp'.iajcis,  have  22  letters  ;  the 
Arabic  28,  the  Perfian  and  Egyptian,  or  Coptic,  32  j 
the  prefent  Ruiiian  41  ;  the  hhanfcrit  50;  v.hile  the 
CaflimJrianand  iMalabaricare  dill  more  numerous.  The 
following  is  the  fchcme  of  the  Kngilh  alphtbc:  as  gi- 
ven by  Nir  Sheridan  iu  hisRhciorical  Grammar,  p.  9. 

Number  of  iiuiplc  founds  in  our  tongue  :3. 

9    vimea.   a       a      a         t  o  o     c      j      u 

hail  hat  hate  btcr  note  noofc  bet  fit  but 


w 
Ihort  00 


y 

.fiiort  cc 


.^  r     r       .       /  fb  ed  cf  eg  ck  tl  cm  en  ep  cr  cs 
'       ■■  '    i      ct  ev  ez  eth  eth  tlh  ezh  ing. 

2  Srifirfi  :io  1.1  y  r,  which  has  the  power  of  t-i  or  e/s  ; 
II,  \\\axofei  Lcfore  a. 

I   R  2  CctittounJ, 


ALP 


Alphabet. 


21 
Impcrfec- 
ticm  in  tlie 
F.nglifh  al- 
phabet. 


iT, 
Of  the 
forms  of 
Icttcre. 


2  Com/iound,  j,  which  Hands  for  eiizh  : 

X,  lor  ks  or  gz. 
I  TJo  Inter,  A,  merely  a  niarkof  ^sfpiration. 


498     ]  ALP 

Nine  more  may  be  made  by  adding  a  point  to  each,  Alpl-.a 


'II, 


and  Semivoiuils, 


cp 
cd 

efs  ev  cz  eth  cth 


ct, 
et. 


Alphery. 


Coiifonants  divided  into  Mtitts 

6  Milt  a,  cb  ed  eg  ek 
3  Pure  Mutei,  ek 
3  J/itpur;,  eb 

1 3  Semivoweh,  1  ef  el  em  en  er 
or  liquids,    3      cfti  c/.h  ing. 
9  V'jial,         cl  em  en  cr  cv  cz  eth  czh  ing. 
4  Ajfirated,  efflsethelh. 

Divided  again  into. 

4  Labial,      cb  ep  cv  ef. 

8  Dental,     ed  ct  eth  cz  efs  eth  czh  cfii. 

4  Palatine,  eg  ek  el  er. 

3  NaJ'al,      em  en  ing. 

Mr  Sheridan  obferves,  that  our  alphabet  is  ill  calcu- 
lated for  the  noiation  of  the  Englilh  tongue,  as  there 
are  many  founds  for  which  we  have  noletters  or  marks : 
and  there  ought  to  be  nine  more  charafters  or  letters 
to  make  a  complete  alphabet,  in  which  every  fimple 
found  ought  to  have  a  mark  peculiar  to  itfcif.  The 
leafon  ot  the  deficiency  is,  that  the  Roman  alphabet 
was  formerly  adopted  lor  the  notation  of  the  Englilh 
language,  though  by  no  means  fuited  to  the  purpofe. 

It  now  remains  only  to  take  fome  notice  of  the  forms 
of  the  ditfcrent  letters  ;  fome  knowledge  of  wliich  is 
abfohitely  neccflbry,  for  afcertaining  the  age  and  au- 
thenticity of  infcriptions,  manufcripts,  charters,  and 
ancient  records.  Many  authors  are  of  opinion  that 
letters  derive  their  forms  from  the  pofitions  of  the  or- 
gans of  fpcech  in  their  pronunciation.  Van  Helmont 
has  taken  great  pains  to  prove,  that  the  Chaldaic  cha- 
rafters  are  the  genuine  alphabet  of  Nature  ;  becaufe, 
according  to  him,  no  letter  can  be  rightly  founded 
without  difpoliug  the  organs  of  fpeech  into  an  uniform 
pofition  with  tbc  figure  of  each  letter  ;  and  in  fupport 
of  tliisfyfltm,  he  has  anatomifed  the  organs  of  arti- 
iuhition. 

Wr  Nclniehascndcavouredto(how,thatallelemen- 
tury  charartcrsorlettrrs  derive  their  forms  from  the 
line  anil  the  circle.  His  alphabet  conlifls  of  1 3  radical 
.letter'!,  four  diminilhcd,  and  four  augmented. — The 
radicals  arc  D,   O,  S,  A,  B,  C,  D,  N,  U,   I,  E,  M, 

K. H,  ac( oidin;r  to  him,  is  derived  from  A  ;  P  from 

B  ;  T  from  D  ;  .and  K  from  U  :  ihcfc  are  all  called  di- 
minilhed  letters.  The  augmented  ones  are  Z  from  S; 
G  from  C  ;  \V  from  U  :  and  Y  from  I.  He  proves 
ihat  his  charafttrs  are  very  fnnirar  to  thofe  of  the  an- 
<  lent  Etrufcans :  but  all  charaili^ers  are  compofed  either 
of  lines  and  circles  of  the  former,  and  of  pans  of  the 
latter. — MrGcbelin  deduces  them  from  hieroglyphic 
rcprefentations,  and  has  given  fcveral  delineations  of 
human  figures,  trees,  &c.  in  confirmation  of  this  hypo- 
thefis. 

One  of  the  mod  fimple  alphabets  has  been  formed, 
by  making  two  perpendicular  and  two  horizontal  lines : 

a|b|c 
thus,     dlTf     frorf  which  may  be  de- 
g|h;i 
duced  nine  different  characters  or  letters  ;  _thus 
_a|  |_b  I  |c   T|    IJi  [L   11  1^1  I  '■ 


and  as  many  more  as  '_'   1    °  |  P    may    be    fufficicnt 


\\ 


23 


for  the  notation  of  any  language,  by  adding  two  or  more 
points  to  each  character.     1  hough  thefe  fquare  cha- 
rciters  arc  not  calculated  for  difpatch  ;  yet  they  may 
be  made  as  expe  itioully,  or  more  lo,  than  the  Tartar, 
the  Bramin,  the  Calliniirian,or  many  others.  Writing 
compofed  of  thefe  characters,  is  at  firft  fight  fomcwhat 
like  the  Hebrew  —  Mr  Dow,  author  of  the  Hiltory  of  NevTIan- 
Indoltan,  lately  formed  a  new  language  and  alphabet,  guage  in- 
This  language,  and  the  charatlcrs  formed  for  us  nota-  vented  by 
tion,werc  fo  eafy, that  a  female  of  his  acquaintance  ac-  Mr  Dow. 
quired  a  knowledge  of  them  in  three  weeks,  and  cor- 
rcfponded  with  him  therein  during  their  intimacy. 

ALPfl^-ENlX,  white  barley-fugar,  to  which  is  gi- 
ven an  extraordinary  name,  to  render  it  more  valuable. 
This  fugar,  which  is  thought  good  tor  colds,  is  made 
of  common  fagar,  which  is  boiled  until  it  becomes  eafy 
to  crack,  when  they  pour  it  upon  a  marble  tabic,  grca- 
fed  with  oil  of  fweet  almonds,  and  mould  it  into  va- 
rious figures  with  a  brafs  crotchet.  It  is  ealily  falli- 
fied  with  Itarch. 

ALPHERY  (Mikiphcr),  born  in  Rudia,  and  of 
the  Imperial  line.  When  that  country  was  torn  to 
pieces  by  inteflinequarrels, in  the  latterend  of  the  i6th 
century,  and  the  royal  houfe  particularly  was  fo  fe- 
verely  perfecuicd  by  inipoltors,  thisgcntleman  and  his 
two  brothers  were  lent  over  to  England,  and  recom- 
mended to  the  care  of  Mr  Jofeph  Bidell,  a  Rullla  mer- 
chant. Mr  Bidell,  when  ihcy  were  of  age  fit  for  the 
nniverlity,  fent  them  all  three  to  Oxford,  where  the 
fmall-poxunhippily  prevailing, twoof  them  died  of  it. 
We  know  not  whether  this  furviving  brother  took 
degrees  or  not,  but  it  is  very  probable  he  did,  fmce  he 
entered  into  holy  orders  ;  and  in  the  year  1618,  had 
the  rcitory  of  \V  ooley  in  Huntingtonihire,  a  living  of 
no  very  confiderable  value,  being  rated  at  under  L.io 
iu  the  king's  books.  Here  he  did  his  duty  with  great 
checrfulncfs  and  alacrity  i  and  although  he  was 
twice  invited  back  to  his  native  county  by  fome  who 
would  liavc  ventured  their  utmofl  to  have  fet  him  on 
the  throne  of  his  anceflors,  he  chufc  rather  to  re- 
main with  his  flock,  and  to  fcrve  God  in  the  humble 
ftaiion  of  a  parilh  prielt.  Yet  in  1643,  he  underwent 
the  feverefl  trials  from  the  rage  of  the  fanatics  ;  who, 
not  fatishcd  with  depriving  him  of  his  living,  infultcd 
him  in  the  moll  barbarous  manner  ;  for  having  procu- 
red a  file  of  mufqueteers  to  pull  him  out  of  his  pulpit, 
as  lie  was  preaching  on  a  Sunday,  they  turned  his  wife 
and  fmall  children  into  the  ftreet,  into  which  alfo  they 
threw  his  goods.  The  poor  man  in  this  diflrefsraifed 
him  a  tent  under  fome  trees  in  the  church-yard,  over 
againfl  his  houfe,  where  he  and  his  family  lived  for  a 
week.  One  day  having  gotten  a  few  eggs,  he  picked 
up  fome  rotten  wood  and  dry  flicks,  and  wi'h  thefe 
made  a  fire  in  the  cuurch-porch  in  order  to  boil  them  ; 
but  fome  of  his  advei  farics,  to  Ihow  how  far  they  could 
carry  their  rage  agaiuft  the  church,  for  this  poor  man 
v.'as  foharmlefs^theycould  have  none  againit  him,  came 
and  kicked  about  his  fire,  threw  down  his  fkillet,  and 
broke  his  eggs.  After  this,  having  Aill  a  little  money, 
he  made  a  fmall  purchafe  In  ihat  neighbourhood,  built 

him 


ALP 


him  al'.oufe,  and  lived  there  fomc  years 
couragcd  to  this  by  a  I'rcdyicriaii  niinifler  who  came 
in  his  room,  svlio  lioocftl/  paid  hiin  the  fifth  part  of 
'  the  annuitl  income  of  tht  Jiving,  which  was  the  allow- 
ance made  by  parliament  to  ejcttcd  ininiftcrs,  treated 
him  with  great  humanity,  and  did  Jiim  all  the  fcrviccs 
in  his  power.  It  is  a  great  misfortune  ihatthis  grntle- 
nian'snamcis  not  prcferved,  his  cond«tt<n  this  rcfped 
being  the  more  laudable,  bec«tufe  it  was  not  a  little  lin- 
gular. Afterwards,  probably  on  the  death  or  removal 
of  this  getitlcniazi,  Mr  Alpheryicft  Huntingdonlliire, 
and  came  and  rcfided  at  Hamuicrfuuth  till  the  RcfJo- 
raiion  put  him  in  polFellion  of  his  living  again.  He 
returned  on  this  occalion  to  Huiuingionlhire,  w  here 
he  did  not  (tay  long  ;  for  being  upwards  of  80,  and 
withal  very  intirm,  lie  could  not  perform  the  duties 
ot  his  function.  Having,  therefore,  fettled  a  curate,  he 
)  ctircd  to  his  eldeft  fou'shonfe  at  Hammcrfmith, where 
fliortly  after  he  died,  full  of  years  and  of  honour. 

ALPHEUS,  ^Strabo) ;  Alpheui,  (Ptolemy);  a 
noted  and  large  river  of  the  Peleponncfus  ;  which,  ri- 
ling in,  and  after  feveral  windings  running  through, 
Arcadia,  and  by  Olympia  in  Elis,  with  a  louth-wcll 
courfc,  pours  into  the  Sinus  Chelonitcs,  aLout  ten  miles 
to  the  fouth  of  Olympia.  It  has  a  common  fpring  with 
the  turotas,  at  the  foot  of  mount  Parthenius,  near  the 
village  Afea,  (Strabo.)  The  Alpheus  and  Eurotas 
mix  and  run  together  for  20  ftadia  ;  after  which,  they 
enter  a  futjcerrancouspaiTagc  atMantinea  ;  then  again 
emerge, the  Eurotas  in  Laconica,  and  the  Alpheusin  the 
lerritoryof Megalopolis, (Paufanias.)  Thepoets  fable 
flrangc  tilings  of  this  river  ;  particularly,  that,  out  of 
love  to  the  nymph  Arcthufa,  it  runs  under  the  fea  to 
Sicily,  and  burfls  out  at  the  fountain  of  that  name  in 
Syracufe,  (Virgil).  Its  waters  are  reckoned  good  in 
the  leprofy,  which  is  called  Ax^^n  by  the  Greeks;  and 

hence  the  name  Jliheus Paufanias  adds,  that  the 

Eleans  had  a  law,  which  condemned  any  woman  to 
death  that  ihould  either  appear  at  the  Olympic  games, 
or  even  crofs  this  river  during  that  folcmnity  :  and  the 
Eleans  add,  that  the  only  woman  who  tranlgrelfed  it, 
liaddifguifed  herftlf  in  the  habit  of  a  matter  or  keeper 
of  thefe  games,  and  conduftcd  her  fon  thither;  but 
■when  Ihefaw  him  come  off  viflorious,  her  joy  made 
her  forget  her  difgiiife,  fo  that  her  fcx  was  dilcovered. 
She  was  pardoned,  bin  from  that  time  a  law  was  made 
that  the  keepers  fliould  appear  there  naked. 

ALPHONSIN,  in  furgery,  an  inftrument  for  ex- 
trafiing  IniUets  out  of  jun-fhot  wounds.  This  iiiftru- 
meni  derives  its  name  from  the  inventor  A  Iphonl'iisKcr- 
rier,  aphyfician  of  Naples.  Iteoitiiftsof  three  branch- 
es, which  are  clofed  by  a  ring.  When  clofcd  and  in- 
troduced into  the  wound,  the  operator  drawsback  the 
ring  towards  the  handle,  upon  which  the  branches  o- 
pcningtake  hold  of  the  ball ;  and  then  the  ring  is  pulh- 
*d  from  ilic  haft,  by  which  means  the  branches  grafp 
the  ball  fo  tirmly,  as  to  extraft  it  from  the  wound. 

ALPrONSLSX.  king  of  Leon  and  Callilc,  fur- 
named  the  A\'  ifc,  was  author  of  the  aftronouiical  tables 
caWcA  yllphonfine.  Reading  of  Quintus  Ciiriius  gave 
him  fiich  dclight,that  it  recovered  himout  of  a  danger- 
ous illncfs.  He  read  the  Bible  fourteen  times,  wiih  fe- 
veral comments  on  it.  He  is  faid  to  have  found  fault 
with  the  llrudurcof  the  mundane  fyftem,  and  has  been 


[     499     ]  ALP 

He  was  en-  charged  w  ith  impiety  on  that  ftrore  ;  bet  unjaflly,  f  >r 
he  only  found  fault  with  the  involved  fyltcm  01  forac 
adronomers.  He  was  dethroned  by  his  fon  Suicho; 
and  died  of  grief,  A.  D.  1284. 

ALPINI  (Profpcro),  a  famous  pliyfician  and  bo- 
tanilt,  born  in  the  Venetian  territory,  ijn.  He 
travelled  in  Egypt  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  exotic 
plants,  and  was  the  (ir(l  who  exphincd  tlic  fruclilica- 
tion  and  generation  of  plants  by  the  fcxujl  fyltfm. 
Upon  his  return  to  Venice,  in  i  jS6,  Andrea  ivoria, 
prince  of  .Melli,  appointed  him  his  phylician:  and  he 
diftinguilhed  hiinfelf  fo  much  in  this  capacity,  that  h^- 
was  eltecmcd  the  tirll  phylician  of  his  age.  The  re- 
public of  Venice  began  to  be  uncaf/,  that  a  fubject  ot 
theirs,  of  fo  great  merit  as  Alpioi,  iho'ilJ  continue  at 
Genoa,  when  he  might  be  of  fo  much  ferv !ce  and  ho- 
nour to  their  Hate  :  they  therefore  recalled  him  in 
159?,  to  fill  tlic  profellorihip  of  botsny  at  Padua, 
and  he  had  a  falary  of  200  tiorins,  which  was  after- 
wards raifed  to  750.  He  difcharged  this  olfice  with 
great  reputation  ;  but  his  health  became  very  precari- 
ous having  been  much  broke  by  the  voyages  he  had 
made.  According  to  the  regiftcr  of  ihc  uuivcr/ity  of 
Padua,  he  died  the  5th  of  February  1617,  in  the  b^th 
year  of  his  age  ;  and  was  buried  the  day  aft«r,  without 

any  funeral  pomp,  in  the  church  of  St  Anthony Al- 

piiii  wrote  the  following  works  in  Latin  :  i.  Of  the 
phyficofthe  Egyptians,  in  four  books.  Printed  at  Ve- 
nice, iJ9i,in4to.  2.  A  treatife  conceraingthe  I'lants 
of  Egypt.  Printed  at  Venice,  IJ92,  in  410.  3.  A 
dialogue  concerning  balfams.  Printed  at  Venice,  IJ92, 
in  4to.  4.  Seven  books  concerning  the  method  of  lorm- 
ing  ajudgment  of  the  life  or  death  of  patients.  Piiat- 
cd  at  Venice,  1691,  in  410.  j.  Thirteen  Books  con- 
cerning methodical  Pliylic.  Padua,  161 1,  folio  ;  Ley- 
den,  1 719,  in  4to.  6.  A  Difputation  held  in  the  fchool 
at  Padua,  concerning  the  Raphontieum.  Padua,  1612, 
and  1629,  4to.  7.  Of  exotic  plants,  in  two  books.  Ve- 


Alpiilf, 
Alpinia. 


nice,  1699,  in  410.  He  left  feveral  other  works, w  hich 
have  never  been  printed  ;  particularly,8.Thc  fifth  bcok 
concerning  the  phyficofthe  Egypiians.  9.  Fivebook^ 
concerning  the  natural  biflory  of  things  obierved  in  E- 
gypt,  adorned  with  a  variety  of  draughts  of  plants, 
Roues,  and  animals. 

ALPINIA,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  the  monogy- 
nia  order,  belonging  to  the  inouaudria  clafs  of  plants  ; 
and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  Sth  or- 
der, ^c.7<jTO;«e<r.  The  charaetcrs  are  :  The  f<7/».v  is  a 
periinthiuni  above,  fuiall,  and  trilid  :  The  lorolla  is 
uiouoprtalous,  unequal,  and  as  if  doubled  :  They/<.;;ii- 
iia  coniiftof  one  filament,  with  linear anth^raejoining 
to  the  margin  :  The  />///.'/««.  has  a  roundilbgcrn-cn, 
beneath  ;  thcflylus  fimj  Ic,  andihefiiginaobiufcly  tri- 
gonous :  The  ferica< piiiv:  is  a  tlclliy  ovate  trilociilar 
capfule,  with  three  valves  :  The /I !./■  are  ovate,  an.l 
very  numerous ;  the  rccept.iculuu)  is  pulpy  and  vcrv 
large.  Ofthisgrnus  there  is  but  one  fpecics  which 
is  a  native  of  the  Weft  Indies,  where  itgrows  natur.Tlly 
in  moft  places.  The  leaves  decay  every  w  inter,  and 
are  puflted  out  from  the  roots  in  the  fj'ri^'g,  likr  the 
ginger  and  maranta  ;  fo  m';ft  be  managed  in  the  f;i!iic 
m  inner  as  dirccled  for  thefe  two  plants,  and  may  be 
propagated  by  parting  the  roots  when  the  leaves  de- 
cay. 

3R2  ALPiSTE, 


Alpiftc, 

Alps. 


A  L  P  [ 

.Lri'.ir.,   or  -Alima,  a  fort  <i  Iced  iiliil  to  l'< 


id 


birds  vviiii,  cl'pccihlly  wlicii  they  arc  to  be  iionrillud 

'  for  brceoiiig.     TJit  .ili^iltc  fctrdisof  all  oval  tigiire,  of 

a  palt:  yellow,  ir.iliniiii;  to  an  ilabtl  colour,  briulit  and 

^gloify.  Jt  is  an  article  of  the  coni-cliandkrsaiid  fccdf- 

iiieiis  tric'.e. 

ALFii  (anc.  gcog.),:i  range  ofliigli  nicuiituiriS,  fc- 
p.'.rjtiug  Italy  lioii\  ».>aul  aiul  Oi  rmaiiy,  in  ilic  ionn  of 
a  crcfcciit.  J  hey  ukc  their  nit  Ivom  the  Vada  Sab.i- 
tia,  or  SavoHa  -,  ami  rcnch  to  the  biaus  r'lanaticus  (now 
Golfu  di  Carnaroof  the  Adriatic),  and  the  firings  of 
the  river  Colapis  (now  the  Kulpe);  exttnoing, accord- 
ing to  Livy,  21.0O  ihidii  in  lengih.or  250  milts:  they 
are  divided  ijito  federal  ('arts,  and  accorningly  have 
liiiTcrent  names.  FroinSavoiiato  thcfpriugsot  tiie  Va- 
rus, where  the  Alps  lie  aj;ai:ift  the  fca  of  o^noa,  they 
arc  called  Alai  itii/.a , now  le  JMoniii^iii:  di '/ tv/r/rt.rbclc 
cxtesul  from  I'ouihto  north,  between  Gaul  to  the  well, 
and  Genoa  to  the  eall,  beginuinj;  at  Monacooii  the  Me- 
diterranc.?«i  ;  then  running  out  tluo"  theeaflof  the 
county  cf  Nice,  and  between  thst  and  the  inarquifaie 
ofSaluzzo, terminate  atltngth  at  mount  Vila,  bilwceii 
Dauj-'iine  and  Piedmont.  He.icc  toSufarun  the  v^//>*/ 
Ccttiic  (Sue<oi)  )  ;  Ci'.tar,^  (Ta-.itus)  ;  mountains  ex- 
tremely hig;i,l;paraungDau(ihiiie  from  rieumont,ajui 
extending  from  inoiiiu  Vifo  to  Mount  Cciiis,  between 
the  /llfcs  M<f-t:n:.t  to  the  fouth,  and  the  Gra'tx  to 
the  north.  The  /ii['Ci  Citii.r  (Pliny),  fu  called  from 
tacpa(rageofHerculcs,btgin  from  mount  Cenis, where 
the  Coit!ie  terminate  ;  and  runout  between  Savi;y  ar.d 
thcTarcniefctoihewell,  and  Piedmont  and  the  Dr.che 
d'Aoiirtc  to  the  eaft,  quite  to  the  Great  St  Bernard, 
where  the  ^-Jlpes  Penui/nt  begin.  Tlicy  arc  alio  called 
by  fome  Crai.e  Aifci,  and  Grains  Mons  ( I  acitus)  ; 
which  extend  frc^n  weft  to  eaft,  between  St  Bernard 
and  the  Aduh,  or  St  Godart ;  and  tlius  they  run  cut 
between  the  Valefc  to  the  north,  and  the  Milanefe  to 
the  fouth.  With  thefe  are  conliaucd  the  A^pes  Klae- 
tic.e,  to  the  head  of  the  river  Piave  ;  part  of  which 
arc  the  ^ipfs  Triikntiiur,  to  the  north  of  Trent.  To 
thefe  join  ihe  Alpti  .^oric^,  reaching  to  Uoblaeh  in 
Tyrol,  to  the  nurth  of  the  river  Tajamcnto:  ihcncc 
begin  the  W/p^j  Cartuca,  or  of  Ciirmr.iit,  extending  to 
thefpriiiii^ofthc  Savt;:  and  tlie  la:^, called,  /Jipcs  t  an- 
r:5;;/f<r,r.lid  jv/;.r,  extend  to  the  firings  of  the  Kulie. 
Some,  however,  extend  ihcAlps  to  the  north  of  Dal- 
matii ;  others,  again,  to  Tlirace  and  the  Euxine.  fjut 
their  termination  at  the  Kulpc,  as  above,  i?  more  ge- 
nerally received.  They  were  formerly  called  yiV^;>j, and 
yjlpiiniu  (Sirabo).  Through  ihcfc  mountains  Hannibal 
forced  his  palfagc  into  Italy,  by  pouring  vinegir  on 
the  rock,  heated  by  burning  liri^e  piles  of  wood  on 
them,  by  which  means  they  bceo.nie  crumbled  (Livy). 
They  arc  covered  with  perpetual  fnow. 

The  Alps  arc  the  higheft  mountains  in  Europe  ; 
being,  according  to  fome  geometririnns,  about  two 
miles  in  perpcndi'-ular  hcig.'t.  They  begin  at  the  Me- 
diterranean i  and  ftretching  northward,  feparatePied- 
nont  ;ind  Savoy  from  the  adjacent  couiurits;  whence 
dirciliiig  tlieir  courfc  to  :he  eaft,  they  form  the  boun- 
dary between  Switzerland  and  Italy,  and  terminate 
near  the  extremity  of  the  Adriaic  Sea,  r.orth-eafl  of 
Venice.  It  was  over  the  weftcrn  part  of  tbofe  moun- 
tains, tov^ards  Piedmont,  that  Hannibal  forced  his 
palfagc  into  Ita'y. 


o     ]  A  L  P 

The  jirofpeel  from  many  parts  of  tl.is  nicnncns 
range  of  mount. ins  is  exireniely  romanti:,  cfpecially  ' 
towards  ihc  uortii-well.  One  ol  the  moll  eclcbraicd 
is  thcGrande  Charirtui'c,  wLtre  is  a  inotu.;ery  found- 
ed by  St  Bruno  abmit  the  year  io':'4.  I'rai;!  Lchellc."!, 
a  little  \illjge  iii  the  mo'jmaiii.s  of  Savoy,  to  the  top 
of  the  Charirtufc,  the  diitaiicc  h  lix  miles.  Along  this 
courfe  the  road  runs  winding  up,  lor  the  niuit  pait 
not  fix  feci  bro^d.  On  one  hand  is  the  rock,  with 
woods  of  pine  trees  hanging  over  hcid  ;  on  the  other 
a  prodigious  precipice  alniod  pcrpcnditular ;  at  thi 
bottom  of  which  rolls  a  torrent,  tk.ir,  funictimcs  iiim- 
biing  among  the  fragments  i^f  (tone  which  hive  talieu 
from  on  high,  and  Ijiiittinies  precipitating  iifelf  down 
vail  defccnts  with  a  noifc  like  thunder,  rendered  yet 
more  tremendous  by  the  echo  from  the  r.:ountains  on 
each  fide,  concurs  10  form  one  of  the  moll  fuiemn,  ihc 
moll  romantic,  and  molt  allonifiiiiig  fccnesin  nature. 
To  thii  dcfcription  may  be  added  ihc  llrange  view* 
made  by  the  craggs  and  cliffs,  and  the  numerous  caf- 
cades  which  throw  themfelvcs  from  the  very  fuw^mit 
down  into  the  vale.  On  the  tup  of  the  moutain  is 
the  convent  of  St  Bruno,  which  is  the  fiperior  of  the 
whole  order.  The  inhabitants  confiliof  too  fathers, 
with  300  fervants,  who  grind  thiir  corn,  prefs  their 
wine,  and  perform  every  domellic  oirice,  even  to  tlic 
making  of  their  cloilies.  In  the  AUuim  of  the  fathers 
is  admired  an  alcaic  ode,  wriuen  by  the  late  ingeniou's 
Mr  Gray  when  he  vilitcd  the  Ch  ntrcufe,  and  wh.icli 
has  lince  been  publilhed  among  his  works. 

The  glaciers  of  Savoy  arcalfojufllyreckonedamong 
the  nioft  flupendous  works  of  naiurc.  Thefe  are  ini- 
menfe  maliesot  ice,  lodged  upon  the  geniler  declivities 
amidll  the  Alps,  and  exhibiting  reprtfciuatioiis  be- 
yond coiKcption  fantaltic  and  piiturefqnc.  In  the 
extraordinary  narrative  ofMrBourrit's  journey  hither, 
V.  e  meet  w  iih  the  follow  ing  account  of  the  Prieure,  in 
the  valliy  of  Cliamouni.  V\  e  had,  fays  he,  the  mag- 
niriccnt  prolpedl  of  a  cliain  of  muumains,  equally  in- 
acccllible,  and  covered  with  ice  ;  and  above  the  reft 
that  of  Mount  Blanc,  whofe  top  fecir.cd  to  reach,  and 
even  pierce,  the  highell  region  df  the  clouds.  The 
chnin  upon  v/hich  this  mountain  looks  down  like  a 
giant,  is  compofed  of  n-.aii'esof  rocks,  which  tern:inatc 
in  pikes  or  l"i)ires,  called  the  At-cZ-t-j,  and  which  are 
ranged  like  ttnisin  a  camp.  Their  fidesappear  lighter 
and  more  airy,  from  the  ornament  of  feveral  hollow 
breaks  and  furrow  s  fretted  in  the  rock  itftlf,  as  well 
as  from  tlie  different  llreaks  and  ))anesiif  ice  and  fnow, 
which, withoutehanging  (he  general  tharaCler  of  their 
form,  or  the  majefty  of  their  appearance,  give  them  a 
piciurefque  variety.  Lower  down,  the  eye  furveys 
witli  ravilhment  the  hills  of  ice,  and  the  feveral  gla- 
ciers, extending  almofl  into  the  plain,  whiill  this  ap- 
pear? like  an  artificial  garden,  en'.bellillied  with  the 
mixture  of  a  variety  of  colours.  Wc  IiavcapiOturtfque 
oppolition  to  this  chain,  which  is  formed  by  innumer- 
able mountains  at  the  dillance  of  near  50  leauucs,  be- 
tween whofe  tops  we  have  a  glimplc  of  thofe  feveral 
plains  which  ihey  environ. 

M.  de  Sauliure,  who  h.id  vifiied  thofe  mountain."; 
about  two  months  before  M.  Kourrit,  felt  hiir.fclf  na- 
turally clei-iriiied  in  this  place.  This  extraordinary 
phenomenon  fccms  not  to  have  been  experienced  by 
the  latter  or  hisconipany  ;  but  they  heard  a  loii'g-eon- 

nued 


ALP 


[     501     J 


A  L  P 


Alp*,      tinucd  riimbling^noife,  like  tli^t  of  thunder,  which 

— >.( 'was  rendcrffl  ir.orc  iwful  by  the  filence  oftiie  place 

^vlicrc  tiicy  ftocJ.  '1  his  iioilt  procecdcj  froni  iht  f'J)- 
fequcnt  csufcs,  viz.  thcaval.inchtsof  fiiow,  v^hich  le- 
paratcd  from  the  tops  of  the  n\our.tai.i,  and  rolled 
down  to  the  bottom  ;  confidcrAble  frao;mcnis  of  tlic 
rocks  which  followed  thcm.ovcnurnin<;  others  in  tScir 
fall ;  ami  mally  blocks  of  ice,  which  precipitsicd  ironi 
-the  fdiiinii  s.       * 

The  Villey  of  Montanv<rt  appears  to  be  peculiarly 
romantic.  Here,  fays  M.  Bourrit,  webchclJ  aipici- 
ous  icy  plain  entirely  level'.  Upon  this  there  role  a 
moiiui  ill  all  of  ice,  with  fteps  afcentii.ig  to  the  top, 
wiiicli  fecincd  the  ihroncof  foinc  diviiii:y.  Itlikcwii'c 
■took  the  lorm  of  a  j);ra;id  cafcade,  whofc  tinire  was  be- 
yond coiicepiioQ  bcaiuiful  ;  and  the  fun,  which  (lioiie 
upon  it,  {);svca  fpjrkling  brilliance  to  the  svholc.  Tlie 
viUcy  on  our  right  hand  was  ornamented  with  proui- 
gioiis  glaciers,  that,  Ihaoiinu  up  to  an  immeafurable 
height  between  the  mountains,  blend  their  colours 
with  the  Ikics,  whichihey  appear  to  reach. 

Alps,  befidcs  its  proper  (io;nilicaiion,  by  which  it 
denotes  a  certain  chain  of  mountains  which  feparatc 
It.ly  froiu  Krance  and  Germany,  is  frequently  ufed  as 
an  appcll.uive  to  denote  any  moimtaiiis  of  cxtr^orc'i- 
nary  height  or  extenfive  range.  In  thii  feufc,  Aufo- 
niiis  and  others  call  tlic  Pyrenean  mbuntains,  Aipt  ; 
and  Gcllius  the  Spanilh  Alps,  Aipmi  Il'fiaii'.. 

Kcnrc  alfo  wc  fay,  the  Biitijh  Aips,  the  jifaitc 
jlips,  the  j^ips  of  America. 

The  ici^yZ' ////*/ terminate  in  a  moil  fiiLHre  and 
abrupt  manner,  at  the  great  promint.iry  the  /'.ItaRipa 
of  Ptolemy,  the  Ci/i/or  .7frd,i.e.  ihc  hc.-gh.ofCuitfuie/i. 
Theupptrpart  iscoverci,'.  withgloomy  licath;thelow- 
erisa  liiipendous  pre  ipice. excavated  into  vaftcavcrns 
the  haunt  of  feal.'iudditfercntfca  fowl.  Onthccaftern 
fide  of  the  kingdom,  this  lithe  itrikii'g  termination  of 
the  vail  motiniai.  s  of  i>co  land  which  ironi  its  High- 
lands, the  habitation  of  the  ori;jinal  inhabitans,  driven 
from  their  aiitieni  fetts  ov  the  anreilors  of  Lowland 
Scots,  dcfcendants  of  baxons,  French,  and  Norman*  ; 
congenerous  with  the  tngUfli,  yet  abfuriily  and  ir.\i- 
dioiidy  dillinguiDicd  from  them.  Lan^ua^e,  as  well 
as  flriking  natural  boundaries, mark  their  place.  Their 
mountains ficeon  tiie  weilthe  Ailan^c ocean  ;  winda- 
Icngthe  weft  of  Caithnefs,  amougwhivli  Mcrvcrnaiul 
Sc?.raben,Ben-Kop  a:id  Ben-l.ng:il,arife  pre-eminent. 
Sutherland  is  entirely  Alpine, as  arc  Rofslhire  and  In- 
vcrnefslhire.  Their  6.'//,',/«.<  Aipes  are,McalFoiirvou- 
nich,  the  Coryarich,Benewilh,and  Bcncvidi  iiearFort- 
Wdliamjthe  laftof  which  is  reported  to  be  14,-0  yards 
in  height.  Gre.it  part  of  Abcrdeenfiiire  lies  in  this 
traiil.  It  boafts  of  another  Morvern,  foaring  far  be- 
yond the  others.  This  is  the  centre  of  the  Grampian 
iiills,  and  perhaps  the  higheft  from  the  fea  of  any  in 
Great  Britain.  They  a^sin  comprehend  the  eallern 
part  ofPcrLhlhir6,and  linilhonthe  magniiicient  ihnres 
of  Lochlomond,  on  the  eaO.crn- lide  of  which  Fcn- 
lomonj  rifes,  diding'iiihed  among  its  fellows.  From 
hence  the  relief  north  Brit^iin  forms  a  chain  of  hum- 
bler hills  ;  but  in  Ciunbcrl.'.nd,  part  of  Wcftmorchnd, 
Yorklhire,  Lancailiire,  and  Uerbydiirc,  the  .^Ips  rc- 
fnme  their  former  majcfty.  .\longand  tame  interval 
fucceeds.  The  longfuHime  crack  of  Wales  arifcs.  the 
ancient  poflelfionof  the  ancic.-jr  BritiCiracc.  From  the 


Ord,  the  gnat  mountains  recede  inland,  and  Icivc  a     A:ii. 

vaft  fiat  baween  their  bafes  and  the  fea,  f roiiiing  the   ^- 

,w^vc5  with  a  fcries  of  lolly  rocky  precipices,  as  tar  as 
jhc  little  creek  cf  Staxigo  ;  the  whole  a  bold,  but 
mofl  inbofi-iiabic  fliorc  for  Ciippi:'g.  Wick  and  Max- 
igo  h.ivc  i.)dccd  their  creths,  or  rather  chafms,  w  bieh 
open  between  the  cllrfs,  and  may  accidentally  prove 
a  reticat,  uiiiefsi;;  an  c;-.jlcrn  gilc. 

Tb  e  /Ijiatie  y-ZZ/j  arc  delcribc  under  the  articles  Al- 
TAIQ  ij/ij/nand  Wkktvrias  hlour.tuins. 

The  Amtruan  Aipt  arc,  The  An  des  or  CordHUras, 
in  South  nuicrica;  a.iJthc  Ap.aiaciuas  or  .^//ir^a/y 
juountains,  ia  North  America. 

The  highfrll  gi..ui:dia  North  Amcri-ais  placed!/ 
Captain  Carver  in  lat.  57^  v,c/t  loug.  from  Lond  9*^'^ 
bctwce.ia  like  from  which  the  Oregon  flows,  and  a- 
nother  called  IVJuH-lnur  Lakcy  from  which  jrifes  the 
Aijiiiiippi. 

This  exal:ed  Ctuation  is  pa  .tof  ihe  .Slvining  Moun- 
tains, which  arc  branchesof  the  vail ch.»i;i  which  per- 
vades the  v.liolc  coi;linent  ot  America.  It  may  bi; 
fairly  taken  from  :ht  foiithernexircmity,whereSt.iten 
Laud  and  Terra  del  Fuego  rife  out  of  the  fea  as  infu- 
lated  liiiks  to  ar.  i:i.i::cnfc  hciglit,  black,  rocky,  and 
marked  withrug'^ed  Ipiry  toj's,  freq  leiitly  covcreJ 
with  fnow.  New  Geor^;!.!  m.iy  be  adJed  as  another 
horriblycongen;al,ri!iiig  detached  farther  to  theeai>.  - 
The  !nount.iir.s  about  tlie  Tiraits  of  Magrllaii  fear  to 
an  amazing  height,  and  indr.itely  fjpericr  to  taofc  of 
the  northern  hemifphcre  under  the  fame  degree  of  K- 
titudc.  From  the  north  lidc  of  the  Str.:its  of  Mr.- 
gtllan,  they  form  acontinued  chain  through  ihelut!^- 
doms  of  Chili  and  Peru,  prefervinga  courfe  net  re- 
mote from  tlie  Pacific  Orean.  The  fumn^'ts,  in  n;any 
places,  are  the  highcil  Li  the  world.  There  are  not 
lefs  than  12,  which  are  from  j-jootoifcs  high  toabove 
3000.  Pichincha,  wich  impends  over  (Xiito,  is  about 
35leagues  from  the  fea;  and  itsfummitii  24:o:oircs 
above  the  furface  of  the  water.  Cayambe,  immedi- 
ately under  the  eq  Jator,  is  above  3C00  ;  and  Cbimbo- 
Tizo  higher  than  the  lall  by  200.  Mo/l  of  them  have 
been  vokaiiic,  andin  diflcrcntages  marked  with  erup- 
tions farmorc  horiible  than  have  been  known  inothc- 
quarters  of  thcg!obc.  They  cx'end  from  the  equator 
through  Chiii;  in  which  kingdom  is  a  range  of  volca- 
noes, from  lat.  26.  fouth,  to  4J.  :o.  and  poinbly  from 
thcneeintoTerra  del  Fuegoiifelf:  which,  formingthc 
Straits  of  Magellan,  may  have  been  rent  from  :he  con- 
tinent by  fonie  great  convullio:i,  occafioned  by  their 
hbourings;  and  .New  Georgia  forced  up  from  the  fame 
caufe.  An  unparalleled  extent  of  pi  lin  appears  on 
their  eallern  lidc.  The  river  of  Amazons  runs  along 
a  level  clojihcd  with  forells,  after  it  burfts  from  its 
conrincment  at  the  Pongo  of  Borjas,  till  it  reaches  its 
fca-!ikc  difcharge  into  the  Atl»ntic  Ocean. 

Inthenortnern  hemifphere,  the  Andes pafs through 
the  narrow  lllhnuis  of  Darien  into  the  kingdom  of 
Mexico,  aud  prcfcrve  a  msjerti'.-  height  and  their  vol- 
canic diffoiiiioa.  The  nioimtain  Popocatcpec  mcdc 
a  violent  eruption  during  the  expcdiiionof  Coricz, 
whichismoftbeautifuilydcfcribedby  his  hillorian  An- 
tonio de  Soils.  This,  polFibiy,  is  the  fame  with  the 
volcano  obfcrved  by  the  ."^bbe  d'Au:erochc,  in  his  way 
from  Vera  Cruz  to  Mexico  ;  which,  fron»  the  nakcd- 
nefs  of  the  lav-ts,  he  coajeftjreJio  have  been  b  ut  late- 
ly 


ALP 


[     502     ] 


ALP 


Alps,  ly  extinguilhcd.  From  the  kin|^joni  of  Mexico,  ihis 
Alpuxarras  chain  is  continued  northward,  niid  to  ihc  cafl;  of  Cali- 
''  V—  foriiia  ;  then  verges  i\>  gieutly  towards  the  weft,  as  to 
lrs\  c  a  very  inconlidcrablt  (pace  between  it  and  the 
Pacific  O  can  ,  and  frequently  dctaclied  branches  jut 
into  the  fea,  and  form  promontories ;  which,  with 
parti  of  I  he  chain  itfclf,  were  often  fecu  by  our  navi- 
gators in  tlic  courfe  of  their  voyage.  Some  branches, 
as  we  have  before  obfcrvej,  extend  towards  the  eaft, 
but  not  to  any  great  dillanee.  A  plain,  rich  in  woods 
and  favannas,! warming  with  blloasorbutialoes,  ftags, 
flttd  Virgiivian  deer,  with  bears,  and  great  variety  of 
game  occupies  an  amazing  trad,  from  the  great  lakes 
of  Canada,  as  low  as  the  Oulph  of  Mexico  ;  and  caft- 
ward  to  the  other  great  chain  of  mountains,  the  Apa- 
la-hiau,  which  are  the  Alps  of  that  tide  of  northern 
America.  Its  comnienccincnt  is  fuppofed  to  be  about 
Lake  Champlain  and  Lake  Gtorge,  with  branches 
pointing  obliquely  to  the  river  Sc  Laurance  calhvard, 
and  riling  en  its  oppolitc  coafts  ;  others  extending 
with  lowering  progrcfs,  even  into  Nova  Scotia.  The 
main  chain  palfcs  through  iheilatc  of  New  York, 
where  itisdidinguiflied  by  the  name  of  the  Highhiidt, 
4nd  lies  within  40  miles  of  the  Atlauiic.  From 
ihcnce  it  recedes  from  the  fea,  in  proportion  as  it 
.advances,  fouthward  ;  and  near  itscxtreniiiy  in  fouth 
Carolina  is  300  miles  dilhntfrom  the  water.  It  con- 
iills  of  fcveral  parallel  ridges,  divided  by  mofb  in- 
chanting  vallies  and  generally  cloathcd  with  a  vari- 
ety of  woods.  Thefe  ridges  rile  gradually  from  the 
call,  one  above  the  other,  to  the  central ,  from  uhich 
they  gradually  fall  to  the  well,  into  the  vail  plains 
of  the  Aliihffippi.  The  middle  ridge  is  of  an  enor- 
mous bulk  and  height.  The  whole  extends  in  breadth 
about  70  miles  ;  a'-d  in  many  places  leaves  great 
chafms  for  the  difcharges  of  the  vailand  numerous 
rivers  which  rife  in  the  bofmns  of  the  mountains, 
and  empty  themfelves  into  the  AtlantieOcean,  af- 
ter yielding  a  matchltl's  navigaiion  to  the  provinces 
they  water. 

JJeyond  the  branch  of  the  Apalachian  mountains 
called  Thi  Endhfi,  is  another  of  amazing  extent, 
nearly  as  high  as  the  mountains  themfelves.  This 
plain  (called  the  Upper  Jiaiui)  is  exceedingly  rich 
land  ;  begins  at  the  Mohock's  River  ;  reaches  to 
■wi;hin  a  fmall  uillauce  of  Lake  Ontario  ;  and  to 
the  weftward  forms  part  of  the  cxienlive  plaip.s  of 
the  Ohio,  a  id  reaches  tn  an  unknown  diftance  be- 
yond the  Miallippi.  Vail  rivers  take  their  rife,  and 
fall  toevery  puintof the  compafs  ;  into  Lake  Ont;irio, 
into  Hudfon's  River,  and  into  the  Delaware  and  Suf- 
quehanna.  The  tideof  the  Hudfon's  River  flows  thro' 
its  deep-worn  bed  f,\r  up,  even  to  within  a  fmall  di- 
ftance of  the  hc.'d  of  the  Delaware;  which,  after  a  fu- 
ijous  courfe  down  a  long  de fccnt,  intcrrui>tfd  with  ra- 
pids, tr-.eeis  the  tide  not  very  remote  froniiisdil'charge 
into  the  o'jcan. 

ALPUXARRAS,  or  Ai.paxares,  mountains  of 
Spain,  in  ihe  Province  of  Granada,  on  the  Coaftof  the 
Mediterranean  fea.  They  arc  about  17  leagues  in 
kn;jth,  and  11  in  breadth,  reaching  from  the  city  of 
Veiez  toAlmeria.  They  are  inhabited  by  Moors,  who 
are  the  remains  of  the  difperiion  and  ruin  of  their  em- 
pire. I  hey  embraced  the  Chriftiau  religion  ;  biitper- 
icrve  their^own  manner  ofliving,  and  their  language. 


though  much  corrupted.  Here  is  a  rivulet  between 
PitrosandPortugos,  which  dyes  linen  tiiat  is  dipped  in 
it.blackin  aninllant.  Near  this  rivulet  is  a  cavern,  from 
which  proceeds  fo  malignant  a  fleam,  that  it  deflroys 
fuch  animals  as  come  near  it.  The  Morifeos  culti- 
vate the  foil  extremely  well, and  plant  fruit-trees,  fomc 
of  which  grow  to  a  prodigious  licight  and  thicknefs, 
and  give  the  mouniains  a  very  agreeable  afpett. 

ALQUIER,  a  liquid  mcafurc,  nfcd  Ln  Portugal  10 
mcafurc  oil,  two  of  which  make  aa  aliuoiij.  Hce 
Almond. 

ALQjUlKOU,  or  Ar(j_uifoi',  is  a  fort  of  lead  ore, 
which,  when  broken,  looks  like  antimony,  it  is  ufed 
by  the  potters  to  give  a  green  varnilh  to  their  works, 
and  thence  is  called  potter's  ore.  It  is  met  with  in 
Cornwall,&c.  Thcpottersmix  a  fmall  portion  of  nian- 
ganefe  with  the  alquifou,  and  then  the  varnilh  of  gla- 
zing on  their  ware  is  of  a  blackilh  hue. 

ALREDUS,  Alurf.d,  or  Alurepus,  of  Bever- 
ley, one  of  the  moftancicnt  andbeft  i-ngliflibiftorians. 
He  wrote  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  1  here  are  no  eir- 
cumflances  of  hi:)  life  known  with  any  degree  of  cer- 
tainty. It  is  generally  believed  that  he  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  and  that  he  aftrrwards  became  one  of 
the  canons  and  treafurerof  St  John's  at  IJevcrley.  And 
we  learn  in  a  noteof  billiop  Tanner's,  that,  lor  the  fake 
of  improvemen.he  travelled  through  Prance  and  Italy; 
and  that  at  Rome  he  became  domel'tic  chaplain  to  car- 
dinal Othoboni.  He  died  in  the  year  1 1 2S  or  1 1 29  ; 
leaving  behind  him  the  following  works  :  i.  T/>e  ^«- 
7:als  of  y^iured  ijf  Biverley.  Oxford,  1726.  Publilhed 
by  Mr  Hearne,  from  a  manufcript  belonigng  to  Tho- 
mas Rawlinfon,  Elq.  It  contains  an  abridgment  of  the 
hiftory  from  Brutus  to  Henry  I.  written  in  good  La- 
tin ;  and  with  great  accuracy.  2.  Libertata  ecclejix 
St  Johaiinis  de  Beverlac,  &c.  a  manufcript  in  the  Cot- 
ton library.  It  is  a  eoUeftion  of  records  relative  to 
the  church  at  Beverley,  tranflated  by  our  author  from 
the  Saxon  language.  The  BiographiaBritannica  evi- 
dently proves  thefe  to  be  all  that  were  written  by  Aire* 
dus. 

ALRESFORD,atownof  Hampfliire,  featedon  the 
road  from  London  to  Southampton,  clofe  by  the  river 
Itching,  which  feeds  a  great  pond  to  the  left  of  the 
town.  Part  of  a  Roman  highway  runs  from  thence  to 
Alton.  It  is  areftory,  with  the  mciiety  of  Old  Aires- 
ford,  of  L./19:  12:  8  in  the  king's  books.  It  conlifls  of 
about  200  houfes;  has  one  church,  two  principal  llrects, 
which  are  large  and  broad;  and  a  fmall  manufadure 
of  linfcys. 

ALSA,ariverof  Carniola(Pliny),nowthey//(/</;  run. 
ningby  Aquileia  with  a  fliort  courfe  from  north  to  fouth, 
into  the  Adriatic  ;  where  Conflantine,  the  fon  of  Con- 
flantine  the  Great,  fighting  againft  ConftansbisbrQ- 
ihcr,  loil  his  life. 

ALSACE, a  province  of  France, bounded  on  the  eaft 
by  the  Rhine, on  ihe  fouth  by  Swiflerland,  onthcweft 
by  Lorrain,  and  on  the  north  by  the  palatinate  of  the 
Rhine.  It  was  formerly  a  part  of  Germany,  but  was 
given  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Munder.  It  is  one  of 
the  mofi:  fruitful  and  plentiful  provinces  of  Europe, 
abounding  in  corn,  wine,  wood,  tiax,  tobacco,  pnlfe, 
fruits,  &c.  The  mountains  which  divide  it  from  Lor- 
rain arc  very  bigb.andgenerally  covered  with  tirbeech, 
oak,  and  horn  beam.  Tbofeon  the  lide  of  Swifferland 

are 


A  L  S 


[     503     J 


A  L  S 


are  lefs  MgL  ;  and  funiiflicd  with  all  forts  of  wood,  as 
wcllfor  fuel  as  building.  The  country  iifclf  is  di  vcrliticd 
with  rifmg  hills  and  fertile  v^lcs,  bclidcs  Urge  forells  ; 
but  that  between  the  rivers  111,  Han,  and  the  Rhine,  as 
farasStrafburgh.is  inferiorto  the  rcll,oii  account  of  the 
frequent  over/lowing  of  the  Rhine.  In  High  Alfacc 
there  are  mines  of  111  ver,  copper,  and  lead.  'Ihcy  how- 
ever vvork  none  but  thole  of  (jiroinaiiy, from  which  are 
annually  drawn  i6oonurksof  filver,  each  niarkbcing 
eight  ounces;  and  24,ooopouuds  of  copper:  but  the  ex- 
pence  of  working  them  is  alinoA  equal  to  the  profit. 
There  are  iron-works  in  fcveral  parrs  of  Alfacc,  and 
particularly  at  Bctford.  There  is  a  mineral  fpringai 
Sultlbach,  near  Muiiltcr,  in  High  Alface  ;  which  is  in 
great  reputation  for  the  palfy,weaknefs  of  the  ..erves, 
and  the  gravel. —  1  he  original  iwhabitantsot  Alfacc  arc 
lionelt  and  good-  uatureoi  but  wedded  tu  their  own  man- 
ners and  cuuonis.  The  Jruitlulnefs  of  their  country 
renders  them  indolent  and  inactive  ;  forthebwifsmakc 
their  hay  and  reap  their  corn,  as  well  as  manage  the 
vintage  of  High  AUace,  which  fends  a  great  deal  of 
money  out  of  the  province.  The  common  language  is 
the  German  :  however,  the  better  foi  t  of  people  fpeak 
French  in  the  towns  ;  and  even  in  the  country,  they 
fpeak  French  well  enough  to  be  uudcrllood. 

ALSEN,  an  iiland  of  Denmark  in  the  leiTcr  Belt, 
or  entrance  into  the  bilticfia,  be.ueen  Slefwick  and 
Funen.  It  is  remarkable  for  nothing  except  two  caftles, 
and  producing  large  crops  of  aniiceds,  a  carminative 
much  ufed  in  feafoning  the  foo.i  and  mixing  with  the 
bread  all  over  the  Danilh  Dominions.  E.  Long.  10.  12. 
N.  Lat.  55.  12. 

ALSb'IKLD,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  landgra- 
viatc  of  Helfe  Caftle,  ten  miles  north-weft  ofMarpurg, 
and  35  fouth  of  Hellc  Caftle.  it  is  an  ancient  town, 
and  well  built  ;  and  tlic  inhabitants  were  the  firft  of 
this  country  who  embraced  the  Reformation.  E.  Long. 
9.  5.  N.  Lat.  50.  40. 

ALSHASH,  a  very  beautiful  city  in  Bucharia, 
fuppofed  to  be  the  fame  with  that  which  is  now  called 
Tajhcaiit,  the  capital  of  the  eaftcrn  part  of  Turkeltan, 
poUcfTed  by  the  KalTals.  It  is  lituatcd  on  the  river  i/- 
huii,  now  Sir,  and  had  a  well  watered  garden  for  every 
houfc  ;  but  was  ruined  by  Jcnghiz  Khan,  who  took 
ihe  city,  and  caufed  a  great  number  of  its  inhabitants 
to  be  matfacred. 

ALSHEDA,  a  pari(h  of  Swede;;,  in  the  province 
of  Smaland,  where  a  gold  mine   was  difcovcrtd  in 

173>- 

ALSINA,  in  botany,  a  fynoniiwe  of  the  theligo- 
num.     Sec  Theligosmjm. 

ALSINASTRUM,  in  botany,  the  trivial  name  and 
•ilfo  a  fyiionimc  of  the  elatiye.     Sec  Elatine. 

ALSINE,  or  Ch  ickwked:  A  genus  of  the  trigynia 
order,  belonging  toihe  pentandria  cl.u's  of  plants  ;  and, 
in  the  natural  method,  ranking  under  the  22d  order, 
Gaiyoph)lid.  The  characUrs  arc  :  The  calyx  is  quin- 
quephyllous  :  The  corolia  conlifts  of  live  equal  petals, 
longer  than  the  calyx  :  The  pamina  confift  of  five  ca- 
pillary filaments  ;  the  antherae  arc  roandilh  :  Thc/>/- 
Jlilluvt  has  an  oval  gcrnicn,  three  tiliforni  lly  li,  and  ob- 
tufe  (ligmata  :  The  fencui fium  is  an  ovate  unilocular 
capfulc,  with  three  valves  :  The  fecdt  art  roundilh  and 
numerous.  Of  this  genus  a  grrut  number  of  Ipecics 
are  enumerated  by  fouje  botanical  writtrs  ;   but  none 

I 


of  them  poflcfs  any  remarkable  properties,  except  the 
media,  or  common  chickwecd,  with  white  blollbn.s, 
which  is  fo  well  known  as  to  need  no  particular  de- 
fcription. — Tliis  fpecics  aifurds  a  jiotable  inftance  of 
what  is  called  \.\\t  p-if  i,j  flauis  :  for,  every  niglu, 
the  leaves  approach  in  piirs,  fo  as  to  include  withiu 
tlieir  upper  iurlaccs  the  tender  ruJinicnis  of  tlic  new 
Ihoots  ;  and  the  uppermoft  pair  but  one  at  the  end  of 
tlie  ftalk  are  furnilhed  with  longer  leaf-ftalks  than  the 
others;  fo  that  they  can  clofe  upon  the  terminatiug 
pair,  and  protect  the  end  of  the  branch.  The  yojng 
Ihoots  and  leaves,  when  boiled,  can  hardly  be  diitin- 
guilhed  from  fpringfpinacb.  They  are  dtcnicd  refri- 
gerating and  nutritive,  and  an  excellent  food  for  per- 
fons  of  a  confuniptive  habit  of  body Swine  arc  ex- 
tremely fond  of  chickvvced  ;  cows  and  horfcs  eat  it  ; 
ihecp  are  iuditfcrent  to  it ;  and  goats  re/ufc  it. 

ALSlRAT,  in  the  Mahometan  theology,  denotes 
a  bridge  laid  over  the  middle  of  he.l,  finer  than  a  hair, 
and  Iharpcr  than  the  edge  of  a  fword,  over  which  peo- 
ple are  10  pafs,  after  their  trial,  o;i  ihc  day  of  judge- 
ment. To  add  to  the  difficulty  of  the  palTage,  Ma- 
homet allures,  that  the  allirat,  narrow  ai  it  is,  is  be- 
fet  with  briars  and  thorns  ;  none  of  which,  however^ 
will  be  any  impediment  to  the  good,  who  Ihall  fly  over 
it  like  the  wind ;  Mahomet  and  his  mulfulmen  lead 
the  way  ;  whereas  the  wicked,  by  the  narrownefsof 
the  path,  the  entangling  of  the  thorns,  and  extindion 
of  the  light  whicii  direfted  the  former  to  parauifc, 
will  foon  mifs  their  fiuiting^  and  tumble  headlong  into 
htU,  which  is  gaping  beneath  to  receive  ihcm. 

ALSlUM,  a  city  of  ancient  Etruria,  occupying 
(according  to  Culvtrius)  the  Ipot  on  which  /<?/«  now 
ftands.  We  arc  told  by  Dionylius  Halicarnali'cnfis, 
th;t  Alfiura  was  bi/ilt  by  the  Aborigines,  long  before 
the  Tyrfcniansiuvaded  Italy.  In  this  cafe  it  muft  have 
been  founded  not  long  after  the  difperfion  in  the  days 
of  Pelcg.  Its  founder  is  faid  to  have  been  one  yjl-rfiu, 
Al(fus,  or  Atifa ;  whom  fomc  conjec^ifnrc  to  have  been 
Alifah,  or  Eliilia,  the  fon  ot  Javan  mentioned  iu  fcrip- 
turt. 

ALSOP  (Anthony),  a  divine  and  poet,  was  edu- 
cated at  \S  eftminfter-fchool,  and  thence  elccfcd  to 
Chriil-church,  Oxford,  where  he  took  the  degree  of 
M.  A.  in  March  1696,  and  of  B.  D.  in  Decern.  1706. 
On  his  coming  to  the  aniverfity,  he  was  very  foon  di- 
fliugnilhcj  by  Dean  .'Mdrich,  and  publilhed  Fabula- 
ru)ii  Ej'^picutuin  DciiOiis,  Oxon.  1698,  8vo.  with  a 
poetical  i.ici.;ication  to  lord  vifcount  Scj^'amorc,  and  a 
preface  in  which  he  look  part  agaiiift  Dr  Bentlcy  in 
the  famous  dil'pute  with  Mr  Boyle.  He  paiTed  through 
the  ufual  otHces  in  Lis  college  10  that  of  cer.for  witjj 
conliderablc  reputation;  and  for  fome  years  had  the 
principal  noblemen  and  gentlemen  belonging  to  the  fo- 
cicty  committid  to  hii  care.  In  this  employment  he 
continued  till  his  mirit  rc-ommendcd  him  to  Sir  Jona- 
than Trtlawncy,  bilhopof  %V  inch efter,  who  appointed 
him  his  chaplain,  ar.d  foon  alter  gave  him  a  prebend  in 
his  own  cathedral,  together  with  the  rectory  of  Bright- 
well  in  the  county  ot  Berks,  which  atiorded  him  ample 
proviiirn  for  a  learned  retirement,  from  which  he  couKl 
notbcdra.  n  by  the  repeated  folicitatioiu  of  thcfc  who 
thought  him  qualified  for  a  more  public  ch.iractcr  and 
a  hiiihcr  ilaiion  In  171  7. in  a^'tion  was  bnnight  a- 
gainll  bim  by  Mr;  Elizabeth  Allrey  of  OxtVrd,  for  .1 

kreacl^ 


A   L 


o 


[    so^    J 


A  L  S 


.Mfup.     b:caci'.  oi  a  ri,ini,:j'c-c'jiurat:l ;  au  J  i  v:i  Jicl  obt'.iiifi)      a.iJ  (.kg::!'.!  v.'i  iliiig';.  Of  thcfr  llic  mofl  rcmi:  kablc,    AlfteJius 


--  agaiiiil  him  for  aouol.  which  probably  O'  calioncd  hiai 
lo  icn\c  tht  king. !c)iu for  fo:nc  time.  KiSiksih,  \vhl-:h 
luppcucd  [ui!c  lo^  I  726,  wasoccaiioiicd  by  Ills  fjlli.i^ 
jiiio  ;i  tiitch  that  led  to  his  gardtii-door.  A  quarto  vo- 
lume was  publidied  in  ly^j,  under  the  title  of  yf/i- 
tourii  A-f-jpi,  JEdis  Chrijti  .ilim  Aiuniut  Odarfiii  i.bri 
eino.  Koi:r  EngHih  poems  of  his  r.rc  in  DoLlley's  Col- 
kcHoiis,  one  in  I'carch's,  feveral  in  (h*^  early  volumes 
oi'ibc  Gentleman's  Magazine,  and  fomein  "The Stu- 
dent." Mr  Alfop  \z  rcfp:ctf.;i!y  mentioned  by  the  f.i- 
cctious  Dr  King  of  the  Commons  (vol.  I,  p.  236),  as 
having  eiirichtil  the  coniiuonwealth  of  1-jarning,  by 
"  Tranllations  of  Fables  from  Greek,  Hebrew,  and 
^Arabic;"  3!:d  not  kfs  dctraciingly  by  Dr  Bcntky, 
under  tlie  name  of  "  Tony  Alfop,  a  late  editor  of  the 
^tfopcan  Fables." 

Ajlsop  (Vincent),  an  cmlner.t  divine,  was  educated 
!;i  St  Joh'.i's  College  in  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  Matter  of  Arts.  He  received  deacon's  or- 
ders from  abini<>p,;fter  whicli  he  w-ent  down  into  Ilut- 
hndliiire,  andfetiled  at  Oakham,  where  he  was  an  af- 
fillant  to  the  mafler  of  tlic  frce-fchool.  As  iic  w^s  a 
man  of  a  fprigliily  mrn,  he  fell  there  into  indiiF  rent 
company  ;  bat  was  recl.iimed  by  ihc  frequent  admoni- 
tions of  ths  reverend  >'r  Beiiiamin  King.  He  after- 
wards married  that  gentleman's  daughter,  and  beco- 
ming a  convert  to  his  principles,  received  ordination 
in  tiie  Prclbyterian  way,  not  being  fatistieil  with  that 
which  hs  had  from  the  bilhop.  He  was  fettled  at 
Wilbec  in  the  coimty  of  North  impion,  whence  he  was 
fjcdedin  1662,  for  nonconlormiiy.  After  this  he  ven- 
tured loprcach.fomeiimcsat  Oakham,  and  at  Welling- 
borouj^h  where  he  lived,  and  was  once  fix  months  in 
prifon  for  praying  'oy  a  (i;k  pcrfon.  A  book  he  wrote 
againll  Drbhei  lock  in  a  humorous  (lyk,  inideiiim  well 
known  to  the  world,  and  induced  Mr  Cawton,  an  cnii- 
iient  nonconformifl  in  Weftminfter,  to  recommend  him 
10  his  congregation  for  his  fucrelTor.  On  receiving 
ibis  c;ill,  l^c  quitted  Northamptoiilhire  and  c;'me  to 
London,  where  he  preached  couftanily,  and  wrote  Ic- 
veralpieceswhich  wereextremely  wellieccivedbyilie 
pui)lic.  His  iiving  in  the  neighbourhood  of  ihc  court 
cxpofcd  him  to  many  inconve  inccs  ;  but  thcfc  ended 
with  the  reign  of  Ciurles  II,  or  at  leaft  in  the  begin- 
ningoftlieiicxt  reign,  when  MrAlfop's  fon  engaging 
in  trcafonablc  praclices  was  freely  pardoned  by  king 
jaincs.  After  this  our  divine  wen  t  frequently  to  court, 
and  is  generally  fuppofed  to  have  been  the  perf-m  who 
drew  the  Pre/bytcrian's  addrefs  to  that  prince  for  his 
general  ir.du'gence.  After  the  revolution,  Mr  Alfop 
gave  very  public  teiiimoniesof  bis  afFeftion  for  thcgo- 
vernriert  -.y  ct  upon  all  occalaons  he  fpoke very  rcfpeCt- 
fully  of  king  James,  and  retained  a  very  high  fen  e  of 
his  <:kniency  in  foaring  his  only  fan.  ']"he  remai;!der 
of  his  life  he  fpcnt  in  the  txercifc  of  his  iriniflry, 
preaching  once  every  Lord's  day;  1. elides  v/hichhe  had 
aThurfday  leAurc^anu  was  one  of  the  lecturers  at  Pin- 
ner's ball.  He  lived  to  he  a  very  old  man,  and  pre- 
fcrved  hisfjdrits  tothelaft.  Cngi  .vc  fuLjcdlshcv/rorc 
v.iiha  beet  n-.ingferio'lV.els  ;  but  wiicrewit  niigiit  pro- 
j'crly  be  (hown,  he  difplayed  his  to  i-rcat  advantage. 
His  funeral  fcrrr.on  preached  by  Mr  Slater,  and  his 
nicraory  will  be  always  prcferved  by  his  own  learned 


betides  liis  fcrmons,  are,  i.  ^Jntijoszo  ;  in  vindicailon 
ol  fome  great  truihs  oppofcd  Dr  uy  William  Sherlock,  , 
8vo,  167J.  2.  I\ie/ius  Jii(j!iir^):di:in  ;  in  nnfwtrtoDr 
Goodman's  Companionate  Inquiry,  8vo,  1679.  j.Th.e 
^^ifchi€lof  inipofuions;  inanlwer  to  Dr  Siilliiigrieet's 
Mifchief  of  Separation,  16S0.  4.  A  haithful  Ke- 
proof  to  a  Falfc  Report,  with  rcl'trence  to  the  Littc- 
rcnccs  among  the  United  ^iiuillers  in  London,  8vo. 

/VLsTKDiuS  (John-Henry),  a  German  I'rote- 
flant  divine,  anJ  one  ofthc  molt  indefatigable  writers 
of  the  17th  century.  He  wj.»  fonic  time  profcllbr  of 
philofophy  and  aiviiiity  at  Hirborn  in  the  county  oi 
Nalfau  :  from  tnence  he  went  into  Iranfylvania,  to  be 
profelibr  at  Alba  Julia  :  where  he  continued  till  his 
death,  which  happtncdin  1638,  being  then  50  years 
olage.  YWsLiic^c.opcJi.ihZi  been  much  cllccmcdcvcn 
by  tnelioman  Catholics;  it  was  printed  at  Lyons,  and 
fold  very  well  throughout  all  France.  His  Th^faurus 
thrciKoici^icuiiihy  fome  efleenicd  oneof  his  bell  works, 
and  has  gone  thro'  feveral  cilitions.  He  alfo  wrote 
7ri!i7i'i.h:,s  B  Hi. en  J,  to  Hiow  that  the  principles  of  all 
arts  and  fcicnces  a  re  to  be  found  in  the  Scriptures;  but 
he  gained  very  few  to  his  opinion,  lie  was  a  Millena- 
ri.iu  ;  andpubhihed,  in  1627,3  ircaiife/^f  intlle aii!:is, 
in  wliich  he  ailertcd  that  the  reign  of  the  faints  on 
earth  was  to  begin  in  1694. 

ALSlON-MOl'iK,  a  town  in  Cumberland,  kateJ 
on  a  hill,  ;.t  the  bottom  of  which  runs  the  river  i  ync, 
with  a  Itoae  bridge  over  it.  Near  this  place  is  plenty 
of  lead-ore.  W.  Long.  2.  4.  N.  Lat.  54.  45. 

ALSTONIA,  in  b-jiaay  ;  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  belonging  to  the  hcxaiuiria  clafs  of  plants . 
I'he  charaifers  are:  The  ca:yx  is  a  pcriauthium  be- 
neaih,  imbricated  :  The  corciih  is  monopetalous,  and 
Iliorter  than  the  calyx  ;  the  border  expanding,  eight 
or  ten  parted,  with  alterna:-j  divilions  :  The  Jla)iiii:a 
conlill  01  numerous  (liort  filaments,  the  exterior  ones 
longer  ;  the  antherae  areoibicularanJ  farrowed  :  The 
ptjliiitim  has  a  fmall  ovate  germe;;  above  ;  a  liinple  fty- 
lus  the  length  of  the  corolla,  filiform  and  cre(^t;  the 
lligraa  invcrie  egg-headed.  There  is  but  one  fpecies, 
the  tiieal'ormis,  a  native  of  America. 

ALSlTiOhMERlA,  in  botany:  A  genus  of  tlie 
monogynii  order,  belonging  to  the  hcxandria  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and,  in  the  natural  method,  ranking  under  the 
I  ithorder,  San/ieiittiua-.  Thccharaftersarc  :  There 
is  no  caij'x  :  The  corolla  is  nearly  bilabiated  ;  and  con- 
iilis  of  fix  petals,  the  two  inferior  tubular  at  the  bafe  : 
Thc/Z-Jw/weonliflof  lixfubulatcd  filaments,  declining 
and  iinequil  ;  the  antherae  oblong  :  'i'hc pifltlim/i  has 
an  hexangular  germcn  beneath  ;  the  ftylus  declining, 
filiform,  the  length  of  the  (iannna  ,  and  three  oblong 
bifid  ftigmata:  i'he.  firtcatfuutJi  is  a  roundifli  hexan- 
gular capfule,  with  three  cells  and  :hrce  valves  :  I'hc 
feids  are  globular  and  numerous.  There  arc  five  fpe- 
cies, natives  of  Italy  .ind  Peru. 

ALT,  in  mulic,  a  term  applied  to  the  high  notes 
in  the  fcale. 

Ai>  TAIC  Ch,»in,  a  range  of  mcnrtains  which 
bounJs  .-ilia  en  the  fonth.  It  begins  at  the  vafl  moun- 
tain Bogdo,  pallcs  above  the  hcod  of  the  Irtifch,  and 
then  ftkes  a  conrfe  rugged,  prccipiious,  clothed  wfth 
fnow,  and  rich  in  minerals,  between  the  Irtifch  and 
•      '  •    *  -  Ob'; 


Altaii 


A  L  T 


Cb  f  tIien<)rocc«!i  by  the  like  TcUzkoi,  the  rife  of 
theOb  i  aficrwhichiiretircs,  in  onlcr  tocomprchcnJ 
the  (;rc2t  rivers  which  form  the  Jcucfcij  and  ai  c  locked 
up  in  ihefc  high  ir.ountaiiis  ;  duzWy,  under  ihe  name 
of  the  Saiti/iei,  is  uaiiuciruj  tcdl/  cciitinucd  to  the 
lake  of  Baikal.  A  branch  inliuiiatcs  itfcif  between 
ihc  fourccs  of  ibe  rivers  Ouon  and  Ingoda,  and  thofc 
of  Ichikoi,  accompanied  wiih  very  high  mountains, 
running  without  interruption  to  the  north-eaft,  and 
dividing  the  river  of  Amur,  w  hich  difthargcs  iti'clt 
intoilie  cart,  in  thcChincfedoniinicns,  from  ihcrivtr 
Lena  and  Lake  Baikal.  Another  branch  (Irctchts  along 
the  Olecnia,  crolfcs  the  Lena  bcluw  JakoutfrC,  and  is 
continued  between  the  two  rivers  Tojgoulka  to  the 
Jencfti,  where  it  is  lort  in  wooded  and  moralfy  plains. 
rhe  principal  chain,  rugged  with  fliarp  pointed  rocks, 
approaches  and  keeps  near  the  Ihores  of  the  fca  of 
Ockho2t,and  paflingby  tlie  fourccs  of  the  rivers  Oiitli, 
Aldan, and  Maia,  is  diftributcd  in  final  Ibranches,  which 
range  between  the  eaftern  rivers  which  fall  into  the 
Icy  Sea  :  belidcs  two  principal  branches,  one  of  which, 
turning  fouth,  runs  through  all  Karatfchatka,  and  is 
broken,  from  the  cape  Lopatka,  into  the  numerous 
Kurilc  iiles,and  to  the  eall  forms  another  marine  chain, 
in  thcillands  which  range  from  Kanufchatka  to  Ame- 
rica ;  mort  (if  them,  as  well  as  Kanufchatka  itfelf,  di- 
ftinguillied  by  tierce  volcanoes,  or  the  traces  of  volca- 
nic tires.  The  laft  chain  forms  chiefly  the  great  cape 
Tfchutiki,  with  its  promontories  and  rocky  broken 
mores. 

ALTAMONT,  a  very  handfome  town  in  Italy,  in 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  in  Calabria  Citerior,  ij 
iiiilcs  north- weft  of  Baligniano.  E.  Long.  16.22.  N. 
Lat.  30.  40. 

ALT.^MURA,  a  town  of  Naples,  in  the  territory 
of  Bari,  with  the  title  of  a  principality,  feated  on  the 
foot  of  the  Apcnnine  mountains.  E.  Long.  16.  54. 
N.  Lat.  41.0. 

ALTAR,  a  place  upon  which  facrifices  were  an- 
ciently offered  to  fome  deity. 

The  heathens  at  firft  made  their  altars  only  of  turf ; 
afterwards  they  were  made  of  Hone,  of  marble,  of 
wood,  and  even  of  horn,  as  that  of  Apollo  in  Delos. 

Altars  ditiered  in  figure  as  well  as  in  materials.  Some 
were  round,  others  fquare,  and  others  triangular.  All 
of  ihcm  were  turned  towards  the  eall,  and  rtood  lower 
thantheflatutsof  the  gods;  and  were  generally  adorn- 
ed with  fculptnre.reprcfcnting  cither  the  gods  to  whom 
they  were  ercfted,or  their  fymbols.  See  the  Pagan 
Altars  rtprefcnted  on  Plate  XI.  Upon  the  lides  of 
X"  I.  a  trident  and  two  dolphins  are  exhibited,  which 
denote  it  to  have  been  dedicated  to  Neptune.  N"  2. 
a  four  fquare  altar,  was  dedicated  to  the  nymphs,  as 
the  infcription  import?.  N"  3.  exhibits  a  Bacchanal 
holding  a  thyrfus  in  his  hand,  a  mark  of  the  altar's  br- 
ing built  to  Bacchus  :  it  had  tw'o  other  tides,  which 
made  itappcir  triangular.  Of  N"  4.  which  was  alfo 
triangular,  each  face  or  fide  exhibited  a  genius,  one  of 
whom  (on  the  fide  reprcfcnted)caries  an  oar  upon  his 
neck,  which  fccir.ed  to  denote  it  an  altar  of  Neptune, 
K"  J.  an  altar  of  a  round  Ihape,  is  infcri'ued  /Ira  N^p- 
tiiKi :  the  god  himfdf  is  there  reprrl'cnted,  all  naked, 
favinj;  the  pallium  upon  his  Ihoulder  ;  and  holding  in 
his  left  hand  a  trident,  and  in  his  right  a  dolphin. 

The  height  of  altars  alfo  uitFcred  according  to  the 
Vol.  I. 


L    5^5    1 


ALT 


uifi(.re.:t  gods  to  whon  they  facriilced.  Aicordinjjto 
i,er;iu!i,  thofc  alt-rs  Ut  spurt  for  the  hono.ir  of  :!:s 
cdeftial  guJs,  and  god)  of  the  higher  clafs,  were  pli- 
ecd  on  fonie  pntiy  tail  pile  of  butiding  t  a.id  for  thac 
reafon  were  cilled  ^llaria,  from  ihc  wo: d>  tiUj  -nd  ai .», 
"  a  l,i;^h  elevated  altar."  Thife  appointed  for  the 
tcrreftrial  gods  were  laid  on  the  furf^icc  of  the  tarth, 
and  called  ar<r.  And,  on  the  contrary,  they  dug  into 
the  earth  and  opened  a  pit  for  thofc  of  t!ic  iafcriial 
gods,  which  they  called  ^»5f«( /mho/,,  "  fcrobiculi." 
But  this  diflinc^ion  is  not  every  where  obfcrved  :  the 
bcft  authors  frequently  ufe  ar.i  as  a  general  word,  ujj- 
dcr  which  are  included  the  altars  of  the  celcAial  and 
infernal,  as  well  as  thofc  of  the  tcrrcftri.:l,  gods.  Wit- 
nefs  Virgil,  Eel.  5. 

Eh  quatnor  aras. 

Where  ara  plainly  includes  altaua  ;  for  whatever  \\t 
make  of  Daphuis,  Phoebus  was  certainly  a  celelli.*! 
god.  So  Ciceio,  pro  Qiiint.  Ardt  delttbruqai  Hicata 
in  Cttccta  vidimus.  The  Greeks  alfo  diflinguilhed  twx) 
forts  of  altars  ;  that  whereon  they  facrificcd  to  f!.e 
gods  was  called  ;Sa/«of,  and  was  a  real  altar,  different 
from  the  other  whereon  they  facrifi-.  cd  to  the  heroes, 
which  was  fmaller,  and  called  t»x«.=«-  Pollux  makes 
this  dilUnflion  of  altars  in  his  Onoinafticon  ;  he  adds, 
however,  that  fonic  poets  ufed  the  word  i5-p;»f<«  for  the 
altar  whereon  facritice  was  offered  to  the  gods.  The 
Srptuagiut  verfion  docs  femetimcs  alfo  ufe  the  word 
i»-;(.«f«  lor  a  fort  of  little  low  altar,  which  may  be  c.x- 
prtfird  in  Latin  by  catinla ;  being  a  hearth  rather 
than  an  altar. 

Before  temples  w.<re  in  ufe,  altars  were  creeled  fome- 
tiiucsjn  groves,  fi-metiraes  in  the  highways,  and  fomc- 
times  on  the  tops  of  mountains ;  and  it  w  as  a  cuilotn 
to  engrave  upon  them  the  name,  enfign,  or  charafler, 
of  the  deity  to  whom  they  were  confeeratcJ. 

In  the  great  temples  of  ancient  Rome  there  were 
ordinarily  threcaltars  :  The  firfl  was  placed  in  the  fanc- 
tuary,  at  the  loot  of  the  llatue  of  the  divinity,  upon 
which  incenfe  was  burnt  and  libations  offered  ;  the  U- 
cond  was  before  the  gate  of  the  temple,  anj  upon  ic 
they  fhcriliccd  the  vietinis;  and  the  third  wasa  portable 
altar,  upon  which  \vas  placed  the  olicring  and  thrfa- 
cred  velfels. 

Befides  thefe  ufes  of  altars,  the  anciens  fworc  upon 
iheni,  and  fwore  by  thcin,  in  nuking  alliances,  eon- 
firming  treaties  of  peace,  anJ  other  filcmn  occafions. 
Altars  alfo  ferved  as  places  of  refuge  to  ;.!l  thofc  who 
fled  to  them,  whatever  crime  they  h.-d  committed. 

Altars  are  doubtlefs  as  ancient  as  facrifices  thcm- 
ff  Ives  ;  c-infcquently  their  origin  is  net  much  later  than 
th.1t  of  the  world  ;  Gen.  ch.  iv.  Some  attribute  their 
origin  to  the  Egyptians  ;  others  to  the  Jews  ;  others 
to  the  patriarchs  before  the  tlor.d.  Some  carry  them 
as  far  back  as  ,'\d.in),  whofc  altar  is  much  fpoken  of 
byJewilh,andevenChrirtian  writers.  Others  arc  con- 
tented to  make  the  patriarch  Enoch  the  firft  who  con- 
fecrated  a  public  altar.  Be  this  as  it  will,  the  ear'icll 
altars  we  tind  any  cxprcfs  teftiuiony  of  arc  thole  creel- 
ed by  Abraham. 

Altars,  in  the  patriarchal  times,  were  very  rude. 

The  altar  which  Jacob  fet  up  at  Bch-cl  was  lioihing 

but  a  llone,  which  fcrvcd  himinftead  of  abolftcr  ;  that 

ofGidecai,  allonc  be^rehishonfc  :  and  the  tirft  which 

3.S  Gc-J 


Anf 


ALT 


[     506     ] 


ALT 


Aliar.      Goil  conuiianJcd  Mofcs  to  crcdt  was  probably  of  carili, 

— ^ ■  or  un[ioliilicd  ftoiics,  without  any  iron  ;  for  if  any  ufc 

was  made  of  thai  iiiLtal,  the  altar  was  declared  im- 
pure.   - 

The  piinci'j'ai.altars  of  the  Jews  were,  The  altar  of 
iiic.nl'!';  xXvilui  b:initoJj'cr:iig  ;  and  the  altar,  or  labk, 
for  ih:  jljctv-biiad, 

.  The  altar  bf  tr.ciiifc  was  a  fmall  tabic  of  fhittim- 
wood,  covtrtd  vith  plates  of  gold,  of  one  cubit  iir 
length,  another  in  width,  and  two  in  height.  At 
the  foiir  corners,  were  four  kinds  of  horns,  and  all 
found  a  little  border  or  crown  over  it.  Tliis  was  the 
altar  hidden  by  Jeremiah  before  the  captivity  ;  and 
upon  it  the  ofiiciaiing  prieft  offered,  every  morning 
and  evening,  incenfc  of  a  particular  compoiiiion.  Sec 
Plate  XI. 

The  altar  of  burnt-offerings  was  made  of  fliittim- 
wood,  and  carried  upon  the  flioulders  of  the  priefls  by 
._  flaves  of  the  fame  wood  overlaid  with  brafs.  In  the 
lime  of  Mofcs,  this  altar  was  live  cubits  fquarc  nnd 
ijirce  high  ;  but  in  Solomon's  temple  it  was  much  lar- 
ger, being  20  cubits  fqnare  and  10  in  height.  It  was 
covered  with  brafs  ;  and  at  each  corner  was  a  horn  or 
fpire,  wrought  out  of  the  fame  wood  with  tlie  altar,  to 
which  the  facrificcs  were  tied.  Within  the  hollow 
was  a  grate  of  brafs,  on  which  the  fire  was  made; 
through  it  fcl!  the  a(hcs,  and  were  received  in  a  pan 
below.  At  the  four  corners  of  the  grate  were  four 
rings  and  four  cliains,  which  kept  it  up  at  the  horns. 
This  altar  was  placed  in  the  open  air,  that  the  fmoke 
of  the  burnt-ori'crings  might  not  fully  the  infide  of  the 
tabernacle.     See  Plate  XI. 

The  altar,  or  tabic,  for  they7^itu-^r^«</,  was  likewifc 
of  fliittim-wood,  covered  with  plates  of  gold,  having  a 
little  border  round  it,  adorned  with  fculpture.  It  was 
two  cubits  long,  one  wide,  and  one  and  an  half  in 
height.  Upon  this  table,  which  flood  in  the  holy  of 
*  holies,  were  put,  every  fabbath-day,  12  loaves,  with 
fait  and  inccnfe. 

The  Jewifli  altars,  after  their  return  from  the  capti- 
vity, and  the  building  of  the  fecond  temple,  were  in 
fome  refpcfts  ditfirent  from  thofe  defcribed  above. 
That  of  burnt-offerings  was  a  large  pile,  built  of  un- 
hewn ftone,  52  cubits  fquare  at  the  bottom,  and  24 
fquare  at  the  top.  The  afcent  was  by  a  gentle  riling, 
52  cubits  in  length,  and  16  in  breadth. 

Altar,  is  alfo  ufcd  among  Chriftians  for  the  com- 
munion-table. 

In  the  primitive  clnirch,  the  altars  were  only  of 
wood  ;  as  being  frequently  to  be  removed  from  place 
to  place.  But  the  council  of  Paris,  in  509,  decreed 
th.1t  no  altar  fliould  be  built  but  of  flonc. — At  firft 
there  was  but  oire  altar  in  each  church  ;  but  the  num- 
ber foon  increafcd  ;  and  from  the  writings  of  Gregory 
the  Great,  who  lived  in  the  lixth  century,  we  learn, 
that  there  were  fometimcs  in  the  fame  church  12  or 
I  ?.  In  the  cathedral  of  Magdeburg  there  are  no  lefs 
than  49  altars. 

The  altar  is  fometimesfuftained  on  a  fingle  column, 
as  iiuhe  fubtcrraneous  eliapels  of  St  Cecilia,  at  Rome, 
8fc. ;  and  fometimcs  by  four  columns,  as  the  altar  of 
St  Sebaflian  of  Crypta  Arcnaria  ;  but  the  cuftoniary 
from  is,  to  be  a  m;'.lfive  of  ftone-work,  fuflaining  the 
ilar-tahlc.    Thcfe  altars  bear  a  rcfcniblauce  to  tombs  : 


in  tills  piirpofc,  we  read  in  church  hifiory,   that  tlie  Altar-thaia 
priniilive  Chriflians  chicfiy  held  their  meeting  at  the  I 

tombs  of  the  martyrs,  and  celebrated  the  myftcries  of  Altcnburg. 
r^cligion  upon  them  for  which  reafon,  it  is  a  Handing  ' 

rule  to  liiis  day  in  the  church  of  Rome,  never  to  build 
an  altar,  without  iiicloiing  the  relics  of  fome  faint 
in  it. 

ALTAR-TH.^NE,  or  Altarist,  in  old  law-books, 
aji  appellation  given  to  the  priefl  or  parlon  of  a  parilh, 
towhoin  the  altarage  belonged.     See  Altarage. 

ALTARAGK,  in  law,  altars  erected  in  virtue  of 
donations  before  the  Rclormation,  within  a  parocliial 
church,  for  the  purpofe  of  finging  of  mafs  for  dc- 
ctafed  friends. 

Altarage  likewifc  (ignifies  the  profits  arifing  to 
the  priefl  on  account  of  tl-.e  altar. 

AL-TAY£FK,  a  town  of  Hajaz,  a  dillricl  of  Ara- 
bia Felix.  It  is  fituated  about  60  miles  eall  of  Mecca, 
behind  mount  Gazwan,  where  the  cold  is  more  intenfc 
than  in  any  other  part  of  the  dillrid,  but  the  air  very 
wholefome.  Its  territory  abounds  in  fountains,  and 
produces  excellent  raifms.  The  town  is  furrounded 
with  a  wall  but  is  not  very  large. 

ALTDORK,  a  large  handfoine  town  in  SwiiTerland, 
and  the  chief  of  the  canton  of  Uri.  It  is  fituated  below 
the  lake  of  the  four  cantons,  in  a  plain,  at  the  foot  of 
a  mountain,  whofe  palfagesare  difiicult,  and  ferve  in- 
flead  of  fortifications.  It  has  four  churches  and  two 
convents  :  St  Martin's  church  and  that  of  the  Holy 
Crofs  arc  the  fineft.  The  town-houfe,  and  the  arfenal 
are  alfo  worth  feeing.  E.  Long.  8.  30.  N.  Lat.  46. 
50. 

ALTEA,  a   fea-port  town  of  Valencia,   in  Spain 
It    was  taken  in  1705,    in  favour  of   the   archduke 
Charles  ;  but  loll  after  the  battle  of  Almanza.W.  Long, 
o.  15.  N.  Lat  46.  34. 

ALTEMBURG,  a  town  of  Tranfylvania,  17  miles 
S.  W.  of  Wifemburg,  and  35  S.  of  Claufenbourg.  E. 
Long.  23.  5.  N.  Lat.  46.  25. 

ALTENA,  a  fca-port  town  of  Germany,  in  the 
duchy  of  Holflcin,  in  Lower  Saxony.  It  is  a  modern 
town,  built  by  the  king  of  Denmark,  and  was  burnt 
by  the  Swedes  in  i  712  ;  but  has  (Ince  been  beautifully 
rebuilt.  The  merchandife  brouglit  from  Alia,  by 
tlieDanilh  Eaft-lndia  company  is  fold  here.  E.  Long. 
10.  o.  N.  Lat.  53.  ji. 

ALTENBERG,  an  ancient  town  in  Germany,  fi- 
tuated on  the  river  Pleifs,  with  a  good  caftle  placed  on 
a  rock,  in  Mifuia,  in  the  circle  of  the  Upper  Saxony. 
It  was  formerly  an  Imperial  city,  bur  a  prefent  belongs 
to  the  lioufe  of  Saxony.  Here  is  a  college  which  has 
always  been  in  a  Hourifliing  condition.  In  1 705,  there 
was  a  nunnery  founded  for  women  of  high  rank,  who 
are  Protcflants.     E.  Long.  15.  8.  N.  Lat.  ;o.  J9. 

ALTENBURG,  a  fmall  fortified  town  of  Huij- 
gary,  in  the  territory  of  Mofon,  near  the  Danube,  a- 
bout  J 5  miles fri-m  Vienna.  E.Long.  35.  30.  N.  Lat, 

48.  15- 

Altenburg,  or  Owar,  a  fmall  but  rtrong  town  of 
Hungary  feated  in  a  marlh,  with  wide  ftrcets.  It  is 
near  the  river  Danube,  and  is  furrounded  with  deep 
ditches.  It  is  ij  miles  fouth  of  Prelburg,  40  fouth- 
eall  of  Vienna,  and  65  fouth-wefl  of  Buda.  E.  Long. 
17.  56.  N.  Lat  44.  o. 

ALTE- 


/fit///>tlj'J'AliS 


.  ..^riiitcxin 


ALIAH  i>//iur„/    0//rfi,/// 


.  ■'.'..  >!iv  ,  '«*^. .  ^i/:,. 


1I» 


ALT  r    507 

ALTtRANTS,  or  /iLrER^rtvp.  Medicines,  fuch 
as  coricft  the  bad  qiialiiics  of  the  hlood  and  other  hu- 
mours, without  occafioning  any  fciiliblc  evacuation. 

ALTKIIATION,  in  phyllcs,  the  ad  of  changing 
ilie  circuindanccs  and  manner  of  r  thing  ;  its  general 
nature  and  aiipearance  remaining  the  fame.  Or,  it  is 
an  accidental  and  partial  change  in  a  body  ;  without 
jirocccdingfo  far  as  tomakethcfubjcd  quite  unknown, 
or  to  take  a  new  dcnominition  thereupon. — Or,  it  may 
bcdelintd,  the  acquifitlon  or  lofs  of  fuch  qualities  as 
are  not  eirentia!  to  the  form  of  the  body.  Thus, apiece 
of  iron,  whicli  before  was  cold,  is  faid  to  be  altered, 
when  it  is  made  hot  ;  fince  it  may  flillbe  perceived  to 
be  iron,  is  called  by  that  name,  and  has  all  the  proper- 
tics  thereof.  By  this  alterauon  is  dillinguilhed  from 
gciieri'tion  3,ni\  corruption  ;   thefe  terms  exprelllng  an 

aequililion  or  lofs  of  the  efTential  qualities  of  thing 

The  modern  pliilofophcrs,  after  the  ancient  chemills 
and  corpiilcularians,  hold  all  alteration  to  be  effeftcd 
by  means  of  local  motion.  According  to  them,  it  al- 
ways.confifts  either  in  the  emiihon,  acccllion,  union, 
reparation,  or  tranfpofition,  of  the  component  par- 
ticles. 

ALTERCATION,  a  debate  or  contea  between 
two  friends  or  acquaintance.  The  word  comes  from 
alterctiri,  which  anciently  fignitied  toconvcrfe  or  hold 
difcourfe  together. — Thus,  we  fay.  They  never  come 
to  an  open  quarrel,  but  there  is  continually  fomc  little 
altercation  orotjier. 

ALTERN-BASE,  in  trigonometry,  a  term  ufed  in 
contradidiadlion  to  the  true  bafe.  Thus  in  oblique 
triangles,  the  true  bafe  is  either  the  fum  of  the  iides, 
and  then  the  dij/'erence  of  the  fides  is  called  the  altern- 
ta/'e  ;  or  the  true  bafe  is  the  difference  of  the  fides,  and 
then  iht/iim  of  the  iides  is  called  the  aitern-bafe. 

ALTERNATE,  in  a  general  fenfc,  a  term  applied 


3 


A  L  T 


to  fuch  perfons  or  things  as  fuccced  each  otiier  by 
turns.  Thus,  two  who  command  each  his  day,  are 
faid  to  have  an  alternate  command,  or  to  command  al- 
ternately. 

Alternate,  in  heraldry,  is  faid  in  rcfpcfl  of  the 
fituation  of  the  quarters.  Thus  the  firll  and  fourth 
quarters,  and  the  fecond  and  third,  areufnally  of  the 
fame  nature,  and  are  called  alternate  quarters. 

Alternate,  in  botany,  when  the  leaves  or  branch- 
es of  plants  arifc  higher  on  oppoiite  fides  alternately. 

ALTERNATION,  in  its  primary  fen fe,  denotes 
1  fucccflion  by  turns. 

Alternation  is  fometimes  ufed  to  cxprcfs  the 
difterent  changes  or  alterations  of  orders  in  any  num- 
ber of  things  propofed.  This  is  alfo  called />!'/ 7/;//- 
tation,  &c.  and  is  eafily  found  by  a  continual  multi- 
plication of  all  the  numbers,  beginning  at  unity.  Thus, 
if  it  be  required  to  know  how  many  changes  or  altcr- 
nfltions  can  be  rung  on  fix  bells,  multiply  the  numbers 
I)  2,  5,  4,  J,  6,  continually  intoone  another  ;  and  the 
laft  produft  gives  the  number  of  changes. 

ALTERNATIVE,   is  particularly    ufed 
choice  of  two  things  propofed.     In  this  fenfc 
to  take  the  alternative  of  two  propofitions. 

ALTHj^lA,  Marshmallow  :  A  genus  of  the  po- 
lyandria order,  belonging  to  the  monodclphia  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and,  in  the  natural  method,  ranking  under  the 
37th  order,  C'Jun.niJer.^.  The  charaders  are  :  The 
cijljx  is  a  double  pcriamhium,  the  exterior  one  niut- 


for  tlic 

we  (ly. 


cleft :  The  corollj  confifts  of  five  petals,  coakfceJ  at    A'<\-xil. 

ihc  bafe  :  The  Jiamina  confill  of  numerous  riUmt-urs    ~^ 

iiiftrtedinto  the  corolla;  the  antherac  are  kidney  du- 
ped. The  pij/illr/fn  has  an  orbicular  gcrmcn  ;  a  ihoit 
cylindrical  ftyius  ;  and  numerous  brillly  fiigiuata,  the 
length  of  the  llylus  :  The  pericarpvim  coiifilts  of  nu- 
merous arilia;  :  The  feeds  are  folitary,  and  kidney- 
lliapcd.     There  arc-  three 

Species.  I.  The  vulgaris,  or  common  marflimallow, 
is  a  native  of  Britain,  and  liatli  a  perennial  root,  and 
an  annual  rtalk,  which  perifncs  every  autumn.  The 
ftalks  grow  ereft  to  the  height  of  four  or  five  feet. 
Thefe  arc  garnilhcd  with  leaves  which  are  hoary,  fofc 
to  the  touch,  and  placed  alternately  on  the  branches. 
The  (lowers  conic  out  fnun  under  the  wings  of  the 
leaves,  like  the  mallow,  andareof  a  purp'.ifli  while.  2. 
Thehirfuta,  er  hairy  mar<hmallow,  is  a  native  of  Spain 
and  Portugal.  It  is  alow  plant,  v/iiofc  brandies  trail  011 
the  ground,  unlcfs  they  are  fupporicd  by  flakes.  The 
leaves  and  llalksare  befet  with  (Irong  hairs, the  llower< 
come  out  like  tliofe  of  the  common  fort,  but  are  finall- 
er,  and  have  purplilli  bottoms.  3.  The  cannabina,  or 
Ihrubby  marfhmallow,  is  a  native  of  Hungary  and  If- 
tria.  It  has  a  woody  (lem,  which  rifes  to  the  Juighiof 
fouror  five  feet  ;  and  puts  out  many  (ide-branehes.  The 
flowers  come  out  in  the  fame  manner  as  in  the  others, 
but  are  of  a  deeper  red  colour.  Tiiis  fort  fcldom  flow- 
ers the  firft  year,  unlefs  the  fummer  proves  warm  ;  but 
when  the  plants  live  through  the  winter,  ihcy  will 
flower  early  in  the  following  fummer,  and  produce  good 
feeds. 

Culture.  Though  the  firft  fort  is  found  naturally  in 
fait  marlhes,  it  will  thrive  when  tranfplantedinto  any 
foil,  or  in  any  lituaiion  ;  however,  it  will  always  grow 
larger  in  moill  than  in  dry  foil.  It  may  be  propagated 
cither  by  parting  the  roots  in  autumn  when  the  ftalks 
decay,  or  by  fowing  the  feeds  in  the  fpring.  If  the 
fcedsof  the  fecond  fpecies  are  fown  in  April,  the  plants 
will  flower  in  July,  and  carry  ripe  feed  in  September. 
They  ought  to  be  fown  in  the  places  where  they  are  v> 
remain,  as  the  roots  (I'oot  deep  in  the  ground;  lb  that 
unlefs  the  plantsare  removed  vcryyoung,  they  fcldoni 
furvive  it.  The  feeds  of  the  cannabina  ought  alfo  to 
be  fown  where  the  plants  are  to  remain,  for  the  rcafbii 
juft  now  given.  They  fliould  have  aflieJicrcd  htuaiioii 
and  dry  fi.il,  otherwife  they  will  not  live  through 
the  winter.  Indeed  they  fcldoni  continue  in  Britain 
above  two  years,  with  all  ihe  care  that  can  be  ta- 
ken of  them. 

Medicinal  Ufis.  The  firft  is  the  only  fpecies  ufed  in 
medicine.  The  whole  plant,  efpccially  the  ro.>t,  a- 
bounds  with  a  mild  mucilage.  It  has  the  general  vir- 
tues of  an  emollient  medicine;  and  proves  ferviceablc 
in  a  thin  acrimonious  ilaie  of  the  juices,  and  whcrethe 
natural  mucus  of  the  intellines  is  abraded.  It  is  chief- 
ly recommended  in  fliarp  dcHuftions  upon  the  lungs, 
hoarfcnefs,  dyfcnieries  ;  and  likcwifc  in  nephritic  and 
calculous  complaints  :  not,  as  fomc  have  fuppofed,  that 
this  medicine  has  any  peculiar  power  of  diiTolving  or 
expelling  the  calculus  ;  but  as,  by  lubricating  and  re- 
laxing thevcflcls,  it  procures  a  more  free  and  cafy  paf- 
fage.  The  root  is  fometimes  employed  cxicrnaliy  for 
foftening  and  maturating  liard  tumours  ;  chewed,  it  is 
faid  to  give  cafe  in  difficult  dentition  of  cjiildren. 

This  root  gave  name  10  au  officinal  fyrup,  dccoc- 
5  S  2  lion. 


A  L   r 


[     5^3     ] 


ALT 


Al'Vaa     liorij  ano  ■uirifrif  ni  j   iiui  was  likcwifc  an  ingredient  in 
II         tlif  coir.po;ind  powder  of  gum  tiagacanth  and  the  oil 
Alrinp.   3„d  plilicr  of  mucilages.  Biit  of  all  ttcft  fi)rniulj»  the 
'^     "       '  fy rupalor.c  is  now  retained. 

ALrH.V-A  Fruiex.     Sec  Hibiscus. 
ALTIMKTRY,  the  art  of  meafiiring  altitudes  or 
liiights,  whether  accclfiblc  or  iuacccinblc.  Sec  Geo- 

MFTRY. 

ALTIN,  a  money  of  account  in  Mnfcovy,  worth 
ihrcc  oficcs  ;  one  hnndrcd  of  which  make  a  rnble, 
worth  about  4s.  6>1.  lUrling. 

ALTIN,  a  lake  in  Siberia,  from  whence  iiuies  the 
river  Ob,  or  Oby,  in  N.  Lat.  52.0.  E.  Long.  85°.J5'. 
This  lake  is  called  by  the  Rulhans  Tclolko'i  O/iro,  from 
the  Telelfi,  a  Tartarian  nation,  who  inhabit  theborders 
of  it,  and  who  give  it  tlie  mmcoi  Altiii-Ktil.  By  the 
Calnuicks  it  is  called  AJtimior.  It  is  near  ninety  miles 
lung  and  50  broad,  with  a  rocky  bottom.  The  north 
jiart  of  it  is  fometimes  frozen  fo  hard  as  to  be  pafllible 
on  foot,  but  the  fontliern  part  is  never  covered  with 
ice.  The  water  in  the  Aliin  hke,as  well  as  in  theri- 
vcr.s which  run  throigliihe  adjacent  places,  only  rifes 
ill  the  middle  of'I'iimnicr,  when  the  fuows  on  the  moun- 
tains arc  niclicd  by  the  heat  of  the  fun. 

ALTINCAR,  among  niiucralills,  a  fpc-ries  of  fac- 
titious faltufed  in  the  fulion  and  purification  of  metals. 

The  altincar  is  a  fort  of  dux  powder.  Divers  ways 
of  preparing  it  are  given  by  Libavius. 

ALTING  (Henry),  profelfor  of  divinity  at  Hei- 
delberg and  Groiiingen,  was  born  at  Enibden  in 
1  ;8?,  of  a  family  which  Iiadbeen  long  confpicuous  ia 
?"rifcland.  His  father,  Menf)Aliing,  wasthcfirfl:, 
v.ho,  with  two  others,  preached  the  reformation  in  the 
territory  of  Groningen,  about  the  year  1566,  under 
the  tyrannical  government  of  the  duke  of  Alva  ;  and 
the  firit  that  preached  in  the  great  church  of  Gronin- 
gen,  after  the  reduftion  of  that  town  by  the  States  Ge- 
neral in  1594.  Henry  was  chofen,  in  160J,  preceptor 
to  the  three  youTig  counts  of  Nalfau,  Solms,  and  Izen- 
berg.  After  various  difiicultics,  he  fettled  at  Groiiin- 
gen, where  he  continued  till  his  death,  Augull  2J. 
1644.  He  was  a  fiund  protellant  divine,  a  pious 
tliriflian,a  ufcful  member  of  focicty  in  many  refpefts, 
and  one  who  futi'tred  much  for  the  truth.  l\!ofl  of  his 
works  were  never  publidied  ;  thofe  which  hayebecn 
.ire  the  following  :  hot  it  in  d  t  casein  fi'oblcjnattim  J. 
Behm,  l6i5.  Loci  comfHnnes  ixplicatio  catechffeos  r a- 
latitiie,  1646,  in  7,  vols.  F.x:geJ:s  j^tignjlciiice  cofif<-f. 
1647,  Mcthodiis iheoiogiir ,  1650.  It  ap]icars  from  the 
catalogue  of  his  works  annexed  to  lit)  life,  that  the 
MtJiilia  hij\.  prophaiKf,  publiflied  by  Dr  Parens,  was 
compnfed  by  Ahing.  The  mofl  remarkable  piece  a- 
inorg  Alting's  MS.  is.  The  ecrlefiallical  hiliory  of 
the  Palatinate,  fron  the  reformation  to  theadminiitra- 
tii>n  of  John  Caliniir. 

Alting  (James),  fon  of  the  former,  was  born  at 
Heidelberg  in  161S.  He  travelled  into  England  in 
1640,  where  he  was  ordained  by  the  learned  Dr  Pri- 
deaux,  bifnop  of  Worceder.  He  afterwards  accepted 
of  the  profellbrfhip  of  Groningqn,  vacant  by  the  dcarh 
ofGomarus;  but  his  lituation  was  rendered  verydif- 
agreeablc  by  the  continual  difputcs  which  he  had  with 
h'scoileagneSam.dcsMarets,  who  favoured  thefchool- 
cfiviniiy.  He  died  in  1697.  He  recommended  the  edi- 
lioiiof  liis  works  to  Menfo  Alting  (author  of  A'^///;j 


G:ttnat:.  ],:f/r.   A>.Uqu.r,  fol.  Aiiift.  1679);   but  liiey   A'.titui* 
were  publiihcd  in  5  vols,  folio,  with  his  life,  by  Mr  1 

Btkkerof  AmRcrdam.     They  contain  various  analy-      -A''"' 
lical,  cxcg.  lical,  praihcal,  problematical,  and  philofo-  * 

phical  irat^ts,  which  ihow  his  great  iiuluflry  and  know- 
ledge. Alting  was  a  divine  greatly  addicted  to  the  text 
of  the  fcripturc,  to  Cocceianifm,  and  Rabbinifin.  He 
preached  well  in  German,  Dutch,  and  Englilk. 

ALTITUDE,  acccffible,  and  inaccelliblc.  Sec 
Geometry. 

The  method  of  taking  conliderablc  terreftriul  alti. 
ludcs,  of  which  thofe  of  mountains  are  the  greatell,  by 
nicansof  the  barometer,  is  very  eafy  and  expeditious.  It 
isdoncby  ol>ferving.  on  the  top  of  the  mountain,  how 
much  the  mercury  has  fallen  below  what  it  was  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountain.     See  Barometer. 

V/.r/rt'Dt  oj'the  Eye,  in  perfpeclive,  is  a  right  line 
let  fall  from  thj  eye,  perpendicular  to  the  geometrical 
plane. 

Altitude,  in  aflronomy,  is  the  dillancc  of  a  ftar, 
or  other  point,  in  the  mandane  fpliere,  from  the  ho- 
rizon. 

This  altitude  may  be  cither  true  or  apparent. — If  it 
be  taken  from  the  rational  or  real  horizon,  the  altitude 
is  fiiid  to  be  true  or  real ;  if  from  the  apparent  or  fen- 
fiblc  horizon,  the  altitude  isapparent. — Or  rather,  the 
apparent  altitude  is  fuch  as  it  appears  to  our  obferva- 
lion;  and  the  true  is  that  from  which  the  refradion 
has  been  fubtraiSed. 

The  truealtitudesoftliefun,fixedftars, and  planets, 
differ  but  very  little  from  their  apparent  altiiudes  ;  be- 
caufc  of  their  great  dillante  from  the  centre  of  the 
earth,  and  the  fmallnefs  of  the  earth's  femidiameter, 
when  compared  thereto.  But  the  difference  between 
the  true  and  apparent  altitude  of  the  moon  is  about 
52.  This  fubjeft  is  further  explained  under  Astro- 
no  mt. 

^LTiTVOK  hiftrnment,  or  E^ual  Jititade  Jnflrii- 
nieiit,  is  that  ufed  to  obferve  a  celeflial  objeft  when  it 
lias  the  fame  altitude  on  the  cad:  and  velf  fides  of  the 
meridian.  See  Astronomy,  the  lafl  feftion. 

ALTKlRK,   a  town  of  Alfice  in  Germany,  fitua-     , 
ted  on  the  river  111,  in  N.  Lai.  47.  40.  and  E.  Long. 

7-  15- 

ALTMORE,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  the  county  of 
Tyrone,  and  province  of  Ulficr,  fituated  in  N.  Lat. 
54.  54,  and  W.  Long  7.  2. 

ALTON,  a  town  in  Hamplliire,  feated  on  the  ri- 
ver Wey  ;  W.  Long.  o.  46.  N.  Lat.  Ji.  5.  It  is  go- 
verned by  a  conllable  ;  and  conlilfs  of  about  sOO  hon- 
fes.,  indifferently  buiii,  chiefly  laid  out  in  one  pretty 
broad  flrett.  It  has  one  church,  a  Prefbyterian,  and 
a  Qi.iaker  meeting,  a  famous  frecfchool,  a  large  ma- 
nnfatture  of  plain  and  figured  baragons,  ribbed  drug- 
gets, and  ferges  de  Nifines  ;  and  round  the  town  is  a 
large  plantation  of  hops. 

Alton,  or  Avflton,  a  village  in  Staffbrdlhire, 
five  miles  north  of  Utoxeter.  There  are  the  ruins  of 
a  caftle  here,  which  fome  would  have  lobe  built  before 
the  Norman  eonqucrt  ;  but  DrPlottis  pretty  certain 
that  it  was  erecrled  by  Theobald  de  Verdun,  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  A  great  part  of 
the  walls  are  flill  flanding,  but  they  are  in  a  very  rui- 
nous condition. 

ALTO  et  Basso,  or  in  Jlto  ir  in  Basso,-  in  law, 

lignitica 


A  L  V 


fignities  the  abfulule  refrrencc  of  all  ilitfercaccs,  fmiill 
and  great,  bigh  and  low,  to  fomc  arbitrator  or  indif- 
ferent jierf'in —  Fateat  iinherfii  ptr  prttfuitu,  qiad 
Wiiiiehnus  Tjlar  di  Tetlon,  &  T/:tmas  Cq-jut  di  Alvit- 
Jlre,  fiofueruiit  ft  in  Alto  ir  in  Baffo,  in  arliitri'i  quatu- 
vr  honiinum  ,-  viz.  de  quadam  querela  pendente  iiilir  eoi 
in  curia. — Not  ir  terram  nojiram  t\ie  Si.  haKi/Jirii  do- 
mini  Regis  f:ippofuiniUi  voluutati. 

Alto- Relieve     Sec  Relievo. 

ALTo-Ripienc,  in  miilic,  the  tenor  of  the  great 
chorus  which  fings  and  plays  only  now  and  then  in 
fome  particular  places. 

ALTORF,  a  town  of  the  circle  of  Franconia,  in 
Germany.  It  has  a  phyfic  garden,  with  2000  differ- 
ent plants  ;  a  theatre  for  i^iircdions,  which  has  many 
curioiities  in  the  anatoK'.ical  way  ;  and  a  handfonic  li- 
brary. It  is  fubjcft  to  the  houfcof  Brandenburg  ;  and 
is  fcated  on  the  confines  of  Bavaria,  i  j  miles  from  Nu- 
remberg.    E.  Long.  9.  3).  N.  Lat.  47.  46. 

ALT-RANSTADT,  a  town  in  Saxony,  famous 
for  the  treaty  between  Charles  XII.  king  of  Sweden 
and  Auguflus  eleclor  of  Saxony,  in  i  706,  wherein  the 
latter  rerio;ned  the  kingdom  of  Poland. 

ALTRINGHAM,  a  tawn  of  Chcfliirc  in  England, 
upon  the  borders  of  Lancafliirejfcve  n  miles  from  Man- 
chefter.     W.  Long.  i.  30.  N.  Lat.  55.  25. 

ALTZEG,  a  town  of  Germany  in  the  Lower 
Palatinate,  the  capital  of  a  territory  of  the  fame  name, 
with  an  old  caflle.  W.  Long.  7.  2J.  N.  Lat.  49.  44. 

ALVA  DE  ToRMES,  aconliderable  town  in  Spain, 
in  the  kingdom  of  Leon,  and  territory  of  Salamanca, 
with  a  very  handfome  calHe.  It  is  fcated  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  river  Tormcs.  \\'.  Long.  6.  i.  N.  Lat. 
41.  c. 

ALVAH,  the  wood  wlierewith  Mofes,  fwceter.ed 
ih«  waters  of  Marah,  Exod.  cli.  xv.  ver.  2j. — The 
name  of  this  wood  is  not  found  in  Scripture  ;  but  the 
Mahometans  give  it  that  of  ahah,  and  pretend  to  trace 
Its  hiflory  from  the  patriarchs  before  the  flood.  Jo- 
fcphiis,  on  the  contrary,  fays,  that  Mofes  ufcd  the 
-Wood  which  he  found  next  lying  before  him. 

ALVARES  DE  LUNA,  or  as  fome  call  him  Alva- 
RC.  is  a  charaiJler  too  ccfifying  to  be  omitted  in  this 
work.  He  was  the  favourite  of  John  II.  king  of  Ca- 
flile :  was  famous  for  the  prodigious  afccndancy  he 
gaincdover  thisprincc,  and  for  the  puniHiment  which 
at  length  overtook  him.  lie  was  natural  fon  of  Don 
Alvaro  de  Luna,  lord  of  Cancte  in  Arragon,  aiid  of  a 
woman  infamous  for  unbounded  lufi.  He  was  born  in 
1 588  and  named,  Peter;  but  Pope  Bcnrdi,51  Xill.  who 
was  charmed  with  his  wit  tho'yet  a  child,  changed  Pe- 
ter to  Alvarcs.  He  was  introduced  to  court  in  1408, 
and  made  a  gentleman  of  the  bedch.imber  to  king 
John,  with  whom  hegrcw  intothc  higlicflfcvour.  In 
1427  he  was  obliged  to  retire  :  the  courtiers  exerted 
all  their  endeavours  to  ruin  him  :  ihty  cemplained, 
that  a  man  of  no  military  (kill,  af  no  virtues  whatever, 
Uiotild.by  mere  artifice  and  diliinrulation,  be  advanced 
to  the  highcft  authority  ;  and  they  couUI  not  bear  that, 
by  the  alfi(la"cc  of  a  few  iipflart  men,  whom  he  had 
raifed  and  fixed  to  his  interell,  he  fltould  reign  as  ab- 
lohitely  s%  if  he  were  king. 

They  prevailed  againft  him, and  Alvares  was  banilli- 
ed  from  court  a  year  and  an  half:  but  this  was  the 
f,reate(l  afllidiou  imaginable  to  the  king ;  who  lliow- 


[     iC'9     ] 


A  L  V 


cd  all  marks  of  Jirtrtfb  the  moment  he  was  rcn.o-  AJvv"- 
vcd  from  his  prtfcnce,  and  now  tUought  and  fpoke  of  ^— v^ — ' 
nothing  but  Alvarcs.  He  was  therefore  recalled;  and, 
being  inverted  with  his  ufual  authority,  re\  tngedhiui- 
fclf  fcvercly  upon  hif  enemies,  by  pcrfuading  the  king 
to  banilh  them.  Of  the  4  j  years  he  f/ent  at  cf'.iri, 
he  enjoyed  for  70  of  them  fo  entire  an  aftendaticy  n- 
ver  the  king,  that  nothing  could  be  done  without  his 
cxprcfs  orders  :  nay,  it  is  related  t.y  Mariana,  th.ai  :l,c 
king  could  not  change  an  oiliccr  or  firvant,  or  even 
his  clothes  or  diet,  without  the  approbation  of  Alv.i- 
rcs.  In  fliort,  he  wanted  nothing  10  complete  his 
grandeur  but  the  name  of  king  :  he  had  all  tlie  places 
in  the  kingdom  .it  hisdifpofU  ;  he  was  maficr  of  the 
treafury,  and  iy  bounties  had  fo  g.iincd  the  liearts  of 
the  fubjefti,  that  the  king,  though  his  eyes  now  were 
opened,  and  his  afFctfions  fuSiciently  turned  againll 
him,  durfi  not  comidain. 

But  the  day  of  reckoning  was  approaching,  zfid  at 
length  he  was  fcized  :  yet  not  directly,  openly,  3T>d  vio- 
lently, but  with  fome  of  that  management  which  up- 
on a  limilar  occafion  was  formerly  cm.ployed  by  Tibe- 
rius againfl  Sej anus.  During  his  confinement, he  made 
feveral  attempts  to  fpeak  to  the  king  in  perfon  ;  but 
not  being  able  to  effed  this,  he  fent  the  follow  ing  let- 
ter, from  wliich,   as  well  as  from  the   reil  of  Al- 
varcs's  hiflory,  all  court  favouritcsmay  draw  abundant 
matter  for  edification  and  inflruclion.  «'  Sir,  it  is  five- 
"  and  forty  years  (ince  I  was  admitted  into  your  fer- 
"  vice.     I  do  not  complain  of  the  rewards  I  have  re- 
"  ceived  :  they  were  greater  than  my  merits  or  cxpec- 
"  tation,  as  I  fliall  not  deny.     There  was  but  one 
"  thing  wanting  to  complete  my  happtncfs  ;  and  that 
"  was  to  have  fixed  proper  limits  in  time  to  this  great 
'•'  fortuncof  mine.  VVhife,  inftcad  of  choofing  rttirc- 
"  ment,  after  the  example  of  the  greatcfl  men,  I  f:ill 
"  continued  in  the  employment,  which  I  ihouglirnot 
"only  my  duty,  bat  ncccll'jry  for  your  interefl,   I  fell 
"  into  this  mistort.inc.     It  is  very  hard  that  1  IhoulJ 
"  be  deprived  of  liberty,  when  1  have  ri/ktd  iii'e  and 
"  fortune  more  than  unee  to  reflorc  it  to  you.     Grief 
*•■  prevents  me  from  faying  more.     I  kiiow  that  the 
"  l")eity  is  provoked  agaiaii  me  by  my  (ins  ;  but  it  will 
''  be  furficient  for  mc,  if  his  anger  is  appeafcd  by  the 
"calamities!  now  f uifer.     I  can  no  longer  bear  that 
"  prodigious  mafs  of  riches,  which  it  uas  wnmg  in 
"  me    to  have  heaped  together.     I   fhould  wilhngly 
"  rcfigu  them,  but  that  every  thing  1  have  is  in  your 
"  pov,cr ;  and  I  am  denied  the  opportunity  of  fliowing 
"  mankind,  tliatyouhavc  raifed  a  pe:f(«nto-the  height 
"  of  greatncfs,wlio  can  contain  wcyilili  as  v.cllas  |iro- 
"  cure  it,  and  give  it  lack  to  hiin  from  whom  he  re- 
"  ceived  it.     But  I  defire  you  in  the  /Irosgefl  tern  s, 
"  that,  as  I  was  oLligeJ  ly  ^he^«'wnefs  of  the  trea- 
"  futy  to  raife  io,coo  or  13, occ  crowns  by  methods 
"  I  ougjit  not  to  have  taken,  you  wilt  reflorc  thera  to 
"  the  pcrfons  from  whom  they  were  ex'orttd.  !f  you 
"  wi;i  not  grant  thisonaccouui  of  the  fervices  i  have 
"  done,  yet  I  thiik  it  ncccljary  to  be  done  from  the 
"  rcafon  of  the  thing." 

.  This  letter,  however,  produced  no .efied  in  his  fa- 
vour: Alvareswas  trie  J.andcondeniiTcd  loloofe  his  head. 
After  condemnation,  he  was  ren.oved  to  Vo!lad..lid  j 
and,  having  confelfcd  hin-.felf,  and  received  the  facra- 
nicnt,  he  was  carried  upon  a  mule  to  the  m-iket-place, 

ill 


ALU 


[     5'o     ] 


A  L  V 


in  the  middle  of  which  a  large  fcafFold  was  crcfled. 
Mounting  the  fciffuM,  he  paid  reverence  lo  ihe  crofs, 
and  prcfcuily  gave  his  hat  and  ligntt  lo  his  page,  fay- 
ing, "  Thcfe  are  the  laft  gifts  you  will  ever  receive 
"froinmc."  He  tlicn  fubmitted  hinifclf  to  the  axe 
with  the  utmoll  iiil rapidity.  Dr  Geddcs  relates,  that 
he  was  executed  the  4ih  of  June,  others  the  5th  of 
Jily,  145^- 

ALUDELS,  in  chcniiflry,  are  earthen  pots  with- 
out bottoms,  infertcd  into  eacli  other,  and  ufedin  fub- 
limations. 

ALVEARIUM,  in  anatomy,  the  bottom  of  the 
concha,  or  hollow  of  the  outer  car. 

■Ai.  vEARiuM  alio  ligiiifics  a  bee-hive.  The  word  is 
formc&oi  ahem,  a  "  channel  or  cavity  ;"  inallufion 
to  tlie  alveoli,  or  cells  in  bee-hives. 

Some  of  the  ancients  ufe  alfo  the  word  ahcariiim 
for  abee-houl'e,  more  uftially  called  among  ns  apiary. 

Alvearium  is  fomelimes  alfo  ufed  ligiiratively,  to 
dcnotcaeolledion.  In  which  fenfe,  aU'tariut/i&moaxns. 
to  much  the  fame  with  what  we  otherwife  call  thcfau- 
rus,  cornucopia,  or  the  like.  Vine.  Ijorcns  has  publifli- 
cd  analveariuin  of  law. 

ALVEOLUS,  in  natural  hillory,  the  namc.ofthe 
waxencclls  iiibee  hives.  Alfo  the  nsmeof  a  fca-foilil 
of  a  conic  figure,  compofed  of  a  number  of  cells,  like 
bee-hives,  joined  into  each  other,  with  a  pipe  of  com- 
munication. 

Alveolus,  in  anatomy,  the  fockcts  in  the  jaws 
wherein  ijie  teeth  are  fixed. — Some  writers  fpeak  of 
teeth  growitig  without  alveoli.  Pliny  mentions  a  pcr- 
fo.T  who  had  a  tooth  in  jiis  palate.  Eiifiacliiiis  relates, 
that  he  faw  a  man  who  at  50  had  a  tooth  growing  out 
oftlic  middle  of  his  fatices.  Holler  gives  an  inftance 
of  a  peiibn,  whofe  teeth  wcreof  a  piece  with  his  jaws, 
without  any  infcrtion  into  alveoli. 

ALUM,  in  chemiflry,  a  clear  and  tranfparent  fa- 
line  matter,  ufually  fold  in  large  maflcs,  of  a  very 
auftere  and  aftringent  talle,  ufeful  in  medicine  and  in 
various  arts. 

Mod  of  the  alum  to  be  met  with  is  artificially  pre- 
pared by  il;e  methods  related  in  their  proper  place  un- 
der the  article  Chemistry,  or  by  others  fimilar  to 
them  ;  though  fonietimcs  a  fmall  quantity  is  produced 
naturally.  This  native  alum  is  mixed  with  heteroge- 
neous matters,  or  efflorefces  in  various  forms  upon  the 
ores  during  calcination.  It  rarely  occurs  in  acryflalliz- 
cd  Hate,  though  thus  it  is  faid  to  be  met  with  in  Egypt, 
Sardinia,  Spain,  Bohemia,  and  other  places.  It  is  alfo 
found  in  the  waters,  iinpregnated  v,-ith  fixed  air,  but 
very  feldom  in  fountains  or  hot  medicated  waters. 

There  are  feveral  kinds  of  alum  to  be  met  with  ; 
but  thefc  differ  from  one  another  only  in  being  mixed 
with  fomefalts  which  are  not  of  the  aluminous  kind. 
That  called  the  Roman  alum  has  been  conddered  as 
preferable  to  any  other.  This  is  ufually  met  with  in 
fmall  cryflals,  and  has  a  redidi  colour,  mod  probably 
owing  to  a  fmall  quantity  of  calx  of  iron,  which,  how- 
ever, does  not  in  the  leaft  impair  its  qualities.  The 
other  kinds  of  alum  contain  a  portion  cither  of  viirio- 
lated  tartar  or  fal  ammoniar,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  alkali  ufed  in  its  preparatio;).  Mr  Bergman  in- 
forms us,  that  the  vegetable  alkali,  if  pure,  docs  not 
hurt  the  alum,  though  it  be  added  in  the  preparation; 
but  that  the  volatile  alkali,  by  adulterating  it  with  a 


portion  of  vitriolic  fal  ammoniac,  renders  it  unfit  for 
forne  purpofcs.  The  alum,  made  by  adding  a  portion 
of  tlay  to  the  liquor  at  tlie  beginning  ot>the  boiling, 
he  conlidersas  equal,' it  not  fu])crior,  to  Roman  alum. 
He  informs  us  alio,  that  a  kind  of  alum  fome  time  ano 
began  to  be  manufaiflured  at  Brnnfwick,  which  was 
equal  in  quality  to  the  Roman  alum.  On  a  chemical 
analylis  of  (his  alum  he  found  it  mixed  with  cobalt. 

This  fall  i^  extremely  ufeful  in  the  art  of  dyeing;  as 
by  means  of  it  a  great  number  of  colours  are  fixed  ai>d 
rendered  permanent  upon  cloth,  which  other  wife  would 
either  not  adhere  in  any  degree, or  only  for  a  very  fliort 
time.  In  what  manner  this  is  acconipliHicd  we  are 
very  much  ignorant ;  the  conjeftures  and  theories  on 
this  fubjecl  arc  related  under  the  article  Dyei  no.  It 
eouflitutcb  the  bafis  of  crayons,  which  generally  confifl 
of  the  earth  of  alum  finely  powdered  and  tinged  for 
the  purpofe.  In  the  preparation  of  Pruliian  blue,  it 
prevents  the  bafis  of  martial  vitriol,  which  is  folublc 
iu  acids,  from  being  precipitated  by  the  fuperfluous  al- 
k;Ji  employed  in  the  preparation  of  that  pigment ;  that 
is,  the  alkali  which  is  not  faturated  by  the  colouring 
matter.  As  this  bads  adheres  more  rtrongly  than  the 
clay  to  the  vitriolic  acid,  and  would  form  a  green  by 
the  mixture  of  itsyellovvnefs,  the  white  eartli  of  alum 
likewifc,  according  to  its  quantity,  dilutes  the  darker 
colours,  even  black  itTclf,  and  produces  an  infinite 
number  of  (hades.  It  is  alfo  of  ufe  in  the  making  of 
candles;  for  being  mixed  with  the  tallow,  it  gives  it 
an  hardncfs  and  confiflence  v;hich  ithas  not  naturally. 
Wood  fuflicicnily  foaked  in  a  folution  of  aluin  does  not 
eafily  take  fire,  and  the  fame  is  true  of  paper  impreg- 
nated with  It  ;  which  for  that  reafon  is  very  properly 
employed  in  prefervinggun-powder,asitalfo  excludes 
the  moifture  of  the  air.  Paper  iinpregnated  with  alum 
isuleful  in  whitening(ilver,andiilveringbrals  without 
heat.  Alum  is  alfo  of  ufe  in  tanning,  where  it  aflifts 
in  relloring  the  cohefions  of  thelkins  almofl  entirely 
deftroycd  by  the  lime.  Vintners  Sue  down  their 
wines,  &c.  with  alum  -,  filliers  ufe  it  to  dry  codfirti 
with  ;  and  bakers  have  mixed  it  with  the  flour  to  make 
their  bread  compait  and  white  :  to  this  lafl  ufe  of  it 
great  objeclions  have  been  made,  but  unjullly,  for  it 
is  entirely  innocent,  and  now  feldom  ufed. 

In  medicine  it  is  of  confidcrablc  ufe  as  an  aflringent 
and  tonic.  It  is  reckoned  particularly  ferviceable  for 
retraining  hemorrhagies,  and  immoderate  fecretions 
from  the  blood  ;  but  lefs  proper  in  intellinal  fluxes.  In 
violent  hemorrhagies,  it  may  be  given  iu  dofes  of  rj 
or  20  grains,  and  repeated  every  hour  or  half  hour  till 
the  bleeding  abates  :  in  other  cafes,  fmaller  dofes  are 
more  advifable  ;  large  ones  being  apt  to  naufeate  the 
ftomach,  and  occafion  violent  conftipations  of  the 
bowels.  It  is  ufed  alfo  externally,  in  aflringent  and 
repellent  lotions  and  collyria.  Burnt  alum  taken  irt- 
tcrnally  has  been  highly  extolled  ia  cafes  of  colic.  In 
fuch  inftances,  when  taken  to  the  extent  of  a  fcruple 
for  a  dofe,  it  has  been  faid  gently  to  move  the  belly, 
and  give  very  great  relief  from  the  fevere  pain.  Irs 
officinal  preparationsare,  for  internal  nfo,  pulvis  flyp- 
tictii,  and  aqua  flyptica  for  external  applications, 
the  aqua  atuiitiiiis,  and  cnagulum  aluviivis  and  aluihen 
uflmn ;  which  lafl;  is  no  other  than  the  alum  dried  by 
fire,  or  freed  from  the  watery  moiflure,  which,  like  o- 
thcr  falts,  it  always  retains  in  its  cryflallineform.  By 

this 


Alum. 


A  L  Y 


[    511     ] 


A  M  A 


AJuni.     tliislol's  of  its  water  it  becomes  Hiarpcr,  foas  to  aft  as 
Alj/Tiini.    a  (light  ci'cliaiotic  ;  and  it  is  chicliy  with  this  intcu- 
'— ^< ■  tion  tliat  it  is  employed  in  medicine,  being  very  rare- 
ly taken  internally.  For  thefc  preparations,  lee  Phar- 
macy. 

■  j4li'm  mines  are  faid  to  have  been  firfl  found  in 
Italy  in  the  year  1460;  and  in  ijo6  king  Henry  VII. 
made  a  monopolizing  grant  of  this  commodity  to  A\i- 
guflinc  Chigi,  a  merchant  of  Sienna.  In  tiie  year 
1608  the  maniifadnre  of  almn  was  liril  invented,  and 
fucccfsfully  pradlifed  in  England,  meeting  with  great 
encouragement  in  Yorkfl'.ire,  where  it  was  iiril  nude, 
from  Lord  Sheffield,  and  other  gentlemen  of  that 
county.  King  James  I.  by  advice  of  his  miniflry,  af- 
fumed  the  monopoly  of  it  to  himftlf,  and  therefore 
prohibited  the  importation  of  foreign  alum  ;  and  in 
162J  the  importation  of  it  was  further  prohibited  by 
the  proclamation  of  Charles  1. 

/iuuM-vj/iiki,  places  where  alum  is  prepared,  and 
matiufaiSlurcd  in  quantities  for  fale.  They  differ  from 
ahim-mines,  as  in  the  former  an  artificial  alum,  and 
in  the  latter  natural  alum,  is  produced. 

ALUNTIUM,  Alontium,  (anc.  geog.)  a  town 
in  the  north  of  Sicily,  lituated  on  a  flcep  eminence,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Chydas  j  faid  to  be  as  old  as  the  war 
of  Troy.  Now  in  ruins  ;  from  which  arofe  the  ham- 
let St  FUadclJo,  in  the  V'al  di  Demona.  The  inha- 
bitants were  callcil  Haluutnii, 

ALVUS,  in  anatomy,  a  term  ufed  for  the  belly  in 
general,  but  more  frequently  applied  to  the  bowels. 

ALWAIDII  a  feft  of  Mahometans  who  believe 
all  great  crimes  to  be  unpardonable. — The  Alwadii 
(landin  oppolUion  to  the  Morgii.  They  attribute  lefs 
efficacy  to  the  true  belief  in  the  falvation  of  men  than 
the  rell  of  the  Mulfelmans. 

ALYSSUM,  ALLV5oN,orALLYsoiDES,Madwort; 
(from  axus-s-M,  to  be  mad ;  becaufc  it  was  believed  to 
have  the  property  of  curing  madnefs)  :  A  genus  of  the 
filiculofa  order,  belonging  to  the  tetradynaniia  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and,  in  the  natural  method,  ranking  under  the 
;9th  order,  Silicjuofa.  The  char.ifters  are  :  The  calyx 
is  an  oblong  four-Ie.ived  pcrianthium  :  The  coro//a  con- 
fifts  of  four  cruciform  petals  ;  with  claws  the  length 
•>f  the  calyx,  the  petals  Ihorter  :  The  fiamhia  conlilt  of 
fix  filaments,  the  length  of  the  calyx,  twooftliem  ra- 
ther fhorter  and  denticulated  ;  the  antherse  arc  erefl 
and  expanding:  The  pijlilltii/t  has  an  ovate  germca; 
the  flylus  is  I'lmple,  and  the  length  of  the  ftamina  ;  the 
Aigma  is  obtule  :  The  pericardium  is  a  fub-globular 
cmarginated  filicle,  furniflied  with  a  bilocular  flylus, 
having  an  elliptic  partition  :  xXml  fcedi  arc  few,  orbi- 
cular, and  affixed  to  filiform  receptacles. 

Species.  Of  this  genus,  Linnaeus  enumerates  19 
fpccies  ;  but  none  of  them  arc  remarkable  either  for 
beauty,  or  any  other  property,  except  the  luMmifo- 
lium,  or  rnaihvort  with  whole  fpcar-lhapcd  leaves. 
This  fprcads  itfelf  upon  the  ground,  and  never  riles 
to  any  height.  It  produces,  at  tjie  extremity  of  its 
branches,  very  pretty  tufts  of  fmall  white  flowers  ;  of 
which  it  is  fcldom  dcrtituic  for  fix  or  fevcn  months 
luccellivcly  j  for  which  reafon  it  well  deferv£S  a  place 
in  the  gardens  of  the  curious. 

Cuitiire.  Though  thefc  plants  are  natives  of  the 
foutbern  parts  of  Europe  ;  yet,  if  planted  on  a  dry, 
lean;  or  nibbilhy  foil,  ihcy  will  civdurc  the  fcvereil  win- 


ters in  the  open  air. — The  halimifolium  felJom  conti-  Alj-tirdia 
nues  above  two  or  three  years,  and  muft  therefore  be  \ 

often  fown  to  prcfcrvc  it  ;  or  if  the  feeds  are  futFercd  An...la'.ar. 
to  fill,  the  plants  will  rife  without  any  trouble.      It         " 
may  alfo  be  propagated   by  cuttings,  which  ought  to 
be  planted  in  April  or  May,  and  arc  very  apt  to  take 
root,  if  kept  fliadcd  in  the  beat  of  the  day,  and  gently 
refrelhcd  with  water. 

Tliis  jilant,  as  already  obfcrved,  was  tliought  to 
cure  fome  kinds  of  madnefs  ;  but  the  prcfent  prafticc 
has  entirely  rejcftcd  it  for  iliis  or  any  other  ptirpol'c. 
ALYTARCHA,  a  priefl  of  Antioch  iu  Syria,  who, 
in  the  games  inflituted  in  honour  of  liic  grids,  prclidej 
over  the  officers  who  carried  rods  to  clear  away  the 
crowd  and  keep  order. 

In  the  Olympic  games,  the  Aly larches  ludthc  Ikmr, 
command,  and  obliged  every  pcrfon  to  prcfcrvc  ordti' 
and  decency. 

ALZIRA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Valcntia,  feaicd  on  the  river  Xucar,  E.  Long.  o.  20. 
N.  Lat.  39.  10. 

AMA,  in  ccclcliafiical  writers,  denotes  a  vcfTcl 
wherein  wine,  water,  or  the  like,  were  held,  for  the. 
ferviccof  the  cucharift.  In  this  fenl'e  the  wordisalfU 
written  aniula  ;  fonietimes  alfo  hama,  and  hamula. 

Am  A  is  fonietimes  alfo  ufcd  for  a  wiac-mcafure,  as 
a  ca(k,  pipe,  or  the  like. 

AMABYR,  a  barbarous  cuflom  which  formerly 
prevailed  in  feveral  parts  of  England  and  Wales,  being 
afum  of  money  paid  to  the  lord  when  a  maid  was  mar- 
ried within  his  lordfliip.  The  word  is  old  Britilh,  and 
fignifics  "the  price  of  virginity." 

AMADABAT,  a  corruption  from  Ahmed  abad 
or  Ahmed's  city,  (fo'callcd  from  a  king  of  that  name)  ; 
a  large  and  populous  city  ot  Indoflan,  and  the  capirel 
of  the  province  of  Guzcrat.     It  is  fituatcdin  £.  Long. 
72. 12.  N.Lat.  2;.  o.     Amadabat  was  formerly  called 
Cuzcrat ;  and  by  Slnh  Jehan  nicknamed  Cherdakdd, 
or  <'  the  habitation  of  duft,"  becauf^  it  was  much  in- 
commoded  thcrew  iih.     It  n\ as  the  feat  of  the  Guzcrat 
kings,  as  it  is  now  of  the  Mogul  governor.     The  city 
Hands  in  a  Leauiikil  plain  ;  and  is  watered  by  the  little 
river  Sabrimetti,  which,  though  net  deep,  in  time  of 
rains  overflows  the  pl.iins  prodigiouliy.     The  Wills 
are  built  with  rtonc  and  brick,  flanked  at  certain  di- 
ftauces  with  great  roi;nd  towers  and  Laiilctr.ents.     It 
has  twelve  gates  ;  and,  including  the  fuburbs,  is  about 
four  miles  and  an  half  long.     The  Arrets  are  wide. 
The  meyddn  Jhah,  or  king's   fquarc,   is    700  paces 
long  and   400  broad,  planted  round  witii  trees.     On 
the  weft  (idc  is  the  caltic,  well  wailed  wi:h  free  Ilenc, 
and  as  fpicious  as  a  little  city  ;  but  its  inward  appear- 
ance is  not  conformable  to  its  external  magnificence. 
The  caravanfera  is  on  the  fouth  of  the  Iqiiare,  and  ii  j 
chief  ornament.     Near  the  mcydan  alfo  is  the  king's 
palace,  whofe  apartments  are  richly  ornEnientcd:  tad 
in  the  midll  of  the  city  is  the  Englilh  factory,  where 
they  purchafc  fine  chintz,  callicots,  and  Jther  Indian 
merchandize     The  place  is  fo  full  of  g.ir.'ens  ftorcd 
with  fruit  trees,  that  from  an  eminence  it  looks  like  a  • 
wood.     The  Hindoos  have  here  an  Iiofpital  for  lii  k 
bealls,  and  another  for  fick  birds,  which  they  take 
great  care  of.     According  to  fome  Uie  accounts,  this 
city  is  little  inferior  to  the  bcfi  in   Curope,  a.Td  is 
thought  10  yield  tcu  times  .is  much  ;cvcnuca-s  Surat. 

AM.-\D.\>7. 


A   M  A 


[     5'2     ] 


A   iM   A 


AMADAN,  or  Ham  ADAN,  a  towu  of  J'cvii<i,  be- 
tween Taurus,  and  Ifpalian,  K.  Lon;j.  47.  4.  N.  Lat. 
35.  ty.  It  is  Icaicd  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain,  where 
tlicre  area  f>Tr;it  many  fpringt,  whicli  water  the  adj:;- 
ccnt  country.  The  extent  of  the  city  is  very  'a'.gc  ;  b  .t 
iberearc  a  great  many  w:ifte  I'pots  wiihin  it,  as  well  as 
cultivated  land.  The  honfcs  are  bnil:  ol"  brick  harden- 
ed in  the  fun,  and  have  but  a  very  indiftcreiit  afpctt. 
There  is  but  one  tolernble  ftreet  ;  and  that  is  where 
fluffs,  garments,  and  the  like,  are  cxpofcd  to  falc  :  it 
isllraight,  long,  and  wide  ;  and  the  (hops  are  very  well 
fnrnilhed.  The  adjacent  parts  are  fruitful  in  corn  and 
rice,  irfomu-h  that  ihcncighbouri"g  provinces  are  fup- 
plied  from  h-ii'-e.  It  is  l.iid  10  enjoy  a  very  fahibrious 
air,  but  the  cold  in  winter  is  intenfe.  The  Armenians 
have  a  church  in  this  town,  Inu  it  is  a  very  ill-contrived 
rmcturc.  The  Jews  have  a  fynagoguc  near  a  tomb, 
where  they  pretend  Efther  and  Mordecailic  interred. 
To  this  ]darc  they  come  in  pilgrimage  from  ftveral 
parts  of  the  Levant.  About  a  league  from  Amadan, 
tliereisamoinitain  called  yVa//'.;'.'",  which  abounds  with 
all  forts  of  curioi's  herbs.  In  the  ff  ring,  people  flock 
to  this  mountain  from  all  parts  to  recover  their 
health,  by  fucking  in  the  f  li.tary  efiluvia  with  their 
breath. 

Ainadan  is  a  very  ancient  city.  It  is  faid  to  have 
been  dtflroyed  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  rebuilt  by 
Darius,  v.ho  brought  hither  all  his  riches.  The  kings 
of  Pcrtia  frequently  retired  to  this  place  on  account  of 
Its  dclighti'ul  fitiiation  ;  for  which  reafon  it  olitained 
llie  name  of  the  Royn! city.  It  was  conquered  by  th« 
khalif  Othman,  and  narrowly  efcapcd  being  deftroycd 
by  Jenghiz  Khan  iii  1220.  It  had  then  flrong  walls 
and  a  good  caflle,  which  arc  now  in  ruins.  Its  prefent 
beauty  confiils  in  its  gardens  and  fprings. 

AMADANAGEU,  a  town  in  the  liither  pcninfu- 
la  of  India,  in  the  province  of  Decan.  E.  Long.  74. 
]>".  N.  Lat.  18.  10. — It  was  taken  by  the  Moguls  in 
I J93,  after  a  fr/je  of  fix  months  ;  being  at  that  time 
defended  by  a  flrong  eaftle,  fituatcd  on  an  eminence, 
and  furrounded  with  deep  ditches,  into  which  fevaral 
fprings  difrharged  their  waters. 

AMADIA,  a  trading  town  of  Alia,  in  Curdiflan, 
belonging  to  the  Turks  ;  fcated  on  a  high  mountain. 
E.  Lon^.  4^.  I  N.  Lat.  36.  2y. 

AMADOW,  a  kind  of  blaek-ntatcL,  tinder,  or 
touch-wood,  which  comes  fromGermany.  It  is  made 
of  a  fort  of  large  mulhrooms,  or  fpungy  excrefcences, 
which  commonly  grow  on  old  trees,  efpecially  oaks, 
afli,  and  firs.  Tliis  fubflance  being  boiled  in  conimon 
water,  and  afterwards  dried  and  well  beaten,  is  then  put 
into  a  llrong  lye  prepared  with  falt-petre,  after  which 
it  is  again  put  to  dry  in  an  oven.  The  druggiftsfell 
this  match  wholcfale  in  Franc  «-,.ind  feveral  hawkers  re- 
tail it.  Some  give  to  the  amadow  the  naine  of  Pyre- 
lichnical  Spuiiyi,  bceavrfe  of  its  aptnefs  to  take  fire. 

A^^ABOW  I\Y,  akind  of  cotton  which  comes  from 
Alexandria,  by  the  way  of  Marfcillcs, 

AM.AIN,  in  the  fea-languagc,  a  term  importing 
to  lower  forp.cthing  at  once.  Thus,  10  Jliike  arnahi,  is 
to  lower,  or  let  fall,  the  top- fails  r  xowitve  an/aiii,  is  to 
make  a  fignal,  by  waving  a  drawn  fword,  or  the  like, 
as  a  demand  that  the  enemy  (\r\Vc  their  top-fails. 

AMAC,  a  fmail  illand  in  the  Baltic  fca,  near  Co- 
penhagen, from  which  't.js  feparatcd  by  a  canal, 
'"  .3 


over  which  there  is  a  driw-bridge.  Aniak  is  about  Air«l, 
four  miles  long  and  two  broad  j  and  is  chlelly  peopled  Arualclt. 
by  the  dcfcendaiits  of  a  colony  from  tall  t'riellaKd,  to  """^ 
whom  tile  illand  was  eontignid  by  Chrifti.in  II.  at  the 
rtq^Rll  of  liiswilc  Llizabcili,  liderof  Charles  V.  for 
the  purpofc  of  lupplying  her  wiih  vegetables,  cheefe, 
and  butter.  From  the  intermarriages  of  thcfe  colonies 
with  the  Danes,  the  prefent  inhabitants  arc  chiefly  dt- 
fccnded  J  but  as  they  wear  their  own  drcfs,  and  enjoy 
peculiar  privileges,  they  appear  a  diftiiict  race  from 
the  natives.  The  illand  contains  about  lix  villages, 
and  between  3000  and  4000  fouls.  It  has  two  church- 
es, in  which  the  niiniflerspreachoccafionally  in  Dutch 
and  Danifli.  The  inhabitants  have  theirown  inferior 
tribunals  ;  but  in  capital  offences  are  amenable  to  the 
king's  court  of  jullice  at  Copenhagen.  The  old  na- 
tioniil  habit,  brought  by  the  original  colony  when  they 
firfl 'migrated  to  the  illand,  is  Itillin  ufe  amongll  thcni. 
It  refemblcsthe  habit  of  the  ancient  quakers,  as  repre- 
fcnied  in  the  pictures  of  the  Dutch  and  Fleniilh  paint- 
ers. The  men  wear  broad-brimmed  hats,  blackjac- 
kets,  full  glazed  breeches  of  the  fame  colour,  loofe  at 
the  knee,  and  tied  round  the  waift.  The  women  were 
drelTed  chiefly  in  black  jackets  and  petticoats,  with  a 
pieceofbluc  glazed  cloth  bound  round  their  heads.  The 
i'.land  is  laid  out  in  gardens  and  paflures  ;  and  ftill,  ac- 
cording to  the  original  defign,  fupplies  Copenhagen 
with  milk,  butter,  and  vegetables.  E.  Long.  12.  10. 
N.  Lat.  55.  20. 

AMAL,  a  town  of  Sweden,  in  the  province  of  Da- 
land,  feated  on  the  river  Wefer.  It  nas  a  good  har- 
bour ;  and  carries  on  a  great  trade,  efpecially  in  timber, 
deals,  and  tar.  E.  Long.  12.  40.  N.  Lat.  58.  50. 

AMALEK,  the  fon  of  Eliphaz,  by  Timna  his  con- 
cubine, and  the  grandfon  of  Efau.  Gen.  xxxvi.  12. 
and  I  Chri  i.  36.  Amalek  fucceeded  Gatam  in  the  go- 
vernment of  Edom.  He  was  the  father  of  the  Ania- 
lekites  ;  a  powerful  people  who  dwelt  in  Arabia  Pe- 
traea,  between  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Red  fea,  or  be- 
tween Havilaand  Shur  (i  Sam.  xv.  7.)  ;  fometimesin 
one  canton,  and  fotnetimes  in  another.  It  does  not 
appear  that  they  had  cities  :  for  there  is  no  mention 
of  any  but  one  in  the  Scriptures  [id.  ii  $.)  ;  they  li- 
ving generally  in  hamlets,  caves,  or  tents. 

The  Ifraelites  had  fcarcepalfed  the  Red  Sea  on  their 
way  to  the  wildernefs,  before  the  Amalekites  came  to 
attack  them  in  the  defarts  of  Raphidim  (Ex.  xvii.  8, 
S:c.);  and  put  thofe  cruelly  to  the  fword  who  were  ob- 
liged, either  through  fatigue  or  weaknefs,  to  remai» 
behind.  Mofes,  by  divine  command,  direrted  Jolhua 
to  fall  upon  this  people  ;  to  record  the  acl  of  inhumanity 
which  they  had  committed  in  a  book,  in  (U'der  to  have 
it  always  before  his  eyes  ;  and  to  revenge  it  in  the  mofl 
remarkable  manner.  Jofliua  therefore  fell  upon  the 
Amalekites,  and  defeated  them  while  Mofes  was  upon 
the  mountain  with  Aaron  and  Hur  in  company.  Mo- 
fes, during  the  time  of  the  engagement,  held  "p  his 
hands,  to  which  the  fuccefs  of  the  battle  was  owing  ; 
for  as  often  as  he  let  them  down,  Amalek  prevailed. 
But  Mofcs's  hands  being  tired,  Aaron  and  Hur  fup- 
ported  l*is  arms,  and  held  them  exiended,  while  the 
battle  lafted,  which  was  from  morning  till  the  approadi 
of  night,  when  the  Amalekites  were  cut  in  pieces. 
This  happened  in  the  year  of  the  world  2513,  before 
Chrift  1491. 

The 


A  M  A 


[ 


kn^altk.      T!ic  gron:;d  of  the  enmity  ol'thf  AranltXires  agiiiifl 

-^ •  liic  IlVaclites  is  jjriicrally  ('ipjxjfcd  to  liivt  bcrii  an  in- 

iiaie  iiaircd  t'roin  tlic  rciiiciiUxMU'c  of  Jacob's  <;cpii- 
viiig  tlitir  progenitor  both  <>{  his  binh;  i^ht  aao  Llcf- 
ling.  Their  falling  upon  them,  however,  anJ  that 
w  iihomaiiy  provocation,  when  •.he/fa'.v  theinrc.liiciil 
t.>  fo  low  a  condition  by  the  latigMc  of  tlieir  march 
and  tiie  cxccffivc  droiiT;htthcy  laboured  under,  was  an 
inhnniin  action,  and  jui'tly  dcfervcdihc  defeat  »vliich 
Jodiua  gave  thcni.  Under  the  Jm'jjf  s  (v.  3.),  v/c  ice 
the  Amalckites  united  with  the  jMi.iiaiiitesand  Moab- 
ites;  in  a  dcli;^n  to  opprcfs  Ifracl ;  but  Ehud  delivered 
the  Ifracliies  from  K^lonkin^jof  the  Moabiics  (JuJj;cs 
iti.),  and  Gideon  (chap.  vi:i.)  delivered  them  from  the 
Midianites  and  Amalckitcs.  About  the  year  oi'  the 
world  1930,  Saul  marched  againfltlic  Anialekites,  ad- 
vanced as  far  as  their  capital,  and  pnt  all  the  people 
of  the  country  to  the  ("word  ;  but  fyarcd  the  bcft  of  all 
the  cattle  and  moveaMes,  contrary  to  a  divine  coin- 
mandi  whichaclof  difobcdicncc  was  the  caufe  of  Saul's 
future  misfortunes. 

After  this  war,  the  Amalekites  fcarce  appear  any 
more  in  hiltsry.  However,  about  the  year  of  the 
world  2949,  a  troop  of  Amalckitcs  came  and  pillaged 
Ziklao;,whiciibelonged  to  David  (i  Sam. xxx.),  where 
he  had  left  his  two  wives  Ahiuoani  and  Abigail ;  but 
he  returning  from  .^n  txpeditionwhich  he  had  made  in 
the  company  of  Acliidi  into  the  valley  of  Jezrccl,  pur- 
fjed  them,  overtook  and  difperfed  thciii,aud  recover- 
ed all  the  booty  which  they  had  carried  off  ironi  Zik- 
lag. 

The  Arabians  maintain  Amalek  to  have  been  the 
fonof  Ham  and  grandfon  of  Noah  ;  that  he  was  the 
father  of  Ad  and  grand  father  of  Stliedad.  Calmct 
thinks  that  this  opinion  is  by  no  means  to  be  rejected  ; 
as  it  is  not  very  probable  that  Amalek  the  fon  of  Eli- 
phaz,  and  grandfon  of  Efau,  fliould  be  the  father  of  a 
fcDple  fo  powerful  and  numerous  as  the  Amalekites 
wtrewheii  the  Ifraeliies  departed  out  of  Egypt.  Mofes 
in  ilie  IxHjk  ofGenefis  (xiv.  7.)  relates,  that  in  Abra- 
him's  lime,  long  before  tlie  birth  of  Amalek,  the  fon 
of  Eliphaz,  the  five  confederate  kings  carried  the  v.-ar 
into  Amalek's  country,  about  KadcQi  ;  and  into  ih^t 
of  the  Amorites,  about  Hazczontaniar.  The  fame 
Mofes  (Numb.  xxiv.  ao.)  relates,  that  thedivintr  Ba- 
laam, obfervingat  a  diftance  the  land  of  Amalek,  fai<i, 
in  his  prophetic  flyle,  "Amalek  is  the  fiiil,  the  head, 
tlvc  original  of  the  nations  ;  but  his  latter  end  Ihall  be 
liiat  lif  perilh  forever."  Oiir  commentator  obfervcs, 
that  this  epiihetof  (he  firftof  nations  caiiiict  certainly 
agree  'vith  the  Amalckitcs  dciccnded  from  the  fon  of 
EJiphaz,  becaufc  the  gcacration  then  living  was  but 
the  third  from  Amalek.  Befidcs,  Mofes  never  re- 
proaches the  ."Amalekites  with  attacking  their  brethren 
rhe  Ifraelites  j  an  aggravating  circumftance  which  he 
Would  not  have omiiicd  were  thf  Amalekites  defcc need 
from  Lfau  ;  in  wl;ich  cafe  they  biA  been  the  breihrt  n 
".'the  Ifraelites.  Ladly,  vve  fccihe  Amalekites  alnioll 
always  joined  in  the  Scriptf.rr  with  the  Canaanitrsaud 
rhiliflints,  and  never  with  the  Edomitcs  ;  and  wl.cn 
Saul  madr  war  upon  the  Amalekites. and  almoll  utterly 
rirOroytd  I'oeni.wedonot  find  that  the  Edon. ties  maJc 
the  lead  motion  tovv.Trdsthciraitiltancf,  nor  lorevtr.iic 
them  aficrwardr.  Thence  it  istiioupht  )jrpl>^l>le.  lh:!t 
*hc  Ainalckitts  wiio  are  (imfteu  ;ueiilitJt»cd  in  Strlp- 

VuL.  :. 


13     ]  A   M   A 

lure  were  a  free  people  JefcenJcd  (rom  Canaan,  and 
devo'.cd  to  the  curfc  as  well  as  the  otiier  Anioritcs,  and 
very  dincrent  fro,;i  ibc  defcciiu.a:ti  of  Amaick  iht 
graadfuii  of  Efau. 

The  acciiuncs'which  the  Ar;ibians  give  us  of  the 
Anialc):::cs  dcrtroyed  by  Saul  arc  as  lolluw.  An.»l;k. 
was  the  father  ofa.n  ancient  triLc  in  Arabia,  extermi- 
nated in  the  rci;;n  of  Saul.  This  tribe  contained  only 
I'ne  Ar;'!  ianswhoarc  aWcdiure ;  tiic  remain j  where- 
of were  mingled  with  the  posterity  of  Juktaii  and  Ad- 
naa,  and  fo  became  Moi'arabesor  i\loilaarabcs  ;  that  i.. 
to  fay,  Arabians  blended  with  foreign  nation;.  They 
farther  believe,  that  Ooliah,  who  was  overcome  by 
David,  was  king  of  the  Amalekites  ;  and  that  the 
giants  who  inLabired  I'alcllinc  in  Jolhua's  time  were 
of  the  fame  race.  That  at  lalt  part  of  the  Amalekites 
retired  into  Africa  while  JoIl;;ia  was  yet  liviiig.and  fet- 
tled upon  the  coafts  of  Hiibiry,  along  the  Mediterra- 
nean fca.  The  fon  of  Amalek  was  Ad,  a  celelratcd 
j>rincc  among  the  Arabians.  Some  make  him  the  foi' 
of  Uz,  and  grandfon  of  Ararii  the  fonof  Shcm.  Lef 
this  be  as  it  v.iil,  the  Mahometans  fay  that  Ad  was 
the  father  of  an  Arabian  tribe  called  yH:tti ;  who  were 
externiinaicd,  as  they  tell  us,  for  not  hearkening  to 
the  patriarch  Eber,  Tv-ho  preached  the  unity  of  OoJ 
to  the.ni.     Ad  had  two  fons,  Schedad  and  Seh.edid. 

AMAL'rl,  an  ancient  city  of  Italy,  lituated  in  E. 
Long.  15.  20.  N.  Lat.  40.  ;j — Itisfaid  to  have  de- 
rived its  origin  tVom  2  number  of  Roman  familics,who, 
about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  either  from 
private  views  of  emolument,  or  in  confcquencc  of  com- 
pulfory  orders  from  the  emperor,  had  left  Rome  and 
emlJarked  for  Co.-iftantinoplc  :  but  meeting  with  florms 
on  ihcir  pail'agc,  were  call  away  on  ihc  Ihores  of  Sa- 
lerno, and  deprived  of  the  means  of  purfuing  their 
voyage.  In  this  ftate  of  perplexity  they  long  remain- 
ed, but  at  laft  came  to  the  rcfolution  of  fcttliag  on  the 
prdcnt  fite  of  Amalfi,  where  they  expcclcd  to  enjoy 
iVcurity  and  A'-fncient  plenty  of  the  ncceiFaricsof  life. 
The  carlieft  notice  of  them  ii;  this  fcitlcnient  dates  no 
higher  than  the  latter  end  of  the  fixrh  centary.  Im- 
pervious niouiuaias  and  inacceffiblc  coalls  prcfervcJ 
their  infant  ilate'froui  the  lirll  fury  of  the  Loir.birds. 
who  fcldom  attempted  the  toraiucft  of  a  marjiinjc 
people. 

In  the  year  825,  when  this  liiile  republic  h.id,  under 
the  patronage  of  the  cafiirn  emperors,  atiaiticd  a  de- 
gree of  wealth  and  reputation  fufticient  to  excite  tha 
ambition  of  its  neighbours,  Sico,  prince  of  Salerno, 
niarchcd  a  body  of  troops  by  night ;  furprifed  Air.al;".  ; 
and,  carrying  orf  the  grcatefl  part  of  the  ir.hs'oitants, 
compelled  them  to  fix  at  Salerno,  which  hsj  lately 
fuffcred  a  great  lofs  of  peojilc  by  sn  epidemical  difor- 
dcr.  But  before  tiie  fourth  ye-r  of  their  captivity  was 
expired,  the  Amalfians  tool;  aiivantageof  the  abicucc 
of  the  Salemian  chiefs,  who  w  c-c  than  carrying  0:1  a 
war  with  the  Eeneventai'i  ;  armed  ilienifelvcs  ;  snd, 
after  burning  and  plnndcring  Salerno,  marciicdin  11  i- 
uiiiph  back  to  their  ov/n  country. 

Here  they  framed  »  better  lyflcm  of  govcrnnien:, 
and  reformed  many  abufc&  in  tiitir  lorincr  legislation  : 
adcptjiig  various  ineafurcs  that  wcrclikelv  10  ;'rti:io;e 
internal  concord  and  defeat  the  c\il  in"  '   fu- 

r'iojncnituics.  Their  (:rtl  plan  was  10  vei  ■.-.t.l 

aii.hority  in  a  ainiHirary  prcle\:l  ;  Uit  iht  c:.^pc.'■;^nce 

3  r  of 


A  M  A 


[     SH     ] 


A  M  A 


Aniaia  of  a  lew  years  caiifcd  them  to  prefer  lodging  iliat 
pancr  in  the  hands  of  a  diikc  elected  for  the  term  of 
his  jiatiiral  life.  Under  ihefe  governors  Amalfi  at- 
laincil  the  funiniit  of  litr  military  and  commercial  glo- 
ry. It  extended  its  territory,  which  reached  eaftward 
from  Vice  Vccchio,  and  wellw.ird  to  the  proniouiury 
f'f  Minerva,  inehiding  likcwifc  the  illand  of  Caprea, 
and  the  two  illands  of  the  Galli.  Towards  the  north 
it  comprehended  the  cities  of  Lettcre,  Gragnans,  l-"!- 
montio,  and  Capule  di  Franchi  ;  towards  the  foiitli, 
thofe  of  Scala,  RavcUi,  Minori,  Majuri,  Atrani,  Tra- 
monii,  Agcriila,  Citara,  Prajano,  and  Rolilano. 

Leo  IV.  found  the  Amalhans  an  ufcful  ally  in  his 
■wars  with  the  in fidels,3nd  honoured  the  commonwealth 
with  the  title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith.  The  Neapo- 
lit.ins,  with  whom,  as  Greek  valliils,  they  were  uni- 
ted in  flri^t  bonds  of  friendlhip,expericjiccd  many  lig- 
nal  favours  a:  their  hands  ;  and  the  Mnllulraeu  theni- 
felvts  found  it  expedient  to  court  their  alli.ince,  and  to 
^entcr  into  treaty  with  them.  Their  lituation  had  from 
the  beginning  given  tJiem  a  turn  to  commerce,  and 
their  attention  to  naval  affairs  fo  much  confcqucnce  in 
the  eyes  of  their  protector,  the  emperor  of  Conflanti- 
nople,  that  by  his  orders  a  court  was  cllabliflied  at 
Amalli  for  the  decilion  of  all  coiitroverfics  arifing  in 
maritime  tranfa>."tions.  Its  code  and  reports  became  the 
general  rule  in  thofe  cafes  throughout  this  part  of  Eu- 
rope ;  its  precedents  and  decrees  were  allowed  to  be 
good  authority  tofoundjudgment  upon  even  in  foreign 
tribunals. — To  crown  the  mercantile  and  naval  glory 
of  the  republic,  it  was  referved  to  the  lot  of  an  Amal- 
tian  to  make,  or  at  Icalt  to  perfeft,  the  moll  import- 
ant difcovtry  ever  made  for  the  improvement  of  navi- 
gation. Palitano,  a  village  which  llands  on  thelhore 
a  few  miles  weft  of  Amaiti,  boafts  of  having  given 
birth  to  Flavius  Gioia,  the  inventor  of  the  jiiariner's 
compafs. 

The  merchants  of  this  town  engrolTed  the  trade  of 
the  Levant,  and  tranfadtd  the  commercial  bufinefsof 
the  world  in  a  lucrative  and  ex.  lulive  manner.  The 
Pifans,  Venetians,  and  Genoele,  rofeupon  iheir  ruin  ; 
and  after  monopolizing  the  emoluments  of  trade  for 
fome  ages,  made  way  for  the  more  comprehenfive  and 
daring  fpirit  of  the  prefen:  maritime  powers. 

At  prcfent  Amalfi  is  fubject  to  Naples,  and  is  the 
fee  of  an  archbilhop.  It  is  but  a  Ihadow  of  what  it 
was  in  its  flourilliingftate,  when  it  extended  over  the 
Ihipcndous  rocks  that  hungon  eacfi  fide,  flill  crowned 
with  battlemented  walls  and  ruined  towers.  Its  build- 
ings, Mr  Swinburne  fays,  are  not  remarkable  for  ele- 
gance or  fize  ;  and  contain  at  mofl  4000  inhabitant.s, 
who  feem  to  be  in  a  poor  line  of  life.  The  cathedral 
is  an  uncouth  building.  Under  the  choir  is  the  cha- 
pel and  tomb  of  the  apoflle  St  Andrew  -,  to  whofe 
honour  the  edifice  was  dedicated,  when  Cardinal 
Capuano  in  1208  brought  his  body  from  Conftanti- 
nople. 

AMALGAM,  mtrcury  united  with  fome  metal.- 

AMALGAMATION,  the  operation  of  making  an. 
amalgam,  or  mixing  mercury  with  any  metal. 

For  the  combination  of  one  metal  with  another,  it 
is  generally  fufficicnt  that  one  of  them  be  in  a  flate  of 
jflnidity.  Mercury  being  always  fluid,  is  therefore 
'.apable  of  amalgamation  with  other  metals  without 


Amaii 


heat  i  nevcnhclcfs,  licat  coniidcrably  facilitates  the  Aniiilt) 
operation. 

Toamalganiaic  without  heat  requires  nothing  more 
than  rubbing  tiie  two  metals  together  in  a  mortar  ; 
but  the  metal  to  be  united  with  tlie  mercury  Ihould  be 
previoully  divided  into  very  thin  plates  or  grains. 
Wlien  heat  is  ufed  (which  is  always  moll  ett'ettua!, 
and  with  fome  metals  indifpenfably  necelFary),  the 
mercury  (liould  be  heated  till  it  begins  to  fmoke,  and 
the  grains  of  metal  made  red-hot  before  they  are 
thrown  into  it.  If  it  be  goldor  (ilver,  itis  fufficicnt  to 
flir  the  fluid  with  an  iron  rod  for  a  little  while,  and 
then  throw  it  into  a  velfel  filled  with  water.  This 
amalgam  is  ufed  forgilding  or  lilvcring  on  copper, 
which  is  afterwards  expofed  to  a  degree  ol  heat  fuffici- 
cnt to  evaporate  the  mercury. 

Amalgamation  with  lead  or  tin  is  effefted  by  pour- 
ing an  equal  weight  of  mercury  into  either  of  thefe 
metals  in  a  Jlateof  fulion,  and  rtirring  with  an  iron 
rod.  Copper  amalgamates  with  great  difficulty,  and 
iron  not  at  all. 

AMALTILI'IA,  the  name  of  the  Cumasan  Sibyl, 
who  ofl'ered  to  Tarquinius  Superbus  nine  books,  con- 
taining the  Roman  deftinics,  anddemand'rd  300  piece.'' 
of  gold  for  them.  He  derided  her  ;  whereupon  fiie 
threw  threeof  them  intothe  fire;  and  returning,  alked 
the  fame  price  for  the  other  fix  ;  which  being  denied; 
file  burnt  three  more  ;  and  returned.  Hill  deniandiiig 
the  fame  pricj.  Upon  which  Tarquin  confulting  the 
pontiffs,  was  advifed  to  buy  them.  Thefe  books  were 
infuch  efteem,  that  two  magillrates  were  created  to 
confult.  them  upon  extraordinary  occafions,  ■ 

Amalthea,  in  pagan  mythology,  the  daughter  of 
MelilTus,  king  of  Crete,  and  the  nurfc  of  Jupiter, 
whom  ihe  fed  with  goat's  milk  and  honey.  Accord- 
ing to  others,  Amalthea  was  a  goat,  which  Jupiter 
tranllated  into  the  iky,  with  her  two  kids,  and  gave 
one  of  her  horns  to  the  daughters  of  MelilRis,  as  are- 
ward  for  the  pains  they  had  taken  in  attending  him. 
This  horn  hadthe  peculiar propertyoffurnilhingthem. 
with  whatever  they  wifliedfor  ;  and  was  thence  called 
the  coniticof'u:,  or  horn  of  plenty. 

AMALTH.-EUS  (Jerome,  John  Baptifta,  and  Cor- 
nielle),  three  celebrated  Latin  poets  of  Italy,  whoflou- 
rifhed  in  the  i6th  century.  Their  compolitions  were 
printed  at  Anillerdam  in  1685.  One  of  the  prettiell 
pieces  in  that  coUcdlion  is  an  epigram  on  two  childrcH, 
whofe  beauty  was  very  extraordinary,  though  each  of 
them  was  deprived  of  an  eye  : 

'  Lumine  Aeon  dextro,  captaefl  Leonfflafiniflro  ; 

'  Et  poterat  forma  vincere  nterque  deos. 
'Parvc  puer,  lumen  quod  habes  concede  forori ; 

'  Sic  tu  cjecus  Amor,  lie  erit  ilia  Venus.' 

AMAMA(Sixtinus),profcirorof  the  Hebrew  tongue 
in  theunivcrfity  of  Franeker,  a  raanof  great  learning, 
was  born  in  Frielland,  and  hadlfudied  under  Dru-lius. 
He  publiflied  a  criticifm  upon  the  tranllation  of  the 
Pentateuch  ;  collated  the  Dutch  tranllation  of  the  Bi- 
ble with  the  original  and  mod  accurate  tranllations  ; 
and  wrote  a  cenfure  of  the  Vulgate  trandation  of  the 
hiftorical  booksof  theOld  Tellament,  Job,  the  Pfalms 
and  Canticles.  It  is  impolfible  to  anfwer  the  reafons 
whereby  he  Ihows  thenccellity  o/confultingthe  origi- 
nals. 


A  M  A  [5 

iir.swc    nals.     This  he  rccoinnieiidcdfo  eariicflly,  that  Come 

II         fyiioJs,  being  influenced  by  his  rcafons,  decreed,  that 

mamcx.  j^^^j  Hiould  be  admitted  into  the  miniftry  but  fuch  as 

"         had  a  competent  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  and  Greeic 

t-extof  the  Scripture.     He  died  in  1A29. 

AMANCE,  a  town  in  the  duchy  of  Lorrain,  upon 
a  rivulet  of  the  fame  nam*;.     E.  Long.  6.  10.  N,  Lat. 

4S.  4J. 

AMAND  (Mark-Anthony-Gerard,  ficur  dc  St.),  a 
French  poet,  was  born  at  Roan  in  Normandy  in  i  J94. 
In  the  cpiltle  dedicatory  to  the  third  part  of  his  works, 
he  tells  us,  that  his  father  commanded  a  fquadron  of 
■  fliips  in  the  fervice  of  Elizabeth  queen  of  England  for 
32  years,  and  that  he  was  for  three  years  prifoner  in 
ihc  Black  Tower  at  Conllantinople.  He  mentions  al- 
fo,  that  two  brothers  of  liis  had  been  killed  in  ati  en- 
gagement againfl  the  Ttirks.  His  own  life  >vas  fpcnt 
inacoatinual  fucceflion  of  travels,  which  was  of  no  ad- 
vantage to  his  fortune.  There  arc  mifcelhneous  poems 
of  this  author,  the  grcatcil  part  of  which  are  of  the 
comic  or  burlefque,  and  the  amorous  kind.  Though 
there  are  many  blemilhes  in  his  poems,  yet  he  had  the 
talent  of  reading  thein  in  fo  agreeable  a  manner,  that 
every  one  was  charmed  with  them.  In  i6jo,  he  pu- 
bliflied  "  Stances  fur  !a  grolfcire  dc  la  reinc  dc  l-'ologne 
et  de  Seude."  There  arc  fix  flanzas  of  nine  verfes 
each.  In  i6j5,  he  printed  his  "  Moife  fauve,  idyle 
heroiquc."  This  poem  had  at  firft  many  admirers  : 
Monf.  Chapelain  called  \r.zf[>eakhig  pifture ;  but  it  has 
finec  fallen  into  contempt.  Amand  wrote  alfo  a  very 
devout  piece,  intitled  "Stances  aM.  Corneille,  furfon 
imitation  de  Jefus  Chrifl,"  which  was  printed  at  Paris 
in  1656.  Mr  BrolTettc  fays  that  he  wrote  alfo  a  poem 
upon  the  moon,  wherein  he  paid  a  compliment  to 
Lewis  XIV.  upon  his  (kill  in  fwininiing,  in  which  he 
ufcd  often  toexercife  himfelf  when  he  was  young,  in 
the  river  Seine  ;  but  the  king  could  not  bear  this  poem 
to  be  read  to  him,  which  is  faid  to  have  affecled  the 
author  to  fuch  a  degree,  that  he  did  not  furvive  it  long. 
He  died  in  i66r,  being  67  years  of  age.  He  was  ad- 
mitted a  member  of  the  French  academy,  when  it  was 
rirfl  founded  by  cardinal  Richlicu,  in  the  year  1633, 
and  Mr  Pelilfon  informs  us,  that,  in  1637,  at  his  own 
Jefire,  he  wasexcnfcd  fromthe  obligntion  of  niakinga 
fpeech  in  his  turn,  on  condition  that  he  would  compile 
the  comic  part  of  the  diclionary  which  the  academy 
had  undertaken,  and  collect  the  burlefque  terms.  This 
was  a  talk  well  fuitcd  to  him  ;  for  it  appears  by  his 
writings  that  lie  was  extremely  convcrfant  in  thefe 
terms,  of  which  he  feems  to  have  made  a  complete  col- 
lection from  tiie  markets  and  other  places  v.'hcre  the 
lower  people  re  fort. 

Amand  (St.),  a  city  of  France,  in  Bcurbonois,  on 
the  confines  of  Berry,  fcatcd  upon  the  river  Cher.  It 
vvas  built  in  r4io  on  the  ruins  of  Orval.  E.  Long.  3. 
?o.  N.  Lat.  46.  52. 

Amand  (St.),  a  city  of  the  Low  Countries,  in  the 
earldom  of  Flanders,  fcatcd  upon  the  river  Scarpe.  It 
contains  about  6co  houfes,  and  3000  or  4000  iiihabi- 
lants.  The  abbot  of  the  place  is  the  temporal  lord, 
i'.nd  difpofes  of  the  magiftracy.  It  was  given  to  France 
by  the  treaty  of  L'trccht.  E.  Long.  2.  3J.  N.  Lat. 
SO-  27. 

AMANICii!  pYi  .T.,  (Ptolemy);  Amanides  Pv- 


15       ]  A   M   A 

I*,  (Strabo)  ;  Ama>jiPort«,  (Pliny):  ftruightsor   .\u;jiiu-j 
dclilcs  in  mount  Amainis,  through  which  Uaiius  en- 
tered Cilicia  ;  at  a  greater  dillancc  from  the  fea  than 
the  PylaE  Cilicia;  or  Syria:,  through  which  Alexander 
palled. 

AMANTEA,  a /ca-port  town  and  bilhop's  fee  of 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  lituated  near  the  bay  of  En- 
pheniia  in  the  province  of  Calabria,  in  E.  Long.  16. 
20.  N.  Lat.  39.  I  J. 

AMANUS,  a  mountain  of  Syria,  feparating  it  from 
Cilicia  ;  a  branch  of  mount  Taurus,  (Cicero,  Strabo, 
Pliny) ;  extending  chietiy  eaflward,  from  the  fea  of  Ci- 
licia, to  the  Euphrates  :  now  called  Monti  Nigra,  or 
rather  Moiitagna  Ncrcs,  by  the  inhabitants  ;  that  is, 
the  watery  mountain,  as  abounding  in  fpringsand  ri- 
vulets. 

AMAPALLA,  a  city  and  port-town  of  North  A- 
nicrica,  in  the  province  of  Guatimala,  feated  on  the 
gulph  of  the  fame  name,  in  the  Pacilic  ocean.  W. 
Long.  63.  20.  N.  Lat.  12.  30. 

AMARANTE,  an  order  of  knighthood,  inftituted 
in  Sweden  by  queen  Chriftina,  in  163J,  at  the  clofc 
of  an  annual  feaft,  celebrated  in  that  country,  called 
Wiiifchaft.  This  feaft  was  folemnized  with  entertain- 
ments, balls,  mafquerades,  and  the  like  diverlicns,  and 

continued  from  evening  till  the  next  morning That 

princels,  thinkingthename  too  vulgar,  changed  it  into 
that  of  ihefeajl  of  the  gods,  in  regard  each  perfon  here 
rcprefentcd  fome  deity  as  it  foil  to  his  lot.  The  queen 
allumed  the  name  of  Arnarante ;  that  is,  unfading,  or 
immortal.  The  young  nobility,  drelfed  in  the  habit  of 
nymphs  and  Ihepherds,  ferved  the  gods  at  the  table. — 
At  rlic  end  of  the  feaft,  the  queen  threw  oif'her  habit, 
which  was  covered  with  diamonds,  leaving  it  to  be 
pulled  in  pieces  by  the  mafqucs  ;  and,  in  memory  of  fo 
gallant  a  feaft,  founded  a  military  order,  called  in  Swe- 
dilli  Cefchilfchafft,  into  which  all  that  had  been  prefcnt 
at  the  fcall  were  admitted,  including  16  lords  and  as 
many  ladies,  befides  the  queen.  Their  device  was  the 
cypher  of  Aviarautc,  coinpofcd  of  tw'o  A's,  the  one  c- 
rert,  theother  inverted,  and  interwoven  together  ;  the 
whole  inclofed  by  a  laurel  crosvn,  with  Uiis  motto, 
Dolce  tielta  mcmoria. 

Bulftrodc  Whitlock,  the  Engliili  ambairador  from 
Cromwell  to  the  court  of  Sweden,  was  made  a  knight 
of  the  order  of  Amarar.te  :  on  which  account  it  feems 
to  be,  rhat  we  fomeiimes  find  him  ftyled  Sir  Btiiflrode 
Whitlock. 

AMARANTHOIDES,  in  botany,  the  trivial  name 
of  a  fpecifs  of  illeccbrum.     See  Ii.lecebxpm. 

AMARANTHUS  (of  <  privative,  and  fiafaui,  ti 
'bilker,  becaufe  the  flower  of  this  plant  when  cropped 
does  not  foon  wither).  Am  ab  ant  h,  or  n  ower-qes- 
tle  :  A  genus  of  the  pentandria  order,  belonging  to 
the  montecia  clafs  of  plants  ;  and,  in  the  natural  me- 
thod, ranking  under  the  y4th  order,  Mifalhucx.  The 
characters  are  :  The  mat;  calyx  is  a  five  or  three  Icav'J 
pcrianthium,  ercft,  coloured,  and  pcrfiilcnt  :  There  is 
no  c'.rolla  :  The  jlamitia  confift  of  five  or  three  erett 
capillary  fil.iments,  the  length  of  the  calyx  :  the  an- 
thers are  oblong  and  verfatilc  :  1\\e  fev'jtc  calyx  the 
fame  as  the  male,  ar.d  no  corolla  :  The  pillilhvt  has  an 
ovate  germen  ;  the  ftyli  are  three,  fliort,  and  fubulated ; 
the  ftigmata  limple  and  perfiftent :  T\\c  perictirpiuni  is 
3  T  2  an 


A  M   A 


[     5»6     ] 


A  M  A 


Amarau-  an  nv;.te  cp.pfjlc,  ilircc-beakcd,  uiiilacular,  and  cut 
tlms       rojud  :   The  _/Vi</  ii  one,  globiiLu',  couiprciTtJ,  aiiJ 
Amityllis.  ] ,;  j^.^ 

'"~'^'       '      Sffci.t.     Of  iliis  geniis  Litinaeus  cmiiiieiaits  19 
fpttics  ;  the  niofl  rcinaikablc  ot' which  are  tlic  t"oll»\v- 
i.i?.     I.  'l"':c  rricolor,  or  ihrte  colo.ircd  aiiiaraiulius. 
This  has  been  long  cuUivaicM  in  gardens,  on  account 
of  the  bcaaiy  of  its  variegated  leaves,  which  arc  of 
ihrce  col'i.irs,  grccii,  yellow,  and  red  ;  and  very  ele- 
gantly mixed.      Wlien  the  pl;*ais  are  in  full  vigour, 
tile  leaves  are  larjjc,  and  cloftly  fet  from  ihe  bottom 
to  the  top  of  the  ll-tlks,  and   the  bianchcs  from  a  fort 
of  pyramid  ;  fo  that  there  is  not  a  more  beantiful  plant 
than  this  when  it  is  in  full  lullre.     2.  The  nielancho- 
licus,   bicolor,  or   two-coloured  aniaranthus.      This 
greatly  refcmblesthe  former  in  its  manner  of  growth  ; 
bur  live  leaves  have  only  two  colours,  which  are  an 
obfeurc  purple,  and  a  b'ijjht  crimfon.     1  Jicfe  arc  fo 
blended  as  to  ft  t  olfeich  other,  and,  when  the  plants  aac 
vigorous,  make  a  fine  appearance.     3.  The  caudata, 
with  very  long  hanging  cylindrical  fpikcs.     T  his  fpr- 
cies  if.  a  native  of  America.      It  hath  an  upright  flem 
three  feet  high  ;  ihc  leaves  and  P.alks  are  of  a  pale 
gretii  colour.     Tin-  fpikes  of  (lowers  are  produced 
from  the  wings  of  llic  (talks,  and  alfo  at  the  txire- 
Diiiies  of  the  branches.     They  are  of  a  bright  purple 
colour,  and  hann;  downward,  fomctimes  to  the  length 
of  two  feet  and  an  half,  fo  that  many  of  them  to.icii 
the  ground.     4.  The  niaximus,  or  tree-like  amarar- 
thus,  grows   with   a  ftrong  (Icni,   to  the  height  of 
fcven  or  eight  feet.     Towards  the  top  it  fends  forth 
many   horizontal   branches,    garniihed   with  obloiig 
rough  green  leaves.     At  the  extremity  of  every  (hoot, 
the  cylindrical  fpikes  «f  fiowers  are  produced.  They 
are  of  a  purple  colour,  and  hang  downward  like  tlic 
lafl ;  but  are  feldoni  half  tbc  length,  the'  much  tliick- 
er  than  the  former.     5.  The  fanguincus,  with  com- 
pound fpikes,  and  oblong  oval  leaves.     This  is  a  na- 
tive of  the  Bahar.ia  illands.     It  is  an  efculcnt  plant, 
and  bears  fine  liosvers.  Itgrowsto  the  height  of  three 
feet,  with  purple  Aalks  and  leaves.  The  fpikes  are  fliort 
and  cylindrical,  of  a  bright  purple  at  firll,  but  after- 
wards fade  to  a  darker  colour.     They  are  f. equtntly 
produced  from  the  wings  of  the  ftalks  ;  but  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  ft  ilk  arifes  a  large  clufltr  of  fpikes, 
which  are  placed  crofs-wifc,  with  one  upright  (lalk 
in  the  middle.     6.  The  olcraccus,  with  obtufe  indent- 
ed leavfi.     This  has  no  beauty  j  but  it  is  ufcd  by  the 
Indians  as  a  fubftituie  to  cabbage. 

Ctiiture.  The  two  firil  of  tbefe  f,-'Ccies  being  ten- 
der, require  fome  art  and  care  to  bring  them  to  per- 
fedlion  in  Britain,  by  a  fucceluon  of  hot-bed,  with 
proper  waterings,  airings,  and  fhadings. 

Where  people  are  curious  in  having  ihefc  annual 
plants  in  great  pericciion,  there  (houhi  be  a  glafs-cale 
erected,  with  upright  and  (loping  glaifcs  on  every  fide, 
with  a  pit  in  the  bottom  for  tan,  in  which  the  pots 
ihould  t-'c  plunged.  I(  this  is  rsifed  eight  or  nine  feet 
uuhe  ridge,  and  the  upright  glaflcs arc  rive  feet,  there 
win  be  room  enough  to  raifc  thefe  and  otlicr  annual 
plaats  to  grrat  perfe-..  ion  j  and  in  fuch  a  building, 
many  tender  vegetable^,  wliich  rarely  pcrfccl  their 
feeds  in  a  cold  climaic,  m.-;y  be  every  year  brought  for- 
v.ard  fo  as  to  ripen  their  feeds. 
/.M.-iRYLLIS,  LiLY-.-iSPHCPEL  :  A  genus  of  the 


monogynia  order,  Ulonging  to  the  htxandriaclafs  of  Amarylli*. 

plants;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the  '' 

9lh  order,  Sp^thu.e^.  The  ciiaraclers  are  :  The  calj;x 
is  an  oblong  oblcrfc  fpatha,  eciarginattd,  and  wither- 
ing :  The  t'/r'///./ confifts  of  l:x  petals,  breed:  The 
JIaniina  conlift  of  fix  fubalated  tilaments  ;  ihc  anlhrrae 
oblong,  incumbent,  and  .iRenLlin;'; :  The  ^//.'/.V//to  has 
arouudifli  fulcated  gcrmen  beneath  ;  a  f.lit'orm  flyljs, 
nearly  the  length  of  the  ftatniua  ,  the  (lignja  tiitid  and 
iknder :  The /"t-f.-crfryi/i-Misati ovate  irilocular  capfalc, 
with  three  valves:  The/Ii-ij  arc  many. 

/  riKcipeJSp'CK'i.  l.Thc  li  tca,orautmT!n3lnarcil!iis. 
ThisisufuallyfoKtby  gaTdcncrs.alongwith  colchicums^ 
forat:iumnal  or;. amen  ts  to  gardens,  t'orthisporpofc  it 
is  very  proper,  ^s  it  will  keep  rioweri;igfroni  the  begin - 
ningof  Scpterr/bcrtothc  middle  of  November, proviucil 
the  frort  is  not  fo  fcvere  as  to  dcf  roy  the  flowers.  A\- 
though  there  isbut  one  dower  in  csch  cover,  yet  there 
is  a  fucccliion  of  flowers  from  the  fame  root,  cfpcciailf 
when  'they  are  fiiffcred  t.o  remain  three  or  foar  years 
unrcnoved.  The  flowers  feldom  rife  above  thiee  or 
four  Inches  high.  They  arc  fnapcd  fojnewhat  like  the 
flowers  of  the  yellnw  crocus  ;  th  e  green  leaves  come  uf 
at  the  fame  tiuje,  like  the  faffron  ;  and,  after  the  flow- 
ers are  paft,  the  Icsvisincreafc  all  the  winter.  The 
roots  art  bulb^ius,  and  ihaped  like  thofe  of  the  narcif- 
fus  ;  fi  are  proper  ornaments  for  fuch  liordcrs  as  are 
planted  with  cyclamens,  falfron,  antainnal  crocus,  col- 
chicums,  and  fuch  low  autumnal  flowers.  2.  The 
formolilTima,  or  jacobaca  lily,  produces  its  fiowei-s 
two  or  three  times  in  a  year,  without  being  regu- 
lar to  any  feafon.  The  flowers  are  cf  a  deep  red,  the 
under  petals  very  large,  and  the  v.hole  flower  ftand.s 
nodding  on  one  fide  of  the  llalk,  making  a  beautiful  ep- 
pearancc.  The  ftems  of  the  flowers  nre  produced  from 
the  lidcs  of  the  bulbs  ;  io  that  when  the  flowers  produ- 
ced on  one  fide  are  decayed,  another  flalk  arifes  from 
the  other  fide  of  the  bulb  ;  but  there  is  no  more  than 
<me  flower  produced  on  the  fame  ftalk.  When  the 
roots  are  in  vigour,  flowers  will  be  produced  from 
March  to  the  beginning  of  September.  3.  The  far- 
niej'.lis,  or  Guernfey  lily,  is  i'uppofed  to  h.ive  come  ori- 
giti.r.lly  from  Japan,  but  has  l>cen  many  years  cultivated 
in  the  gardens  of  Guernfey  and  Jerfey  ;  in  both  which 
places  ihey  fcem  to  thrive  as  wtll  as  if  it  was  their  na- 
tive country,,  and  from  thefe  iflaiids  their  roots  arc 
fent  annually  to  the  curious  in  moft  pans  of  Kurope. 
The  flowers  of  thisfpcciesare  admired  for  the  richnels 
cf  their  colour,  v.  hid;  is  commonly  red,  though  they 
have  no  fcent.  They  appear  towards  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember ;  and,  if  properly  managed,  will  continue  a 
month  in  beauty.  T];c  roots  of  thefc  plants  do  not 
flower  again  the  fuc<rtcding  year,  as  is  the  cafe  with 
many  other  bulbs  :  but  if  their  bulbs  contain  two  buds 
in  thcirecntre,  which  isofttn  the  cafe,  they  frequent- 
ly flower  twice  in  three  years:  afterwhich  the  fame  in- 
dividual root  docs  net  flower  a^ain  in  fevcral  years,  but 
only  the  offsets  from  it.  4.  The  regina,  or  belladon- 
na lily,  is  a  native  of  Portugal,  where  it  was  formerly 
cultivated  in  great  pkntv  ;  but  of  late  it  has  been  fup- 
planted  by  the  jaeobiea  lily,  fo  that  the  roots  which 
iiavc  been  taken  from  that  country  for  fome  tiir.c 
paft  for  the  belladonna,  have  generally  proved  the  ja- 
cobuea  lily.  This  kind,  if  properly  managed,  will 
fomctimes  put  out  two  or  three  ftcms,  gi-o\\  ing  near 

three 


A  M  A 


[     S 


Amaryllis,  thrcc  fcctlii;^h,  and  produce  man/  flowers  in  each  tiin- 

Aniaryii-   bcl,  w  hicli  make  .1  tine  appearance  daring  :hc  raouih 

ilius-      ofOilobcr.     J.   The  zcylanica,  or  Ceylon  ]iiy,  is  a 

^ '  nutivcof  ihc  Wift  Indie.,  and  uCiiUy  Hoiversii  June. 

Sonieiinics  the  fiiiicrooi  will  .'Ijwtr  again  in  a  I'-uuiii, 
bjt  the  ri  )v.'ers  arc  of  no  long  daraiio.i.  6.  Tlieori- 
ent;iits,orlily  tjaif  >dil,  witii  leaves  ihape J  liiie  a  tong.:c. 
This  is  a  njtivc  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Tlr-  b.iiJS 
of  the  root  arc  large  and  aliii').!  roand  ;  tiic  leaves  1  j;)^, 
broad,  and  roii:iJcd  at  their  extremities  ;  thcfc  f,»ri3i 
two  w.iyson  tlic  furfaec  of  the  j^roand.anddano:  co.nc 
tip  till  after  tlic  iio-.Tcr-ftcfii  appears,  which  is  gene- 
rally in  Novembtr.  After  ilic  (lowers  arc  pafc,  the 
leaves  incrcaf-  till  fpring,  and  in  May  they  br^iii  to 
decay  ;  fo  that  from  the  middle  of  j;ine  to  Ocioljcr 
the  roofs  are  entirely  dcUitute  of  leaves. 

Crittire.  Thcfirft  fori  is  very  h^rdy,  and  will  thrive 
in  alnioft  af.y  foil  or  iircaci'jn  ;  bat  willfucceed  br(l  in 
tfrcfh  light  dry  foil,  and  uot  t-o  ne?.r  the  dripping  of 
trees, vr  too  near  walls.  Itiiicicafcs  very  fait  by  off- 
■fcts,  by  which  all  the  other  fpccics  arc  alfo  to  be  pro- 
■pagatcd.  Thcfc  roots  may  ise  tranfpknted  any  ti.uc 
from  May  to  thccndof"Ji;ly  j  nf:er  which  it  will  be  too 
late  to  remove  them. — "I'hcjicobataoughttobekcpti  la 
tnodcvate  ftove,illwiuter;i  i  which  Cafeirwi!!  fend  forth 
T^letuy  of  Offsets,  that  will  prod^;ce  vigorous  plants. — 
The  roots  of  i!-.c  Guirnfcy  li'.y  are  generally  brought 
(jvcr  in  Jtine  and  July  ;  bjt  the  foontr  tliey  arc  taken 
ont  of  the  ground  after  the  leaves  dt'.;iy,  tlic  better  :  for 
aitho'  ihc  roots  whi.h  are  taken  up  when  their  dowcr- 
ftcms'begin  toa]>pe3r,\\ill  flower ;yet  their  flowers  will 
not  be  fo  large,  nor  will  their  roots  be  ncarfo  good  af- 
Ter,as  thofe  wlii -h  wire  removed  before  they  fcnt  forth 
frefii  li'brcs.  When  tlitfe  roots  come  fvtr  they  iiioud  be 
yilantcd.in  pors  filled  with  frelh.lightlandy  cnrth.niixtd 
wrth  art  tic  very  rotn  n  dimg.aiidplaccdina  warnilitu- 
ation,obfervinj;  new  and  then  lo  refrcfh  tijecarth  with 
water  :  liat  by  nomcins  I.t  them  have  too  much  m  et, 
which  wonl  I  rottrcirroots.cfpecially  before  they  coine 
«p.  AWodtrhc  mifiSlc  of  Scplcnbci',  fuel' of  the  tools 
as  arc  It rong  enough  to  flower  will  be;;in  to  (how  the 
b-.id  ofihcrr  rtmverWVtmi  :thcrtfore  thcfc  pots  onglii  to 
"be  removed  rmo  a  Ifn.fftiou  where  they  may  have  tlie 
'benefit  of  the  fan,  and  tic  Iheltered  from  ftrong  winds 
When  the  ftowcrs  begin  open,  the  j-cts  (hmild  be 
removcdmider(h-dn-r,toprivent  injury  from  toonuich 
-vrct. —  .A'ficr  the  tlov/crs  arc  decayed,  the  green  leaves 
will  begin  to  (hoot  forth  in  Icngih  ;  and,  if  (lielter- 
cd  from  feverc  cold,  uill  continue  growing  all  win- 
ter :  biTt'thcy  muil  have  as  much  free  air  as  polablc 
.  in  mild  weather,  and  arc  to  be  covered  only  in  great 
rains  or  trolls.  For  i!iis  pnrpofc,  a  common  hoi-l.ed 
frame  is  the  mod  proper  flieltcr  for  them  ;  the  giaifes 
of  which  may  be  taken  ofTcvery  day  in  dry  open  wea- 
ther, which  will  enco;iragc  the  leaves  to  grow  llrong 
•and  broad.  Th<*  roots  (liould  be  tr.'infplantcd  every 
fourth  or  fifth  year,  tov.-ard  the  end  of  June  or  begin- 
ning (if  July  ;  the  offsets  alfo  fhould  be  taken  oiF  and 
-planted  in  pots,  where  in  three  years  ttr.ic  they  will 
produce  tiovvtrs.  The  other  fpecies  of'  the  aniaryllis 
may  eafily  be  raifed  by  taking  care  to  Iheltcr  them  in 
a  (love  from  the  winter's  coll. 

AMARYNTHUS  (anc.  gcog.),  a  hamlet  of  Ere- 
trias,  in  the  iiland  oi  Enbopa,  about  fevcn  Itadia  dilUnt 
from  its  v.alls.     Kcre  Diana  was  worfhipped  by  an 


17]  A  M   A 

annual  folcmniiy,  at  wljich  thofc  of  Caryflus  sliiilcd  ;     AtriS:^ 
h^nce  the  title  of  the  goddcfs  was  AsHaryntkit,  and  II 

A'na'y  (-..t.  Amarouii, 

AMASIA  (an:,  gcog.),  nnv.-  Marpurg,  a  city  in 
tbe  hndgraviaie  of  Hcric,  on  the  Lah:i.  According 
toothers,  it  is  iimbicn  i.i  U'cilphalia. 

AMi^siA,  an  ancient  town  of  Turkey,  i:i  Nacolia, 
remarkable  for  the  birth  of  Strab.i  the  geographer. 
It  is  the  reliJeucc  of  a  balhaw,  and  gives  its  name  to 
the  province  it  fiands  in,  where  there-are  the  bt:t 
wines  and  the  befc  fruits  in  Natolia.  Iiiifeated  tiear 
the  ri/er  Iris  or  Cafalmack  ;  and  was  auriently  the 
rcfi.lencc  of  the  ki.igscf  Cappadocia.  E.Long.  36. 
10.  N.  Lar.  ^9.  ^5. 

Am  ASIA,  the  name  of  the  r.ort'.icr.J  divifion  of  Lef- 
fcr  Alia,  lying  on  tlic  foath  (bore  "f  the  Euxiiic  fei 
it  Nuti'lii.  It-takes  its  name  from  AmalJa  the  capi- 
tal, nreniiiiiicd  in  the  precctti;!g  article. 

AM.-^SONIA,  in  botany:  S.  genus  of  the  EUgio- 
fpermia  orders  belonging  to  the  Uidycamia  clais  of 
plants  ;  the  charattcrs  of  which  arc  :  The  culjx  is  a 
tripartite  monophylious  perianthiura,  bell-thaped  and 
perfiftent :  The  c':ro!la  is  monopctalous  and  t-.ihular; 
the  border  quinnuetid,  expanding,  and  fni?ll :  'I  he/?*- 
vfiiia  eoiilift  of  fo'ir  filaments  longer  that:  tbe  corolla  ; 
the  anther*  oval  and  i:icunibent:  The  pijiMum  has 
an  ovate  germen  ;  the  ftyliis  the  length  of  the  Aarii- 
na  ;  the  (iig.-nlta  two,  acute:  There  is  no  fieruarpi- 
urn:  The /Ir J  is  an  ovate  unilocular  nut,  die  ienglli 
of  the  calyx. 

-  AMATIIUS,  a  very  ancient  rount  in  the  foi-tb  oi 
Cyprus  (Strabo,  Ptolemy)  :  fo  called  from  A:rajhi:t; 
the  founder  ;  or,  according  to  others  from  Am.''.th,  a 
Phoenician  town  facred  to  Venus,  nith  a  very  ancicr.t 
temple  of  .Adonis  and  Venus  :  and  hence  Venus  ii  de- 
nominated Amatijufia  (Tacitus).  According  to  Ovid, 
it  v.as  a  place  ricli  iu  copper-ore,  and  where  the  ir- 
habitants  became  Cerajia,  or  horned.  Now  called 
Lim.-fFo. 

AM^T  H  L's  (anc.  geog.),  a  town  of  the  tribe  of  Gad, 
beyond  Jordan  ;  but  whether  at  a  greater  or  lefs  dif- 
tance  from  it,  is  not  fo  eafy  to  dererminc.  Eiifcbius 
places  it  in  the  Lower  Perxa  ;  Rcland,  in  Ramoth- 
Giicad.  Gabinius,  proconful  of  Syria,  cflabtiAedrive 
juridical  corventiuns  i:i  lii'Jea  ;  two  of  which  were 
on  the  oilier  fide  Jordan  ;  one  at  Gadara,  the  other 
at  Amathns  (Jofcphns). 

AM.ATORII  Mrsci'Lii,  in  anatomy,  a  term  fome- 
times  ufcd  fur  the  obliquus  fuperior  atid  obliquos  in- 
ferior mnfc'.es  of  the  eye,  as  thcfc  niaft.tc$  atlift  in 
ogling  or  drawing  the  eye  fideways. 

AM.Ai  RICE,  a  city  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  in 
the  farther  Abruzzo,  upon  tbe  confines  of  the  pope's 
territories,  and  the  raarqiiifate  of  Anconi. 

AM.AUROSIS,  in  medicine,  a  deprivation  of  fight, 
the  eye  remaining  fair,  and  fecminsjlr  unatrceled.  .^ 
pcrfcA  amaurofis  is  when  the  blindnefs  is  total ;  when 
there  is  rtill  a  power  of  difiitigiiif!,i;\g  light  t'rom  dark- 
iicfs,  the  difeafe  is  called  by  N!.  de  St  Ives  an  hi,p:rf:H 
ainauriifii.  There  is  a  periodical  fort  which  conic; 
on  inflantancoully,  continaes  for  hours,  or  days,  and 
then  difappears.  Mr  Hay,  furgeon  ai  Leeds,  menti- 
ons fcveral  caf..'s  of  patients  alflicted  w  iih  the  amauro- 
fis who  were  relieved  by  being  cleflriiirt!. 

AMAZONIA,  or  the    country  of  the  Aciericar. 


A  M  A  [51 

AcmrottVi.  A.WAZONi,  is  liiuate  between  jo  and  70  degrees  of 
w.c/i  longitude ;  and  between  t"he  equator  aad  15  de- 
grees ot'  I'outh  latitude  ;  being  bounded  on  the  I'outli 
by  La  1'l.iia,  on  the  well  by  Peru,  on  the  north  by 
the  pro\  incc  of  Terra  Firaia,  and  on  the  call  by 
Brazil. 

With  refpcft  to  the  Amazons  faid  to  have  given 
name  to  this  territory,  they  have  been  rcprefented  as 
governed  and  led  to  war  only  by  their  queen.  No  men 
were  futiercd  to  live  among  them  ;  though  thofe  of 
{bine  ncigiibouring  nations  were  fufFercd  to  vifit  them, 
at  a  certaiu  fcafon,  for  the  fake  of  procreation.  The 
females  ilfuing  from  this  commerce  wtre  bred  up  with 
care,  and  inilruded  in  w  hat  relates  to  war  and  govern- 
ment ;  as  to  the  Hialcs,  they  wtrc  (ent  away  into  the 
country  of  their  fathers.  But  no  fuch  nation  is  at 
prefcnt  to  be  found,  any  more  than  the  giants  and  ca- 
nibals  mentioned  by  the  firft  adventurers  thither. 

Amazonia  is  generally  a  flat  region,  abounding  in 
woods,  lakes,  rivers,  bogs,  and  niora'Tcs.  The  chief 
liver,  and  one  of  the  largcft  in  the  world,  is  that  call- 
td  ihe  river  of  Amazons,  or  the  Ore'.lana,  which  is 
formed  by  two  large  rivers,  the  one  riling  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Quito,  a  little  louth  of  the  equator,  in  7; 
degrees  of  well  longitude, and  the  other,naaied  Xauxa, 
rifiiig  in  the  Uke  of  Bourbon,  near  the  Andes,  in  ten 
<ic<^iccs  of  fojth  latitude.  Thofe  two  rivers  uniting 
on  the  coiilines  of  Peru  and  Amazonia,  in  three  de- 
grees odd  minutes  of  fou'.h  latitude,  afRime  the  name 
of  Amazon  ;  whence  running  eallward  upwards  of  2Co 
n.ilcs,  and  afterwards  incliiuiig  to  the  north,  they  fall 
into  the  Atlantic  ocean  by  84  channels,  which  in  the 
rainy  fcafon  overHow  the  adjacent  country.  Bclides  the 
!^vo  llrcams  mentioned,  a  mahitude  of  others,  both  on 
fhcnoniianJ  fouth  fide,  contribute  to  the  formation  of 
•liis  extraordinary  river.  As  it  runs  almoft  acrofs  the 
broadeft  part  of  South  America,  it  is  computed  to  be 
iietwecn  four  and  live  thoufand  miles  in  length,  in- 
cludiiig  all  its  w  indings.  Its  channel  from  Junta  de  los 
Rcyos,  about  60  degrees  from  its  head,  to  the  rivtr 
Maranhon,  is  from  one  to  two  leagues  broad  ;  it  then 
widens  from  three  to  four,  and  becomes  gradually 
i)roadcras  it  approaches  the  ocean.  Between  the  places 
lafl  mentioned,  its  depth  is  from  five  10  ten  fathom  ; 
but  from  Maranhou  to  Rio  Negro  it  incrcafcs  to  ao 
f.ithoms  ;  af;er\\hith  it  is  fomttimcs  jo^-and  fome 
limes  JO  fathoms,  or  more,  fill  it  coracs  near  to  the 
end  of  its  courfc.  It  has  no  fand-banks,  nor  does  the 
fnorc  lliclve  fo  as  to  render  it  dangerous  for  veffels. 
The  manetu  and  tortoifc  abound  both  upon  the  banks 
'  {  this  and  the  other  rivers;  and  the  fifliermen  mull 
•be  upon  their  guard  againft  the  crocodiles,  alligators, 
^iid  water  ferpents,  which  alio  fwanu  here. 

The  air,  as  in  the  countries  under  the  fame  parallel, 
.s  obltrved  to  be  nearly  as  cool  ur.Jcr  the  equator  as 
Jmm  the  tropics,  on  account  of  tlie  rains  continuing 
longer,  and  the  Iky  in  that  feafon  being  clouded.  Bc- 
■  lidcs,  an  eallerly  wind  fcts  from  the  Atlantic  up  the 
river  fo  ftrong,  that  vcllcls  arc  carried  by  it  againfl 
ilie  rtrcam. 

The  produce  of  the  coun.'ry  is  Indian  corn  and  the 

calTavi  root,  of  which  tluy  make  flour  and  bread  ;  to- 

iacco,  cotton,  fugar,  farfaparilla,  yams,  potatoes,  and 

-otiicr  roots.    They  have  alfo  pknty  of  venifon,  fi(h, 

«.id  fowl.     Among  the  latter  are  vail  flocks  of  parrots 


8     ] 


A  M  A 


of  all  colours,  the  flelh  of  which  ferves  for  food  and  Am  znui*, 
tiie  feathers  for  ornament.  AH  the  trees  here  are  ever-  Anuzom. 
greens  i  and  fruits,  flowers,  and  herbage,  arc  in  per-  '       '      ' 
le<?tion  all  the  year  round.     The  principal  fruits  arc 
cocoa-nuts,  ananas  or  pine-apples,  guavas,  bananas, 
and  fuch  others  as  are  ufually  found  between  the  tro- 
pics.    The  forefl  and  timber  trees  are  cedar,  Brazil 
wood,  oak,  ebony,  logwood,  iron-wood,  fo  eallcdfrom 
its  weight  ^nd  bardiicfs,  and  fcvcral  forts  of  dyeing 
wood. 

The  natives  are  of  the  common  flaturc,  with  go«d 
features,  a  copper  complexion,  black  eyes  and  hair. 
It  is  computed  tAiat  there  arc  of  them  about  150  dif- 
ferent tribes  or  nations,  and  the  villages  are  fo  nume- 
rous as  to  be  within  callof  one  another.  Among  thofe 
the  Homague-s,  a  people  near  tlie  head  of  the  river, 
arc  famous  for  their  cotton  nianufaftures  ;  the  Jurines, 
who  live  between  Ave  and  ten  degrees  of  latitude,  for 
theirjoiners  works  ;  and  theWroliflaresforthcirearth- 
cn  ware.  The  Topinambcs,  who  inhabit  a  large  illand 
in  the  river,  are  remarkable  for  their  flrength.  Some  - 
of  thefe  nations  frequently  make  war  upon  each  other. 
Their  armour  conliils  of  darts,  javelins,  bows  and  ar- 
rows, and  they  wear  targetsof  cane, orfifli-Ikin.  They 
make  Haves  of  their  prifoners,  whom  they  otherwifc 
ufe  very  well.  Every  tribe  is  governed  byitsrcfpeftive 
chief  or  king,  the  marks  of  whofc  dignity  are  a  crown 
of  parrots  feathers,  a  chain  of  lions  tecthor  claws  hung 
round  his  neck,  or  girt  about  his  waift,  and  a  wooden 
fword,  which  he  carries  in  his  hand. 

Mofl  of  thofe  nations,  except  the  Homagues,  go 
naked.  The  men  thrull  pieces  of  cane  through  their 
ears  and  under  lips,  as  well  as  thtough  thefkinof  the 
pudenda.  At  the  griftle  of  their  nofes  they  alfo  hang 
glafs  beads,  which  wag  to  and  fro  when  they  fpeik. 
They  arc  fuch  Jkilful  markfmen,  that  they  will  flioot 
filh  as  they  fwim  ;  and  what  they  catch"  they  eat  with- 
out either  bread  or  fait.  They  worfhip  images,  which 
theyalways  carry  with  them  on  their  expeditions ; 
but  ihey  neither  have  temple;  nor  any  order  of  priefts; 
and  permit  both  polygamy  and  concubinage. 

The  country  affords  neither  gold  nor  filver  mines; 
only  a  fmall  quantity  of  the  former  is  found  in  the  ri- 
vulets which  fall  into  the  Amazon  near  its  fourccs  in 
Peru.  While  the  Spaniards  ima^ned  that  it  contained 
thofe  metals,  they  made  great  efforts  from  Peru  tore- 
<iuce  this  territory  to  fubjeflion  ;  till  being  at  length 
undcceivd,  they  abandoned  the  defign. 

AMAZONS,  in  antiquity,  a  nation  of  female  war- 
riors, who  founded  an  empire  in  Afia  minor,  upon  the 
river  Thermodoon,  along  the  coafls  of  the  Black  Sea. 
They  are  faid  to  have  formed  aftate  out  of  which  men 
were  excluded.  What  commerce  they  had  with  that 
fex,  was  only  with  flrangcrs;  they  killed  all  their  male 
children  ;  and  they  cut  off  the  right  bread  of  tlicir  fe- 
j^iales,  to  make  them  more  fit  for  the  combat.  From 
^'hich  lafl  circumflance  it  is,  that  they  are  fuppofed  to 
<ake  their  name,  viz,  from  the  primitive  «,  and  /-i«^e^ 
irtav.ma,  "  breaA.".  But  Dr  Bryant,  in  his  AnaJyfis 
of  ancient  mythology,  explodes  this  account  as  fa- 
Inilous  ;  and  obfervts,  that  thc-y  were  in  general  Cu- 
thite  colonies  from  K.gypt  and  Syria,  who  formed  fet- 
tlements  in  different  cour.trics,  and  that  they  derived 
their  name  from  zcf:,  the  "fun,"  which  was  the  na- 
tional objed  of  worlhip.  Vol,  iii.  p.  463. — It  has  in- 
deed 


A  M  A 


L     5^ 


Amazons,  deed  been  coutroveried  even  amcng  ancient  writers, 

' ^ '  whether  ever  there  really  were  I":ich  a  nation  as  that 

of  the  Amazons.  Strabo,  Palaephatus,  and  others,  de- 
ny it.  On  the  contrary,  Herodotus,  Paulaniiis,  Dio- 
donis  Siculus,  Trogus  Fonipciiis,  JuiUn,  Pliny,  Mela, 
Plutarch,  &c.  expicfsly  allcrt  it. 

M.  Petit,  a  French  pliylician,  pnblilhcda  Latin  dif- 
fertation  in  i68j,  to  prove  that  there  was  really  a  na- 
tion of  Amazons  ;  it  contains  abjHdance  of  curious  in- 
quiries, relating  to  their  habit,  their  arms,  the  cities 
built  by  them,  &c.  Others  of  the  moderns  alio  main- 
tain, that  their  exiflcntc  is  fufficicntly  proved  by  the 
teftimony  of  fuch  of  the  hiftoriins  of  antiquity  a*s  arc 
moft  worthy  of  credit ;  by  the  monuments  which  many 
of  them  have  mentioned ;  and  by  medals,  fome  of  which 
arc  lUUremaining ;  and  that  tlicrc  is  not  the  leaft  room 
to  believe  that  what  is  faid  of  them  is  fabulous. 

The  Amazons  are  mentioned  by  the  mod  ancientof 
the  Greek  writers.  In  the  third  book  of  the  Iliad, 
Homer  reprefents  Priam  fpeaking  of  himfelf  as  ha- 
ving been  prefent,  in  the  earlier  part  of  his  life,  in  a 
battle  with  the  Amazons :  and  fome  of  them  after- 
wards came  to  the  alTilUnce  of  that  prince  during  the 
fiege  of  Troy. 

The  Amazons  are  particularly  mentioned  by  Hero- 
dotus. That  hillorian  informs  us,  that  the  Grecians 
fought  a  battle  with  the  Amazons  on  the  river  Ther- 
modoon,  and  defeated  them.  After  their  victory,  they 
carried  off  all  the  Amazons  they  could  take  alive,  ia 
three  Ihips.  But  whilll  they  were  out  at  fca,  thefe 
Amazons  confpired  againft  the  men,  and  killed  thcin 
all.  Having,  however,  no  knowledge  of  navigation, 
nor  any  Ikill  in  the  ufe  of  the  rudder,  fails,  or  oars, 
they  were  driven  by  wind  and  tide  till  they  arrived 
at  the  precipices  of  the  lake  Maeotis,  in  the  tcrriiories 
of  the  Scythians.  Here  the  Amazons  went  afliore, 
and  marching  into  the  country,  fcizcd  and  mounted  the 
firfl  horfes  they  met  with,  and  began  to  plunder  the 
inhabitants.  The  Scythians  at  firft  conceived  them 
to  be  men;  but  after  they  had  had  (kirmiihes  with 
them,  and  taken  fome  prifoners,  they  difcovered  them 
to  be  women.  They  were  then  unwilling  to  carry  on 
hoQilitics  againfl  them  ;  and  by  degrees  a  number  of 
the  young  Scythians  formed  connctt  ions  with  them,Tnd 
were  defirous  that  thefe  gentle  dames  Ihould  live  with 
them  as  wives,  and  be  incorporated  with  the  reft  of 
the  Scythians.  The  Ama2«)ns  agreed  to  continue  their 
connection  with  the  Scythian  hufbands,  but  refufcd  to 
aflbciate  with  the  reft  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  coun- 
try, and  efpecially  with  the  women  of  it.  They  af- 
terwards prevailed  upon  tlieir  hii (bands  to  retire  to  Sar- 
matia,  where  they  fettled.  "Hence,"  fays  Herodo- 
tus, "  the  wives  of  the  Sannatians  ftill  continue  their 
ancient  way  of  living.  They  hunt  on  horfeback  in  the 
company  of  their  hu(bands,and  fometinies  alone. They 
march  with  their  armies,  and  wear  the  fame  drcfs  with 
the  men.  The  Sarmatians  ufe  the  Scythian  language, 
but  corrupted  from  the  bcginnitig,  bcc.iufc  the  Ama- 
zonsneverlearned  tofpeakcorridlly.  Their  marriages 
arc  attended  with  this  circumftance  :  no  virgin  is  per- 
mitted to  marry  till  ilie  has  killed  an  enemy  in  the 
field  ;  fo  that  fome  always  grow  old  before  they  can 
qualify  thenifclvcs  as  the  law  requires." 

Diodorus  Siculus  fays,  "  Ihere  was  formerly  a  na- 
tion who  dwell  near  the  river  Thermodoon,  which  was 

3 


9     J  A  M  /\ 

fabjcclcd  to  the  government  of  women,  aud  in  whic'a  Aaatont, 

the  women,  like  men,  managed  all  the  military  affairs.  " ^ — ' 

Among  thele  female  warriors,  it  is  faid,  was  one  who 
excelled  the  reft  in  ftrcngth  and  valour.  She  alleniblcd 
together  an  army  of  women,  whom  llie  trained  up  in 
nulitary  difciplinc,and  fubducdfi'mcofthcncighboor- 
ing  nations.  Afterwards,  having  by  her  valour  in- 
crcjfcd  their  fame,  the  led  her  army  againit  the  reft  ; 
and  being  fuccel'sful,  ihc  wasfo  puticd  up,  that  Ihe  fty- 
Icd  herfelf  the  daughter  of  Mars,  and  ordered  the  men 
to  fpin  wool,  and  do  the  work  of  the  women  within 
coors.  She  alfo  made  laws,  by  which  the  women  were 
enjoined  to  go  to  the  wars,  and  tl:c  men  to  be  kept  at 
home  in  afcrvilc  ftatc,  and  employed  in  the  meaneft 
oificcs.  They  alfo  debilitated  the  arms  and  tliighsof 
thole  male  children  who  were  born  to  them,  that  they 
might  be  thereby  rendered  unlit  for  war.  They  fear- 
ed the  right  breafts  of  their  girls,  thit  they  might  be 
no  hindranc;  to  them  in  tigliiing  :  from  whence  ihcy 
derived  the  name  of  Amazons.  Their  queen,  having 
become  extremely  eminent  for  (kill  and  knowledge  ia 
military  affairs,  at  length  built  a  large  ciiy  at  the 
moutli  of  the  river  Thermodoon,  and  adorned  it  with 
a  magniticent  palace.  In  her  cnterpri/.rt  ihe  exav'lly 
adhered  to  military  difcipline  and  good  order  ;  and  (he 
added  to  her  empire  all  the  adjoining  nations,  even  to 
the  river  Tanais.  Having  ptrionned  thefe  exploits, 
ihe  at  laft  enced  her  days  like  a  hero,  falling  in  a  bat- 
tle, in  which  Ihe  had  fought  courageoully.  She  was 
facceeded  in  the  kingdom  by  her  daughter,  who  imi- 
tated the  valour  of  her  mother,  and  in  fome  exploits 
excelled  her.  She  caufed  the  girls  fro.n  their  very  in- 
fancy to  be  exercifcd  in  hunting,  and  to  be  daily  train- 
ed up  in  military  exercifcs.  She  inftituted  folemn  fe- 
(livals  and  facritices  to  Mars  and  Diana,  which  were 
named  Tauropo'.i.  She  afterwards  carried  her  arms 
beyond  the  river  Tanais,  and  fubdued  all  the  people 
of  thofe  regions  even  unto  Thrace.  Returning  then 
with  a  great  quantity  of  fpodls  into  her  own  kingdom, 
(he  cauled  magnificent  temples  to  be  erefted  to  the 
deities  before  n\ent:oned  ;  and  llie  gained  the  love  of 
her  fubjecls  by  her  mild  and  gentle  government.  She 
afterwards  undertook  an  expedition  againft  thofe  wh» 
were  on  the  other  lide  of  tlie  river,  and  fubjcded  to 
her  dominion  a  great  pirt  of  Alia,  extending  her  arms 
as  far  as  Syria." 

Diodorus  alfo  mentions  another  race  of  Amazons 
who  dwell  ill  Africa  ;  and  whom  he  fpcaks  of  as  being 
of  greater  antiquity  than  thoie  \v  ho  lived  near  ilie  ri- 
ver Thermodoon.  "  Inihe  wcftcrn  parts<'f  Lybia," 
fays  he,  "  upon  the  borders  of  thole  tr..i:s  that  arc 
habitable,  there  was  anciently  a  nation  un('cr  the  go- 
vernment of  women,  and  whole  manners  and  mode  of 
living  were  altogether  different  from  ours.  It  was  the 
cutlom  for  thefe  women  to  manage  all  military  affairs; 
and  for  a  certain  tinie,  during  which  they  prefcrved 
their  virginity,  they  went  out  as  foldiers  in  the  tield. 
After  fome  years  employed  in  this  manner,  w  hen  the 
tinve  appointed  for  this  purpolc  was  expired,  they  allb- 
ciatcd  them  (elves  with  men,  inordcr  to  obtain  children. 
But  the  magiftracy,  and  all  public  oiHces,  they  kept 
entirely  iu  tbeir  own  hands.  The  men,  as  the  women 
are  with  us,  were  employed  in  houfchold  affairs,  fub- 
i«iiiiug  thcmfclves  wholly  to  the  authority  of  their 
wives.     They  were  not  permitted  to  take  any  part  in 

military 


A  M  A 


s^- 


Aii'iizocr.   ii.ili;.uj'  ;:ti;;iis,  or  to  hnvcany  ii1v,m;uid,  or  any  pi:b- 

'      ■^ '  lie  iiiulioiiiy,  whi-;h   might  h.:ive  a  ccnciciicy  locn- 

fuiir;:'.'f  tliciii  to  cai'i  <"il  tlic  yoke  of  ilicir  wivts.  As 
f(:o:i  ns  ;!iiy  cliiUl  wp.s  i  orn,  ii  was  ddivcicd  to  the  fa- 
ther, to  be  fed  vi:ii  ivilk  or  iuch  other  (loo  as  wm 
fi'.itablc  to  its  age.  If  fcmaJcs  were  born,  they  feared 
ilieir  breads,  thct  they  might  not  be  Lurdm funic  to 
thoiii  wlicn  iluy  grew  up;  lor  ilicy  confidtred  iheiiiai 
gre;'.t  hindrances  in  fi^i-.tiiij^." 

Juf'ini.ii!  rcpr«f«iiis  tlit  rtir.azor.ianripiiblic  to  have 
taken  its  rife  iu  Scythia.  1  iit  Scythians  had  a  great 
part  of  Alia  under  their  domiiiiou  upwards  ot  4C0 
years,  till  they  were  conquered  by  J>iiius^  the  founder 
of  the  Allyrian  emi'irc.  After  his  death,  which  hap- 
j-er.cJ  .-ilnuit  n  50  years  before  the  Chriljiau  a:ra,  and 
riiat  of  Scmiraniis  and  their  ion  Niiiias,llinus  and  Sco- 
lopitcs,  princes  of  the  royal  blood  of  Scythia,  were  dri- 
ven froni  their  coniitry  by  oihcrprinces,  who  lil\c  them 
;.f|iircd  to  the  crown.  They  departed  with  their  wives, 
children,  and  friends;  and  bcin};  followed  by  a  great 
miniber  of  young  |eoplc  of  both  fexcs,  they  pafl'ed  in- 
to .'\liaiic  Sarm:-.tia,  beyond  mount  Canialihs,  where 
they  formed  an  eltablilhrnent,  fapplying  thenifilvcs 
with  the  riches  they  wanted,  by  making  exturlions 
into  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Euxine  Sea.  1  he 
people  tif  thofe  countries,  cxafjicraied  by  the  incurfions 
of  their  new  neighbours,  united,  furprifcd,  andinali'a- 
cred  the  men. 

The  women  then  refulving  to  revenge  their  dcatli, 
and  at  t!ic  fame  time  to  provide  for  their  own  fecuriiy, 
refolvcd  to  form  a  new  kind  of  government,  to  choofc 
s  queen, cnael  laws, and  maintain  themfclves,  without 
men,  even  againft  the  men  themftlves.  This  delign 
was  not  fo  vf.ry  furprifing  as  at  firfl  light  appears  :  lor 
the  grcatell  number  of  the  girls  among  the  Scythians 
had  been  inured  to  the  fame  txercifes  as  the  boys  ;  to 
craw  the  bow,  to  throw  the  javelin,  to  manage  other 
srnis  ;  to  rilling,  hunting,  and  even  the  painful  labours 
that  fteni  rcfcrvcci  for  men  ;  and  many  of  iheni,  as  a- 
nong  the  Sarniatians,  arcompanicd  ihc  men  in  war. 
l-Ienec  they  had  iiofooncr  formed  their  rtfolution,  than 
ihty  prepared  to  execute  it,  and  c.xercilcd  thcnifelves 
in  all  military  operations.  They  foon  fctiired  the  peace- 
able polfcilicn  of  the  country  ;  and  not  content  with 
(howing  tilt  ir  neighbours  that  all  their  efforts  to  drive 
them  tlience  or  lubdue  them  were  inctfeftual,  they 
made  \v.7r  upon  them  ,and  extended  ihtir  own  frontiers. 
They  had  hitherto  r.iade  ufe  of  the  inftruelions  and  af- 
fiftanceof. I  lew  men  that  remained  in  the  conntry;  but 
finding  at  liii;',lh  that  they  couhl  (land  their  ground, 
and  ai:;;randi/,e  themfilves,  without  ihcm,  they  killed 
ill  tliofe  w  lioni  Hight  or  chance  had  favcd  from  the  fury 
cf  the  Sarinaiians,  and  forever  rcniT.inccd  marriage, 
which  they  now  conlidtredasaninfitpportaMe  (lavery. 
Hut  as  they  could  only  fecure  the  duration  of  their  new 
kin;;doni  by  propagrstion,  they  trade  a  law  to  go  eve- 
ry year  to  the  Ivontirrs,  to  invite  the  men  tb  coinc 
to  them  ;  to  deliver  thenifclves  up  to  their  embraces, 
w'ithout  choice  on  their  part,  or  the  leafl  attachinent; 
and  to  leave  them  as  foon  a.>  they  were  pregnant.  All 
thofcwhoni  age  rendered  lit  for  propagation,  and  were 
willing  to  fervc  the  ftatc  by  breeding  girls,  did  net  ^o 
at  the  fame  time  in  fearch  of  men  :  f';r  in  order  to  ob- 
tain a  riglic  to  promote  the  mukij'Hc-.iiion  of  the  fpc- 
cics,  ihcy  muftfirflliavc  contributed  to  its  dcftrutlion  ; 


,     ]  AM  A 

nor  was  any  thoiight  worthy  of  giving  Linh  to  chii-  /\ rr.axons. 
dren  till  11. e  had  killed  three  n;en.  ' ^ ' 

If  from  this  conunercetheybiojght  forth  girls,  they 
educaicd  them;  l.iit  with  rcfpecl  to  the  boys,  if  we 
may  believe  juftin,  they  llranglcd  them  at  the  moment 
of  their  birii)  :  according  to  Uiodorus  Siculiis,  they 
twilled  their  legs  and  arms,  fo  as  to  render  them  unt  t 
for  military  excrcil'es;  but  Qiiintus  Cunius,  Vhilo- 
llr^tus,  Mill!  Jordarus,  fay  that  tl.e  Ida  favage  lent  ihcr.i 
to  their  fatliers.  It  isprob.ible,  that  attirlt, when  their 
furyagainflthc  men  u. is  carried  to  the greatcil  height, 
they  killed  the  boys  :  that  when  tliis  tury  abated,  and 
rioft  of  the  mothers  were  tilled  with  horror  at  dcpi  i- 
ving  the  little  creatures  of  the  lives  they  had  jull  re- 
ceived from  them,  tl;cy  fulfilled  the  firft  diiiie?  of  a 
mother;  but,  to  prevent  their  cauling  a  revolution  in 
the  ilate,  maimed  them  in  fiich  a  manner  as  to  rcndtv 
thcnt  incapable  of  war,  and  employed  them  in  the  mesu 
offices  which  thcfc  v/arlikc  women  thought  beneath 
them  :  in  fliort,  that,  when  their  conqnclls  had  confir- 
med their  power,  their  ferocity  fui)liaing,  they  enter- 
ed into  political  engagements  with  their  neighbours; 
and  the  number  of  the  males  they  hati  prelerved  be- 
coming burthcnfonie,  they,  at  the  deiirc  of  thofc  who 
rendered  them  pregnant,  fcnt  them  the  boys,  and 
ciiiiinned  Hill  to  keep  the  girls. 

As  foon  as  the  age  of  the  gills  permitted,  they  took 
away  the  right  brcalt,  that  they  might  draw  the  bow 
with  the  greater  force.  The  common  opinion  is,  that 
they  burnt  that  breafl,  by  applying  to  it,  at  eight 
years  of  age,  a  hot  brazen  inllrument,  which  iufcnlibly 
dried  up  ihc  librcs  and  glands:  fonic  think  that  ihcy 
did  not  make  life  of  fo  much  ceremony,  but  that  when 
the  part  was  formed  they  got  rid  of  it  by  amputation  : 
fomc,  again,  with  much  greater  probabiliiy,alferc,!hat 
they  employed  no  violent  mcafures  ;  but,  by  a  continu- 
al coniprcllion  of  that  part  from  infancy,  prevented  its 
growth,  at  leall  fo  f.ir  as  to  hinder  its  ever  being  iu- 
commodious  in  war. 

Plui?reh,  ireatingof  the  Amazon?  in  hislife  of  The- 
feus,  eonfidt  rs  the  accounts  ^hich  had  been  prefervcd 
concerning  them  as  partly  fabulous  and  partly  true. 
He  gives  fomc  accourK  of  a  battle  which  had  been 
fought  between  the  Athenians  and  the  Amazons  at  A- 
thens ;  and  he  relates  fomc  particulars  of  this  battle, 
which  had  been  recorded  by  an  ancient  writer  named 
Clidemus.  Kc  fays,  "  That  the  left  wing  of  the  A- 
mazons  moved  towards  the  place  which  is  yet  called 
Aniazonium,and  the  right  lo  a  place  called  Pryx,  near 
Chryia  ;  upon  which  the  Athenians,  ilfuing  from  be- 
hind the  temple  of  the  mufcs,  fell  upon  them  ;  and 
that  this  is  true,  the  graves  of  thcfc  thnt  were  flain,  to 
be  fren  in  the  (Ireets  that  lead  to  the  gate  Pirsica,  by 
the  tcmpleof  the  hcroChalcodue,  areafufiicientproof. 
And  hcic  ii  was  that  the  Athenians  were  routed,  and 
fiiamcfully  turned  their  backs  to  women,  as  far  as  to 
the  temple  of  ihc  Furies.  But  frelli  fupplics  coming 
in  from  Palladium,  Ardettus,  and  Lyceum,  rliiigtd 
their  right  wing,  and  beat  them  back  into  their  very 
tents  ;  In  which  action  a  great  number  of  the  Ama- 
xons  were  flain."  In  another  place  he  l«;  s,  •'  it  ap- 
pears that  the  pafl'age  of  tlic  Amazons  througli  Thcf- 
faly  was  not  without  oppofition  ;  for  there  arc  yet  to 
brfccii  manvof  their  f  pulchrcs  n^ar  Scotufaraaad  Cy- 
noccphalai."    And  in  ius  life  of  Peinpry,  fpcaking  of 

the 


A  M  A  [5 

Amazonj.  the  Amazons,Plutarch  fays,"  They  inhabit  thofe  parts 

•*^ of  mount  Caurafus  that  look  towards  the  Hyrcanian 

fca  (not  bordering  upon  the  Albanians,  for  the  terri- 
tories of  the  Gctae  and  the  Leges  lie  betwixt):  and 
with  thcfe  people  do  they  yearly,  for  two  months  only, 
accompany  and  cohabit,  bed  and  board,  near  the  river 
Thcrniodoon.  After  that  they  retire  to  their  own  ha- 
bitations, and  live  alone  all  the  reft  of  the  year." 

Qiiintus  Curtiusfays,  "The  naiionof  the  Amazons 
is  (ituated  upon  the  borders  of  Hyrcania,  inhabiting  the 
plains  of  Thcrmifcyra,  near  the  river  1  he ruiodoon. 
Their  queen  was  named  Thalcitris;  and  (he  had  under 
her  fuhjc;Jllon  all  the  country  thnt  licsb'^twccn  mount 
Caucafus  and  the  river  Phalis.  Tiiis  cjuceii  came  out 
of  her  dominions,  in  confcquencc  of  ,1:1  ardeiit  dcllrc 
^le  had  conceived  to  fee  AIexandcr;and  being  advanced 
near  the  place  where  he  was,  flic  prcvioufly  ftiit  nief- 
fcngcrs  to  acquaint  him,  that  the  queen  was  come  to 
have  tlicfaiisfaJlion  of  feeing  and  convcrfaigwith  him. 
Having  obtained  permiluon  to  vi(it  him,  flie  advanced 
Mith  jooofhcr  .Amazons,  leaving  the  relief  her  troops 
behind.  As  foon  as  {he  came  within  fight  of  the 
king,  fhe  leaped  from  her  horfc,  holdi.ig  two  javelins 
in  her  right  hand.  Tlie  app.irclof  the  .Amazons  does 
not  cover  all  the  body;  for  their  left  lidc  is  naked  down 
to  the  flomach,  nor  does  the  Ikirts  of  their  garments, 
v.hich  they  tie  up  in  a  knot,  reacli  below  their  knees. 
They  prefcrve  theirlcft  brcall  entirc,thatlhey  may  be 
able  tofuckle  their  female  offspring  ;  and  they  cut  off 
and  fear  tjicir  right,  that  they  may  draw  their  bows, 
and  cad  their  dirts,  with  the  greater  eafc.  Thaleflris 
looked  at  the  king  with  an  undaunted  countenance, 
and  narrowly  examined  his  pcrfon  ;  which  did  not,  ac- 
cording to  her  ideas,  come  up  to  the  fame  of  his  great 
exploits:  For  the  barbarians  have  agrcatvencrationfor 
a  nnjeftic  perfon,efteemingthofc  only  tobe  capableof 
performing  great  aClious,  onwhom  nature  hasconfcr- 
redadignificdappearancc.  The  king  havingalkcd  her 
whether  flie  li.id  any  thiugtodcfireof  Iiiin,  ihe  replied, 
without  fcruplc  or  htlitaiiou,  that  (he  was  come  with 
a  view  to  have  children  by  him,  Ihe  being  worthy  to 
bring  him  heirs  to  his  dominions.  Their  offspring,  if 
of  the  female  fcx,  fhe  would  retain  herfelf  ;  and  if  of 
the  male  fex,  it  fhould  be  delivered  to  Alexander.  He 
then  afrccd  her,  n  hcthtr  Ihe  would  accompany  him  in 
his  wars?  Bat  thii  li.c  J ccliiud,  alleging,  That  ilie  had 
left  nobody  to  take  care  of  her  kingdom.  She  conti- 
nued to  folicit  Alexander,  that  he  would  not  fend  her 
back  withouf  conforming  toher  wiflics  ;  but  it  was  not 
till  after  a  delay  of  1  5  days  that  he  complied.  She 
then  returned  to  her  own  kingdom. 

JnftinaK'orcpcatedly  mcniious  this  vi  lit  of  Thaleflris 
to  Alexander  ;  and  in  one  place  he  fays,  that  (he  made 
a  march  of  25  days,  in  order  to  obtain  this  meeting 
with  him.  Tlie  interview  between  Alexander  and 
Thaleflris  is  likcwifc  mentioned  by  Diodonis  Si- 
Ciilus.  The  learned  O'oropius,  as  he  is  quoted  by  Dr 
Petit,  laments,  in  very  pathetic  terms,  the  hard  fate 
of  Thalcllris,  who  was  obliged  to  travel  fo  many  miles, 
and  to  encounter  many  hardlhips,  in  order  ta  procure 
this  interview  with  the  Macedonian  prince,  and, from 
thecircumfl-inccs,  is  led  10  conlldcrthe  whole  account 
as  incredible.  But  Dr  Petit,  with  eqnal  erudition, with 
equal  eloquence,  and  witli  fupcrior  force  of  rcafoning, 
at  length  determines^  that  her  journey  was  not  founded 
Vol.  I. 


11       } 


A  M  A 


upon  irrational  principles,  and  that  full  credit  is  due  to  Asmmd*. 

thofe  grave  and  venerable  hiilorians  by  whom  thii  " ' 

tranfaition  has  been  recorded. 

The  Amazons  arc  rcprefented  as  beinp  armed  with 
bows  and  arrows,  with  javelins,  and  alio  with  an  axe 
of  a  particular  conftrudion,  which  was  denominated 
the  axe  of  the  Amazons.  According  to  the  elder 
Pliny,  this  axe  was  invented  by  Penthifilca.onc  of  their 
queens.  On  many  ancient  medals  are  reprefentations 
of  the  Amazons,  armed  wi'.Iithcfe  axes.  They  arc  al- 
fofaid  to  have  hadbucklcrsin  the  fhapc  of  a  half-moon. 

The  Amazons  arc  mcnii  jned  by  many  other  ancient 
authors  belidcs  thofe  which  have  bcjn  enumerated  ; 
and  if  any  credit  be  due  to  the  .-.ccounts  concerning 
them,  they  fubiii'.cd  through  fcvcral  ages.  They  arc 
rcprefented  as  having  rcnJcred  the!'!ifelvcs  extrcir4cl/ 
formidable;  as  having  founded  cities,  enlarged  th: 
boundaries  of  their  dominions,  and  conquered  fcvcral 
other  nations. 

That  at  any  period  there  H-.oald  have  been  women, 
who,  without  tlie  afiillaucc  ot  men,  built  cisies  and 
governed  them,  raifcd  armies  and  commanded  theni, 
adminiftcrcd  public  affairs,  and  extended  their  domi- 
nion by  arms,  is  undoubtedly  fo  cortrary  to  all  chat 
we  have  fceu  and  known  of  human  affairs,  as  to  appear 
in  a  very  great  degree  incredible;  but  that  women  may 
have  cxilled  fufiicicntly  robnll  and  fufficieatly  coura- 
geous to  have  engaged  in  warlike  enterprifes,and  even 
to  have  been  fucccfsful  in  them,  is  certainly  not  im- 
poUible, however  contrary  to  the  ufaal  courfc  of  things. 
In  fupport  of  this  (idcof  the  qucfli'jn,  it  may  be  urged, 
that  women  who  have  been  early  trained  to  warlike 
exerciffs,  to  hunting,  and  to  an  hard  and  laborious 
mode  of  living,  may  be  rendered  more  ftrong,  and  ca- 
pable of  more  vigorous  exertions,  than  men  who  hare 
led  indolent,  delicate,  luxurious  lives,  and  who 
have  feldoin  been  cxpofcd  even  to  the  inclemencies  of 
the  weather.  The  limbs  of  women,  as  well  as  of  met}, 
areftrengthened  and  rendered  morcrobuflby  frequent 
and  laborious  excrcife.  A  nation  of  women,  therefore, 
brought  up  and  difciplincd  as  the  ancient  Amazons  arc 
rcprefented  to  have  been,  would  be  fupcrior  to  an  c- 
qual  number  of  cflcminatc  men  ;  though  they  might 
be  much  inferior  to  an  equal  number  of  hardy  raea 
trained  up  and  difciplincd  in  the  fame  manner. 

That  much  of  wjiat  is  faid  of  the  .^.mazons  is  faba- 
lous,  there  can  be  no  rcafonaMe  .ioubt ;  bat  it  does 
not  therefore  follow,  that  the  whole  is  withotit  foun- 
datiiin.  The  ancient  medals  and  monuments  on  which 
they  are  reprct'cnted  are  very  numerous,  as  arc  alio  the 
teftimonics  of  ancient  writers.  It  fi-ems  not  rational 
to  fuppofe  that  all  this  originated  in  fiflion,  though  ii 
nvay  be  much  blended  with  it.  The  Abb&  Guyoii 
fpeaks  of  the  hillory  of  the  Amaz'^ns  as  ha-.nug  been 
regarded  by  many  perfons  as  fabulous,  *«  rather  from 
prejudice  than  from  any  real  and  folid  examination  ;" 
and  it  mull  be  acknowledged,  that  the  arguments  m 
favour  ofthcirexille.icc.from  ancient  hiflory, and  from 
ancient  monuments,  arc  extremely  powerful.  The  fafl 
fccms  to  be,  that  truth  and  fiftion  have  been  blended 
in  the  narratioTis concerning  thefe  ancient  heroines. 

Inllanccsof  hcroifmin  women  havcoccallonally  oc- 
curred in  niovlcrn  times,  lomewhat  rel'cmblii;g  that  of 
the  ancie:it  Ama-roas.  The  times  and  the  manners  of 
ckivjlryin  pai-ticuJar^  by  bringing  great cnitiprifes, 
U   7.  bold 


A  M  A 


[    -5"     ] 


A  M  A 


Amflx<ni».  bi'Ui.i<JvculmfS,  ar.d  extravagant  hercifiu, into lalliiou, 

' ^ '  iiifijircd  ihc  women  with  tiic  l:imeiafte.  The  vvoiiieii, 

ill  conltqiicncc  of  the  prcvailiii);  palTioii,  were  now 
fctJi  in  the  midJlc  of  camps  and  of  arniies.  Tlicy 
quitted  the  foft  and  ttndcf  iiicliiialions,  and  the  deli- 
cate o/Ticcs  of  ihcir  own  fcx,  for  the  toils  and  the  toil- 
foiuc  occupation  of  ours.  During  the  crufadcs,  ani- 
mated by  the  double  cnthufiafm  of  religion  and  or"  va- 
lour, they  often  performed  the  moll  rom;intit  exploits  ; 
obtained  indulgences  on  the  lielJ  of  battle,  and  died 
with  arms  in  their  hands,  by  the  lidcof  their  lovers  or 
ortbcir  hulbands. 

In  Europe,  the  women  atuekcJ  and  defended  for- 
tilicaiions  ;  princellcs  commanded  their  armies,  and 
nbtaincd  vi«.^lories.  Such  was  the  celebrated  Jpan  de 
Moatfort,  difpiiting,for  her  duchy  of  Brctagnc,  and 
tij^hling  in  pti  Ion.  Sucli  was  that  Itill  more  celebrated 
Margaret  of  Aiijou,  ai:tivc  and  tutrepid  general  and 
foldier,  whofe  genius  fupportcd  a  long  time  a  feeble 
huiband  ;  <\hith  taught  him  to  conquer  ;  whicii  repla- 
ced him  upon  the  throne  ;  whicli  twice  relieved  him 
from  prifon  ;  and,  opprellcd  by  fortune  and  by  rebels, 
which  did  not  bend  till  after  (he  had  decided  in  perfon 
twelve  battles. 

The  warlike  fpirit  among  the  women,  confident 
with  ages  of  birbarifra,  when  everything  is  impetuous 
bccaufc  nothing  is  fixed,  aad  when  allexcefs  isihc  ex- 
cels of  force,  continued  in  Europe  upwards  of  400 
years,  fiiowiug  itfelf  from  time  to  time,  and  always  in 
the  middle  of  convullions  or  on  the  eve  of  great  revolu- 
tions. But  there  were  seras  and  countries  in  which 
that  fpirit  appeared  with  particular  luftrc.  Such  were 
thedifplays  it  made  in  the  15th  and  i6tli.  centuries  In 
Hungary,  and  in  the  illands  of  the  Arcliipelago  and  the 
Mediterranean  when  they  were  invaded  by  the  Turks. 

Among  the  flriking  inllanccs  of  Amazonian  conduit 
in  modern  ladies,  may  be  mentioned  that  of  Jane  of 
Belleville,  widow  of  Monf.  de  CliiFon,  who  was  be- 
headed at.  Paris  in  the  year  1345,  on  a  fufpicion  of 
carrying  on  a  correfpondcncc  with  England  anif  the 
Count  de  Montfort.  This  lady,  filled  with  grief  for 
the  death  of  her  late  hufband,  and  exafperated  at  the 
ill  ircatmer.t  which  flieconlidercd  him  as  having  recei- 
ved, fen:  ofi""  her  fon  fecretly  to  London  ;  and  when 
her  apprehenlions  were  removed  with  refpecfl  to  him, 
Ihe  fold  her  jeweb,  fitted  out  three  Ihips,  and  put  to 
fea,  to  revenge  the  death  of  her  hufband  upon  all  the 
French  with  whom  llie  ihould  meet.  This  new  cor- 
fair  made  feveral  defccnts  upon  Normandy,  where  Ihe 
llormed  cafilcs,  and  the  inhabitants  of  that  province 
were  fpcflators  more  than  once,  whilft  their  villages 
were  all  in  a  blaze,  of  one  of  the  fineft  women  in  Eu- 
rope, with  a  fword  in  one  hand  and  a  torch  in  the 
other,  urging  the  carnage,  and  eyeing  with  pleafur* 
all  the  horrors  of  war." 

We  read  in  Mezeray,  under  the  article  of  the  Croi- 
fadc,  preached  by  St  Bernard  in  the  year  1 1 47,  "That 
many  women  did  not  content  thcmfelves  with  taking 
the  crofs,  but  that  they  alfo  took  up  arms  to  defend 
it,  andcompofed  fquadrons  of  females,  whicli  render- 
ed credible  all  that  has  been  faid  of  the  prowefs  of  the 
Amazons." 

In  the  year  IJ90,  the  League  party  obtained  fome 
troops  from  the  king  of  Spain.  Upon  the  news  of 
their  being  difembarked,  Barri  de  St  Aunez,  Henry 
IV. 's  governor  at  Lciacatc,  fee  out  to  communicate  a 


lihemc  to  the  Diikcdc  Montmorcnci,  comnisiuHti  in  /.roazort. 

that  province.     He  was  taken  ou  his  w.iy  by  fome  of  "■ ^^    ' 

the  troops  of  the  League,  who  were  alio  upon  th'.'vr 
march  with  the  Spaniards  towards  Lcucaie.  They 
were  perfuaded,  ihjt  by  thus  having  the  governor  in 
their  hands  the  gates  of  that  place  would  be  immedi- 
ately opened  to  them,  or  at  kail  would  not  hold  out 
long.  But  Condautiade  Cecelli,  his  wife,  after  ha- 
ving alTcmbled  thegarrifon,puiherfclf  forefohitcly  at 
their  head,  pike  in  hand,  that  llieiiifpired  the  wcaktfl 
with  courage  ;  and  the  bcliegers  were  rcpulftd  where- 
cvcr  they  prelentcd  thcmfelves.  Shame  and  their  great 
lofs  bavingrcndcrcd  than  defpcrate,  they  fcnt  a  mef- 
fagc  to  this  courageous  woman,  acquainting  her,  liut 
if  Ihc  continued  to  defend  hcrfc'f  they  would  haiigher 
hufband.  She  replied  with  tears  in  her  eyes,  "  1  hav« 
riches  in  abundance  :  I  liavc  offered  them,  and  I  do 
ftill  oflcr  them,  for  his  ranfom  ;  but  I  would  not  igno- 
miiiioudy  purchafe  a  life  which  he  would  reproach  mc 
with,  and  which  he  would  be  afliamcd  to  enjoy.  I 
will  not  diflionour  him  by  treafon  agaiaflmy  kingand 
country."  The  bcliegers  having  made  a  frefh  attack 
without  fuccefs,  put  her  huiband  to  death,  and  raifcd 
the  liege.  Henry  IV.  afterwards  fent  to  this  lady  the 
brevet  of  govcrncfs  of  Lcticate,  with  the  revcrfioii 
for  her  fon. 

'l"he  famous  Maid  of  Orleans,  alfo  is  an  example 
known  to  every  reader. 

The  Abbe  Arnaud,  in  his  Memoirs,  fjieaks  of  a 
Countefs  of  St  Balmont,  who  ufcd  to  take  the  field 
with  her  huiband  and  fight  by  his  iide.  She  fent  fe- 
veral Spanilh  prifoners  of  her  taking  to  Marflial  Feii- 
quiers  ;  and  what  is  not  a  little  extraordinary,  this  A- 
niazon  at  home  was  all  affability  and  fweetucfs,  and 
gave  herfelf  up  to  reading  and  n&s  of  piety. 

Dr  Johnfon  feems  to  have  given  fome  credit  to  the 
accounts  which  have  been  tranfmitred  down  to  us  con- 
cerning <he  ancient  Amazons ;  and  he  lias  cndavoured 
to  fliow,  that  we  ought  not  haflily  to  rejeft  anciciu 
hiitorical  narrations  bccaufe  they  contain  faiSs  repug- 
nant to  modern  manners,  a;id  exhibit  fctnes  to  which 
nothing  now  occnring  bears  a  refcmblancc.  "  Of 
what  we  know  not  (fays  he),  we  can  only- judge  by 
what  we  know.  Every  novelty  appears  more  wonder- 
ful as  it  is  more  remote  from  any  thing  with  which  ex- 
perience or  teftimony  have  hithertoacquainted  us:  and 
if  it  palTcs  farther,  beyond  the  notions  that  we  have 
been  accuflomed  to  form,  it  becomes  at  lafl  incredible. 
We  feldom  conlider,  thai  hum.m  knowledge  is  very 
narrow  ;  that  national  manners  are  formed  by  chance; 
that  uncommon  conjunctures  of  caufes  produce  rare 
effeAs  ;  or  that  what  is  impoffible  at  one  time  or  place 
may  yet  happen  in  another.  It  is  always  ea/ier  to  de- 
ny than  to  enquire.  To  refufc  credit  confers  for  a 
niomentan  appearance  cffuperiority  which  every  little 
mind  is  tempted  to  alliimc,  when  it  may  be  gained  fo 
cheaply  as  by  withdrawing  attention  from  evidence, 
and  declining  the  fatigue  of  comparing  probabilities. 
Many  relations  of  travellers  have  been  lliglited  as 
fabulous,  till  more  frequent  voyages  have  confirmed 
their  veracity;  and  it  may  reafonably  be  imagined,  thai 
many  ancient  hiftorians  are  unjuftly  fufpefled  of  falfe- 
hood,  bccaufe  our  own  times  afford  nothing  that  re- 
fembles  what  they  tell.  Few  narratives  will  cither  to 
men  or  women  appear  more  incredible  than  tlie  hiflo- 
rics  of  the  Amazons ;  of  female  nations,  of  whofe  con- 

AituiioQ. 


A  M  B 


[     S^2>     ] 


A  U  P. 


rtiiniion  it 'was  the  ejlential  and  fnudameiual  l.i\v,  lo 
exclude  men  from  allpaiticipaiion  cither  of  public  af- 
fairsor  doniellicbuliiicls;  where  female  armies  march- 
ed under  fcuialc  captains,  female  fanners  gathered  the 
harveft,  female  panniers  danced  together,  and  fctnale 
wits  diverted  one  another.  Yet  fcveral  ages  of  anii- 
q^uity  have  trinfinitted  accounts  of  the  Amazons  of 
Caucafus  ;  and  of  the  Amazons  of  America,  who  have 
gi-ven  tiieir  name  to  the  greatefl  river  in  the  world. 
Condaniine  lately  found  fiich  memorials  as  can  be  ex- 
pefled  among  erratic  and  unlettered  nations,  where 
events  arc  recorded  only  by  tradition,  and  new  fwarms 
fettling  in  the  country  from  time  to  time  confute  and 
cllice  all  traces  of  former  times." 

No  author  has  taken  fo  much  pains  upon  this  fub- 
jcft  as  Dr  Petit.  But  in  the  courfc  of  his  work,  he 
has  given  it  as  his  opinion,  that  there  is  great  difficul- 
ty in  governing  the  women  even  at  prefent,  though 
they  are  unarmed  and  unpraililcd  in  the  art  of  war. 
After  all  his  elaborate  inquiries  and  difculFions,  there- 
fore, this  learned  writer  might  probably  think,  that 
it  is  not  an  evil  of  the  firll  magnitude  that  the  race  of 
Amazons  now  ccafcs  to  cxift. 

Ronffeau  fays,  "  The  empire  of  the  woman  is  an 
empire  ef  foftncfs,  of  addrefs,  of  complacency.  Her 
Commands  arc  earefles,  her  menaces  arc  tears."  But 
the  empire  of  the  Amazons  was  certainly  an  empire  of 
a  very  different  kind.  Upon  the  whole,  we  may  con- 
clude withDr  Johnfon  :  "The  charaftcr  of  the  an- 
cient Amazons  was  rather  terrible  than  lovely.  The 
hand  could  not  be  very  delicate  that  was  only  employed 
in  drawing  the  bow  and  brandifliing  the  battle-axe. 
Their  power  was  maintained  by  cruelty,  their  courage 
was  deformed  by  ferocity  ;  and  their  example  only 
Ihows,  that  men  and  women  live  bed  together." 

Amazons  (the  river  of),  in  America.  See  Ama- 
zonia. 

Amazonian  Habit,  in  antiquity,  denotes  a  drefs 
formed  in  imitation  of  the  Amazons.  Marcia,  the  fa- 
mous concubine  of  the  emperor  Commodus,  had  the 
appellation  of  Aiiiaz',niaii,  becaufe  Ihe  charmed  him 
mod  in  a  habit  of  4-Ius  kind.  Hence  alfo  that  prince 
himfelf  engaged  in  combat  in  the  amphitheatre  in  an 
Amazonian  habit ;  and  of  all  titles  the  Amazortiui  was 
one  of  thofe  he  mod  deli;;hted  in. — In  honour  either 
of  the  gallant  or  his  midrcfs,  the  month  of  December 
was  alfo  denominated  j^nuizonius — Some  alfo  apply 
/iinazttiian  kab'rt  to  the  hunting-drefs  worn  by  many 
ladies  among  us. 

AMB.A,  an  Abyfilnian  or  Ethiopic  word,  fignify- 
ing  a  rtck.  The  Abyfllnians  give  names  to  each  of 
their  rocks,  s.s  Arnba-Dorkri,  the  rock  of  a  hen,  &c. 
Someof  thcfe  rocks  are  faid  to  have  the  nameof  .■/orwf ; 
and  are  of  fuch  i  dupendous  height,  that  the  Alps  and 
Pyrenees  arc  but  low  hills  in  comparifon  of  thera.  A- 
mongd  the  mountains, and  even  frequently  in  the  plains, 
of  this  country,  arifc  deep  and  craggy  rocks  of  various 
forms,  fome  refembling  towers,  others  pyramids,  &c. 
fopcrpendicularand  fmoothonthe  (ides, that  they  feem 
to  be  worksof  art ;  infomuch,  that  men,  cattle,  Stc.  are 
craned  up  by  the  help  of  ladders  and  ropes  :  and  yet 
the  tops  of  thcfe  rocks  are  covered  with  woods,  mea- 
dows, fountains,  fiiliponds,  &c.  which  very  copioully 
fupply  the  animals  feated  thereon  with  all  the  conve- 
niences of  life.  The  mod  remarkable  of  thefe  rocks 
is  called  Amba-Ctflien.     U  is  prodigioudy  deep,  in  tie 


iorm  of  acaftle  built  of  free  done,  and  iiinoftlmprtg- 
nablc.  Its  funimit  is  about  half  a  Poruignefe  league 
in  breadth,  and  the  drcnmfcrciicc  at  the  bcrtom  about 
half  a  day's  journry.  1  he  afcent  at  firdiscafy  ;  bii 
grows  afterwardsfo  deep, that  ihcAl.yffincoxtn,v.hich 
will  othcrwifc  clamber  like  goats,  mud  be  craned  up, 
andlct  down  with  ropes.  Here  the  princes  of  the  blood 
Were  formerly  confined,  in  low  cottages  aniongd  Ihrubs 
and  wild  cedars,  with  an  allowance  barely  futhcient  to 
keep  them  alive.  There  is,  according  to  Kirchcr,  in 
this  country,  a  rock  fo  curioudy  hollowed  by  nature, 
that  at  a  didanceit  refemblcs  a  lookii-g-glafs  ;  and  op- 
pofite  to  this  another,  on  the  top  of  which  nothing 
can  be  fofofily  wliifpercd,  but  it  may  be  heard  a  great 
way  oft'.  Between  many  of  thtfc  rocks  and  mountains 
are  vad  abylfcs,  which  appear  very  dreadful  to  the 
eye. 

AMB.ACHT,  in  topography,  de-notes  a  kind  c^ 
jurifdiclion  or  territory,  tlic  poiiciror  v,  hereof  has  the 
idminidration  of  juftice  both  in  altti  and  balfo  ;  or  of 
what  is  cilled  in  the  Scots  law  a  ftower  oj p.t  ana gal- 
lov>i,  i.  c.  a  power  of  drowning  and  hanging — In 
lome  ancient  writers,  ambacht  is  particularly  uled  for 
the  jurifdiclion,  government,  or  chief  raagidracy  of  a 
ciiy.  The  word  is  very  ancient,  though  ufed  origi- 
nally in  a  fcnfe  fomev.-hat  ditfcrcnt.  Knnius  calls  a 
mercenary,  or  (lave  hired  for  money  ai/ibjfiui ;  and 
Cxfar  gives  the  fame  appellation  to  a  kind  of  depend- 
ents among  the  Gauls,  who,  without  being  (laves,  were 
attached  to  the  fervice  of  great  lords. 

AMBAGKS.     Sec  Circumlocution. 

AMBARVALIA,  in  antiquity,  a  ceremony  among 
the  Romans,  when,  in  order  to  procure  from  the  gods 
an  happy  liarved,  they  conducted  the  vidiims  thrice 
round  the  corn  fields  in  proceffion,  before  facrificing 
them. — Ainbarvalia  were  either  of  a  private  or  public 
nature  :  the  private  were  performed  by  the  mader  of  a 
family  ;  and  the  public  by  the  prieds  who  officiated  at 
the  folemniiy,calledyrfl/»-.-/oftf/c/.Thepraycr  preferred 
on  thisoccafion,  the  formula  of  which  we  have  in  Cato 
de  Re  Ktiptca,  cap.  cxlii.  was  called  carmen ambcrvalc. 
At  thefe  feads  they  facrificed  to  Ceres  a  fow,  a  Oieep, 
and  a  bull  or  heifer,  whence  they  took  the  name  of 
fitovetaiirilia.  The  method  of  celebrating  them  was, 
to  lead  a  vidim  round  the  fields,  while  the  peafants 
accompanied  it ,  and  one  of  their  number,  crowned  with 
oak,  hymned  forth  thepraifes  of  Ceres,  in  verfcscom- 
pofcd  on  purpofc.  This  fedival  was  celebrated  twice 
a-year  ;  at  the  end  of  January,  according  to  fomc,  or 
in  April,  according  toothers  ;  and  for  the  fecond  time, 
in  the  month  of  July. 

AMBASSADOR,  or  Embassador,  a  public  mini- 
der  feni  fent  from  one  lovereign  prince,  as  a  reprefcn- 
tativc  of  his  perfon  to  another. 

AmbalFadors  are  cither  ordinary  or  extraordinary. 
Ambalfador  in  ordinary,  is  he  who  condantlv  relidcs 
in  the  court  of  another  prince,  to  maintain  a  good  un- 
derdanding,  and  look  to  the  intered  of  his  madcr. 
Till  about  two  hundred  hears  ago,  ambalTadors  in  or- 
dinary were  not  heard  of:  all,  rill  then,  were  ambaf- 
fadors  extraordinary  ;  that  is,  fuch  as  arc  fent  on  fomc 
extraordinary  occalion,  and  who  retire  as  foon  as  the 
affair  is  difpatcV.ed. 

By  the  law  of  nation?,  none  under  the  qu.ility  of  a 

fovereign  prince  can  fend  or  receive  an  ambalFador.  At 

Athens,  ambaifadors  mounted  the  pulpit  of  the  public 

3  U   2  orators, 


AmbKh: 

f 

An'.b.lT.. 
dor. 


A  M  B 


[     5^4     ] 


A  M  B 


orators,  a:iJ  there  o,u-!icJ  ihcir  commifTxon,  ic-nuiiit- 
iug  iht  j)c»[lc  vviih  ihcir  crrar.d.  At  Rome,  ihcy  wtrc 
iiurojuctil  to  the  feiiate,  .nij  dtlivercii  iktii-  couimiffi- 
o/s  to  the  fathers. 

AmbiilaJors  Ihould  never  attend  any  public  folcnini- 
ries,  as  marriages,  liinerals,  &c.  uiilcfs  their  mailers 
Jiavc  Ibnis  in tercit  therein  luornuift  they  go  into niour  II- 
uigon  any  occalions  of  their  own,  becaufc  iheyrcjic- 
lent  the  perfjn  of  their  prince.  By  the  civil  law,  the 
moveable  j;oods  of  an  ainballador,  Nvliich  arc  accounted 
an  acctlllon  to  his  perfon,  cannot  be  feizcdon,  neither 
as  a  iil.cdj';e,  nor  for  payment  of  a  debt,  nor  by  order 
ur  txcciitlonof  jtidj;meiit,  nor  by  thclving'sor  Hate's 
leave  where  he  relides,  as  fomc  co.ictive  ;  for  all  actions 
oiijjht  to  be  far  trom  an  anibalfador,  as  well  that  wliich 
louchethhisneccirarics.ashispcrlon  :  if,  thereiore,  he 
Inth  contraclcd  any  debt,  he  is  to  be  called  upon  kind- 
ly ;  and  if  he  rcfufcs,  then  letters  of  rcqiielt  arc  to  go 
to  his  maAer.  Koi-  can  r.ny  of  the  ambaiiador's  dorac- 
flic  fervanis  th.at  are  re;:iltered  in  the  fccretarics  of 
Hate's  office  be  arreftcd  in  perfon  or  goods  ,  if  they  are, 
the  procefs  fiiallbe  void,  and  the  parties  fating  out  and 
executing  it  ihall  futier  and  be  liable  to  fiich  penalties 
and  corpi)ral  pnniflimcnt  as  the  lord  chancellor  or  ci- 
ther of  the  chief  julUccs  lliall  think  fit  to  intliCl.  Yet 
ambail'adors  cannot  be  defended  when  they  com  niit  any 
(hingagainftthat  ftate,or  the  perfon  of  theprince,  with 
whoin  they  relide  ;  and  if  ihcy  arc  guilty  of  trcafon, 
felony,  &c.  or  any  other  crime  .igainll  tlielaw  of  na- 
tions, they  lofe  the  pi  ivilcgc  of  an  amballador,  and  may 
be  fubjetl  to  punilhment  as  private  aliens. 

AMBK,  'n\  fiirgery ,  the  name  of  an  inllrumcnt  for 
reducing  diiiocaccd  bones.  In  aiuit {,>//)•,  a  term  lur  the 
liipcrtieial  jutting  out  of  a  bone. 

AMBl'.R  fSmcim/mJ,  in  natural  hiflory,  a  folid, 
hard,  femipc-lUicid,  bituminous  fubilance  of  a  parti- 
cular nature,  of  ufc  in  medicine  and  in  fevcral  of  the 
arts.  It  has  been  called  aMi'm  by  the  Arabians,  and 
cliihuiii  by  the  Greeks. 

Amber  lias  been  of  great  repute  in  the  world  from 
the  earlieft  times.  Many  years  before  Chrill  it  was  in 
cllccm  as  a  medicine  ;  and  Flaco,  Arillotlc,  Hero- 
dotus, y*;fthyliis,  and  others,  have  commended  its  vir- 
tues. Ill  the  times  of  the  Romans  it  became  in  high 
tileem  as  a  gem  ;  and  in  tlic  luxurious  reign  of  Nero, 
immcnfc  quantities  of  it  were  brought  to  Rome,  and 
nfcd  for  ornamenting  works  of  various  kinds. 

The  moll  remarkable  property  of  this  fubllance  is, 
that,  when  rubbed,  it  draws  or  attrafts  other  bodies  to 
it  :  and  this,  it  is  olfcrved,  it  does,  even  to  thofc 
fjbdances  which  the  ancients  thought  it  had  an  anti- 
pathy to  ;  as  oily  bodies,  drops  of  water,  human  fweat, 
&c.  Add,  that  by  the  triclion  is  is  brought  to  yield 
"light  pretty  copioudy  in  the  dark  ;  wlience  it  is  rec- 
koned among  the  native  phofpliori. 

The  proptTtyv.'hich  amber  poireilesofattracliuglight 
lindics,  w,is  very  anciently  obferved.  Thales  of  Miletus, 
i^oo  years  before  Chrill,  concluded  from  hence  that  it 
was  animated.  But  the  Crft  pcrfm  who  cxprefsly  men- 
(i.^ns  this  fub(iance,isTheophraftus,  about  the  year  ;oo 
before  Chritl.  The  attradive  property  of  amber  is 
l^kewifc  occafionally  taken  notice  of  by  Pliny,  and 
t.ihcr  latcrnaturaliils,  particulnrly  byGalTcndus,  Ke- 
nelm  Digby,  and  Sir  Thomas  Brown  ;  but  it  was  ge- 
iicrally  a^'preb^ndcj  tliat  tliis  u  u'ity  was  peculiar  to 


amber  and  jet,  and  perhaps  agate,  till  Gilbert  p'.'.ulillied 
liis  treatifc  Di  Mjgit.-H,  in  the  year  1600.  From 
»xixTf«T,  the  Greek  name  for  amber,  is  derived  liie  term 
EliOricity,  which  is  now  very  extcnfivcly  applied  not 
only  to  the  power  of  .Mt ratling  light  bodies,  inherent  in 
amber,  but  to  other  limilar  powers,  and  their  varioii* 
clFccts,  in  whatever  bodies  they  relide,  or  to  whate- 
ver bodies  they  may  be  communicated. 

Amber  alVumes  all  figures  in  the  ground  ;  that  of  a 
pear,  an  almond,  a  pea,  &c.  In  amber  there  have  bcca 
laid  to  be  letters  found  very  well  formed  ;  and  even  He- 
brew and  Arabic  charailers. — Within  fonie  lueces, 
leaves,  infei:ls,&c.  have  likewife  been  found  included  . 
which  fccins  to  indicate,  ei:her  that  the  amber  was  ori- 
ginally in  a  lluiil  llatc,  or  that  having  been  expofcd  ta 
the  fun,  it  was  oncefjflened,  and  rendered  fiifceptible 
of  the  leaves,  infcdl:;,  S:c.  which  came  in  its  way.  The 
litter  of  thefe  fuppofitions  fccins  the  more  agreeable  to 
the  phenomenon,  becaufc  thofe  infe.is,  &c.  are  never 
found  in  the  centre  uf  the  pieces  of  amber,  but  always 
near  the  furfacc.  It  is  obfervcd  by  the  inhabitants  of 
thofe  places  where  amber  is  produced,  that  all  animals, 
whether  ttrrtlbial,  aerial,  or  aquatic,  are  extremely 
fond  of  it,  and  that  pieces  of  it  arc  frequently  found 
in  their  excrements.  The  bodies  of  infcds,  founil  bu- 
ried in  amber,  arc  viewed  with  admiration  by  all  the 
world  ;  but  of  the  moil  remarkable  of  thefe,  many  arc 
to  be  fufpeded  as  counterfeit,  the  great  price  at  which 
Ueautifni  fpeeimcns  of  this  kind  fell,  Iiaving  tempted 
ingenious  cheats  to  introduce  animal  bodies  in  I'uch 
art/'ul  manners  into  fccmingly  whole  pieces  of  amber, 
that  it  is  not  cafy  todeted  tiie  fraud. 

Of  thofe  infeiils  whlcli  have  been  originally  inclofed 
in  amber,  fomc  are  plainly  fcen  to  have  (Iruggled  hartl 
for  their  liberty,  and  even  loh.ive  left  their  limbs  be- 
liind  them  in  the  attempt  ;  it  being  no  unufnal  tiling 
to  fee,  in  a  mafs  of  amber  that  contains  a  flout  beetle, 
the  animal  wanting  one,  or  perhaps  two  of  its  legs  ; 
and  fhofe  legs  left  iiuliti'crent  places,  nearer  tliat  part 
i>i  the  mafs  from  which  it  has  travelled.  This  alfo 
may  account  for  the  common  accident  of  finding  legs, 
or  wings  of  rties,  without  the  reil  of  their  bodies,  in 
piecesof  amber;  the  iufecls  having,  when  cntanglediii 
the  yet  foft  and  vifcid  matter,  efcaped,  at  th*  expencc 
of  leaving  thofc  limbs  behind  them.  Drops  of  clear 
water  arc  fomctiines  alfo  prefervcd  in  amber.  Thefe 
have  doubtlcfsbcen  received  in toit  while  foft,  and  pre- 
fervcd by  its  hardening  round  tlicm.  Beauiiful  leaves 
of  a  pinnated  (Irudure,  refembling  fomcof  tlic  ferns, 
or  maidenhairs,  have  been  found  in  fomc  pieces  ;  but 
thefe  arc  rare,  and  fpccimens  of  great  value.  Mi-; 
ncral  fubilanccs  arc  alfo  found  at  times  lodged  in  maf- 
fes  of  amber.  Somcof  the  pompous  coUci'iions  of  the 
German  princes  boa/1  of  fjiecimcns  of  native  gold  and 
filver  in  maflcs  of  amber  ;  but  as  there  are  many  fub- 
flances  of  the  marcalltc,  and  other  kinds,  that  liavc  all 
the  gliltering  appearance  of  gold  and  filver,  if  is  not 
to  be  too  haPiily  concluded  that  tbcle  metals  are  really- 
lodged  in  thefe  beds  of  amber.  Iron  is  found  in  vari- 
ous fliapts  immcrfed  in  ,-vmber  ;  and  as  it  is  often  fcen 
erotitd,  and  lomctimcs  in  the  Hate  of  vitriol^  it  is  not 
impofiiljle  but  that  copper,  and  the  other  metals,  may 
be  alfo  fometimcs  immcrfed  in  it  in  the  fame  ilate  : 
hence  the  bluilh  andgnciiilhcaltrar';,  frequcrilly  foiiiul 
in  the  recent  piecesof  amber,  may  be  owing,  like  the 

particki 


Amber. 


A  M  B 


[     S^S     ] 


A  M  B 


Aml)cr.     panicles  of  the  gem  colours,  to  ibofc  mcnh  ;  bat  as 

V — '  [lie  f;ems,  by  tlitir  ilcnfe  texture,  always  retiiu  their 

fi'lours,  this  lighter  and  more  lax  biiuuicii  ufually  lo- 
fcs  what  it  gets  of  thii  kind,  by  keeping  fomc  time. 
Small  pebbles,  graiiio  of  faiid,  and  fragiucnis  of  other 
flones,  arc  not  unfrcquenily  alfo  found  iu;i;ierfed  in 
amber. 

Naturalifts  have  been  greatly  divided  as  to  the  ori- 
gin of  this  fubllince,  atid  what  clafs  of  bodies  it  be- 
longs to;  fomc  referring  it  to  the  vegetable,  others 
to  the  mineral,  and  fomc  even  to  ilic  animal  ki:igdoni. 
I'liny  dcfcribes  it  as  "  a  rcfmous  juice,  oozing  from 
"  aged  pines  and  firs  (others  (ay  horn  poplars, wherc- 
"  of  there  are  whole  forefts  on  thecoaits  of  Sweden), 
"  and  difcharged  thence  into  the  fea,  where,  iiuder- 
"  going  fomc  alteration,  it  is  thrown,  in  this  form, 
"  upon  the  Jhores  of  PruUla,  which  lie  very  low  :  he 
"  adds,  tliat  it  was  hence  the  ancients  gave  it  the  de- 
"  nomination y//a;«.vw;  {\u\n/ucc:is,  juice." 

Some  fiippofc  amber  a  compound  fubllance.  Pru.''- 
fia,  fay  they,  and  the  other  countries  which  produce 
amber,  are  nioiflened  with  a  bituminous  juice,  which 
mixing  with  the  vitriolic  falts  abounding  in  thofe  pla- 
ces, the  points  of  thofe  falts  iixits  fluidity,  whence  it 
congeals;  and  tlie  rcfult  of  that  congelation  makes 
what  we  call  am'jer  ;  which  is  more  or  Icfs  pure,  tran- 
fparcnt,  and  lirm,  as  thofe  parts  of  fait  and  bitumen 
arc  more  or  lefs  pure,  and  are  mixed  in  this  or  that 
proportion. 

Mr  Brydone,  in  his  tonr  to  Sicily  and  Malta,  fays, 
that  the  river  Gearetta,  formerly  celebrated  by  the 
poets  under  the  name  of  Simct:!S,  throws  up  near  its 
mouth'grcat  quanticies  of  amber.  Ke  mentions  alfo 
a  kindof  artificial  amber,  not  uncommon  there,  made, 
as  he  was  told,  from  copal,  bat  very  different  from 
the  natural. 

According  to  Hartman,  amber  is  formed  of  a  bitu- 
men, niixed  with  vitriol  and  other  falts.  But  though 
tlijs  were  allowed  him  in  regard  to  the  folfile  amber, 
jnany  difpute  whether  the  fea-amber  be  fo  produced. 
It  is,  I'.owever,  apparent,  that  all  amber  is  of  the 
lame  origin,  and  probably  that  which  is  found  in  the 
ita.  has  been  waflicd  thither  out  of  the  cliffs  ;  though 
Hartman  thinks  it  -^try  poliible,  tint  fomc  of  it  may 
be  formed  in  the  earth  under  the  lea,  and  be  waihed 
up  thence.  The  fca-ambcr  is  ufually  finer  to  the  eye 
than  the  folFilc  ;  but  the  reafon  is,  that  it  is  diverted  of 
that  coarfc  coat  with  which  the  other  is  covered 
while  in  the  earth. 

Upon  the  whole,  it  fcems  generally  agreed  upon, 
that  amber  is  a  true  bitumen  of  fofTile  origin. — In  a 
laie  volume  of  the  'Journal de  I'l.yfiqiie,  however,  we 
find  it  alferted  by  Dr  Girtanncr  to  be  an  animal  pro- 
dud,  a  fort  of  honey  or  wax  formed  by  a  fpccits  of 
large  ant  called  by  lAinxxwijormicii  rufa.  Tbefc  ants, 
our  author  informs  us,  inhabit  the  old  pine  fortlls, 
where  they  fometimes  form  liills  about  fix  feet  in  dia- 
meter; and  it  is  generally  in  tliefe  ancient  forells,  or 
in  plicfs  where  they  have  been,  that  JoUile  amber  is 
iound.  This  fi  bftancc  is  not  hard  as  thit  which  is  ta- 
i.ca  up  in  the  lea  at  Pruiiia,  ai:d  w  hicii  is  well  known 
«o  iiaturalifts.  It  has  the  confifiencc  of  honey  or  of 
halt  melted  w.ix,  but  it  is  of  a  ytlow  colour  like  com- 
jnon  amber;  it  gives  tlie  fame  proiluft  by  chemical 
ar.al}  iis,  and  it  h.irdens  like  the  other  when  it  is  fuf- 
/ired  to  remain  feme  lime  in  a  folution  of  comnion 


fait.  This  accouuti  fur  the  iiife(5ls  thit  arc  fo  often 
found  inclofcd  in  it.  Among  thcfc  infers  anis  are  ?.l-  ' 
ways  the  mofl  prevailing :  which  tends  farther,  ^!r 
Girtanncr  thinks,  to  the  confirmaiiun  of  his  hyi)othe- 
fis.  Ambir  then,  in  his  opinion,  is  nothing  b'jt  a  ve- 
getable oil  re!:dered  concrete  by  the  acid  of  ants,juft 
as  wax  is  nothing  but  an  oil  hardened  by  ihe  acid  cf 
bees  ;  a  i.iCt  incontellably  proved,  wc  arc  told,  liijcc 
Mr  Mctheric  has  been  able  to  make  artificial  wax  by 
mixing  oil  of  olives  with  the  nitrous  acid,  and  whieli 
wax  is  not  to  be  dillinguifiicd  from  the  natural. 

Tlirrc  are  fcveral  indications  wiiich  difcover  where 
amber  is  to  be  found.  The  furfacc  of  the  earth  is  there 
covered  wi:h  a  fift  fcaly  flone;  and  vitriol  in  particu- 
lar always  abounds  thtrc,  which  is  fometimes  iouwA 
white,  fometimes  reduced  into  a  matter,  like  melted 
glafs,  and  fometimes  figured  like  petrified  wood. 

Amber  of  the  fined  Kind  has  been  found  in  Eng- 
land. It  is  I'rcqucntly  thrown  on  the  fhorcs  of  York- 
fhire,  and  many  other  })lices,  and  found  even  in  the 
clay-pits  ;  the  pits  dug  for  tile-clay,  between  Tyburn 
and  Kenfington  gravel-pits,  and  that  behind  Sc 
George's  Hofpital  at  Hyde-park  corner,  have  afford- 
ed line  fpecimens. 

Poland,  Silelia,  and  Bohemia,  arc  famous  for  the 
amber  dug  up  there  at  this  time.  Germany  affords 
great  quantities  of  amber,  as  well  dug  up  from  the 
bowels  of  the  earth,  as  toffed  about  on  the  lliorcs  of 
the  Tea  and  rivers  there.  Saxony, Mifnia, and  Sweden, 
and  many  other  places  in  this  tra>.1  of  Kuropt,  abound 
witji  it.  Denmark  has  afforded,  at  different  times,  fc- 
veral quantities  of  folfdc  amber  ;  and  the  Ihorssofihc 
Baltic  al'ound  with  it.  But  the  countries  lying  on  the 
Baltic  afford  it  in  the  greatefl  abundance  of  all ;  and  of 
ihcfe  die  mofl  plentiful  country  is  Pruiiia, a :ul  the  next 
is  Pomcrania.  Pruiiia  was,  as  early  as  tiie  times  of  Thc- 
odoric  the  Goth,  famous  for  ainbcr  ;  for  this  fubftancc 
coming  iiiiogrcat  repute  with  that  prince, Ibinc  natives 
of  Prulfia,  who  were  about  his  court,  clfered  their  fcr- 
vice  to  go  to  their  own  country,  where  that  fubflancc, 
they  faid,  was  produced, and  bring  back  great  (lores  of 
it.  Tlicy  accordingly  did  fo  ;  and  from  this  time  Prulfia, 
hul  the  honourtobe  called  the  Country  of  Amber,  :n- 
flcad  of  Italy,  which  had  before  undefcrvedly  that  ti- 
tle. This  article  alone  brings  hisPruflianMajeflyarc^ 
venue  of  26, ooodollars  annually.  The  amber  of  Frullia 
is  not  only  found  on  the  fea-coafl,  but  in  digging ;  and 
thougli  that  of  Pomcrania  is  generally  brought  from 
the  fiiores,  yet  people  who  dig,  on  ditFcrent  occalions, 
in  the  very  heart  of  the  country,  at  times  find  amber. 

Junker  defcribes,  after  Neumann,  the  Pruffuu  am- 
bcr-niines,  which  are  the  richefl  known. — Fitfl,at  the 
furface  of  the  earth,  is  found  artratum  of  fand.  Imme- 
diately under  this  fand  is  a  bed  of  clay,  filled  wiili  fmslt 
flints  of  about  an  inch  dianuiereach.  Under  thisclay 
lies  a  flraturaof  black  earth,  or  turf,  filled  with  follilc 
wood,  half  dcconipofcd,  and  bituminous;  this  flratu:u 
is  extended  upon  a  bank  of  minerals,  containing  little 
metal,  except  iron,  which  are  confequently  pyrite.-;. 
Lallly,  under  this  bed  the  amber  is  found,  feattcreJ 
about  in  pieces,  or  fometimes  accumulated  in  heaps. 

Aniber  has  a  fubacrid  relinou.i  talle,  and  fragra"t 
aromatic  fniell,  efpecially  when  diiFolved.  It  cifTeri 
from  the  other  bituminous  fubftanccs  in  this,  that  it 
yields  by  diftilLuion  a  volatile  acid  fait,  which  ncncof 
the  others  do i  otl\tiwifc  it  afrbrds  the  fame  fort  of 

principles 


A:nbc 


A  MB 


[     526    ] 


A'  M  13 


prir.cij'lfj  ^s  them,  viz.  an  acid  phlegm,  an  oil  wliicli 
grjduilly  becomes  iliickcr  as  the  diltillation  is  conti- 
nued; and  when  the  operation  is  finilhcd,  tlicrc  rc- 

iiMias  a  black  caput  mortmim  in  the  retort When 

boiled  in  water,  it  neither  foftens,  nor  undergoes  any 
fonfiblc  alteration,  txpofed  to  the  fire  in  an  open 
vcllcl,  it  melts  into  a  black  mafs  very  like  a  bitumen  : 
It  is  partly  folablc  in  I'pirit  of  wine,  and  likcwifc  in 
foaic  ellcntial  oils ;  but  i:  is  with  difficulty  that  the 
e-xprcile  J  ones  are  brought  to  aft  upon  it ;  the  ftrong- 
er  forts  of  fixed  alkaline  lixivia  alnion.  totally  dif- 
folvc  if. 

This  fubftancc  is  principally  of  two  colours,  white 
and  yellow.  The  white  is  the  mod  cllecmed  for  nic- 
di:inal  pnrpofcs,  as  being  the  mod  odoriferous,  and 
containing  the  greatcft  quantity  of  volatile  fait  j  tho' 
the  yellow  is  molt  valued  by  thofc  who  manufafturc 
beads  and  other  toys  with  it,  by  rcafon  of  its  tranf- 
parcncy. 

Amber  is  the  balls  of  all  varnilhes,  by  folution  in 
the  ways  defcribed  under  the  article  Vakkish. 

Amber,  when  it  has  once  been  incited,  irrecovera- 
bly lofcs  its  beauty  and  hardnefs.  There  have  been 
fome,  howcve-r,  who  pretend  they  had  an  art  of  melt- 
ing fome  fmall  pieces  of  amber  into  a  mafs,  and  con- 
ilituting  large  ones  of  them  :  but  this  fcems  fuch  ano- 
ther undertaking  as  the  making  of  gold  ;  all  the  tri- 
als that  have  yet  been  made  by  the  mod  curious  expc- 
rimenicrs,  proving,  that  the  heat  which  is  necelFary 
to  melt  amber,  is  fullicient  to  deftroy  it.  Phil.  Tranf. 
N°  248.  p.  25. 

Could  amber  indeed  be  dilTolvcd  without  impairing 
its  iranfparcncy,  or  one  large  mafs  be  made  of  it  by 
uniting  fcvcr.^1  fmall  ones,  it  is  cafy  to  fee  what  would 
be  the  advantages  of  fuch  a  procefs.  The  art  of  em- 
balming might  pollibly  be  alfo carried  to  a  great  height 
by  this,  if  wc  could  prcferve  the  human  corpfe  in  a 
tranfparcnt  cafe  of  amber,  as  the  bodies  of  flies,  fpi- 
dcrs,  graflioppers,  &c.  arc  to  a  great  pcrfeftion. 
SD.r.cthing  of  a  fubflitute  of  this  kind  we  have  in  fine 
rofin  J  which  bci:ig  diflolved  by  heat, and  the  bodies 
(if  Dnall  animals  fcvcral  times  dipped  in  it,  they  arc 
thus  coated  wiih  colophony,  that  in  fome  degree  rc- 
fcmbles  amber  ;  but  this  mufl  be  kept  from  dufl. 

..Amljcr  in  fubllancc  has  been  much  recommended 
as  aucrvousand  cordial  medicine  ;  tndalledgcd  to  be 
very  rincacious  in  promoting  the  menllrual  difcharge, 
.'.nd  the  exclufion  of  the  fosius  snd  fccnndincs  in  la- 
bour; but  as  in  its  crude  ftate  it  is  quite  infoUible  by 
oar  juices,  it  certainly  can  have  very  little  etfedt  on 
the  anim.tl  fy/lem,  and  therefore  St  is  now  fcldom 
given  in  fubllancc.  The  forms  in  which  amber  is  pre- 
pared are,  A  tinfture,  a  fait,  and  an  oil ;  the  prcpa- 
tion  and  nfes  of  which  arc  defcribed  in  the  proper 
place  under  the  article  Pharmacy. 

A.\'KER'Tri;,  the  Englilh  name  of  a  fpecies  of 
Anthospermum. 

AMBERG,  a  city  of  Germany,  the  capital  of  the 
palatinate  of  Bavaria,  with  a  good  caftlc,  ramparts, 
balHons,  and  deep  ditches.  It  is  fcated  near  the  con- 
iines  of  Kranconia,on  the  rivcrWils.  It  drives  a  great 
trade  in  iron  and  other  metals,  fmind  in  the  ncigli- 
bouriih,r  mountains.    E.  Long.  12.  4.  N.  Lat.  20.  46. 

AMBKRGRISE,  Ameergreasf,  or  Gkev  Am- 
ber, in  natural  Iiiilory,  is  a  loljd,  opakc,  alh-colourcd, 

3 


fatty,  innummaWc  fubftancc,  variegated  like  marble, 
remarkably  light,  rugged  and  uneven  in  its  furfacc, 
and  has  a  fragrant  odour  v/hen  heated.  It  does  not 
ctfcrvcfcc  vvitii  acids  ;  it  melts  freely  over  the  fire, 
into  a  kind  of  yclluw  rofin  ;  and  is-  hardly  folablc  in 
fpirit  of  wine. 

It  is  found  fwiniming  upon  the  fea,  or  the  fea-coaft, 
or  in  the  fan  J  near  the  fea-coaft  ;  efpccially  in  the  At- 
lantic ocean,  on  the  fca-coall  of  Bralil,  andthatof  Ma- 
dagafcar  ;  on  the  coaft  of  Africa,  of  rhc  Ka(l  Indies, 
China,  Japan,  and  the  Molucca  iP.ands  ;  but  moll  af 
the  ambergrife  which  is -brought  to  England  comes 
from  the  Bahama  itlands,  from  Providence,  &c.  where 
it  is  found  on  the  coaft.  It  is  alfo  fometimcs  found  in 
the  abJomcnof  whales  by  the  whale-filhcrmen, always 
in  lumps  of  various  Ihapes  and  fizes,  weighing  from 
half  an  ounce  to  an  hundred  and  more  pounds.  The 
piece  which  the  Dutcli  Eaft  India  Company  bought 
Irom  the  kingofTydor,  weighed  182  pounds.'  An 
American  filhcrman  from  Antigua  found  fome  years 
ago,  about  52  leagues  fouth-eaft  from  the  Windward 
iHaUds,  a  picceof  ambergrife  in  a  whale,  which  weigh- 
ed about  I  ;!o  pounds,  and  fold  for  500  I.  Sterling. 

There  have  been  many  different  opinions  concern- 
ing the  origin  of  this  fubilance. 

It  has  been  fuppofed  to  be  a  foflilc  Intumen  or  naph- 
tha, exuding  out  of  the  bowels  of  the  earth  in  a  fluid 
form,  and  diftilling  into  the  fea,  where  it  hardens  and 
floats  oil  the  furface.  But  having  been  frequently 
found  in  the  belly  of  whales,  it  has  by  others  been 
confidcred  as  entirely  an  animal  prodaition. 

Clufius  alfertcd  it  to  be  a  phlegmatic  recrement,  or 
indurated  indigeftiblc  part  of  the  food,  colleded  and 
found  in  the  llomach  of  the  whale,  in  the  fame  man- 
ner as  the  Bezoars  arc  found  in  theftomaehs  of  other 
animals. 

In  an  account  communicated  by  Paul  Dudley,  Efq; 
ill  the  23d  volume  of  the  Philofophical  Tranfaflions, 
the  ambergifc  found  in  whales  is  reprefcnted  as  a  kind 
of  animal  produel,  like  inulk,  and  caftoreum,  &c.  fc- 
ertted  and  colleded  in  a  peculiar  bag  orbladder,  which 
is  furiiiflied  with  an  excretory  du6l  or  canal,  the  fpout 
of  which  runs  t.ipering  into  and  dirough  the  length  of 
the  penis  ;  and  that  this  bag,  which  lies  juft  over  the 
ttfticlcSjis  almoft  full ofade^-p  orange-coloured  liquor, 
not  quite  fo  thick  as  oil,  of  ttic  fame  fmell  as  the  balls 
ofambergrife,  which  float  and  fwira  loofe  in  it  :  which 
colour  and  liquor  nrsy  alfo  be  found  in  the  canal  of  the 
penis  ;  and  that  therefore  ambergrife  is  never  to  be 
found  in  any  female,  but  in  the  male  only.  But  thefc 
circumftances  arc  not  only  deftitute  of  truili,  but  alfo 
contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  animal  oeconomy  :  For,  in 
the  firft  place, ambergrife  is  t'requently  found  in  females 
as  well  as  males  ;  although  that  found  in  females  is 
never  in  fuch  large  pieces,  nor  of  fo  good  a  quality,  as 
what  is  found  in  males.  Secondly,  No  perfon  who  has 
the  leaft  knowledge  in  anatomy  orphyfiology,  will  e- 
vcr  believe  that  organ ifed  bodies,  fuch  as  the  beaks  of 
the  Sepia,  which  are  fo  conftantly  found  in  amber- 
grife taken  out  of  the  whale,  can  have  been  abforbed 
from  the  intcftines  by  the  lafleals  or  lymphatics,  and 
colledled  with  the  ambergrife  in  the  precluded  bag  a- 
bovementioned. 

Kaempfer,  wlio  has  given  us  fo  many  other  faithful 
accounts  in  natural  hiftory,  feems  to  come  nearer  the 

truth 


AiiiT.tr- 

yrift. 


A  M  B 


L     5^7     1 


A  M  B 


Ac-.Ur-    tniih  with  regard  to  the  origin  of  arabergriff,  when  he     in  the  fpcrinaccti  whale  ;  and  they  arc  foccn-.  inccdot'  Amb-r- 


grifc.  f;iys,  that  it  is  the  dung  ot  the  whale  ;  and  that  the 
■  Japancfc,  for  this  reafo.i,  call  it  i  :fura  no  Jtni,  i.  c. 
whale's  clung.  This  account,  however,  though  found- 
ed oil  obfervation,  has  never  obtained  credit,  but  has 
been  conliJered  rather  as  a  fabulous  flory,  with  wliich 
the  Japancfe  iinpofed  upon  him,  who  had  himfclf  no 
direct  obf-rvation  to  prove  the  fad. 

Tliis  matter,  therefore,  remained  a  fubjc<5t  of  great 
doubt  ;  and  it  was  generally  thought  to  be  more  pro 


this  fact,  that  whenever  they  hear  of  a  place  where 
ambergrife  is  found,  they  always  conclude  that  the  feas 
in  that  part  are  frequented  by  this  fpecics  of  whale. 

The  perfons  who  arc  employed  in  the  fpcrmactii 
whale  lilhery,  confine  iheir  views  to  the  Phyfeter  ma- 
crocephulus.  They  look  for  ambergrife  in  all  the  fpcr- 
maceti  whales  they  catch,  but  it  feldom  happens  that 
they  find  any.  Whenever  they  hook  a  fpcrmaceti 
whale  they  obfcrve,  thai  it  conflantly  not  only  vomits 


grife. 


bable,  that  ambergrife,  after  having  been  fwallowed     up  whatever  it  has  in  its  flomach,  but  alfo  generally 
and  fomehow  or  other  changed   in  the  Ilomach  and     difcharges  its  faeces  at  the  time  ;  and  if  this  latter 


bowels  of  the  whale,  was  found  among  its  excrements 
But  the  nioll  iatisfaclory  account  of  the  real  origin 
of  ambergrife,  is  that  given  by  Dr  Swcdiar  in  the  7jd 
volume  of  the  Philofopiiical  Tranladions,  art.  i  j. 
'  We  are  told  by  all  wriiers  on  ambergrife,  that  fomc- 
timesclawsandbeaksof  birds,  feathers  c>f  birds,  parts 
of  vegetables,  (licUs,  iilh,  and  bones  of  fifli,  are  found 
in  the  middleof  it,or  varioully  mixed  with  it.  Of  a  very 
large  quantity  of  pieces,  however,  which  the  Doftor 
examined,  he  found  none  that  contained  any  fuch 
thing  ;  though  he  allows,  that  fuch  fubftances  may 
fometimcs  be  found  in  it  :  but  in  all  the  pieces  of  any 
Gonfiderablc  fize,  whether  iound  on  the  fea  or  in  the 
whale,  he  conftantly  found  a  conlldcrable  quantity  of 
black  fpots,  which,  after  the  mofl  careful  examination 
appeared  to  be  the  beaks  of  the  Sepia  OdojioJia  ;  and 
ihefe  beaks,  he  thinks,  might  be  the  fubftances  which 
have  hitherto  beenalwaysmiftaken  for  claws  or  beaks 
of  birds,  or  for  fliells. 

The  prefence  of  thcfe  beaks  in  ambergrife  proves  e- 
vidently,  that  all  ambergrife  containing  them  is  in  its 
origin,  or  raufl  have  been  once,  of  a  very  foft  or  liquid 
nature,  asothcrwife  thole  beaks  could  not  fo conftantly 
be  intermixed  with  it  throughout  its  whole  fubftancc. 

That  ambergrife  is  found  either  upon  the  fea  and 
fea-coaft,  or  in  the  bowels  of  whales,  is  a  matter  of  faft 
univerfally  credited.  But  it  has  never  been  examined 
into  and  determined,  whether  the  ambergrife  found 
upon  the  fea  and  fea-coaft  is  the  faiirc  as  that  found  in 
the  whale,  or  whether  they  are  different  froinonc  ano- 
ther ?  Whether  that  found  on  the  fea  or  lea-coaft  has 
fome  properties,  orconftitucnt  parts,  v.-hich  that  found 
in  the  whale  has  not  ?  And  lailly,  Whether  that  found 
in  the  whale  is  fuperior  or  inferior  in  its  qualities  and 
value  to  the  former  ? 

It  is  likevvifeamaitcr  ofconfequfuce  tokn0W,Whe- 
thcrambcrgrifc  is  found  in  all  kinds  of  whales,  or  only 
in  a  particularfpeciesof  them  ?  Whether  it  is  conftant- 
ly and  always  to  be  met  with  in  thofe  animals  ?  And, 
if  fo,  in  what  part  of  their  body  it  is  to  be  found  ? 

All  thcfe  cfucftions  we  find  very  fatisfaflorily  dif- 
cullcd  by  Dr  Swediar. 

According  to  the  beft  inforniatiun  that  he  could  ob- 
tain from  fevcral  of  the  moft  intelligent  -perfons  cm- 
ployed  in  the  fpcrmaceti  whale-fillicry,  and  in  procu- 
ring and  felling  ambergrife,  it  appears,  that  this  fub- 
ftancc is  fometimcs  found  in  the  billy  of  the  whale, 

but  in  that  particular  fpccies  only  which  is  called  the     agreeable  fmcH,  and,  when  krpt  for  a  certain  length  of 
fpcrmaceti  luhale ,  and  which  from  its  dcfcription  and     time,  acquires  thepcculiarodourwhich  is  fo  agreeable 
delineation  appears  to  be  the  Pur^iuTER  Macrocephatns     to  moft  people. 
Linnxi.  Thcgentlcmen  thcDoiftor  converfcd  with  confirflcd, 

TJ\c  New  England  fidiermcn,  according  to  their  ac-     that  if  they  knew  not  from  experience  that  ambergrife 
count,  have  long  knosvuiiiat  ambergrife  is  to  be  found     thus  found  will  mtime  ac^luire  the  abovementioned 


arge 
circumftances  takesplacc, they  are  generally  difappoin- 
ted  in  finding  ambergrife  in  its  belly.     But  whenever 
they  difcover  a  fpcrmaceti  whale, male  or  female,  which 
feems  torpid  and  iickly,  they  arc  always  pretty  furc  to 
find  ambergrife,  as  the  whale  in  this  (late  feldom  voijs 
its  fxces  upon  being  hooked.  They  likewifc  generally 
meet  with  it  in  the  dead  fpcrmaceti  whales, which  they 
fomctimes  find  rtoatingon  the  fea.  It  is  obfcrvedalfo, 
that  the  whale,  in  which  they  find  ambergrife,  often 
has  a  morbid  protuberance  ;  or,  as  ilicy  exprtfs  it,  a 
kind  of  gathering  in  the  lov/er  part  of  its  belly,  in 
which,  if  cut  open,  ambergrife  is  found.     It  isobfer- 
vtd,  that  all  thofe  whales,  in  whole  bowels  ambergrife 
is  found,  fccm  not  only  torpid  and  (ick,  but  are  alfo 
conftantly  leaner  than  others  ;  fo  that,  if  we  may  judge 
from  the  conftant  union  of  iliefe  two  circumftances,  it 
would  fccm  that  a  large  collciflion  of  ambergrife  in  the 
belly  of  the  whale  is  a  fourcc  of  difeafe,  and  probably 
fonieiimes  the  caufc  of  its  death.     As  fooii  as  they 
hook  a  whale  of  this  dcfcription,  torpid,  lickly,  ema- 
ciated,   one  that  docs    not  dung  on  being   hooked, 
they  immediately  citlier  cut  up  the  abovcmeniioned 
protuberance,  if  there  be  any,  or  they  rip  open  its 
bowels  from  the  orilice  of  the  anus,  and  find  the  am- 
bergrife, fo;re  times  in  one  fometimesin  different  lumps, 
of  generally  from  three  to  twelve  and  more  inches  in 
diameter,  and  from  one  pound  to  twenty  or  thirty 
ppunds  in  weight,   at  the  dift.incc  of  two,  but  vr.ov. 
frequently  of  about  fix  or  fcvciifcct  from  the  anus,  and 
never  higher  up  in  tiic  inteftinal  canal ;  which,  accord- 
ing to  their  dcfcription,  is,  in  all  probability,  the  inte- 
ftiniim  cscnm,   hitherto  niiftakcn  for  a  peculiar  bag 
made  by  nature  for  the  fccreiion  and  colleiflion  of  this 
fingular  fubftancc.     Tliat   the  part  they  cut  open  to 
come  at  the  ambergrife  is  no  other  than  the  inteftinal 
canal  is  certain,  bccaul'c  they  conftantly  begin  their  in- 
ciliouattheanus,  and  find  the  cavity  every  where  filled 
with  the  fA;ces  of  the  whale,  which  from  their  colour 
and  fmcll  it  is  impoffiblc  for  them  to  iniftake.     The 
ambergrife  found  in  the  inteftinal  canal  is  not  fo  hard 
as  that  which  is  found  on  the  fea  or  fea-coaft,  but  foon 
grows  hard  in  the  air  :  when  firft  taken  out  it  has 
ncai'ly  the  fame  colour, and  thefamc  difagreeable  fmcll, 
though  not  fo  ftrong,  as  the  more  liquid  dung  of  the 
whale  has  ;  but,  on  expoling  it  to  the  air,  it  by  degrees 
■  not o'nly  grows  grey  idi,  and  its  fir^tace  is  covered  with  a 
greyilh  dull  like  old  chocolate,  but  it  alfo  Infcs  its  dif- 


A  M  B 


[    528    3 


ABM 


Amber-  qvialiiies,  tlif  y  woiilil  by  no  means  be  able  to  diftinguii'h 
grife.  ambcrgrifc  I'rom  hard  iiidiiiatcj  fxccs.  This  isfo  true, 
*~~^'  that  whenever  a  whale  voids  its  f*ccs  upon  being  hook- 
ed, tlicy  look  carefully  to  fee  if  they  cannot  dif.ovcr 
among  the  inorc  liqiiid  excrcuicius(oi"\vliich  tiic  whale 
di (charges  fcvcral  barrels)  fomc  pieces  lioaiingoii  the 
fea,  of  a  more  compatt  lubflance  than  the  ie(l;  thcfc 
tlicy  tike  up  and  walh,  knowing  them  to  be  ambcr- 
griie. 

In  confidcring  whether  there  be  any  material  diffe- 
rence between  ambcrgrifc  found  upon  tlie  fca  or  fea- 
coaft,  and  that  found  in  the  bosvch  or  among  the  dung 
of  the  w'halc>  the  Doctor  refutes  the  opinion,  that  all 
anibergrifc  found  in  whales  is  of  an  inferior  quality, 
and  thcrefcrc  much  lefs  in  price.  Anibergrifc,  he  e!)- 
fcrves,  is  only  valued  for  its  purity ,  llghtnefs,  conipait- 
nefs,  colour,  and  fmcll.  There  are  pieces  of  ambcr- 
grifc found  on  diifcrcni  coafls,  which  arc  of  a  very  in- 
terior quality;  whereas  there  arc  often  found  in  wlialca 
picccsof  it  of  the  tirll  value  ;  nay,  fcvcral  pieces  fouiui 
in  the  fame  w  hale,  according  to  the  abovcmcntioncd 
qualities,  are  more  or  lefs  valuable.  All  amiiergiife 
found  in  whales  hasat  fiiilwhcn  taken  out  of  the  iriicf- 
tines  very  near  the  fame  fmcll  as  the  liquid  cxcrc- 
mcnis  of  that  animal  have  ;  it  has  ilicn  alfo  nearly  the 
fame  blackilh  colour  :  they  lind  it  in  tlie  whale  fonic- 
times  quite  hard,  fomctimes  rather  foftifli,  but  never  fo 
liquid  as  the  natural  fiKces  of  that  animal.  And  it  is 
a  matter  of  fart,  tliat,  after  being  taken  out  and  kept 
in  the  air,  all  ambcrgrifc  grows  not  only  harder  and 
whiter,  but  a'.fo  lofes  by  degrees  its  fmell,  and  alluaus 
filch  an  agreeable  one,  as  that  in  general  has  which  is 
found  fwimming  ui)on  tlic  fca  ;  therefore  thegoodncfs 
of  ambeigrift  fecms  rather  to  depend  on  its  age.  By 
being  accumulated  after  a  certain  length  of  time  in  the 
iniefiinal  canal,  it  fecms  even  then  to  become  of  a 
whiter  colour,  and  lefs  ponderous,  and  acquire  its  a- 
grecable  fmell.  The  only  rcafon  why  ambcrgrifc  found 
floatingon  the  fca  generally  poirclTcstheabovemention- 
tioncd  qualities  in  a  fuperior  degree,  is  bccaufe  it  is 
commonly  older,  and  has  been  longer  expofed  to  the 
air.  It  is  more  frequcuily  found  in  males  than  females; 
the  pieces  found  in  females  are  in  general  fmaller,  and 
t  hofe  found  in  males  feem  conllantly  tobc  largcrand  of  a 
better  quality  ;  and  therefore  the  high  price  in"  pro- 
portion to  the  lizc  is  not  merely  imaginary  for  the  ra- 
Tity-fikc,  but  in  fonic  refpetl:  well  founded,  becaufe 
fuch  large  pieces  appear  to  beof  a  grcatcragc,  and'^uif- 
fcfs  the  abovcmcntioned  qualities  in  gencralin  a  high- 
er dc.'ree  of  perfeflion  than  fmaller  pieces. 

It  is  known,  that  the  Sepia  oclopodia,  or  cuttlc-fifli, 
is  the  conflant  and  natural  food  of  the  Ipcrmaccti 
whale,  or  Phyfctermacrocephalus.  Of  iJiis  the  finiers 
are  fo  well  pcrfuadcd,  that  whenever  they  difcoverany 
recent  relics  ol  it  fwimnnng  on  the  fca,  they  conclude 
that  a  whileof  this  kind  is,  or  has  been,  in  that  j'art. 
Another  circumflance  which  corroborates  the  fart  is, 
that  the  fpermacett  whale  on  being  hooked  generally 
vomits  up  fome  remains  of  the  Sepia.  Hence  it  is  cafy 
10  account  for  ihe  many  beaks,  or  pieces  of  beaks,  of 
the  Sepia  found  in  all  ambcrgrifc.  The  beak  of  the 
Sepia  is  a  black  horny  fubflanee,  and  therefore  paflcs 
Hndigefted  through  the  flomach  into  the  intcrtinal  ca- 
nal, where  it  is  mixed  with  the  fxccs;  after  which  it  is 
either  evacuated  with  ihem,  or  if  thcfe  latter  be  prctcr- 


natur.ilIyrcraliicJ.forins  concretions  with  them, which 
render  the  animal  fick  and  torpid,  and  produce  an  ob- 
Itipatioii,  which  ends  either  in  anabfccfsof  the  abdo-  ' 
men,  as  has  been  frequently  obfervcd,  or  becomes  fatal 
to  the  animal  ;  w  heace  in  botii  the  cafes,  on  the  burll* 
ing  of  its  belly,  that  hardened  fubllance,  know  n  nndcr 
the  name  of  awbifrgrijc,  is  iouiid  fwimming  on  the  fea, 
or  thrown  upon  the  coaft. 

From  the  preceding  account,  and  his  having  con- 
flanily  found  the  abovcmcntioncd  beaks  of  the  Sepia 
in  all  pieces  of  ambergrifc  of  any  con  full  rablelize,  Dr 
Swcdiir  concludes  with  great  probability,  that  all  am- 
bcrgrifc is  generated  in  the  bowels  of  the  Phyfcter 
inacroccphalus,  oi-  fpermaccii  whale  ;  and  there  mixed 
with  the  beaks  of  the  Sepia  ortopodia,  which  is  the 
principal  food  of  that  whale.  He  thcreforedctines  am- 
bergrifc to  be  the  prctcrnaturally  hardened  dung  or 
fasces  of  the  I'hyl'cter  macrocephalus,  mixed  with 
fome  indigelUlilc  relics  of  its  food. 

'I'he  ufc  of  ambcrgrifc  in  Europe  is  now  nearly  con- 
fined topcrfumcry, tho'it  has  formerly  been  recommen- 
ded inmedicinc  by  fcvcral  eminent  phylicians.  Hence 
the  KlFcntia  Ambra;  Hoffmanni,  Tinrtura  Regia  Cod. 
I'arifmi,  Trochifci  dc  Ambra  Ph.  Wurtcmberg,  &c. 

If  wc  widi  to  fee  any  medicinal  effeifts  from  this  fub- 
flancc,  the  Dortor  obfcrvcs,  we  mull  certainly  not  ex- 
pert them  from  two  or  three  grains,  but  give  rather 
as  many  fcruplesofit  for  a  dofe  :  though  even  then,  he 
thinks,  there  would  nut  be  rcafon  to  expert  much  ef- 
fert  from  it,  as  he  had  hinifelf  taken  of  pure  unadul- 
terated ambergrifc  in  powder  50  grains  at  once,  with- 
out obfcrving  the  Ic.nfi;  fciillble  cfi~crt  from  it.  A  failor, 
liowever,  wlio  had  the  ruriulity  to  try  the  effcrt  of  re- 
cent ambergrifc  upon  himfclf,  took  half  an  ounce  of 
it  melted  upon  the  lire,  and  four.dit  a  good  purgative; 
which  proves  that  it  is  not  quite  an  inert  fubflaace. 

In  Afiaand  part  of  Africa  ambcrgrifc  is  not  only 
nfed  asa  mcditine  and  as  a  perfume  ;  but  coniidcrabic 
ufc  is  alfo  made  of  it  in  cookery,  by  adding  it  to  fevcral 
dilhes  as  a  fpice.  A  great  quantity  of  it  is  alfo  con- 
llantly bought  by  the  pilgriu's  who  travel  to  Mecca  ; 
probably  to  offer  it  there,  and  make  ufc  of  it  in  fumi- 
gations, in  tJie  fame  manner  as  frankincenfc  is  nfed  ill 
Catholic  countiics.  The  Turks  make  ufc  of  it  as  ati 
aphrodiilac.  Our  perfumers  add  it  to  fccntcd  pillars, 
candles,  balls  or  bottles,  gloves,  and  hair  powder  ; 
and  its  cireucc  is  jnixed  with  pomatums  for  the  face 
and  hands,  either  alone  or  mixed  withmufk,  &c.  tho' 
its  I'mell  is  to  fome  perfons  extremely  off'cnfive. 

Ambcrgrifc  may  be  known  to  be  genuine  bv  its  fra- 
grant fcent  when  a  hot  nci  die  or  pin  is  thrufl.  into  it, 
and  its  melting  like  f^t  of  an  uniform  conliflence  ; 
whereas  the  counterfeit  will  nntyield  fuch  a  fmell,  nor 
prove  of  fuch  a  fat  texture.— One  thinj;-,  however,  is 
^ery  remarkable,  that  this  drug,  whicii  is  the  mo/t 
fwcet  of  all  the  perfumes,  fliould  be  capable  of  being 
rcfemblcd  in  fn'cll  by  a  preparation  of  one  of  the  mcfl 
odious  of  all  flinks.  Mr  Monibcrg  fn\ind,  thai  a  vefli:! 
in  which  he  iiad  made  a  long  digefiion  of  the  human 
faeces,  acquired  a  very  flrong  and  perfert  fmell  of  am- 
bergrifc, infomuch  that  any  one  would  have  thought 
a  great  quantity  of  ciTcncc  of  ambcrgrifc  had  been 
made  in  it.  The  perfume  wa.s  fo  ilrong  and  ofFcnfivc, 
that  the  veffcl  was  forced  to  be  removed,  out  of  the 
claboraiory. 

AMBERT 


A  M  13 


[     5^9     3 


A  M  B 


Amljcrt        AMBER.T,  a  fmall  toivn  of  France,  in  lower  Au- 
I        vergnc,  thecl'.icf  place  of  a  fmall  territory  called  Liv- 
^.Ttibigeiial  radi:s.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  paper  manufactory  and 
"         caniblets.  Ji.  Long.  3.  35.  N.  Lat.  45.  28. 

AMBKTTUWAY,  in  botany,  a  barbarous  name 
of  a  tree,  the  leaves  of  which,  when  boiled  in  wine, arc 
faici  to  create  an  appetite,  and  is  ufed  by  the  people  in 
H^uinea  with  that  intention. 

AMBlANI.or  Ambianensis  civitasiHow  y///;/<^;/j, 
a  city  of  I'ic.irdy.  It  is  called  Saniarobi iva  by  Casfar 
and  Cicero;  which,  according  to  Valc(iiis,fignitics  the 
bridge  of  tJic  Sj'nara  or  Somme.  Aihbiam  is  a  later 
tianic,  taken  from  that  of  the  people,  after  the  ufnal 
manner  of  the  lower  a^^c. 

AMBIDKXTEn,  a  perfon  who  canufc  both  hands 
with  the  I  -:ine  facility,  and  fur  the  fame  purpofcs,  ihar 
.tl;e  generality  of  people  do  their  ri;!;ht  hands. — As 
to  the  natural  ccnfe  of  this  faculty,  ionic,  aslloefer, 
attribute  it  to  an  extraordinary  fuppiy  of  blood  and 
fpirits  from  the  heart  and  brain,  which  furnidiboth 
hands  with  thencccdary  firtngth  and  agility  :  others, 
as  Nichalas  .Matfa,  roan  trcCt  fituaiion  of  the  heart, 
Inclining  neither  to  the  ri!!;ht  hand  nor  left ;   and  o- 

thers  to  the  right  and  left  lubclavian  arteries  In ingof  its  fanclity  extended 
tiie  fiinie  height  and  the  fame  diflance  from  the  he:irt,  grum  pedes  tot 
by  which  the  blood  is  propelled  with  equal  force  to 
both  hands. — But  thefc  arc  o:,ly  eon  jcclurcrs, or  rather 
chimeras.  Many  think,  that,  were  it  I'.oc  for  educa- 
tion and  hab't,  all  mankind  would  be  ambidexters  ;and 
in  fact,  we  frrqut.-jtly  find  nurfcs  obliged  to  be  at  a 
good  deal  of  pains  before  they  can  bring  children  to 
forego  the  nfe  of  their  left  hands.  How  far  it  may  be 
an  advantage  to  be  deprived  of  half  our  natural  dex- 
terity, maybe  doubled.  It  is  certain,  there  are  in- 
finite occafions  in  life, where  ic  would  be  better  to  have 
the  equal  ufc  of  both  hands.  Surgeons  and  oculifts 
are  of  neccllity  obliged  to  be  ambidexters  ;  bleeding, 
&c.  in  the  left-arm  or  kft-anclc,  and  operations  on 
the  left-eye,  caniiot  be  well  performed  but  with  the 

left-hand Various  inflances occur  in  hiilory,  where 

the  left  hand  has  been  exccrciied  preferably  to  tlie 
right.  But  by  the  lawsof  the  ancient  Scythians,  people 
were  enjoined  toexcrcKc  both  hdnds  alike  ;  and  Plato 
enjoins  ambidexterity  to  be  obferved  and  encouraged 
in  his  rcpiblic. 

Ambidexter,  among  Knglifli  lawyers,  a  juror  or 
embracer,  who  accepts  money  of  both  parties,  for  gi- 
ving his  verdict;  an  oifence  for  which  lie  is  liable  to  be 
Jniprifoned,for  ever  excluded  fromajury,  and  to  pay 
icn  times  the  fum  he  accepted  of. 

AMBIENT,  a  term  ufed  fm-fuch  bodies,  cfpeeially 
fluids,  ascncompals  others  on  all  lidcs  :  thus,  the  airis 
frequently  called  an  ambient  fluid,  bccaufe  itis  ditlufed 
round  ih-:  earth. 

AMlilGEN.^  ovEs,  in  the  heathen  facrifices,  an 
appellation  given  to  fuch  ewes  as,  having  brought 
forth  twins,  were  facrificcd  together  with  their  two 
lambs,  one  on  each  fide.  We  find  them  mentioned 
among  other  facriticcs  to  Juno, 

AMBIGENAL  hyperhola,  a  name  given  by  Sir 
Ifiac  Newton  to  one  of  the  triple  hyperbolas  of  the 
fecondordcr,havingonc  of  its  infinite  legs  falling  with 


AMBIGUITY,  a    defeat    of  language,  v.jicreby  Ambiguitj 
words  arc  rendered  ambiguous.    See  the  next  article.         ( 

AMBIGUOUS,  a  term  applied  to  a  word  or  ex-  Ambitus. 
prcllion  which  may  be  taken  in  different  fcnfes. — An         *       ' 
anonymous  writer  has  publillied  a  didionary  of  ambi- 
guous words  :  Ltxicon  ihilofophicum  d;  Ambiguitate 
yocabulonim,  Francof.  1597. /,to. — The  rcfponfes  of 
the  ancient  oracles  were  always  ambiguous. 

AMBIT,  in  geometry,  is  the  fame  with  what  i;> 
otherwifc  called  the  perimeter  of  a  figure,  bee  Peri- 
met  e  k  . 

Ambit  was  particularly  ufed,  in  antiquity,  to  de- 
note a  fpace  of  ground  to  be  left  vacant  bctv.ixt  ouc 
building  and  another.  By  the  laws  of  the  twelve  ta- 
bles, houfcs  were  not  to  be  built  contiguous,  but  an 
ambit  or  fpaec  of  2^-  feet  was  10  be  left  about  each 
for  fear  of  tire. — The  ambitus  of  a  tomb  or  monu- 
ment denoted  a  certain  numbe;  of  feet,  in  length  and 
breadth,  around  the  fame,  within  which  the  lanit  ty 
adigned  to  it  was  limited.  Tiic  wliole ground  wherein 
a  tomb  was  eiedtcd  was  not  to  be  fccrcted  from  ihc 
common  ufes  ;  for  this  reafon,  it  was  frequent  to  in- 
fcribe  the  ambit  on  it,  that  it  might  be  known  how  far 
tjius,  in  j route  pedes  l'>t,  in  a- 

AM'BITION  {ambitio),  is  generally  ufed  in  a  bad 
fenfe,  for  an  immoderate  or  illegal  purfuit  of  power. 

In  th«  drift  meaning,  however,  of  the  word,  it  fig- 
nilies  the  f^me  with  the  ai/.lntui  of  the  Romans.  Sec 
the  next  article. 

Ambition,  in  the  former  and  more  ufual  fenfc,  is 
one  of  thofc  paflions  that  is  never  to  be  faiisried.  It 
f\^clls  gradually  with  fucccfs,  and  every  acquifiiioii 
fcrves  but  as  a  fpur  to  further  attempts. 

"  If  a  man  (it  has  been  well  obferved),  could  at  once 
acconiplilhallhisdefires,  he  would  be  amiferable  crea- 
ture :  for  the  chief  plcafure  of  this  life  is  to  with  and 
deiire.  Upon  this  account,  every  prince  who  afpires 
to  be  defpotic  afpires  to  die  of  wcarinefs.  Searching 
every  kingdom  for  the  man  who  has  the  lealf  comfort 
in  life.  Where  is  he  to  be  found  f — In  the  royal  pa- 
lace.— What!  hismajedy?  Yes;  cfpeeially  if  he  be 
defpotic." 

AMBITUS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  the  fctting  up 
for  fome  magillracy  or  office,  and  formally  going  round 
the  city  to  folicit  the  intercll  and  votes  of  the  people. 

Ambitui  different  from  at/ibitio,  as  the  former  lies 
in  the  aft,  the  latter  in  the  mind. 

Ambitus  was  of  two  kinds;  one  lawful,  the  other 
infamous.  The  fird,  called  alfo  aribilus  papillaris, 
was  when  a  pcrfon  offered  his  fervice  to  the  republic 
frankly,  leaving  it  to  every  body  to  judge  of  his  pre- 
tcnlions  as  they  found  rcaioiiable.  The  means  and  in- 
llruments  here  made  ufe  of  were  various,  i.  A;::ici, 
or  friends,  under  different  relations,  including  cJgKnti, 
(.fines,  luctijarii,  j'amiliares,  vicini,  tribtiles,  ciiintes, 
r/fiuicipei,  fodaies,  colleger.  2.  Nor.'enc/iilnr^,  or  the 
calling  and  faluting  every  perfon  by  liis  name  ;  to  which 
purpofe,  the  candidates  were  attended  with  an  oSiccr, 
under  the  denomination  of  intepres,  or  nQi:i:rt:lelor, 
3.  Btanditl.i  \  or  obliging  pcrfons;  by  fervin*  thcm,or 
tbcir  friends,  p.itrons,  or  the  like,  with  their  vote  and 


in  an  angle  forincd  by  the  aflj'mptotcs,  and  the  other     intercll  on  other  occafions.  4.  Prenfiin  ;  the  fhaking 

withont.  every  perfon  by  the  hand,  offering  hiin  his  fervice, 

Vol.  I.  5  X  friendlhip, 


A   M  13 


[ 


JO     J 


A  M  li 


Amble     fricndfiiii'.  Sec. — Thtfccoud  kind  was  ili.ii  wherein 

I        Ibrcc,  cajDliag,  money,  or  other  extraordinary  intic- 

Amtioliitf-  ciicc,  v.'as  niidc  life  ol.  This  was  htlJ  infamous,  and 

""••"<'•     icvt-rrly  puuiftitd,  as  a  faiirce  ol'torrui'tion  and  other 

iDJfchicls. 

Ambitus  wjs  praiSlifcd  not  only  at  Rome  and  in  the 
fonim,  hut  ill  the  nitetings  and  allfinblii.!.  ot  otiur 
towns  in  Italy,  where  numbers  otciti/.cris  were  ufually 
found,  on  account  of  trade  and  bulincl?. — 'Ihe  prac- 
tice celled  in  the  city  Ironi  tlic  time  oftiie  Emperors 
by  reaTon  polls  were  not  tlicn  to  be  had  by  courting 
the  people,  b'lt  by  favour  from  the  prince. 

I'tifjns  who  had  caufcs  depending  praclifed  the 
fame,  going  about  among  the  judges  to  imphirc  iluir 
lavour  and  mercy.  They  wliopraCtifcd  tliii  were  call-  d 
A»'l>itiol:.  Hence  wc  aUo  meet  witli  avtbitwfa  dicrcta, 
and  avibitiofa  jiiffa,  ii fed  for  fucli  fentenccs  and  de- 
crees as  were  thus  procured  from  the  judges,  coiiirary 
to  rcafoii  and  equity,  either  gratuitoully  or  for  mo- 
ney. 

AMBLE,  in  horfemanfliip.a  peculiar  pace  by  wliieh 
a  horfc's  two  legs  of  the  fime  lidc  move  at  the  fame 
lime.     See  Ho  USE. MANS  HIT. 

AMUI.LblDK,  a  town  in  Wcftnioreland,  featcd 
at  one  end  of  \\  inandermcer,  W.  Long.  o.  49.N.  l.it. 

AiMBLETKUSE,  a  fea-port  town  of  b  ranee,  in 
Picardy,  di  fended  with  a  battery  of  cannon.  £.  long. 
I.  :o  N.  hit.  49.  40. 

AiMBl.YGON,  in  geometry,  denotes  an  obtufe- 
angled  triangle,  or  a  triangle  oncof  whofc  angles  con- 
lillsof  more  tlian  9odcgreis. 

AMBLYOPY,  among  phyficians,  ligniiies  an  ob- 
fcuration  of  the  light,  fo  that  objeds  at  a  diflancc  can- 
not be  clearly  dillinguilhcd. 

AM  BO,  or  AwnoN,  a  kind  of  pulpit  or  defk,  in 
the  ancient  churches,  were  ihc  prielh  and  deacons 
Hood  to  read  or  ling  part  of  the  fervice,  and  preach  to 
the  people  ;  called  alfo  Anaiagiuvi.  'Ihc  term  is  de- 
rived from  arafaivi.v,  "  to  mount." — 1  he  ambo  was 
mounted  upon  two  lidcs  ;  whence  iome  alf>)  derive  the 
appellation  trom  the  Latin  av.bo,  "  both." 

The  ambo  was  afcendcd  by  llcps;  which  occafioned 
that  part  of  the  office  performed  there  to  be  called 
\\\c  Gr:iiiual.     See  Gradual 

Bcfides  thegofpel,  which  was  read  at  the  top  of  the 
ambo,  and  the  cpiflle,  which  was  read  a  Hep  lower, 
they  likcwifc  publiflied  from  this  place  the  acts  of  the 
martyrs,  the  comnumoraiion  of  departed  faints,  and 
the  letters  of  pcaceand  communion  lent  by  one  church 
10  another  :  here,  too,  converts  made  a  public  profef- 
Jlon  of  their  faiih  ;  .Tiid  bifliops,  their  defence,  when 
accufed  :  treaties  alfo  were  fometimes  concluded,  and 
.the  coronations  of  emperors  and  kings  performed,  in 
.the  fame  place. 

The  modern  rcading-defks  and  pulpits  have  been 
cenerally  fubliltulcd  10  tiie  ancient  Amhos  ;  though, 
in  fomc  churches,  remains  of  the  ambos  arc  ftillfeen. 
In  that  of  St  John  dc  Laicran  at  Rome,  there  arc  two 
.moveable  ambos. 

AMBOHITSMENE,  or  \'oh  itsangho.mbe,  a 
province  of  the  ifland  of  MaJagafcar,  fo  called  from 
fatnerf4  niountains  of  the  fame  name,  lying  in  S.  Lai. 
io".  Thefe  Eountiiir.s  are  very  high,  refcmbling  the 


Tafclburg  of  liie  tape  of  Good  Hope    On  one  fide  of   An.boiff 
this  rdge  the  (ea  txuiids  into  tlie  country  lor  fifteen         I 
leagues  ;  on  the  other  is  it  llat  country  abounding  in  Amliuyi^a. 
ponds  and  marlhes.  Here  isalfo  alakc  liftcen  leagues 
in  length,  and  the  fame  in  breadth,  coniaining  many 
fmall  illands.     The  inhabitants  of  the  mountains  .^rc 
called  Z«/frtf«ff/.'^j  ;  and  have  plenty    of  gold,  iron, 
cattle,  lilk,  &c.  ^ 

ANIBOISE,  a  town  of  France,  in  Touraine,  featcd 
at  the  coniiuence  of  the  rivers  Loire  and  Maflee.  The 
town  is  mean  and  ill  built  ;  but  lias  been  rendered  fa- 
mous in  hillory  by  the  eonfpiracy  of  the  Froteftanis 
i:i  1560,  w!ii(h  opened  (tie  fatal  wars  of  religion  in 
France,  1  he  calllc  is  (iiuated  on  a  craggy  lock,  ex- 
tremely dillieult  of  accefs,  and  the  fides  ol  which  arc 
almofl  perpendicular.  At  its  foot  Hows  the  Loire, 
which  is  oividcd  into  two  lircams  by  a  fmall  illand. 
To  tl'.is  fortrtl's  the  duke  of  Guife,  w  hen  he  cxjicticd 
an  infurretlioii  among  the  Hugonois,  nmoved  hiiu- 
cis  II.  as  to  a  place  ol  perfed  fccurity.  Only  two  de- 
tached pans  of  the  ancient  cafllc  now  rci;iain,  one  of 
which  was  conllruilcd  by  Ch.ules  VHl.  and  the  other 
by  Frances  I.  The  former  of  ihofc  princes  was  born 
and  died  at  Amboife.  The  town  is  lituaied  E.  Long. 
I.  po.  N.  Lai  47,  2 J. 

AMBOULE,  a  proviiice  of  Marfagafcar,  fomcwhat 
to  the  northward  cf  S.  Lat  23°.  It  is  a  feriile  and 
agreeable  country,  watered  by  the  river  Manampani, 
whofe  mouth  lies  in  S.  Lat.  23.  ;o.  The  country  pro- 
duces plants  and  fruits  in'plcnty.  Iron  mines  are  alfo 
found  here.  The  black  cattle  are  extremely  fat,  and 
their  ficfli  excellent.  In  this  province  ftands  a  large 
town  of  the  fame  name  ;  near  which  is  a  foutain  of 
hot  water,  within  20  feet  of  a  fmall  river  whcfe  faiid 
is  a!>:ioll  bui  niiig.  The  water  of  the  fountain  is  faid 
to  boil  an  egg  hard  in  two  hours  ;  and  the  inhabitants 
aflirm  it  to  be  a  (ovcreign  remedy  againll  the  gout. 
The  people  here  are  employed  indifferent  prej'arai ions 
of  iron  and  flccl.whieh  they  have  from  iheirown  mines, 
and  forge  fcveral  inftnimcnts  with  tolerable  Ikill. 
Their  governor  is  honoured  with  ilic  tile  o\'  Kabsrlaii, 
or  CrciJt  Lord  He  exrrcifcs  fovereign  authority  and;:b- 
folulc  power  ;  but  is  frequently,  in  times  of  diftrefs, 
furprifcd  by  his  fubjedls,  who  aU'cmble  in  great  num- 
bers,fei/e  his  I  erfoii,  and  tlircstcn  him  with  death  un- 
lefs  they  are  relieved.  To  extricate  himfelf  from  this 
dilemma,  he  is  inflantly  obliged  to  iliue  orders  for  di- 
flribining  provilionsamong  them;  but  is  ufually  repaid 
with  iiuerefl,  a  quadruple  return  being  made  in  a  plen- 
tiful harveft.  The  people  of  Amboiilc  live  in  great  li- 
centioufnefs  with  their  fuperiors,  and  their  country  is 
generally  a  retreat  for  the  roguidi  and  lazy. 

AMUOYNA.  one  of  the  INlohicca  illands,  in  the 
Eaft  Indies.  It  lies  in  S.  Lat.  3. '^6.  and  E.Long.  126. 
20.  and  is  remarkable  for  being  thcrentreof  the  com- 
merce for  nutmegs  and  cloves,  which  is  entirely  mo- 
nopolized by  the  Dutch  Eall-India  company.  It  is 
about  24  leagues  in  circumference.  Bilides  cloves, 
it  likcwifc  abounds  in  molt  of  the  tropical  fruits  and 
fidi  ;  nor  is  there  here  any  deficiency  of  good  water  ; 
but  fifh  is  very  fcarce.  This  fcarciiy,  however  pro- 
ceeds more  from  the  policy  of  the  Dutch  than  eilhcr- 
the  intcmiicraturc  of  the  climate  or  tlic  barrennefs  of 
the  foil  :  For,  excepting  clovcs,they  liaveinAmbcy- 


A  M  13 


[    s:^'    J 


A  M  B 


Amlxiyna.  na,  as  well  as  the  Moluccas,  indtillrioufly  (iiftourigcd 
"^^       '  the  cuhivation  of  every  ercultiit  conimodiry,  wiih  tJic 
vitwof  vviih-holdiiiij  rubliftcuccfrom  ihofc  who  might 
be  tempted  to  invade  ihem. 

Of  the  natives,  the  men  wear  hrgc  vvliifl:crs,  but 
leave  liiilc  hair  upon  their  cliiii  ;  and  h?ve  only  a  (light 
piece  of  ft;, ff  wrapped  round  their  middle.  The  wo- 
men tie  tlieir  hair  in  kno;s  :  the  maids  are  b.)uj;ht  of 
their  fathers  before  llicy  are  married  ;  and  if  tiic  wife 
proves  barren,  the  marriage  is  diili>lved.  Sor.ic  of  the 
iiitivcs  are  Mahumcians,  and  lo.ne  Ciiriflians  :  hut 
they  are  all  laid  to  be  l:i/y,  deceitful,  and  treacherous. 
1  hey  make  war  wi;h  fmall  fwift  vellVls,  in  ihapc  like 
dragons  willi  regard  to  the  iiead  and  tail.  Their  hou- 
fcs  arc  built  of  bamboo-canes  and  fago-trecs.  They 
llecp  on  mats.  Their  weapons  are  bows  and  arrows, 
javelins,  fcymitars,  and  targets. 

Aniboyna  was  iirfl  difcovcred  by  the  Portuguefe, 
who  br.ilt  a  fort  upon  it,  whicli  was  taken  from  iheni 
by  the  Dutch  iu  1605.  They  did  not,  however,  be- 
come maftersof  the  whole  illand  at  once.  The  Englilli 
had  here  five  fadories,  which  lived  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Dutch  cafllc  ;  holding  themfclvcs  fife, 
in  rcfpeft  of  the  frienjlhip  between  the  two  nations. 
Great  diilerences  had  arifen  between  the  Dutch  and  En- 
glilli colonilts  in  this  part  of  the  world  ;  till  at  lad,  the 
Englilh  Eafl-India  company  applying  to  king  James,  a 
treaty  was  concluded  in  1619,  by  which  the  concerns 
both  of  the  Englifli  and  Dutcli  were  regulated,  and 
certain  meafures  agreed  upon  for  preventing  future  dif- 
putcs.  This  was  an  additional  fecurity  to  the  Knglilh  ; 
ami,  by  virtue  of  the  treaty,  they  continued  iwoyears 
in  Amboyna,  trading  with  the  Dutch.  During  this 
time,  however,  fcveral  difputes  happened  ;  which  oe- 
calioning  un\tual  difcontcnts,  the  complaints  were  Cent 
to  Jaccaira,  in  the  iliand  of  Jiva  Major,  to  the  coun- 
cil of  defence  of  both  nations  there  refuling  :  but  they 
not  agreeing,  a  ftaie  of  the  niat'tr  was  fent  over  to 
Europe,  to  be  decided  by  ihe  Eaft- India  companies  of 
bi)th  nations  ;  or,  in  cafe  they  could  not  agree,  by  the 
King  of  England  and  the  States  of  Holland,  accord- 
ing to  an  article  in  the  treaty  of  1619. — Hut  before 
ilicfe  difpules  eould  be  decided  in  a  legal  way,  the 
Dutch,  in  order  to  give  the  more  fpecious  cokuriug 
to  the  violent  feizurc  which  they  meditated  of  the 
iiland  of  Amboyna,  made  ufe  of  the  Itale  pretext 
of  a  eonf)>iracy  being  formed  by  the  Englilh  anjja- 
panefc  to  diljiolVefs  them  of  one  of  iheir  forts  in  this 
place.  The  plot,  it  was  alleged,  had  been  confeifcd 
by  a  J;;pa:;tfe  and  Portuguefe  in  the  Englilh  fervice, 
who  were  nioft  inhumanly  tortured  till  ihey  Ihould 
anfwer  in  the  affirmative  fuch  interrogatories  as  might 
favour  the  fccret  delign  of  thofe  cruel  incj. ill  tors.  Upon 
the  injurious  evidence  of  tliis  conllrained  declaraiioa, 
they  immediately  accufed  the  Englilh  factors  of  the 
j>retendcd  confpiracy.  Sonic  of  them  they  iuipiifon- 
!■(.],  and  others  ihey  loaded  with  iro:is  and  lent  ou  board 
ihcir  (liips;  fci/inn;  at  ilic  fauie  time  all  the  Englilh 
merehandi/e,  with  thtir  writings  and  books. 

Ihefe  acts  of  violence  were  followed  by  a  fcenc  of 
horror  unexemplcd  in  tlie  puuilhment  of  the  u;oil  atro- 
cious oft'cudcrs.  Some  of  the  factors  ih;y  lotureJ, 
by  compellin:!;  tliem  to  fwallow  water  till  their  bodlts 
Were  diflcnded  to  ihe  uiuioll  pit:;h  ;  then  tikin!»  the 
ir.iftr.ible  viiJtimsdown  from  the  boards  to  which  ihcv 


liad  been  fadene.l,  and  caufing  ihcm  10  difgorjc  the  Aaiborn*. 

water  ;  if  they  did  not  aekuov  ledge  the  imputed  guilt,  ' v 

the  procefs  of  torjure  was  repeated.  Others  or  the 
Englilli  they confuuicd  by  buniingtlieni  giadually  from 
the  feet  upwards,  iu  order  to  cxton  the  coiifcllion  of 
a  confpiracy,  which  was  only  prttcnilcd  by  the  infer- 
nal policy  of  ihofc  favage  tormentors.  Some  had  the 
nails  of  the  finjicrsand  toes  torn  o;t  ;  and  iu  fomc  they 
male  holes  in  thcirbrealls,  filliug  the  cavities  with  in- 
ilammable  materials,  to  which  they  afterwards  put 
fire.  Thofe  w  ho  did  not  expire  unrftr  the  agonies  of 
torture  were  conligncd  to  the  hands  of  the  execu- 
tioner. 

The  allegation  of  this  pretended  confpiracy  was 
equally  void  of  pri^babiliry  and  truth.  The  Dutch 
had  a  garrifon  of  gco  nun  in  the  fort,  bcliJes  the 
burghers  in  the  town,  and  fcveral  other  forts  and  gar- 
rifons  in  the  iiLind,  while  the  numbers  of  the  Engiifli 
did  not  amount  10  20  men  ;  nor  were  even  thofe  pro- 
vided with  arms  or  ammunition  to  etfcft  i'uch  adefign 
as  that  v.ith  vvhich  they  were  charged.  There  like- 
wife  was  not  one  Englilh  velfel  in  the  harbour,  where- 
as the  Dutch  had  eight  (liips  riding  near  the  town: 
neither,  when  the  Dutch  broke  open  the  defies  and 
trunks  of  the  fadors,  were  there  found  a  lingle  paper 
or  letter  which  could  be  conflrued  into  the  molt  diftant 
relation  to  any  confpiracy.  Add  to  all  this,  that  fuch 
of  tlie  unhappy  fuffcrers  as  could  fpeak  to  be  heard, 
declared  in  the  moftfolemn  manner  their  innocence  of 
the  plot  with  which  they  were  charged. 

The  whole  of  the  tranfattion  aHijrds  the  niofl  irre- 
fragable-teflimony  that  it  was  founded  entirely  upon 
a  political  iicHon  of  the  Hollanders,  who  had  them- 
frlves  formed  the  delign  of  monopolizing  the  trade  of 
the  Spice  Iilands  ;  for  the  accomplilhmcnt  of  which 
tiicy  perpetrated,  about  the  fame'iime,a  fmiiiar  tra- 
gedy at  Poolcron,  where  they  put  to  the  torture  162 
of  the  natives,  whom  they  likewife  charged  v.ith  a 
jirctcnded  confpiracy.  It  may  juftly  be  reckoned  lin- 
gular in  the  fortune  of  this  commercial  republic,  that 
they  have  ever  fince  been  pcrmit^d  to  enjoy  in  peace 
thofe  invaluable  iilands,  which  were  originally  obtain- 
ed by  fuch  atrocious  infringements  of  humanity  and 
the  hws  of  nations  as  will  (lain  the  Dutch  annnls,  to 
tlie  lateft  ages,  with  indelible  infamy. 

The  more  effeftually  to  prcferve  this  trade, the  Dutch 
have  had  all  the  clove-trees  in  the  adjacent  iilands  grub- 
bed up.  Sometimes  aifo,  when  the  h.irveft  is  very 
large,  part  of  the  produce  of  And'oyna  iifrlfis  burn:. 
— 1  o  prevent  the  rcai  ingof  cloves  in  any  of  the  neigh- 
bouring iilands,  or  ihc  inhabitants  from  felling  them  10 
flranjiers,  the  govcrnorof  Amboyna  makes  tlie  tourof 
Jiis  govi  rnment  with  a  tlectof  eurricurrics,  eonlifting 
fouuiiines  of  20,  and  at  others  of  ^o,  40,  or  jo  fail. 
Thisexiudition  is  made  with  all  the  pomp  imaginable, 
in  order  lo  gratify  the  pride  and  folly  of  the  Indian 
chiefs.  The  true  reafon  of  their  ukiiigall  this  pains 
is,  becaiife  experience  ha*  fliown,  that  lio  coinraifls, 
however  folemii,  <an  prevent  the  inhabiianis  of  thofe 
iilands  frotn  fel!i:i«  tliiir  fpi.e  to  ftrangers  ;  and  even 
now,  frmds  a-e  fo  f,-c(]U(n!]y  prartifed  by  the  J)utch 
themfelves,  t'ongh  the  eompnny  is  inexorble  in  pn- 
iiilhing  them,  that  the  common  people  call  tlic  cloves 
gtilitii'k- rii-l,  thai  is,  the  gnllow  -(pic. 

Eelid;s  the  (.loves,  tolFee  is  alfo  cultivated  here  by 


X  2 


the 


A  M  B 


[     532     ] 


A  M  B 


ilnihrjcri.  li.c  Dutcl),  and  s  gold  mine  lias  been  lately  found  out. 

' 1  hiswasiiifcovo-cd  by  the  quantities  ot" gold-dull  that 

were  wafiicd  from  funic  mountains  by  the  toniius. 
Here  alio  grow  feveral  kinds  of  valuable  wood,  of 
which  tlicy  made  tables,  chairs,  cfcritoirs,  &c.  for  the 
principal  perfons  in  the  government  ;  and  the  rell  rs 
ibid  all  over  the  Indies  at  a  very  extravagant  r.ite. 

Auiboyna  is  divided  into  two  parts,  vi^.  a  greater 
and  Iclier  peuiufiiU.  The  fornur,  called  Niton,  is  1 2 
liagues  in  length,  and  two  and  a  half  broad.  In  this 
the  Dutch  have  no  Ids  than  live  forts,  orrather  flrong 
redoubts,  mounted  with  canon.  The  other  is  called 
Liytiiiior,  live  leagues  in  length,  and  one  and  a  half 
broad,  which  is  the  fouthcrn  part  of  the  illand  ;  on  this 
Hands  the  fort  of  Vidoria,  which  is  the  relidencc  of 
the  governor,  and  his  council,  compofedof  15  gentle- 
men or  merchants.  The  fortrefs  is  a  fquare,  the  ram- 
parts mounted  with  60  pieces  of  brafs  cannon,  and  the 

•  garrifon  ufually  compofed  of  600  men.     It  is  fo  llrong 

by  nature  and  art,  as  to  be  in  a  manner  impregnable  ; 
iiid  fo  ctfcL'tually  docs  it  command  the  harbour,  that  no 
vclTel  could  come  in  or  go  out  without  being  funk  by 
tkc  canon,  if  the  governor  chofe.  The  inhabitants  of 
Amboyna  are  computed  at  70  or  80,000,  of  whom 
but  a  fmall  number  arc  Dutch  ;  and  this  obliges  the 
latter  to  be  coiuinually  upon  their  guard,  and  to  keep 
a  competent  number  of  troops  in  each  of  their  forts, 
particularly  in  that  of  Middleburgh,  u  Inch  (lands  up- 
on the  iilhmus  thatconnecls  thcfe  pcuinfulas.  There 
arc  alio  redoubts  and  garrifons  in  all  the  illands  of  this 
governmcnr. 

AMBRACIA;  one  of  the  moft  conlidcrablc  cities 
of  ancient  Epirus,  lituated  on  the  river  Araiilhus,  at  a 
fnialldillance  from  the  fca.  At  lirflit  was  a  free  ciiy  ; 
but  was  afterwards  reduced  by  the^acidxkingsof  Epi- 
rus, who  chofe  it  for  the  place  of  their  relidencc.  In 
j'rocefsof  time,  the/Etoliansmade  themfclvcs  maftcrs 
of  it,  and  held  it  till  the  year  before  Chrift  189,  when 
ii  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans. 

At  this  time  Ambracia  was  a  place  of  great  flrength. 
]t  was  defended  on  one  fide  by  the  river  Aradhus,  and 
on  the  other  by  deep  and  craggy  hills  ;  and  furrouud- 
ed  with  an  iiigh  and  thick  wall,  above  three  miles  in 
coaipafs.  7hc  Roman  conful  Kulvius  began  the  liege 
by  forming  two  camps,  fcparatcd  by  the  river,  but  with 
;i  communication  between  them  ;  the  Romans  were 
pofted  in  one,  and  the  Epirots  their  allies  in  the  other. 
I-Ie  then  threw  up  two  lines,  one  of  circumvalation, 
nnd  the  other  of  contrsvallation  ;  and  built  a  wooden 
lower,  in  form  of  a  caftle,  over  againft  the  citadel, 
which  flood  on  a  hill.  The  A'tolians,  however,  be- 
fore the  lineswereqiiitc  tiiiilhed,  found  means  to  throw 
about  icoo  men  into  the  place. 

The  lines  being  completed,  the  city  was  attacked  in 
five  diiTcrcntplicesatimce.  The  battering-rams  fliook 
ihewallsonalllides  ; and  the  Romans, from  their  move- 
able tpwcrs,  pulled  Jnwn  the  battlements  with  a  kind 
I'f fcythes  whichthey  fallened  to  longbeams.  Thebe- 
ricgcd  made  a  vigorous  defence.  They  were  night  and 
day  on  the  wall>,  and  indefatigable  in  preventing  the 
rlfedsof  the  rams  and  fcythes.  The  (Irokcs  of  thefor- 
iT.erthey  deadened, bylettingdown  beams, large  flones, 
biBipsof  lead,  Sfc.by  meansof  pullics,  upon  thcni  when 
'.hey  were  i:i  motion ;  tlie  others diey  rendered  iifelefs, 


by  pulling  the  beams  which  they  were  fafitncd  into  Ambncia. 

the  city  with  hooks  contrived  for  ihe  purpofe.  ' •> ' 

While  Fulvius  was  carrying  on  the  liege,  Nicander 
the  /Jholiiin  prA'tor  found  means  to  throw  500  men  in- 
to the  city,  under  the  command  of  one  Nicodauius,  with 
whom  Nicander  agreed  to  attack  the  Roman  caiupiu 
thciiight-timc  ;  not  doubting,  that,  ifthegarrifonlroui 
within,  and  tiic  army  from  witiioui,  fell  upon  them  at 
the  fame  time  they  would  be  obliged  to  raife  tlie  licgc. 
Nicodamus  narrowly  watched  the  time  at  which  he  was 
ordered  to  fall/ ;  and  though  Nicander  did  not  appear, 
innrchcd  out  at  the  head  of  tlie  garrifon,  armed  with 
fire-brands  and  torches.  The  Ri^aaii  ceiuinels,  fur- 
prifcd  at  this  light,  ran  to  wake  the  legionaries,  and 
loon  f|)read  a  general  alarm  all  over  the  camp.  The 
legionaries  niarciicd  in  fmall  bodies  as  they  happened 
to  meet,  to  repulfe  the  enemy,  whom  tliey  engaged  in 
tlircc  difftrtnt  j  laces.  Two  parties  of  the  garrifon 
were  driven  back:  but  the  third,  commanded  by  two 
jttolian  generals,  made  a  great  llaiigbler  of  [he  Ro- 
mans ;  and,  not  lindingihemfelves  fccouded  by  Nican- 
der, retired  in  good  order  into  the  city. 

Though  the  btlitged  were  thus  abandoned,  and  bad 
no  hopes  of  aflillance,  they  continued  to  defend  ihcm- 
felves  \\  ilh  incredible  vigour  and  rcfolulion.  The  Ro- 
mans had  no  fooncr  made  a  breach  in  the  wall,  but  it 
was  repaired,  and  a  new  one  built  behind  it.  The  con- 
ful, therefore,  altered  his  meafures  ;  and,  inlUad  of  ma- 
king breaches  with  the  rara,  began  to  undermine  the 
wall,  in  hopes  of  throwing  down  great  part  of  it  at 
once,  and  entering  the  city  before  the  belleged  could 
have  time  to  rebuild  a  new  w.ill.  The  miners  being  co- 
vered, were  notobfcrved  by  the  garrifon,  till  the  great 
quantities  of  earth  brought  out  of  the  mine  gave  the 
alarm.  Thc/EtoJians  immediately  began  a  countcr- 
miue;  and  having  dug  a  trench  of  the  depth  theyfup- 
pofcd  the  mine  to  be,  they  carried  it  along  the  wall 
where  they  heard  the  llrokes  of  the  pick-axes  of  the 
Romans.  When  the  two  mines  met,  a  battle  enfucd, 
firfl  with  pick-axes  and  fpadcs,  and  then  with  f.vords 
and  fpears  :  but  this  attack  did  not  lafl  long,  each  par- 
ty maldng  thcmfelvcs  a  kind  of  rampart  with  the  loofe 
earth.  The  jl^tolians,  in  order  to  drive  their  enemies 
quite  out  of  the  mine,  invented  a  machine,  which  they 
brought  to  the  place  where  the  two  mines  met  :  this 
was  an  hollow  vefl'cl  with  an  iron  bottom, bored  through 
ill  many  places,  and  armed  with  fpikes  at  proper  di- 
llanccslo  prevent  the  enemy  from  approaching  it :  this 
velfel  they  filled  with  feathers,  which  they  frt  on  lire, 
and  with  bellows  driving  t!ie  fraoke  on  the  befiegers, 
obliged  them  to  leave  the  mine,  half-futfoeated.  This 
interval  the /Etolians  made  ufcol  inicpairing  thefoun- 
dations  of  the  wall. 

The  vigorous  rcfifl'nee  made  by  the  Ambracians, 
however,  did  not  raife  tlie  courage  of  the  nation  in  ge- 
neral, who  were  determined  on  a  peace  with  Rome  at 
all  events.  Fulvius,  in  the  mean  time,  being  defirous 
of  getting  poUetllon  of  Ambracia  before  the  conclufion 
of  the  peace,  employed  Aniynander,  king  of  the  Aiha- 
niancs,  to  perfuade  the  inhabitantsto  furrcnder.  AsA- 
mynander  hadgreat  iniereft  in  Ambracia,  having  long 
rclided  there,  heealily  pcrfnadcd  them  to  capitulate  on 
the  following  terms,  viz.  That  the  yEtolian  garrifon 
flioiild  have  leave  to  march  cut  of  the  city ;  that  tlw 

LabftbitaailS' 


A   M  B 


[     S33     ] 


A   M   B 


Amtresda,  inhab'tants  lliould  pay  500  talents,  joodov/n,  and  the 

II         rcll  at  fix  equal  payments ;  and  that  they  fliould  deliver 

Amlirofi;     to  the  conful  all  the  prilbncrs  and  defcritrs  that  were 

*      "       '  in  the  city.  The  gates  were  then  opened  tu  Kulviiis  ; 

and  he  was  prcfenied  with  a  crown  of  gold,  together 

with  many  fine  ftatues  and  pidlurcs,  of  which  there 

•Were  great  numbers  in  the  city,  it  having  been  the 

capital  of  Pyrrhus,  who  had  enriched  it  with  many 

valuable  nionuincnts. 

From  this  time  the  city  of  Ambracia  made  no  figure 
in  hiftory.  It  is  fcarcc  known  at  prefent  where  the 
city  Hood;  but  that  called  j4r/)a,  in  upper  Albania, 
fccms  bell  to  agree  with  what  is  faid  of  the  ancient 
fituation  of  this  city.  The  river  Arafthus,  on  which 
Ambracia  wns  iituatcd,  is  now  called,  by  ihc  natives, 
Sp.ig)/iagmurifi. 

AMBRF.ADA,  thus  they  call  the  falfc  or  faditiaus 
amber,  which  the  Europeans  ufc  in  their  trade  with 
the  negroes  on  the  coaft  of  Africa,  and  particularly  on 
the  river  Senegal.  There  are  fome  Ir.rge  and  red 
pieces  of  it,  a  thoufand  of  wiiich  maicing  twenty  rop? s 
or  firings, weigh  three  pounds. There  arc  others  finall, 
and  slfo  red,  which  weigh  but  two  pounds  and  an  half. 

AMBRESBERRY,  a  market-town  in  Wiitfnire, 
about  lix  miles  north  of  Salilbtiry,  and  fttuated  in  \V. 
Long.  I.  40.  and  N.  Lat.  51.  20. 

AMBRONES,  a  Gaulilb  people  who  lived  near  the 
foot  of  the  Alps,  between  Sv.'itzcrland  and  Provence. 
They  iuvuded  the  Roman  territories  in  conjunftion 
■with  theCimbriandTcutoncs  ;  but  were  defeated  with 
great  (laughter  by  Marius,  about  loi  years  before 
Chrifl.  Their  women,  who  had  ftaid  during  the  en- 
gagement in  a  kind  of  fortification  made  with  their 
carts,  on  feeing  tlicir  huibands  flying,  and  the  Romans 
at  their  heels,  armed  themfelvcs  with  axes,  and  gnafli- 
ing  with  tlieir  teeth,  fell  with  fury  on  the  purfucrs 
and  thepurfued.  Theirfirft  rage  being  fpcnt,  they  dc- 
lircd  to  fiirrender  themfelves,  upon  the  (ingle  condi- 
tion, that  their  chaltityfnouldnot  be  violated  :  but  this 
cijuiiable  requefl  being  denied,  they  tirfl  killed  their 
children,  and  then  themfelvcs,  not  one  remaining  a- 
live  out  of  the  whole  multitude. 

AMBROSE-ISLAND,  a  fnull  idand  laid  down  in 
fome  of  the  mofl  approved  charts,  and  particularly 
mentioned  in  MrRobertfon's  Elements  of  Navigation, 
as  lying  in  S.  Lat.  25.  ?o.  \V.  Long.  82.  20.  It  was 
fearched  for,  however,  in  1767,  by  Captain  Carteret, 
with  fuch  diligence,  that  he  concludes  it  to  have  no 
cxiftence,  as  he  could  not  difcover  land  any  where 
ucar  that  place. 

AMBROSE  (St),  bilhop  of  Milan,  one  of  the  raoft 
rrainont  fathers  of  the  fourth  century,  born  in  Gaul 
in  the  year  j?^,  according  to  DrCave,  or  i:i  540,  as 
Mr  Du  Pin  aftirms.  His  father  was  at  this  time  ['f.e- 
fiBiis  fraioric  in  Gaul ;  and  rcluled  at  Aries,  the  capi- 
tal of  Gallia  Narbonends.  The  birth  of  Ambrofc  is 
faid  to  have  been  followed  with  a  remarkable  prefage 
of  his  future  cUiquencc  ;  for  we  are  told,  that  a  fwarm 
of  bets  came  and  fttded  upon  his  mouth  as  he  l.iy  in 
his  cradle.  He  foon  made  birifelf  raaftcr  of  the  fcve- 
ral  parts  of  fecnlarUarningi  a ud  pleaded  caufcsbrforc 
Probus  with  fo  ninch  eloquence,  that  he  was  appointed 
his  aiielTor,  an  1  foon  aftir  governor  of  the  provinces 
of  Liguria  r.nd  A-'milis.  He  fettled  at  Milan  ;  where, 
in  the  year  3  74,  upon  the  death  of  Auxentius  biGiop  of 


that  city, ikcre  being  agrcatcontcft  between  thcCat ho- 
lies and  Arians  concerning  the  choice  of  a  new  biihop, 
Ambrofc  thought  it  hii  duty,  as  governor,  to  go  to  the 
church,  in  order  to  compofe  the  tumult.  He  accord- 
ingly addrefled  himfelf  to  the  people  in  a  gentle  pathe- 
tic I'peech,  exhorting  them  to  proceed  to  their  choice 
in  a  calm  and  friendly  manner:  while  he  was  fpeak- 
ing  to  them,  tho  \yhole  alFembly  c.-icd  out  witii  one 
voice,  "  Let  Ambrofc  be  bill'.op!"  Such  a  fuJden  and 
nnexpcded  incident  furprifcd  him  extremely  ;  fb  that 
he  retired  immediately,  and  nfed  every  method  to  di- 
vert them  from  theirrcfoluiionof  choolinghim  :  butat 
lafl  he  was  obliged  to  comply ;  and  w?.s  baptifcd  (being 
but  a  catechumen  before),  a;;J  ord:uncd  bifliop,  to- 
wards the  latter  end  of  they  e2rj74,or  beginning  of  5  7;. 
About  the  year  377,  the  barbsrous  nations  making  an 
incurfion  into  the  Roman  empire,  he  fled  tolUyricum, 
and  afterwards  to  Rome.  In  the  year  5?4,  he  was 
fcnt  to  the  tyrant  Maximus,v.ho  had  ufjrpcd  the  em- 
pire, ar.d  prevailed  upon  him  not  to  pals  over  into 
Italy.  The  heathens  being  encouraged  by  thefc  inte- 
llinc  commc;ions  in  the  empire,  attempted  to  rctlorc 
their  religion,  and  employed  Q-AurcliusSymmachus, 
prefeft  of  Rome,  a  man  of  great  eloquence,  to  plead 
their  caufe.  This  gave  rife  to  the  famous  contcft  be- 
tween St  Ambrofc  and  him,  about  repairing  the  altar 
of  Vidory.  But  Synimachus  having  loll  his  caofe,  was 
expelled  thecity, and  commanded  not  toapproach  with- 
in an  hundred  miles  of  it.  The  petition  wSich  he  prc- 
fented  to  the  emperor  Valcntinian  the  younger,  is  ilill 
extant;  we  find  in  it  the  ftrongeft  figures  of  rhetoric 
and  the  grcatefl  force  of  eloquence.  St  Aaibrofe  wrote* 
a  confutation  of  this  petition  ;  but  he  has  been  thought 
guilty  of  many  paralogifnis:  and  yet  he  prctcfts,  "that 
lie  cndeavouredonly  after  the  folidity  of  rcafoning,  lea- 
ving Synimachus  all  the  glory  of  eloquence  and  polite- 
nefs  ;  it  being  (fays  he)  the  peculiar  privilege  of  the 
pagan  philofophcrs  toamufe  the  mind  with  colours  as 
falfc  as  their  idols ;  and  to  fay  great  things,  not  being 
capable  of  faying  true  ones."  Ambrofc  met  with  a  good 
dealofoppolition  from  the  Arians,  againft  whom  he 
afted  with  great  fpirit  and  intrepidity.  Jullina  the  em- 
prefs  and  mother  cf  Valcntinian,  who  was  an  .^rian, 
refolvingto  reflore  Arianifin  at  Milan,  began  with  de- 
mandi.igof  St  Ambrofc  one  of  the  churches,  whicli 
was  called  the  Portian  church  :  bat  he  refufcd  if ;  and 
the  people  furrounding  the  palace  in  a  body,  fl;c  was- 
obliged  to  leave  him  in  pofTcflion  of  his  church,  and 
even  defire  him  to  pacify  the  people. 

Ambrofe  was  a  fccond  lime  fent  to  the  tyrant  Max- 
inius,  for  Valentiniau  found  no  perfon  fo  proper  to  ne- 
goiiate  with  him.  He  fjjoke  to  him  with  great  cou- 
rage and  boldnefsjbrtt  could  obtain  nothing  ;  for  Max- 
imus  foon  after  marched  into  Italy,  and  made  himfdf 
mailer  of  the  weftern  cmi'irc  :  fo  that  Valentini.in  was 
obliged  til  retire,  with  his  mother  Jullina  and  his  fif- 
ter  Galla,  toTheirulonicu  iu  Illy  ricum,  in  order  to  de- 
fire Thcodofins's  alfift.incc;  who  defeated  Maximus, 
and  reftorcd  Valeniiuian  to  the  empire. 

Wkile  Theodolius  continued  in  Italy,  after  the  de- 
feat of  Maxiuiiis,  an  infnrrcclion  happened  atThelfa- 
lonica,  in  which  itveralof  themagip.rates  were  (toned, 
and  their  bodies  dragged  along  the  flreets.  Thcodofi- 
us  bring  informed  of  this.ralhly  commanded  a  certain 
niuubei  of  the  inhabitants  to  be  put  to  death  promif- 

CUOUl!'.' ; 


Ambrofei 


A  MB  [53 

AmWofc.    ciioiilly;  by  which   iticans  ihf  city  \v;is  filled  with 

*'     *< tilt  bUiod  ol"  mauy  iiiiiocciu  pcrfons,  aiul  ,iiii(>ii;;ll  the 

rtlt  ftvcr.il  ihangt-rs  wlio  hail  hiii  jiill  come  tticic: 
no  rcg.irJ  was  had  to  any  ililliiictiou  ot  ptrfuus,  no 
furni  of'  trial  was  obftrvcj  ;  but  they  were  cut  doNVil 
like  corn  in  the  harvtft,  as  Thcoilorct  ixpreircs  it,  to 
the  uunibef  of  7000.  At  this  time  an  alFcnibly  of  bi- 
litops  was  held  at  Milan,  who  all  exprelled  an  abhor- 
renccof  fucli 'cruelty  in  the  tnipeior.  Ambrolc  wrote  a 
letter  to  him, in  whicii  he  rcprcfcnicd  the  eiioniiiiy  of 
his  crime,  and  exhorted  liim  to  make  fatisfaclion  by  a 
lincerc  fuhmilFiDn  and  repcMtauLC.  Some  time  alter, 
'i'heojolius  coining  to  Milan,  v.  cut  to  receive  the  fa- 
crament  at  the  great  church  ;  where  Anibrofc  meeting 
liim  at  the  door,  lieiiieJ  him  entrance,  and  reprcfentcd 
his  guilt  in  ihc  moll  forcible  and  pathetic  terms.  The 
emperor  was  (truck  with  his  words,  and  with  great 
unenlhufs  of  mind  returned  to  his  palace  ;  but  about  a 
year  .alter,  An:brofe,  being  convinced  of  the  lincerity 
111  liis  rcpenta:".ce,  admitted  him  into  the  churcl). 

In  592,  Valcntinian  the  emperor  being  airalfinated 
by  the  contrivance  of  Argobaflcs.and  Eugeniusuuirp- 
ing  the  empire,  Anibrof=  was  obliged  tokave  Milan  : 
but  he  returr.ed  the  year  lollowing,  when  Eugcnius 
Mas  defeated.  *  He  died  at  Milan  the  4th  of  April 
797;  being  57yearsot  age,  according  to  Mr  Du  Pin 
and  fonie  other  writers  ;  Ijiit  Dr  Cave  and  Olcarius  fay 
that  lie  w  as  64  years  old  at  his  death.  lie  was  buried 
in  the  great  church  at  Milan.  He  wrote  ftvcral  works, 
the  moll  conliderable  of  which  is  that  D~'  Officiis.  He 
isconcife  and  fententioiisin  hismanoer  of  writing, and 
^full  of  turnsof  wit ;  his  terms  are  well  chofen,  and  his 
txprcilions  noble  :  he  divcrlilics  liis  fubjecl  by  an  aJ- 
niirabk  copioufncfs  of  thought  and  language;  he  is 
very  ingenious  in  giving  an  eafy  and  natuial  turn  to 
every  tiling  which  he  treats  of,  and  is  not  without 
ftrength  and  pathos  when  ili/?re  is  occalion  for  it. This 
is  part  of  the  characlcr  which  Du  Pin  gives  him  as  a 
writer;  but  Krafnius  obfcrveslhat  he  has  many  quaint 
•nnd  alfccled  ftntcnces,  and  frequently  very  obfcurc 
ones;  and  it  is  ccrtaia  that  his  writings  are  intermix- 
ed V  ith  ni.iny  ftrangc  and  peculiar  opinions.  Faulinus 
wrote  his  life,  and  dedicated  it  to  St  Augullin:  this 
life  is  prefixed  to  St  Anibroft's  works  ,  the  befl  editi- 
on of  w  bijh  is  r^-koncd  to  be  that  imblilhed  by  the 
f^ciudii?iinc  mb;.ks,  in  two  volumes  in  folio,  at  Paris, 
in  1686  and  i^'90. 

Ambrose  (Ifaac).an  eminent  prcftiyterian  niiniflcr, 
was  educated  at  l>az"n-iiofe  college  Oxford, where  he 
tonk  i!ie  degree  ofbichdor  of  arts,  and  becaine  mini- 
ller  of  Preflon,  and  afterwards  of  Garilan  in  Lanca- 
fiiirCjWhtrehe  wai;ini6f  2  rjcdcd lor  non -conformity. 
]t  was  nfua'  with  him  to  retire  every  year  for  a  month 
into  a  litilc  hut  in  a  wood;  where  he  fhuiincd  all  fo- 
ciety,  and  devoted  himftlfto  rc'igious  conteniplalion. 
Dr  (  alaniy  o'.  frrves,  that  he  had  a  ve;y  ftronginipnlfc 
on  his  ni'nd  of  the  approjch  of  death,  and  took  a  for- 
mal leave  of  his  fi  ieiid.'s  at  their  ho'ife  a  little  before  his 
departure  ;  an  ■  ihf  laft  nighi  of  his  life  he  fcnt  bis  dif- 
co'irfc  f  oiirrrmng  tf«f:7j  to  the  prefs.  The  next  day 
he  fl'.iit  hin'feU  up  in  his  parlour,  where,  to  the  great 
fiirprifeard  re;'r<  I  01  all  whofawhiu'.he  was  f-mnd  juil 
expirirg.  ledied  in  166^-4  in  he  72'' year  of  his 
age.  He  wrotcfcveral  other  books,  as  the  I rima,!\Ii:- 


+       ] 


A  M   B 


dica,  ctVilima,  or  the  Firft,  Middle,  and  laft  Tilings  ;  Ambrofia 
\Var  willi  dc\ils  ;  Looking  unto  Jcfus  ;  &c.  II 

Ambkose,  or  St  Ambkose  itnhc  I'/ood,  an  order  of -^'"'"■°'"""'' 
religious,  who  ufe  the  Ambrolian  ollicc,  and  wear  an 
image  ot  that  faint  engraven  on  a  litilc  plate  :  in  other 
refpeds,  tliey  conform  to  the  rules  of  the  Augulliiis. 
Sec  AmiikosIan  Office,  and  Algustins. 

AMlillOSlA,  in  heathen  antiquity,  denotes  the 
folid  food  of  the  gods,  in  contradillintiion  from  the 
drink,  whicli  was  called  ncOar.  It  had  the  appellation 
avibiofa  (compounded  of  the  particle  a,  anj  fiftrQ,, 
imworla/,)  as  being  fuppofed  to  render  tliofc  immorial 
who  fed  on  it. 

Ambkosia  is  alio  a  fplendid  kind  of  title,  given  by 
foiiic  phylicians  to  certain  alcxipharmic  conipoiitions, 
of  extraordinary  virtue.  The  name  was  particularly 
given  to  a  famous  antidote  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  a- 
gainll  all  puifons,  bites,  and  flings  of  venomous  crea- 
as  well  as  many  internal  diftafcs. 

Am  BROS  I A  ;  A  genus  of  the  pentandria  order,  be- 
longing to  the  niona-cia  clafs  of  plants  ,  and,  in  the 
natural  method, ranking  under  the  49th  order,  CuKpo- 
Jitj:-iiiicamc>!iticca-.  The  charadcrs  arc  : — The  Male 
flowers  are  compound  :  The  common  caljx  is  a  (Inglc- 
lca\cd  perianthium,  the  length  of  the  florets:  The 
compound  coiotla  is  uniform,  tubular,  flat,  and  hemi- 
fj>hcrical ;  the  proper  is  monopctalous,  funncl-fiiaped, 
and  quinquetld  :  Thc//tfw//;^conlill  of  live  very  fniall 
filaments  ;  the  anthera:  arc  crcft,  parallel, and  pointed: 
The /'//?/////»  has  a  filiform  flylus,  the  length  of  the 
flamina  ;  the  fligmaorbiculir  and  membranous  :  The 

rcccptaculum  is  naked Female  flowers  below  the 

male  ones,  on  the  fame  plant, iloabled  :  The  c:ilyx  is  a 
lingle  leaved  perianthium,  entire  (with  the  belly  quin- 
qiudentated),  one  flowered,  and  perfiflent:  '1  here  is 
no  corolla:  The pijiiilriw  has  an  ovate  gerinen  in  the 
bottom  of  the  calyx  ;  a  filiform  Ay  lus,  the  length  of  the 
calyx  ;  and  two  long  brillly  fligniata  :  'Vht  pt-ricarpi- 
um  is  an  ovale  nnilocular  nut:  The  feed  is  lingular 
ar.d  roundifh.  Ot  this  genus  five  fpecies  are  enumc- 
nicrated  ;  but  having  no  properties  worthy  of  notice, 
we  omit  any  lurthcr  account  of  thcin. 

AMLROSIAN  ok)  ice,  or  RiTF.,in  cluirch-hiftory, 
a  particular  fornuila  of  vorfiiip  in  the  church  of  Milan, 
which  takes  its  name  from  St  Ambrofc,  whoinftituted 
that  oflice  in  the  fourth  century. Each  church  origiu:illy 
had  its  particular  office  ;  and  when  the  Pope,  in  after- 
times,  took  upon  him  to  impofc  the  Roman  ofHce  up- 
on all  the  wefiern  chorchcs,  that  of  Milan  flieltered 
itfclf  under  ihe  name  and  authority  of  St  Ambrofc; 
from  which  time  the  Ambrofian  ritual  has  prevailed. 

AMBROSIN,  in  middle-aged  writers,  denotes  a 
coin  flruck  by  the  lords  or  dukes  of  Milan,  whereon 
was  rcpiefenied  St  Ambrofc  on  horfeback  with  a 
whip  in  his  right  hand.  The  occafion  of  this  coin- 
age is  faid  to  have  been  a  vilion  of  that  faint,  who 
appeared  to  the  Milanefc  general  in  I3;9,  during  the 
lime  of  a  battle. 

AMBROSIMA,  in  botany;  a  genus  of  ihe  poly- 
andri.i  order,  belonging  to  the  gynanjria  clafs  of 
plants;  the  characters  ofw'hit.h  are:  The  c/ilyy  is  a 
linglc-Ieav  rd  Ipatha,  divided  by  a  partition  into  two 
celh  :  There  is  no  corolla:  The  fhu/uiiti  confill  oJ  a 
finglc  tilameiu  in  the  interior  cell ;  the  anthcras  are 

nu  IT. ere  us. 


x\. 


M  B 


f     SSS     J 


A  M  B 


Ani'hrofius.  miiiiertMis,wjih  iworouiidifh  concave  ncftariesai  ihcir 

^~~~-' '  bafc  :  The  pijlillum  is  in  the  interior  cell ;  the  grrmcn 

roundilh  ;  the  ftylus  cylindrical,  and  fliortcr  ciiaii  the 
fpatba  :  the  ftigma  o'jlufe  :  Tlic  percarpium  (a  cap- 
luk-  ?)  roundilli  and  uiiilocuhr,  'Ihcre  is  bat  one  Ipc- 
cics,  a  iiscive  of  Turkiy. 

AMtJKO.^lLS  AcRELiANVs,  or  Aurelil-s  A.m- 
BRosius,  a  famous  general  ot  the  ancient  Biituus,  of 
Roman  extraction.  He  was  educated  at  the  court  of 
Aldrocn  of /.morica  ;  wiio,  at  the  rcqiieil  of  the  Dri- 
loni,  fdii  him  over  with  ten  thoufir.d  men,  to  aflift 
them  agai:ifl  the  Saxons,  whom  Vortigern  had  invited 
into  Britain.  Ambroiius  had  fuch  fuccefs  a^jainll  the 
.Saxons  that  the  Uritons  choofc  him  fortheirking,  and 
compelled  Vorti;^crn  logivcup  to  hiniull  theucuern 
part  of  the  kingdom  divided  by  the  Uonun  highway 
cjUed  WatliHg-linet.  Some  time  after,  the  iiri.ons 
being  difcontciited  with  Vortigtrn,  and  having  with- 
drawu  their  allegiance  from  him,  he  retired  toacaltic 
ill  Wales,  whcie  being  befieged  by  AnibrofiuSj  and 
the  laftje  taking  fire,  he  pcrilhcd  in  the  llarats,  and 
left  bis  rival  fole  monarch  of  britain  ;  who  now  took 
upon  him  the  imperial  purple,  aftcrthe  manner  ofthc 
Roman  emperors.  Geott'rey  of  Monmouth  tells  ns, that 
Ambrofms  built  Stonehcnge  near  Salilbury  in  \\'ilt- 
lliire.  Anibroiius,  according  to  this  hilforian,  coniiHg 
to  a  monallciy  near  Cacrcaradoc,  now  Saliibury, where 
three  hundred  Britilh  lords,  malfacred  by  Ilcngell,  lay 
buried,  and  refolving  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  this 
aflion,  he  ordered  his  workmen  to  prepare  a  large 
quantity  of  floncs  and  other  materials.  But  having, 
rt  the  iuftiguuion  og  Tremonus  archbifhop  ofCaer- 
Icon,  confulied  the  famous  Merlin,  this  magician  ad- 
vifcd  him  to  fend  over  to  Ireland  for  certain  great 
floncs,  ca'ilcd  cho>  cagigaiittim,  the  giant's  dance,  placed 
in  a  circle  on  a  hilt  called  Killair,  hnving  been  brought 
thither  by  giants  from  the  farthefl  borders  of  Afri- 
ca. A  body  offerees  were  accordingly  fent  into  Ire- 
land, under  PenJragon,  Ainbroiius's  brother,  to  fetch 
thefe  llones;  but  were  oppofed  in  their  attempt  by  Gil- 
liomaiuis  king  of  the  country,  who  derided  the  fully 
of  the  Britons  in  undertaking  fo  ridiculcjs  an  e.\ptdi- 
lion.  Nevcrthelefs,  the  Britonshaviiig  vanquillicdthis 
prince  in  battle,  brought  away  the  ftones ;  and  by  the 
diredion  and  aliiflance  of  Merlin,  who  had  accompa- 
nied them,  thcfe  wonderful  Hones,  by  order  of  Am- 
brofms, w  ere  placed  over  the  graves  of  the  Britiili 
lords,  and  are  now  what  is  called  Stoinhinge.  Alex- 
ander Mechan  celebrates  this  fable  in  his  poem  De  di- 
vhia  fapieiitia  laudibu. .  Polydore  Virgil  affigns  ano- 
ther originof  Stonchcn^e  :  he  tells  us  it  was  crei^led  by 
ilie  Britons  as  a  niotuiment  to  their  general  Anibroiius, 
on  the  place  where  he  fell  in  battle,  to  perpetua:c  the 
memory  of  his  glorious  actions  and  fcrvires  done  to  his 
country.  Both  thefe  ftories  are  rcjetked  by  the  beft 
antiquaries  ;  who,  however,  are  by  no  means  agreed  as 
t<»  the  true  origin  of  this  famous  piece  of  antiquity. 

See  SlONEHENGE. 

After  ihe  Britons  had  defeated  the  Saxons,  and  ob- 
liged them  to  retire  northward,  Ambrofms  is  faid  to 
liave  convened  the  princes  and  great  men  at  York, 
where  he  gave  orders  for  repairing  the  churches  dcHroy- 
cd  oy  the  Saxons,  and  refioring  thecxercireofreligijn 
to  its  forii  er  luflrc.  This  is  eontirmed  by  Matthew  of 
Wellminftcr  ;  who  highly  applauds  the  great  zeal  of 

2 


Ambrohusinrcpairing  the  churches,  cncouragiugthc    Ambry 
clergy,  and  re/loring  the  honour  of  religion.     Tiic         i' 
Monmouth  hiilorian  gives  this  prince  a  very  high  cba-    Auibury. 

rader.     "  He  was  a  man  (fays  he)  of  fuch  bravery  and  '       " ' 

courage,  tliat  when  he  was  in  Gaul  noo.icdurll  c:ucr 
the  lilts  with  him;  for  he  was.furc  lounhorfc  his  an- 
tJgonifl,  or  to  break  his  fpear  i.'ito  fliivcrs.  He  v.as, 
moreover,  generous  in  bellowing,  careful  in  perform- 
ing religious  duties,  nioJerate  in  all  things,  and  more 
ciprcialiy  abhorred  a  lie.  He  was  Itrong  on  too:, 
ftrojger  on  horfeback,  and  pcrfe^ily  qjalir.cd  to  com- 
mand an  army."  The  fame  author  tells  us  he  was 
poifoncd  atW'incheiler  l>y  one  EopiaSaxon,  difguifcri 
as  a  phylician,  and  hired  for  that  purpofe  by  Palter. - 
tius  one  of  the  fons  of  Vortigern  :  but  the  generaliy 
received  opinion  is,  iha:  he  was  killed  in  a  battle  wi;i'.ii 
he  loLi  in  the  year  508,  agtinft  Ccrdric,  one  of  the 
Sa.xon  generals. 

AMBR\  ,  a  place  in  whi  h  aredcpofiit-dall  the  uten. 
fits  nectlFary  for  houfe-kecping.  In  the  ancient  ab- 
beys and  priories,  tlierc  wasanoflicc  under thi-> deno- 
mination,wherein  were  laid  up  all  charities  for  the  poor. 

AMBUBAJ.4^,  inPvoman  iintiquity,  were  immodell 
women,  who  came  from  Syria  to  Rome,  where  they 
lived  by  proititution  and  by  phyingon  the  (lute  :  the 
word  is  derived  from  the  Syiiac  aiui,  which  lignitics 
a  flute;  aliho'  others  make  it  to  come  from  at»  and 
i?a/x, becaiife  thefe  proditutes  often  retired  to  Baix. 
According  to  Cruquius,  thefe  women  ufed  likcv.ifc  to 
fell  paint  for  ornamenting  the  face,  6<c. 

AMBULANT,  or  AMbULATOKV.  They  give  in 
France  the  name  of  aa.eiilaiit  ci^tiimijftaiurs  to  thofe 
commiflions,  or  clerks  of  the  king's  farms,  who  have 
no  fettled  olfice  ;  but  vilit  all  the  offices  within  a  cer- 
tain djllrid,  to  fee  that  nothing  be  done  in  them  agaihil 
the  king's  right,  and  intcrclt  oi  the  f.irm. 

Ambi'lant  is  alio  ufed  to  denote  thofe  brokers  at 
Amfterdam.  or  exchange  agents,  who  have  not  beeti 
fworn  before  the  magillrates.  They  tranfaft  broker- 
age bafinefs,  but  their  teltimony  is  not  received  in  the 
courts  of  jullice. 

AMBULATORY,  a  term  anciently  applied  to 
fuch  courts,  &c.  as  were  not  fixed  to  any  certain  place  ; 
but  held  fometimesinone  place,  andforaetimes  in  a'.io- 
ther.  In  oppolition  to  ftationary  courts. — The  court 
of  parliament  was  anciently  ambulatory  j  fo  alio  v\'erc 
the  court  of  king's  bench,  &c. 

AMBURBIUM,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  procefuon 
make  by  the  Romans  round  the  city  and  pomoeriuni, 
in  which  they  led  a  viclim,  and  afterwards  facriticed 
it,  in  order  to  avert  fome  calamity  that  threatened  the 
city. 

AMBURY,  or  Anbury,  among  farriers,  denotes  a 
tumor,  wart  or  (welling,  which  is  folt  to  the  touch, 
and  full  of  blood. 

This  diforder  of  horfcs  is  cured  by  tying  a  horfc- 
hair  very  hard  about  its  root  ;  and,  when  it  has  fallen 
off,  which  commonly  happens  in  al)oiit  eight  days, 
firewing  fon'e  powder  of  verdigris  upon  the  part,  to 
prevent  the  return  of  the  complaint.  Ifthetamor  be 
fo  low  that  nothing  can  be  tied  about  it,  tluy  cut  it 
out  with  a  knife,  or  clfe  burn  it  oft' with  a  Iharp  hot 
iron  ;  and,  in  linewy  parts,  where  a  hot  iron  is  impro- 
per, they  eat  it  away  with  oil  of  vitriol,  or  white  fa- 
blimatc. 

ALav 


A  M  E 


[     S2(^     ] 


A  M  E 


An-.ediii!9. 


Anibufeade  M.uiyofoiir  fanicrsboiftof  a  Iccrcc  wliichinfiJiicly 
cures  all  kinds  of  protuberances  of  thiskiiul ;  tlicprc- 
paraiioii  oi  which  is  iliii  ,  'lake  ihrce  ounces  ofgiccn 
vitriol  and  one  ounce  of  white  arlcnic  i  beat  theui  to 
acoarfc  iiowdcr,  and  put  thcni  iutu  a  crucible  ;  piicc 
tlic  crucible  in  the  niidit  of  a  charcoal  tire,  llirring  tlic 
fubllaacc,  but  carefully  avoiding  ihc  pcifonousltcams  i 
when  the  whole  grows  reddilii,  take  the  cruciLleojt 
of  the  ftre,  and  when  cool,  break  it  and  take  out  the 
matter  at  the  bottom  ;  beat  this  to  powder  in  a  mortar, 
and  add  to  four  ounces  of  this  powder  five  ounces  of 
album  rhofs  :  make  the  whole  into  an  ointment,  ai.d 
let  it  be  applied  cold  to  warts  ;  rubbing  ihein  \\ith  it 
every  day.  They  will  by  this  means  fall  oif  gtnily 
and  eafiiy,  without  leaving  any  fwcUings.  It  is  belt 
to  keep  the  horfc  quiet,  and  without  ■working,  during 
the  cure,  ^^'hat  fores  remain  on  the  pa' ts  which  t!ie 
fwellings  fall  off  from,  may  be  cured  with  the  com- 
mon application  called  the  countifi's  o'tuti-init. 

AMBUSCADE,  or  Ambush,  in  the  military  art, 
properly  denotes  a  place  where  foldicrs  may  lie  con- 
cealed till  they  find  an  opportunity  to  furprife  the  c- 
nemy. 

In  the  language  of  Scripture,  ihefe  terms  arc  not 
always  taken  in  their  proper  fignitication,  for  laying 
ambulhcs  for  any  one,  attacking  him  in  fccret,  laying 
fnares  for  hin\.   They  fometinus  fignify  no  more  than 
attacking  a  man  who  has  no  dillrull  of  fuch  a  thing  : 
attacking  one  behind,  concealing  one's  fclf  in  feme 
particular  place  in  order  to  furprife  any  one.     See  the 
book  of  Judges,  ch.  ix.  2J.  52-  34)  :?5-     Abimckch, 
who  lay  lurking  with  his  people  in  the  heights  of  Si- 
cheni,  fo,    however,  as  to  rob  and  treat  thofc  who 
palled  that  way  very  ill,  came  and  attacked  the  city 
of  Sichcm  with  his  troops  divided  into  three  bodies  : 
"Tetittdit  injidias  jixta  Sichiumm  in  quatitor  kcii.     Li- 
terally, according  to  the  Hebrew,  "  They  prepared 
ambufcadcs  againll   Sichem  in  four  heads  or  compa- 
nies."    And  a  little  farther,  vcrfc  43.     Abimckch 
being  informed  that  the  Sichcmitcs  were  marched, took 
his  army  and  divided  it  into  three  bodies,  and  laid  wait 
for  them  in  the  iield."     Itfeems  certain,  that  in  ihtfc 
palTages,   ambulhes,  properly  fo  called,  were  not  the 
things  in  qucftion.     In  the  rirft  book  of  Samuel,  Saul 
complains  that  David  laid  ambufcades  for  him  :  hijiJi- 
titor  iij'jue  hodie  pirinansns.      Now  nothing  could  be 
worfe  grounded  than  this  accufaiion,  if  we  undcrlland 
the  word  injidiari  in  its  proper  iignification  ;    but  he 
mio-ht  fay,  though  nnjuftly,  that  David  was  his  fccret 
*i:emy.     And  in  the  Chronicles  it  is  laid,  that  God 
turned  the  ambuihes  laid  by  the  enemies  of  Ifrael  upon 
ihcmfelves  ;  that  is  to  fay,  their  endeavours,  their  ma- 
lice, their  arms,  he  turned agaiiiftthemfelves  :  for  the 
enemies  thiT'.  uientioned  came  not  in  private  or  by  llra- 
tagem  ;   they  marched  openly  in  arras  againft  Ifrael. 
AMI>Y,atown  of  the  Auftri^n  Netherlands,  in  the 
province  of  T  imburg,  iituated  oppofite  to  Maerflricht, 
on  the  rail  fide  of  the  river  Maefe,  in  E.  Long.  5. 
45.  >:     >at.  50.  J7. 

A^ILDI.'.NS,  in  chnrch-hiftory,  a  congregation 
of  religious  i:'  Italy,  fo  called  from  their  profelFing 
themfclves  lantcs  De"?u,  ''lovers  of  God  ;"  orrathcr 
amati  Vco,  "  beloved  of  God."  They  wore  a  trey 
habit  and  woode.  ihoes,   had  no  breeches,  and  girt 


iheinfolves  with  a  cord. 


Thty  had  2S  coiivents ;  and 
4 


were  united  by  Pope  Pius  V.  partly  with  the  CiAerci-  Amdia. 
an  order,  anu  partly  with  that  ot  the  Soccolanti,  or  An«-lln'- 
woodcn-ilioc  wearers.  '       ^'~~' 

AMELIA,  an  cpifcopal  city  of  Italy,  in  the  ftate 
of  the  church,  I't.ited  on  a  raounuin,  jo  miles  N.  E. 
of  Home,  and  25  miles  S.  VV.  of  Spolctto.  E.  Long. 
13.  20.   N.  Lat.  42.  33. 

AMELLUS,  Starwort:  A  genus  of  the  polyga- 
r.iia  fuperilua  order,  belonging  to  the  fy  ngciielia  dalsof 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
4  2th  order, 6' •);v/>oyr^<c-o/'/'(i/////(i/;rf'. The  characters  are: 
The  common  cuijx  is  iniiiricated  and  roundilh:  The 
compound  coiolid'is,  radiated  ;  the  htriuaphroditc  torol- 
Icts  numerous  in  the  dilk;  the  female  numerous  in  the 
ray:  fr'/yvr  corolla  of  the  hermaphrodites  are  tubular 
and  quinquelld  ;  of  the  females,  tongued,  luol'c,  and 
twoorthrce  toothed  :  The  JUi»!tja  in  the  heruiaphm- 
ditcs  coufifc  of  rive  (hort  capillary  lilamcnts  ;  the  antbc- 
raecylindric  and  tubular  :  'i'hc  piji ilium  has  an  ovate 
germen  ;  a  filiform  Aylus  the  length  of  the  llamina  ; 
and  two  filiform  ftigmata:  There  is  no  pcricarpiu/u, 
but  the  calyx  unchanged  :  Thcfuds  arc  ovate  and  fo- 
litary  ;  i\\c  papptii  is  hairy  ;  the  reaptaculum chif,y . — 
Of  this  there  arc  two. 

Specits.  I.  The  lynchiiis,  with  one  flower  on  each 
footflnlk.  This  is  a  native  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
It  is  a  perennial  plant,  riling  abcit  three  feet  high, 
fending  out  many  branches  en  each  fide,  fo  as  to  form 
a  buihy  pla-.u  ;  the  branches  are  garnilhed  v/ith  obtufc 
fpcar-lhapcd  leaves  placed  oppofite,  and  arc  terminated 
by  lingle  naked  flower- flalks,  each  fupporting  one  vio- 
kt-coluurcd  riowcr,  hiving  a  yellow  di!k,  whi-.h  is  fuc- 
ceeded  by  oblong  feeds.  2.  The  umbtlkuus,  wi.h 
iiowers  growing  in  timbi;i>,  is  a  native  of  Jamaica;  and 
riles  from  two  to  three  fti:t  high,  fending  out  many 
branches  cloaihed  with  oppofite  leaves,  which  are  ter- 
minated by  fmall  flower- in  umbels. 

Cuitiiic.  The  iirfl  is  calily  propagated,  either  by 
cuttings  planted  in  the  fummer-monihs,  or  by  feeds 
fown  on  a  moderate  hot-bed  in  ihc  fpring,  but  the 
plants  require  a  (light  llicher  in  winter.  The  fecond  is 
much  more  tender,  and  therefore  requires  to  be  prc- 
ferved  in  a  (love  during  the  v.inter  feafon. 

AMELOT  DF.  Li  HoussAi  (Nieholas),born  at  Or- 
leans in  i634,"vasmueh  cHeemcdatthc  court  of  France, 
andappoiiitcd  fecrctary  of  an  cnibairy  which  that  court 
fent  to  the  common  wealth  of  V'lnice,  as  appears  by  the 
title  of  hi.<!  tranflation  of  Father  I'aul's  Hirtory  of  the 
Council  of  Trent ;  but  he  afterwards  pubKlhed  writings 
which  gave  fuch  oficncc  th:it  he  v,as  imprifoncd  in  the 
Baftile.  The  firft  works  lie  printed  were  the  Hiliory 
of  the  Government  of  Venice,  and  that  of  the  Ufcocks, 
a  people  of  Croatia.  In  16S;  lie  puhlifiied  his  tranlla- 
tions  into  French  of  Machiavcl's  Trincc,  and  Fatlicr 
Paul's  Hiftory  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  Political 
Difcourfesofhisowii  upon  Tacitus.  Thcfe  pcrfonn- 
ances  were  well  received  by  the  public.  lie  did  not 
prefixhisown  name  to  the  two  Lift  mcniioned  works, 
but  concealed  himfclf  under  that  ofLaMoii.c  Jorteval. 
Ims  tranllation  of  Fatlicr  Paul  was  attacked  by  the 
pariifans  of  the  pope's  unbounded  power  and  autho- 
rity. In  France,  however,  it  met  with  great  fucccfs  5 
all  the  advocates  for  the  liberty  of  the  Gallican  church 
promoiingthefuccefsofit  to  the  uiuu'fl  of  their  power, 
though  at  the  fame  lime  there  were  ihree  memorials 

prefcntcd 


A  M  E 


L     537     ] 


A  M  E 


prcfciucd  to  have  it  fupprcllcd.  When  the  fecond  edi- 
tion of  this  tranllation  was  publiQied,  it  was  violently 
'  attacked  by  the  Abbe  St  Real,  in  a  letter  he  wrote  to 
Mr  Bayle,  dated  Oftober  17,  1685.  A mclot  defended 
himfeif,  in  a  letter  to  the  fame  gentleman.  In  1684, 
he  printed  at  Paris  a  French  tranllation  of  Baltafar 
Grici3.n'sOraculo  manual,  \\\i\\  the  title  of /'//owwr  d.; 
Ccur.  In  1 636,  he  printed  La  Morale  di  Tacit:  de  la 
fiateric  :  in  which  workhe  coUcfted  fcveral  particular 
fails  and  maxims,  which  reprcfentin  a  ftronglight  the 
artifices  of  court-flatterers,  and  the  niifchievous  effect 
of  their  poifonons  difcourfes.  Frederick  Leonard,  a 
bookfellcr  at  Paris,  having  propofed,  in  the  year  1693, 
to  print  acoUetflion  of  all  the  treaties  of  peace  between 
the  kings  of  France  and  all  the  other  princes  of  Eu- 
rope, fince  the  reign  of  Charles  VII.  totheyear  1690, 
Anielot  publilhed  a  fmall  volume  in  duodecimo,  con- 
taining a  prclimiuary  difcourfc  upon  thefe  treatifes  ; 
wherein  he  endeavours  to  (how,  that  mod  princes, 
when  they  enter  into  a  treaty,  think  more  how  to  e- 
vadc  than  how  to  perform  the  terms  they  fubfcribe  to. 
He  publiflied  alfo  an  edition  of  Cardinal  d'Olfat's  Let- 
ters in  1697,  with  feveral  obfcrvations  of  his  o'vn  ; 
which,  as  he  tells  us  in  his  advertifement,  may  fcrve 
as  a  fupplement  to  the  hiltory  of  the  reigns  of  Henry 
III.  and  Henry  IV.  kings  of  France.  He  wrote  fcve- 
ral other  works  ;  and  died  at  Paris  in  1 706,  being  then 
almoft  75  years  of  age. 

AMELOT  (Denis),  a  celebrated  French  writer, 
w^as  born  at  Saintonge  in  1606.  He  maintained  a  clofc 
correfpondencc  with  the  fathers  of  the  Oratory,  a 
congregation  of  priefls  founded  by  Philip  of  Neri.  He 
wrote  the  life  of  Charles  de  Gondren,  fecond  fuperior 
of  this  congregation,  and  publilhcdit  at  Paris  in  1643. 
In  this  piece  he  fa-.d  fomething  of  the  famous  Abbot 
of  St  Cyran,  which  greatly  difpleafed  the  gentlemen 
of  Port  Royal;  who,  to  be  revenged  of  him,  publifh- 
ed  a  libel  againft  him,  intitled  Idee gener-ale  I'efprit  et 
de  livre  de  P.  Af/telote.  He  was  lo  much  provoked  by 
this  fatire,  that  he  did  all  in  his  power  to  injure  them. 
They  had  finiQied  a  tranflation  of  the  New  Teftament, 
and  were  delirous  to  have  it  publilhed  ;  for  which  pur- 
pofe  they  endeavoured  to  procure  an  approbation  trom 
the  dodors  of  the  Sorbonne,  and  a  privilege  from  ihc 
king.  But  Amelot,  by  his  influence  with  the  Chan- 
cellor, prevented  them  from  fuccccdirg.  In  ihis  he 
had  alfo  a  view  to  his  own  intereft  ;  for  he  was  about 
to  publilh  a  tranflation  of  his  own  of  the  New  Tclla- 
ment.  Amelot's  tranllation  with  annotations,  in  4V0IS. 
oftavo,  was  printed  in  the  years  1666,  1667,  and  1668. 
It  is  not  very  exaft,  according  to  F.  Simon,  who  tells 
us  that  it  contains  fome  very  grofs  blunders.  Amelot 
wrote  alfo  an  Abridgement  of  Divinity,  a  Catechifm 
for  the  Jubilee,  and  a  kind  of  Chriilim  Manual  for 
every  Day.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life,  he  entered 
into  the  congregation  of  the  Oratory  in  i6jo  ;  and 
continued  amongft  thcra  till  hisdeath,  which  happened 
in  1678. 

AMEN,  TiJK,  fignities  true,  faithful,  certain.  It  is 
made  ufe  of  likewife  to  affirm  any  thing,  and  was  a 
fort  of  affirmation  ufed  often  by  our  Saviour:  A,u»*, 
Aixm  \ty<»  vjjtn.  i.e.  P'eril) ,  verily,  I  fay  unto  you. 
Laftly,  it  is  underftoodasexprclCnga  wifti ;  as  Amen, 
Vol.  I. 


Soke  it.  Numb.  V.  22.  or  an  affirmation,  Ainei:, )es,  I 
believe  It,  I  Cor.  xiv.  16.  The  Hebrews  end  the  five 
books  of  Pfalms,  according  to  their  way  of  diftribu- 
ting  them,  with  the  words  amen,  aimn  ;  which  the  . 
Septuagint  have  tranllated  >n(iiT»,  itmTo  \  and  the  La- 
tins/'<?/,  fiat.  The  Greek  and  Latin  cliurches  have 
preferved  this  word  in  their  prayers,  as  well  as  allehii- 
ah  and  h»Janr:a  ;  bccaufe  they  obferved  more  energy  in 
them  than  in  any  terms  which  they  could  ufe  in  their 
own  languages.  At  the  conclulionof  the  pnblic  pray- 
ers, the  people  anfwered  with  a  loud  voice.  Amen  ; 
and  St  Jerom  fays,  that  at  Rome  when  the  people  an- 
fwered Amen,  the  found  of  their  voices  was  like  a  clap 
of  thunder  :  In  jimiiitudmem  Citlejlu  tonitrui  Amen  re- 
boot. The  Jews  alfert  that  the  gates  of  Heaven  are 
opened  tohim  whoanfwers  Amen\\\\\i  all  his  might. 

AMEND,  or  Amende,  in  the  French  culloms,  a 
pecuniary  punilhment  impofed  by  a  judge  for  any  crime, 
falfe  profccuiion,  or  groundlefs  appeal. 

Amesdf.  Honourable,  an  infamous  kind  of  p uniili- 
ment  inflicted  in  France  upon  traitors,  parriciiles,  or 
facrilegious  perfons,  in  the  following  manner  :  The  of- 
fender being  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  hangman, 
his  Ihirtis  llripped  otf,  a  rope  put  about  his  neck,  and 
a  taper  in  his  hand  ;  then  be  islcdintocourt,  where  he 
mull  beg  pardon  of  God,  the  king,  the  court,  and  Ms 
country.  Sometimes  the  punilhment  ends  here  ;  but 
fomctimes  it  isonlj^a  prelude  to  death,  or  baaifhment 
to  the  galleys. 

AMt,soE  Honourable,  is  a  term  alfo  ufed  for  making 
recantation  ia  open  conrt,  or  in  prefcnce  of  the  perfoii 
injured. 

AMENDMENT,  in  a  general  fenfe,  denotes  fomc 
alteration  or  change  made  in  a  thing  for  the  better. 

Am  e  n  d  m  e  NTjin  law, the  corredlion  of  an  error  com- 
mitted in  tlie  procefs, which  may  beamtndcd  after  judg- 
ment, iinlefs  the  error  lies  in  giving  judgment  ;  for  in 
that  cafe  it  is  not  amendable,  but  the  party  mufl  bring 
a  writ  of  error.  A  bill  may  be  amended  on  tlie  file  ai 
any  time  before  the  plea  is  pleaded  ;  but  notafterwards, 
without  motion  and  leave  of  the  court. 

j4me.\dme.\t  of  a  Bill,  is  fome  alteration  made 
in  the  firll  draught  ot  it. 

AMENTUM,  in  botany,  the  name  of  a  fpecics  of 
calyx,  confifting  of  valves,  and  hanging  down  in  diffe- 
rent dircdions  from  the  caulis.  Common  oats  afford 
a  good  example  of  the  amentum. 

Amentum,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  thong  tied  about 
the  middle  of  ajavelinordart,andfallcncd  to  the  fore- 
finger, in  order  to  recover  the  weapon  as  fooa  as  it 
Was  difcharged.  The  ancients  nude  great  ufe  of  the 
amentum,  thinking  it  helped  to  enforce  the  blow.  It 
alfo  denotesa  latchct  that  bound  their  fandals. 

AMERADE,  a  kind  of  officers  among  ihe  Sara- 
cens, anfwering  to  the  governors  of  provinces  among 
the  Europeans — The  name  is  originally  the  f.imcwith 
that  of  emir. 

AMERCEMENT,  or  Amerciament,  in  law,  a 
pecuniary  punifliment  impofed  on  offenders  at  the  mer- 
cy of  the  court.  It  differs  from  a  fine  in  being  impo- 
fed arbitrarily  in  proportion  to  the  fault  ;  whereas  a 
fine  is  a  certain  punilhraent  fettled  exprefsly  by  fome 
ftatute. 

3  Y  AME- 


A  M  E 


[     53^     ] 


A  M  E 


North  and 
tiouth  coil' 
tiuciit. 


Amcriia.       AMERICA  ;  one  of  the  four  qiuitdsof  ilit  world, 

'  probably  ilic  largift  of  the  whole,  and  from  its  late  dii- 

rovcry    frequcnily  dciiomiiiatcd   tlit  A'^a;  li'orlj,  or 
-  AV-o)  Hctntfphire. 

Bouiidark.  This  va(t  caiiiiiry  extends  from  the  Sotli  degree  of 
north,  to  the  561  h  degree  of  font  h,Utitiidc  ;  .r.id  where 
its  breadth  is  known,  from  the  3Sth  to  the  i;6th  de- 
gree well  longitude  from  London  ;  ftretehiiig  between 
«ooo  and  9000  miles  in  Itnglh,  and  in  its  grcatclt 
breadth  3690.  It  fees  both  hcmifphcres,  has  two 
fiimmers  and  a  double  w  inter,  and  enjoys  almoll all  the 
variety  of  climates  w  iiich  the  eavih  affords.  It  is  wafli- 
cd  by  the  two  great  ocealis.  To  thecallward,  it  has  the 
Atlantie,  which  divides  it  from  Enrope  and  Africa  ;  to 
the  weft  it  has  the  Pacific  or  Great  South-Sea, by  which 
it  is  fcparated  from  Alia.  By  thcfe  feas  it  may,  and 
docs,  cany  on  a dircft  commerce  wiih  the  other  three 
parts  of  the  world. 
'  America  is  not  of  equal  breadth  throughout  its  whole 

extent ,-  but  is  divided  into  two  great  continents,  call- 
ed North,  and  South,  Amertca,  by  an  illhmus  ijoomilcs 
long,  and  which,  at  Darien,  about  Lat.  9"  N.  is  only 
60  miles  over.  Thisifthmus  forms,  with  the  northern 
and  fouthern  continents,  a  vafl  gulph,  in  which  lie  a 
great  number  of  illands,  called  the  Wejl-hirftes,  in 
contradillini,^ion  to  the  caflern  parts  of  Alia,  which 
are  called  the  EaJ)- Indies. 

**  Next  to  the  extent  of  the  New- World,  the  gran- 
Grand  ob-  dcur  of  the  objcrts  w  hich  it  prefents  to  view,  is  mod 
jcdswhith  apt  to  llrike  the  eye  of  an  obfcrvcr.     Nature  feems 
America     \-icre  to  have  carried  on  her  operations  upon  a  larger 
prtfcms  to  fcaieand  wiih  a  bolder  hand,  and  to  havediiUnguilhed 
*"'"''^         the  features  of  this  country  by  a  peculiar  magnificence. 
The  mountainsof  America  are  much  fuperior  in  height 
to  thofe  in  the  other  divifions  of  the  globe.     Even  ihc 
plain  of  Qiiiio,  whiehmay  be  confideredas  the  bafe  of 
the  Andes,  is  elevated  fanhcr  above  the  fea  than  the 
top  of  the  Pyrenees."  The  moil  elevated  point  of  the 
Andes,  according  to  Don  Ulloa,   is  twenty  thoufand, 
two  hundred,  and  eighty  feet,  which  is,atleafl,  fcven 
thoufand,  one  hundred,  and  two  feet  above  the  Peak  of 
Tcneriffc,  which  is  the  highcllknow-n  mountain  in  iht 
ancient  continent.     (See  the  article  Andes.) 
Its  riven  From  the  lofty  and  cxtcndve  mountains  of  America 

defcend  rivers  with  which  the  llrcams  of  Europe,  of 
Afia,  or  of  Africa,  are  not  to  be  compared,  cither  for 
length  of  courfe,  or  for  the  vafl  volumes  of  water  which 
they  pour  into  the  oceans.  The  Danube,  the  Indus, 
the  Ganges,  or  the  Nile,  in  the  ancient  Hemifphere, 
are  not  of  equal  magnitude  with  the  St  Laurence,  the 
Miirourijor  the  Millilfipi'i,  in  North-America  ;  or  with 
the  Maragnon,  the  Orinoco,  or  the  Plata,  in  South- 
America.  The  rivers  in  the  latter  of  thefc  American 
continents  are  like  vaft  arms  of  the  fea.  (See  the  ar- 
5  tides  St  Laurence,  Missouri,  &c.  f.c.) 
Its  lakes.  "  The  lakes  of  the  New- World  are  no  lefs  confpi- 
cuous  for  grandeur  than  its  mountains  and  rivers. There 
is  nothing  in  other  parts  of  the  globe  which  rcfcmbles 
the  prodigious  chain  of  lakes  in  North-America.  They 
may  be  properly  termed  inland  feas  of  frefh  water ; 
and  even  thofe  of  the  fecond  or  third  clafs  of  magni- 
tude, are  of  a  largcrcireuit  (theCafpianfca  excepted) 
than  the  greateft  lake  of  the  ancient  continent."  (Sec 
the  articlesSuPERioR,  Huron,  Erie,  &c.) 
The  luxuriance  of  the  vegetable  ercation  in  the  New- 


Its  moun- 
taius. 


World  is  cxircr.icly  grear.  In  the  fouthern  provinces, 
whcie  the  n.oidure  of  tlic  tJimate  is  aided  by  the 
warmth  of  the  fwi,  the  woods  arc  almoll  impervious, 
and  the  furfaee  of  the  groirud  is  bid  from  the  eye,  un- 
der a  thick  covering  ot  ilirubs,  o^  herbs,  and  weeds. 
In  the  northern  provinces  althoni^h  the  foreftsarenot 
fi'.ciimbcied  with  the  fame  wild  luxuriance  of  vegeta- 
tion, the  trees  of  vaiious  fpccics  are  generally  more 
lofty,  and  ol'ten  much  larger,  than  are  to  be  fecu  in 
any  other  parts  of  the  world. 

One  of  the  moft  remarkable  circuniftances,  or  fea- 
tures, of  tile  New- World,  is  the  general  ])redonii- 
nancc  of  cold,  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  this 
great  continent.  Though  we  camiot,  in  any  country, 
determine  the  prccife  degree  of  heat  merely  by  the 
diltancc  of  the  equator,  becaufc  the  elevation  above  the 
fea,  the  nature  of  the  foil,  &c.  all  atf'rft  the  climate  ; 
yet,  in  the  Ancient  Continent,  the  heat  is  much  more 
in  proportion  to  the  vicinity  to  the  equator  than  in  any 
part  of  America.  Here  the  rigour  of  the  frigid  zone 
extends  over  half  that  which  Ihould  be  temperate  by 
its  polition.  Even  in  thofe  latitudes  where  the  winter 
is  fcarccly  felt  in  the  Old-Continent,  it  reigns  with 
great  fcverity  in  America,  though  during  a  lliort  peri- 
od. Nor  docs  this  cold,  prevalent  in  the  New-World, 
confine  itfelf  to  the  temperate  zones;  but  extends  its 
influence  to  the  torrid  zone  alfo,  confiderably  mitiga- 
ting the  excefs  of  its  heat — Akng  the  eallern  coaft, 
the  climate,  tho'  more  firailar  to  that  of  the  torrid 
zone  in  other  parts  of  the  earth,  is  ncverthelcfs  con- 
fiderably milder  than  in  thofe  countries  of  Aiia  and 
Africa  which  lie  in  the  fame  latitude.  From  the  fouth- 
ern tropic  to  (he  extremity  of  the  American  continent, 
the  cold  is  faid  to  be  much  greater  than  in  parallel 
northern  latitudes  even  of  America  itfelf. 

For  th  is  fo  remarkable  difference  between  the  climate 
of  the  New-Continent  and  the  old,  variouscaufcs  have 
been  afligned  by  different  authors.  'I  he  following  is 
the  opinion  of  the  celebrated  DrRobertfonon  this  fub- 
jecl.  "  Though  the  utmofl  extent  of  America  to- 
wards the  north  be  not  yet  difcovercd,  we  know  that 
it  advances  nearer  to  the  pole  than  either  Europe  or 
Afia.  The  latter  have  large  feas  to  the  norih,  which 
are  open  during  part  of  the  year  ;  and  even  when  co- 
vered with  ice,  the  wind  that  blows  over  them  is  lefs 
intenfely  cold  than  that  wiiich  blows  over  land  in  the 
fame  latitudes.  But,  in  America,  the  land  llretches 
from  the  river  St  Laurence  towards  the  pole,  and 
fpreads  out  immcnfely  to  the  well.  A  chain  of  enor- 
mous mountains,  covered  with  fnow  and  ice,  runs  thro' 
all  this  dreary  region.  The  wind  palling  over  fuch  an 
extent  of  high  and  frozen  land,  becomes  fo  impregna- 
ted with  cold,  that  it  acquires  a  piercing  kcenefs, which 
it  retains  in  its  progrefs  through  warmer  climates  ;  and 
is  not  entirely  mitigated  until  it  reach  the  gulpli  of 
Mexico.  Over  all  the  continent  of  North-America,  a 
north- wcfterly  wind  and  exceffive  cold  are  fynonymous 
terms.  Even  in  the  moll  fultry  w  eather,  the  moment 
that  the  wind  veers  to  that  quarter,  its  penetrating  in- 
fluence is  felt  in  a  iranlition  from  heat  to  cold  no  lefs 
violent  than  fuddcn.  To  this  poweriul  caiifc  we  may 
afcribe  the  extraordinary  dominion  of  cold,  and  its  vi- 
olent inroads  into  the  fouthern  provinces  in  thai  part 
of  the  globe. 

'< Other caufes,nolefs remarkable,  dimiiiilhthe  ac- 
tive 


.America. 

7 
Itscxcidlvc 
luxurianci: 

of  VcgCU- 

tion. 


S 

Remarka- 
ble preva- 
lence of 
cold  ill 
America. 


Dr  Robert- 
fon's  rea- 
fons  for  this 
fuperior 
degree  of 
cold. 
Hijlory  of 
A  met  /V*7, 
vol.11. p.IO. 
II,  12,,   & 
JJ- 


A  M  E 


[     539     J 


A  M  E 


America,  live  power  of  4icat  in  thofc  parts  of  the  American  con- 
' '  tineiit  which  lie  between  the  tropics.  In  all  that  por- 
tion of  the  globe,  the  u  ind  blosvs  in  an  invariable  di- 
redion  from  eall  to  well.  As  this  wind  holds  its  courfe 
acrofs  the  ancient  continent,  it  arrives  at  the  countries 
which  Ib'ttch  along  the  weftern  Ihore  of  Africa,  infla- 
med with  all  the  ricry  particles  which  it  hath  coUedcd 
from  the  fultry  pLins  of  Afia,  and  the  burning  fands 
ill  the  African  defarts.  The  coaft  of  Africa  is,  accord- 
ingly, the  region  of  the  earth  which  feels  the  moft  fer- 


from  St  Antonia  fouthwards,  and  from  the  bay  of  St    Americi. 

Julian  to  the  llraits  of  Magellan  its  dinicafwns  arc  much   ^^— ' 

contracted.  On  the  eaft  and  weft  fides,  it  is  walhed 
by  the  Atlantic  and  Paciiic  oceani.  From  its  fouth- 
crn  point,  it  is  probable  that  a  great  extent  of  fca, 
without  any  confidcrable  trad  of  lajid,  readies  to 
the  Antarctic  pole.  In  whichever  of  thefe  dire  j-lioiis 
the  wind  blows,  it  is  cooled  before  it  approaches  the 
Magellanic  regioiis,  by  pafling  overa  valt  body  of  wa- 
ter ;  nor  is  tiic  land  there  of  fjch  extent,  that  it  can 


vent  heat,  and  is  cxpofed  to  the  unmitigated  ardour  of     recover  any  confidcrable  degree  of  heat  in  its  progrcfs 


the  torrid  zone.  But  this  fame  wind,  \\  hich  brings  fuch 
an  acceflion  of  warmth  to  the  countries  lying  between 
the  river  of  Senegal  and  Cafraria,  traverfcs  the  Allan- 
tic  Ocean,  before  it  reaches  the  American  ihorc.  It  is 
cooled  in  its  palfagcover  this  vaft  body  of  water  ;  and  is 
felt  as  a  rcfrefhing  gale  along  the  coalts  of  Bralil  and 
Guiana,  rendering  thefe  coujitrics,  though  among  the 
warmcll  in  America,  temperate,  when  compared  with 
thofc  which  lis  oppofite  to  thcui  in  Africa.  As  this 
wind  advances  in  its  courfe  acrofs  America,  it  meets 
with  ininienfe  plains,  covered  with  impenetrable  fo- 
relis ;  or  occupied  by  large  rivers,  marlhes,  and  ftagna- 
ting  waters,  where  it  can  recover  no  conliJcrab'e  de- 
gree of  heat.  At  length  it  arrives  it  the  Andes,  which 
run  from  north  to  fouth  through  the  whole  continent. 
In  pafling  over  their  elevated  and  rrozen  fummilsit  is 
fo  thoroughly  cooled,  that  the  greater  part  of  the  coun- 
tries beyond  them  hardly  feel  the  ardour  to  which  they 
Ceeui  expofcd  by  their  lituation.  In  the  other  provin- 
ces of  America,  from  Tierra-Kernie  wtftward  to  the 
Mexican  empire,  the  heat  of  the  climate  is  tempered 
ia  fome  places,  by  the  elevation  of  the  land  above  the 
fea  ;  in  others,  by  their  extraordinary  humidity  ;  and 
in  all,  by  the  enormous  mountains  fcattered  over  this 
trad.  The  iilands  of  America  in  the  I'orrid  Zone  are 
either  fmall or  mountainous,  and  are  fanned  alteriiate- 
ly  by  refrelhing  fca  and  land  breeze^. 

"  The  caufesof  the  extraordinary  cold  towards  the 
fouthern  limits  of  America,  ana  in  the  fcas  beyond  it, 
cannot  beafccrtained  in  a  manner  equally  latisfying.  It 
was  long  fuppofcd,  that  a  vaft  continent,  dillinguilhtd 
by  the  name  of  Tirra  Aiijlrjl:s  Incognita,  lay  betsvecn 
the  fouthern  extremity  of  America  and  the  Antarctic 
pole.  The  fame  principles  which  account  for  the  ex- 
traordinary degree  of  cold  in  the  northern  regions  of 
America, were  employed  in  order  tocxplain  that  w  hich 
is  felt  at  Cape-Horn  and  the  adjacent  countries.  The 
im'iienfc  extent  ofthe  fouthern  continent, and  the  large 
rivers  which  it  poured  into  the  ocean,  were  mentioned 
and  admitted  by  philofophcrs  as  caufes  fufficicnt  to  oc- 
calion  the  unufual  fcnfation  of  cold,  and  the  fti.l  more 
uncommon  appearances  of  frozen  feas  in  that  region 
of  the  globe.  But  the  imaginary  continent  to  which 
fuch  intlucnce  was  afcribed  having  been  fcarchedforin 
vain,  and  ihr  fpacc  which  it  was  fippofcd  tooccupy  ha- 
ving been  found  to  be  an  open  fea;  new  conjectures 
niuft  be  formed  with  rcfpe -t  to  the  caufcs  of  a  tempe- 
rature of  cliniAe,  i'^  extremely  different  from  that 
which  we  experience  in  countries  removed  at  the  fame 
dillance  from  the  oppofne  pole. 
/<('rf.p.4i4,  "  The  moft  obvious  and  pro!)ablc  caufe  of  the  fu- 
A'-'i  neitVl.  pcrior  degree  of  cold  towards  the  Ibuihcrn  extremity 
of  America,  feems  to  be  the  form  of  the  continent 
there,     lis  breadth  gradually  dccrcafes  as  it  ftrctchcs 


trcnie 


over  it.  Thefe  circumftanccs  concur  in  rendering  the 
temperature  ot  the  air  in  thisdiftrict  of  America,  more 
fimilar  to  that  of  an  infular,  than  to  that  of  a  continen- 
tal climate  ;  and  hinder  it  from  acquiring  the  fame  de- 
gree of  fumn\cr-heat,  with  places  in  Europe  and  Afia, 
in  a  Qorrcfponding  northern  latitude.  The  north  wind 
is  the  only  one  that  reaches  this  part  of  America,  after 
blowing  over  a  great  continent.  But,  from  an  atten- 
tive furvcy  of  its  pofition,  this  will  be  found  to  have  a 
tendency  rather  to  diminifti  than  augment  the  degree 
of  heat.  The  fouthern  extremity  of  America  is  pro- 
perly the  termination  of  the  iramenferiJge  of  the  .An- 
des, which  ftrctches  nearly  in  a  direct  line  from  north 
to  fouth  through  the  whole  extent  of  the  continent. 
The  moft  fultry  regions  in  South  America,  Guiana, 
Bralil,  Paraguay,  and  Fucuman,  lie  many  degrees  to 
the  eaft  of  the  Magellanic  regions.  The  level  coun- 
try of  Peru,  which  enjoys  the  tropical  heats,  isfituatcd 
conlidcrably  to  the  well  of  them.  The'north  wind, 
then,  though  it  blows  over  land,  docs  not  bring  to  the 
fouthern  cxireir.ity  of  America  an  increafe  of  heat 
collected  in  its  palFagc  over  torrid  regions  ;  but  be- 
fore it  arrives  tl-.erc  it  muft  h^vc  fwcpt  along  the  fum- 
mitsof  theAndes,aBdcoiDes  impregnated  witb;hc  cold 
of  that  frozen  region." 

Another  peculiarity  in  the  climate  of  America  is  its  ,-xtr 
exceifive  moifture  in  general.   In  fome  places,  indeed,  moKlure  of 
on  the  weftern  coaft,   rain  is  not  known  ;   but,  in  all  'he  .imeri- 
other  parts,  the  moiftncfs  of  the  climate  is  as  remark-  ^^°  chroite 
able  as  the  cold. — The  forefts  wherewith  is  it  is  every 
where  covered,  no  doubt,  partly,  occalion  the  moif- 
ture of  its  climate  ;  but  the  moft  prevalent  and  obvi- 
ous caufc  is  the  vaft  quantity  of  water  in  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  Oceans,  with  which  America  is  environed 
on  all  fides.    Hence,  thofe  places  where  the  continent 
is  narrowcft  are  deluged  with  alnioft  perpetual  rains, 
accompanied  with  violent  thunder  and  lightning,  by 
which  fome  ot  (hem,  particula:  ly  Porto-bcUo,  are  rpn- 
dcrcd  in  a  manner  uninhabitable.  , 

From  the  coldncfs  and  the  moifture  of  America,  an  ^r^IleI„•t. 
extreme  malignity  ofc'imatc  has  been  inferrid.  and  af-  of  -Imuie 
fcrted  by  M.  de  Pauw  in  his  Rtchirch^s  Philof.fktqua  uujuJy  »- 
fur  lei  Aiiicricahis.     Hence,  according  to  the  hypothe-  '^^fOed  to 
lis  of  this  author,  the  fmallncfs  and  irregularity  of  the  '^""=^'"* 
nobler  animals,  and  the  fize  and  enormous  multiplica- 
tion of  reptiles  2nd  infects. 

But  the  fuppofcd  fmallnefs  and  Ids  ferocity  of  the  fj.3.^  ,f 
American  animals,  the  .Abbe  Cl.;vigero  obfcrvcs,  in-  M.-xi'n, 
fteadof  (he  malignity,  dcmonftratei  the  mildnefs  and  vol.  II. 
bounty  of  the  clime,  if  we  give  credit  to  Bulfon,  at  P-  *ii"- 
whofe  fountain  M.  de  Pauw  has  drank,  and  of  whofc 
lertimony  he  has  availed  himfclfagainfl  Don  Pcruetty. 
Buffon,  who  in  many  places  of  his  Natural  Hiilory 
produces  (he  Giiallnefs  of  the  American  aniuials  as  a 
?  Y  J  certain. 


A  M  E 


t     540     ] 


A  M  E 


Airfiicii.  certain  avgnmciu  otilio  nialigiiuy  of  the  cliiinue  of  A- 
^ — ^ —  inerita  ;  in  treating  afterwards  of  favagc  animals,  in 
Tom.  II.  ij'Caks  thus  :  "  As  all  things,  even  the  moll 
irce  creatures,  arcfubjci^  to  natural  laws,  and  animals 
as  well  as  men  arc  fiibjeiiltd  to  the  influence  of  climate 
and  foil,  it  appears  that  the  fame  caufcs  which  have 
civilized  and  jiolillic  J  the  human  I  pecics  in  our  climates, 
may  have  likewifc  produced  limilar  ertcds  upon  other 
fpecics.  The  wolf,  which  is  perhaps  the  tierccfl  of  all 
the  quadrupeds  of  the  temperate  zone,  is  however  in- 
comparably lefs  terrible  than  the  tyger,  the  lion,  and 
the  panther  of  the  torrid  zone  ;  and  the  white  bear  and 
hyena  of  i\\c  frigid  zone.  In  America,  where  the  air 
and  the  earth  are  more  mild  than  thofe  of  Africa,  the 
tyger,  tlie  lion,  and  the  panther,  are  not  terrible  but  in 
the  name.  They  have  degenerated,  if  tierccnefs,  join- 
ed to  cruelty,  nude  their  nature  ;  or,  to  fpeak  more 
properly,  they  have  only  futfered  the  influence  of  the 
climate  :  under  a  milder  (ky  their  natnre  alfo  has  be- 
come more  mild.  Krom  climes  which  are  immoderate 
in  their  temperature  arc  obtained  drugs,  perfumes,  poi- 
fons,  and  all  thofe  plants  whole  qualities  are  llrong. 
The  temperate  earth,  on  the  contrary,  produces  only 
things  which  are  temperate  ;  thcmildell  herbs, the  moil 
■wliolefome  piilfe,  the  fweeteft  fruits,  the  mofl  quiet 
animals,  and  the  moll  humane  men,  are  the  natives  of 
this  happy  clime.  As  the  earth  makes  the  plants,  the 
earth  and  plants  make  animals  ;  the  earth,  the  plants, 
and  the  animals  make  man.  The  phylical  qualities  of 
man,  and  the  animals  which  feed  on  other  animals,  de- 
pend, though  more  remotely,  on  the  fame  caufcs  wliich 
influence  their  difpolltions  and  culloms.  This  is  the 
greaielt  proof  and  demonftration,  that  in  temperate 
climes  every  things  becor.ics  temperate,  and  that  in  in- 
temperate climes  every  thing  isexcellive  ;  and  thatiize 
and  form,  which  appear  ahixed  and  determinate  quali- 
ties, depend  noiwithllauiJiug,  like  the  relative  quali- 
ties, on  the  influence  of  climate.  The  fize  of  our 
quadrupeds  cannot  be  compared  with  that  of  an  ele- 
phant, the  rhinoceros,  or  fea-horfe.  The  largell  of 
our  birds  are  but  fm.ill  if  compared  with  the  ollrich, 
the  cor.dore,  and  cafnan."  So  far  M.  Burton,  whofe 
text  we  have  copied,  becaufe  it  is  contrary  to  what 
M.  dcPa\iw  writes  againll  the  climate  of  America,  and 
to  Biifton  himfclf  in  many  other  places. 

"  Ifthelarge  and  herce  animals,  fays  Clavigero,  are 
nntivesof  intemperate  climes,  and  fmall  and  tranquil 
animals  of  temperate  climes,  as  M.  Buffon  has  here 
cftabliflied  ;  if  mildnefs  of  climate  influences  the  dif- 
pofition  and  culloms  of  animals,  M.  dc  Pauw  does  not 
well  deduce  the  malignity  of  the  climate  of  America 
from  the  finallcr  fize  and  lefs  fierccnefsof  its  animals  ; 
he  ought  railicr  to  have  deduced  the  gcntlenefs  and 
fweetncfs  of  its  climate  from  this  antecedent.  If,  on 
the  contrary,  the  fmaller  lizcandlefs  fierccnefs  ofthe 
American  animals,  with  rcfpeft  to  thofe  of  the  old 
continent,  are  a  proof  of  their  degeneracy ,  arifing  from 
the  malignity  of  the  clime,  as  M.  de  Pauw  would  have 
it,  we  ought  in  like  manner  to  argue  the  malignity  of 
the  climate  of  Europe  from  the  fmailer  fize  and  lefs 
fierccnefsof  its  animals, com  pared  with  thofe  of  Africa. 
If  a  philofopher  of  the  country  of  Guinea  fliould  under- 
take a  work  in  imitation  of  !\!.  de  Pauw,  with  this  title, 
Rechcrchei  Philcfophiijuesfiir  Ui  Europsetu,  he  might 
avail  himfelf  of  the  fame  argument  which  M.  dc  Pauw 


nfes,  todcmonrtratc  the  malignity  of  tlie  climate  of  Eu-  America. 
rope,  and  the  advantagcsof  that  of  Africa.  The  cli-  ^— v— ' 
mate  of  Europe  he  would  fay,  is  very  unfavourable  to 
the  production  of  quadrupcdk,  which  are  found  incom- 
parably fmaller,  and  more  cowardly  than  ours.  What 
are  the  horfe  and  the  ox,  the  largefl  of  its  animals, 
compared  with  our  elephants, our  rhinocerofes,our  fea- 
horlcs,  and  our  camels  ?  What  are  its  lizards,  cither  in 
fize  or  intrepidity,  compared  with  our  crocodiles  .'  Its 
wolves,  its  bears,  the  moll  dreadful  of  its  « ild  hearts, 
when  beiidc  our  lions  and  tigers  .'  Its  eagles,  its  vul- 
tures, and  cranes,  if  compared  with  our  ollricbcs,  ap- 
pear only  like  hens.  g 

As  to  the  enormous  fize  and  prodigious  mtiltiplica-  America 
tion  of  the  infefls  and  other  little  noxious  animals, "The  not  more 
furface  of  the  earth  (fays  M.  de  Pauw),  infeilcd  by  'nf<-''^f<' 
putrefaClion,  wasovcr-run  with  lizards,  ferpcnts,  rep-  "'""o'""'. 
tiles,  and  inicdls  monflrous  for  fize,  and  the  aftivity  of  „itji infeai 
their  poifon,  which  they  drew  from  the  copious  juices  andnoaioui 
of  this  uncultivated  foil,  that  was  corrupted  and  aban-  animali. 
doned  toitfelf,  where  thenutritivejuicebecamcfharp, 
like  the  milk  in  the  bread  of  animals  which  do  not 
cxercifc  the  virtue  of  propagation.  Caterpillars,  crabs, 
butterflies,  beetles,  fpidcrs,  frogs,  and  toads,  were  for 
the  mofl  part  of  an  enomious  corpulence  in  their  fpe- 
cies,  and  multiplied  beyond  what  can  be  imagined. 
•Panama  is  infelled  with  ferpents,  Carthagena  with 
clouds  of  enormous  bats,  Porto-bello  with  toads,  Suri- 
nam with  kakerlacas  or  cucarachaj,  Gaudaloupe,  and 
the  other  colonies  of  the  illands,  with  beetles,  Quito 
with  niguas  or  chegoes,  and  Limawith  lice  and  bugs. 
The  ancient  kings  of  Mexico,  and  the  emperors  of 
Peru,  found  no  other  means  of  ridding  their  fubjcdls 
of  thofe  infcdls  which  fed  upon  them,  than  the  impo- 
fition  of  an  annual  tribute  of  a  certain  quantity  oflice. 
Ferdinand  Cortes  found  bags  full  of  them  in  the  palace 
of  Montezuma."  But  this  argument,  exaggerated  as 
it  is,  proves  nothing  againfl  the  climate  of  Ame- 
rica in  general,  much  lefs  againft  that  of  Mexico. 
There  being  fome  lands  in  America,  in  which,  on  ac- 
count of  their  heat,  their  huinidity,  or  want  of  inhabi- 
tants, large  infeds  are  found,  and  exceilively  nmlti- 
plied,  will  prove  at  mofl,  that  in  fome  places  the  fur- 
face  of  the  earth  is  infc6led,  as  he  fays,  with  putrefac- 
tion ;  but  not  that  the  foil  of  Mexico,  or  that  of  all 
America,  isflinking,  uncultivated,  vitiated,  and  aban- 
doned to  itfelf.  If  fuch  a  deduftion  were  jufl,  M.  de 
Pauw  might  alfo  fay,  that  the  foil  of  the  old  continent 
is  barren  and  fetid  ;  as  in  many  countries  of  it  there 
are  prodigious  multitudes  of  monflrous  infers,  noxious 
reptiles,  and  vile  animals,  as  in  the  Philippine  Ifles,  in 
many  of  thofe  of  the  Indian  archipelago,  in  feveral 
countries  of  the  fouth  of  Alia,  in  many  of  Africa,  and 
eveuinfomeof  Europe.  The  Philippine  Ifles  are  in- 
felled  with  enomious  ants  and  monflrous  butterflies  ; 
Japan  with  fcorpions  ;  South  of  Afia  and  Africa  with 
ferpcnts  ;  Egypt  with  afps  ;  Guinea  and  Ethiopia  with 
armies  of  ants  ;  Holland  with  field-rats  ;  Ukrania  with 
toads,  as  M.  de  Pauw  himfelf  affirms.  In  Italy,  the 
Campagna  di  Roma  (although  peopled  for  fo  many  a- 
ges),is  infefled  with  vipers  ;  Calabria  witli  tarantulas  ; 
the  Ihores  of  the  Adriatic  fea  with  clouds  of  gnats  ; 
and  even  in  France,  the  population  of  which  is  fo  great 
and  fo  ancient,  whofe  lands  arc  fo  well  cultivated,  and 
whofe  climate  is  lo  celebrated  by  the  French,  there  ap- 
peared, 


A  M  E 


[     54'      ] 


A  M  L 


America,   pcarcd,  a  few  years  ago,  according  to  M.  Bufibn,  a 

* * '  new  fpccies  of  ficld-niicc,  larger  than  the  common 

kind,  called  by  him  Sunnuloti,  which  have  multiplied 
exceedingly,  to  the  great  damage  of  the  fields.  M. 
Bazin,  in  his  Compendium  of  the  Hiflory  of  Infcds, 
numbers  77  fpecics  of  bugs,  whicli  are  all  found  in  Pa- 
ris and  in  its  neighbourhood.  That  large  capital, as  Mr 
Bomarc  fays,  fwarms  with  thofe  difgultful  infcfts.  It 
is  true  that  there  are  places  in  America,  where  the 
multitude  of  infefts,  and  filthy  vermin,  make  life  irk- 
fome  ;  but  we  do  not  know  that  they  have  arrived  to 
fuch  excefs  of  multiplication  as  to  depopulate  any 
flacc,  at  Icaft  there  cannot  be  fo  many  examples  pro- 
duced of  this  caufe  of  depopulation  in  the  new  as  in 
the  old  continent,  which  arcattefted  by  'Iheophraftus, 
Varro,  Pliny,  and  other  authors.  The  frogs  depo- 
pulated one  place  in  Gaul,  and  the  locufls  another  in 
Africa.  One  of  the  Cyclades  was  depopulated  by 
mice  ;  Amiclas,  near  to  Taracina,  by  fcrpcnts ;  ano- 
ther place,  near  to  Ethiopia,  by  fcorpions  and  poifon- 
ous  ants ;  and  another  by  fcolopendras  ;  and  not  fo  di(- 
tant  from  our  own  times,  the  Mauritius  was  going  to 
have  been  abandoned  on  account  of  the  extraordinary 
multiplication  of  rats,  as  we  can  remember  to  have  read 
in  a  Fench  author. 

With  refped  to  the  fize  of  the  infefts,  reptiles,  and 
fuch  animals,  M.  de  Pauw  makes  ufe  of  the  teftimony 
of  M.  Dumont,  who,  in  his  Memoirs  on  Louiliana, 
fays,  that  the  frogs  are  fo  large  there  that  they  weigh  3  7 
F'rench  pounds,  and  that  their  horrid  croaking  imitates 
the  bellowing  of  cows.  But  M.  de  Pauw  himfelf  fays 
(inhis  anfwer  to  Don  Pernetty,cap.  17.),  thatallthofe 
who  have  written  about  Louiliana  from  Henepin,  Le 
Clcrc,  and  Tonti,  to  Dumont,  have  contradiifled 
each  other,  fometimes  on  one  and  fometimcs  on  ano- 
ther fubjeft.  In  faft,  neither  in  the  old  or  the  new 
continent  are  there  frogs  of  37  pounds  in  weight  (fee 
the  article  Ran  a);  but  there  arc  in  Afia  and  in  Africa 
ferpents,  butterflies,  ants,  and  other  animals  of  fuch 
Bionftrous  fize,  that  they  exceed  all  iliofe  which  have 
been  difcovered  in  the  New-World.  We  know  very 
well,  that  an  American  hiftorianfays,  that  a  certain 
gigantic  fpccies  of  ferpents  is  to  be  found  in  the  woods, 
which  attraifb  men  with  their  breath, and  fwallowthem 
up  ;  but  we  know  alfo  thatfeveral  hiftorians,  both  an- 
cient and  modern,  report  the  fame  extravagant  and  in- 
credible thing  of  the  ferpents  of  Afia,  and  even  fome- 
thing  more.  Megafthenes,  cited  by  Pliny,  faid,  that 
there  were  ferpents  found  in  Afia,  fo  large,  that  they 
fwallowcd  entire  flags  and  bulls.  Mctrodorus,  cited  by 
the  fame  author,  affirms,  that  in  Afia  there  were  fer- 
pents which,  by  their  breath,  atiraiflcd  birds,  however 
high  they  were  or  quick  their  fii>;ht.  Among  the 
moderns,  Gcmelli,  in  Vol. V.  oi\i\^  Giro  del Mundo, 
when  he  treats  of  the  animals  of  the  Philipine  illts, 
fpeaksthus:  "There  are  ferpents  in  thcfei  Hands  of  im- 
moderate fize  ;  there  isone  called  Ibint'w,  very  lono;, 
which  fufpending  itftlf  by  the  tail  from  the  trunk  of  a 
tree,  waits  till  Aags,  bears, and  alfo  men  pals  by, in  or- 
der to  attraiSl  them  with  its  breath,  and  devour  them 
at  once  entirely  :"  from  whence  it  is  cvidcni,  that  this 
very  ancient  fable  has  been  common  to  both  continents. 
Further,  it  may  be  aiked.  In  what  country  of  Ame- 
rica could  M.  de  Pauw  find  ants  to  equal  thofe  of  the 
Philippinc-illands  called  5«/»w;,rcfpe<fiing  which  Her- 


nandez aflirms, that  they  are  fix  fingers  broad  in  length   .An  rr.cj. 

and  one  in  breadth  .'   Who  has  ever  fecn  in  Auiciica  " ' 

butlcrriies  fo  large  as  thofe  of  Bourbon,  Ternaic,  the 
Phiiippine-illes,  and  all  the  Indiin-archiptlago  ?  The 
largcli  bat  of  America  (naiivc  10  hot  fliady  countries), 
which  is  that  called  by  iiulfun  Wavifirij,  is,  according 
to  him  of  the  fizc  ofa  pigeon.  La  Jioitgnte,  one  of  ihc 
fpccies  of  Alia,  is  as  large  as  a  raven  ;  and  the  Rwf.lte, 
another  fpecics  of  Afia,  is  as  big  as  a  large  hen.  Its 
wings,  when  extended,  nieafure  from  tip  to  tip  three 
Parilian  feet,  and  according  to  Gcmelli,  who  meafured 
it  in  the  Philippine-illes,  fix  pslms.  M.  Kuffon  ac- 
knowledges the  excefs  in  fize  of  the  Aliatic  bat  over 
the  American  fpccies,  but  denies  it  as  to  number. 
Geinelli  fays,  that  thofe  of  the  illandof  Luzon  were  fo 
numerous  that  they  darkened  the  air,  and  that  the  noife 
which  they  made  with  their  teeth,  in  eating  the  fruits 
of  the  woods,  was  heard  at  the  diftanceof  two  miles. 
M.  de  Pauw  fays,  in  talking  of  ferpents,  "  it  cannot  be 
affirmed  that  the  new  world  has  ihown  any  ferpents 
larger  than  thofe  which  Mr  Adanfon  fawinthcdeferis 
of  Africa."  The  greatcftfcrpent  found  in  Mexico,  af- 
ter a  diligent  fearch  made  by  Hernandez,  was  18  feet 
long  :  but  this  is  not  to  be  compared  with  that  of  the 
Moluccas,  which  Bomare  fays  is  33  feet  in  length  ; 
nor  with  ihc  Anacandaja  of  Ceylon,  which  the  fame 
author  fays  is  more  than  3  3  feet  longjnor  with  others  of 
Alia  and  Africa,  mentioned  by  the  fame  author.  Lart- 
ly,  the  argument  drawn  from  the  multitude  and  lizc 
of  the  American  infccls  is  fully  as  weighty  as  the  ar- 
gument drawn  from  the  fmallnefs  and  fcarcity  of 
quadrupeds,  and  both  deted  the  fame  ignorance,  or 
rather  the  fame  voluntary  and  ftudied  forgetfulnefs, 
of  the  things  of  the  old  continent. 

With  refpedtowhatM.de  Pauw,  has  faid  of  the  tri- 
bute of  lice  in  Mexico,  in  that  as  well  as  many  other 
things  he  difcovers  his  ridiculous  credulity.  It  is  true 
that  Cortes  found  bags  of  lice  in  the  magazines  of  the 
palace  of  king  Axajacatl.  It  is  alfo  true,  that  Mon- 
tezuma impofed  fuch  a  tribute,  not  on  all  his  fubjeds 
however,  but  only  on  thofe  who  were  beggars  ;  not  on 
account  of  the  extraordinary  multitude  of  thofe  in- 
feds,  as  M.  de  Pauw  affirms,  but  bccaufe  Montezuma, 
who  could  not  futfer  idlenefs  in  hii  fubjcds,  refolved 
that  that  miferable  fet  of  people,  who  could  not  la- 
bour, (hould  atleaft  be  occupied  inloulingthcmfelvcs. 
This  was  the  true  reafon  of  fuch  an  extraordinary  tri- 
bute,as  Torquemada,Betancourt,  andotherearly  hifto- 
rians  relate  ;  and  nobody  ever  before  thought  of  that 
which  M.  de  Pauw  affirms,  merely  hecanfc  it  fuited  his 
prcpofterous  fyftem.  Thofe  difgufiing  infcdspoflibly 
abound  as  much  in  the  hair  and  cloaihs  of  American 
beggars,  as  of  any  poor  and  uncleanly  low  people  in 
the  world  :  but  there  is  not  a  doubt,  that  if  any  fove- 
rcign  of  Europe  was  to  exad  fiich  a  tribute  from  the 
poor  in  his  dominions,  not  only  bags,  but  great  velFtls 
might  be  filled  with  them.  „ 

It  isnowtime  to  tumour  attention  to  the  /Itorigiiifs,  Gcocnt>'.e- 
or  natives,  of  the  New-Wo'ld.  At  the  time  when  this  fcription  of 
great  continent  was  made  more  generally  known  to  the  '*"=  nativet. 
Europeans  by  the  difcoveriesol  Chriftophcr  Columbus, 
and nf  the  illullrious  navigators  who  imbibed  the  fpirit 
and  cnthuliafm  of  that  great  man,  it  was  found  inha- 
bited by  various  tribes  and  nations  of  men,  who  dif- 
fered, in  many  refpeds,  from  moft  of  the  people  in  the 

three 


A  M  E 


[     542     ] 


A  M  E 


Aimriia.  three  Other  quarters  of  the  world,  lu  their  phylkal 
' •'~~  hillory,  however,  the^'reatcrt  peculiarity  in  tlic  Ame- 
ricans is  their  complexion,  and  the  litlic  ditt'ercncc 
whicli  is  obferved,  in  this  rcfped,  throughout  llic 
wliole  extent  of  the  American  continent.  In  turopc, 
and  in  Afu,  the  people  whoiuhabit  the  northern  coun- 
tries arc  of  u  fail  cr  complexion  tlian  thofe  who  dwell 
more  to  the  foutliward.  In  the  torrid  zone,  both  in 
Africa  and  Ali.i,  the  natives  are  entirely  black,  or  the 
next  thing  to  it.  This,  however,  mull  be  undcrflood 
with  fomc  limitation.  The  people  oi'  Lapland,  w  ho 
inhabit  the  moll  northerly  part  of  Europe,  are  by  no 
incans  fo  fair  as  the  iuliabiiantsof  Britain  ;  nor  are  tiie 
Tartars  fo  fair  as  the  inhabitantsof  Europe,  who  lie 
under  the  fame  parallels  of  latitude.  Neverthelefs,  a 
Laplander  is  fair  wlieu  compared  with  an  Abyliinian, 
and  a  Tartar  if  compared  with  a  native  of  the  Moluc- 
ca illands. — In  America,  this  dillindionof  colour  was 
not  fo  dilliutHly,  r,nd  fo  prominently,  marked.  In  the 
torrid  zone  there  were  no  negroes,  and  in  the  tempe- 
rate and  frigid  /.ones  there  were  no  white  people.  Moll 
of  them  were  of  a  kind  of  red  copper-colour,  which  Mr 
Korller  obferved,  in  the  Pelierais  of  Tierra  del  Kuego, 
to  have  fomcthing  ofaglofs  rcfembling  that  metal.  It 
does  not  appear,  however,  that  thismatter  has,  hither- 
to been  inquired  into  with  fufticient  accuracy.  I  he 
inhabitants  of  the  inland  partsof  South  America,  where 
that  continent  is  widell,  and  confequently  the  in- 
fluence of  the  fun  mod  powerful,  have  never  been 
accurately  compared  with  thofe  of  Canada,  or  more 
northerly  parts,  at  leafl  as  far  as  we  know.  Yet  this 
ought  to  have  been  done,  and  that  in  many  inllances 
too,  before  it  could  be  ad'erted  fo  pofitively  as  moll  au- 
thors do,  that  thive  is  not  the  I-Jiiji  difference  of  complex- 
ion atno'ig  the  natives  of  Ajiierica.  Indeed,  fo  many  fy- 
flems  have  been  formed  concerning  thefe  fingular  peo- 
ple, that  it  is  very  difficult  to  obtain  a  true  know- 
ledge of  the  moft  iimple  facls,  even  from  the  bed 
and  mod  unprejudiced  writers. — If  we  may  believe  tlic 
Abbe  Raynal  the  Califnruians  are  fwarthier  than  the 
Mexicans  ;  and  fo  poliiiveis  he  in  this  opinion,  that  he 
gives  a  rcafon  for  it.  "  Thisdiffercnce  of  colour,"  fays 
he,  "  proves,  that  thccivili/.ed  life  of  fociety  fubvcrts, 
or  totally  changes,  the  order  and  laws  of  nature,  fiuce 
we  find,  uuderthe  temperate  zone,  a  favage  people  that 
are  blacker  tlian  the  civilized  nations  of  the  torrid 
zone." — On  the  other  hand,  Dr  Robcrti'on  clalfes  all 
the  inhabitants  of  Spanilh  America  together  with  re- 
gard to  colour,  whether  they  are  civilized  or  uncivili- 
zed ;  and  when  he  fpeaks  ot  California,  takes  no  notice 
of  any  peculiarity  in  their  colour  more  than  others. — 
The  general  appearance  of  the  indigenous  .Americans 
in  various  dillriflsis  thus  defcribed  by  the  clievalier 
Pinto  :  "  They  are  all  of  a  copper  colour,  with  fome  di- 
verlity  of  fiiade,  not  in  proportion  totheir  dillance  from 
the  Equator,  but  according  to  the  degree  of  elevation 
ofthc  territory  in  which  ihey  rcfide.  Tliofc  wholive  in 
a  high  country  arc  fairer  than  ihofe  in  themarlhy  low 
lands  on  the  eoafl.  Their  face  is  round  ;  farther  re- 
moved, perhaps,  than  that  of  any  people,  from  an  oval 
Ihapc.  Their  fore-head  is  fmail  ;  the  extremity  of  their 
ears  far  from  the  face  ;  their  lips  thick  ;  their  nofe  rtat ; 
their  eyes  black,  or  of  a  chefnut  colour,  fmall,  but  ca- 
pable of  difcerningobjcdls  at  a  great  dillance.    Their 


hair  is  always  thick  and  lleek,  and  without  sny  ten- 
dency to  curl.  At  the  (iril  afped,  a  South-American 
appears  to  be  mild  and  innocent ;  but,  on  a  more  at- 
tentive view,  one  difcovers  in  his  countenance  fomc- 
thing wild,  dillrullful,  and  fullen." 

The  following  account  of  the  native  Americans  is 
given  by  Don  Antonio  Ulloa,  in  his  late  work  entitled 
Meiiioiiei  phtlofuphiquti,  hijloriqties,  et  phyjigues,  con- 
cernitnt  la  decoiiverte  de  I'  Aminque. 

The  American  Indians  arc  naturally  of  a  colour  bor- 
dering upon  red.  Their  frequent  cxpofure  to  the  fun 
and  wind  changes  it  to  ihiirordinary  dufky  hue.  The 
temperature  of  the  air  appears  to  have  little  or  no  in- 
fluence in  tiiis  refpcct.  J'here  is  no  perceptible  diffe- 
rence in  complexion  between  the  inhabitants  ofthc 
high  and  thofe  of  the  low  parts  of  Peru  ;  yet  the  cli- 
mates are  of  an  extreme  dilt'crencc.  Nay,  the  Indians 
who  live  as  far  as  40  degrees  and  upwards  fouth  or 
north  of  the  equator,  are  not  to  be  diftinguiflied,  in 
point  t)f  colour,  from  thofe  immediately  under  it. 

There  is  alio  a  general  con  formation  of  features  and 
perfou,  whicli,  more  or  lefs,  charafterizcth  them  all. 
Their  chief  dillinClions  in  thefe  refpedtsare  a  fmall  fore- 
head, partly  covered  with  hair  to  the  eye-brows,  little 
eyes,  the  nofe  thin,  pointed,  and  bent  towards  the  up- 
per lip  ;  abroad  face,  large  ears,  black,  thick,  and  lauk 
hair;  the  legs  well  formed,  the  feet  fmall,  the  body 
thick  and  mufcular;  little  or  no  beard  on  the  face,  and 
that  little  never  extending  beyond  a  fmall  part  ofthc 
chin  and  upper  lip.  It  may  eafily  be  fuppofed  that  this 
general  defcription  cannot  apply,  in  all  its  parts,  to  e- 
very  individual  ;  but  all  of  them  partake  fo  much  of  it, 
that  they  may  be  eafily  diflinguillicd  even  from  the  mu- 
lattoes,  who  come  ncarell  to  the  11  in  point  of  colour. 

The  refemblance  among  all  the  .*.nierican  tribes  is 
not  lefs  remarkable  in  rel'pcCl  totheir  genius,  charac- 
ter, manners,  and  particular  culloms.  The  mod  dif- 
tant  tribes  are,  in  thcle  refpefts,  as  fimilar  as  thoagli 
they  formed  but  one  nation. 

All  the  Indian  lutions  have  a  peculiar  pleafure  in 
pain  ting  their  bodies  of  a  red  colour,  with  a  certain  fpe- 
cies  of  earth.  The  mine  of  Guancavelica  was  former- 
ly of  no  other  ufe  than  to  fupply  them  with  this  ma- 
terial for  dyeing  their  bodies  ;  and  the  cinnabar  cx- 
traelcd  from  it  was  applied  entirely  to  this  purpofe. 
The  tribes  in  Louiliana  and  Canada  have  the  iamc 
pallion  ;  hence  minium  is  the  commodity  moAiu  de- 
mand there. 

It  may,  perhaps,  fcem  fingular  that  thefe  nations, 
whofe  natural  colour  is  red,  fliould  affed  the  fame  co- 
lour as  an  artificial  ornament.  But  it  may  be  obferved, 
that  they  do  nothing  in  this  rcfpcdl  but  what  corref- 
pondstofhe  pradice  of  Europeans,  who  alfodudy  to 
heighten  and  difplay  to  advantage  the  natural  red  and 
white  of  their  complexions.  The  Indians  of  Peru  have 
now  indeed  abandoned  the  cudom  of  painting  their  bo- 
dies :  but  it  was  commoi!  among  them  before  they  were 
conquered  b/ the  Spaniards  ;  and  it  dill  remains  the 
cudom  of  all  thofe  tribes  who  have  preferved  their  li- 
berty. The  northern  nations  of  America,  belides  the 
red  colour  which  is  predoniinant,  employ  alfo  black, 
white,  blue,  and  green,  in  pjinliiig  their  bodies. 

The  adjuduient  of  tiiefc  colours  is  a  matter  of  as 
great  conlidcration  with  the  Indians  of  Louiliana  and 

the 


America.. 


14 

DonUUoa'i 


71 

Peculiari- 
ties ill  re- 
gard to  or- 
iiamciit 
and  drcfs. 


A  M   E 


[     5^3     ] 


A  M  E 


ilie  vail  regions  extending  to  the  north,  as  ihc  orna- 
ments of  dicfs  among  the  rnofl  polillicJ  iiatior.s.  Tli^ 
buliiicrsitfelf  they  call  Maflnher,  and  they  do  not  fsil 
to  apply  all  their  talents  and  allidiiily  to  accompjlli  it 
in  the  molt  iiiiilhed  nianticr.  No  lady  of  the  grcated 
falhiotievcr  confiilttd  her  mirror  with  more  anxiety, 
than  the  Indians  do  while  paintinj;  their  bodiis.  The 
colours  are  applied  w  ith  the  iitmoll  accuracy  and  ad- 
drefs.  Upon  the  eye-lids,  precifely  at  the  root  of  tlic 
cye-lafl-.es,  they  draw  two  lines  as  fine  as  tiie  fniallcft 
thread;  the  fame  upon  thelips,  the  openings  of  tlie  no- 
Ilrils,  thecyc-brows,  and  the  ears  ;  of  which  lad  tlicy 
even  follow  all  the  inflexions  and  fintiolitics.  As  to  ill e 
reft  of  the  face,  they  dillribute  various  figures,  in  all 
which  the  red  predominates,  and  the  other  colours  are 
alfortcd  fo  as  to  throw  it  out  to  the  bell  advantage. 
The  neck  alfo  receives  its  proper  ornaments  ;  a  thick 
coat  of  vermilion  commonly  dirtinguilhes  the  cheeks. 
Five  or  lixhoursare  requilite  foraccomplilhingall  this 
with  the  nicety  which  they  aifct'l.  As  their  Hrft 
attempts  do  not  always  fucceed  to  their  \vi(h,  they 
efface  them,  and  begin  a-new  upon  a  better  plan. 
No  coquette  is  more  faftidious  in  her  choice  of  orna- 
ment, none  more  vain  when  the  important  adjuftment 
isfiniflted.  Their  delight  and  felf-fatisfadion  are  then 
fo  great,  that  the  mirror  is  hardly  ever  laid  down. 
Aninilian,  Madahcd,  to  his  mind,  is  the  vaineflof  all 
the  human  fpecies.  The  other  parts  of  the  body  arc 
left  in  their  natural  flate,and,  excepting  what  is  called 
a  cachecul,  they  go  entirely  naked. 

Such  of  them  as  have  made  themfelves  eminent  for 
bravery, or  other  qualifications, are  diilinguilhed  by  fi- 
gures painted  on  their  bodies.  They  introduce  the 
colours  by  making  punftures  on  (heir  fkin,  and  the  ex- 
tent of  furface  which  this  ornament  covers  is  propor- 
tioned to  the  exploits  they  have  performed.  Some 
paint  only  their  arms,  others  both  their  arms  and  legs  ; 
others  again  their  thighs,  while  thofewho  have  attain- 
ed the  fummit  of  warlike  renown,  have  their  bodies 
painted  from  the  waifl  upwards.  This  is  the  heraldry 
of  the  Indians  ;  thedevicesof  which  are  probibly  more 
exaJlly  adjufted  to  the  merits  of  the  perfons  who  bear 
them,  than  thofe  of  more  civilized  countries. 

Belides  thefe  ornaments,  the  warriors  alfo  carry 
pUnnesoffeathersontheirheads,theirarms,and  ancles. 
Thefe  likewife  are  tokens  of  valour,  and  none  but  fuch 
as  have  been  thus  diftinguiflied  may  wear  then-. 

The  propenfity  to  indolence  is  equal  among  all  the 
tribes  oflndians,  civilized  or  favage.  The  only  em- 
ployment of  thofe  who  have  preferved  their  indepeii- 
<1cnce  is  hunting  and  fiiliing.  In  fome  diflricls  the 
women  exercife  a  little  agriculture,  in  railing  Indian 
corn  and  pompions,  of  which  they  form  a  fpecies  of 
aliment,  by  bruiling  them  together  :  they  alfo  prepare 
the  ordinary  beverage  in  ufcamongthem,  takingcare, 
at  the  fame  time,  of  the  children,  of  whom  the  fathers 
lake  no  charge. 

The  female  Indians  of  all  the  conquered  regions  of 
South  America  practice  what  is  called  the  urcu  (a  word 
which  among  them  lignilics  elevation').  It  conlills  in 
throwing  forward  the  hair  from  the  crown  ol  the  head 
upon  the  brow,  and  cutting  it  round  from  the  cars  to 
above  the  eye  ;  fo  that  the  )t)rehead  and  eye-brows  are 
entirely  covered.  The  fame  cuftom  takes  place  in  the 
Northern  countries. The  female  inhabitants  of  both  re- 

2 


gions  tic  the  reft  of  their  hair  behind,  fo  cxafily  in  the    Ameri.-j. 

lame  falliion,  that  it  might  be   fuppoftd  the  tttccl  of  ' ^ ' 

mutual imitatiun.  Thiahowcvtrbcingimpoiriblc,  from 
the  vaft  diftance  that  fcparates  ihem,  is  thought  1 1 
countenance  the  f.ippoiition  c.f  the  whole  of  America 
being  originally  planted  with  one  race  of  people. 

This  cviiioni  does  not  take  place  a.nong  tlie  males. 
Thofe  of  the  higher  parts  of  Peru  wear  long  and  tlow- 
inghair,  which  they  reckon  a  great  ornament.  Inihc 
lower  parts  of  the  (amc  country  they  cut  it  (hort,  on 
account  of  the  heat  of  the  clima:c  ;  a  circumftancc  in 
whicli  they  imitate  the  Spaniards.  The  inhabitants  of 
Louiliana  pluck  out  their  hair  by  the  root,  from  the 
crown  of  the  head  forwards,  in  order  to  obtain  a  large 
forehead,  otherwife  denied  them  by  nature.  The  relt 
of  their  hair  they  cut  as  fiiort  as  pollible,  to  prevent 
their  enemies  from  feizing  them  by  it  in  battle,  and 
alio  to  prevent  them  from  ealily  getting  their  fcalp, 
Ihould  they  fall  into  their  hands  as  prifoncrs.  16 

According  to  Don  U  Uoa,  the  w  hole  race  of  the  Ame-  R'n'^rk- 
rican  Indians  is  diilinguilhed  by  an  uncommon  thick- *'''^/'Jr 
nefs  of  Ikin,  and  by  an  hardnefs  of  their  fibres  ;  cir-  [^ "'ji'^''^ 
cumftances  thefe,  which  in  the  opinion  of  this  learned 
Spanifli  writer,  contribute  to  that  infcnfibility  to  bodily 
pain  for  which  thefe  fingular  people  are  fo  remarka- 
ble. Our  author  adduces  an  inltancc  in  fupport  of  this 
infenlibility,  in  the  Americans,  in  the  cafe  of  an  In- 
dian who  was  under  thenccellity  of  fubmitting  to  becnt 
for  the  Hone.  This  operation,  it  is  well  known,  fcldoin 
lafls  above  four  or  five  minutes.  Unfavourable  cir- 
cumftanccs,  in  his  cafe,  prolonged  it  to  the  uncommon 
period  of  27  minutes.  Yet,  all  this  time,  the  patient 
gave  no  tokens  of  the  extreme  pain,  commonly  attend- 
ing this  operation  :  he  complained  only  as  a  pcrfondncs 
who  feels  fomc  flight  uneafinefs.  At  laftthe  ftonewas 
extracted.  Two  days  after  he  exprclfed  a  dcilre  for 
food,  and  on  the  eighth  day  from  the  operation  he 
quitted  his  bed,  free  from  pain,  although  the  wound 
was  not  yet  thoroughly  clofcd.  The  fame  want  of 
fenlibility,  he  fays,  is  obferved  in  cafes  of  fractures, 
wounds,  and  other  accidents  of  a  (imilar  nature.  In  all 
thefe  cafes  their  cure  is  ealily  cffeticd,  and  they  feem 
to  fuffer  lefs  prefent  pain  than  any  other  race  of  men. 
The  fkuUs  which  have  been  taken  up  i  n  their  ancient  bu- 
ry ing-grounds  are  of  a  greater  thicknefs  than  that  corn- 
pages  of  bones  is  commmonly  found  to  be  ;  being  from 
lix  to  fe  ven  lines  from  the  outer  to  the  inner  fupcrticies.        1 7 

It  is  natural  to  infer  from  hence,  faysUlloa,  that  Andtothe 
their  comparative  infenlibility  to  pain  is  owing  to  a 'ndcmen- 
coarfer  and  ftronger  organiz4iion,  than  that  of  other  ''"°f*<^*" 
nations.  The  cafe  with  which  they  endure  the  feve- 
ritics  of  climate  is,  bethinks,  another  proof  of  this. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  higher  parts  of  Peru  live  amidll 
perpetual  froll  and  fnow.  Although  their  clothing  is 
very  flight,  tliey  fupport  this  iuclement  temperature, 
without  the  leafl  inconvenience.  Habit,  it  is  to  be 
confclicd,  m;!y  contribute  a  good  deal  to  this,  but  much 
alio  is  to  be  afcribed  to  the  compact  texture  of  their  (kin, 
which  defends!  hem  from  the  imprclTion  of  cold  through 
their  pores.  We  mutl  confefs,  however,  notwithlland- 
ing  the  aficiiioiisand  conjectures  of  an  author  fo  re- 
fpe^able  as  Don  Ulloa,  that  we  3 re  not  very  confident, 
that  cither  the  (kins,  or  the  IkuUs  of  the  Americans 
are  thicker  than  thefkius  and  IkuUsof  many  other  na- 
tions of  mankind.     But  we  do  not  w  ilh,  in  this  place, 

to 


A  M  E 


[     544 


A  M  E 


AmfTica.    to  espati.tte  on  this  fubjeft,  which  can  only  be  redu- 

' '  ceii  to  certainty  by  the  iavcftigitious  of  the  anatomiA, 

or  iiamrjlill. 

The  northern  Indians  refcmblc  them  in  thisrefpeft. 
The  utmoll  rigoursofthr  winter  feafon  do  not  prevent 
thera  from  following  the  chacc  almoft  naked.  It  is 
true,  they  wear  a  kind  of  woolen  cloak,  or  fomciinics 
the  Iktn  of  a  wild  bead,  upon  tlicir  ihoulders  ;  but  be- 
fides  th.1t  it  covers  only  a  finall  part  of  their  body,  it 
woiild  iippcar  that  they  ul'e  it  rather  for  ornament  than 
warrath.  In  fact,  they  wear  it  iadilcriminatrly,  in 
the  fcverities  of  winter  and  in  tlic  fiiltricll  heats  of 
fiininicr,  w  lien  neither  Europeans  nor  Negroes  canfnf- 
fcr  any  but  the  (ligluell  cloathing.  They  even  fre- 
quently ihrow  aliiic  this  cloak  svhcn  they  go  a-hunt- 
iag,that  it  may  not  cmbarrafs  them  in  travcrling  their 
forclls,  wlicre  they  fay  the  thorns  and  undergrowth 
would  take  hold  of  it ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  they 
ilide  fu'.ojthly  over  the  furface  of  their  naked  bodies. 
At  all  times  they  go  with  their  heads  uncovered,  with- 
out futfcriug  the  leaft  inconvenience,  cither  from  the 
cold,  or  from  thofc  coups  difoltti,  which  in  Louilian.i 
are  fo  often  fatal  to  the  inhabitants  of  other  climates. 

The  Indians  of  South  America  dillinguilh  them- 
fclves  by  modern  dreffes,  in  which  they  atlett  various 
taftes.  Thofc  of  tiie  high  country,  and  of  the  valleys 
in  Peru,  drefs  partly  in  the  Spanilh  fafliion.  Inflead 
of  hats  they  wear  bonnets  of  coarfe  double  cloth,  the 
weight  of  which  neither  fecms  to  incommode  them 
when  they  go  to  warmer  climates,  nor  docs  the  acci- 
dental want  of  them  feem  to  be  felt  in  fituations  where 
the  mod  piercing  cold  reigns.  Their  legs  and  feet  are 
always  bare,  if  wc  except  a  fort  of  fandals  made  of  the 
fkins  of  oxen.  The  inhabitants  of  South  America, 
compared  with  thofe  of  North  America,  arc  defcribed 
as  generally  more  feeble  in  their  frame  i  lefs  vigorous 
in  the  efforts  of  their  mind  ;  of  gentler  difpolitions 
more  addicted  to  plcafure,  and  funk  in  indolence. — 
This,  however,  is  not  univcrfally  the  cafe.  Many  of 
ig  their  nations  are  as  intrepid  and  cnterprifing  as  any 
Terrible  others  on  the  whole  continent.  Among  the  tribes  on 
trials  un-  the  banks  of  the  Oronooko,  it  a  warrior  afpires  to  the 
'^"^"^^  f^  port  of  captain,  his  probation  begins  with  a  long  faft, 
ihcirchicfs.  j^^^j  r\g\A  than  any  ever  obferved  by  the  inoft  abfte- 
mious  hermit.  At  the  clofe  of  this  the  chiefs  af- 
fcmble  ;  and  each  gives  him  three  lathes  with  a  large 
whip,  applied  fo  vigoroully,  that  his  body  is  almoll 
Hayed.  If  he  betrays  the  lead  fymptom  of  impatience, 
orevenof  fenlibility,  he  isdifgraced  forever,  aiad  is  re- 
jeded  as  unworthy  of  i\c  honour.  After  fomc  inter- 
val, his  condancy  is  proved  by  a  more  excruciating 
trial.  He  is  laid  in  his  hammock  with  his  hands  bound 
fad;  and  an  innumerable  multitude  of  venomous  ants, 
whofe  bite  occafions  a  violent  pain  and  inflammation, 
are  thrown  upon  him.  The  judges  of  his  merit  dand 
around  the  hammock;  and  whild  thefe  cruel  infedls 
faden  upon  the  modfenfible  parts  of  his  body,  a  figh, 
a  groan,  or  an  involuntary  motion  exprcflive  of  what 
he  fuffcrs,  would  exclude  him  from  the  dignity  of 
which  he  is  ambitious.  Even  after  this  evidence,  his 
fortitude  is  not  deemed  to  be  fufficiently  afceriained, 
till  he  has  ftood  another  ted  more  fevere,  if  poffible, 
than  the  former.  He  is  again  fufpended  in  his  ham- 
mock,and  covered  with  the  leaves  of  the  palmetto.  A 
fire  of  ftiaking  herbs  is  kindled  underneath,  fo  as  he 

3 


may  feel  its  heat,  and  be  involved  in  fmokc.  Though 
fcorched  and  almoft  fnffocated,  he  mull  coniinnc  tu 
endure  this  with  the  fame  patient  infenlibility.  Many 
pcrilh  in  this  clfay  of  their  Hrmnefs  and  courage  ;  but 
fuch  as  go  through  it  with  applaufe,  receive  the  cnligus 
of  their  new  dignity  \vith  much  loleninity,and  arc  ever 
after  regarded  as  leaders  of  approved  rclolution,whofc 
behaviour,  in  the  mod  trying  fituations, will  do  honour 
to  their  country.  In  North  America  the  previous 
trial  of  a  warrior  is  neitlier  fo  formal  nor  fo  fevere  : 
Though,  even  there,  before  a  youth  is  permitted  to 
bear  arms,  his  patience  and  fortitude  are  proved  by 
blows,  by  lire,  and  by  infults,  more  intolerable  to  a 
haughty  fpirit  than  cither. 

Ot  the  manners  and  cudoms  of  the  North  Ameri- 
cans more  j'articularly,  the  following  is  the  mod  con- 
fident account  that  can  be  coUeftcd  from  the  bed  in- 
formed and  mod  impartial  writers. 

When  the  Europeans  tird  arrived  in  America, they 
found  the  Indians  quite  naked,  except  thofe  parts 
which  even  the  mod  uncultivated  people  ufually  con- 
ceal. Since  that  time,  however,  they  generally  ufe  a 
coarfe  blanket,  which  they  buy  of  the  neighbouring 
planters. 

Their  huts  or  cabbins  are  made  of  dakes  of  wood 
driven  into  the  ground,  and  covered  with  branches  of 
trees  or  reeds.  They  lie  on  the  door  cither  on  mats 
or  thelkins  of  wild-bcalf  s.  Their  dilhes  are  of  timber, 
but  their  fpoons  are  made  of  the  Ikulls  of  wild  oxen; 
and  their  knives  of  flint.  A  kettle  and  a  large  plate 
conditute  almod  the  whole  utcnlils  of  the  family. 
Their  diet  confids  chiefly  in  what  they  procure  by 
hunting  ;  and  fagamite,  or  pottage,  is  likewife  one 
of  their  mod  common  kinds  of  food.  The  mod  ho- 
nourable furniture  amongd  them  is  a  coUedlion  of  the 
fcalps  of  their  enemies  ;  with  thofe  they  ornament 
their  huts,  which  are  edeemed  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  this  fort  of  fpoils. 

The  charaderof  the  Indians  is  altogether  founded 
upon  their  circumdances  and  way  of  life.  A  people 
who  arc  condantly  employed  in  procuring  the  means 
of  a  precarious  fubfidcnce,  who  live  by  hunting  the 
wild  animals,  and  who  are  generally  engaged  in  war 
with  their  neighbours,  cannot  be  fuppofed  to  enjoy 
much  gaiety  of  temper,  or  a  high  flow  of  fpirits.  The 
Indians  therefore  are  in  general  grave  even  to  fadnefs ; 
they  have  nothing  of  that  giddy  vivacity  peculiar  to 
fome  nations  of  Europe,  and  they  dcfpife  it.  Their 
behaviour  to  thofe  about  them  is  regular,  moded,  and 
reipedful.  Ignorant  of  the  arts  of  amufement,  of 
which  thatof  faying  trifles  agreeably  is  one  of  the  mod 
confldcrable,  they  fcldom  fpeak  but  when  they  have 
fomething  important  to  obferve  ;  and  all  their  actions, 
words,  and  even  looks,  art  attended  with  fome  mean- 
ing. Thisisextremely  natural  to  men  who  arcalmofl 
continually  engaged  in  purfuits,  which  to  them  arc  of 
the  higheli  importance.  Their  fublidence  depends  en- 
tirely on  what  they  procure  with  their  hands  ;  and 
their  lives,  their  honour,  and  every  thingdear  to  them, 
may  be  loll  by  the  fmalled  inattention  to  the  deligns 
of  their  enemies.  As  they  have  no  particular  objed 
to  attach  them  to  one  place  rather  than  another,  they 
go  wherever  they  expedl  tofind  the  neccllaries  of  life 
in  greated  abundance.  Cities,  which  are  the  effefls  of 
agriculture  and  arts,  they  have  none.     The  different 

tribes 


AmericB. 


'9 
Cuftoms 
and  difpo- 
litions of 
the  North- 
Amcricaui, 
more  parti- 
cularly. 


20 
Their  re' 
markable 
penfiTcnefe 
and  taci- 
turnity. 


A  M  E 


[    545     ] 


A  M  E 


America-   tribes  or  nations,  are,  for  the  fame  reafon,  extremely     dances  too,  though,  like  thofc  of  the  Greeks  and  Ro-   AiMrica- 

^^ — V '  linaH,  when  compared  wiih  civi.izcj  locietics,    in     mans,  they  are  chiedy  of  the  military  kind  j  and  their  ' — ^ 

which  indullry,  arts,  agriculture,  and  commerce,  have     mulic  and  dancing  accompany  every  fcafl.  j. 

united  a  vail  number  ot  individuals,  whom  a  compli-  To  affifl  their  memory,  they  have  belts  of  fmall  Wampuia 

Cited  luxury  renders  nfeful  to  one  another.     Thcfe     IhcUs,  or  beads,  of  ditfcrcnt  colours,  each  reprefentiug  or  b«ki. 
fraalltriocs  livcatanimmenfe  diilance  ;  they  are  fepa-     a  particular  object,  which  is  marked  by  their  colour 
rated  by  a  defcrt  frontier,  and  hid  in  the  bolom  of     and  arrangement.    At  the  conclulion  of  every  fubjcd 
impenetrable  and  almoll  boundlcfs  forells.  on  which  they  difcourfc,  when  they  treat  with  a  fo- 

1  here  is  eftablilhid  in  each  fociety  a  certain  fpecics     reign  Uatc,  they  deliver  one  of  tbofc  belts  ;  for  ifthij 

ceremony  ihould  be  omitted,  all  that  they  have  faid 
pauses  for  nothing.  Thofe  bciti  are  carefully  dcpofit- 
cd  in  each  town,  as  the  public  records  of  the  nation; 


Torni  of 
guvcrn- 
ir.tnt  3- 
(Qoiig  them 


ofgovernment.which  prevails  over  the  whole  continent 
of  America,  with  exceeding  little  variation  ;  becaufe 
over  the  whole  of  this  continent  the  niaunersanJ  way 


of  life  are  nearly  finiiUr  and  uniform.   Without  arts,  and  to  them  they  occafioually  have  recourfe,  when  any 

riches,  or  luxury,  the  great  inftrumentsof  fubjcction  public  coniell  happens  with  a  neighbouring  tribe.    Of 

in  poliihtd  focicties,  an  American  has  no  method  by  l.ite,  as  the  materials  of  which  thofe  belts  arc  made, 

which  he  can  render  himfelf  coniidcrable  among  his  h.ive  become  fcarce,  they  often  give  fomc  (kin  in  place 

companions,  but  by  fuperiority  in  pcrfonal  qualities  of  of  the  wampum  (the  nims  of  the  beads),  and  receive 

body  or  mind.   But,  as  nature  has  not  been  very  Uviih  in  return  prefcnis  of  a  more  valuable  kind  from  the 


in  hcrperfonal  didindions,  where  all  enjoy  the  fame 
education,  all  are  pretty  much  upon  an  equality,  and 
will  dcfirc  to  remaiu  lb.  Liberty, therefore, is  the  pre- 
vailing palFion  of  the  Americans;  and  their  govern- 
ment,under  the  in  riicnce  of  this  fen  timent, is,  per  haps, 
better  fecured  tiian  by  the  wifefl  political  regulations. 
They  arc  very  far,  however,  from  defpiling  all  fort  of 
authority;  they  are  attentive  to  tlie  voice  of  wifdora, 
which  experience  h  is  conferred  on  theaged,  and  they 
cnlilhindcr  I  he  bannersof  the  chief  in  whofe  valour  and 
militiry  addrefsthey  have  learned  torepolc  ajull  and 
merited  confidence.  In  every  fociety,  therefore,  there 
istobcconfidered  the  power  of  the  chiefs  and  of  the  el- 
ders. Among  thcfe  tribes  whicii  are  moll  engaged  in 
war, the  powerof  the  chief  is,  naturally,  predominant; 
becaufe  the  idea  of  havijig  a  military  leader  was  the 
firll  fource  of  his  fuperiority,  nd  the  continual  exi- 
gencies of  the  Hate  rcq  tiring  fu'.h  a  leader,  will  con- 
tinue to  fupport,  and  even  to  enhance  it.  His  power, 
however,  is  rather  perfualive  th^n  coerc;vc  ;  he  is  re- 
verenced as  a  father,  rather  than  feared  as  a  monarch. 
He  has  no  guards,  no  prifons,  no  officers  of  judice,  and 
one  act  of  ill-judged  vielence  would  puilhinifrom  his 
humble  throne.  The  elders  in  the  other  form  of  go- 
vernme;u  which  may  bcconfidered  as  a  w;/rfand  ;/«v/f- 
itiij  arillocracy,  have  no  more  power.  In  mofl 
countries,  therefore,  age  alone  is  fufficient  f-)r  ac- 
quiring refpecl,  influence,  and  authority.  It  is  age 
which  teaches  experience,  and  experience  is  the  only 
fouroe  of  knowl'dge  among  a  barbarous  people.  A- 
niong  thofe  pcrfons  bufinels  is  conducted  with  the  ut- 


»4 

Their  p.ili 
lie  alTcm- 
t>li». 


commiirioacrs  ;  for  they  never  coniider  a  treaty  as  of 
any  weight,  unltfs  every  article  in  it  be  raiidcd  hj 
fucb  a  graiilncaiion. 

It  often  happens,  that  thofe  different  tribes  or  nati- 
ons, fcattered  as  they  arc,  at  an  imnienfc  diilance  from 
pne  another,  meet  i  i  their  excurlions  aft  r  prey.  If 
there  fublilis  no  aiiimolity  between  them,  which  fel- 
dom  is  the  cafe,  they  behave  in  the  mod  friendly  antJ 
courteous  manner  ;  but  if  tliey  happen  t»  be  in  a  (late  of 
war,  or  if  there  has  been  no  previous  intercourfe  be- 
tween them,  all  who  are  not  friends  are  deemed  ene- 
mies, and  they  fight  with  the  mn;l  favage  fury.  J4 

If  we  except  huntingandtilliing,  war  is  the  princi-  Thewwanj 
pal  employment  ofthe  Indian  men  ralmofl  every  other 
concern, but  in  particular  the  little  agriculture  which 
tlieyenjuy.isconligned  to  the  women.  The  moll  com- 
mon motive  of  the  Americans  for  entering  into  war, 
when  it  does  not  arifc  from  an  accidental  reiicounter,or 
interference,  is  either  to  revenge  themfelvcs  for  the 
death  of  forac  loft  friends,  or  to  acquire  priforvers,  who 
mayaffifltiiem  in  their  hunting,  and  whom  they  adopt 
into  their  fociety.  Thcfe  wars  arc  cither  undertaken  by 
fomc  private  advenmrers,  or  at  the  inllance  of  the 
whole  community.     In  the  latter  cafe,  ail  the  yonng 
men  who  arc  difpofed  to  go  out  to  battle  (for  no  one  is 
compelled  contrary  to  his  inclination),  give  i  bit  of 
wood  to  the  cliicf,  as  a  token  of  their  defigu  to  ac- 
company him  ;  for  every  thing  among  thefe  people  is 
tranfadcd  with  a  great  deal  of  ceremony  ai.d  with  many        jj 
forms.   The  chief  %vho  is  to  conduft  them  falls  fcvc-  Cersmo- 
ral  days,  during  which  he  converfcs  with  no  one,  and  "i"  before 


nioft  limplicity,  and  which  may  recal  to  thofe  who  arc     is  particularly  careful  to  obfervc  his  dreams;  vrhrch  the  f^tusgo", 


acquainted  witlt  antiq'iity,a  piclure  of  the  moll  early 
ages.  The  heads  of  families  mecttoojethcr  in  ahoufc 
or  cabin  appointed  for  the  purpofe.  Here  the  bufinefs 
is  ("ifculled  ;  and  here  thofe  of  the  nation,  diftingnifh- 
cd  for  their  eloquence  or  wifdom,  have  anopportuni- 


prcfuinption  natural  to  favagcs  generally  renders  as  fa- 
vourable as  he  could  delirc.  A  variety  of  other  fupcr- 
ftitions  and  ceremonies  are  obferved.  One  of  the  raoft 
hideous  is  fctting  the  wir-kettle  on  the  tire,  as  an  em- 
blem that  they  are  going  out  todevtHir  their  enemies; 


ty  of  difplaying  thofc  talents.  Their  orators,  like  thofe  which,  amongthcfenatiorts.itis  probable,  was  former- 
of  Homer, exprcfsthemfclves  in  a  bold  figurative  (tyle,  ly  the  cafe,  lincc  they  fiill  continue  to  esprtfsit  in 
ftronger  than  refined,  or  rather  foi"tened,  nations  can     clear  terms,  and  ufc  an  emblem  ligniiiciitt  nf  the  an 


■wellbicar,  and  with  gcfl.ires  equally  violent,  but  often 
extremely  natural  and  cxpret5ve.  When  the  bufinefs 
is  over,  and  thty  happen  to  be  well  provided  with 
food,  they  appoiiua  fcall  upon  thcoccalion,  of  which 
3i;no.t  the  whole  tMiioo  partakes.  The  fcaft  is  accom- 
panied with  a  fong,  in  which  the  real  or  fabulous  ex- 
jiloits  of  their  forefathers  are  celebrated.  They  have 
Vol.  I. 


cicnt  ufage.  Then  they  dilpatch  i  porcelaae,  or  large 
(hell,  to  their  allies,  inviting  them  to  come  along,  «ud 
drink  the  blood  of  their  enemies,  for  with  the  Ame- 
ricans, as  with  the  Greeks  of  old, 

"  A  generous  friendfliip  no  co'.d  meJium  Jciiovrs  ; 
"  But  with  cue  love,  wuh  onerffcntmcntji  glows." 

32  They 


A  M  E 


[     546    1 


A  M  E 


Ain«ka.  They  think  that  ihofe  in  their  alliance  muft  not  only 
^— ^—  adopt  their  enmities,  but  that  they  mull  alfo  have  their 
rclciiiment  woand  iiptotheUmeiiitchwiih  thcmfdves. 
Anti,  indeed,  no  people  cairy  their  frieiidlhips  or  their 
refentmcnts  lb  far  as  they  do  ;  and  this  is  what  ihoiilJ 
be  cxpeded  from  their  peculiar  circiimllances  :  that 
])rinciplc  in  human  nature  which  is  ihc  fpring  of  the 
I'ociul  artetHons,  arts  with  fo  much  the  greater  force 
the  more  it  is  rcllraincd.  Tlie  Americans,  who  live 
in  fmall  fociclies,  who  fee  few  objeCls  and  few  perfons, 
become  wonderfully  attached  to  ihofe  olijecls  and  per- 
fons, and  cannot  be  deprived  of  them  wiiiiout  feeling 
thenifelvts  mil'erable.  Their  ideas  arc  too  confined 
to  enable  them  to  entertain  jull  ftntiments  of  hu- 
manity, or  univerfal  benevolence.  But  this  very 
circumllancc,  while  it  makes  them  cruel  and  lavage 
CO  an  incredible  degree,  towards  thofe  with  whom 
they  arc  at  war,  adds  a  new  force  to  their  particular 
friendlhips,  and  to  the  common  tie  which  unites  the 
members  of  the  fame  tribe,  or  of  thofe  difterent  tribes 
which  are  in  alliance  with  one  another.  M'ithout 
attending  to  this  reflcftion,  fonie  facls  we  are  going 
to  relate  would  excite  our  wonder  without  informing 
our  reafon,  and  we  would  be  bewildered  in  a  num- 
ber of  particulars,  feeniingly  oppolite  to  one  another, 
without  being  fenfible  of  the  general  caufe  from  which 
they  proceed. 

Having  finilTied  all  the  ceremonies  previous  to  the 
war,  and  the  day  appointed  for  their  fctling  out  on 
the  expedition  being  arrrivcd,  they  take  leave  of  their 
friends,  and  exchange  their  clothes,  or  whatever  mo- 
veables they  have,  in  token  of  mutual  fricndlhip  ;  after 
which  they  proceed  from  the  town,  tlieir  wives  and 
female  relations  walking  before,  and  attending  them 
10  fomc  dillance.  The  warriors  march  all  drell'cd  in 
iheirfincll  apparel  and  moft  Ihovvy  ornaments,  without 
any  order.  The  chief  walksllowly  before  them,  fnig- 
iug  the  war-fbng,  while  the  rell  obferve  the  moft  pro- 
found filcncc.  When  they  come  up  to  their  women, 
they  deliver  them  all  their  tine  ry,  and  putting  on  their 
worft  clothes,  pro-.eed  on  their  expedition. 

Every  nation  has  its  peculiar  enfigh  or  flandard, 
which  is  generally  a  reprcfentation  of  fome  beall, 
bird,  or  filh.  Thofe  among  the  Five  Nations  are 
the  bear,  otter,  wolf,  tortoifc,  and  eagle  ;  and  by 
thofe  names  the  tribes  arc  ufually  diflinguillied. 
They  have  the  figures  of  thofe  animals  pricked 
and  painted  on  fevcral  parts  of  their  bodies  ;  and 
when  they  march  through  the  woods,  they  com- 
monly, at  every  encampment,  cut  the  reprcfenta- 
tion of  their  enfign  on  trees,  efpecially  after  a  fue- 
cefsful  campaign  :  marking  at  the  iame  time  the 
number  of  fcalps  orprifoners  they  have  taken.  Their 
military  drefs  is  extremely  fingular.  They  cut  olf  or 
pull  out  all  their  hair,  except  a  fpot  about  the  breadth 
■of  two  EnPjlilh  crown-pieces,  near  the  top  of  their 
heads,  and  entirely  ileftroy  their  eye-brows.  The  lock 
left  upon  their  heads  is  divided  into  fevcral  parcels, 
each  of  which  is  ftiH'encd  and  adorned  with  wampum, 
beads,  and  feathers  of  various  kinds,  the  whole  being 
twilled  into  a  form  mucli  refembling  the  modern 
pompoon.  Their  heads  are  painted  red  down  to  the 
eye-brows,  and  fprinkled  over  with  white  down.  The 
griftles  of  their  ears  are  fplit  almoft  quite  round,  and 
diftended  with  wires  or  fplintcrs,  foas  to  meet  and  tie 
•together  on  the  nape  of  the  neck.     Tliefe  arc,  alfo. 


16 
InHgnsi 


27 
Military 
habits, 


hung  with  ornaments,  and,  generally,  bear  the  reprc- 
fentation of  fume  bird,  or  beall.  '1  heir  nofcs  are  like- 
wife  bored  and  luing  with  trinkets  of  beads,  and  their 
faces  painted,  with  various  colours,  fo  as  to  make  an 
awful  appearance.  Their  brealls  are  adorned  with  a 
gorget,  or  medal,  of  brafs,  copper,  or  fome  other  me- 
tal; and  that  dreadful  weapon  the  fcalping-knifc hangs 
by  a  llring  from  the  neck. 

The  great  qualities  of  an  Indian  war  are  vigilance 
and  attention,  to  giveand  avoid  a  furprife  ;  and,  in- 
deed, in  thefc  they  are  fuperior  to  all  nations  in  the 
world.  Acculiomed  to  continual  wandering  in  the 
forelts  ;  having  their  perceptions  fliarpened  by  keen 
neceinty,  and  living,  in  every  refpciit,  according  to  na- 
ture, their  external  lenfes  have  a  degree  of  acutnefs 
wiiich,  at  firll  view,  appears  incredible.  They  can 
trace  out  their  enemies,  at  an  immenfc  dillance, by  tlic 
fmokc  of  their  llres,  whicli  they  fmell,  and  by  the 
tracks  of  their  feet  upon  llie  ground,  imperceptible  to 
an  European  eye,  but  whieli  they  can  count  and  dif- 
tinguifli  with  the  utmoll  facility.  It  is  faid,  they  can 
even  dilliuguilh  the  ditt'erent  nations  with  whom  they 
are  acquainted,  and  can  determine  the  precile  time 
when  they  palled,  where  an  European  could  not,  with 
all  his  glalfes,  diUinguilh  footlleps  at  all.  Thefe  cir- 
cumltances,  however,  are  of  lefs  imj'ortance,  becaufe 
their  favage  enemies  arc  equally  well  acquainted  with 
tlicm.  \V  hen  they  goout,  therefore,  they  take  care 
to  avoid  making  ul'c  of  any  thing  by  which  they  might 
run  the  danger  of  a  difcovery.  'J  hey  light  no  fire  to 
warm  thcmfelvcs,  or  toprcpare  their  vii:tuals:  they  lie 
clofc  to  the  ground  all  day,  and  travel  only  in  the  night; 
and  marching  along  in  files,  he  that  clofes  the  rear  di- 
ligently covers  with  leaves  ihe  trads  of  his  own  feet 
and  of  theirs  who  preceded  him.  When  they  halt  to 
refrelh  thcmfelvcs,  fcouts are  lent  out  to  reconnoitre 
the  country  and  beat  up  every  place  w  here  they  fufpect 
an  enemy  to  lie  concealed.  In  this  manner  they  enter 
unawares  the  villagesofilieirfoes;  and  while  tiie  fiow- 
er  ol  the  nation  are  engigcd  in  hunting,  mallacrc  all 
the  children,  women,  and  helplefs  old  men,  or  make 
prifoHcrs  of  as  many  as  they  can  manage,  or  have 
ilrength  enough  to  be  ufcful  toiheir  nation.  But  when 
the  enemy  is  apprifed  of  their  defign,  and  eomingon 
in  arms  agaiud  tlieni,  they  throw  themfelves  fiat  on 
the  ground  among  the  withered  herbs  and  leaves, 
which  their  faces  are  painted  to  refemblc.  They 
then  allow  a  part  to  pal's  unmolelled,  when,  all  at 
once,  with  a  tremendous  fl)out,  riling  up  from  their 
anibufti,  they  pour  a  llorm  of  mulket-bullcts  on  their 
foes.  The  party  attacked  returns  the  fame  cry.  Eve- 
ryone Ihelters  himfclf  wiih  a  tree,  and  returns  the  lire 
of  the  adverfe  party,  as  foon  as  they  raife  thenifelves 
from  the  ground  to  give  a  fecond  fire.  Thus  does  the 
battle  continue  until  the  one  party  is  fo  much  weak- 
ened as  to  be  incapable  of  farther  rclillance.  Bui  if 
the  force  on  each  fide  continues  nearly  equal, the  fierce 
fl)irits  of  the  fivages,  inflamed  by  the  lofs  of  liuir 
iriends,  can  no  longer  be  reflrained.  They  abandon 
their  dillant  war,  they  rufli  upon  one  another,  v\itli 
chilis  and  hatchets  in  their  hands,  magnifying  their 
own  courage,  and  infuliing  their  enemies  witli  the  bit- 
tercft  reproaches.  A  cruel  combat  enfues, death  appears 
in  a  thoufand  hideous  different  forms,  which  would 
congcjl  the  blood  of  civilized  nation  to  behold,  but 
which  roufcs the  furyof  favages.  They  iramplf,  they 

infult, 


Amerlo. 


Qiiickncft 
of  their 
l'ciifc9. 


Vigilance 
and  cir- 
cumfpec- 
tioQ. 


30 
Manner  uf 
fighting. 


A  M  E 


r    ^47     ] 


A  M  E 


America,  infult,  over  the  dead  bodies,  and  tear  the  fcalp  from 

— V '  tlic  head.     The  Hame  rages  oii  till  it  meets  with  iio 

refinance;  then  the  prifoiicrs  arc  fecurcd,  thofe  un- 
happy men,  whofc  fate  is  a  thoufand  times  more  dread- 
ful than  theirs  who  have  died  in  field.  Tlie  conquer- 
ors let  up  a  hideous  howling,  to  lament  the  friends  tliey 
havcloR.  They  approach,  in  a  melancholy  and  ievere 
gloom  to  their  own  village  ;  a  mellcnger  is  lent  to  an- 
nounce their  arrival,  and  tlic  women,  with  frightful 
flirieks,  come  out  to  mourn  tlieirdead  brothers,  oi  their 
hufbands.When  they  are  arrived,  the  cliief  relates,  in  a 
low  voice,  to  the  elders,  a  circumflantial  account  of 
every  particular  of  the  expedition.  The  orator  pro- 
claims aloud  this  account  to  the  people  ;  and  as  he 
■mentions  the  names  of  thofe  who  have  fallen,  tiie 
Jlnieks  of  the  women  are  redoubled.  The  men,  too, 
join  in  thefe  cries,  according  as  each  is  moll  conneclcd 
with  the  deceafed  by  blood  or  frienfhip.  I'he  hlL 
ceremony  is  the  jiroclamation  of  the  victory;  each  in- 
dividual tiien  forgets  his  private  misfortunes, andjoins 
■in  the  trhimph  of  his  nation  ;  all  tears  are  \\  iped  from 
tluir  eyes,  and,  by  an  unaccountable  tranlliion,  they 
pal's,  in  a  moment,  from  the  biitcrncfs  of  forrow  to  an 
extravagance  of  joy.  But  the  treatment  of  the  prilon- 
ers,  whofe  fate  remains  all  this  time  undecided,  is 
wlvat  chiefly  characlerifes  tiie  lavages. 

We  have  already  meniicned  theflrength  of  thciraf- 
/edions,  or  refentmcnts.  United,  as  they  are,  in  fmall 
•  focietics,  connefted,  within  themlelves,  by  the  firmell 
ties,  their  friendly  attedions,  which  glow  with  the 
moll  intenfe  warmth  within  tiie  walls  of  their  own  vil- 
lage, feldom  extend  beyond  them.  They  feel  nothing 
for  the  enemies  of  their  nation  ;  and  their  refcntment 
is  eafdy  extended,  from  the  individual  who  has  injured 
then),  to  all  others  of  the  fame  tribe.  The  prilbncrs, 
\vho  have  themfelves  the  fame  feelings,  know  the  in- 
tenlionsoftheircoMquerors,and  are  prepared  for  them. 
The  perfon  who  has  taken  the  captive  attends  him  to 
the  cottage,  wliere,  according  to  the  diftribuiion  made 
by  the  elders,  he  is  lo  be  delivered  to  fupply  the  lofs 
of  a  citizen.  If  thofe  who  receive  him  have  their  fa- 
mily weakened  by  war  or  other  accidents,  they  adopt 
the  captive  into  the  family,  of  which  he  becomes  a 
member.  But  if  they  have  no  occalion  for  him,  or 
their  refentment  for  the  lofs  of  their  friends  be  too 
high  to  endure  the  fight  of  any  connccled  with  tliofe 
who  were  concerned  in  it,  tlicy  fentence  him  to  death. 
All  thofe  who  have  met  with  the  fame  fevere  fentence 
being  coUerted,  the  whole  nation  is  aQcmbled  at  the 
execution,  as  for  fume  great  fblemnity.  A  Icaffold  is 
erected,  and  the  priConers  are  tied  to  the  flake,  where 
they  commence  their  death-fong,  and  prepare  for  the 
cnfuing  fcene  of  cruelty  with  the  uiofl  undaunted  cou- 
rage. Their  enemies,  on  the  other  lide,  arc  determi- 
ned to  put  it  10  the  proof,  by  the  nioft  refined  and  ex- 
quilite  tortures.  They  begin  at  the  extremity  of  his 
body,  and,  gradually,  approaeli  the  more  vital  parts. 
One  plucks  out  his  nails  by  the  roots,  one  by  one  ; 
another  takes  a  linger  into  his  nioulh,  and  tears  off  the 
Hcih  with  his  teeth  ;  a  third  ihrufls  the  finger,  mangled 
as  it  is,  into  the  bowl  of  a  pipe  made  red-hot,  whicli  he 
fmokes  like  tobacco  ;  then  they  pound  his  toes  and  fin- 
gers topiceesbctween  two  lloues  jtheycut  circles  about 
his  joints,  and  galhes  in  the  flelhv  parts  of  his  limbs, 
which  they  fear  immediately  with  red-hot  irons,  cut- 


31 
Treatment 
•f  their  pri- 
lontrs. 


S4 
Shocking 
tortures. 


ting,  burning,  and  pinching  them,  alternately  ;  they    America. 

pull  off  his  tiefh,  thus  mangled  and  roafted,  bit  by  bit,  ' ' 

devouring  it  with  greedinefs,  and  fmearing  their  faces 
with  the  blood,  in  an  enthufiafm  of  horror  and  fury. 
When  ihey  have  thus  torn  off  the  Hefli,  they  twifl  the 
bare  nerves  and  tendons  about  an  iron,  tearing  and 
fnapping  ihem,  whilll  others  are  employed  in  pulling 
and  exicHding  his  limbs  in  every  way  that  can  in- 
creafe  the  torment.  This  continues,  often,  five  or  fix 
hours  ;  and  fometimes,  fuch  is  the  flrength  of  the  fa- 
vages,  days  together.  Then  they  frequenily  unbind 
him,  to  give  a  breathing  to  their  fury,  to  ihiiik  what 
new  toruients  they  fhall  intfiit,  audio  micllithc 
flrength  of  the  fuflerer,  who,  wearied  out  w  ith  fuch  a 
variety  ofuniieard  of  torments,  often  falls  into  fo  pro- 
found a  llecp,  that  tliey  arc  obliged  to  apply  the  tire  to 
awake  him,  and  renew  his  futtcrings.  He  is  again 
faflcned  to  the  (lake,  and  again  they  renew  their  cru- 
elly ;  they  flick  him  all  over  with  fmall  matches  of 
wood  that  ealily  takesfire,  but  burns  (lowly  ;  tluy  con- 
tinually run  lliarp  reeds  into  every  part  of  his  body  ; 
they  drag  out  his  leelh  with  pincers,  and  thurfl  out  his 
eyes  ;  and,  lafUy,  after  having  burned  his  flc(h  from 
the  bones  with  (low  fires  ;  after  having  fo  mangled  the 
body  that  it  is  all  but  one  wound  ;  after  having  mutila- 
ted his  face  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  carry  nothing  hu- 
man in  it ;  after  having  peeled  the  Ikin  from  the  head, 
and  poured  a  heap  of  red  hot  coals  or  boiling  water  on 
the  naked  fkull — they  once  more  unbind  the  wretch  ; 
who,  blind,  and  daggering  with  pain  and  weeknefs, 
ali'aulted  and  pelted  on  every  (ide  with  clubs  and  floiies, 
now  up,  now  down,  falling  into  their  fi.-eS  at  every 
flcp,  runs  hiiher  and  thither,  until  one  of  the  chiefs, 
w  iiether  out  of  compaflion,  or  weary  of  cruelty,  puis  an 
end  to  his  life  with  a  club  or  dagger.  The  body  is  then 
put  into  a  kcitle,  and  this  barbarous  employment  is 
fuccceded  by  a  feafl  as  barbarous. 

The  women,  forgetting  the  human  as  well  as  the 
female  nature,  and  transformed  into  fomething  worfc 
than  furies.are  faid  tofurpafsevcn  the  men  in  this  fcene 
of  horror  ;  while  the  principal  perfonsof  the  country 
lit  round  the  (take,  finoking  and  looking  on,  without 
the  lead  emotion.  What  is  moll  extraordinary,  the 
futfcrerhimfclf,  in  the  little  intervalsof  his  torments, 
fmokes  too,  appears  unconcerned,  and  converfes  with  ,. 
his  torturers  about  indifferent  matters.  Indeed,  during  Conftiicy 
the  whole  time  of  his  execution,  there  feemsaeonteft  oftfiefu-f 
which  flull  exceed,  they  in  inflieting  the  mofl  horrid  ferers. 
pains,  or  he  in  enduring  them  witha  firmnefs  and  con- 
flancy  almoil  above  human:  not  a  groan,  not  a  (igh, 
not  a  diflortionof  countenance,  efcapes  him  :  hepof- 
fclles  his  mind  cniirely  in  the  midil  of  his  torments  : 
he  recounts  his  own  exploits  :  he  informs  them  what 
cruelties  he  has  iiiHicTicd  upon  their  countrymen  ;  and 
threatens  them  with  the  revenge  that  will  attend  his 
death  ;  and,  though  his  reproaches  exafperatc  them  to 
a  perfect  madnels  of  rage  and  fury,  hccontini.es  his 
infults  even  of  their  ignorance  of  the  art  of  torment- 
ing, pointing  out  himlcif  more  exquidtc  methods,  and 
more  fcndble  pans  of  the  body  to  be  atflicled.  The 
women  have  this  part  of  courage  as  well  as  the  men  ; 
and  it  is  as  rare  for  an  Indian  to  behave  otlicrw  ife  as 
it  would  be  for  any  Europoaa  to  l\ifi"cr  as  an  Indian. 
Such  is  the  wonderful  power  of  an  early  inflitution, 
and  a  ferocious  thirft  of  glory  !  "  1  am  brave  and  in- 
3  Z  a  trepid 


A  M  E 


[     548     ] 


A  M  E 


.14 
Surprifiii^ 
coocrall  in 
the  Anieri- 
c;>n  charac- 
ter. 


«i.  trepiJ  (cxcl.iinis  tliefivagc  in  the  lace  of  his  tormen- 
—  lors)  ;  1  do  not  tear  death,  iior  any  kind  vt  tortures  ; 
iholc  wiio  Icar  them  arc  cowards  ;  ihcy  ire  Icls  than 
women  ;  life  is  nothing  to  thoi'c  that  have  courigc. 
Miy  iny  enemies  be  coiit'ouiidcd  with  defjiair  and  rage  ! 
Oh  !  that  i  could  devour  liicm,  and  driuk  their  blood 
toilic  l.ill  drop." 

But  neither  the  intrepidity,  on  one  fide,  nor  the  in- 
flexibility, on  the  other,  arc  ainoiij;  thcmlelves  matter 
of  aftonilhment  :  for  vengeance,  and  fortitude,  inlhc 


3S 

Tre-jtment 
ol  chcir 
dead 
iricnds. 


midlt  of  torment,  are  duties  which  they  conlidcr  as 
facred  ;  they  arc  the  clfccls  of  their  earlicll  education, 
an  d  depend  upon  pr  ijici  pics  iniiillcd  in  to  ih  cm  from  their 
infancy.  On  all  other  occafions  they  arc  humane  and 
coinp-iliionatc.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  warnitli  of  their 
atfcdion  towards  their  friends,  wlio  conllll  of  all  ihofe 
who  live  in  the  fame  village,  orare  in  alliance  with  it : 
among  thefc  all  things  arc  common  ;  and  this,  though 
it  may  in  part,  and  among  fome  of  the  tribes,  arife 
fromthcir  not  polFeffing  very  diliincl  notions  of  fcparate 
property,  is  chietiy  to  be  attributed  to  the  flrengch  of 
their  attachment  :  becaufe,  in  every  thing  eHe,  with 
tbeirlivcs  as  well  as  their  fortunes,  they  are  ready  to 
fcrve  theirfrieads.  Tlicir  houfes,  theirprovifion,  even 
their  young  women,  are  not  enough  to  oblige  a  gnell. 
Has  anyoneof  thefe  faccceded  ill  in  his  hunting  !  Has 
his  harvell  failed  ?  or  is  his  houfc  burned  ?  He  feels  no 
othcreffcdt  of  his  misfortunes, than  that  it  gives  him  an 
opportunity  to  experience  the  benevolence  and  regard 
of  his  fellow-citizens.  On  the  other  hand,  to  the  ene- 
mies of  his  country,  or  to  thofe  w  ho  have  privately  of- 
fended, the  American  is  implacable.  He  conceals  his 
fcntiments  ;  heappearsreconcileduntil  by  fome  treach- 
ery or  furprife  he  has  an  opportunity  of  executing  an 
horrible  revenge.  No  length  of  time  is  fufficient  to 
allay  hisrefcntment ;  no  diiUnce  of  place  great  enough 
to  protect  the  objcCl ;  he  crolfes  (he  Iteepeft  mountains ; 
lie  pierces  the  moft  impraelicablc  forcAs,  and  traverfes 
the  inoft  hideous  bogs  and  defarts,  for  feveral  hundreds 
of  miles  ;  bearing  the  inclemency  of  the  feafon,  the 
fatigue  of  the  expedition,  the  extremes  of  hunger  and 
thirlf,  with  patience  and  checrfulnefs,  in  hopes  of  fur- 
jirifing  his  enemy,  on  whom  he  exercifes  the  moll 
ihocking  barbarities,  even  to  the  eating  of  his  flefli. 
To  fuch  extremes  do  the  Indians  pulh  their  friendlhip 
©r  their  enmity  ;  and  fuch  indeed,  in  general,  is  the 
charaiicr  of  all  flrong  and  uncultivated  minds. 

But  what  we  have  faid  refpefting  the  Indians  would 
be  a  faint  piiflure,  did  wc  omit  obferving  the  force  of 
their  friendlhip, which  principally  appears  bythetreat- 
ment  of  their  dead.  When  any  one  of  the  fociety  is 
cut  off,  he  is  lamented  by  the  whole  :  on  this  occafion 
a  variety  of  ceremonies  arc  praclifcd,'denotingthemoft 
lively  forrow.  Nobufinefs  is  tranfactcd,  however  prelf- 
ifig,  till  all  the  pious  ceremonies  due  to  the  dead  arc 
performed.  The  body  is  waQied,  anointed,  and  paint- 
ed. Then,  the  women  lament  the  lofs  with  hideous 
howlintjs,  intermixed  with  fongs  which  celebrate  the 
great  aftions  of  the  deccafed  and  his  anceAors.  The 
men  mourn  alfo,  though  in  a  lefs  extravagant  manner. 
The  whole  village  is  prefentat  the  interment,  and  the 
corpfe  is  habited  in  their  moA  fumptuous  ornaments. 
Clofc  to  the  body  of  the  defunft  are  placed  his  bows 
and  arrows,  with  whatever  he  valued  moft  in  his  life, 
and  a  (quantity  of  proviAon  for  his  fubfiilcncc  on  the 
4 


journey  wliich  he  is  fuppofcd  to  taJte.  Thisfolemnity.  Aii!«ic»- 

like  every  other, is  attended  with fcafti.g.  The  fuiic-  " ' ' 

ral  being  ended,  the  relations  of  the  dcceafcd  confine 
themlclves  to  their  huts,  fur  a  coaAdcrablciime,  to  in- 
dulge their  griff.  After  an  interval  of  fome  weeks, 
they  vilit  the  grave,  repeat  their  forrow,  new-clotbc 
the  remains  of  the  body,  andadt  over  again  all  the  fu- 
Icmnities  of  the  funeral. 

Among  the  various  tokens  of  their  regard  for  their 
deccafed  friends,  the  moft  remarkable  is  the  ceremony 
w  hich  they  call  ihcjcafi  of  tke  dsad,  or  the  \eajt  of 
fouls.  The  day  for  the  ceremony  is  appoiniej  in  the 
council  of  their  chiefs,who  give  orders  forevery  thing 
which  may  enable  thcin  to  celebraie  it  with  pomp  and 
magniticcnce  ;  and  the  neighbouring  nations  are  invi- 
ted to  partake  of  the  entertainment.  At  this  time,  all 
who  have  died  lincc  the  preceding  feaAof  the  kind 
are  taken  out  of  their  graves,  tven  thofe  who  have 
been  interred  at  the  greateA  diAancc  from  the  villages, 
are  diligently  fought  for,  and  conduced  to  this  rendez- 
vous of  the  dead,  which  exhibits  a  fcene  of  horror  be- 
yond the  powerofdefcription.WheiithefeaAiseoncli:- 
ded,  the  bodies  arc  drcA  in  the  fincA  ikins  which  can 
be  procured,  and  after  being  expofed  for  fome  time  in 
this  pomp,  arc  aguin  committed  to  the  earth,  with 
great  folemnity,  w  hich  is  fuccccded  by  funeral  games.         ,g 

Their  lafte  for  war,  which  Airms  the  chief  ingrcdi-  SuperAiu.- 
ent  in  their  charaftcr,  gives  a  Arong  bias  to  their  re-  uns. 
ligion.  Arejkoui,  or  the  god  of  battle,  is  revered  as 
the  great  god  of  the  Indians.  Him  they  invoke  be- 
fore they  go  into  the  field  ;  and  according  as  his  dif- 
polition  is  more  or  lefs  favourable  to  them,  they  con- 
clude they  will  be  more  or  lefs  fucccfsful.  Some  nations 
feem  to  do  a  kin.l  of  homage  to  the  fun,  as  a  fyrabol,  or 
miniAer  of  the  beneficence  and  power  of  the  Great 
Spirit :  others  pay  a  fimilar  homage  to  the  moon  and 
planets;  among  others,  there  is  a  number  of  tradi- 
tions, relative  to  the  creation  of  the  world  and  the 
hiAory  of  the  gods  :  traditions  which  refemble  the 
Grecian  fables,  but  W'hichareitill  more  abfurd  andin- 
confiAent.  But  religion  is  not  the  prevailing  character 
of  the  Indians  ;  and  except  when  ihty  have  fome  im- 
mediate occaAon  for  the  alFiAance  of  their  gods,  they 
pay  them  no  fort  of  worlhip.  Like  all  rude  nations, 
however,  they  are  Arongly  addided  to  fuperAition. 
They  believe  in  the  exiAencc  of  a  numberof  good  and 
bad  genii,  or  fpiriis,  who  interfere  in  the  affairs  of 
mortals,  and  produce  all  our  happinefs,  or  mifery.  It 
is  from  the  evil  genii,  in  particular,  that  our  difcafes, 
they  imagine, proceed  ;  and  it  is  to  the  goo<l  genii  wc 
are  indebted  for  a  cure.  The  minillers  of  t!ie  genii 
are  the  jugglers,  who  are  alfo  the  chief  phyficians  a- 
mong  the  lavages.  Thefc  jugglers  are  fuppofed  to  be 
infpired  by  the  good  genii,  moA  commonly  in  their 
dreams,  with  the  knowledge  of  future  events:  they 
are  called  in  to  the  ailiAar.ce  of  ihc  Ack,  and  arc  fup- 
pofed to  be  informed  by  the  genii  whether  they  will 
get  over  the  difeafc,  and  in  what  way  they  muA  be 
treated.  But  thtfe  fpiritsarc  extremely  Ample  in  their 
fyAem  of  phyfic,  and,  in  almoA  every  difeafc,  direil 
the  juggler  to  the  fame  remedy.  The  patient  is  inclo- 
fcd  in  a  narrow  cabin,  in  theriidft  of  which  is  a  Aonc 
red-hot ;  on  this  they  throw  water,  until  he  is  well 
foaked  with  tlic  warm  vapour  and  his  own  fweat. Then 
they  hurry  him  from  this  bagnio^  aad  plunge  him  Aid- 


A  M  E 


[     549     ] 


A  M  E 


Amerifa. 


XTS.  pfnes 
l)r  1).  S, 
Barton. 


denly  into  the  next  river.  Thiscoarfc  incthoj,  which 
•  cofts  many  their  livts,  often  performs  very  extraorji- 
nary  cures.  "  Some  of  ihcirrcincdics,  ho-.\cver,  \vhi:h 
arc  almoft  eniircly  <lciivc-d  from  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, arc  certainly  very  powerful  and  crficacious,  ia 
their  opcraiion.  'Ihc  principal  of  thefc  arc  a  fpecics 
offiillingia  (perhaps  acroion),  fcvcral  fpccies  of  iris, 
panicukrly  the  vcrlicoior,  and  the  vcrna,  the  liigiio- 
riacrncigcra,  &c." — Thefe  arc  principally  enip.i>yid 
by  the  jugglers,  and  old  women  ;  but  r.iolt.  of  the  fa- 
■vages  are  more  or  lefs  dextrous  incuring  wounds,  and 
difcafcs.  But  the  powcrot  their  rcnieoicsis  generally 
attributed  by  the  favages  to  the  magical  ceremonies 
■with  which  they  are  adniinillered. 

Although  the  Indian  women  generally  bear  the  la- 
borious pariof  thcdomeftic  oeconomy,  their  condition, 
atleall  among  many  of  the  f.  ibes,  is  far  from  being  fo 
wretched,  foilavilh,  anddeprcUcd,  as  has  been  repre- 
femed,  byDr  Robcrifon,  and  by  many  other  writers. 
We  do  not  mean,  in  this  place,  to  engage  in  an  enquiry 
concerning  the  comparative  refpectability  and  impor- 
tance of  the  female  charader  in  the  various  llagcs  of 
fociety  and  improvement :  an  inquiry  this  which  has 
employed  the  pens  of  fome  of  the  molt  learned  and  e- 
loqiient  writers  of  the  prefcnt  age,  and  concerning 
which  there  are  flill  various.and  very  oppolite  opinions. 
This,  however,  we  think  we  may  confidently  and  fafely 
aflert,  that  thccoudiionof  the  women  among  many  of 
the  American  tribes  is  as  refpectablc  and  as  important 
as  it  was  among  the  Germans,  in  the  days  of  Tacitus  ; 
or  as  it  is  among  any  other  nations,  with  whom  we  are 
acquainted,  in  a  fimilar  Ilage  of  improvement.  "Their 
bufinefs,  or  employment,  "  fays  the  ingenious  MrWil- 
liamBartram,  "  is  chiclly  in  their  houfes, except  at  thofc 
feafons  when  their  crops  of  maize,  &c.  are  growing,  at 
■which  times  theygeneraliyturn  out  with  their  hufbands 
and  parents  ;  but  theyare  by  no  means  compelled  to  do 
this,  and  one  feldom  fees  a  third  as  many  females  as 
males  at  work,  in  their  plantations."  "  You  may  de- 
pend on  my  affertion,"  fays  the  fame  gentleman,  who 
had  ample  opportunities  of  ftudying  the  cultoms  and 
manners  of  the  fouthern  Indians,  of  whom  he  isfpeak- 
ing,  in  this  place,  "  that  there  are  no  people,  any 
■where,  who  love  their  women  more  than  thefe  Indians 
do,  or  men  of  better  undcrllanding  in  dillingnilhing 
the  merits  of  the  oppolite  fex;  or  men  more  faithful  in 
rendering  fuitable  compenfation.  They  arc  courteous 
and  polite  to  their  women, — gentle,  tender  and  fond- 
ling, even  to  an  appearance  of  effeminacy.  All  Indian 
man  feldom  attempts  to  ufe  a  woman,  of  any  dcfcripti- 
on,  with  indelicacy,  either  of  aftion,  or  of  language. 

"In  the  hunting  fcafons,  that  is,  in  autumn,  and  in 
winter,  when  themen  arc  generally  out  in  the  forefts, 
the  whole  care  of  the  houfe  or  family  devolves  on  the 
women  :  at  thefe  times  they  arc  obliged  toundergoca 
j^reatdeal  of  labour  and  fatigue,  fuch  as  cutting  wood, 
&c.  But  this  labour  is,  in  part,  alleviated  by  the  affiil- 
ance  of  the  old  men,  who  are  pall  their  hunting  days, 
or  who  are  no  longer  capable  of  fcrving  in-  war." 
But  nothing  more  clearly  ihows  the  importance  and 
refpcflability  of  the  women  among  the  Indians  than 
ihiscircumftanee,  that,  among  fomcof  the  tribes,  they 
are  permitted  toprelide  in  the  councils  of  their  cour.- 
iry  :  to  this  we  m-ay  add,  that  feveral  of  the  Florida 
rations  have,  at  different  times,  been  governed  by  the 
•wifdom,  and  the  prudence  of  female  cacic^ues. 


Po!yg.;5iy  is  pradlifcd  by  fome  nations,  b-Jt  it  is  not  Amtric*. 
general,  in  mou,  they  content  thenifclves  with  one  '  ^~^ 
wife  ;  but  a  divorce  is  admitted  of  in  cafe  of  adultery. 
No  nation  of  the  Americans  is  without  a  regular  mar- 
riage, in  which  there  are  many  ceremonies;  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  is,  the  bride's  prcfentii\T;  the  bride- 
groom with  d  pbic  of  their  corn.  The  women,  though, 
before  incontinent,  are  reniarkcLle  for  chaftity  after 
fiiarriagc.  38 

Liberty,  in  its  full  extent,  being  the  darlingpaflion  Their  ar- 
of  the  Indians,  their  education  is  dircftcd  in  fuch  a  dent  love 
manner  as  to  chtrilh  this  difpolitiou  to  the  utmoft.  "'^^'''"T- 
Heucc  children  are  never  upon  any  account  chaftifcd 
with  blows,  and  they  are  feldom  even  reprimanded. 
Reafon,  they  fay,  will  guide  their  children  when  they 
come  to  the  ul'e  of  it,  and  before  that  time  their  faults 
cannot  be  very  great :  but  blows  might  d.inip  their 
free  and  maniul  fpirits.by  the  habit  of  a  (la  villi  motive 
to  action.  When  grown  up,  they  experience  nothing 
like  command,  dependence,  or  fubordination  ;  even, 
ftrong  pcrfualion  is  indu/lriouiiy  withheld  by  thofc 
who  have  inriuence  among  them. — No  man  is  held  in 
great  eftecm,  ulcfs  he  has  incrcafed  thi  ftrength  of 
his  country  with  a  captive,  or  adorned  his  hut  with  a 
fcalpof  one  of  his  enemies.  3^ 

Controverlies  among  the  Indians  are  few,  and  quick-  Crimes  and 
ly  decided.  When  any  criminal  matter  is  fo  flagrant  pumfh- 
as  to  become  a  national  concern,  it  is  brought  under  ■»«■"'• 
the  jurifdiction  of  the  great  council  ;  but  in  ordinary 
cafes,  the  crime  is  either  revenged  or  compromifed  by 
the  parties  concerned.  If  a  murder  be  committed,  the 
family  which  has  loft  a  relation  prepares  to  retaliate 
on  that  of  the  offender.  They  often  kill  the  murderer ; 
and  when  this  happens,  the  kindred  of  the  lall  perfon 
(lain  look  upon  themfclves  to  be  as  much  injured,  and 
to  have  the  fame  right  to  vengeance,  as  the  other  par- 
ty. In  general,  however,  the  offender  abfents  himfelf; 
the  friends  fend  compliments  of  condolence  to  thofc  of 
the  perfon  who  has  been  murdered.  The  head  of  the 
family,  at  length,  appears  with  a  number  of  prefents, 
the  delivery  of  which  he  accompanies  with  a  formal 
fpeech.  The  whole  ends,  as  ufual,in  mutual  feaftings, 
in  fongs,  and  in  dances.  If  the  murder  is  committed 
by  one  of  the  fame  family,  or  cabin,  that  cabin  has  the 
full  right  of  judgment  within  itfelf,  cither  to  puniib 
the  guilty  with  death,  or  to  pardon  him,  or  to  oblige 
him  to  give  fome  rccom pence  to  the  wife  or  children 
of  the  flain.  Inftancesof  fuch  a  crime,  however,  very 
feldom  happen  ;  for  their  attachment  to  thofc  of  the 
fame  family  is  remarkably  ftrong,  and  is  laid  to  pro- 
duce fuch  friendlhips  as  may  vie  with  the  nioft  cele- 
brated iu  fabulous  antiquity.  40 

Such,  ingeneral,  arc  the  manners  and  cuftomsofthe  Peculiar 
Indi.in  nations  ;  bat  almoft  every  tribe  has  fomething  manners 
peculiar  to  itfelf.     Among  the  Hurons,  and  the  Nat-  of  JifureD( 
chez,  the  dignity  of  the  chief  isfaidtobc  hereditary,  ''*''^'°*' 
and  the  right  of  fucccCion  in  the  female  line.  When 
this  happens  to  be  extiu'^l,thc  moft  refpertable  matron 
of  the  tribe,  we  are  informed,  makes  choice  of  whom 
/he  pleafes  to  fjcceed. 

TheCheerake  are  governed  by  feveral  fachems,  or 
chiefs,  elc;lcd  by  the  different  villages  ;  as  are  alfo 
the  C  recks,  and  the  Chaftaws.  The  two  latter  ponilh 
adultery  in  a  woman  by  cutting  off  her  hair,  which 
they  will  not  fuffcr  to  grow  till  the  corn  is  ripe,  the 

nc.\t 


A   M  E 


[     SSo     ] 


A  M   E 


:i;t  fame  crime,  cut 


Longevity 
of  tlic  In- 
dians- 


America,  next  fcjfpn  ;  but  the  .lliiiois,  for 

^~~^ '  oti  the  women's  nofes  ami  cars. 

The  Iiuiians  on  the  Lakes  arc  formed  into  a  fort  of 
empire;  and  the  emperor  is  elcdcd  from  the  cUlcd 
tribe,  \vh!c'i  is  that  of  ilic  Ottowawas.  This  autho- 
rity is  very  confidirable.  A  few  yearsago,the  perfoii 
wiio  held  this  rank  formed  a  dcfi-jn  of  uiiiiing  all  tlic 
Indian  nations,  under  his  fovcrci^nty  ;  but  he  uiifcar- 
litd  in  the  bold  attempt. 

In  general,  the  American  Indianslive  to  a  great  age, 
although  it  is  not  cjfy  to  know  from  themlelves  the  ex- 
act jitimbcr  of  their  years.  It  was  alked  of  an  Indian, 
who  appeared  to  be  extremely  old,  what  age  he  was  of.' 
I  am  above  twenty  was  his  reply.  Upon  putting  the 
qucllion  in  a  different  form,  by  reminding  himof  cer- 
tain cireumftances,  in  former  times,  my  viachu,  faid 
he,  fpoke  to  me,  when  i  was  young,  of  the  Incas  ;  and 
he  had  fcen  thefe  princes.  According  to  this  reply, 
tlicrc  mull  have  clapfed,  from  tlie  date  of  his  machu's 
(his  grandfather's)  remembrance  to  that  time,  a  pe- 
riod of,  at  leaft,  232  years.  The  man  who  made  this 
reply,  appeared  to  be  120  years  of  age  :  for,  bclides 
tlie  whitentfs  of  his  hair  and  beard,  his  body  was  al- 
mofl  bent  to  the  ground  ;  without,  however,  fhowing 
any  other  marks  of  debility,  or  futfcring.  This  happen- 
ed in  1764.  This  longevity,  attended  in  general  with 
uninterrupted  health,  is  thought,  by  fome  writers,  to 
be  the  confcqucncc  in  part  of  their  vacancy  from  all 
ferious  thought  and  employment,  joined  alfo  with  the 
robull  texture  and  conformation  of  their  bodily  organs. 
If  the  Indians  did  not  dcftroy  one  another,  in  their  al- 
moll  perpetual  wars,  and  if  ihcir  habits  of  intoxication 
were  not  fo  univcrfal  and  incurable,  they  would  be,  of 
all  tlie  races  of  men  who  inhabit  the  globe,  the  mofl 
likely  to  extend,  not  only  the  bounds,  but  the  enjoy- 
ments, of  animal  life  to  their  utmoll  duration. 

Other  pic-  Let  us  now  attend  toother  pidlures  which  have  been 
turcs  of  the  given  of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  New- World. 
Amcritans.  The  vices  and  dcfetls  of  the  American  Indians  have 
l)een,by feveral  writcrs.mofl  unaccountablyaggravated, 
and  every  virtue  and  good  quality  denied  them  :  Their 
cruellies  have  been  already  defcribcd,  and  accounted 
for.  The  following  anecdote  of  an  Algonquin  woman 
we  find  adduced  as  a  remarkable  proof  of  their  innate 
4j  thir/l  of  blood.  That  nation  being  at  war  with  the 
Anecdote  Iroquois,  ilie  happened  to  be  taken  prifoner,  and  was 
of  an  Al-  cmiitj  toone  of  the  villages  belonging  to  them.  Here 
Hie  wasftripped  naked,  and  her  hands  and  feet  bound, 
with  ropes,  in  one  of  their  cabins.  In  this  condition 
flic  remained  ten  days,  the  favages  deeping  round  her 
every  night.  The  eleventh  night,  while  they  were 
afleep,  llie  found  means  to  difengage  one  of  her  hands, 
with  which  flie  immediately  freed  herfclf  from  the 
ropes,  and  went  to  the  door.  Though  fliehad  now  an 
opportunity  of  cicaping  unperceived,  her  revengeful 
tcmpercould  not  let  Ilip  fo  favourable  an  opportui^iiy  of 
killingoiic  ofhcrenemies.  The  attempt  was  manifefl- 
ly  at  the  hazard  of  her  own  life;  yet,  fnatching  up  a 
hatcl'.ct,  flic  killed  the  favagc  that  lay  next  her  :  and, 
fpriiiging  out  of  the  cabin,  concealed  herfclf  in  a  hol- 
low tree,  which  lliehad  obferved  the  day  before.  The 
groans  of  the  dying  perfon  foon  alarmed  the  other  fa- 
vages, and  the  young  ones  immediately  fet  out  in  pur- 
fuit  of  her.     Perceiving,  from  her  tree,  that  they  all 


gonquin 
woman. 


directed  their  courfe  one  way,  and  that  no  favage  was   America. 

near  her,  ilie  left  her  fancluary,  and  flying  by  an  op-  ' <'"~^ 

pofite  dircftiou,  ran  into  a  forcft  without  being  per- 
ceived. '1  lu  fccond  day  after  this  happened,  her  foot- 
flcps  wcrcdifcovered  J  and  they  purfued  lier  with  fucli 
expedition,  that  the  third  day  Ihc  dilcovered  her  ene- 
mies at  her  heels.  Upon  this,  Ihe  threw  herfclf  into  a 
pond  of  water  ;  and  diving  among  fome  weeds  and 
bulruflics,  llie  could  jud  breathe  above  water  without 
being  perceived.  Her  purfuers,  after  making  the  moll 

diligent  fcarch,  were  forced  to  return For  3)  days 

this  woman  held  on  her  courfe  through  w'ooils  and  de- 
fart?,  without  any  other  fullcnance  than  that  which 
roots  and  wild  berries  afforded  her.  When  Ihe  came 
to  the  river  St  Lawrence,  flie  made,  with  her  own 
liands,  a  kind  of  wicker  raft,  on  which  Ihc  crolfed 
it.  As  flie  went  by  the  French  fort  Trois-Riviers, 
without  Well  knowing  w  here  die  was,  flic  perceived  a 
canoe  full  of  favages  ;  and  fearing  they  might  be  Iro- 
quois, ran  again  into  the  woods,  where  flie  remained 
till  funfet. — Continuing  her  courfe  foon  after,  flie  faw 
Trois-Riviers  ;  and  was  then  difcovered  by  a  party 
whom  flic  knew  to  be  Hurons,  a  nation  in  alliance 
with  the  Algonquins.  She  then  fquatted  down,  behind 
a  bufli,  calling  out  to  them  that  Ihe  was  not  in  a  con- 
dition to  be  feeii,  becaufe  flic  was  naked.  They  imme- 
diately threw  her  a  blanket,  and  then  conducted  her 
to  a  fort,  where  flie  recounted  her  dory.  ^^ 

Perfonal  courage  has  beeu  denied  them.  In  proof  of  Reproach- 
their  pulilanimiiy,  the  following  incidents  arc  quoted  cilwithpu- 
fromCharlcvoixby  lord  Karnes,  in  his  6/5c/c,6.'/ o///)^ '''^"'""'!^' 
Hiflon  of  Mail.  "  The  fort  de  Verchcres,  in  Cana- 
da, belonging  to  the  French,  was,  in  the  year  1690, 
attacked  by  the  Iroquois.  Tliey  approaclied  filently, 
preparing  to  fcale  thepalafadc,  when  fome  muflcct-lhot 
made  them  retire.  Advancing  a  fecoiid  time, they  were 
again  repulfed, wondering  that  they  could  difcover  none 
but  a  woman,  who  was  fcen  every  where.  This  was 
Madame  de  Vercheres,  who  appeared  as  rcfolute  as  if 
fupported  bya  numerous garrifon.  The  hopes  ofllonn- 
ing  a  place  without  men  to  defend  it,  occalioned  rei- 
terated attacks.  After  two  days  liege  they  retired, 
fearing  to  be  intercepted  in  their  retreat.  Two  years 
after  a  party  of  the  fame  nation  appeared  before  the 
fort  fo  iincxpededly,  that  a  girl  of  fourteen,  daughter 
of  the  proprietor,  had  but  time  to  fliut  the  gate.  With 
the  young  woman  there  was  not  a  foul  but  one  raw 
foldier.  She  Ihowed  herfclf,  with  her  aflidant,  fome- 
timcs  in  one  place,  and  fometimcs  in  another  ;  chang- 
ing her  drefs  frequently,  in  order  to  give  fome  appear- 
ance of  a  garrifon  ;  and  alw'ays  firing  opportunely.  The 
faint-hearted  Iroquois  decamped  without  fucccfs." 

Thcreis  noinfl;ance,it  is  faid,  cither  of  a  linglc  In- 
dian facing  an  individual,  of  any  other  nation,  in  fair 
and  open  combat,  or  of  their  jointly  venturing  to  try  the 
fate  of  battle  with  an  equal  number  of  any  foes.  Even 
with  the  greatcd  fuperiority  of  numbers,  they  dare  not 
meet  an  open  attack.  Yet,  notvvithflanding  this  wane 
of  courage,  they  arellill  formidable  ;  nay,  it  has  been 
known,  that  a  fmall  party  of  them  has  routed  a  much 
fuperior  body  of  regular  troops  :  but  this  can  only  hap- 
pen when  they  have  furprifed  them  in  the  fadneifes 
of  their  forefls,  where  the  covert  of  the  wood  may 
conceal  them  until  they  take  tlieir  aim  with  the  utnioit 
certainty.  After  one  fuch  difcharge  they  immediately 

retreat, 


A  M  E 


[     55^     ] 


A  M  E 


45 
Accufcd  of 
fcrfuly, 


/.merlca.  retreat, wiihoiu  leaving  the  fmallefltrace  oftlicir  route. 

^ ■  It  may  ealily  be  fuppolcd,  tl.at  an  onfct  of  this  kind 

imift  produce  confiilion  even  among  the  AtadjcA  troops, 
when  they  can  neither  know  the  number  of  their  ene- 
mies, norperccive  the  place  where  they  lie  in  ambufli. 
Perfidy  combined  with  cruelty  has  been  alfo  made  a 
partof  tlicircharafler.  DonUlloa  relates, That  theln- 
dians  called  N.itchcs,  in  Louiliana,  laid  a  plot  of  maC- 
facrinj.',  in  one  night,  every  individual  belonging  lo 
the  Krench  colony  eftablilhcd  there.  This  plot  they 
afUially  executed,  iiotwithftandiiig  the  feeming  good 
underflanding  that  fublifled  between  them  and  thefe 
European  neighbours.  Such  was  the  fccrecy  which 
they  obfervcd,  that  no  perfon  had  the  leaft  fuipieion  of 
their  delign  until  the  blow  was  ftrack.  One  french- 
man alone  efcaped,  by  favour  of  the  darknefs,  to  re- 
latethe  dif.ifter  to  hiscouirymen.  The  conipalhonof 
a  female  Indian  contributed  aU'o,  in  I'ome  incafurc  to 
his  exemption  from  the  general  malFacre.  The  tribe 
of  Natches  had  invited  the  Indians  of  other  countries, 
even  to  a  confidcrable  dillance,  to  join  in  the  fame  con- 
fpiracy.  The  day,  or  rather  the  night,  wasJixedon 
which  they  were  to  make  an  united  attack  on  theKrench 
colonills.  It  was  intimated  by  fending  a  parcel  of  rods, 
more  or  Icfs  numerous  according  to  the  local  dillance 
of  each  tribe,  with  an  injunftion  to  abilrait  one  rod  dai- 
ly ;  the  day  on  which  the  laft  fell  to  be  taken  away  be- 
ing that  fixed  for  the  execution  of  their  plan.  The 
women  were  partners  of  the  bloody  fccret.  The  par- 
cels of  rods  being  thufi  difhibuted,  that  belonging  to 
the  tribe  of  Natclies  happened  to  remain  in  ihe  cullody 
of  a  female.  This  woman,  either  movcdby  her  own 
feelings  of  companion,  or  by  the  commiferation  expref- 
icd  by  her  female  acqiuiiniances,  in  the  view  of  the 
propoied  fcene  of  bloodlhed,  abflradcd  one  day  three 
or  four  of  the  rods,  and  thus  anticipated  the  tei'm  of 
her  tribe's  proceeding  in  the  execution  of  the  general 
confpiracy.  The  confcquence  of  this  was,  that  the 
Natches  were  the  only  actors  in  the  carn?^c  ;  their  di- 
ilaiit  allbciateshaving  flillfcvcralrodsremainingat  the 
lime  when  the  former  made  the  attack.  An  opportu- 
nity was  thereby  given  t(<the  colonifls  in  thofe  quar- 
ters, to  take  meafures  for  their  defence,  and  for  pre- 
venting a  more  extenlive  execution  of  the  dtiign. 

It  was  by  confpiracies  fimilar  to  this  that  the  In- 
dians of  the  province  of  Maeas,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Q_uito,  deftroycd  the  opulent  city  of  Lagrogno,  the 
colonyof  Guambaya,  and  its  capital  Scvilla  del  Oro  ; 
and  that  fo  completely,  that  it  is  no  longer  known  in 
what  place  thefe  fettlcments  cxilled,  or  where  that  a- 
bundancc  of  gold  was  found  from  which  the  lall-men- 
tioncd  city  took  the  addition  to  its  name.  Similar  ra- 
vages have  been  committed  upon  I'lmpcrial,  in  Chili, 
the  colonies  of  the  .Millions  of  Chuncas,  thofe  of  Da- 
rien,  in  Tierra  Ferme,  and  many  other  places,  which 
have  afforded  fcenesof  this  barbarous  ferocity.  Thefe 
confpiracies  are  always  carried  on  in  the  fame  manner. 
The  fccret  is  inviolably  kept,  the  actors  alfemblc  at 
the  prccifc  hour  api'oiiued,  and  every  individual  is 
animated  with  the  fame  fanguinary  purpofes.  The 
males  who  fall  into  their  hands  are  put  to  death,  with 
every  Ihocking  eircumllance  that  can  be  fuggeUed  by 
a  coofand  determined  cruelty.  The  females  arc  car- 
ried oft  and  preferved,  as  monuments  of  their  viclory, 
10  be  employed  as  their  occafions  rcqmre. 


Nor  can  this  odious  cruelty  and  treachery,  !t  is  faid,  Amcrio. 

be  juflly  afcribed  to    their  fubjcclion  to  a    loreigu  ' ^— ' 

yoke,  feeing  the  fame  character  belongs  equally  to  ail 
the  original  inhabitants  of  this  vail  continent,  even  to 
thofe  who  have  preferved  their  independence  moll  "^ 
completely.  Certain  it  is,  continues  UUoa,  that  ihefc' 
people,  with  the  mofl  limited  cap3»-ities  for  every  thing 
clfc,  difplay  an  alionilhing  degree  of  penetration  and 
fubtlety,  with  rcfpect  to  every  objeit  ihae  involves 
treachery,  bloodllied,  and  rapine.  As  to  thefe,  they 
feem  to  have  been  all  educated  at  one  fchool ;  and  a  fe- 
crct,  referring  to  any  fuch  plan,  no  confideraiion  on 


earth  can  extort  from  them. 


46 


Their  underllandings  alfo  have  been  reprefenfcd  asTheirun- 
not  lefs  contemptible  than  their  manners  are  grofs  and  dcrftand- 
brutal.   Many  nations,  it  has  been  faid,  are  neither  ca-  '"8  "P"- 
pableof  forming  an  arrangement  for  futurity,  nor  does ''"'f'^  *' 
their  foliciludc  or  fordight  extend  fo  far.  Theyfetno 
value  upon  thofe  things  of  which  they  are  not  in  fonie 
immediate  want.     In  the  evening,  fays  father  La- 
bat,  when  a  Carib  is  going  to  rell,  no  confideratioa 
will  tempt  him  to  fell  his  hauimoch  ;  but  in  the  morn- 
ing he  will  part  with  it  for  the  llighlell  tritie.   At  the 
clofe  of  winter,  a  North-American,  mindful  of  what 
he  has  fuffcred  from  the  cold,  fftshimfelf  with  vigour 
10  prepare  materials  for ereding  a  comfortable  hut,  to 
protett  him  againll  the  inclemency  of  the  fucceeding 
feafon  ;  but  as  foon  as  the  weather  becomes  mild,  he 
abandons  his  work,  and  never  thinks  of  it  more  till         .^ 

the  return  of  the  cold  compels  him  to  refume  it In  Alleged  in- 

fliort,  to  be  free  from  labour  feems  to  be  the  utmoAdoleuccan.i 
wifliof  an  American.  They  will  continue,  whole  days,*^^'''''?' 
ilretched  in  their  hammocks,  orfeated  on  ihe  earth, 
without  changing  their  pollure,  raifing  their  eyes,  or 
uttering  a  lingle  word.  They  cannot  compute  ihefuc- 
celTion  of  days,  nor  of  weeks.  The  difTcrent  afpcds  of 
the  moon  alone  engage  their  attention,  as  a  meafure  of 
time.  Of  the  year  they  have  no  other  conception  than 
what  is  fuggefted  to  them  by  the  alternate  heat  of  fum- 
mer,  andby  the  cold  of  winter;  norliavc  they  the  leaft 
idea  of  applying  to  this  period  the  obvious  computation 
of  the  months  which  it  contains.  \\'hen  it  is  afked  of 
any  old  man,  in  Peru,  even  the  mofl  civilized,  what 
age  he  is  of?  the  only  anfwer  he  can  give  is  the  num- 
ber of  caciques  he  has  feen.  It  often  happens,  too,  that 
they  only  recoiled  the  moll  diftant  of  thefe  princes,  in 
wkofc  time  certain  circumftances  had  happened  pecu- 
liarly memorable,  while  of  thofe  who  lived  in  a  more 
recent  period  they  have  loll  all  remembrance. 

The  fame  grofs  flupijity  is  alledged  to  be  obfervablc 
in  tiiofe  Indians  who  have  retained  their  original  li- 
berty. They  are  never  known  to  fix  the  daies  of  any 
events  in  their  minds,  or  to  trace  the  fucceliionof  cir- 
cumilances  thai  have  arifen  from  fuch  events.  Their 
imagination  takes  in  only  the  prtfait,  and  in  that 
only  what  intimately  concerns  themfelves.  Nor  can 
difcipiineor  inflruiition  overcome  this  natural  defed 
ofa)>prehenfion.  In  faa,  the  fubjeeted  Indians  in  Pe- 
rUjWhohaveacontinualintercourfe  with  the  Spsniards, 
who  are  furnilhed  with  curates  perpetually  occupied  iu 
giving  them  h  lions  of  religion  and  morality,  and 
who  mi.\  with  all  ranks  of  the  civilized  fociety  efta- 
blilhcd  among  tliem,  are  almod  as  flupid  and  barbarous 
as  their  coautry  men  who  have  had  no  fuch  advantages. 
The  Pcruviaus,  while  they  lived  under  the  govern- 
ment 


A  M  E 


[     SS 


Ancrlci. 


48 

'I'Keir  va- 
nity anJ 
wnceit. 


Their  elo- 
qnciice  dif 
panged. 


All  thcfe 
viewf  par^ 
tial,3ndDot 
free  from 
nuirtpre- 
fcDtatioDi 


went  of  their  Incas,  pitlcrvcJ  the  records  of  certaui 

rein:»rkabK-  cvcnis.  Tiuy  haJ  alio  a  i^iiid  01  regular 
;;i.vcinii.cuc  dclciibcd  by  ibe  hiltoriauiul  iiic  to.iijjLlt 
ot'  I'cru.  i  liis  govcniiiient  originateJ  tiuirtly  irom 
the  atu-niiou  aiiii  ahiliticsof  their  piiiiccs,  and  lr»in 
the  re  Jiih.HJiis  rnaacd  by  tbc:ii  lor  directing  'iic /•""- 
duct  oflhcir  lubjccV.  'litis  aucicnt  degree  ot  tivili- 
zatioii  among  them  (jives  oroiiiid  to  prtliiiiie  that  ihcir 
legiliatiires  ijiruHg  tVom  lonie  raec  more  enli^hleiicj 
than  ibc  other  trities  of  Indians  ;  a  race,  ol  which  no 
individual  fcenis  10  rcmai;i  in  ihe  prelcnt  limes. 

Vanity  and  conceit  arc  faid  to  be  bleuJcd  with  ihcir 
igi;orance,  and  treachery.  Notwiihftanding  all  they 
fatter  from  Euroj.eans,  ibcy  Hill,  it  is  faid,  conUder 
thcnilelvcs  as  a  race  of  men  far  fupcrior  to  their  con- 
querors. This  proud  belief,  aii(ing  trom  their  pervert- 
ed ideas  ofcxceilcnccisuniverfal  over  the  whole  known 
continent  of  America.  They  do  not  think  it  poifiblc 
that  any  people  can  be  fo  intelligent  as  themlclvcs. 
When  they  are  detc^ed  in  any  of  ihcir  plots,  it  is  their 
common  obfervation,  that  t!ie  Spaniards,  or  yvjihocoj, 
want  to  Ij:  as  knowing  as  ihey  arc.  '1  hofe  of  Loiii- 
liana  and  the  countri.s  adjacent,  arc  equally  vain  of 
their  fupcrior  underftand'n^,  confounding  that  quality 
wi:h  the  cunning  whi.h  they  tliemfdvcs  coailantly 
praetife.  The  whole  object  of  tncir  tranfaftions  is  10 
over-reach  ihofc  with  whom  they  deal.  Yet  tliough 
faithlefs  themfelves,  thry  never  forgive  the  breach  of 
pronrfe  on  the  part  of  others.  While  the  Europeans 
feek  their  ami.y  by  prefcnts,  they  give  themfelves  no 
concern  tofecure  a  reciprocal  frienifnip.  Ileare,  pro- 
baby,  arifcs  thci-  idea,  that  ih-:/  mull  be  a  f jperior 
race  of  men,  in  ability  and  intel.igcncc,  to  thole  who 
are  at  f  ick  paitis  to  court  their  alliance,  and  avert  their 
enmity. 

th'  ir  natural  eb)quciice  has  alfo  been  decried.  The 
free  tribes  of  fav.i.;es  who  enter  into  conven  ions  with 
the  Luropea  IS,  it  isobfervcd,  arc  a-cuilonied  to  make 
lon-T,  pmipous,  and,  accoruing  o  their  own  notions, 
fubiime  haragucs,  b  it  without  any  mctnod,  or  connec- 
tion. The  whoU  is  a  collccU.Mi  of  di  jointed  meta- 
phor;, and  comparifons.  I  he  light,  heat,  and  courfe 
of  thefun,  form  iheprinripj  tiyic  of  thri,- difcouife  ; 
and  thefe  unintelligible  reafonings  are  a'w^'y 3  accom- 
panied with  violent  and  ri.iicuhms  gelVnrcs.  Nuniber- 
Icfs  repetitions  prolong  the  oration,  which,  it  not  in- 
terrupted, would  lad  whole  d;<ys  :  at  the  fame  time, 
they  meditate  very  accurately,  l>efore  hanl,  i.i  order  to 
avoid  mcationi  g  any  thing  but  wliot  tliey  are  deiirous 
to  obtain.  This  pompous  faculty  of  making  fj->ccches 
is  alio  snc  of  the  grounds  on  which  they  conceive 
them<'elves  to  be  fupcrior  to  the  nations  of  Eur.pe  : 
they  inaginc  that  it  is  their  eloqi-nce  ihai  procures 
ihcm  I  he' favours  they  afk.  1  he  fabjcacd  Indians 
convcrfe  precifely  in  the  fame  ftyle.  Prolix  and  tedi- 
ous, they  never  know  when  to  ftop  ;  fo  that,  except- 
ing by  the  difference  in  language,  it  would  be  iinpof- 
/ible,  in  this  refpc'-l:,  to  dillinguifh  a  civilized  Peru- 
vian from  an  inhabitant  of  the  mod  favage  diftricts  to 
the  northward. 


Bnt  fa-h  partial  and  detached  views,  as  tl.e  above, 
were  they  even  free  from  n.irreprefentaiion,areiaot  the 
ju't  ground  upon  which  to  form  an  eftimateof  thci  cha- 
racter. Their  qualities,goodaJ5a  bad  (for  they  certainly 


2    ]  A  M  E 

podcfs  both),  their  way  of  life,  the  fiate  of  fociety  a- 
mong  thcin,  with  all  the  circumllances  of  their  con- 
diuuii,  ought  to  be  conlideied  iu  caiimdion,  and  iu 
regard  to  uieir  mutual  uihuence.  5>uch  a  view  has 
been  given  in  the  preceding  part  of  this  article  ;  troin 
which,  it  is  hoped,  thLir  real  charaittr  may  be  ealily 
deduced. 

Many  of  the  difagreeable  traits  exhibited  in  the  a- 
necdotts  jull  quoted,  are,  indeed,  extratled  from  i.)oa 
LUoa  ;  an  author  of  credit  and  reputation  :  luit  a  Spa- 
niard, and  evidcnll/  bialJed,  in  fomc  degree,  by  a  de- 
lire  to  palliate  theenoriuilic.ofhis  eoantrymcn  in  that 
quarter  of  the  globe.  And,  with  regard  to  the  worll 
and  Icalb  equivocal  parts  of  the  American  character, 
cruelly  and  revenge ;  it  may  be  fairly  quellioned,  whe- 
ther the  inilanccs  oi  thefe,  cither  in  refpcd  of  their 
caufc  or  their  atrocity,  be  at  all  comparable  to  thofe 
exhibited  iu  European  hiftory,  and  llainiiig  the  an- 
nals of  Chrillendom  : — to  thofe,  for  inllancc,  of  the 
Spaniards  themfelves,  ai  their  firlt  difcovery  of  Ame- 
rica ;  to  thofe  indicated  by  the  engines  found  on  board 
their  mighty  Armada,  in  1  j88  ;  10  th  jfe  which,  in  cold 
blood,  were  perpetrated  by  the  Dutehat  Amboyna  ;  to 
the  dragoouings  of  the  French;  to  their  religious  malla- 
cres  :  or,even,  to  the^f«</frCTtrc/«of  the  Inquilltion? 
Still  harlhcr,  however,  are  the  dcfcriptious  given  by 
B//j/onMid  di  /^tf.va;,  of  the  natives  of  this  whole  coii- 
tincnt,  in  which  the  moll  mortifying  degeneracy  of  the 
human  race,  as  well  as  of  all  the  inferior  animals,  isaf- 
ferted  to  be  coafpicuous.  Againll  thefe  philofophcrs,  or 
rather  theorilts,  however,  the  Americans  hive  found 
an  able  advocate  in  the  MokCiavi^era ;  an  hiilorian, 
who,  not  only  from  his  being  a  native  of  America,  bnt 
alfo  from  his  litaalion,  and  long  rcliJence  in  Mexico, 
has  been  enabled  to  obtain  the  bell  means  of  informa- 
tion, and  who,  though  hinifelf  a  fubjeft  of  Spain,  ap- 
pears fupcrior  to  prejudice,  and  difdains  iu  his  de- 
fi-ription  jh^lolfcs  of  policy. 

ConccriOTgthc  ftaturc  of  the  Americans,  M.  dc 
Pauw  fays,  that  although,  in  general,  it  is  not  equal 
te  the  llaiurc  of  the  Calli  ians,  there  is  but  little  differ- 
ence bciwcen  them.  But  the  Abbe  Clavigeroevinces, 
that  the  Indians  who  inhabit  thofe  couniricb  lying  be- 
tween 9  and  40  degrees  of  north  latitude,  which  arc 
the  limiisof  the  dilcovcriesof  ihe  Spaniards,  are  more 
than  rive  Parilim  feel  in  height,  and  that  thofe  who  do 
not  reach  th  it  llatnrc,a!C3sfcwin  number  amongft  the 
Indians  as  they  are  amongll  the  Spaniards.  It  is  be- 
fidcs  certain,  that  many  of  the  American  nations,  fuch 
as  the  Apach  s,  the  Hi.iqiup,  the  VnmJ'e,  and  Cochi- 
n/i:s,  are  at  leall  as  tall  as  the  tallcll  Europeans  ;  and 
that,  in  all  ihevaft  extent  of  the  New- World,  no  race 
of  people  has  been  found,  except  the  Efqi;iinanx,  in  the 
north,  and  well,  and  the  Yacana-cunnces,  and  Pelhc- 
rais,  &c.  in  thefouth,  fo  diniir.alive  in  flature  as  the 
Laplanders,  the  SatiiojtJi,  and  Tartars,  in  the  north 
of  the  Old-Continent.  In  this  refpert,  therefore,  the  in- 
habitants of  the  two  continents  are  upon  an  cqnality. 

Of  the  Ihapcand  charafterof  the  Mexican  Indians, 
the  ."^bbegives  a  mod  advantageous  ilcfcription  ;  which 
heairerts.noone,  whorcidsit,  in  America, will  contra- 
diel,nnltfs  he  views  them  with  the  eye  of  a  prejudiced 
mind.  It  is  true,  that  Ulloa  fiys,  in  fpcaking  of  the 
Int!iins  of  ^lito,  he  had  obfervcd  that  "imperfeel 
people  abounded  among  them  ;  that  they  were  either 

irregularly 


Ameriei.' 


5t 

The  phyfi- 
esldefcrip- 
tion>  of 
Viufibn  and 
de  Pauw 
refuted. 

Hijl.of 
v.ll.p.328, 


Stature, 
(haiic,  &9 


A  M  E 


[     55}     ] 


A  M  E 


Amcrfca.  rfgiilarly  diminutive,  or  nioii (Irons  in  fome  oihtr  rt- 
'*~~^'~—  iyicci  i  dial  tiiey  became  cilhcr  iiifcnlil)!c,  tlunib,  or 
blind  ;  or  warned  fome  limbof  ihcir  bojy."  Haviiiir, 
thercforc.madc  fome  inquiry  rtfptitingtliisdngiilarity 
of  llie  ^iiitans,  the  Abbe  found,  tliat  fuch  defects 
vcrencitiier  caufcd  by  what  lie  calls  bad  humours,  nor 
by  the  climate,  but  by  the  niiiiakcn  and  blind  huma- 
nity of  their  parents,  who,  in  order  to  free  their  chil- 
dren from  the  hardfliips  and  toils  to  which  the  healthy 
Indians  arc  fubjeded  by  the  Spaniards,  fix  fome  defor- 
mity or  weaknefs  upon  them,  that  iliey  may  become 
ufelefs  :  acircumllance  of  mifery  which  docs  not  hap- 
pen in  other  countries  of  America,  norinthofe  places 
of  the  fame  kingdom  of  Qiiito,  where  the  Indians  arc 
under  no  fuch  oppreflion.  M.  de  Pauw,and  in  agree- 
ment with  him,  DrRobertfon,  fays,  that  no  dctorm- 
ed  perfons  arc  to  be  found  among  the  lavages  of  Ame- 
rica ;  becaufc,  like  the  ancient  Lacedaemonians,  they 
put  to  death  thofe  children  which  are  born  luinch- 
backed,  blind,  or  defective  in  any  limb;  but  that  in 
thofe  countries  where  they  are  formed  into  focieties, 
and  where  the  vigilance  of  their  rulers  prevents  the 
murder  of  fuch  infants,  the  nuraberof  their  deformed 
individuals  is  greater  than  it  is  in  any  country  of  Eu- 
rope. This  would  make  an  exceedingly  good  folution  of 
rhe  difficulty  if  it  were  true  :  but  if,  pollibly,  there  has 
been  in  America  a  tribe  of  favages  who  have  imitated 
the  barbarous  example  of  the  celebrated  Lacedaemoni- 
ans, it  is  certain  that  thofe  authors  have  no  groundsto 
impute  fuch  inhumanity  to  the  rellof  the  Americans  ; 
and  it  has  not  been  the  pradice,  at  Icalt  with  the  far 
greater  part  of  thofe  nations,  as  may  be  deraonlf  rated 
from  the  atteflations  of  authors  who  are  the  befl  ac- 
quainted with  their  cuftoms. 

No  argument  againfl  the  New- World  can  be  drawn 
from  the  colour  of  the  Americans  ;  for  ihtir  colour  is 
lefs  diftantfrom  the  white  of  the  Europeans  than  it  is 
from  the  black  of  the  Africans,  and  a  great  part  of  the 
Afiatics .  The  hair  of  the  Mexicans,  and  of  the  great- 
er part  of  the  Indians,  is  as  we  have  already  faid,  coarfe 
and  thick :  on  their  faces  they  appear  to  have  little,  and 
in  general  none  on  their  arms  and  legs  :  but  it  is  an  er- 
ror to  fay,  as  M.  de  Fauw  does,  that  they  arc  entirely 
dcAitute  of  hair  in  all  the  other  parts  of  their  body. 
5j  This  is  one  of  the  many  palfages  in  the  Philofophical 

Errorscon-  RefearclHs,iX.  which  the  Mexicans,  and  all  the  other 
ccrning  nations,  mufl  fmile,  to  find  an  European  philofopher  fo 
their  want  egp-grto  jiyej^  them  of  the  drefs  they  had  from  nature. 
5.£_  Don  UUoa,  indeed,  in  the  defcription  which  he  gives 

of  the  Indians  of  (^uito,  fays,  that  hair  neither  grows 
upon  the  men  nor  upon  the  women  when  they  arrive  at 
pubcrty,asitdoesontlic  reftofniankind  ;  but  whatever 
Angularity  may  attend  the  Q^iitans,  or  occalion  thiscir- 
cumllance,  there  is  no  doubt  that  amongthe  Americans 
in  gener.il,  the  period  of  puberty  is  accompanied  with 
the  fame  fymptoms  as  it  is  among  other  nationsof  the 
world.  In  fact,  with  the  North-Americans,  it  is  dif- 
gr.iceful  to  be  hairy  on  the  body.  They  fay  it  likens 
them  to  hogs.  They,  therrfore,  pluck  the  h;'.ir  as 
fall  asirappcjrs.  But  the  traders  who  marry  their 
women,  and  prevail  on  them  to  difcontinue  this  prac- 
tice, fay,  that  nature  is  the  fame  with  thcni  as  with 
the  whites.  As  to  the  beards  of  the  r.'.cn,  h.id  Buf- 
fon,or  de  I'auw,  known  the  pains  and  trouble  it  cofts 
them  to  pluck  out  by  the  roots  the  hair  that  grows  on 
Vol.  I. 


thtir  fa:cs,  they  would  have  fecn  tint  ivatufe  had  not   Amtrlci. 

been  deficient  in  that  refi'ccl.      Kvcry  nation  lias  its  " >- ' 

cuftoms.     "  I  have  fcen  an  Indian  beau,  with  a  look- 

ing-glafs  in  his  hand  (fay  Mr  JcJferfjn),  examining 

his  face,  for  hours  together,  and  plucking  out,  by  ihe 

roots,  every  hiir   he  could  difcovcr,  with  a  kind  of 

tweezer  m^dc  of  a  piece  of  fine  brafs  wire,  that  had 

been  twifted  round  a  flick,  and  wliioh   he  ufcJ  with 

great  dexterity." 

The  very  afpedt  of  an  Ango!  in,  a  Mandingan,  or  a  Their  form 

Congan,  would  have  fliocked  M.  de  Pauw,  and  make  and  afpicl 

him  rccal  the  cenfurc  which  lie  palTcs  on  the  colour,  ccntrafted 

the  make,  and  hair  of  the  Americans.     What  can  be  ""hthpfe 

imatrined  more  contrary  totheidcawchaveofbcsutv,     ,     "* 

11  f   1-  r     u     •  c  i_  other  Da- 

and  the  perfection  of  the  numan  frame,  than  a  man,  .ji,^^ 

whole  fkin  is  black  as  ink,  whofc  head  a:;d  face  are 
covered  wjth  black  woal,  inflcad  of  hair,  whofe  eyes 
arc  yellow  and  bloody,  whofe  lips  are  thick  and  black- 
illi,  and  whofc  nofeis  fi^:  .'  Such  are  the  inhabitants  of 
a  very  large  portion  of  Africa,  and  of  many  idandsof 
Alia.  What  men  can  be  more  imperfect  than  ihofe 
who  meafiire  no  more  tlian  four  feet  in  ftature,  whofc 
faces  are  long  andriar,  thcnofecomprciTed,  the  iridcs 
yellowilh  black,  the  eye-lids  turned  back  towards  the 
temples,  the  checks  extraordinarily  elevated,  their 
mouths  monftroufly  large,  their  lips  thick  and  promi- 
nent, and  the  lower  part  of  their  vifages  extremely 
narrow  .'  Such,  according  to  Count  de  Buffon,  arc  the 
Laplanders,  the  Zemblans,  the  6orandincs,  the  Samo- 
jeds,  and  the  Tartars,  in  the  Eaft.  What  objefts  more 
deformed  than  men  whofe  faces  are  too  long  and  wrin- 
kledcven  in  their  youth,  their  nofes  thick  and  com- 
prelTed,  their  eyes  fmall  and  funk,  their  checks  very 
much  raifed,  the  upper  jaw  low,  their  teeth  long  and 
difunited, eye-brows  fo  thick  that  they  (hade  their  eyes, 
the  eye-lids  thick,  fome  briflles  on  their  faces  inflead 
of  beard.  Urge  thighs  and  fmall  legs  ?  Such  is  the  pic- 
ture Count  de  BufFon  gives  of  the  Tartars  ;  that  is,  of 
thofe  people  who,  as  he  fays,  inhabit  a  trad  of  land  in 
Afia  1200  leagues  long  and  upwards,  and  more  than 
7J0  broad.  Amongft  thefe,  the  Calmucks  are  the  moft 
remarkable  for  their  deformity:  which  is  fo  great, 
that  according  to  Tavcrnier,  they  arc  the  mofl  brutal 
men  of  all  the  univerfe.  Their  faces  are  fo  broad  that 
there  is  a  fpace  of.  five  or  fix  inches  between  their 
eyes,  as  Count  de  BufTon  himfelf  affirms.  In  Cali- 
cut, in  Ceylon,  and  in  other  countries  of  India,  there 
is,  fay  Pyrard,  and  other  writers,  on  thofe  regions,  a 
raccofmen  who  haveone, or  both, of  their  legs  as  thick 
as  the  body  of  a  man  ;  and  that  this  deformity  among 
them  is  almoft  hereditary 

If  we  were,  in  like  manner,  to  go  through  the  na- 
tions of  Alia  and  Africa,  we  fhoiild  hardly  find  any  ex- 
tcn(ivc  country  where  the  colour  of  men  is  not  darker, 
where  there  arc  not  greater  irregularities  obfervcd, 
and  grollcr  defects  to  be  found  in  them,  than  even  the 
penetrating  eye  of  de  Pauw  could  difcover  in  the  Ame- 
ricans. The  colour  of  the  latter  is  a  good  deal  clearer 
than  that  of  almoft  all  the  Africar.s  and  the  inhabitants 
of  fouth  Ada.  Kven  their  allegcii  I'cantinelsof  beard  is 
common  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Philippine-Illands, 
and  of  all  the  Indian-Archipelago,  tothe  famons  Chi- 
nefe,  Jap.innefc,  Tartars,  and  ifiany  other  nations  of 
the  Old-Continent.  Theimpcrfedions  of  the  Aincri- 
cans,  however  great  they  may  be  rcprcfcnted  to  be, 
4  A  are 


A  M  E 


[     554     ] 


A  M  E 


America. 


55 
Their  con- 
ftitutlon 
and  corpo- 
raUbilities. 


56 
Their  la- 
bour and 
iuduftry. 


are,  certainly,  not  comparable  with  the  HcfctSls  of  that 
iniinciirc  people,  whole  charadcr  we  have  ikeichcd, 
and  othtTi  wliom  wc  omit. 

M.dc  Pauwrcprcients  tlie  Americanstobea  feeble 
and  dilcafcd  (ct  of  nations  ;  and,  in  order  to  demon- 
ftrate  the  weaknels  and  diforder  of  thcirphy (ical  con- 
llitiition,  adduces  fcvcral  proofs  equally  ridiculous  and 
ill-founded, and  which  it  will  not  be  cxpciiUd  we  lliould 
cnnnieratc.  Heallegcs,amongothcrpaniciilars,  thtt 
they  were  overcome  in  wrelilingby  all  the  Europeans, 
and  that  they  funk  under  a  moderate  burthen  ;  that  by 
a  computation  uiade,  200,000  Americans  were  found  to 
luvc  pcriilicd,  in  one  year,  from  carrying  of  baggage. 
Willi  rcfi'ciH  to  the  tirrt  point,  the  Abbe  Chivigcroob- 
fcrvcs,  it  would  be  neceiFary  that  the  experiment  of 
wreilling  was  made  between  many  individuals  of  each 
continent,  and  that  the  victory  lliould  be  attelled  by  the 
Americans,  as  well  as  by  the  Europeans.  It  is  nor,  how- 
ever, meant  to  inlift,  tliat  the  Americans  are  ftronger 
than  the  Europeans.  They  may  be  lefs  Ilrong,  without 
the  human  fpccieshave  degenerated  in  them. The  Swifs 
areftronger  than  the  Italians;  and  Hill  we  do  not  believe 
the  Italians  arc  degenerated  nor  do  wc  tax  the  climate 
of  It.ily.  The  inllance  of  200,000  Americans  having 
died,  inone  year,  under  the  weiijht  of  baggage,  were 
it  true,  would  not  convince  us,  fo  much  of  the  weaknefs 
of  the  Americans,  as  of  the  inhumanity  of  the  Euro- 
peans. Inthe  fame  manner  that  thefe  200.0=0  Ame- 
ricans perilhed,  200,000  Prullians  would  alfo  have  pe- 
rilhed,  liad  tlicy  been  obliged  to  make  a  journey  of 
between  ;!00  and  400  mHcs,  with  too  pounds  of  bur- 
den upon  their  backs  :  if  they  had  collars  of  iron  about 
their  necks,  and  were  obliged  to  carry  that  load  over 
rocks  and  mountains  ;  if  ihofe  who  became  exhaulled 
with  fatigue,  or  Vv'oundcd  their  feet  fo  as  to  impede 
their  progrefs,  liad  their  heads  cut  otF  that  they  might 
not  retard  the  pace  of  the  rcfl  ;  and  if  they  were  not 
allowed  but  a  fmall  morfcl  of  bread  to  enable  them  to 
fupport  fo  fcvere  a  toil.  Las  Cafas,  from  whom  M.  de 
I'auw  got  the  account  of  the  200,000  Americans,  who 
died  under  the  fatigue  of  carrying  baggage,  relates, 
alio,  all  tiie  abovcmcntioncd  circumftancts.  Ifthai 
author,  therefore,  is  to  be  credited  in  thclaft,  he  is  alio 
to  be  credited  in  the  tirft.  But,  a  philofoplicr  who 
vaunts  the  phylicaland  moral  qualities  of  Europeans, 
over  thofc  of  the  Americans,  w-ould  have  done  better, 
we  think,  to  have  fupprcired  fails  fo  opprobrious  to 
the  Europeans  themfclves. 

Nothing,  in  fact,  dcmonflrates  fo  clearly  the  rnbufl- 
nefs  of  the  Americans  as  tkofe  various,  and  lafliiig,  fa- 
tigues in  which  they  were  continually  engaged.  M.  de 
Pauwfays,  that  when  the  New- World  wasdifcovered, 
nothing  was  to  be  feen  but  thick  woods  ;  that,  at  pre- 
feiu,  there  are  fome  lands  cultivated,  not  by  tiie  Ame- 
ricans, however,  but  by  the  Africans,  and  Europeans  ; 
and  th;it  tlic  I'oil  in  cultivation  is  to  the  foil  whicli  is 
uncultivated  as  2000  to  2,000,000.  Thefe  thrceallcr- 
tions  the  Abhe  Clavigcro  demonftrates  to  be  precifely 
fo  many  errors.  Since  the  couqueft,  the  Americans 
alone  have  been  the  people  who  have  fupportcdall  the 
fatigues  of  agriculture  in  all  the  vafl  countries  of  the 


Americans,  are  very  few  in  number  in  the  kingdom  of 
New-Spain,  are  charged  witli  the  culture  of  thcfugar- 
cane,  and  tobacco,  and  the  making  of  fugar  ;  bur  the 
foil  dellincd  for  the  cultivation  of  thofc  j)lants  is  not, 
with  rcfpeft  10  all  the  cultivated  land  of  that  country, 
in  the  proportion  of  one  to  two  thoufand.  The  Ame- 
ricans are  the  people  who  labour  on  the  foil.  They 
are  the  tillers,  the  fowcrs,  the  weeders,  and  the  reap- 
ersof  the  wheat,  of  thcmaizc,  of  tlicri'.e,of  the  beans, 
and  other  kinds  of  grain  or  pulfc,  of  the  cocoa,  of  the 
vanilla,  of  the  cotton,of  the  indigo,  and  all  other  plants 
uftfulto  the  fudenance,  the  cloathing,  and  commerce 
of  thofc  provinces  ;  and  without  them  fo  little  can  be 
done,  that  in  the  year  1762,  the  harvefl  of  wheat  was 
abandoned,  in  many  places,  on  account  of  a  (ickncfs 
w-hich  prevailed,  and  prevented  the  Indians  from  reap- 
ing it.  iJut  this  is  not  all  ;  the  Americans  are  they  who 
cut  and  tranfport  all  the  iiccellary  timber  from  the 
woods  ;  who  cut,  tranfport,  and  work  the  ftones :  who 
make  lime,  plafler,  and  tiles  :  who  conllruft  all  the 
buildings  of  that  kingdom,  except  a  few  places  where 
none  of  them  inhabit ;  who  open  and  repair  all  the  loads, 
who  make  the  canals  and  lluices,  and  clean  the  cities. 
They  work  in  many  minesof  gold,  of  filvcr,  of  copper, 
&c. :  they  are  the  Ihepherds,  herdfnien,  weavers,  pot- 
ters, baiket-makers,  bakers,  curriers,  day-labourers, 
&c.  :  in  a  word,  they  are  the  pcrfons  who  bear  all  the 
burden  of  public  labours.  Thefe,  fays  our  jullly  in- 
dignant author,  arc  the  employments  of  the  weak, 
daftardly,  and  ufelefs  Americans  ;  while  the  vigorous 
M.  de  Panw,  and  other  indefatigable  Europeans,  are 
occupied  in  writing  invectives  againft  them. 

Thefe  labourp.in  which  thelndians  are  con tinuallyeni- 
ployed, certainly, attcflthcirhealthinefs  and  ftrength; 
forif  they  are  able  to  undergo  fuch  fatigues,  they  can 
not  be  dilcafcd,  nor  have  an  cxhauflcd  flream  of  blood 
in  their  veins,  as  M.  de  Panw  infniuates.  In  order  to 
make  it  believed  that  their  conftitutions  are  vitiated, 
he  copies  whatever  he  finds  written  by  hiflorians  of  A- 
mcrica,  whether  true  or  falfc,  refpccting  the  difcafcs 
which  reign  in  fonie  partictilar  countries  of  that  great 
continent.  It  is  not  to  be  denied,  that  in  fome  coun- 
tricsin  the  wide  compafs  of  America,  menarcexpofed, 
more  than  elfcwhere,tothediftcmpers  whicli  are  occa- 
fioned  by  the  intemperature  of  the  air,  or  the  perni- 
cious quality  of  the  aliments  j  but  it  is  certain,  accor- 
ding to  the  ali'crtion  of  many  rcfpctlablc  authors,  ac- 
quainted with  the  New- World,  that  the  American 
countries  are,  for  tlie  mofl;  part  hetlthy  ;  a,nd  if  the 
Americans  were  dipofed  to  rct.iliatc  on  M.  de  Paitw, 
and  other  European  authors,  who  write  as  he  does,  they 
would  have  abundant  f  d>jc<ft  of  materials  to  throw  dif- 
credit  on  the  clime  of  the  Old-Continent,  and  the 
conftitiition  of  its  inhabitants  in  the  endemic  dillcm- 
pcrs  which  prevail  there. 

Laftly  ,  the  fiippofcd  feeblenefs  and  unfound  bodily 
habit  of  the  Americans  do  not  correfpond  with  the 
length  of  their  lives.  Among  tliofe  Aniencaiis  wliofc 
great  fatigues  and  exccf?ivc  toils  do  not  antitipatc  their 
death,  there  are  r.ot  a  few  who  reach  the  age  of  80, 
90.  and  too,  or  moi  e  years,  as  formerly  mentioned  ; 


America. 


57 
Thefe  a 
fufficient 
proof  of 
their  hcaU 
thinefs  and 
ftrength. 


continent  of  South- America,  and  in  the  greater  part  of  and,  what  is  more,  without  there  being  obfcrved  in  thein 
thofc  of  North  America  fubjcrt  to  the  crown  of  Spain,  iliat  decay  which  time  commonly  produces  in  the  hair. 
No  European  is  ever  to Ik  feen  employed  in  the  labours  in  tJie  teeth,  in  the  fkin,  and  in  the  mufcles  of  the  hu- 
of  tlic  field.     The  Moors  who,  in  coinparifoii  of  the     wan  body.     This  phenomenon,  fo  much  admired  by 

the 


A  M  E 


[     555     ] 


A  M  E 


58 

Theirmen- 
lalqualiliet 


the  Spani.irds  who  rcliJc  in  Mexico,  cannot  be  afcri- 
ed  10  any  other  caufe  than  the  vigour  oi'ihiir  co.ilUtii- 
tions,  tiie  temperance  of  their  diet,  and  the  liilubri:y  of 
their  clime.  Hilloiians,  and  other  pcrioiis  who  have 
fojournt-d  there  for  many  years,  report  the  fame  thing 
of  ottui  coiint  ies  of  the  New-World. 

As  to  the  mental  qualities  of  the  Americans,  M.  de 
Pauwhasnot  bccna'olc  todiff-overanypthcr  characters 
than  a  memory  fo  ftcUc,  that  to-duy  tliry  do  not  re- 
member what  they  did  ycitcrJay  ;  a  capacity  fo  blunt, 
that  they  arc  incap.iblc  of  thinking  or  ptittmg  their 
ideas  in  order  ;  a  difpolition  fo  col.',  that  they  feel  no 
excitement  of  love  ;  adaftard'y  fpirit,and  a  genius  that 
is  torpid,  and  indolent.  Many  other  Europeans,  in- 
deed, and  \\  liat  is  flill  more  wonderful,  many  of  tiiofc 
children  or  dtfccndaius  ot  turopeans  who  are  born  in 
America,  think  as  M.  de  Fauw  docs;  fonie  from  igno- 
rance, fome  from  want  of  rciicclion,  and  others  Irom 
hereditary  prtjidicc  and  prepolfcirion.  But  all  this,  and 
much  more,woa;d  not  be  uiihcicnt  to  invalidate  the  te- 
ftimonies  of  other  Europeans,  whofe  authority  has  a 
great  deal  more  weiglit,  both  becaufc  they  were  men 
of  great  judgment,  learning  and  knowledge,  of  thefe 
countries,  and  becaul'e  they  give  their  teftimony  in  fa- 
vour of  (Irangers,  againrt  their  own  countrymen.  In 
particular,  AcoRa,  whole  Natural  and  Moral  Hijlory 
even  de  Fauw  commends  as  ayt  txcclkitt  work,  employs 
the  whole  lixth  book  in  demonftrating  the  good  fenfeof 
the  Americans,  by  an  explanation  of  their  ancient  go- 
vernment, their  laws,  their  hiftories  in  paintings  and 
knots,  calenders,  &c.  M.dt  Pauw  thinks  the  Ameri- 
cans arc  bellial  ;  Aco:'a,  on  the  other  hand,  reputes 
thofe  perfons  weak  and  pref;imptuous  who  think  them 
fo.  M.  de  Pauw  fays,  that  the  mod  acute  Americans 
were  inferior  in  indnftryand  fagacity  to  the  rudelt  na- 
tions of  the  Old-Continent  ;  Acolla  extols  the  civil  go- 
vernment of  the  Mexicans  above  many  republics  of 
Europe.  M.  de  Pauw  finds,  in  the  moral  and  political 
condu(51of  the  Americans,  nothing  but  barbarity,  ex- 
travagance, and  brutality;  and  Acolla  finds  there,  laws 
which  are  admirable,  and  worthy  of  being  nreferved 
for  ever. 

M.  de  Pauw  denies  them  courage,  and  alleges  the 
conqueft  of  Mexico  as  a  proof  of  their  cowardice. 
"  Cortes  (fays  he),  conquered  the  empire  of  Mexico 
with  4;ovagabonds,and  15  horfes, badly  armed:  hismi- 
ferable  artillery  confided  of  (ix  falconets,  which  would 
not  at  the  prefent  day  be  capable  of  exciting  the  fears 
of  a  fortrefs  defended  by  invalids.  During  his  abfence, 
the  capital  was  held  in  awe  by  the  lulf  of  his  troops. 
What  men  !  what  events  ! —  It  is  confirmed  by  the  de- 
pofitionsofallhiflorians.thattheSpaniards  entered,  the 
firlltime,  into  Mexico  without  making  one  fingle  dif- 
charge  of  their  artillery.  If  the  titleof  hero  is  appli- 
cable to  him  who  has  the  difgrace  to  occafion  the  death 
of  a  great  number  of  rational  animals,  Ferdinand  Cor- 
tes might  pretend  to  it  ;  othcrwife  I  do  not  fee  wliat 
true  glory  he  lias  acquired  by  theovertlirowofa  totter- 
ingmonarchy, which  mi;;ht  havcbecn  dcdroyed.in  the 
fame  manner,  by  any  other  airalfin  of  our  continent." 
Thefe  palTages  indicate  either  M.de  Pauw's  ignorance 
of  the  hiflory  of  the  conqucfl  of  Mexico,  or  a  wilful 
fupprcffion  of  what  would  openly  contradid  his  fyftem ; 
fince  all  who  have  read  that  hiftory  know  well,  that 
ikc  conqucfl  of  Mexico  was  not  made  with  4)0  men. 


bit  « ith  more  than  2oo,ccx5.  Cortes himfrif,  :o v.hoin   .\mcrici. 

it  was  of  more  importance  liun  to  M.  dc  Pauw  to  make  ' ' ' 

his  bravery  confpicuous,  and  his  conqucfl  appear  y\n- 
rio  rs,  conielfes  the  exceliive  iMmber  of  the  alius  who 
were  under  his  command,  at  the  fiege  of  the  capital, 
and  combated  with  more  tury  againit  the  Mexicans 
tlian  the  Spaniards  ihtmftlvcs.  Accordiu  j  to  the  ac- 
count which  Cortes  gave  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.thc 
fieffc  of  Mexico  began  with  87  horfes,  848  Spanilh  in- 
fantry, armed  with  guns,  crofs-bows,  fwords,  and  lan- 
ces, and  upwards  of  75,000  allies,  of  1  lalcala,  Huexo- 
t/inco,  Cholula,  and  Chalco,  equipped  \utlj  various 
fortsof  arms;  with  three  large  pieces  of  cannon  of 
iron,  15  fmall  of  copper,  and  i  ;  brigantines.  In  the 
courfcofthe  ficge  were  alfembled  the  numerous  nations 
of  the  Otomies,  the  Cohuixcas,  and  Mailazinkas,  and 
the  troops  of  the  populous  cities  of  the  lakes  ;  fo  that 
the  army  of  the  befiegcrs  not  only  exceeded  200,000, 
but  amounted  to  400,000  according  to  the  letter  froiii 
Cortes;  and  belides  thefe,  3000  boats  and  cauoes  came 
to  their  aflidancc.  Did  it  betray  cowardice  to  have 
fudained,  for  full  7j  days,  the  licge  of  an  open  city, 
engaging,  daily,  with  an  army  fo  large,  and  in  pare 
piovided  with  arms  fofuperior,  and  at  the  fame  time 
having  to  withdand  the  ravages  of  famine  ?  Can  they 
merit  the  charge  of  cowardice,  who,  after  having  lod 
feven  of  the  tight  parts  of  their  city,  and  about  jo,ooo 
citizens,  part  cut  off  by  the  fword,  part  by  famine  and 
(icknefs,  continued  to  defend  tliemfelves  until  they 
were  furioully  allaulted  in  the  lad  hold  which  was  left 
them  .'     See  the  article  Mexico.  f 

According  to  M.  de  Pauw,  "  the  Americans  at  firft  Rcmarti- 
"  Were  not  believed  to  be  men,  but  rather  fatyrs,  orblcinaanfe 
"  large  apes,  which  might  be  murdered,  without  re-  "f  cilumnf 
"  morfe,  or  reproach.     At  lad,  in  order  to  ai'd  infult '"  ^  ^' 
"  tothcopprelfion  of  thofe  times,  a  pope  made  an  ori-  ''*""'• 
"  ginal  bull,  in  which  he  declared,  that  being  defirous 
"  of  founding  bilhoprics  in  the  riched  countries  in  A- 
"  merica,   it  pleafed  him  and  the  Holy- Spirit,  to  ac- 
"  knowledge  the  Americans  to  be  true  men  :  in  fo 
"  far,  that  without  this  decilion  of  an  Italian,  the  in- 
"  habitants  of  the  New-World  would  have  appeared, 
'<  even  at  this  day,  to  the  eyes  of  the  faithful,  a  race 
"  of  equivocal  men.     There  is  no  example  of  fucli  a 
"  decifion  fince  this  globe  has  been  inhabited  by  men 
"  and  apes."     Upon  this  paifage  the  Abbe  Clavigcro 
animadverts,  as  being  a  lingular  indance  of  calumny 
and  mifreprcfentation  ;  and  gives  tlie  following  hidory 
of  the  decifion  alluded  to.  -  ,, 

"  Soinc  of  the  fird  Europeans  who  edablifhed  them-  Occafionuf 
fclves  in  America,  not  Icfs  powerful  than  avaricious,  the  fimout 
delirousofenrichingthenifelves tothedctrimentofthe  bull  of 
Americans,  kept  them  continually  cm  ployed, and  made  P"P<=  P*"' 
ufe  of  them  as  llaves  ;  and,  in  order  to  avoid  the  re-  '"• 
proaches,  which  were  made  them,  by  thebidiops  and 
miinonaries,  who  inculcated  humanity,  and  the  giving 
liberty  to  thofe  people  to  get  themfelves  indrurtrd  in 
religion,  that  they  might  do  their  duties  towards  the 
church,andtheirfamilies,alleged,thatthc  Indians  were 
by  nature  (laves  and  incapable  of  being  indrnc^cd  ;  and 
many  other  falfchoodsof  w  hich  the  Chronicler  Herreri 
makes  inention  againd  them.   Thefe  zealous  ecclcfia- 
dics  being  unable, either  by  their  authority,  or  preach- 
ing, to  free  thofe  unhappy  converts  from  the  tyranny 
of  fuch  uiilcrs,  had  recourfc  to  the  Catholic  kings,  and, 
6,  .\   2  at 


A  M  E 


[    sso    ] 


A  M  E 


America,  at  kft,  obtained  from  llicir  jufticc  and  clemency,  thofc 

'— ^^ '  laws,  as  favourable  to  the  Amcricuiis  as  honourable  to 

the  court  of  Spain,  that  conipofc  the  Iadia\i  code, 
which  were  chiefly  due  to  the  indefatigable  zeal  of  tlie 
Mlhop  dc  las  Cafas.  On  another  lidc,  Garces,  bilhop 
ot  Tlafcala,  knowing  that  thofc  Spaniards  bore,  not- 
witlillanding  their  pervcriity,agreatrcfpei:t  tothe  dc- 
cifionof  the  vicar  of  Jefiis  Chrill,  made  application,  in 
the  year  1586,  to  I'upc  Paul  111.  by  that  famous  let- 
ter, of  which  we  have  made  mention  ;  reprefeniing  to 
him  the  evils  which  tlic  Indians  fuffercd  from  the  wick- 
ed Chriftians,  and  praying  liim  to  iuteipofc  his  autlio- 
rily  in  their  behalf.  The  pope,  moved  by  fuch  heavy 
rcmonllrances,  difpatchcd,  the  next  year,  the  original 
bull,  a  faitliful  copy  of  which  we  have  here  fiibjoin- 
ed  (a),  which  was  not  made,  as  is  manifell,  to  declare 
the  Americans  true  men  ;  for  fuch  a  picceof  weaknefs 
was  very  diflant  from  that  or  any  other  pope  :  but 
folely  to  fupport  the  natural  rights  of  the  Americans, 
againlltheattcmptsof  thciropprellbrs,  and  to  condemn 
the  injafticc  and  ininimanity  of  thofc,  who,  under  the 
pretence  of  fuppoling  tliofc  people  idolatrous,  or  inca- 
pable of  being  indrucUd,  took  from  them  tlieir  pro- 
perty and  their  liberty,  and  treated  tliem  as  Haves  and 
hearts." 

But  if,  at  firfl,  the  Americans  were  cflecmed  fatyrs, 
nobody  can  better  prove  it  than  Chriftophcr  Columbus, 
their  difcoverer.  Let  us  hear,  llierefore,  how  that  ce- 
lebrated admiral  fpeaks,  in  his  account  to  Ferdinand 
and  jfabella,  of  tlie  firll  falyrs  he  faw  in  tlie  illaud  of 
Haiti,  or  Hifpaniola.  "  I  fwear,"  he  fays,  "  to  your 
majefties,  that  there  is  not  a  better  people  in  the  world 
than  thefe,  more  afiedionate,  atfible,  or  mild.  They 
liTve  their  neighbours  as  themfelves  ;  their  language  is 
the  fweetefl,  the  foftclt,  and  the  moll  cheerful  ;  for 
they  always  fpcak  fmiling  ;  and  although  they  go  na- 
ked, kt  your  majertics  believe  me,  their  euftoms  are 
very  becoming;  and  their  king,  wlio  is  ferved  with 
great  majefty,  has  fuch  engaging  manners,  that  itgives 
great  plcafure  to  fee  him,  and  alio  to  confider  the  great 
rcieniive  faculty  of  that  people,  and  their  delirc  of 
knowledge,  which  incites  them  to  aik  the  caufes  and 
the  efFcds  of  things." 


63 
Reprcfen- 
tatiou  of 
Columbus 


"  We  have  had  intimate  commerce  virith  the  Ame- 
ricans (continues  the  Abbe):  have  lived,for  feme  years, 
in  a  feminary  delfined  for  their  inftrudion  ;  faw  the 
erection  and  piogrcfs  of  the  royal  college  of  Guada- 
loiipe  founded,  in  Mexico,  by  a  Mexican  J  efuit,  for  the 
education  of  Indian  children;  had,  afterwards,  fome  In- 
dians among  our  pupils  ;  had  particular  knowledge  of 
many  American  redors,  many  nobles,  and  numerous 
artilis  ;  attentively,  obferved  their  charade  r,  their  ge- 
nius, their  difpoiition,  and  manner  of  thinking  ;  and 
have  examined, belides, with  the  utmofldiligence, their 
ancient  hi(lory,theirreligion,  theirgovernment,  their 
laws,  and  their  culloms.  After  fuch  long  experience 
and  lludy  of  them,  from  which  we  imagine  ourfclves, 
enabled  to  decide,  without  dangcrof  erring,  we  declare 
to  M.  de  Fauw,  and  to  all  Europe,  that  the  mental  qua- 
lities of  the  Americans  are  not  in  the  leall  inferior  to 
thofe  of  the  Europeans  ;  that  they  are  capable  of  all, 
even  the  moll  abrtrad,  fciences  ;  and  that  if  equal  care 
was  taken  of  their  education,  if  they  were  brought  up 
from  childhood  in  feminarics,  under  good  ma/lers,wcrc 
protedcd  and  llimulated  by  rewards,  we  Ihould  fee  rife 
among  the  Americans,  philofophers,  mathematicians, 
and  divines,  who  would  rival  the  tirft  in  Europe." 

But,  although  we  (hould  fuppofe,  that,  in  the  torrid 
climates  of  the  New-World,  as  well  as  in  thofe  of  the 
Old,  cfpccially  under  the  additional  dcprefTion  of  lla- 
vcry,  there  was  an  inferiority  of  the  mental  powers  ; 
the  Chilefc,and  the  North-Americans,havedifcovercd 
higher  rudiments  of  human  excellence  and  ingenuity 
than  have,  perhaps,  ever  been  known  among  tribes  in 
a  limilar  Hate  of  foeiety,  in  any  part  of  the  world. 

M.  de  Pauw  affirms,  that  the  Americans  were  nnac- 
quainicd  with  the  ufeof  money, and  quotes  the  follow- 
ing well-known  pallage  from  Montefquieu  :  <'  Imagine 
to  yourfclf  that,  by  fome  accident,  yoa  arc  placed  in 
an  unknown  country  ;  if  you  find  money  there,  do  not 
doubt  that  you  arc  arrived  among  a  poliflied  people." 
But,  if  by  money  wc  arc  to  underlland  a  piece  of  metal 
with  the  Ilamp  of  the  prince,  or  of  the  public,  the  want 
of  it  in  a  nation  is  no  token  of  barbarity.  The  Athe- 
nians employed  oxen  for  money,  as  the  Romans  did 
llieep.  The  Romans  had  no  coined  money  till  the  time 

of 


America. 

Conclufi.. 
ons con- 
cerning the 
"iiacities 
of  the  A- 
mcricani. 


65 
Their  in- 
genuity, 
&c.affcrt- 


(a)  Prvulus  papa  III.  univcrfis  Chrilli  Fidelibus  prefcntes  Literas  infpcduris  Salutem  &  Apoflolicam  Bene- 
dittioiiem — "  Veritas  ipfa,  qux  nee  falli,  nee  fallere  potell,  cum  Prxdlcatores  Fidci  ad  oflicium  predicationis 
dcllinaret,  dixlJfe  ilignofcilur  :  Eiint.s  docete  omnss  gmtes  :  omnes,  dixit,  abfque  omni  deledu,  cum  omnes  Fidei 
(lifcipliua  capaces  cxiltant.     (Jjiod  vidtns  &  invidens  i|)luis  humani  generis  azmulus,  qui  bonis  operibus,  ut  pe- 
rcant,  ftmprradverfutur,  moduni  excogitavit  hudcnus  iaauditum,  quo  impediret,  nc  Verbum  Dei  Gentibus,  u: 
falva;  fiereut,  prxdicarctur  :   ut  quofdam  fuos  fatcllites  commovit,  qui  fuam  cupiditatem  adimplere  cupientes. 
Occidentales&  Meridionalcs  Indos,  &  alias  Gentes,  qux  tcmporibus  illis  ad  nollram  notitiam  pervenerunt,  fub 
pra;textu  quod  Fidei  Catholicx  experics  txillant,  uti  bruta  animalia,  ad  noflra  obfcquia  redigendos  elFe,  pallim 
alfercre  pra;fumant,  &  co;  in  lervituteui  redigunt  taiitis  affliOlionibus  illos  urgentcs,  quantis  vix  bruta  animalia 
illis  fcrvientia  urgeant.     Nos  igitur,  qui  ejufdcm  Domini  nollri  vices,  licet  indigni,  gcrinius  in  terris,  &  Oves 
grcgis  fui  nobis  commilTis,  qua;  extra  ejus  Ovile  fuat,  ad  ipfum  Ovilc  toto  nixu  exquiiimus,  attendcntts  Indos 
ipfos,  lit  potc  veros  homines,  iion  folum  Chriilianje  Fidci  capaccs  exillerc,  fed,  ut  nobis  innotuii,  ad  Fidem  ip- 
fim  prom  pti  liim  e  currcre,  ac  volentcslupcr  his  congruis  rem  cdiisprovidcre.prsedidos  Indos  &  omnes  alias  gcn- 
ics  ad  notitiam  Chriilianorum  in  polleruni  deventuras,  licet  extra  fidcm  Cluilli  exillant,  fua  libertate  &  domi- 
I'.io  liujuf;nodi  uti,  &  po;iri,  &  gauderc  libere,  &  licete  polfe,  nee  in  fcrvltuteiu  rcdigi  dcbcre,  ac  quicquid  fc- 
cu5  fieri  contigcrit  irritum  Sc  inane,  ipfofquc  Indos,  &  alias  Gentes  Verbi  Dei  pracdicatioue,  &  cxemplo  bonse 
vitaead  diclam  Fidcm  Chrilli  invitandosfore.     Audoritatc  Apoflolica  per  prxfentcs  literas  decernimus,  &  dc- 
claramus,   noa  obflaniibus  prosmillis,  easterifque  contrariis  quibufcunque."     Datum  Romns  anno  ts?1-  JV. 
Non.  lun.  Pontilicatus  nollri  anno  lil.  Oiia:fla,  c  iion  altra  e  •■luclla  famofa  bolla,  per  la  quale  s'  efatto  uii  fi 
grande  fchiamazzo. 


A  M  E 


[     S57     ] 


A  M  E 


66 

Tokens  of 
fcience. 


America,  of  Scrvius  Tullius,  nor  had  the  Perlians  until  the  rtigii 
of  Darius  Hyftafpcs.  But,  if  by  money  is  underllood  a 
lign  reprcfcnting  the  value  of  nierchandifc,  tlie  Mex- 
icans, and  other  nations  of  Anhuac,  employed  money 
in  their  commerce.  The  cacao,  of  which  ilicy  made 
conftant  ufc  in  the  market  to  purchafe  whatever  they 
wanted,  was  employed  for  this  purpofc,  as  fait  is  in  A- 
bylfinia. 

It  has  been  affirmed.that  ftonc  bridges  were  unknown 
in  America,  when  it  was  lirfl.  difcovercd  ;  and  that  the 
natives  did  not  know  iiow  to  form  arches.  But,  thefe 
allcrtions  are  erroneous.  The  remains  of  the  ancient 
palaces  of  Tezcucco,and,riill  more,  their  vapour  baths, 
fhovv  the  ancient  ufe  of  arches  and  of  vaults  among  the 
Mexicans.  But  the  ignorance  of  this  art  would  have 
been  no  proof  of  barbarity.  Neither  the  Egyptians  nor 
Babyloiiiaus  underllood  the  conllruclion  of  arches. 

M.  de  Fauw  afiinns,  that  the  palace  of  Montezuma 
was  nothing  elfc  than  a  hut.  But,  it  is  certain,  from 
the  affirmation  of  all  the  hiftorians  of  Mexico,  that  the 
army  under  Cortes,  conliiling  of  6, 400  men,  were  ail 
lodged  in  the  palace  ;  and  there  rcmainej  ftill  fuffici- 
ent  room  for  Montezuma  and  his  attendants. 

The  advances  which  the  Mexicans  had  made  in  tlic 
noble  fcience  of  aftronomy,  is,  perhaps,  the  mod  fupri- 
fing  proof  of  their  attention  and  fagacity  :  for  it  appears, 
from  Abbe  Clavigero's  Hiftory,  that  they  not  only 
counted  365  days  to  the  year,  but  alfoknew  of  the  ex- 
ccfs  of  about  fix  hours  in  the  folar  over  the  civil  year, 
and  remedied  the  difference,  by  means  of  intercalary 
days.     See  Astronomy,  n"  5. 

Of  American  morality,  the  following  exhortation  of 
a  Mexican  to  his  fon  may  ferve  as  a  fpecimen.  "  My 
fon,  who  art  come  into  the  light  from  the  womb  of  thy 
mother  like  a  chicken  from  the  egg,  and,  like  it,  art 
preparing  to  fly  through  the  world,  we  know  not  how 
long  Heaven  will  grant  to  us  the  enjoyment  oi  hat 
precious  gem  which  we  polFcfs  in  thee  ;  but  however 
fhort  the  period,  endeavour  to  live  exadly,  praying 
Cod  continually  toalfill  tliee.  He  created  thee  :  tliou 
art  his  property.  He  is  thy  father,  and  loves  thee  ftill 
more  than  I  do  :  repofc  in  him  thy  thoughts,  ?,nd  d.iy 
and  night  dirciS  tliy  fighs  to  him.  llcvcrcuce  and  fa- 
luietliy  elders,  and  hold  noone  in  contempt.  To  the 
poor  and  dillreiled  be  not  dumb,  but  raiiier  ufe  words 
of  comfort.  Honour  all  perfons,  particularly  thy  pa- 
rents, to  whom  thou  owed  obedience,  refpcct  and  fcr- 
vice.  Guard  againll  iinitatiug  the  example  of  thofc 
wicked  fons,  who,  like  brutes  that  are  deprived  of  rea- 
fon,  neither  reverence  their  parents,  liftcn  to  their  in- 
flru(^ion,  nor  fubmit  to  their  correction  ;  bccaufe  who- 
ever follows  their  flcps  will  liave  an  unhappy  end, 
will  die  in  a  defperatc  or  fuddcn  manner,  or  will  be 
killed,  and  devoured  by  wild  bealls. 

"  Mock  not,  my  fon,  the  aged  or  the  imperfcifl. 
Scorn  not  him  whom  yovi  fee  fall  into  fome  folly,  or 
tranfgrelTion,  nor  make  liim  reproaches  ;  but  rellrain 
thyfelf,  and  beware  left  thou  fall  into  the  fime  error 
which  otFcnds  thee  in  another.  Gonot  where  thou  art 
not  called,  nor  interfere  in  that  wh'ch  does  not  concern 
thee.  Endeavour  to  manifeil  thy  good  breeding,  in  all 
thy  words,  and  actions.  In  converfation,  do  not  liy 
thy  hands  upon  another,  nor  fpeak  too  much,  nor  in- 
terrupt or  didurb  another's  difcotirfe.  When  any  one 
difcourfcs  with  thee,  hear  liim,  attentively,  nnj  hold 


67 
Specimen 
of  their 
morality 


thyfelf  in  an  cafy  attitude,  neither  playing  with  thy    Amen.k. 

feet,  nor  puitingthy  mantle  to  thy  m  JUth,  uor  fpitting  ^ ' 

toooltcn,  nor  looking  about  you  liere  and  there,  nor 
riling  up  frequently  if  thou  art  (iltiug  ;  forfuchadions 
arc  indications  of  levity  and  low-breeding." — The  fa- 
ther proceeds  to  mention  fcvcral  particular  vices  which, 
are  to  be  avoided,  and  concludes — "  Steal  not,  nor  give 
thyfelf  to  gaming  ;  otlierwife  thou  wilt  be  a  diffracc 
to  thy  parents,  whom  thououghtell  rather  to  honour  for 
the  education  they  have  given  tiiec.  If  thou  wilt  be  vir- 
tuous, thy  example  will  put  the  wicked  to  Ihame.  No 
more  my  fon  ;  enough  hath  bcenfaidindifcliargc  of  the 
dutiesofa  father.  With  thefe  counfcls  I  with  to  fortify 
thy  mind.  Rcfufe  them  not,  nor  ac^  in  contradiclion 
to  them  ;  for  on  them  thy  life,  and  all  thy  happiucfs 
depend." 

As  ranging  on  the  fame  fide  with  the  Abbj;  Ckvi- 
gero,  our  countryman  Mr  Jeiferfondcfervcs  particular 
attention.     This  gentleman,  in  his  Notes  on  tk:  Ltati 
of  Virginia,  5;c.  has  taken  occalion  to  combat  the  o- 
pinions  of  Bulfon  ;  and  fec.r.s,  in  many  inllances,  to 
have  fully  refuted  them,  both  by  argument  and  by  facts.        68 
The  Krcnch  philofopherall'erts,  "Thitlivingnature  is  Notions  of 
lefsa(!;five,  Itfs  energetic,  in  the  New-World  than  in  ^''  ''*  ^'^' 
the  Old."  He  affirms,  i.  That  ihe  aniui^ls  common  to  °"  ^°"'. 
both  continents  are  linaller  jn  America.  2.  1  hat  thole  Ocgcneracr 
peculiar  to  the  New  arc  on  an  inferior  fcale.    3.  That  of  suimal 
thofe  which  have  been  domedicated  in  both  have  dcjc-  naturi;  in 
neratcd  in  America  ,  and,  4.   That  it  exhibits  fewer  •■^'""■"=»- 
fpecies  of  living  creatures.     The  caufc  of  this  he  af- 
cribcs  to  the  diminution  of  heat  in  America,  and   to 
the  prevalence  of  humidity  from  the  cxtenlion  of  its 
lakes  and  waters  over  a  prodigious  furfacc.   •  In  other 
words,  he  affirms  that  heat  is  friendly,    and  iin^ijlun 
adverfc,  to  the  production  and  devclopcmcut  of  the 
larger  quadruped.'?.  69 

Thchypothefis  that  moiftureisnnfricndiy  to  animal  The  hfps. 
growth,  Mr  JelFerfoii  Ihows  to  be  contradicted  by  ob-  thcfisthat 
fcrvation,  and  by  experience.  It  is  by  the  affidanceof  """9"" '* 
heat  and  inoidure  that  vegetables  arc  clabor.ited  from  toan^mal 
the  elements.  Accordingly,  we  lind  that  the  more  hu-  growth, 
mid  climates  produce  plants  in  greater  profulion  than  coLlidcrcd. 
t'le  dry.  Vegetables  arc  iniraediately,  or  remotely,  the 
food  of  cvc.y  animal  ;  and,   from  the  unilorui  opera- 
tion of  nature's  laws,  we  difccrn,  that,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  quantity  of  food,  animals  are  uotonl.  multi- 
plied in  thtirnumbcrs,  but  improved  in  their  lizc.  Of 
this  lid  opinion  is  the  Counidc  Bntibn  himfclf,  in  ano- 
ther part  of  his  work  :  "  En  general,  il  paroit  <\.\i  Ics 
pays  un   peu  Jroids  conviciinent   micux  a  nos  bofufs 
que  les  pays  chauds,  ct  qu'ils  font  d'autant  plus  gros 
ct  plus  grands  que  le  climat  cd  plus   hjvuj;  et  plus 
abondans  en  paturagrs.     Lcs  boeiifs  de   Dauemarck, 
de  la  Podolie,  de  I'Ukraine,  et  dc  laTartarie  qu'habi- 
tent   les  Calmouques,   font  lcs  plus  grands  dc- tons."        -□ 
Here,  then,  a  race  of  animals,  and  one  of  the  larged  The  con. 
too,  has  been  increafed  in  its  dimcnfions  by  cold  and  trarjmaicu 
moidure,  in  dirci;!  oppofition  tothe  hypoibelis,  which  "'"t^d'>y 
fnppofcs  that  thefe  two  circumllancts  diminiih  animal  ^^'■J«°"=''- 
bulk,  andthat  it  is  their  contraries,  heat  and  drynefs, 
whi:h  eiil.'.rge  it.     But,  to  try  the  quedionon  more 
general  ground,  let  us  take  two  portions  of  the  earth, 
Europe  and  America  forindance,  fufficieuily  exieali\c 
to  give  operation  to  general  ciufcs :  Ic:  us  conlider  the 
circumdauces  peculiar  to  each,  and  obfcrve  their  cf- 

Icds 


fon. 


A  M  E 


[    sss    ] 


A  M  E 


Americi.  fefls  on  animal  nauirc.  Amtrica,  running  iliroiijrh  the 
'  ^'  '  torrid,  as  \ve:las  icnipcraic,  zone,  has  more  heat  col- 
le^iivtly  taken,  than  Kuro|)c.  Jiiit  Eiiroj'c,  acconlir.g 
toourhypolhtlis,  isthcdricft.  They  arc  equally  a>'aiit- 
cd,  then,  to  animal  productions  ;  each  being  endowed 
\vithone  of  thofe  caufcswhich  befriend  animal  growth, 
and  with  one  which  oppolcsit.  Let  ns,  then,  take  a 
comparative  view  of  ilie  quadrupeds  of  Europe  and  of 
America,  prcfeniing  them  totiiecye  in  three  different 
rabies  ;  in  one  of  which  fliall  be  enumerated  thofe 
found  in  both  countries;  in  a  fecond,  thofe  found  in 
one  only  ;  in  a  third,  thofe  which  liave  been  domclli- 
cated  in  both.  To  facilit.ite  the  coniparifon,  let  thofe 
of  each  table  be  arranged  in  gridaiion,  according  to 
their  fizes,  from  the  greateft  to  the  fiiiallcll,  fo  far  as 
their  lizes  can  be  conjcdurcd.  The  weights  of  the 
large  animal  Ihall  be  exprelfed  in  the  Englilh  avcrdu- 
jioifc  pound  and  its  decimals  ;  thofe  of  the  fmallerin  ilic 
ounce  and  i:s  decimals.  Thofe  which  are  marked 
thus*,  are  aclual  weights  of  particular  fubjefts,  deem- 
ed among  the  lareieft  of  their  fpecies.  Thofe  marked 
thusf,  are  furnifhed  by  judicious  pcrfons,  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  fpecies,  and  laying,  from  conjeclurc 
only,  what  the  largefl  individual  they  had  fccn  would 
probably  have  weighed.  The  other  weights  arc  taken 
from  Mclfrs  BuflTon  aHd  D'Aubenton,  and  are  of  fuch 
fubjcds  as  came  cafually  to  their  hands  for  dillcclion, 

'*  A  Comparative  View  of  the  Quadrupeds  of  Europe 
and  of  America. 


TabI-E  II.    A/}ori£i/ja/s  of  th^  out  ouly. 
EUROPE.  AMERICA. 


An.ericl. 


Table  I.  Aboriginals  oj  both. 

Mam  mouth  (b) 

Buffalo.     Bifon 

White- bear.     Ours  blanc 

Carribou.     Renne 

Bear.     Ours 

Elk.  Elan.  Original,  palmated 

Red-deer.     Cerf 

Fallow-deer.     Daira 

Wolf.     Loup 

Roe.     Chevreuil 

Glutton.    Glouton.     Carcajou 

Wild-cat.     Chat  fauvagc 

Lynx.  Loupcervicr 

Beaver.     Caftor 

Badger.     Blaircau 

Red-fox.     Rcnard 

Grey-fox.     Ifatis 

Otter.     Loutre 

Monax.     Marmotte 

Vifon.     Fouinc 

Hedgehog.     HcrilTon 

Martin.     Martc 

Water-rat.     Rat  d'eau 
Wefel.      Bclette 
Flying-fqiiirril.     Polatouche 
Shrcw-moufe.  Mufaraigne 


Europe. 

lb. 


153-7 

288.8 

167.8 

69.8 

56.7 


25- 
18.J 
13.6 
I3-J 

8.9 
6. J 

2.8 
2.2 
1.2 
oz. 
7-5 
2.2 
2.2 
I. 


America. 
Jb. 
•1800 

•  410 
*273 


t30 


'4J 


ti2 


t6 


oz. 


t4 


lb. 

lb. 

Sangiitr.  Wild  boar  280. 

Tapir 

534. 

Mouilin.Wild  Ihecp 

S6. 

Elk,  round  horned 

1450. 

Uonqiietin.  W  ild  goat 

Puma 

Liivrc.  Hare 

7.6 

Jaguar 

218. 

Lapin.  Rabbit 

?-4 

Cabiai 

109. 

Putois.  Polecat 

3-? 

Tamanoir 

109. 

Genette 

3-> 

Tamandua 

65.4 

Defnian.  Mnfkrat 

oz. 

Cougar  ot  N.  Amer 

•  75. 

Ecnreuil.    Squirrel 

12. 

Cougarof  S.  Amer. 

59-4 

Herniinc.  Ermiu 

8  ; 

Ocelot 

Rat.  Rat 

7-5 

Pecari 

46.3 

Loirs 

3-' 

Jaguarct 

43.6 

Lcrot.  Dontioufc 

i.F 

Alco 

Taupe.  Mole 

I.: 

Lama 

Hamftcr 

•9 

Paco 

zifa 

Paca 

32.7 

Leining 

Scrval 

Souris.  Moufc 

.6 

Sloth.  Unau 
SaricGvienne 
Kincajou 

2  7i 

Tatou  Kabafliiu 

21.8 

Urfon.     Urchin 

Racoon.  Raton 

16.J 

Coati 

Coendon 

16.3 

Sloth.  AV 

13- 

Sap.ijou  Ouarini 

Sapajou  Coaita 

9.8 

Tatou  Encubert 

Tatoa  Apar 

Tatou  Cachica 

7. 

Little  Coendou 

6.5 

Opoffum.  Sarigue 

Tapeti 

Margay 

Crabicr 

Agouti 

4-2 

Sapajou  SaY 

3-5 

Tatou  Cirquin^on 

Tatou  Tatonatc 

3-3 

Mouffctte  Squaflt 

Mouffcttc  Chinche 

Moutfettc  Conepate 

- 

Seunk 

Mouffettc.  Zorilla 

Whabus.  Hare.  Rab- 

bit 

Aperea 

Akonchi 

Ondatra.  Mufl<rat 

Pilori 

Great  grey-fqiirrcl 

t2-7 

Fox  (quirrel,  of  Vir 

ginia                   i-2.625 

Surikate 

2. 

Mink                        12. 

Sapajou.   Sajou 

1.8 

(b)  Theboncsof  the  Mammouth,  or,  as  it  has  been  called,  by  Dr  Hunter,  and  by  other  writers,  I J'eii,h- 
£/«■//!■<?«/,  appear  to  be  r early  ofihefan  e  fizc,  and  wti);ht,  vhcihtr  they  are  found  in  Europe,  in  ."Ava,  t,r  in 
America.  In  thefe  three  portions  of  the  earth,  the  animal,  to  wiiich  tliefc  exuvise  belonged,  was,  no  doubr, 
fpecifically  the  fame.     Sec  the  article  Mammouth. 


Amcrtci. 


A  M  E  r     559     J 

Tablt  II.  continued. 
EUROPE.  AMERICA. 


A    M    E 


lb. 

Indian  pig.  Cochon 
d'liidc                1.6 

Sapajou.Saimiri      1.5 
Phalungcr 

Coqiiallin 

Lcli'crgrcyifqiiirrelf  r.j 
Black  iViuirrcl         1.5 

Red  fqiiirrcl         10.    oz. 

Sagoin  Saki 
Sagoiu  Piache 

Sagoin  Taniarin     oz. 

Sagoin  Ouiftiti       4.4 
Sagoin  Marikinc 
Sagoin  Mico 
CayopoUin 

Kourraillier 

Marmofc 

Sariguc  of  Cayenne 
Tucan 

Red  Mole                oz. 

Ground  fquirrcl       4. 

TAiJ.S.lU.  Domefticated i/i  ioti. 

Europe. 

America. 

lb. 

lb. 

Cow 

Horfe 

763 

*2500 

*I366 

Afs 

Hog 

Sheep 

Goat 

*I20O 
*.25 

*8o 

Dog 

Cat 

67.6 
7. 

71  "  The  refiilt  of  this  view  is,  that  of  26  quadrupeds 

Rcfuit  of    common  to  both  countries,  feven  arc  faid  to  be  larger 

the  firft      j,j  America,  feven  of  equal  lizc,  and  12  not  fuiiicicnt- 

"   '■  ly  examined.    So  that  the  lirll  tabic  inipeaclies  the  tirll 

member  of  the  affcrtion,  that  of  the  animals  common 

to  both  countries   the   American  are   fmallcfl,   "  Et 

cela  fans  aucune  exception."     It  ihows  it  not  juft,  in 

all  the  latitude  in  which   its  author  has  advanced  it, 

and  probably  not  to  fuch  a  degree  as  to  found  a  diftiiic- 

^2         tion  between  the  two  couiurics. 

Fxplanati-       "  Proceeding  to  the  fecoiul  table, which  arranges  the 

(in  and  re-  animals  found  in  one  of  the  two  countries  only,  M.  dc 

fult  of  the  ijiijfon  obfervcs,   that  the  tapir,  the  elephant  ofAme- 

"^^l'I"  rica,  is  but  the  (ize  of  a  fuuill  cow."    To  prtfcrve  the 

comparifon,  Mr  Jetferfun  flates  the  wild  boar,  the  ele- 

pliant  of  Europe,  as  little  more  than  half  that  fize.  He 

has  made  .sn  elk,  with  round  or  cylindrical  horns,  an 

animal  of  America,  and  peculiar  to  it;  becaufe  lie  has 

feen  many  of  them  hiuifelf,  and  more  of  their  horns  ; 

and  becaufe,  from  tlic  bell  information,  it  is  certain 

tiiai,  in  Viri^inia,  this  kind  of  elk  has  abounded  much, 

and  Hill  exifts,   in  fuiiller  nirnbcrs.     He  makes  the 

American  hare,orrabbit,  peculiar,  becaufe  he  belirvcs 

it  to  be  different  froiiibotii  thel-jirc'.ican  animalsofthofc 

dcnominatio[is,  and  calls  it,  therefore,  by  its  AU-on- 

q  lin    name,   ll'h.ili:ti,  to   keep  it  dilliutl  from  tjiefe. 

Kaliu  is  of  the  famcopiiiion.  The  fquirrels  arc  dtiio- 

4 


minated  from  a  knowledge  derived  from  daily  fight  of  Americt. 

them,  becaufe  with  thattlic  European  appellations  and  >'~~' 

dcfciiptions  fecm  irreconcilable.  Thcfc  arc  the  only 
inllanccs  in  which  Mr  JefFerfon  departs  f;om  the  au- 
thority of  M.de  Buffbu,  in  ihe  conllruttion  of  this  ta- 
ble ;  whom  he  takes  for  his  ground-work,  becaufe  he 
thinks  him  the  bell  informed  of  any  naturalid  wiiohas 
ever  written.  The  refult  is,  that  there  arc  18  quadru- 
peds peculiar  toEurope  ;  more  than  four  times  as  many, 
to  wit,  74,  peculiar  to  America ;  that  the  firll  of  thtfe 
74,  the  tapir,  the  largeft  of  the  animals  pcculi.ir  to 
America,  weighs  more  than  the  whole  column  of  Eu- 
ropeans; and  confcquciuly  this  fecond  table  difjirovcs 
the  fecond  member  of  the  allertion,  that  the  animals 
peculiar  to  the  New  World  are  011  a  fmallcr  fcalc,  fo 
far  as  that  affcrtion  relied  on  European  animals  for  fup- 
port :  and  it  is  in  full  oppuiition  to  the  theory  which 
makes  the  animal  volume  to  depend  on  the  circum- 
Hances  of  heat  and  moillure. 

The  third  table  comprehends  thofcquadrnpcdsonly  ofthcthird 
which  are  domellic  in  both  countries.  That  fomcoftaole, 
tliefc,  in  fome  parts  of  America,  have  become  Icfs 
than  their  original  (lock,  is  doubtlefs  true ;  and  the 
rcafon  is  very  obvious.  In  a  thinly-peopled  country, 
the  fpontancous  produdlions  of  the  foreft  and  wallc 
fields  arc  fufficicnt  to  fupport  inditferently  the  domellic 
animals  of  the  farmer, with  a  very  little  aid  from  him 
in  thcfeverertand  fcarceft  feafon.  He,  therefore,  finds 
it  more  convenient  to  receive  them  from  the  hand  of 
nature  in  that  inditi'crent  flatc,  than  to  keep  up  ihcir 
fize  by  a  care  and  nouriilimcnt  which  would  cod  him 
much  labour.  If,  on  this  low  fare,  ihefe  animals 
dwindle,  it  is  no  more  than  they  do  in  thofe  parts  of 
Europe  where  the  poverty  of  the  foil,  orpovcrty  of  the 
owner,reduces  them  to  the  fame  fcanty  fubfiltcnce.  It 
is  the  uniform  cffe(fl  of  one  and  the  fame  caufc,  whe-  '    • 

ther  ading  on  this  or  that  (ide  of  the  globe.  It  would 
be  erring  therefore  again  ft  that  priucipleofphilofophy, 
which  teaches  us  to  afcribe  like  etfccts  to  like  caufcs, 
fliould  we  impute  this  diminution  of  lize  in  America  to 
any  imbecility  or  want  of  uniformity  in  the  operations 
of  nature.  It  may  be  allirmed,  with  truili,  that  in  thofc 
countries, and  with  thofc  individuals,ofAmerica,whcre 
nccelilty  or  curiofity  has  produced  equal  attention  as  in 
Europe  to  the  nourifhment  of  anitnals,  the  horfcs, 
cattle,  lhecp,and  hogs  of  the  one  continent  arc  as  large 
as  thofe  of  the  other.  There  arc  particular  inftanees, 
well  aticilcd,  where  individuals  of  America  have  im- 
ported good  breeders  from  England,  and  have  improv- 
ed their  (ize  by  care,  in  the  courfe  of  fome  years." 
And  the  weights  achially  known  and  Hated  in  tlie 
third  table,  will  fuffice  to  ihow,  that  we  may  conclude, 
on  probable  grounds,  that  with  equal  food  and  care, 
the  climate  of  America  will  prefcrve  the  races  of  do- 
mcftic  animals  as  large  as  the  European  ftock  from 
which  they  are  derived;  and,  confcqucntly,  that  the 
domellic  animals  arc  fubjeCl  to  degeneration  froni  the 
climate  of  America,  is  as  probably  wrong  as  the  firll 
and  fecond  are  certainly  fo. 

That  the  lad;  part  of  it  is  erroneous,  which  affirms, 
that  the  fpecies  of  American  quaJrupcis  are  compara- 
tively few,  is  evident  from  the  tables  taken  alt'->getiicr;  ' 
to  wliicii  may  be  added  the  proofs  adduced  by  thcAbbc                    < 
Clavigero.  According  to  BufTon'sLuell  calculation, in 
his  Efoqiiti  ,!<:  la  Nairtreflliere  are  30c  fpecies  of  qua- 

ilrupcda  i 


A  M  E 


L    560    1 


/\  M  E 


Aniftica. 


Tlichumin 
inhabitants 
coniprc- 
hcoded  in 
the  fimc 
Itypothtfis 
of  degcuc- 
lacy. 


75 
Obfcrvati- 
ons  by  Mr 
Jcffcrfon. 


76 
Seeming 
coKIncfs  of 
the  Ameri- 
cans to  the 
fci  ac- 
countcdfor. 


JvnptJs  ;  ind  An-crica,  tliougli  it  does  not  make  mure 
than  a  third  part  of  the  gli>bc,  rouiaiiis,  according  to 
Clavi^cro,  almoll  ojic  lult  i>(  the  diti'crciit  fpecics  of 
thcfc  aiiimal.i. 

Of  the  human  inhabitantsof  America,  towhnmthc 
fame  hypojhclisof  degeneracy  is  extended,  M.  Burton 
gives  the  follow  iugdclcriptiou  :  "Though  the  Aiueri- 
can  favagc  be  nearly  of  the  fame  ftaturc  with  men  in 
polilhtd  focieiies  ;  yet  this  is  not  a  fiilncicnt  exception 
to  the  general  contraction  of  animated  nature  through- 
out the  whole  continent.  In  the  lavage,  the  organs  of 
generation  arc  Imall  and  feeble.  He  has  no  hair,  no 
beard,  no  ardour  for  the  ftmale.  Though  nimbler  than 
the  hiiropean,  bccaufe  more  accuilonicd  to  running, 
his  flrcn^th  is  not  lo  great.  His  fcnfations  arc  lefs  a- 
ciite  ;  and  yet  he  is  more  timid  and  cowardly.  He  has 
no  vivacity,  no  afliviiy  of  mind.  The  adiviiy  of  his 
body  is  not  fo  much  an  exercifc  or  fpontancous  moti- 
on, as  a  neccllary  aition  produced  by  want.  Dellroy  his 
appetite  for  vidlualsand  drink,  and  you  will,  at  once, 
annihilate  the  active  principle  of  all  his  movements  : 
he  remains  in  Ihipid  rcpofc,  on  his  limbs,  or  couch,  for 
whole  days.  It  is  caly  10  difcovcr  the  caulc  of  the 
fcattered  life  of  favagcs,  and  of  their  eftrangement 
from  fociety.  They  h.-ve  bccnrcful'cd  the  moft  pre- 
cious fpark  of  Nature's  tire  :  they  have  no  ardour  for 
women,  and  of  courfe,  no  love  to  mankind.  Unac- 
quainted with  the  moft  lively  and  the  moft  tender  of 
all  attachments,  their  other  fcnfations  of  this  nature  are 
told  and  languid.  Their  love  10  parents  and  children 
is  extremely  weak.  The  bonds  of  the  molt  intimate 
of  all  fotietics,  that  of  the  fame  family,  are  feeble  ; 
and  one  family  has  no  attachment  to  another.  Hence 
no  union,  no  republic,  no  focial  iLite  can  take  place 
among  them.  The  phylical  caulc  of  love  gives  rife  to 
the  morality  of  their  manners.  Their  heart  is  frozen, 
their  fociety  cold,  and  their  empire  cruel.  They  regard 
their  families  as  fcrvants  deflined  tolabour,  or  asbeafts 
of  burden,  whom  they  load  unmercitully  with  the  pro- 
tiuce  of  their  huniina;,  and  oblige, without  ]iity  or  gra- 
titude, to  perform  labours  which  often  exceed  their 
ilrengih.  They  have  few  children,  and  pay  little  at- 
tention to  them.  Every  thing  muft  be  referred  to  the 
tirft  caufe  uhey  are  inditFercnt  becaufe  they  arc  weak; 
and  this  inJitference  to  the  fex  is  the  original  ftain 
which  diff^races  Nature;  prevents  her  from  expand- 
ing, and  by  deProying  the  germs  of  life,  cuts  the  root 
of  fociety.  Hence,  man  makes  no  exception  to  what 
has  been  advanced.  Nature,  by  denying  him  the  fa- 
culry  of  love,  has  abufcd  and  ccntrattcd  him  more 
than  any  other  animal." 

An  humiliating  picture,  indeed!  but  than  which,  Mr 
Jefferfon  affures  us,  never  was  one  more  unlike  the  o- 
riginal.  M.  Buflbn  grants,  that  their  ilature  is  the 
fame  as  thnt  of  the  men  of  Europe,  and  he  might  have 
admiited,  that  the  Iroquois  were  larger,  and  the  Le- 
nopi,  or  Dclawarcs,  taller,  than  people  in  Europe  ge- 
nerally are.  But,  he  fays,  their  organs  of  generation 
are  fmallerand  weaker thanthofeof  Europeans:  which 
isnot;J/;r-/-.f/;,atleafl,tobe  a  fact.  And  as  to  their  want  of 
beard,lhis  error  has  been  already  noticed  (n°5;.///^r«^. 
<'Thcy  havcnoardour  forthcir  females. "--It  istrue, 
they  do  not  indulge  thofe  excelTcs,  nor  difcovcr  that 
fondncfs  which  are  cuftomary  in  Europe  ;  but  this  is  not 


o«iugtoadcfefti;jnaiure,  but  to  manners.  The  foul  of  America. 

the  Indian  is  wholly  bent  upon  war.  1  his  is  what  pro-  * >/— — ' 

cures  him  gWy  among  the  mcn,and  makes  him  the  ad- 
miration of  the  women.  To  this  he  is  educated, from  his 
earliell  youth.  When  he  purlues  game  with  ardour, 
when  he  bears  the  fatigues  of  the  chace,  when  he  fuf- 
lains  and  fudcrs  patiently  hunger  and  cold  ;  it  is  not  fo  ' 
much  for  the  fake  of  the  game  he  purlues,  as  to  con- 
vince his  parents  and  the  council  of  the  nation,  that  he 
is  fit  to  be  enrolled  in  the  number  of  the  warriors.  The 
fongsof  the  women,  the  dance  of  the  warriors,  the 
fage  counfcl  of  the  chiefs,  the  tales  of  the  old,  the  tri- 
umphal entry  of  the  warriors  returning,  with  fucccfs, 
from  brittle,  and  the  rcfpcct  paid  to  thofe  who  diflin- 
guilh  thenifclvcs  in  battle,  and  in  fubduing  their  ene- 
mies; in  fliort,  every  thing  he  fees  or  hears  tends  tq 
infpire  the  Indian  with  an  ardent  defire  for  military 
fame.  If  a  young  man  were  to  difcover  a  fondncfs  for 
women  before  he  has  been  to  war,  he  would  become 
the  contempt  of  the  men,  and  thefcorn  and  ridicule  of 
the  women  ;  or  were  he  to  indulge  himfelf  with  a  cap- 
tive taken  in  war,  and  much  more  were  he  to  ofl'er  vi- 
olence in  order  to  gratify  hislufl,  he  would  incur  in- 
delible difgrace.  The  leeming  frigidity  of  the  Ame- 
rican, therefore,  is  the  effeft  of  manners,  and  not  a 
defeat  of  nature.  He  is  neither  more  dcfeftive  in  ar- 
dour, nor  impotent  with  the  female,  than  a  white  man 
reduced  to  the  fame  diet  and  excrcife.  yj 

"  They  raifc  few  children." — They,  indeed,  raife  Why  they 
fewer  children  than  we  do  ;  the  canfesof  which  are  to  h>ve  few 
be  found  not  in  a  difTercnce  of  nature,  but  of  circum-  children, 
fiance.  The  women  very  frequently  attending  the 
men  in  their  parties  of  war  and  of  hunting,  child-bear- 
ing becomes  extremely  inconvenient  to  them.  It  is 
faid,  therefore,  that  they  have  learned  the  praAicc  of 
procuring  abortion  by  the  ufeofcertain  vegetables;  and 
that  they  even  tend  to  prevent  conception  for  a  con- 
fiderablc  time  after.  During  thcfc  panics  they  arc 
cxpofed  to  numerous  hazards,  to  exccfflve  exertions, 
to  the  greatefl  extremities  of  hunger.  Even  at  their 
homes,  the  nation  depends  for  food,  through  a  certain 
part  of  every  year,  on  the  gleanings  of  the  forefl;  that 
is,  they  experience  a  famine  once  in  every  year.  With 
all  animals,  if  the  female  be  badly  fed,  or  not  fed  at 
all,  her  young  perifli ;  and  if  both  male  and  female  be 
reduced  to  like  want,  generation  becomes  lefs  aftivc; 
lefs  produftive.  To  iheobflacles,  then,  of  want  and 
hazard,  which  nature  hasoppofed  to  the  multiplication 
of  wild  animals,  for  the  purpofc  of  reftraining  their 
numbers  within  certain  bounds,  thofe  of  labour  and  of 
voluntary  abortion  are  added  with  the  Indian.  No 
wonder,  then,  if  they  multiply  lefs  than  we  do.  Where 
food  is  regularly  fupplied,  a  fingle  farm  will  (how  more 
of  cattle  than  a  whole  country  of  forefts  can  of  buffa- 
loes. The  fame  Indian  women,  when  married  to 
white  traders,  who  feed  them  and  their  children  plen- 
tifully and  regularly,  who  exempt  them  from  cxceiFive 
drudgery,  who  keep  them  flationary  and  unexpofed  to 
accident,  produce,  and  raifc,  as  many  children  as  the 
white  women.  Inftances  are  known,  under  thefe  cir- 
cumftances,  of  their  rearing  a  dozen  children.  ^j^ 

Neither  do  they  feem  to  be  "  deficient  in  natural  of  their 
affeftion."    On  the  contrary  their  fenlibility  is  keen,  fcnfibility 
even  the  warriors  w'ceping  moll  bitterly  on  the  lofs  of  &c- 

their 


A  M  E 


[     561     1 


A  M  E 


Americi.  their  children,  though,  in  general  they  endeavour  to 

^ * '  appear luperior  to  human  events. 

Their  fritndlhips  arc  ftrong,  and  faith  fui,  to  the  ut- 
termoft  extremity.  A  remarkable  inllancc  of  this  ap- 
peared in  thecafe  of  the  late  Col.  Byrd,  of  Virginia, 
who  wasfcnt  to  the  Chcerake  nation  totranfacl  fome 
bufincfswith  them.  It  happened  that  fome  of  our  dif- 
orderly  peoplo  had  ju(t  killed  one  or  two  of  tiiat  na- 
lion.  It  was  therefore  propofcd  in  the  council  of  the 
Cheerakc,  that  Col.  B,yrd  Ihould  be  put  to  death  in  re- 
venge for  the  lofs  of  their  countrymen.  .Among  them 
was  a  chief  called  Siloiicc,  who  on  fome  former  occa- 
fion,  had  contracted  an  acquaintance  and  frienddiip 
with  Col.  Byrd.  He  came  to  him  every  night,  in  his 
tent,  and  told  him  not  to  be  afraid,  they  Ihould  not  kill 
him.  /Vftcr  many  days  deliberation,  however,  the  de- 
termination was,  contrary  to  bilouce's  expedlation, 
that  Byrd  flioiild  be  put  to  death,  and  fome  warriors 
were  difpatchcd  as  executioners.  Silouee  attended 
them  ;  and  when  they  entered  the  tent,  he  threw  him- 
felf  between  them  and  Byrd,  and  faid  to  the  warriors, 
"  This  man  is  my  friend,  before  you  ^et  at  him,  you 
jnufl:  kill  me."  On  which  they  returned  ;  and  the 
council  refpedted  the  principle  fo  much  as  to  recede 
from  their  determination. 

That  "  they  are  timorous  and  cowardly"  is  a  cha- 
racter with  which  there  islittle  region  tocharge  them, 
when  we  recoiled  the  manner  in  which  the  Iroquois 

met  Monf. ,  who  marched  into  their  country; 

in  which  tiie  old  men,  who  fcorned  to  fiy,  or  to  furvivc 
the  capture  of  their  town,  braved  death,  like  the  old 
Romans,  in  the  time  of  the  Gauls,  and  in  which  they 
foon  after  revenged  themfelvcs  by  f.ickingand  dcflroy- 
Of  their     ing  Montreal.      In  ihort,  the  Indian  is  brave,  when 
courage,      an  enterprife  depends  on  bravery  ;  education  with  him 
(Sec  alio     makingthc  pointof  honour  to  conlifl  in  the  dcflrui'lion 
n°i9>60}   of  an  enemy  by  ftratagtm,  and  in  the  prefervation  of 
''/".) ,      hisownperfon  free  from  injury ;  or,per)iapsthisis  na- 
ture, while  it  is  education  which  teaches  us  to  honour 
forcemore  ihantinclle.  He  will  defend  himfelf  againll 
an  hofl  of  enemies,  always  choofing  to  be  killed  rather 
than  to  furrcnder,  though  it  be  to  the  whites,  who,  he 
knows,  will  treat  him  well.   In  other  lituations  alio, 
he  meets  deatli  with  more  deliberation;  and  endures 
tortures  with  a  tirmnefs  unknown  almofl  to  religious 
enthufi.Tfm  among  us. 

Much  Icfsare  they  to  be  charaiflerized  as  a  people  of 
no  vivacity,  and  who  are  excited  to  action  or  motion 
only  by  the  calls  of  hunger  andthiril.  Their  dances, 
in  which  they  fo  much  delight,  and  which  to  a  Euro- 
pean would  be  the  moll  fcvcre  excrcifc,  fully  coniradift 
this  ;  not  to  mention  their  fatiguing  marches,  and  the 
toil  iliey  voluntarily  and  cheerfully  undergo  in  their 
military  expeditions.  It  is  true,  that  when  at  liome 
lliey  do  not  employ  themfelvcs  in  labour  or  the  culture 
of  the  foil:  but  this,ag;iin,  is  the  effccl  of  culloms  and 
manners  which  have  alfigncd  that  to  tlie  province  of 
the  women.  Butit  is  faid,  "  they  areaverfetofocieiy 
and  a  Ibciallife."  Can  any  thingbe  more  inapplicable 
than  this,  toa  people  who  always  live  in  towns,  or  in 
clans  ?  Or  can  they  be  faid  to  have  no  npubliqui,  who 
conduct  all  their  atiiurs  in  national  councils  ;  who  pride 
themfelvcs  in  their  national  chara(fler  ;  who  conlider 
an  infult  or  injury,  done  to  an  individual  by  a  ftranger, 
as  done  to  the  whole,  and  rcfent  it  iccordinirly  ? 
Vol.  I. 


To  form  a  juft  eflimate  of  their  genius  and  men-    America. 

tal   po-vcrs,  Mr  Jeftcrfon  obferves,  more  fails  are   ^^ ' 

wanting,  and  great  allowance  is  to  be  made  for  ihdfc 
circumdances  of  their  fituation  which  call  for  a  dif- 
play  of  particular  talents  only.  This  done,  we  (hall 
probably  find  that  the  Americans  are  formed,  in 
mind  as  well  as  in  body,  on  the  fame  model  with  the 
hoviofapiiiis  Europ^tis.  The  principles  of  their  fociety 
forbidding  all  compullion,  tiiey  arc  to  be  led  to  duty 
and  to  enterprife  by  perfonalinducnce  and  perfuahon. 
Hence  eloquence  in  council,  bravery  and  addrefs  in 
war,  become  the  foundations  of  all  confcquence  with 
them.  To  thefc  acquirements  ail  their  faculties  arc 
directed.  Of  their  bravery  andaddrels  in  war  we  have 
multiplied  proofs,  becaufe  v/e  have  been  the  fubjefts 
on  which  they  were  exercifed.  Of  their  eminence  in 
oratory  we  have  fewer  examples,  becaufe  it  isdifplayed 
chierty  in  their  own  councils.  Some,  however,  we 
have  of  very  fuperior  luflrc.  \Vc  may  challenge  the 
wholeorationsof  Demofthcnesand  Cicero,  and  of  any 
more  eminent  orator,  if  Europe  has  furnilhed  more 
eminent,  to  produce  a  fingle  padage  fuperior  to  the 
fpeech  of  Logan, aMingcchief,toLordDunmorc, when  g^ 
governor  of  Virginia.  The  ftory  is  as  follows;  of  which  Stor)- of 
and  of  the  fpeech,  the  authenticity  is  unquclHonable.  l.ogia. 
In  the  fpring  of  the  year  1 774,  a  robbery  and  murder 
were  committed  on  an  inhabitant  of  the  frontiers  of 
Virginia  by  two  Indians,  of  the  Shawanae  tribe.  The 
neighbouring  whites, aecordingtotheircuftom, under- 
took to  punilh  this  outrage,  in  a  luminary  way.  Colo- 
nel Crefap,  a  man  infamous  for  the  many  murders  he 
had  committed  on  thofe  much-injured  people,  coUcd- 
cd  a  party,  and  proceeded  down  the  Kanhaway,  in 
qucflof  vengeance.  Unfortunately  a  canoeof  women 
and  children,  with  one  man  only,  was  feen  cojnir.g 
from  the  oppofitc  fhore,  unarmed,  and  unfufpeciing- 
any  hoftile  attack  from  the  whites.  Crefap  and  his 
party  concealed  themfclves  on  the  bank  of  the  river  ; 
and  the  moment  the  canoe  reached  the  Ihore,  linirled 
out  thcirobjerts,and,  at  one  fire,  killed  every  perfon  in 
it.  This  happened  to  be  the  family  of  Logan,  who 
had  long  been  dillinguilhed  as  a  friend  of  the  whites. 
This  unworthy  return  provoked  his  vengeance.  He 
accordingly  fignalizedliimfelfin.the  war  whichenfued. 
In  the  autumn  of  the  fame  year,  a  dccifive  battle  was 
fought  at  the  mouth  of  the  Great-Kanhaway,  between 
the  collected  forces  of  the  Shawanaes,  Mingocs,  and 
Delawares,  and  a  detachment  of  the  \'irginia  militia. 
The  Indians  were  defeated,  and  fued  for  peace.  Logan, 
however,  difdained  to  be  feen  among  the  fuppliants; 
but,  lell  the  liuceriiy  ofa  treaty  fliould  be  dillruftcJ 
fromwhicli  fo  dillinguilhed  a  chief  abfented  himfelf, 
he  fcnt,  by  a  mcdcnger,  the  following  fpeech,  to  be  dc-  %i 
livercd  to  Lord  Danmorc  : — "  1  appeal  to  any  white  Specimen 
man  to  fay  if  ever  he  entered  Logan's  cabin  hungry,  of  inJiso 
and  he  gave  him  not  meat ;  if  ever  he  came  cold  and  eloi^""- 
naked,  and  hcchnhed  him  not.  During  the  courfe 
of  the  laft  long  and  bloody  war,  Logan  remained  idle 
in  his  cabin,  an  advocate  for  peace.  Such  was  my 
love  for  the  whites,  that  my  countrymen  pointed  as 
they  palled,  and  faid,  Logan  is  thi  f'rienJ  nfwkiie  tmn. 
I  had  even  thought  to  have  lived  with  you,  but  for 
the  injuries  of  one  man.  Col.  Crefap,  the  laft 
fpring,  in  cold  blood,  and  unprovoked,  murdered  all 
the  relations  of  Log.in,  not  fparing  even  my  women 
4B  and 


A  M  E 


[     56.     ] 


A  M  E 


Aiucriea. 


8i 
Other  1- 
uecdoccs. 


i'olittiKfa 
aii>!  civility 
of  the  A- 
njeric^ 
l^iliaDs. 


and  children.  There  runs  not  a  droj)  of  my  blood  in 
the  veins  of  any  living  creature.  This  called  on  mc 
for  revenge.  I  have  fought  it ;  1  have  killed  many  ; 
I  have  fully  glutted  my  vengeance.  For  my  country, 
1  rejoice  at  the  beams  of  peace  ;  but  do  not  harbour  a 
thought  that  mine  is  the  joy  of  fear.  Logan  never 
felt  fear.  He  will  not  turn  on  his  heel  to  fave  his  life. 
Who  is  tlicre  to  mourn  for  Logan  ?  Not  one." 

To  the  preceding  anecdotes,  in  favour  of  the  .'Ame- 
rican charader,  may  be  added  the  following,  by  Dr 
Benjamin  Franklin. — The  Indian  men,  when  young, 
are  hunters  and  warriors  ;  when  old,  counfellors  ;  for 
all  their  government  is  by  the  counfel  oradvice  of  the 
fagcs.  Hence,  they  generally  lludy  oratory  ;  the  bell 
fpeakers  having  the  moll  inliucncc.  The  Indian  wo- 
men till  the  ground,  drefs  the  food,  nurfe  and  bring 
up  the  children,  and  prefcrveand  hand  down  topoftc- 
rity  the  memory  of  public  tranfadions.  Thcfe  em- 
ployments of  men  and  women  are  accounted  natural 
and  honourable.  Having  few  artificial  wants,  they 
have  abundance  of  leifure  for  improvement  by  conver- 
fation.  Our  laborious  manner  of  life,  compared  with 
theirs,  they  efteem  flavifh  and  bafe  j  and  the  learning 
on  which  we  value  ourfclves,  they  regard  as  frivolous 
and  ufelefs. 

Having  frequent  occafions  to  hold  public  councils, 
they  haveacquiredgreatorderand  decency  in  conduc- 
ing them.  The  old  men  fit  in  the  foremofl  rank,  the 
warriors  in  the  next,  and  the  women  andcliildren  in 
the  hindmofl.  The  bulinefs  of  the  women  is  to  take 
cxai5t  notice  of  what  palfes  ;  imprint  it  in  their  memo- 
ries, for  they  have  no  writing,  and  communicate  it  to 
their  children.  They  arc  the  records  of  the  council, 
and  they  prefervc  tradition  of  the  ftipulations  in  trea- 
ties a  hundred  years  back  ;  which,  when  we  compare 
with  our  writings,  we  always  find  cxaft.  He  that 
would  fpeak,  rifes.Thcrellobfervc  a  profound  filence. 
When  he  has  finilhed,  and  fits  down,  they  leave  him 
five  or  llx  minutes  to  recollcft,  that  if  he  has  omitted 
any  thing  he  intended  to  fay,  or  has  any  thing  to  add, 
he  may  rife  again  and  deliver  it.  To  interrupt  ano- 
ther, even  in  common  converfaiion,  is  reckoned  high- 
ly indecent. 

The  politenefs  of  thefe  lavages  in  converfation  is, 
indeed,  carried  to  excefs  ;  fince  it  does  not  permit 
ihem  to  contradia,  or  deny,  the  truth  of  what  is  af- 
fertedin  their  prcfence.  By  ihefe  means  they,  indeed 
avoid  difputes  ;  but  then  it  becomes  difficult  to  know 
their  minds,  or  what  imprclhonyou  make  upon  them. 
The  miffionaries,  who  have  attempted  to  convert  them 
to  Chridianity ,  all  complain  of  this,  as  one  of  the  great 
difficulties  of  their  miliion.  The  Indians,  hear,  with  pa- 
tience, the  truths  of  the  gofpel  explained  to  them,  and 
give  their  ufuat  tokens  of  alfcni  and  approbation  ;  but 
thisby  no  means  implies  conviction  :  it  is  mere  civility. 
When  any  of  them  come  into  our  towns,  our  people 
are  apt  to  croud  round  them,  gaze  upon  them,  and  in- 
commode them  when  they  defire  to  be  private  ;  this 
they  eftecm  great  rudencfs,  and  the  cti'cii  of  the  w.-»nt 
of  inllrudion  in  the  rules  of  civility  and  good  manners. 
"  We  hav«,"  they  fay,  "  as  much  curiofity  as  you  ; 
and  when  you  come  into  our  towns,  we  vvilh  for  op- 
porrunilits  of  looking  at  you  ;  but  for  this  purpofe  we 
iiideourfelves  behind  bulhes  where  you  arc  to  a  pafs, 
and  never  intrude  ourfclves  into  your  company." 


Their  manncrof  entering  one  another's  villages  has  America. 

likcwife  its  rules.    It  is  reckoned  uncivil  in  travelling  ' — ■^ ' 

Itrangers  to  enter  a  village  abruptly,  without  giving  ^|^  irliof 
notice  of  their  approach.  Therefore,  as  foonas  they  pitaijtT. 
arrive  within  hearing, they  ftopand  hollow,  remaining 
there  till  invited  to  enter.  Two  old  men  ufually  come 
out  to  them,  and  lead  them  in.  There  is  in  every  vil- 
lage avacantdwelliiig, called  ihcjlrangcri-houfc  Here 
they  are  placed,  while  the  old  men  go  round  from  hut 
to  hut,  acquainting  the  inhabitants  that  llrangcrs  arc 
arrived,  who  arc,  probably,  hungry  and  weary  ;  and 
every  one  fends  them  w  iiat  he  canfpare  of  viduals,  and 
Ikins  torcpofe  on.  When  the  Grangers  arerefreflied, 
pipes  and  tobacco  are  brought ;  and  then,  but  not  be- 
fore, converfation  begins,  with  inquiries  who  they  arc, 
whither  bound,  what  news.  Sec.  and  it  ufually  ends 
with  offers  of  fervice  ;  if  the  ftrangcrs  have  occafion 
for  guidcc,  or  any  neceffaries,  for  continuing  their 
journey  ;  and  nothing  is  exacted  for  the  entertainment. 

The  fame  hofpitality,  cflecmed  among  them  as  a 
principal  virtue,   is  praflifed  by   private  perfons;  of 
which  Conrad  Weifer,  a  celebrated  interpreter  of  the 
Indian  languages,  gave  Dr  Franklin  the  followingin- 
flancc.  He  had  been  naturalized  among  thetiix  Nations, 
andfpoke  well  the  Mohock  language.  Jn  going  through, 
the  Indian  country,  to  carry  amcliagc  from  our  gover- 
nor to  the  council  at  Onondaga,  he  called  at  the  habita- 
tion of  Canalfetego,  an  old  acquaintance, who  embraced 
him,  fprcad  furs  for  him  to  fit  on,  placed  before  him 
lomc  boiled  beans  and  venifon,  and  mixed  fome  rum. 
and  water  for  his  drink.     When  he  was  well  refrefh- 
ed,  and  had  lit  his  pipe,  Canailetcgo  began  toconverfc 
with  him  :   afked  how  he  had  fared  the  many  years 
fince  they  had  feen  each  other,  whence  he  then  came, 
what  had  occafioned  the  journey,  &c.  Conradanfwcr- 
cd  all  his  queflions ;  and  when  the  difcourfe  began  to 
flag,  the   Indian,  to  continue  it  faid,   "  Conrad,  you 
have  lived  long  among  the   white  people,    and  know 
fomtthing  of  their  cufloms  :  I  have  been  fometimesat 
Albany,  and  have  obfervcd  that  once  in  feven  days  they 
fhut  up  their  Ihops,  and  afTeniblcallin  the  great  houfc^ 
tell  me  wliat   it  is  for  ? — What   do  they  do  there  t 
"  They  meet  there,"  fays   Conrad,   "  to   hear  and 
\c:\xn  good  things."     "  1  do  not  doubt,"  fays  the  Indi- 
an,  "  that  they  tell  you  fo  ;   they  have  told  me  the 
fame  :  but  I  doubt  the  truth  of  what  they  fay,  and  I 
will  tell  you  my  reafons.     I  went  lately  to  Albany  to 
fell  my  fkins,  and  buy  blankets,  knives,  powder,  rum, 
&c.     You  know  I  ufed  generally  to  deal  with  Hans 
Hanfon  ;    but  I  was  a  little  inclined,  at  this  time  to  try 
ibmc  other  merchants.     However,  I  called  firfl  upon 
Hans,  and  aiked  him  what  he  would  give  for  beaver. 
He  faid  he  could  not  give  more  than  43.  a  pound  ;  but 
(fays  he)  I  cannot  talk  on  bufinefs  now;  this  is  the 
day  when  we  meet  together  to  \ea.n'\  good  things,  and 
I  am  goinr;  to  the  meeting.       So,  I  thought  to  niyfelf, 
fince  I  cannot  do  any  bulinefs  to-day,  I  may  as  well  go 
to  the  meeting  too  ;    and  I  went  with   him — There 
flood  up  a  man  in  black,  and  began  to  talk  to  the  peo- 
ple, very  angrily.    I  did  not  nnderfland  what  he  faid  ; 
but  perceiving  that  he  looked  much  at  me  and  Han- 
fon, I  imagined  he  was  angry  at  feeing  me  there  ;   fo 
I  went  out,  fat  down  near  the  houfe,  flruck  fire,  and 
lit  my  pipe,  waiting  till  the  meeting  (liould  break  up. 
I  thought  too,  that  ihe  man  had  mentioned  foniething  1 

af 


A  M  E 


[     5^3     ] 


A  M  E 


of  beaver,  and  I  fufpefted  that  it  might  be  the  fubjeJl 
-"  of  their  meeting.  So  when  they  came  out,  I  accolkd 

my  merchant Well,  Hans,  (fays  1)  1  hope  you  liavc 

agreed  to  give  more  than  4s.  a  pound  ?""No,(fays  he) 
I  cannot  give  fo  much,  I  cannot  give  more  than  3s. 6d." 
*'  I  then  fpoke  to  feveral  other  dealers,  but  they  all 
fung  ihe  fame  fong,  three  and  lix-pence,  three  and  fix- 
pence.  This  made  it  clear  to  me  that  my  fufpicion 
was  right:  and  that  whatever  they  pretended  of  meet- 
ing to  learn  good  things,  the  real  purpofc  was,  to  con- 
fult  how  to  cheat  Indians  in  the  price  of  beaver.  Con- 
fider  but  a  little,  Conrad,  and  you  mufl  be  of  my  opi- 
nion. If  they  met  fo  often  to  Xamgood  tlimgi,  they 
certainly  would  have  learned  fomc  before  this  time. 
Bui  they  are  ftill  ignorant.  You  know  our  pra(5lice. 
If  a  white  man,  in  travelling  through  our  country, 
enters  one  of  our  cabins,  wc  all  treat  him  as  I  treat 
you  ;  we  dry  him  if  he  is  wet,  we  warm  him  if  he  is 
cold,  and  give  him  meat  and  drink,  that  he  may  allay 
his  third  and  hunger  ;  and  we  fpread  foft  furs  for  him 
to  reft  and  lleep  on  :  wc  demand  nothing  in  return. 
But  if  I  go  into  a  white-man's  houfe  at  Albany,  andafk 
for  viduals  and  drink,  they  fay.  Where  is  your  mo- 
ney .'  And  if  I  have  none,  they  fay,  Get  out,  you  In- 
dian dog.  You  fee  they  have  not  yet  learned  thofe  lit- 
i\c  good  things  that  we  need  no  meeting  to  be  inftructed 
in  ;  becaufe  our  mothers  taught  them  to  us  when  we 
were  children  ;  and,  therefore,  it  is  impofliblc  their 
meetings  fliould  be,  as  they  fay,  for  any  fuch  purpofe, 
er  have  any  fuch  effect ;  they  are  only  to  contrive  the 
cheating  tf  Indians  in  the  price  of  beaver." 

The  next  queftion  which  offers  itfelf  to  our  notice, 
is,  Whether  the  peculiarities  of  the  a^or/^/z/rt/^w^r/- 
catis,  or  the  difparity  between  them  and  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Old- World,  afford  fufficient  grounds  for 
determining  thevi,  as  many  eminent  writers  liavc 
done,  to  be  a  race  of  mm  radically  different  jrom  all 
ethers  ? 

In  this  queftion,  to  avoid  being  tedious,  we  fliall 
confine  ourfelves  to  what  has  been  advanced  by  Lord 
Karnes  ;  who  is  of  opinion,  that  there  are  many  dif- 
ferent fpecies  of  men,  as  well  as  of  other  animals  ;  and 
gives  an  hypothefis,  whereby  he  pretends  his  opinion 
may  be  maintained  in  a  confiftency  with  Revelation. 
"It  (fays  he)  theonly  rule  aflorded  by  nature  forclaf- 
fing  animals  can  be  depended  on,  there  are  different 
races  of  men  as  well  as  of  dogs  :  a  maftiff  differs  not 
more  from  a  fpaniel,  than  a  white  man  from  a  negro, 
'or  a  Laplander  from  a  Dane.  And,  if  wc  liave  any 
faith  in  Providence,  it  ought  to  be  lb.  Plants  were 
created  of  different  kinds,  to  fit  them  for  ditfercnt  cli- 
mates ;  and  fo  were  brute  animals.  Certain  it  is,  ihat 
all  men  are  not  fitted  equally  for  every  climate.  There 
is  fcarce  a  climate  but  what  is  natural  to  fonie  men, 
where  they  profper  and  fiourilh  :  and  there  is  not  a 
climate,  but  where  fome  men  degenerate.  Doth  not 
then  analogy  lead  us  to  conclude,  that,  as  there  arc 
different  climates  on  the  face  of  this  globe,  fo  there  are 
different  races  of  men  fit  ted  for  thefcditiercnt  climates? 

"  M.  Buffon,  fromthe  rule,  That  animals  which  can 
procreate  together;  and  whole  progeny  can  alfo  pro- 
create, arc  of  one  fpecies  ;  concludes,  that  all  mcnare 
of  one  race  or  fpecies  ;  and  endeavours  to  fupport  that 
favourite  opinion,  by  afcribing  to  the  climate,  to  food. 


or  to  other  accidental  caufes,  all  (he  varieties  that  are 
found  among  men.  But  is  lie  feriourty  of  opinion,  that 
any  operation  of  climate,  or  of  other  accidental  caofc, 
can  account  for  die  copper  colour  and  fmooth  chin  uiii- 
verfal  among  the  Americans  ;  the  prominence  of  the 
pudenda  univerfal among  the  Hottentot  women,  or  the 
black  nipple  no  lefs  univerfal  among  the  female  .Samoir- 
des  ?  —  It  is  in  vain  to  afcribe  to  the  climate,  the  low 
ftatureof  the  Efquiniaux,  the  fmallnefs  of  their  fcer, 
tlicovergrown  lizc  of  their  heads.  It  is  equally  in  vain 
to  afcribe  to  climate  the  low  ftature  of  the  Laplanders, 
or  their  ugly  vifagc.  The  black  colour  of  negroes, 
thick  lips,  flat  nofe,  crifped  woolly  hair, and  rank  fmell, 
diftinguilh  them  from  every  other  race  of  men.  The 
Abylfinians,  on  the  contrary,  are  tall  and  well  made, 
their  complexion  a  brown  olive,  features  well-propor- 
lioned,  eyes  large  and  of  a  fparkling  black,  thin  lips, 
a  nofe  ratlicr  high  than  flat.  There  is  no  f^uch  differ- 
ence of  climate  between  Abyffinia  and  Negro-land  as 
to  produce  thefe  ftriking  differences. 

"  Nor  fliall  our  author's  ingenious  hypothefis  con- 
cerning the  extremities  of  heat  and  cold,  purcliafe  him 
impunity  wiihrefpeifl  to  the  fallow  complexion  of  the 
Samoiedes,  Laplanders,  and  Greenlanders.  The  Fin- 
landers,  and  northern  Norwegians,  live  in  a  climate 
not  lefs  cold  than  that  of  the  people  mentioned  ;  and 
yet  are  fair  beyond  other  Europeans.  I  fay,  more, 
there  are  many  inftances  of  races  of  people  preferving 
their  original  colour,  in  climates  very  ditferent  from 
their  own  ;  but  not  a  (ingle  inftance  of  the  contrary, 
as  far  as  I  can  learn.  1  here  have  been  four  complete 
generations  of  negroes  in  Pennfylvania,  without  any 
vifible  change  of  colour  ;  they  continue  jet  black,  as 
originally.  Thofe  who  afcribe  all  to  the  fun  :  ought  to 
conlider  how  little  probable  it  is,  that  the  colour  it  im- 
prefles  on  the  parents  lliould  be  communicated  to  their 
infant  children  who  never  faw  the  fun  :  I  fliould  be  as 
foon  induced  to  believe,  with  a  German  naturalift, 
whofe  name  has  efcaped  nie,  that  the  negro  colour  is 
owing  to  an  ancient  cuftom  in  Africa,  of  dyeing  the 
flvin  black.  Let  a  European,  foryears,  expofe  him- 
felf  to  the  fun,  in  a  hot  climate,  till  he  be  quite  brown; 
the  children  will,  ncvcrthclcfs,  have  the  fame  com- 
plexion with  thofe  in  Europe.  From  the  adlion  of  the 
fun,  is  it  poflible  to  explain,  why  a  negro,  like  a  Eu- 
ropean, is  born  with  a  rudily  flan,  which  turns  jet 
black,  the  eighth,  or  ninth,  day  .'" 

Our  author  next  proceeds  to  draw  fome  arguments 
for  the  exiftencc  of  diftcrent  races  of  men,  from  the 
various  tempers  and  difpofitions  of  different  nations  ; 
which  he  reckons  to  he  fpectfic  differences,  as  well  as 
thofe  of  colour,  ftature,  &c.  and  having  fummed  up 
his  evidence,  he  concludes  thus  :  "  Upon  fummingup 
the  whole  particulars,  mentioned  above, would  one  he- 
liiate  a  moment,  coadopt  the  following  opinion,  were 
there  no  counterbalancing  evidence,  viz.  <  That  God 
'  created  many  pairs  of  the  human  race,  differing 
•  from  eacii  other,  both  cxiernally  and  internally;  that 
'  he  fitted  thofe  pairs  for  different  climates,  and  placed 
'  each  pair  in  its  proper  climate  ;  that  the  pcculi- 
'  ariiies  of  the  original  pairs  were  prcfervcd  entire 
'  in  their  dcfccndants  ;  who,  having  no  afliftance  but 
'  their  natural  talents,  were  left  to  gather  knowledge 
'  from  experience  ;  and,  in  particular,  was  left  (each 
<  tribe)  to  form  a  languge  for  itlclf ;  that  figns  were 
4  B  2  '  fufficient 


ACK 


A  M  E 


[     564     ] 


A  M  E 


America- 


86 
His  hypo- 

thcfis  con- 
cerning the 
origin  of 
the  diffe- 
rent fpc- 
cies. 


87 
Incom- 

fietc. 


'  fuflicieiit  for  the  original  pairs,  without  any  language 
'  but  what  nature  fuggefts  :  and  that  a  language  was 
'  form eil  gradually,  as  a  tribe  increafcd  in  numbers, 
'  and  in  dilicrcnt  occupations,  to  make  fpccch  ncctf- 
'  fary  ?"  But  this  opinion,  however  plauliblc,  \\  c  arc 
not  permitted  to  adopt  ;  being  taught  a  dittcrent  leilbn 
by  Revelation,  viz.  That  God  created  but  a  Jingle 
j'.iir  of  the  human  fpccits.  Though  \\c  cannot  doubt 
the  authority  of  Mofes,  yet  his  account  of  the  crea- 
tion of  man  is  not  a  little  puzzling,  as  it  fccms  to  con- 
tradict every  one  of  the  facts  mentioned  above.  Ac- 
cording to  that  account,  diti'crent  races  of  men  wxrc 
not  formed,  nor  were  men  formed  originally  for  diffe- 
rent climates.  All  men  mufi  have  fpoken  the  fame  lan- 
guage, viz.  That  of  our  Hrft  parents.  And  what  of 
all  Items  the  mofl  contradidory  to  that  account,  is  the 
favage  flate  :  Adam,  as  Mofesinformsus,  was  endued 
by  his  Maker  with  an  eminent  degree  of  knowledge; 
and  he  certainly  was  an  excellent  preceptor  to  his  chil- 
dren and  their  progeny,  among  whom  he  lived  many 
generations.  Whence  then  the  degeneracy  of  all  men 
unto  the  favage  flate  ?  To  account  for  that  difnial  ca- 
laftrophc,  mankind  mufl  have  fuffered  fonie  terrible 
convuUton.  That  terrible  convuUion  is  revealed  to  us 
in  the  hillory  of  the  tower  of  Babel,  contained  in  the 
nth  chapter  of  Gencfis,  which  is,  '  That,  for  many 
'  centuries  after  the  deluge, the  whole  earth  was  of  one 
'language,  and  of  one  fpecch  ;  that  they  united  to 
'  build  a  city  on  the  plain  in  the  land  of  Shinar,  with  a 
'  tower  whofe  top  might  reach  unto  heaven  ;  that  the 
*  Lord,  beholding  the  people  '.o  be  one,  and  to  have 
'all  one  language,  and  that  nothing  would  be  re- 
'  flrained  from  them  which  they  imagined  to  do,  con- 
'  founded  their  language,  that  they  might  not  under- 
'  ftand  one  another,  and  fcattercd  them  abroad  upon 
'  the  face  of  the  earth.'  Here,  light  breaks  forth  in 
the  midfl  of  all  darknefs.  By  confounding  the  language 
of  men,  and  fcattering  them  abroad  upon  the  face  of 
all  the  earth,  they  were  rendered  favages.  And  to 
harden  iheui  for  their  new  habitations,  it  was  nccef- 
fary  that  they  fliould  be  divided  into  different  kinds, 
dtted  for  ditlcrent  climates.  Witliout  an  immediate 
change  of  conflitution,  the  builders  of  Babel  could  not 
pofiliily  have  fubfifted  iu  the  burning  region  of  Guinea, 
nor  in  the  frozen  region  of  Lapland  ;  houfes  not  being 
prepared,  nor  any  other  convenience  to  proud  them 
againll  a  delliut^ive  climate." 

We  may,  tirit,  remark  on  his  lordfliip's  hypoihefis, 
'  that  it  is  evidently  incomplete  :  for,  allowing  the  hu- 
man race  to  have  been  divided  into  different  fpecits,  at 
the  confufiou  of  languages,  and  that  each  fpecics  was 
adapted  to  a  particular  climate  :  by  what  means  were 
they  to  get  to  the  climates  proper  for  them,  or  how 
were  ihey  to  know  that  fuch  climates  exiftcd?  How  was 
an  American,  forinllance,  when  languifhing  in  an  im- 
proper climate  at  Bable,  to  get  to  the  land  of  the  Ama- 
zons, or,  the  banks  of  the  Oroonoko,  in  his  own  coun- 
try ?  Or  how  was  he  to  know  that  thefc  places  w  ere 
more  propcrfor  him  thauothers  f  —  If,  indeed,  we  take 
thefcripture  phrafe,  "  The  'LoxifcaltiredlhefiiatroaJ 
upon  the  face  of  all  the  earth,"  in  a  certain  fcnfe,  wc 
may  account  for  it.  If  we  fuppofc  that  the  different 
fpecifs  were  immediately  carriedoffby  a  whirlwind, or 
other  fupcrnatural  means,  to  their  proper  coun  ries, 


the  difficulty  will  vauilh  :  but  if  this  is  his  Lordfliip's  A  mcricai. 
interpretation,  it  is  certainly  a  very  fingular  one.         "^r""* 

Before  entering  upon  the  conlidcration  of  the  parti-  Q^n^ral 
cular  arguments  ufed  by  our  author  for  proving  the  di-  principles 
vcrfity  of  fpccies  in  the  human  race,  it  will  be  proper  to  be  kept 
to  lay  down  the  following  general  piinciplcs,  whicli  '■>  view  in 
may  ferve  as  axioms.      ( 1 ).   When  wc  alfert  a  mulli-  r<;af<"""g 
plicity  of  fpecics  in  the  human  race  ;  wc  bring  in  a  fu-  p"*"" '" 
pernalural  caufe  to  folve  a  natural  phenomenon  ;   for' 
thefc  fpecics  are  fuppofcd  to  be  the  immediate  work  of 
the   Deity.     (2).   No  pcrfon  has  a  right  to  call  any 
thing  the  immediate  cflcdt  of  omnipotence,  unlefs  by 
cxprefs  revelation  from  the  Deity,  or  from  a  certain- 
ty that  no  natural  caufe  is  fuilicient  to  produce  the  effed. 
The  reafonis  plain.   The  Deity  isinvifible,  and  there 
are  many  natural  caufes  :  when  wc  fee  an  effedl,  there- 
fore, of  whicli  (he  caufe  does  not  manifeft  itfelf,  we 
cannot  know  whether  the  immediate  caufe  is  the  Deity, 
or  an  invifibic  natural  power.     An  example  of  this  wc 
have  in  the  plienoniena  of  thunder  and  earthquakes, 
wliich  were  olten  afcribed  ijuniediately  to  the  Deity, 
but  arc  now  difeovered  to  be  the  effcds  of  eledricity. 
(;?).  No  pcrfon  can  alFcrt  natural  caufes  to  be  infulH- 
cicnt  to  produce  fuch  and  fuch  clieds,  unlefs  lie  per- 
fectly knows  all  thefe  caufes,  and  the  limir<;  of  their 
pow  er  in  all  polliblc  cafes  ;  and  this  no  man  has  ever 
know  n,  or  can  know. 

hy  keeping  in  view  tliefe  principles,  which  we  hope 
are  fclf-evidciu,  wcwilleafily  fee  lord  Kame's  ar- 
guments (o  conlifl  entirely  in  2.  pet  it  10  principn. — In 
fubllance,  they  are  all  reduced  to  this  fingle  fcntcnce  : 
"  Natural  philofophers  have  l)een,hitheno,unfaccefs- 
ful  in  their  endeavours  to  account  for  the  diflcrenccs 
obfrrved  among  mankind,  therefore  thefe  differences 
cannot  be  acc(uintcd  for  from  natural  caufes."  80 

His  Lordlhip,  liowever,   tells  us  in  the  paflages  al-  Incoonft- 
ready  quoted,  that  "  a  maitiff  differs  not  more  from  a  "ify  '" 
fpanicl,  than  a  Laplander  from  a  Dane  ;"  that  "  it  is  ^•"■^'^  , 
vain  to  afcribe  to  climate  the  low  llaiure  of  the  Lap-  J^^""-'" 

landers,  or  their  ugly  vifage Yet,  in  a  note  on  the     ^ 

Word  Laplanders,  he  fubjoins,  that,  "  by  late  accounts 
it  appears,  that  the  Laplanders  arc  only  degenerated 
Tartars  ,  and  that  they  and  the  Hungarians  originally 
fprung  from  the  fame  breed  of  men,  and  from  the  fame 
country." — The  Hungarians  are  generally  handfome 
and  w  ell-made,  like  Danes,  or  like  other  people.  The 
Laplanders,  he  tells  us,  dilier  as  much  from  them  as  a 
malliff  from  a  fpaniel.  Natural  caufes,  therefore,  ac- 
cording to  Lord  Karnes  himfelf,  may  caufe  two  indivi- 
duals of  the  fame  fpccies  of  mankind  differ  from  each 
other  as  much  as  a  maftiffdoes  from  a  fpaniel. 

While  we  arc  treating  this  fubjed  of  colour,  it  may  Remark- 
not  be  amifs  toobfcive,  that  a  very  remarkable  diffe-  ablcdifle- 
rencc  of  colour  may  accidentally  happen  to  individuals  rcnce  of  co 
of  ilic  fame  fpecics.   In  the  iflhmus  of  Darien,  afingu-  '""f  from 

lar  race  of  men   have  been  difeovered They  arc  of  *'^'^'?*"'^' 

low  flaturc,  of  a  feeble  make,  and  incapable  of  endu- 
ring fatigue.  Their  colour  is  a  dead  milk  white  ;  not 
refembling  that  of  fair  people  among  Europeans,  but 
without  any  blufli  or  fanguine complexion.  Thcirlkin 
i:.  covered  with  a  fine  hairy  down  of  a  chalky  white  ; 
tliehairof  their  heads, their  eye-brows,  and  cyc-laflies, 
are  of  the  fame  hue.  Their  eyes  are  of  a  fingular 
form,  and  fo  weak,  that  they  can  hardly  bear  the  light 

of 


A  M  E 


L    565    ] 


A  M  E 


America, 


91 
Colour  no 
char  <5lcri- 
ftic  ofa  dif- 
ferent fpe- 
cics. 


91 
Nor  na- 
ture. 


•  See  Pata- 


93 
Diffcri  nt 
caufcs  con- 
tribute to- 
wards an 
alteration 
in  colour. 


94 

Habit  capa. 
blctif  alter* 
ing  the  in- 
ftiiidof 
animals* 


iGund  the 
IVorlJ, 
Vol.  I. 


of  the  fun  ;  but  they  fee  clearly  by  moon-light,  and  are 
iiioftaiflive  and  gay  in  the  night.  Among  the  nsgroes 
of  Africa,  as  well  as  the  natives  of  the  Indian  iflands, 
a  fmall  number  of  thofe  people  arc  produced.  They 
arc  called  Albinos  by  the  Portugucfe,  and  Kackerlakis 
by  the  Dutch. 

This  race  of  men  is  not  indeed  permanent  ;  but  it 
is  fuflicieni  to  fliow,  that  mere  co/o/zr  is  by  no  means  the 
charafteriiUc  ofa  certain  fpeciesof  mankind.  The  dif- 
ference of  colour  in  thefc  individuals  is  undoubtedly 
owing  to  a  natural  caufc.  To  conftitutc,  then,  a  race 
of  men  of  this  colour,  it  would  only  be  neccfl'ary  th\t 
thiscaufc,  which  atprefent  is  merely  accidental,  Ihould 
become  permanent,  and  we  cannot  know  but  it  may  be 
fo  in  fome  parts  of  the  world. 

If  a  difference  of  colour  isnocharacleriflic  of  a  dif- 
ferent fpeciesof  mankind,  much  lefs  can  adifftrence  in 
future  be  thought  fo.  In  the  fouthcrn  parts  of  Ameri- 
ca, there  are  Taid  to  be  a  race  of  men  exceeding  the 
common  lize  in  height  and  (Irength*.  This  account, 
however,  is  doubted  of  by  fome  ;  but  be  that  as  it 
will,  it  is  certain  that  the  Efquimaux  are  as  much  un- 
der the  common  fize,  as  the  Fatagoniuns  are  faid  to  be 
nbove  it.  Neverthelefs,  we  are  not  to  imagine,  that  ci- 
ther of  thefc  are  fpecilic  differences  ;  feeing  the  Lap- 
landers and  Hungarians  are  both  of  the  fame  fpecies, 
and  yet  the  former  are  generally  almoft  a  foot  ihorter 
than  the  latter  ;  and  if  a  difference  of  climate,  or  other 
accidental  caufes,  can  make  the  people  of  one  country 
a  foot  fhorier  than  the  common  lize  of  mankind,  un- 
doubtedly accidental  caufes  ofa  contrary  nature  may 
make  thofe  of  another  country  a  foot  taller  than  other 
men. 

Though  the  fun  has,  mod  undoubtedly,  a  Iharc  in 
the  production  of  [he  fwarthy  colour  of  thofe  nations 
which  are  expofed  to  its  influence  ;  yet  the  manner  of 
living  to  which  people  are  accuftomed  ;  their  food, 
their  employment,  and  many  ot her  circumllances,  mull 
alfo  con  tribute, not  a  lit  tie, to  a  difference  of  complexion. 
The  more  full  examination,  however,  of  ihtfe  feveral 
circumflances  we  rcfervc  for  another  article.  See 
the  article  Complexiok. 

It  is  allowed  on  all  hands,  that  it  is  more  eafy  to  work 
a  change  upon  the  body  of  ,•;  man,  or  any  other  ani- 
mal, than  upon  his  mind.  A  man  who  is  naturally 
choleric,  may,  indeed,  learn  to  prevent  the  bad  effects 
of  his  paffion  by  rcafon,  but  the  pillion  itfclf  will  re- 
main as  immutable  as  his  colour But,  to  rcafon  in  a 

manner  limilar  to  Lord  Karnes  ;  though  a  man  ihould  be 
naturally  choleric,  or  fubjedl  to  any  other  paffion,  why 
Ihould  his  children  be  fo  ? — This  way  of  rcafoning, 
however  plaulible,  is  by  no  means  contlulive,  as  will 
appear  from  the  following  palfage  in  Mr  Korllcr's 
Voyage. 

June  9th.  "  The  officers  who  could  not  yet  rclifli 
their  fal  t  prov  i  lions  aftcrt  he  rcfrclhm  en  ts  of  New-Zea- 
land, liad  ordered  their  black  dog,  nientioned  p.  i;j, 
to  be  killed  :  this  day,  therefore,  we  dined,  for  the  tirll 
time,  onalcgofitroadtd  ;  which  tailed  focxaclly  like 
mutton,  that  is  was  ablblutely  undiflinguilhablc.  In 
our  cold  co;in:ries,  where  animal  foo<l  is  fo  niucli  ufed, 
and  where  to  be  carnivorous,  perhaps,  lies  in  the  nature 
of  men, or  isindifpcnfably  neccliiiry  to  the  prefcrvaiion 
of  their  health  and  ftrength,  it  is  ftrangc  that  there 
fliould  cxilla  Jewilh  averliou  todogs-flelli,  when  hogs. 


the  mo/1  uncleanly  of  all  animals,  are  eaten  without    Araerira. 

fcruple.Naturcfccmsexprefsly  to  have  intended  them    ''~~' 

for  this  ufe,  by  making  tluir  offspring  fo  very  nume- 
rous, and  their  increafe  fo  quick,  and  frequent.  It  may 
be  objected,  that  the  exalted  degree  of  inllinc'l  which 
we  obfcrve  in  our  dogs,  infpires  us  with  great  unwil- 
lingnefs  to  kill  and  eat  them.  But  it  is  owinc  to  the 
time  we  fpend  on  the  education  of  dogs,  that  they  ac- 
quire thofe  eminent  qualities,  which  attach  them  fo 
much  to  us.  The  natural  qualities  of  our  dogs  may 
receive  a  wonderful  improvement  ;  but  educition  mult 
give  its  aJIirtance,  without  which  the  human  mind  it- 
felf,  though  capable  of  an  immenfc  expanlion,  remains 
in  a  very  con;rao^cd  Hate.  In  New-Zealand,  and  (ac- 
cording to  former  accounts  of  voyages)  in  the  tropical 
illcs  ot  the  South-Sea,  the  dogs  are  the  m  )ft  Ilupid,  dull 
animals  imaginable,  and  do  not  feem  to  have  the  leall 
advantage  in  point  of  fagacity  over  our  Ihccp,  which 
are  commonly  made  the  emblems  of  tillincfs.  In  the 
former  country  they  are  fed  upon  tilh,  in  the  latter  on 
vegetables,  and  both  thefc  diets  may  have  fervcd  to  al- 
ter their  difpolition.  Education  may,  perhaps,  like- 
wife,  graft  new  inllinas  :  the  New-Zealand  dogs  are 
fed  on  the  remains  of  their  maftcrs  meals  ;  they  eat 
the  bones  of  other  dogs  ;  and  the  puppies  become  true 
cannibals  from  their  birth.  We  had  a  young  New- 
Zealand  puppy  onboard,  which  had  certainly  had  no 
opportunity  of  tailing  any  thing  but  the  mother's  milk 
before  we  purchafed  it ;  however,  it  eagerly  devour- 
ed a  portion  of  the  tlefli  and  bones  of  the  dog  on  which 
we  dined  to-day  ;  while  fcvcral  others  of  the  Europe- 
an breed,  taken  on  board  at  the  Cape,  turned  from  ic 
without  touching  it. 

"  On  tiie  4th  of  Auguft,  a  young  bitch,  of  the  terrier  Itii.  p  143. 
breed,  taken  on  board  at  the  Cape  of  Good-Hope,  and 
covered  by  a  fpaniel,  brought  ten  young  ones,  one  ot 
which  was  dead.  The  New-Zealand  dog  mentioned  a- 
bove,  which  devoured  the  bones  of  the  roalleddog.now 
fell  upon  the  dead  puppy,  and  cat  of  it  with  a  ravenous 
apjictite.  This  is  a  proof  how  far  education  may  go  in 
producing,  and  propagating,  new  inilindlsin  animals. 
European  dogs  are  never  fed  on  the  meat  o{  tlicir  own 
fpecies,  but  rather  feem  to  abhur  it.  The  New-Zea- 
land dogs,  in  all  likelihood,  are  trained  up  from  their 
earliellagc,  to  eat  the  remains  of  their  mailer's  meals  : 
they  are,  therefore,  ufed  to  feed  upon  iilh  ;  their  own 
fpecies  ;  and,  perhaps,  lunuan  ficfli  ;  and  what  was  on- 
ly owing  to  a  habit,  at  lirll,  may  iiavc  become  inllinifl, 
by  length  of  time.  This  was  remarkable  in  our  canni- 
bal dog  ;  for  he  came  on  Iward  fo  young,  that  he  coulJ 
not  have  been  weaned  long  enough  to  iiavc  acquired 
a  habit  of  devouring  his  own  fpecies,  and  much  lefs  of 
eating  human  tielh  ;  however,  one  of  our  fearaen  ha- 
ving cut  his  linger,  held  it  oat  to  the  dog,  who  fell  to 
greedily,  licked  it,  and  then  began  to  bite  it." 

From  this  account  it  appears,  that  even  the  inftin<51s 
of  animals  are  not  unchangeable  by  natural  caufes  ;  and 
if  thefe  caufes  are  powerful  en'uigh  to  chan^-e  the  dif- 
politions  of  fucceeding  general  ions,  much  more  may  we 
fuppofe  them  capable  of  making  any  polfiblc  alteration 
in  tlie  external  appearance. 

We  are  not  here  neceff.tatcd  to  confine  ourfelves  to  cnnfirme-l 
obfcrvaiions  made  on  brurc  animals.     The  Fr.mks  arc  byir.obrer- 
an  example  of  ihcproduclion  of  one  general  character,  vation  on 
formed  by  fome  natural  caufe  from  a  mixture  of  many  the  Fnnls; 

differcnc 


A  M  E 

Aii-erica.   different  nations  — They  were  a 

"  '  confifting  of  various  German  nations  dwelling  beyond 
the  Riiiiie  ;  who,  uniting  in  defence  of  their  common 
liberty,  took  thence  the  name  of  Franks ;  the  word 
Jraiik  fignifying  in  their  language,  as  it  Itill  does  in 
fjiei.     Among  them  (he  following  nations  were 


mentioned,  viz.  ihc  Aduarii,  Chamavi,  Brnclcri,  Salii, 
Krilii,  Chaufi,  Amfwsrii,  and  Catti.  We  cannot  fiip- 
j)ofe  one  character  to  belong  to  fo  many  ditfcrent  na- 
tions ;  yet  is  it  certain  that  the  Franks  were,  nation- 
ally, characterized  as  treacherous.  It  is  in  vain,  then, 
to  talkof  dirt'ercnt  races  of  men,  cither  from  their  co- 
lour, (i/.e,  or  prcv.iiliiig  dif['<)|itions,  feeing  we  have 
undeniable  proofs  that  all  thefe  may  be  changed,  in 
the  molt  remarkable  manner,  by  natural  caufes,  with- 
out any  miraculous  intcrpoiition  of  the  Deity. 

.96 
01  the  pco-      The  queftions  wliich  now  prefent  thcmfelves  to  our 
rl'"K  of      notice  are,  From  what  part  of  the  Old- World  America 
Aintnca.    jj^j^  „,ojj  probably,  been  peopled  ? — And  how  was  this 
peopling  accomplilhed  ? — 

Yew  quefltoiis  in  the  hiflory  of  mankind  have  been 
more  agitated  than  thcfc. — Philofophcrs,  and  men  of 
learning  and  ingenuity,  have  been  fpeculating  upon 
them,  ever  fince  the  difcovery  of  the  Amcrican-lllands, 
by  Chriflopher  Columbus. — But  notwiihftanding  all 
the  labours  of  Acofta,  of  Grotius,  and  of  many  other 
writers  of  eminence,  the  fubjcft  flill  affords  an  ample 
field  for  the  refearchts  of  the  man  of  fcience,  and  for 
the  fancies  of  the  thcorilL 

Difcovcries,   long  ago  made,  inform  us,  that  an 
intcrcourfc  between  the  Old-Continent  and  America 
might  be  carried  on,  with  facility,  from  the  north-weft 
extremitiesof  Europe  and  tlie  north-eaft  boundaries  of 
Afia.   In  the  ninth  century  the  iNorwcgians  Jifcovcred 
Greenland,  and  planted  a  colony  there.   The  commu- 
nication with  that  country,   was  renewed  in  the  laft 
centuryby  Moravian  miliionaries,  in  order  to  propagate 
their  doctrine  in  that  bleak  and  uncultivated  region. 
By  them  we  arc  informed  that  the  north-weft  coaft  of 
Greenland  is  fcparatcd  from  America  by  a  very  narrow 
ftrait ;   that  at  the  bottom  of  the  bay  it  is  highly  pro- 
bable that  they  are  united  it  hat  the  Klquimaux  of  Ameri- 
ca perfectly  refemblc  the  Greenlandcrs,  in  their  af- 
97        pcci,  drefs,  and  mode  of  living  ;  and  that  a  Moravian 
A  comn-.u-  niillionary.well  acquainted  with  the  language  ofGreen- 
mcationbc-  ij,,^^  having  vilitcd  the  country  ot  the  Kfquimaux, 
Old  and  "^    f<"^"'''>  '"  his  aftonilliment,  that  they  fpoke  the  fame 
Niw-Con-  lai'gnage  with  the  Greenlandcrs,  and  were,  in  every 
tiiicnt'i,  by  rcfpecfl,  the  fame  people.  The  fame  fpecics  of  animals, 
two  ways,   too,  arc  found  in  the  contiguous  regions.     The  bear, 
the  wolf,  the  fox,  the  hare,  the  deer,  the  roebuck,  the 
elk,  frequent  the  forefts  of  North-America,  as  well 
as  thofe  in  the  north  of  Europe. 

Other  difcovcries  iiave  proved,  that  if  the  two  con- 
tinents of  Afia  and  America  be  feparated  at  all,  it  is 
only  by  a  narrow  ftrait.     From  this  part  of  the  Old- 
Continent,  alfo,  inhabitants  may  have  palftd  into  the 
New  ;  and  the  reicir.blaiice  between  the  Indians  of  A- 
mcrica  and  the  eaftern  inhabitants  of  Afia,  would  in- 
duce us  to  conjeflure  that  they  have  a  common  origin. 
'  Hijhry  i/This  is  the  opinion  adopted  by  Dr  Robertfon,  in  his 
Anitn^j,      Hiftory  of  America*,  where  we  find  it  accompanied 
Vol.  II.       with  the  following  narrative. 
p.  273.  <<  While  thofe  iniHicnfe  regionswhich  ftretched  eaft- 


[     566     ]       .  A  M  E 

motley  muhitude,     ward  from  the  river  Oby  to  the  fea  of  Kamtfehatka  America. 

were  unknown,or  imperfectly  explored,  the  north- eail  " v ' 

extremities  of  our  hcmifphcrc  were  fuppofed  to  be  fo 
far  diftaiit#from  any  part  of  the  New-world,  that  it 
wasnoteafy  to  conceive  how  any  communication  IhoulJ 
have  been  carried im  between  them.  But  thcRutiians, 
having  fubjeiltcd  the  wcftern  part  of  Siberia  to  their 
empire,  gradually  extended  their  knowledge  of  that 
vail  country,  by  advancing  towards  the  ealt  into  un- 
known provinces.  Thefe  wcredifcovered  by  huntersiti 
their  excurfions  aftergame,  or  by  foluitrs  employed  in 
levying  the  taxes  ;  and  the  court  of  Mufcow  cftiniatcd 
the  importance  of  thofe  countriesonly  by  the  fniallad- 
dition  which  they  made  to  its  revenue.  At  length,  Pe- 
ter the  Great,  afceiidcd  the  Rulliaii  throne  :  His  en- 
lightened, comprehenlive  mind,  intent  upon  every  cir- 
cumftancc  that  could  aggraudi^.e  his  empire,  or  render 
his  reign  ill ullrious.dikcrnedconfcquciu  es  of  thofe  dif- 
covcries, which  had  efcaped  the  obfcrvation  of  his  ig- 
norant prcdecellbrs.  He  perceived,  that,  in  proportion 
as  the  regions  of  Alia  extended  towards  the  eaft,  they 
inuft  approach  nearer  to  America  ;  that  the  communi- 
cation between  the  two  continents,  which  had  long 
been  fearchcd  for  in  vain,  would  probably  be  found  in 
this  quarter  ;  and  that,  by  opening  this  intercourfe, 
fome  part  of  the  wealth  and  commerce  of  the  weftcrn 
world  might  be  made  to  flow  into  his  dominions  by  a 
new  channel.  Such  an  objeft  fuited  a  genius  that  de- 
lighted in  grand  fchemes.  Peter  drew  up  inftruftions 
with  his  own  hand  for  profecuting  this  delign,  and  gave 
orders  for  carrying  it  into  execution. 

"His  fuccellbrs  adopted  his  ideas,  and  purfucd  his 
plan.  The  officers  whom  the  Ruffian  court  employed 
in  thisfervicc,  had  to  ftruggle  with  fo  many  difficulties, 
that  their  progrcfs  was  extremely  llow.  Encouraged 
by  fomc  faint  traditions  among  ihe  people  of  Siberia 
concerninga  fuccefsful  voyage  in  the  year  1648  round 
the  north-eaft  promontory  of  Afia,  they  attempted  to 
follow  the  fame  courfc.  Velfels  were  fitted  out,  with 
this  view,  at  different  times,  from  the  rivers  Lena  anil 
Kolyma  ;  but  in  a  frozen  ocean,  which  nature  feems 
not  to  have  deftined  for  navigation,  they  were  expofcd 
to  many  difafters,  w  ilhout  being  able  to  accomplifti 
their  purpofe.  No  velfel  fitted  out  by  the  Ruffian  court 
ever  doubled  this  formidable  cape  ;  we  are  indebted  for 
what  is  known  of  thofe  extreme  regions  of  Alia,  to  the 
difcovcries  made  in  excurfions  by  land.  In  all  thofe 
provinces,  an  opinion  prevails,  that  countries  of  great 
extent  and  fertility  lie  at  no  conlidcrable  diftancc  from 
their  own  coafts.  Thefe  the  Ruffians  imagined  to  be 
part  of  America  ;  and  fcveral  circumftances  occurred 
not  only  in  confirming  them  in  this  belief,  but  in  per- 
fuading  them  that  fome  portion  of  that  contiuent  could 
not  be  very  remote.  Trees  of  various  kinds,  unknown 
in  thofe  naked  regions  of  Afia,  are  driven  upon  the 
coaft  by  an  eaftcrly  wind.     By  the  fame  wind  floating 


ice  is  brought  ihitiier  in  a  few  days  ;  flights  of  birds 
arrive  annually  from  the  fame  quarter  ;  and  a  tradition 
obtains  among  the  inhabitants,  of  au  intcrcourfc  for- 
merly carried  on  with  fome  countries  lituatcd  to  the 
eaft. 

"  After  weighing  all  thefe  particulars,  and  compa- 
ring the  pofition  of  the  countries  in  Afia  which  they 
haddifcovcred,  with  fuch  parts  in  thenorth-weft  of  A- 
mericaas  were  already  known;  the  Ruffian  court  form- 
ed 


America- 


Rcafnn   for 
fuppoling 
the  two 
cuntincnts 
to   have 
licen  once 
joined. 


99 
Probable 

caafe  of 
their  fubfc' 
ijucnt  fcpa' 
cation. 


A  M  E  [567 

ed  a  plan,  which  would  have  hardly  occurred  to  any 
nation  Icfs  accuflomed  to  engage  in  arduous  underta- 
kings, and  to  contend  with  great  difficulties.  Orders 
were  ilTucd  to  build  two  vclTcls  at  Ockotz,  ia  the 
fea  of  Kamtfchatka,  to  fail  on  a  voyage  of  difcovery. 
Though  that  dreary  uncultivated  region  furnilhcd  no- 
thing that  could  be  of  ufe  in  conllructing  them  but 
fonie  larch-trees  ;  though  not  only  the  iron,  the  cor- 
dage, the  fails,  and  all  the  nunicrous  articles  rcquifite 
for  their  equipment,  but  the  provilions  for  victualling 
them,  were  to  be  carried  through  the  immcnfe  Jefarts 
ofSiberia,alongriversofdifficult  navigation, and  roads 
almoflimpallable,  the  mandate  of  the  fovcrcign,  and 
the  perfeveranceof  the  people,  at  lallfurmountcd  eve- 
ry obftacle.  Two  vcflcls  were  tiuilhcd;  and,  under  the 
command  of  captains  Behring  and  Tfchirikow,  failed 
from  Kamtfchatka  in  queft  of  the  New-World,  in  a 
quarter  where  it  had  never  been  approached.  They 
fliaped  their  courfe  towards  the  eafh ;  and  though  a  florm 
foon  feparatcd  the  veflels,  which  never  rejoined,  and 
many  difalters  befel  them,  the  expeftations  from  the 
voyage  were  not  altogether  fruftrated.  Each  of  the 
commanders  difcovered  land,  which  to  them  appeared 
to  be  part  of  the  American  continent ;  and,  according 
to  their  obfcrvations,  it  feems  to  be  lituatcd  within  a 
few  degrees  of  the  north-weft  coatt  of  California.  Each 
ftt  fome  of  his  people  afliore  :  but  in  one  place  the  in- 
habitants fled  as  the  Ruffians  approached;  in  another, 
they  carried  offthofc  wholanded,  and  deftroyed  their 
boats.  The  violence  of  the  weather,  and  the  diitrefsof 
their  cresvs,  obliged  bothioquit  this  inhofpitablecoaft. 
In  their  return  they  touched  at  feveral  illands,  which 
flrctch  in  a  chain  from  eaft  to  weft  between  the  country 
which  they  had  difcovered  and  the  coaftof  Alia.  They 
had  fome  intercourfe  with  the  natives,  who  feemcd  to 
them  to  referable  the  North-Americans.  They  pre- 
fented  to  the  Ruffians  the  calumet,  or  pipe  of  peace, 
which  is  a  fymbol  of  friendlhip  univerfal  among  the 
people  of  North-America,  and  an  ufage  of  arbitrary 
inftitution  peculiar  to  them." 

The  more  recent  and  accurate  difcoveries  of  that  il- 
Uiftrious  navigator  Cooke,  and  of  his  fucceflbr  Gierke, 
have  brought  the  matter  ftill  nearer  to  certainty.  The 
fea,  from  the  fouth  of  Beh ring's  Straits  to  the  crefccnt 
of  ides  between  Afia  and  America,  is  very  ffiallow.  It 
deepens  from  thefc  flraits  (as  the  Britilh  feas  do 
from  thofe  of  Dover)  till  foundings  arc  loft  in  the  Pa- 
cific-Ocean ;  but  that  does  not  take  place  but  to  the 
fouth  of  the  iiles.  Between  them  and  ilie  Jlraits  is 
an  increafe  from  1 2  to  54  fathoms,  except  only  off  St 
Thaddeus-Nofs,  where  there  is  a  channel  of  greater 
depth.  From  the  vulcanic  dil'pofition,  it  has  been 
judged  probable,  not  only  that  there  was  a  feparation 
of  the  continents  at  the  ftraiis  of  Behring,  but  that 
the  whole  fpace  from  the  illes  to  that  fmall  opening 
had  once  been  occupied  by  land  ;  and  that  the  fury  of 
the  watery  element,  actuated  by  that  of  tire,  had,  in 
mofl  remote  times,  fubvcrtcd  and  overwhelmed  tlie 
traft,  and  left  the  illands  to  ferve  as  monumental 
fragments. 

Without  adopting  all  the  fancies  of  Buffon,  there 

can  be  no  doubt,  as  the  Abbe  Clavigero  obferves,  that 

■our  planet  has  been  fulijed  to  great  viciffitudes  fincc 

■  the  deluge.   Ancient  and  modern  hiftories  contirm  the 

truth  whichOvid  has  fung  in  the  name  of  Pythagoras : 


] 


A  M  £ 


FiJi  ego  quodfuirat  quondam fotidij/ima  tillui, 
Effi  jrituin  ;  -jidiJraHas  SK  trquorc  terras. 

At  prefent,  they  plough  thofe  lands,  over  which  (hips 
formerly  Lilcd,  and  now  they  fail  over  lands  which 
were, formerly,  cultivated  :  earthquakes  have  fwaliow- 
ed  fome  lands,  and  fubterraneous  fires  have  thrown  up 
others :  the  rivers  have  formed  new  foil  with  their 
mud  :  the  fea,  retreating  from  theIhores,has  lcni»then- 
cd  the  land  in  fome  places,  and  advancing  inotlicrs  has 
diminiffied  it  ;  it  has  feparated  fome  territories  which 
were  formerly  united,  and  formed  new  flraits  and 
gulphs.  We  have  examples  of  all  thefc  revolutions  in 
the  paft  century.  Sicily  was  united  to  the  continent 
of  Naples,  as  Eubca,now  the  Black-Sea,  was  to  BcEoiia. 
Diodorus,  Strabo,  and  other  ancient  authors,  fay  tlic 
fame  thing  of  Spain,  and  of  Africa,  and  affirm,  that  by 
a  violent  eruption  of  the  ocean  upon  the  land  between 
the  mountains  Abyla  and  Calpe,  that  communication 
was  broken,  and  the  Mediterranean-Sea  was  fojrmed. 
Among  the  people  of  Ceylon  there  is  a  tradition  that 
a  fimilar  eruption  of  the  fea  feparated  their  illand  from 
the  peninfula of  India.  The  fame  thing  is  believed  by 
thofe  of  Malabar  with  refpectio  the  illes  of  Maldivia, 
and  with  the  Malayans  with  rcfped  to  Sumatra.  It 
is  certain,  fays  tlie  count  de  BatFon,  that  in  Ceylon 
the  earth  has  loft  30 or  40  leagues,  which  the  fea  has 
taken  from  it ;  on  the  contrary,  Tongres,  a  place  o£ 
the  Low-Countries,  has  gained  30  leagues  of  land  from 
the  fea.  The  northern  part  of  Egypt  owes  its  exift- 
ence  to  inundations  of  the  Nile.  The  earth  which 
this  river  has  brought  from  the  inland  countries  of  A- 
frica,  and  depolited  in  its  inundations,  has  formed  a 
I'oil  of  more  than  25  cubits  of  depth.  In  like  manner, 
adds  tlic  above  author,  the  province  of  the  Yellow- 
River  in  China,  and  that  of  Louifiana,  have  only  been 
formedof  the  mud  of  rivers.  Pliny,  Seneca,  Diodorus, 
and  Strabo,  report  innumerable  examples  of  limilar 
revolutions,  which  we  omit,  that  our  dilfertation  may 
not  become  too  prolix ;  as  alfo  many  modern  revolu- 
tions, which  are  related  in  the  theory  of  the  earth  of 
the  Count  de  Butfon  and  other  authors.  In  South-A- 
merica, all  thofe  who  have  obferved  with  philofophic 
eyes  the  peninfula  of  Yucatan,  do  not  doubt  that  that 
country  has  once  been  the  bed  of  the  fea  ;  and,  on  the 
contrary,  in  the  channel  of  Bahama,  many  indications 
Ihow  the  illand  of  Cuba  to  have  been  once  united  to 
the  continent  of  Florida.  In  the  ftrait  which  fcparates- 
America  from  Alia  many  idandsare  found,  which  pro- 
bably were  the  mountains  belonging  to  that  traft  of 
land  which  we  fuppofc  to  have  been  fwallowed  up  by 
earthquakes  ;  which  is  made  more  probable  by  the 
multitude  of  volcanoes  which  we  know  of  in  the  penin- 
fula of  Kamtfchatka.  It  is  imagined,  liowever,  that 
the  finking  of  that  land,  and  the  feparation  of  the  two 
continents,  has  been  occafioncd  by  thofe  great  and  ex- 
traordinary earthquakes  mentioned  in  the  hiftories  of 
t  he  Americans, which  formed  an  a-raalmort  as  memora- 
ble IS  that  of  the  deluge.  The  hiftories  of  the  Toltecas- 
fix  fuch  earthquakes  in  the  year  I  Tecpatl  ;  but  as  we 
know  not  to  what  century  that  belonged,  we  can  form 
no  conjccUirc  of  the  time  that  great  calamity  happened. 
If  a  great  earthquake  (hould  ovcrvvliclm  theirthniusof 
Scuz,  and  there  Qionld  be  at  die  fame  time  as  great  a 
fcarcity  of  hiftorians  as  there  were  in  die  firft  ages 

afxr 


America. 


A  M  E 


[     56S     ] 


A  M  E 


America. 


100 
?e|iarat<;d 
only  by  a 
narrow 
ftrai:. 


lOI 
j^nrmcfs    of 
t!iL  p-ifTige 
brtwicii 
them. 


<\njcc- 
tUri^l  coii- 
cerninjc  the 
fiirt  migra- 
tions into 
the  Ncw- 
Coutiiicnt. 


in.! 
iMr  Pen- 
nant's 
nion. 


")•'■ 


104 

Thelvj'U  of 
i;s  inha1)i- 
fants  pre. 
!)3bly  firft 
received 
from  liie 
eallern  part 
of  ACa, 


after  tlif  deluge,  it  would  be  doubted,  in  300  or  400 
years  after,  whether  Alia  had  evti'  been  united  by  that 
part  to  Afiita  ,  and  many  would  lirnily  deny  it. 

\\  lielhcr  that  gixn  event,  the  feparation  of  the 
continents,  took  |il.icc  before  or  after  the  population 
of  America,  it  is  inipollible  for  us  to  deteriiui\e  :  but 
we  are  indebted  to  the  abovenieiuioned  navigators  for 
fettling  the  lonj;  difpuie  about  the  point  from  which  it 
was  eif'eiiteil.  Their  obfcrvaiions  prove,  that  in  one 
place  the  dillance  between  continent  and  continent  is 
only  39  milts,  not  (as  the  author  of  the  Rcchirch.s 
Philo/uJ-hiqius  fur  la  Atixricaim  would  have  it)  800 
leagues.  This  narrow  ftrait  lias  alfo  in  the  middle 
twoillands,  which  would  greatly  facilitate  the  migra- 
tion of  the  Afiatics  into  the  New- Woiid,fuppofnig  tliat 
it  took  place  in  canoes  after  tlic  convuUion  which  rent 
the  two  continents  afundcr.  Belides,  it  may  be  ad- 
ded, that  thefe  llraits  are,  even  in  the  fumnier,  often 
filled  witii  ice  ;  in  winter,  often  frozen.  In  either 
cafe,  mankind  might  find  an  eafy  palfage  ;  in  the  lail, 
the  way  was  extremely  ready  for  quadrupeds  to  crofs 
andilock  the  continentof  America.  But  where,  from 
the  vafl  expanfc  of  the  north-eaUcrn  world,  to  fix  on 
the  firft  tribes  who  contributed  to  people  the  New- 
Continent,  now  inhabiied  alinoll  from  ei;d  to  end,  is  .1 
matter  that  baffles  human  reafon.  Tiic  learned  may 
make  bold  and  ingenious  conjciftures,  but  plain  good 
fenfe  cannot  always  accede  to  them. 

As  mankind  iucreafed  in  numbers,  they  naturally 
protruded  i>:ie  another  forward.  Wars  might  be  an- 
other caufe  of  migrations.  There  appears  no  reafon 
why  the  Aliatic  north  might  not  be  an  ufficina  vtrorum, 
as  well  as  the  European.  The  overteeming  country, 
to  the  eaft  of  the  Ripha;an  Mountains,  mull  find  it  ne- 
celfarytodifcharge  its  inhabitants  :  the  firft;  great  wave 
of  people  was  forced  forward  by  tlie  next  to  it,  more 
timiid  and  more  powerful  than  itfclf :  fuccellive  and 
new  impulfescontinually  arriving,  fiiort  rcll  was  given 
to  that  which  fprcad  over  a  more  eallern  trad  ;  dinurb- 
cd  again  and  a^ain,  it  covered  frelh  regions ;  at  length, 
reaching  the  fartlieft  limits  of  the  Old-World,  found  a 
new  one,  with  amjile  fpace  to  occupy  unmolcftcd  for 
ages  ;  till  Columbus  curled  them  by  a  difcovcry,  which 
brought  again  new  lins  and  new  deaths  to  both  worlds. 

"  The  inhabitants  of  the  New-World  (Mr  Pennant 
obfcrves),  do  not  confill  of  the  offspring  of  a  fingle  na- 
tion: different  people,  at  ft  veral  periods,  arrived  there, 
a:id  it  is  inipollible  to  I'ay,  that  any  one  is  now  to  be 
found  on  the  original  fpot  of  its  colonizaiion.  It  is 
inipolFible,  with  the  ligjits  which  we  have  fo  recently 
received,  to  admit  that  .'\merica  could  receive  its  in- 
habitants (at  Icaft  the  bulk  of  them)  from  any  other 
place  than  Eaftcrn-Afia.  A  few  proofs  may  be  added, 
taken  from  cnftoms  or  drelfcs  common  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  both  worlds  :  fome  have  been  long  estinc."!  in 
the  old,  others  remain  in  both  in  full  force. 

"  The  cnftom  of  fcalpiug  was  a  barbarifin  in  ufe 
with  thcScythians,whocarriedabout  lhem,atall  times, 
this  fav.ige  mark  o!  triumph  :  they  rut  a  circle  rour.d 
the  neck,  and  ftrippcd  off  the  fkin,  as  they  would  that 
ofanox.  A  little  image,  found  among  the  Kalmucs, 
of  a  Tartarian  deity,  mounted  on  a  liorfc,  and  fitting 
on  a  human  fkiu,  with  fcalps  pendant  from  the  brcafl, 
fully  illuftratcsihc  cuflom  of  theScyihian  progenitors, 
asdcferibed  by  the  Greek  hillorian.    Tliis  ufagc,  as 


we  well  know,  by  horrid  experience,  is  continued 
to  this  Csi^'j  in  America.  The  (erocity  of  the  Scythi- 
ans to  their  prifoncrs  extended  to  the  reniotcll  jiart  of 
Alia.  The  Kanufcliatkans,  even  at  the  time  of  their 
difcovcry  by  the  Ivuliians,  put  their  prifoners  10  death 
by  the  mofh  lingering  and  excruciating  inveniioiis  ; 
a  pratticc  in  full  force  to  this  very  day  among  the  abo- 
riginal Americans.  A  race  of  the  Scythians  were  fty- 
led  /'liilhi  iipoph.igi,  from  their  feeding  on  human  flelh. 
The  people  of  Noolka  Sound  Hill  make  a  repafl  on 
their  fellow-creatures;  but  what  is  more  wonderful, 
the  lavage  allies  of  the  Britilliarmy  have  been  known 
to  throw  the  mangled  limbs  of  the  French  prifoncrs 
into  the  horrible  cauldron,  and  devour  them  with  the 
fame  relilh  as  thofc  of  a  quadruped. 

"  Tiic  Scythians  were  laid,  for  a  certain  time,  an- 
nually to  transform  themlelves  into  wolves,  and  again 
to  refinic  the  human  Ihape.  The  new  difcovered  A- 
mericans  about  Nootka-Sound,  at  this  time,  difguife 
themfelvcs  indreifcs  made  of  the  (kins  of  wolves,  and 
oriier  wild  beads,  and  wear  even  the  heads  fitted  to 
their  oun.  Thefe  habits  they  ufe  in  the  chace,  to 
circumvent  the  animals  of  the  field.  But  would  not 
ignorance  or  fuperllition  afcribc  to  a  fupernatural  me- 
tainorpholis  thefe  temporary  expedients  to  deceive 
the  brute  creation  ? 

"  In  tlicir  marches,  the  Kanitfchatkans  never  went 
abreaft,  but  followed  one  another  in  the  fame  track. 
The  fame  cullom  is  e.xadH?  obfcrvcd  by  the  Ame- 
ricans. 

"■  The  Tungufi,  the  molt  numerous  nation  rcfidcnt 
in  Siberia,  prick  their  ficcs  with  fniallpunclnres,  with 
a  needle,  in  various  fliapes  ;  then  rub  into  them  char- 
coal, fo  that  the  marks  become  indelible.  This  cullom 
is  Aill  obferved  in  feveral  parts  of  America.  The  In- 
dians on  the  back  of  Hudfon's  Bay,  to  this  day,  per- 
form the  operation  c.xadly  in  the  fame  manner,  and 
punflure  the  fkin  into  various  figures  ;  as  the  natives 
of  New-Zealand  do  at  prefent,  and  as  the  ancient  Bri- 
tons did  with  the  herb  glaftuni,  or  woad  ;  and  tlic 
Virginians,  on  the  firfl  difcovcry  of  that  country  by 
the  Engliflt. 

"  The  Tungufi  ufe  canoes  made  of  birch-bark,  di- 
flendcd  over  ribs  of  wood,  and  nicely  fowed  together. 
TIic  Canadian,  and  many  other  American  nations,  nfe 
no  other  fort  of  boats.  The  paddles  of  the  Tungufi, 
are  broad  at  each  end  ;  ihofc  of  the  people  near  Cook's 
river,  and  of  Oonalafclia,  arc  of  ihe  fame  form. 

"  In  burying  of  the  dead,  many  of  the  .American 
nations  place  the  corpfe  ai  full  length,  after  preparing 
it  according  to  their  cufioms  ;  others  place  it  in  a  fit- 
ting pofture,  and  lay  by  it  the  mofl  valuable  cloaih- 
ing,  wampum,  and  other  matters.  The  Tartars  did 
the  fame  :  and  both  people  agree  in  covering  the 
whole  with  earth,  fo  as  to  form  a  tumulus,  barrow, 
or  caruedd. 

"Some  of  iiic  American  nations  hang  their  dead 
in  trees.  Certain  of  the  Tungufi  obferve  a  (imilar 
cuflom.  •  • 

"  We  can  draw  fome  analogy  from  drcfs  ;  convcni- 
ency  in  that  article  niuft  have  been  confulted  on  both 
continents,  and  originally  the  materials  niufl  have  been 
tlie  fame,  the  fkius  of  birds  and  beafls.  It  is  fingular, 
that  the  conic  bt-nnct  of  the  Chincfe  fhoukl  be  found 
among  the  people  of  Nootk,).     I  cannot  give  into  the 

notion. 


America. 


105 
Proofsfrom 
a  fimilarity 
of  culloir«, 
&c. 


IS6 

Ciiftoius 
and  drclTcs 
ciimmon  to 
the  eiftern 
Afiatic3  & 
the  Amcri- 
cans. 


A  M  E 


[     569     ] 


A  M  E 


108 

tie  brute 
nation 
igrateJ 
the  fame 
ute. 


intion,  tliat  the  Chincfe  contributed  to  tlie  population 
'  of  the  New-World  ;  but  we  can  readily  admit,  that  a 
Oiipwrcck  might  furnifli  thofc  Americans  with  a  pat- 
tern tor  that  part  of  the  drcfs. 

"  In  reffcit  to  the  features  and  form  of  the  human 
body,  almo/l  every  tribe  fojiad  along  the  wcflern  coall 
has  fomc  limilitude  to  the  Tartar  nations,  and,  ftill, 
retain  the  little  ryes,  fmall  nofcs,  high  cheeks,  and 
broad  faces.  They  vary  in  lize,  from  the  Infly  Cal- 
jnucs  to  the  little  Nogniana.  The  internal  Ameri- 
cans, fiich  as  the  Five-Indian  nations,  wlio  are  tall  of 
body,  robuil  in  make,  and  of  oblong  faces,  are  deri- 
ved from  a  varictyaniong  tiie Tartars  themfrlves.  The 
fine  race  of  Tfchutiki  fccms  to  be  the  flock  from  which 
thofc  Americans  are  derived.  The  Tfchut*ki, again, 
from  that  line  race  of  Tartars  the  Kabardiniki,  or  in- 
habitants of  Kabarda. 

"  But,  about  Prince  William's-Soand  begins  a  race 
chiefly  dillinguilhed  by  their  drcfs,  their  canoes,  and 
their  inftrumcnts  of  the  chace,  from  ihc  tribes  to  the 
fouth  of  them.  Here  commences  the  Efquimaux  peo- 
ple, or  the  race  known  by  that  name  in  the  high  lati- 
tudes of  the  eaftcrn  fide  of  the  continent.  They  may 
be  divided  into  two  varieties.  At  this  place,  they  arc 
ofthclargcfl  (ize.  As  they  advai*rc  northward,  they 
deereafc  in  height,  till  they  dwindle  into  the  dwsrfilh 
tribes  which  occupy  fome  of  the  roalls  of  the  Icy-Sea, 
and  the  maritime  pans  of  Hndfon's- Bay,  cf  Greenland, 
and  Terra  de-Labrador.  The  famous  Japanefc  map 
places  fomc  illands  fremingly  within  the  flraiis  of  Behr- 
ing,  on  which  is  beftowcJ  the  title  of  Ta-Zue,  or  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Dwarfs.  Does  not  this  in  fome  man- 
Ker  authenticate  the  chart,  and  give  us  reafon  to  fup- 
pofc  thst  America  was  not  unknown  to  the  Japanefe  ; 
and  that  they  had  (as  is  meniioncd  by  Kirmpfcr  and 
Charlevoix)  made  voyages  of  difcovcry,  and,  accord- 
ing to  the  hft,  aflually  wintered  on  the  continent  ? 
That  they  might  have  met  with  the  Efquinianxisvery 
probable  ;  whom,  in  compsrifon  of  themfclves,  they 
might  judly  diflinguifh  by  the  name  ol diuarfs.  The 
reafon  cf  their  lev/  Aature  is  very  obvious  :  thefe 
dwell  in  a  mofl  fcvcre  climate,  amidft  penury  of  food  ; 
the  former  in  one  much  more  favo'irable,  abundant  in 
provilions  ;  circumflances  that  trnd  to  prevent  the  de- 
generacy of  ihc  human  frame.  At  the  ill ind  of  Oona- 
lafcha,a  dialeftofthc  Kfquimaux  is  in  ufc,  which  was 
continued  along  the  whole  coaft  from  thence  north- 
ward." 

The  continent  which  ftocked  America  with  the  hu- 
man race,  is  fuppofed,  by  Mr  Pennir.t,  to  have  pour- 
ed in  the  brute  creation,  throu;;h  the  fan-e  paliage.  Ve- 
ry few  quadrupeds  continued  in  thepeninfula  of  Xamt- 
fchatka  ;  Mr  Pennant  enumerates  only  75  which  are 
inhabitants  of  land  :  all  the  reft  perlifled  in  their  mi- 
gration, and  f  xed  their  rclldcncc  in  the  New-World. 
Seventeen  "f  the  Kanufchatkan  qnadrupeils  arc  found 
in  America  :  others  arc  common  only  to  Siberia,  orTar- 
tary,  having,  for  unknown  caufcs,  entirely  evacuied 
Kamifthaika, and  divided  themfclves  between  America 
and  the  parts  of  Afia  above  cited.  Multitudes,  again, 
have  dcfcned  the  OK'-World,  even  to  an  individual, 
and  rixed  their  feats  at  dillances  mofl  remote  from  the 
f|H.tfrom  which  they  took  theirdepariurc  ;frommourt 
Ararat,  the  rrfting-place  of  the  srk,  in  a  cerural  part 
of  tlie  OKI-World,  and  excellently  adapted  furthedif- 
V'oi..  I. 


perlion  of  the  animal  creation,  10  all  its  parts.     "We    .'Vtrerit*. 

need  not  be  flartled  (fays  Mr  Pennant)  at  the  vail  « 

journeys  many  ofthe  quadrupeds  took  10  arrive  at  their 
prefents  feats.  Might  not  numbers  of  fpccies  liave 
found  a  convenient  abode  in  the  vafl  alps  of  Afia,  in- 
ftead  of  wandering  to  the  Cordilleras  of  Chili  ?  or 
might  not  others  have  been  contented  wiih  the  bound- 
lefs  plains  of  Tartary,  inftead  of  travelling  ihoufands 
of  miles  to  the  extenlive  flats  of  Pampas  ? To  endea- 
vour to  elucidate  common  difficulties  is  certainly  a  trou- 
ble worthy  of  the  philofopher,  and  of  the  divine ;  not 
to  attempt  it  would  be  a  criminal  indolence,  a  nc- 
gleft  to 

Vindicate  the  ways  of  God  to  man. 

But  there  arc  multitudes  of  points  beyond  the  human 
ability  to  explain,  and  yet  arc  truths  undeniable  :  the 
facls  are  indifputable,  notwiihftanding  the  caufe?  arc 
concealed.  In  fuch  cafes,  faith  mult  be  called  in  to 
oar  relief.  It  would,  certainly,  be  the  height  of  folly 
to  deny  to  tliat  Being  who  broke  open  the  great  foun- 
tains of  the  deep  to  effeft  the  deluge — and  aftcr- 
v.-ards,  to  compel  the  difpcrfion  of  mankind  to  peo- 
ple the  globe,  direfled  the  confufion  of  languages — 
powers  iiifcrior  in  their  nature  to  thefe.  Af'cr  ihefc 
wondrous  proofs  of  omnipotency,  it  will  be  sbfurd  to 
deny  the  polTibility  of  infufing  infiinct  into  iLc  brute 
creation.  Deui  ejt  anima  bmt:ri;- ;  "  God  himfelf  is 
the  foul  o'f  brutes  :"  hispUafurc  mull  have  dtteniiincd 
their  will,  anddiredled  feveral  fpccies,  ard  even  whole 
genera,  by  impulfe  irrefiflible,  to  move  by  (low  pro- 
grcffion  to  their  deHined  regions.  But  for  that,  the  lla- 
ma and  the  pacos  might  Hill  have  inhabited  ihc  heights 
of  Armenia,  and  fcnne  more  mijihbouring  Alps,  in- 
f^cad of  labouring  to  gain  ihediHaiit  Peruvian-Andes; 
the  whole  genus  of  armadillos,  (low  of  fgot,  would 
never  have  quitted  the  torrid-zone  of  the  Old-World 
for  that  of  the  New;  and  the  v\  hole  tribe  of  monkeys 
would  have  gamboled  together  in  the  forefts  of  India, 
inilead  of  dividing  their  re/idcnce  between  the  fliades 
of  Indoftan,  and  the  deep  forcfls  of  theBrafds.  Lioni 
and  tigers  m'ght  have  infefled  the  hot  parts  of  the 
New- World,  as  the  firft  do  the  deflirtsof  Africa,  and 
ilic  lall  the  provinces  of  Afia  ;  orthc  pantlerine  ani- 
mals of  South-America  might  have  remained  addition- 
al fcourges  with  the'favagc  beallsof  thofc  ancient  con- 
tinents. The  Old-World  would  have  bet  n  ovcrfiock  cd 
wiihanimals;  the  Newrcmainrd  an  unaniniated  wade! 
or  both  have  contained  an  equal  portion  of  every  beall 
of  the  earth.  Let  it  not  be  objcvTcd,  that  animals 
bred  in  a  fouthern  climaie,  after  the  dcfcent  of  their 
parents  from  the  ark,  would  be  un;bletobcar  thefro/l 
and  fnow  of  the  rigorous  north,  before  they  readied 
South-America,  the  place  of  their  final  dellinaiion.  It 
muft  be  confidercdj  that  the  migration  nnift  have  been 
the  work  of  ages;  that  in  the  courfe  ofiheir  progrefs 
each  generation  grew  hardened  to  the  climate  it  had 
re;'ched;  and  that,  aftertheirarrival  in  America, they 
would  again  be  gradually  a(;cuflomed  to  warmer  and 
warmerclimatcs,  in  their  removal  from  north  to  fouth, 
as  they  had  in  the  revcrfe,  or  from  fouth  to  north. 
Pr.rt  of  the  tigers  Ilill  inhabit  the  eternal  fnows  of  A- 
rarat,  and  multitudes  of  the  very  fame  fpecics  live, 
Ihu  with  cx.iltcd  rage,  beneath  the  line,  in  the  burn- 
ing  foil  of  Borneo,  or  Sumatra  ;  but  neither  lions  or 
4  C  tigers 


A  M  E 


[     570     ] 


A  M  E 


America,  tigcrs  ever  migrated  into  the  New-World.     A  few  of 

>- — u tiic  firfl  art  lound  in  iudia  and  Pcrlla,  but  they  ai*c 

found  in  luinibt rs  only  in  Africa.  The  tiger  extends 
as  far  norih  as  weflcrn  Tartary,  in  lat.  40.  50.  but 
never  lias  reached  America." 

In  line,  the  coiijcfturesof  the  learned  rcfiieftingthc 
vicinity  of  tlic  Old  and  New-World  are  now,  by  the 
difcovci  its  erf  late  great  navigators,  loft  in  conviction  ; 
and,  in  tlic  place  of  imaginary  hypotlicfcs,  the  real 
place  of  migration  is  almodiucontrovertibljipointc  J  out. 
ionie  (from  a  pallage  in  I'lato)  have  extended  over  the 
AtLntic,  from  the  (Iraits  of  Gibraltcr  to  the  loafl  of 
North  and  South -America,  an  illand  equal  in  lizetothc 
continents  of  Alia  ajid  Africa  ;  over  which  had  paffed, 
as  over  a  bridge,  from  the  litter,  men  and  animals  ; 
wool-htaded  negroes,  and  lions  and  tigers,  none  of 
which  ever  exiftcd  in  tlie  Ncw-\\'orld.  A  mighty  fea 
arofc,  and,  in  one  day  and  night,  eiigulphed  tliisftu- 
pcndous  nii\,  and  with  it  every  being  which  liad  not 
completed  its  migration  into  America.  'I'hc  whole  ne- 
gro race,  and  almoft  every  quadruped,  now  inhabi- 
tants of  Africa,  periflied  in  this  critical  day.  Fiveeuily 
are  to  be  found,  at  prtfcnt,  in  America  ;  and  of  thcfc 
only  one,  the  bear,  in  Sonth-America:  Not  a  fingle 
cuftom,  common  to  tlie  naiives  of  Africa  and  America, 
to  evince  a  common  origin.  Of  the  quadrupeds,  the 
bear.  Hag,  wolf,  fsx,  and  weefcl,  are  the  only  ani- 
mals which  we  can  pronounce,  with  certainty,  to  be 
found  on  each  continent.  The  ftag,  the  tux,  and  the 
ivecfel,  have  made,  alfo,  no  farther  progrefs  in  Africa 
than  the  north  ;  but  on  the  fame  continent  the  wolf  is 
fpread  over  every  part,  yet  is  unknown  in  South-Ame- 
rica, as  arc  the  foxand  weefel.  In  Africa  and  in  South- 
America  the  bear  is  very  local,  being  met  with  only 
in  the  north  of  the  firft,  and  on  the  Andes  in  the  laft. 
Some  eai)fe  unknown  arrcifed  its  progrefs  in  Africa, 
and  impelled  the  migration  of  a  few  into  the  Chilian- 
Alps,  and  induced  them  to  leave  unoccupied  the  vaft 
trad  from  North-.'\mcrica  to  the  lofty  Cordilleras. 

n    '°.'     r      AUafions  have  often   been  made  by  travellers  and 
Remains  of      ,  ,  •       •      a  •  1  •   u  j 

antinuit'  ill  Others,  to  fonie  remains  111  America  which  appeared  to 
America,  owe  their  original  to  a  people  more  intimately  acquaint- 
ed \.ith  the  arts  of  life  than  \\ic  favagt  tribes  which 
inhabited  this  continent  on  its  firft  difcovery  by  the 
Europeans,  or  than  thofc  which  are,at  pn. fen t,  feat ter- 
tdthrough  various  parts  of  its  extent.  Inafmallwork, 
]>':blilhcd  in  London,  in  1  73?,  entitled  Ol'fervat.oiii  on 
fovie  farts  oj  natural  hijhry  ;  to  which  is  fnfixed,  an 
account  of  ftveral  rentarkabU  vejiigcs  oj  an  ancimt 
date,  -which  have  he:n  difcovered  in  different  farts  of 
jimerica.  I'art  I.  the  author  has  cuUce^ed  the  featter- 
td  hints  of  Kalin,  of  Carver,  of  Kilfon,  and  fome  o- 
ther  travellers,  and  writers  ;  and  has  added  a  plan  and 
defcription  of  a  regular  work,  whicli  he  fuppofes  to 
liave  been  a  i'ortificution,  that  has  been  difcovered  near 
the  eonflnencc  of  the  rivers  Ohio  and  Mufkinguni. 
The  remains  deferibed,  or  alluded  to,  in  this  publica- 
tion, are  eh  rraftcrs,  or  fingular  marks,  which  were 
f.ippofcd  by  fome  JefuitSj  who  examined  them,  to  be 
Tartarian ;  furrows,  as  if  the  land  had  been  plouglied  ; 
a  fioncwall  ;  mounels of  earth,  of  difi'trent  forms  and 
fizcs ;  earthen  walls,  and  ditches,  &c. 

The  mounds  of  earth  are  fuppofed,  by  the  author,  to 
have  been  defigncd  for  different  purpofes:  i\\ti  fvialUr 
ones  arc,  evidently,  tumuli,  or  repofitories  of  the  dead  ; 


and,  he  thinks,  the  larger  ones,  as  that  at  Grave  Creek  Ar 
(a  branch  of  tbc  Ohio)  ;  many  which  are  to  be  fcen  in  ^- 
AUxico,  and  in  other  parts  of  America,  were  intend- 
ed to  fervc  as  the  bafcs  of  temples. 

The  nioll  curious  pan  of  tliis  little  work  is  the  de- 
fcription, together  with  the  plan,  of  the  fuppofed  for- 
tification, above  alluded  to.  It  is  lituated  on  the  eaft 
fide  of  the  river  Mulkingum,  about  half  a  mile  above  its 
juniflion  with  the  river  Ohio,  nearly  in  the  latitude  of 
39.  21.  and  about  i  70  miles  below  Fort-Pitt,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  rivers  Alleghany  an  1  Monangahe- 
la.  The  town,  as  it  has  been  fonictimes  called,  is  a 
large  level,  encompail'ed  by  walls  of  a  tetragon  form  ; 
occupying  a  piece  of  ground  about  one  quarter  of  a 
mile  fquare.  Thefe  walls  arc  from  fix  to  ten  feet  in 
height,  and  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  in  thicknefs. 
They  arc,  at  prcfcnt,  overgrown  with  vegetables,  of 
different  kinds,  and,  amongothcrs,  with  trees,  fome  of 
which  are  of  a  very  conliderable  diameter.  Each  fide 
of  the  walls  is  divided,  by  tliree  chafms,  or  openings, 
intofour,  nearly  equal,  parts  :  thefe  ehafnis  are  diredtly 
oppofitc  to  each  other.  Within  the  walls  there  arc 
three  elevations  ;  the  largeft  of  thefe  is  of  an  oblong 
form,  74  yards  long,  44  yards  broad,  and  6  feet  in 
heiglit  :  the  fecond  is  nearly  of  a  iimilar  form,  jo 
yards  long,  and  40  broad :  the  third  is,  alfo,  an  oblong 
mount,  but  much  fmaller.  Belidcs  thefe  three  eleva- 
tions, there  is  a  finall  circular  mount,  placed  nearly  in 
the  centre  of  four  fmall  caves  ;  and  a  "  femi-circular 
parapet,"  which,  it  is  not  improbable,  may  have  been 
defigncd  to  guard  one  of  the  chafms,  or  openings:  tiiis 
parapet  has  a  fmall  mount.  The  author  obferves,  that 
the  three  elevations  "  confiderably  refemblc  fome  of 
'•■  the  eminences  which  have  been  difcovered  near  the 
"  river  Millifiippi,"  of  which  he  has  given  an  ac- 
count in  his  publication. 

The  fortifications  (for  a  diftinflion  has  been  made 
between  them  a)id  the  tcnvn,  but  we  cannot  fee  with 
w  hat  great  propriety  )are  nearlyof  the  fame  form  as  the 
town.  The  walls  have  here,  alfo,  openings  :  and  at 
each  of  ihcfe  openings  there  is  one,  or  more  of  the 
fmall  circular  mounts. 

The  pyramid  is  one  of  the  inoft  confpicuous  parts  of 
thefe  lingular  remains.  It  is  of  a  circular  form  ;  50 
feet  in  height;  390  feet  in  circumference  ;  and  is  fur- 
rounded  with  a  ditch,  5  feet  deep,  and  i  j  feet  wide  : 
externally  to  the  ditch  there  is  a  )'arapet,  which  is  759 
feet  in  circumference.  "  The  pyramid,  as  well  as 
«'  the  eminences  and  walls, is  now  covered  wiih  gralfes, 
"  andother  kinds  of  vegetables."  Bcfides  thcfc,  there 
are  ftveral  other  eminences,  of  which  we  do  not  think 
it  ncceilary  to  take  any  notice,  in  this  place. 

The  author's  opinion  concerning  thefe  remains  is 
this  ;  that  they  owe  theirorigiual  to  "  iheToltecas,or 
fome  other  Mexican  nation,"  and  that  thefe  people 
were,  probably,  the  dcfcendants  of  the  Danes.  The 
firll  member  of  this  lO/.y-fl/z/cappears  not  improbable, 
ifweconlider  the  fimilarity  of  the  Mexican  mounts  and 
fortification?,  deferibed  by  Torquemada,  by  the  Abbe 
Clavigcro,  and  by  oiher  authors,  to  thofe  of  which  our 
author  has  publil):cdan  account ;  and,  alfo,  if  we  confi- 
dcr  the  tradition  of  the  Mexicans,  that  they  came  from 
the  north-weft,  in  which  trael  great  numbersof  iJiefe 
remains  have  been  difcovered.  As  to  the  fecond  mem- 
ber of  this  corjciflure,  wc  think  it  but  feebly  f>ipportcd  ;■ 

aUhougli 


A  M  E 


[     57'      J 


A  M  E 


no 
The  anci 


although  we  are  not  ignorant  tint  Grotins  and  oilitr 
writers  have  endeavoured  to  prove,  tiiat  ilic  northern 
nations  of  Europe  had,  aiSinlly,  foinc  intcrcourfc  with 
America,  long  before  the  time  of  Columbjs.      See  n* 
112.  itijra. 
It  is  believed,  by  many,  thst  the  ancients  had  fotne 
ents  I'uppo-  iiTiperfcrt  notion  of  the  New- World  ;  andfcveral  anci- 
feil  to  have  ^.^^  authors  are  quoted  in  confirmation  of  this  opinion. 
'm     /"A     Inabjok,  afcribed  to  thcphilolopher  Ariftotle,  we  arc 
not  on  of  a  ^°^'^  '^at  the  Carthaginians  difcovered  an  i'land,  far  be- 
new  world,  yond  the  pillars  of  Hercules,  lar^e,  fertile,  and  finely 
watered,  with  navigable  rivers,  but  uninhabited.  This 
ifland  was  diflant  a  few  days  failing  from  the  conti- 
nent :  its  beauty  induced  the  difcovercrs  to  fettle  there ; 
but  the  policy  of  Carthage  dillodgcd  the  colony, and  laid 
ftrict  prohibition  on  all  the  fubjccfs  of  the  Hate  not  to 
attempt  any   future  cllablilhment.     This  account  is 
alfo  confirmed  by  an  hillorian  of  no  mean  credit,  who 
relates,  that  the  Tyrians  would  have  fettled  a  colony 
on  the  newly-difcovcred  illand,  but  were  oppofed  by 
the  Carthaginians,  for  Hate  rcafons.     The  following 
pairage  has  been  quoted,  likewife,  from  Seneca's  Me- 
d:a^  in  confirmation  of  this  notion. 

Venlint  annis 

Sxculajeris,  quibiis  oceanus 
Vircula  rtruin  laxet,  ir  higfiis 
Pattat  telliii,  Typhtfqus  /lovts 
Delegat  orbes  :   iicc  jit  terrii 

Ultima  Tkuh. 

Act.  iii.  ver.  375. 

I'retcnfions  The  \VcI(h,  fondly,  imagine  tbattheircountry  con- 
jf  the  tributcd,  in  1170,  to  people  the  New-World,  by  the 
A'elfli  to  adventure  of  Madoc,  fon  of  Owen  Gwyuedd,  who,  on 
he  difco-  tj^g  jfjti]  of  his  father,  failed  there,  and  colonized  part 
'try  o  A"oft]jg  country.    It  is  pretended  that  Madoc  made  two 


he  I  it-h 
entury, 


voyages  :  that  failing  well,  he  left  Ireland  fo  far  to 
the  north,  that  he  came  to  a  land  unknown,  where  he 
faw  many  ftrange  things  ;  that  he  returned  home,  and, 
making  a  report  of  the  fertility  of  the  newly-dilcovcred 
country,  prevailed  on  numbers  of  the  Wellh,  of  each 
fcx,  to  accompany  him,  on  a  fecond  voyage, from  which 
he  never  returned.  The  favourers  of  this  opinion  af- 
fcrr,  that  feveral  Wellh  words,  (viz\\isg'jiraiido,  "  to 
hearken,  or  liflen  ;"  the  ille  of  (7ro<yo,or  "welcome;" 
Cape' Breton,  from  the  name  of  the  Brililh-i(hnd  ; 
g-uiyiina'ivr,  or  "  tlie  white  water  ;"  and />//;^':y///,  or 
"  the  bird  with  a  white  head  ;"  are  to  be  found  in  the 
American  language.  But  likentfs  of  found,  in  a  lew 
words,  will  not  be  deemed  fumcicnttoellabiilhthcfacl ; 
efpccially  if  t!ie  meaning  his  been  evidently  pervert- 
ed :  frr  example,  (he  whole  piiiguin  tribe  have,  unfor- 
tunately, not  only  black  heads,  but  arc  not  inliabilants 
of  tiie  northern  hemifphcre  ;  the  name  was  alfo  bellow- 
ed on  them  by  the  Dutch,  <i/)/«(^.v."(/;/.f,  from  thtlr  ex- 
cellive  fatnefs.  It  may  be  added,  that  the  Wellh  were 
never  a  naval  people  ;  thst  the  age  in  which  Madoc  li- 
ved was  peculiarly  ignorant  in  n-.'vi;;aiici;i  ;  and  the 
mofl  which  ihey  could  have  attempted  mull  have  been 
a  mere  coaQing  voyage. 

The  Norwegians  pat  in  fori  fliare  of  the  glory,  on 
groundsrathcrbetterthan  (he  Wellh.  By  ihtir  lettlc- 
uHshcttcr  ]j,rn,s  in  Iceland,  and  in  Greenland,  they  had  arrived 
wiihui  fofmalladillaaccof  the  New- World,  that  there 


112 

'hole  of 
he  NorwC' 


is  a  probability  of  its  having  been  toicbcd  at  by  a  people    Airerifi. 

foverfedin  maritime  affairs, and  fo  adventurous,  asthc  ' " 

ancient  Nortmans  were.  The  proofs  are  much  mor; 
numerous  than  thofe  produced  by  the  Britilhhillvrians; 
forthedifcovcry  is  mentioned  in  feveral  of  the  Iceland, 
ic  manufcripts.  The  period  wasabout  the  year  1002, 
when  it  was  vilitcd  by  one  Biorn  ;  and  the  difcovery 
purfued  to  greater  efFeclby  Leif,thefonof  Eric,thc  dif- 
coverercfGrcenland.lt  does  not  appear  that  they  reach- 
ed farther  than  Labrador;  on  which  coaft  they  met  wit li 
Efquimaux,  on  whom  they  beftowed  the  mmtoi  Skrx- 
lingiiei,  or  dwarfilli  people,  from  their  fmall  flaiure. 
They  were  armedwiih  bows  and  arrows, and  had  leath- 
ern canoes,  fucii  as  tiiey  have  at  prtfeut.  All  this  i« 
probable;  nor  fliould  the  tale  of  the  German,  called 
Turktl,  one  of  the  crew,  invalidate  the  account.  He 
was,  one  day,  milling  ;  but  foon  returned,  leaping  and 
Tinging,  withall  the  extravagant  marks  of  joy  a  btnvi- 
p<7/.'r could  Ihow,  on  difcovering  ihe  inebriating  fruit  of 
his  country,  the  grape  :  Torf<Kus  even  fays,  that  he 
returned  in  a  Ilaie  of  intoxication.  To  convince  hi* 
commander,  he  brought  feveral  bunches  :  and  the 
country,  from  that  circumflance,  was  named  ^//.7a/v./. 
There  appears  no  reafon  to  doubt  of  the  difcovery; 
it  is  thought  probable,  however,  that  thcfe  peAplj 
reached  no  farther  than  the  barren  country  of  Labra- 
dor. In  fhort,  it  is  from  a  m.uch  later  period  that  w  c 
muil  date  the  unequivocal  difcovery  of  America. 

Towards  the  clofc  of  the  i  jih  century,  Venice  and  -j-jj^  pf,. 
Genoa  being  rivals  in  commerce,  in  which  tl  e  former  jc<a.  of 
had  greatly  ihefiipcriority.ChrillopherColon.nrColum.  ei  rifio- 
bus,  a  native  of  Genoa,  conceived  a  project  of  iViling  to  P^er  Cj- 
ihe  Ealt-Indies  by  directing  hiscourfewellward.  This  '"'"b'^'- 
delign  "vas  founded  upon  a  miflakeof  the  geographer?, 
of  thole  days,  who  placed  the  eaHcrn  parts  of  Alia  im- 
menfcly  too  far  to  ihe  eaftward  ;  fo  that  had  they  been 
in  the  right,  the  fliortefl  way  would  have  been  to  1^:1 
directly  weilward.  Columbus  applied,  Hril,  to  his  o\\  .1 
countrymen  ;  but  being  rejected  by  thcni,  he  applied 
to  Portugal,  where  he  met  with  no  better  fuccefs. 
Spain  was  his  next  refourcc  :   here,  after  eight  yeari 
attendance,  he  obtained,  in  1^93,  a  ilcet  oftlireelhij  -. 
The  largeft, a  ihip <f noconliderable burthen, was con:- 
mandcd  by  Columbus,  as  admiral,  whogaveit  the  nan-.c 
of  Santa  Maria,  outof  refpcift  for  the  bltlfed  Virgin, 
whom  he  honoured  with  lingular  devoiio:i.   Ofihe fe- 
cond, called  the  /'//7/<7,  Martin  Piiizon  wascipr^in.an  J 
his  broiher  Francis  pilot.  The  third, named  the  A'/^/:-', 
was  under  the  command  of  Vincent  Yanez   Finzon. 
Thefe  two  were  light  velTcls,   hardly  fuperiorin  bur- 
den, or  force,  to  large  boats.  This  fquadron,ifit  nieriu 
th.1t  name,  was  viclualled  lor  i  j  months,  and  had  o;i 
board  90  men, moftly  failors, together  with  a  few  ad  vcr- 
turers.who  followed  the  fortune  of  Columbus, and  fome 
gentleman  of  Ifabella's  court,  whom  ihe  appointed  to  ac- 
company  him.  Though  the  cxpence  ofthe  iindertakin  ; 
wasoncof  the  circumllances  which  chief'y  alarmed  the 
court  of  Spain,  and  retarded,  fo  Ion g,  the  iiegociaiio'i 
with  Columbus,  the  funi  employed  in  fitting  out  this 
fquadroii  did  not  exceed  4C00I.     As  C<  lunibus  wr,s 
deeply  imprelTed  w  ith  fentimcnts  of  religion,  he  would 
not  fet  out  upon  an  expedition  fo  arduous,  and  i)f  which 
one  greatobjcil  was  to  extend  the  knowledge  ofthc 
Chriflian  faith,  without  imploring,  publicly,  thegui- 
4  C  2  dance 


A  M  E 


[    ST-     ] 


A  M  E 


America.  Jaiice  and  protct^ioii  of  Heaven.     With  this  view, 

'~~~^ he,  togcthtr  wiijiall  the  pcrluiis under  liis  command, 

marched,  in  I'oknni  proctllioii,  to  the  moualUry  ollla- 
bida.  .Alur  cuiittlling  their  lins,  and  obtaining  ab- 
ibhition,  they  reccivcU  the  hjly  fucrament  I'rom  ilic 
hands  of  liie  guardim,  who  joined  liis  prayers  to 
tlicii  s  for  the  fuccefs  of  an  euicrprifc  which  he  had  fo 
zcaloufly  patronized. 

Next  Uioruing,  being  Friday,  the  third  day  of  Aii- 
giift,  in  the  year  I.t92,  Columbus  fet  f.iil,  a  little  bc- 
114  fore  fun-rife,  in  prtfcnce  of  a  vaR  crowd  of  fpcclators. 
Ills  voyage  who  fent  up  their  fupplications  to  Heaven  for  the  pro- 
fperous  ilfuc  of  the  voyage,  which  ihcy  wiflied,  rather 
tliaiiexpcded.  Columbus  Ilccred,  dircdly,  fortheCa- 
iiary-Illa!:ds,  and  arrived  there  without  any  occurrence 
that  would  have  deferveil  notice  on  any  other  occafion  : 
but,  ill  a  voyage  of  fuch  cxpcftation  and  importance, 
every  circumftance  was  the  objccf  of  attention.  The 
rudderof  the  l^inta  broke  loolc,  the  day  after  (lie  left 
the  harbour,  and  that  accident  alarmed  the  crew,  no 
Iffs  fuperditious  than  unikilfiil,  as  a  certain  omen  of 
the  unfortunate  delVmy  of  the  expedition.  Even  in 
the  Ihort  run  to  the  Cauuics,  the  Ihips  were  found  to 
be  fo  crazy,  and  ill  appoiiued,  as  10  be  very  improper 
for  -a  navigation  which  was  cxpedlcd  to  be  botli  long 
and  dangerous.  Columbus  refitted  them,  however,  to 
the  bellof  his  power;  and  having  fiipplicd  himfelfwith 
frefh  provilions,  he  took  his  departure  from  Gomera, 
one  of  themofl  weftcrlyof  the  Canary-lllands,  on  the 
lixth  day  of  September. 

Here  the  voyage  of  difcovcry  may  properly  be  faid 
to  begin  ;  for  Columbus,  holding  his  courfe  due  well, 
left,  immediately,  the  ufual  track  of  navigation,  and 
flretchcd  into  unfreciucntcd  and  unknown  fcas.   The 
lirlt  day,  as  it  was  very  calm,  he  made  but  little  way  ; 
but  on  the  fecond  he  lofl  ligiit  of  the  Canaries;  and 
many  of  the  failors,  already  dejcftcd  and  difmaycd, 
wheii  they  contemplated  the  boldnefs  of  the  underta- 
king, began  to  beat  their  brcafts,  and  to  (lied  tears,  as 
if  they  were  never  more  to  behold  land.     Columbus 
comforted  them  with  alfuranccs  of  fuccefs,  and  the 
profpecl  of  vail  wealth,  in  thofe  opulent  regions  whi- 
ther he  was  conducing  them.     He  regulated  every 
thing  by  his  fole  authority  ;  he  fuperintended  the  exe- 
cution ofcvcry  order;  and,  allowing  himfelf  or.ly  a  few 
liours  tor  flecp,  he  was  at  all  other  times  upon  deck. 
As  his  courfe  lay  through  feas  which  had  not,  formerly, 
been  vilited,  the  fouuding-linc,  orinllruments  for  ob- 
fcrvation  were  continually  in  his  hands.     After  the 
example  of  the  Portuguefc  difcoverers,  he  attended  to 
the  motionof  tides  and  currents,  watched  the  tiight  of 
birds,  the  appearance  of  filhcs,  of  fca-weeds,  and  of  c- 
very  thing  that  floated  on  the  waves,  and  entered  eve- 
ry occurence,  with  a  minute  exaflncfs,  in  the  journal 
■w  hicli  he  kept.   As  the  length  of  the  voyage  could  not 
fail  of  alarming  failors  habituated  only  to  fliortexcur- 
fions,  Columbus  endeavoured  to  conceal  from   ihcm 
the  real  progrefs  which  they  made.     With  this  view, 
though   they  ran   18  leagues  the  fecond  day,    after 
tliey  left  Gomera,  he  gave  out  that  they  had  advanced 
only  I  5,  and  he,  uniformly  employed  the  fame  artilite 
of  reckoning  (liort,  during  the  whole  voyage.   By  the 
J  4lh  of  September,  tlie  fleet  was  above  2co  leagues  to 
the  wcftoftheCanary-lllcs.     There  they  were  ftruck 
viih  oR  appearance,  no  Icfs  allonilhing  than  new. 


They  obfervcd  that  the  magnetic  needle,  in  their  com-  Amciiia- 
pall'cs,  did  not  point  exactly  to  the  polar  liar,  but  vari-  '       ^j*       ' 
cil  towards  the  well  ;  and,  as  they  proceeded,  this  va-  /i^Hunfu,. 
riation   increafed.     This  appearance,   v;hich  is  now  n„.nt  occa- 
familiar,  though  it  flill  rcm.iins  one  of  the  myllerics  Goiieil  hy 
of  nature,  into  the  caufc  of  which  the  fagacity  of  man  cblcrving 
hath  not  been  able  to  penetrate,  (illcd  the  companions  ''"  vani.- 
of  Columbus  with  terror.  They  were  now  in  a  bound-  "°''  " , 
lels,  unknown,  ocean,  far  from  the  ulual  courleot  navi- 
gation ;  nature  itfelffcemed  to  be  altered,  and  the  only 
guide  which  they  had  lel't  was  about  to  fail  them.  C(<- 
lumbua,  with  no  lefsquicknefs  than  ingenuity,  inven- 
ted a  rcafon  for  this  appearance,  whicl  ,  though  it  did 
not  fatisfy  himfelf,  feenird  fo  plaufible  to  them,  that  it 
difpelled  their  fears,  or  lilenced  tlicir  murmurs. 

He  Hill  coniiinied  to  fleer  due  weft,  nearly  in  the 
fame  latitude  with  the  Canary-lllands.  In  this  courft, 
he  came  within  the  fpherc  of  the  tradr-wind,  which 
blows, invariably , from  t  aft  to  wefl,brtwecn  tli c  tropics, 
and  a  few  degrees  beyond  them.  He  advanced  before 
this  fleady  gale  with  fuch  uniform  rapidity,  that  it  was 
feldom  ncceliary  tofhit'ta  fail.  When  about  400  leagues 
to  the  weft  of  the  Canaries,  he  found  the  fea  fo  covered 
with  weeds,  that  it  refembled  a  meadow  of  vail  extent; 
and  in  fomc  places  they  were  fo  thick,  as  to  retard  the 
motion  of  the  velfels.  'Ihis  ftrange  appearance  ocea- 
lloncd  new  alarm  and  difquiet.  The  failors  imagined 
that  they  were  now  arrived  at  the  utmofl  boundary  of 
the  navigable  ocean  ;  that  thefe  floating  weeds  would 
obftruct  their  farther  progrefs, andconcealed  dangerous 
rocks,  or  fome  large  traft  of  land,  which  had  funk, 
they  knew  not  how,  in  that  place.  Columbus  en- 
deavoured to  pcrfuade  them,  that  what  had  alarmed, 
ought  rather  to  have  encouraged  them,  and  was  to  be 
confidered  as  a  lign  of  approaching  land.  At  the  fame 
time,  a  brifk  gale  arofc,  and  carried  them  forward. 
Several  birds  were  fcen  hovering  about  the  fliip,  and 
direfted  their  flight  towards  the  weft.  The  defpond- 
ing  crew  refumcd  fome  degree  of  fpirii,  and  began  to 
entertain  frefii  hopes. 

Upon  the  firft  of  Odtober  they  were,  according  to 
the  admiral's  reckoning,  770  leagues  to  the  well  of 
the  Canaries  :  but,  left  his  men  fliould  be  intimidated 
by  the  prodigious  length  of  the  navigation,  hcgaveout 
that  they  had  proceeded  only  584  leagues  ;  and,  fortu- 
nately for  Columbus,  neither  his  own  pilot,  nor  thofe 
of  the  other  fliips,  had  Ikill  fuflicient  to  corrcft  this 
error,  and  to  difcover  the  deceit.  Tjiey  had,  now,  been 
above  three  weeks  at  fea  :  they  had  proceeded  far  be- 
yond wh.it  former  navigators  had  attempted,  or  deemed 
poflible  :  all  their  prognoftics  of  difcover)  ,  drawnfrom 
the  riiglit  of  birds,  and  other  circumftances,  had  prov- 
ed fallacious:  the  appearances  of  land,  with  which  their 
own  credulity,  or  the  artificeof  their  commander, had, 
from  time  to  time, flattered  andanuifed  them,  had  been 
altogether  illulivc,  and  their  i>rofpc6l  of  fuccefs  feemed 
now  to  be  as  diftant  as  ever.  Thefe  refledlions  occur- 
red often  to  men,  \\  ho  had  no  other  objeft,  or  occupa- 
tion, than  to  reafon  and  to  difcourfe  concerning  the  in- 
tention and  eircumftanccs  of  their  expedition.  They 
made  imprellion,  at  firft,  upon  the  igjiorant  and  timid, 
and  extending,  by  degrees,  to  fuch  as  were  better  in- 
formed,or  more  refolute.t  hccontagion  iprcad, at  length, 
from  (hip  to  Jhip.  From  feeret  whifpers  and  murnuir- 
jngs,  they  proceeded  to  open  cabals  and  public  com- 
plain::;. 


A  M  E 


[     S72,     ] 


A  M  E 


ii6 

Perilous 
fituation 


America,   plaints.  They  cnxcd  their fovercigiiwiihiiiconfidcr.ite 

' ^^— '  crcduHty,  in  paying  fiich  rc};in.l  to  the  v:iiii  proniifcs 

and  rafli  conjedurcs  of  "an  indigent  foreigner,  as  to  ha- 
zard the  lives  of  i"o  many  of  her  own  Uibjc(5ts,  in  profc- 
cuting  a  chimerical  fcliemc.  They  affirmed  that  they 
had  fully  performed  their  duty,  by  venturing  fo  far  in 
f^n  unknown  and  hopdefs  courfe,  and  could  incur  no 
Llaine,  for  refuting  to  follow,  any  longer,  a  dcfpcratc 
advcuturer  to  certain  deftrudion.  They  contended, 
:hat  it  was  necelfary  to  think  of  returning  to  Spain, 
while  theircrazy  velfels  wercftill  ina  condition  to  keep 
the  fca,but  expreflcd  their  fears  that  thcattiyppt  would 
prove  vain,  as  the  wind,  which  had  hitherto  been  fo 
favourable  to  tlieir  courfe,  muft  render  it  inipofliblc  to 
fail  in  tlie  oppofiic  dircclion.  All  agreed  that  Colum- 
bus Ihould  be  compelled  by  force  to  adopt  a  nieafurc  on 
which  their  common  fafcty  depended.  Some  of  the 
more  audacious  propofcd,  as  tlic  moll  expeditious  and 
certain  method  for  ^^ettingrid,  at  once,  of  liis  remon- 
flrances,  to  throw  him  into  the  fea  ;  being  perfuaded 
that,  upon  their  return  to  Spain,  the  death  of  an  un- 
fuccefsful  projcdor  would  excite  little  concern,  and 
be  inquired  into  with  no  curiofity. 

Columbus  was  fully  fcnfible  of  his  perilous  fituation. 
He  had  obferved,  with  great  unealinefs,  the  fatal  ope- 
ration of  ignorance,  and  of  fear,  in  producing  difaffcc- 
r  tion,  among  liis  crew  ;  and  faw  that  it  was  now  ready 
Columbus,  to  burll  out  into  open  mutiny.  He  retained,  however, 
perfed  prefencc  of  mind.  He  afFeded  to  feem  igno- 
rant of  their  machinations.  Notwithflanding  tlic  agi- 
tation and  folicitude  of  his  own  mind,  he  appeared 
with  a  ehcarful  countenance;  like  a  man  fjtisRcd  wi:h 
the  progrefs  whicli  he  had  made,  and  confident  of  fuc- 
cefs.  Sometimes  he  employed  all  the  arts  of  infiiiu- 
ation  tofoothc  his  men.  Sometimes  he  endeavoured  to 
work  upon  their  ambition,  or  avarice,  by  magniticent 
defcriptions  of  the  fame  and  wealth  which  they  were 
about  to  acquire.  On  other  occafions,  he  aii'umed  a 
toneofaut]iority,and  threatened  them  v;ith  vengeance 
from  their  fovereign,  if,  by  their  daftardly  behaviour, 
they  ihould  defeat  this  noble  effort  to  promote  the  glo- 
ry of  God,  and  to  exalt  the  Spanilh  name,  above  that 
of  every  other  nation.  Even  with  feditious  failors,the 
words  of  a  man,  whom  they  had  been  acciiflomtd  to 
reverence,  were  weighty  and  perfuafive  ;  and  not  only 
reftrained  them  from  thofe  violent  excelfes  which  tlicy 
meditated,  but  prevailed  with  tliem  to  accompany 
their  admiral  for  fome  time  longer. 

As  they  proceeded,  the  indications  of  approaching 
land  fecincd  to  be  more  certain,  and  excited  hope  in 
proportion.  The  birds  began  to  appear  in  flocks  mak- 
ing towards  the  fouih-wcit.  Columbus,  in  imitation 
of  the  Portuguefc  navigators,  who  had  been  guided  in 
feveral  of  tlicir  di'fcoveries  by  the  motion  of  birds,  al- 
tered his  courfe  from  d'jc  weft  to'.vards  that  quarter 
whither  thry  pointed  their  flight.  But  after  hoKliiig 
on  for  feveral  days  in  this  newdiredion  without  any 
better  fuccefs  than  formerly,  having  fecn  no  object 
during  ;o  days  but  the  fca  and  the  fky,  the  hopes  of 
his  companions  fubliJtd  faftcr  than  they  Iiad  rifenj 
their  fears  revived  with  additional  force  ;  impatience, 
rage,  and  defp.iir,  appeared  in  every  countenance.  All 
fenfeof  fuboidiiiation  was  loft.  The  officers,  who  had 
liithcrto  concurred  with  Columbus  in  opinion,  and  fu|i- 
ported  his  authority,  now  took  pan  with  tl.'e  private 


"7 
His  crew 

ready  to 
iiiutiiiy, 


men:  they  ailemblsd,  tumultuoully,  on  the  Jcck,  ex-     America. 

populated  v/ith  their  com;nandcr,  mingled  tlircats  witli  * •' ' 

their  cxpoilulations,  and  required  hi.v.  i.Tila.itly  to  tack 
about,  and  to  return  to  Europe.  Coluaibus  perceived 
tliat  it  would  be  of  no  avail  to  have  recoarfc  to  any  of 
his  former  arts,  which  having  been  tried  fo  often  had 
loft  their  cfieii  ;  and  that  it  v.'as  inipofliblc  to  re-kindlc 
any  zeal  for  the  fuccefs  of  the  expedition  among  men 
in  whofc  breafts  fear  had  cxtiiiguiihed  every  generous 
fcntiment.  He  faw  tliat  it  was  no  Icfs  vai:i  to  think 
of  employing  either  gentle  or  fevcrc  meafures,  toqjcll 
a  mutiny  fo  general  and  fo  violent.  It  was  ncceflary, 
on  all  thcfe  accounts,  to  foothe  pafl'ions  which  he  could 
no  longer  command,  and  to  give  way  to  a  torrent  too 
impetuous  to  be  checked.  lie  proniifed,  foltmnly,  to 
his  men,  that  he  would  comply  with  their  rcqueft,  jiro- 
vided  they  would  accompany  him,  and  obey  his  com- 
mands for  three  days  longer,  and  if,  durin^^  that  time, 
land  were  not  lilfcovercd,  he  would  then  abandon  the 
entcrprife  and  direct  his  courfe  towards  Spain. 

Enraged  as  the  failors  were,  and  impatient  to  turn 
their  faces  ag^in  towards  their  native  country,  this 
))ropolition  did  not  appear  to  them  unreafonable.  Nor 
did  Columbus  hazard  much  in  confining  himfclf  toa 
term  fo  Ihort.  The  prefages  of  difcovcringland  were 
luiwfo  numerous  and  promiling,  that  he  deemed  ihcm 
infallible.  For  forne  days  the  founding  li.ie  had  reach.-d 
the  bottom,  and  the  foil  which  it  brought  up  indicated 
land  to  be  at  no  great  diftance.  The  flocks  of  birds 
increafed;  and  were  compofed  not  only  of  fea  fowl, 
but  of  fuch  land-birds  as  could  not  be  fuppofed  to  Ay 
far  from  the  (liore.  The  crew  of  the  I'inta  obferved  a 
cane  floating  which  fcemed  to  be  newly  cut,  and  like- 
wife  a  piece  of  timber  artilicially  carved.  Tlie  failors 
aboard  the  Nigna  took  up  the  branch  of  a  tree,  with 
red  berries,  perfectly  frelh.  The  clouds  around  tiic 
fetting  fun  alFumed  a  new  appearance  ;  the  air  was 
more  mild  and  warm;  and,  during  night,  the  wind  , 

became  unequal  and  variable.  Kroni  ail  tliefc  fymp- 
toms,  Columbus  was  fo  eonfidi  nt  of  being  near  land, 
that,  on  the  evening  of  the  nth  of  October,  after  pub- 
lic prayers  for  fuccefs,  he  ordered  the  fiils  to  be  fur- 
led and  the  ihips  to  lie  by,  keeping  ftricl  watch,  left 
tliey  iliould  be  driven  alhore  in  the  night.  During 
this  interval  of  fufpence  and  expectation,  nomanlhut 
his  eyes,  all  kept  upon  deck,  gazing  intently  towards 
that  quarter  where  they  expeded  to  difcover  the  land, 
which  had  been  fo  long  the  objed  of  their  wil'ies. 

About  two  hours  before  midnight,  Columbus'  ftand-       j,g 
ing  on  the  forccaftle,  obferved  a  light  at  a  diilance.  Their  joy 
and    privately   pointed   it   out  to  Pedro  Gulticrcz,  aondefcry- 
pagcof  the  queen's  wardrobe.  Guiticrcz  perceived  it ;  ''E  '^ud. 
and  calli  ng  to  Salcedo.comptroUer  of  the  iicei,  all  three 
faw  it  in  motion,  as  if  it  were  carried  from  place  to 
place.     A   little  after  midniglit,  the  joyful  found  of 
Land!  land!  was  heard  from  the  Pinta,  which  kept  al- 
ways a-head  of  the  other  Clips.     But  having  been  fo 
often  deceived  by  fallacious  appearances,  every  man 
was  now  become  llowof  belief ;  and  waited,  in  all  the 
anguilh  of  uncertainty  and  impatience,  for  the  return 
of  day.      As  foon  as  morning  dawned,  all  doubts  and 
fears  were  difpclled.     From  each  ihip,  an  iilaiid  was 
fcen  about  two  leagues  to  the  north,  whofe  Hat  and 
verdant  titlds,well  ftored  w  ith  wood, and  watered  with 
many  rivulets,   prcfeiucd  the  afpcct  of  a  dilightful 

country. 


A  M  E 


AtiKri-i.  counrry.  Tkc  crew  of  ihc  Pima  inftanily  begun  die 
'  "  '  Ti  D-rnm,  as  a  hyiuii  of  tluuikfj^iving  to  GuJ  ;  aiij 
were  joined  by  ihofc  of  tlie  other  ihips,  with  tears  of 
joy  anJ  tvaiiijiorts  of  congratulaliuii.  This  office  of 
gruriiiiJe  to  Heaven  was  follow  eJ  by  an  aclof  juflicc 
tothtircommanilcr. They  threw  iheinftlvcsat  the  feet 
of  Columbus,  with  feelings  offrlfcon<icmi!alion  ining- 
leJ  wi'.li  riverciicc.  Thty  inijilorcd  him  to  pardon 
their  ignorance,  incrcdiiliiy,  and  iiifolcnce,  which  had 
created  liini  fo  much  unncceilary  difquict,  and  had  (o 
often  obllruc'led  the  profccution  of  his  wcll-conccrtej 
\Ai'M  and  palfing,  in  the  warmth  of  their  admiration, 
from  one  extreme  to  another,  they  now  pronounced 
the  man  whom  they  had  fj  lately  reviled,  and  threat- 
ened, to  be  a  perfon  infpired  by  Heaven,  with  fagact- 
ty  and  fortiuide  more  than  human,  in  order  to  accom- 
pli.h  a  dtlign  fo  far  beyond  the  ideas  and  concepiion 
of  all  former  ages. 

Asfoon  as  the  fun  arofe,  all  their  boats  were  man- 
ned and  armeil.  They  rowed  towards  the  iiland  with 
their  colours  difplaycd,  with  warlike  mulic,  and  other 
narlial   poinp.     As   they  approached  the  coafl,  they 
faw  it  covered  with  a  multitude  of  people,  whom  tiic 
Thcv'l'nd  "°^<^''y  o'   'li*  fpedlaclc  had  drawn  together,  whofc 
in  one  of     attitudes  and  gelhircs  fxprclfed  wonder  and  aftonilh- 
the   :flanJ5  nicrt,?.t  the flrangeobjetts  which  prefented  thcn)ftlvcs 
oft  he  N't  w- to  till  ir  view.     Columbus  was  ihc  firfl  European  who 
World.        f([  foot  in  the  New- World,  which  he  had  difcovered. 
He  landed  in  a  rich  drefs,  and  with  a  naked  fword  in 
his  hand.     His  men  followed  ;  and,  kneeling  down, 
they  all  killed  the  ground  which  they  had  fo  long  de- 
(Ired  to  fee.  They,  next,  eredled  a  crucifix  ;  and,pro- 
(traliiig  ihcmfelves  before  it,  returned  thanks  to  God 
for  ronduiJiing  their  voyage  to  fuch  an  happy  iinie. 

Theabovc  was  oneofthe  Baliama-Illands  ;  to  which 

he  gave  the  name  of  San  Salvador,  and  took  pollcllion 

of  ir,  in  the  name  of  their  Catholic  majcfiies.    In  this 

Jirll  voyage  he  difcovered  feveral  other  of  the  Lncayo, 

or  Bahama-Iilands,  with  thofcof Cubaand  Kifpaniola. 

The  natives  conlidered  the  Spaniardsas  divinities,  and 

the  difcharge  of  the  artillery  their  thunder  :  they  fell 

prollrate  at  the  found.   The  women,  however,  offered 

their  favours,  and  courted  the  en.braces  of  their  new 

guellsasinen.  1' heir  hulLands  were  notjcalousofihem; 

li'.d  in  the  arms  of  thofe  wantons  the  companions  of 

Cilumbiisare  faid.by  fjmeauthorSjto  have  caught  that 

malai'y  which  dirccis  its  poifon  to  the  fprings  of  life. 

In  a  fecond  voyage,  many  new  iilands  were  difcovered. 

In  a  third,  he  attained  the  great  ohjecT:  of  hisambiiion, 

1:0        l^y  difcovcring  the  coninent  of  America,  near  the 

Thcconti-  mouth  of  the  river  Oronooko,  on  the  tirftday  of  Au- 

ni-iit  iftir-  guft  1498.  His  fucccfs  produced  a  crowd  of  adventur- 

wards   dif-  j-rs,  from  all  nations;   but  the  year  before  this,  the 

eovtrcd,      northern  continent  had  been  difcovered  by  Scbaflian 

Cabot,  in  the  fcrvicc  of  Henry  VII.  of  England. 

Notwithrtanding  the  many  fettleinents  of  the  Euro- 
peans in  this  coi.tir.eiit,  great  part  of  America  remains 
f.ill  unkmnvn.    The  northern  con.  inent  contains  the 
III       Briiilh  colonies  of  H>idfon*s-Bay,  Canada,  and  Nova- 
OiviHon  of  Sco.ia  ;  the  .Vcw- England  flatcs,fs'tw- York, New- Jer- 
Aai.rica,     ^^j^  Penifylvania,  Maryland,   Virgir.ia,    North  and 
South,  Carolina,  and  Georgia.  It  contains,  alfo,  the 
Spanifll  terri  torics  of  Eall,  an  J  Weft, Florida, Louiliana, 
New-Mexico,  California,  and  Mexico.  Befidcs  thcfc, 
there  are  inimenfe  regions  10  the  wefl,  and  north,  the 


[     574     ] 


A  M  E 


boundaries  of  which  have  ne  very  ct  been  difcovered.  In  .Amcrici. 

fuch  asarc  in  any  degree  known,  dwell  the  Efqiiitn.iiHC,  ' •■'—' 

thcAlgonquins,theHurons,thcIroquois,thcCliccrake, 
tiieChickafaws,  and  many  other  tribes  of  Indians.  In 
the  fouthern  continent  lie  the  Spanilh  provinces  of  Ti- 
erra-Firme,  Ciuiana.Ptru,  Paraguay,  and  Chili ;  toge- 
ther with  that  of  Bralil,  belonging  to  the  I'ortiiguefc ; 
and  the  country  of  Surinam,  belonging  to  the  Dutch. 
Vart  tracts,  however,  in  the  inland  parts,  are  iinknowi;, 
beingcomprehended  under  the  general  name  of  .Ima- 
zo/iia.  A  large  didrid,  alfo,  laid  to  be  the  relidencc  of 
a  gigantic  race  of  men,  lies  on  the  eafl  fide  of  the  con- 
tinent, between  the  (Iraitsof  Magellan  and  the  pro- 
vince of  Paraguay.  Seethe  article  Patagonia. 

This  vail  country  produces  many  of  the  metals,  mi-        jij 
nerals,  plants,  fruits,  trees,  and  wood,  to  be  met  with  its  produc- 
in  the  oilur  parts  of  the  world,  and  many  of  them  in  tions. 
greater  quantities,  and  in  high  perfeclion.  The  gold 
and  (ilver  of  America  have  fupplied  Europe  with  fuch 
immenfe  quantities  of  tliofc  valuable  metals,  that  they 
are  become  vaftly  more  common  ;  fo  that  the  gold  and 
lilvcr  of  Europe  now  bear  little  proportion  to  the  high 
price  fet  upon  them  before  the  diftovery  of  America. 

It  alfo  produces  diamonds,  pearls,  emeralds,  aine- 
thyfts,  and  other  valuable  llones,  which,  by  being 
brought  into  Europe,  have  contributed,  likewifc,  to 
lower  their  value.  To  thefe,  which  are  chiefly  the 
produflions  of  Spanilh  America,  may  be  added  a  great 
number  of  other  commodities,  which,  though  of  left 
price,  are  of  much  greater  ufe.  Of  thefe  are  the  plen- 
tiful fuppliesof  cochineal,  indigo, anatto,  logwood, bra- 
zil, fuflic,  pimento,  lignum  vit«,  rice,  ginger,  cocoa, 
or  the  chocolate  nut,  fugar,  cotton,  tobacco,  banillas, 
red-wood,  the  balfams  of  Tolu,  Peru,  and  Chili,  that 
valuable  article,  in  medicine,  thejefuit'sbark,  inecho- 
acan,  fair.ifras,  farfaparilla,  callia,  tamarinds,  hides, 
furs,  ambergrifc,  and  a  great  variety  of  woods,  roots, 
and  plants  ;  to  w  hich,  before  thedifcovcry  of  America, 
the  Europeans  were  either  entire  flrangers,  or  which 
they  were  forced  to  buy  at  an  extravagant  rate  from 
Alii  and  Africa,  through  the  hands  of  the  Venetians 
and  Gcnocfe,  who  then  cngrolled  the  trade  of  the 
Eaflern-World. 

On  this  continent  there  grows  alfo  a  variety  of  ex- 
cellent native  fruits  ;  as  pine-apples,  citrons,  lemons, 
oranges,  malicatons,  figs,  grapes,  great  numbers  of 
culinary,  medicinal,  and  other  herbs,  roots,  and  plants, 
with  many  exotic  productions,  which  are  nourilhcd 
in  as  great  perfcdlion  as  in  tlicir  native  foil. 

Although  the  Indians  llill  live  in  t'le  quiet  pofTcfrion  .j-j,^  diffcr- 
ofinany  large  trails,. ■America, fo  far  as  known,  is  chief-  ^m  polTcf- 
ly  claimed,  and  divided  into  colonies,  by  three  Euro-  fors  of  A- 
pean  nations,  the  Spaniards,  Englifli,  and  Portnguefe.  incrii-a. 
The  Spaniards,  as  they  tirfl  difcovered  it,  have  the 
hrgefland  richeft  portion,extendingfromNew-]\!exi- 
coand  Louifiana,  in  North- America,  to  the  firaits  of 
Magellan,  in  the  Souih-Sea,  excepting  the  large  pro- 
vince of  Bralil,  which  belongs  to  Portugal  ;  for  though 
the  French  and  Oitcii  have  fome  forts  upon  Surinam 
and  Guiana,  they  fc.ir'ely  deferve  to  be  confiJercd  as 
proprietors  of  any  part  of  the  fouthern  continent. 

Next  to  Spain,  the  moft  conlider^ble  proprietor  of 
America  was  Great  Britain,  who  derived  her  claim  to 
North-America  from  the  fird  difcovcry  of  that  conti- 
nent by  Sebaflian  Cabot,  in  the  name  of  Henry  VII. 

filH.O 


A   M  E 


[     575     ] 


A   M   E 


America,  anno  li,^'),  about  fix  years  aficr  the  the  difcovcry  of 

■*— ^^ South-America  by  Cohiinbus,  in  the  name  of  the  king 

of  Spain.  This  country  was  in  geiicrjl  called  Nc^u- 
loundiar.d ;  a  name  which  is  now  appropriated  foltly  to 
an  illand  upon  its  coaft.  It  was  a  long  time  before  the 
Englilh  made  any  attempt  to  fettle  in  this  country.  Sir 
Walter  Halcigh, an  uncommon  genius  and  a  brave  com- 
niander,  firft  ihowed  the  way,  by  plantinga  colony  in 
the  fouthcrnpart,  which  he  culled  / /--^////a,  in  honour 
of  his  virgin  miflrefs  Qutcn  Elizabeth. 

The  French  indeed,  fioni  this  period  until  the  con- 
clulionof  the  war  before  lafl,  laid  a  claim  to,  and  ac- 
tually poirelfed,  Canada  and  Louiliana ;  comprehending 
all  that  extenlivc  inland  country  reaching  from  Hud- 
fon's-Hay,  on  the  north,  to  Mexico  and  the  gulph  of 
the  fame  name,  on  the  fouth.     But,  in  that  war,  they 
were  not  only  driven  from  Canada  and  its  dependen- 
cies, but  obliged  torclinquifhall  that  part  of  Louiliana 
,1^    lying  on  the  eail  lide  of  the  MillUIippi,  as  related  under 
Vaft  extent  the  Htjlnry  oj  Brit/IIs.     And  thus  the  Britilli  colonies 
of  the  Bri-  were  prcfcrved,  fecured,  and  extended  fofar,as  to  ren- 
tifh  poflVf-  dcr  it  difficult  toafccrtain  theprecife  boundsof  empire 
C.ms  before  jn  Is'orth  America.  To  the  northward  they  migh t  have 
volution.  "  extended  their  claims  quite  to  the  pole  itfilf,  nor  did 
any  nation  fccni  inclined  to  difpute  the  property  of  this 
iiothernmoft  country  \\  ith  them.     From  that  extremi- 
ty they  had  a  territory  extending,  fouthward,  to  Cape 
Floridaiu  the  Gulph  of  Mexico,  N.  Lat.  35°,  and  con- 
sequently near  4000  n.iles  long  in  a  dircifk  line.     And 
to  the  wcftward,  their  boundaries  reached  to  nations 
,  unknown  even  to  the  Indians  of  Canada. 

Of  the  revjl'.uion  that  has  fince  taken  place,  by 
i\hich  a  great  part  of  thofc  territories  has  been  torn 
from  the  Britifli  empire,  the  hillory  foUowsin  thcncxt 
article. 


IJ5 
Rife  of  the 
American 
republic, 


126 

Sta:e  and 
charader 
ef  the  uri- 
tidicolonies 
at  the  end 
of  the  war 


j^MERtc/i,  {United  States  of).  Of  the  rife  and  efta- 
blilhment  of  this  republic,  which  has  given  a  new  face 
to  the  weftexn  world,  a  fuccinct  and  impartial  narrative 
Ihallinthisartidebeattempted  ;  in  which, however, we 
cannot  hope  entirely  to  avoid  errors,  as  they  arc  per- 
haps unavoidable.  The  accounts  from  which  the  hif- 
torian  muft  derive  his  information  are  not  yet  cleared 
from  the  niillakcsof  prejudice  and  the  fabrications  of 
j'arty  ;  when  liiey  diti'er,  their  comparative  authenti- 
city is  with  dilficuliy  afcertained  ;  and  they  want,  a- 
bove  all,  that  foftening  which  they  can  receive  from 
time  atone. 

The  beginnings,  even  of  the  mofl  celebrated  poli- 
tical inftitiiiions  oftheold  world,  are  generally  invol- 
ved in  fable  and  obfcurity  :  T  he  barb  runs  manners  of 
favagf  tribes  in  the  early  and  iincultivatt^J  Aate  of  fo- 
ciety,  renders  the  reftarchcs  of  the  liiiiorian  painful 
and  unfatisfaftory.  V  ery  different  were  the  circum- 
ftanccs  which  gave  birth  ta  this  new  rcp.iblic,  which 
at  a  future  period,  bids  fair  tofurpafs  even  thefplendor 
of  Rome. 

The  Hate  of  the  Hriilli  colonies  at  the  conclufion  of 
the  war  in  1  76;,w.is  fuch  as  attraiJt<rd  theattention  of 
all  the  politicians  in  iiuropc.  Their  ihmrilliiug  condi- 
tion at  that  period  was  remarkable  and  ftrikiui; ;  their 
trade  had  profpered  inthc  niidll  of  all  the  ditfi.nilties- 
and  di  ftrclTcs  of  a  wir  in  which  they  were  fo  near 
ly  and  fo  immediaitly  cinccrned.  Their  population 
continued  oil  the  iucreafc,notwithllaii(ling  the  ravages 


and  depredations  that  had  been  fo  fiercely  carried  on   Amerce 

by  the  French,  and  the  native  Indiansiu  theiralliancc.  ' ^'— 

They  abounded  with  fpiritcd  and  aftive  individuals  of 
all  denominations.  They  were  flufiicd  with  the  un- 
common profperity  that  had  attended  them  in  their 
commercial  atfairi  and  railitary  tranfaflions.  Hence 
they  wcrcready  for  all  ki.id  of  undertakings,  ildfavv 
no  limits  to  their  hopes  and  cxpcftations. 

As  they  craertained  the  highcftopinioaof  their  va- 
lue and  importance,  and  of  the  inimcnfc  benefit  that 
Britain  deiivtd  from  iiS  connctijii  with  them,  their 
notions  were  adequately  high  in  their  own  favour. 
They  deemed  themfclves,  not  without  reafm,  entitled 
to  every  kindncfsand  indulgence  which  the  raothcr- 
cojntry  could  be  flow. 

Although  thfcir  prctenfuns  did  not  amount  to  a 
perfe(S  equality  ofadvantagcs  and  privileges  in  matters 
of  commerce,  yet  in  thofc  of  g  .vernmeiit  they  thou/ht 
themfelves  fully  competent  to  the  tafi:  of  coiidujtiig 
their  domeftic  concerns,  with  little  or  no  interference 
from  abroad.  Though  willing  to  admit  the  fuprcmacy 
of  Great  Britain,  they  viewed  it  with  a  fifpicioas  eye, 
and  with  a  marked  defirc  to  rcllrain  it  within  its  firici 
conftiiutional  boundaries. 

Their  improvements  ia  all  the  neceflary  and  ufeful 
arts  did  honor  to  their  indullry  and  ingenuity.  Though 
they  did  not  live  in  the  luxury  of  Europe,  they  had  all 
the  folid  and  fiibllantial  enjoyments  of  life,  and  were 
not  unacquainted  with  many  of  its  elegancies  and  re- 
finements. 

A  circnmftance  much  tothcir  praifc  is,thit  notwith- 
ftanding  their  peculiar  addiction  to  thofc  occupations  of 
which  lucre  is  the  fole  object,  they  were  duly  attentive 
to  cultivate  the  fieldof  learning  ;  and  they  have,  ever 
fince  their  firft  foundation,  been  particularly  careful  to 
provide  for  the  education  of  the  riling  progeny. 

Their  vafl  augmentation  of  internal  trade  and  exter- 
nal commerce,  w'as  not  merely  owing  to  their  pofition 
and  facility  of  communication  with  otiicr  parts;  it 
arofc  alfo  from  their  natural  turn  and  temper,  full  of 
fchemesand  projects  ;  ever  aiming  at  new  difcoveries, 
and  continually  employed  in  thcfcarch  of  the  means 
of  improving  their  condition. 

Their  conjition  carried  them  into  every  quarter 
from  whence  profit  could  be  derived.  There  was 
fcarcely  any  port  of  the  American  hcmifphere  to  which 
they  had  not  extended  their  navigation.  They  were 
continually  exploring  new  fources  of  trade,  and  were 
found  in  every  fpot  where  buliiicfs  could  be  tranfafled. 

To  this  extcnl'ive  and  inceliant  application  to  com- 
merce, they  added  an  equal  vigilance  in  theadniiaillra- 
tion  of  their  affairs  at  home.  AV'hatevcr  cojld  conduceto 
theanieliorationof  thcfoiltheypoifeJcdito  the  pro<rrefs 
of  agriculture,  or  to  the  improvement  of  their  domeftic 
circumftances,  wasattended  to  withfomuch  labourand 
care,  that  it  may  be  ftriilly  faiJ  that  Nature  had  "iven 
them  nothing  of  wliich  they  did  not  roa\c  the  mjll. 

In  the  midfl  of  this  foUr-itudc  an  J  toil  in  matters  of 
bufinefi,  the  affairs  of  govrrn'ncnt  were  conduiled 
with  fteadincfs,  prudence,  .ind  lenity,  feldoni  experi- 
enced, and  never  exceeded,  in  the  bed  regulated couu- 
tiies  of  Europe. 

Such  was  the  fituation  of  the  Britilh- colonies  in  ge- 
neral throughoat  North  America,  and  of  the  Ncw- 
Englandprwinces  in  particular,  when  the  pacihenion 

ibovc- 


A  M  E 


[     57^     ] 


A  M  E 


"7 
liitrigiici  of 
tlu  French 
fuppofcilly 

writers  to 
be  the  ori- 
gin of  tlic 
yVmctican 
war. 


128 
Taxes  laid 
ou  goods 
ioi  ported 
into  the 
colonics, 
and  other 
obnoxious 
aift  J  fram- 
ed; 


above-meiuionrJ  opcncJ  oucof  I'.ie  mofl  remarkable 
fcciu-stliatcvcrcoininaniUJtIieattcinioiiofilicworld. 

In  treating  of  tlu-  Amcricau  revolution,  it  has  be- 
come a  fafliiau  with  the  Eiiglilh  writers  to  al'tribc  tiiat 
event  to  the  fiicccfsful  intrigncs  of  the  French  go- 
vernment. Infteadof  contemplating  jt.with  the  cha- 
radteriwlc  philofophy  of  their  country,  as  the  rtlult 
of  aeonteft  between  the  de fire  of  power,  and  the  ab- 
horrence of  opprellion,  they  have  fought  the  origin  of 
the  evil  in  any  fource  rather  than  their  own  niilcon- 
dntt  ;  ajid  liavc  endeavoured  at  once,  to  huili  the  re- 
proaches of  their  political  confcience,  and  to  gratify 
the  cravings  of  their  national  animofity,  in  wild  coii- 
jcaiucs  of  a  fchc'.r.e  formed  by  their  neighbours  to  di- 
vide the  Briiiih  Empire,  and  in  declamatory  invcaives 
againrt  the  Gallic  faith  and  liononr.  Thus  it  has  been 
repcatCLlIy  all'erted,  that  the  French  havinglong  view- 
ed, with  eiiual  envy  and  appreher.lion,  the  rtourilhiiig 
ftatc  of  the  colonics  which  Britain  had  founded  in 
America,  began  immediately  after  the  peace  of  Paris 
to  carry  into  execution  their  projcA  for  ftparatiiig 
thofe  colonies  from  the  moiher  country.  Secret  emil- 
faries,  it  is  faid  were  employed  in  fpreading  dilfatif- 
failion  among  the  colonills  ;  and  the  effects  proi'.uccd 
by  thefc  maebinaiingfpiritsarc  defcribed  to  have  been 
a  rapid  diminution  of  that  peculiar  warmih  of  attach- 
ment, which  the  inhabitants  of  North-.^merica  had 
hitherto  demonftrated  for  the  mother  country  ;  the  ex- 
citement of  ajealoufy  which  led  them  to  view  her  ra- 
ther in  the  light  of  a  fovcreign  than  of  aparcri ;  and 
the  introdudion  of  a.  hoftile  policy  which  taught  them 
to  examine,  with  a  fcrupulous  nicety,  the  nature  of 
thofeticsthat  rendered  them  parts  of  hcrcniplre.  That 
fuch  cmill'aiies  were  ever  empl'iycd,  is  a  faft  unfup- 
ported  by  any  document  which  the  juriiy  of  hillcrical 
truth  can  admit  ;  and  althoHgh  the  effeds  here  de- 
fcribed, have  certainly  appeared,  it  mud  be  remember- 
ed that  thcirappcarance  followed,  but  did  not  precede, 
the  attempts  of  Britain  upon  the  rightsand  liberties  o[ 
America.  By  mere  aniticeand  addrcfs  tohave  aliena- 
ted the  affet'lionsof  the  colonifls  from  their  mother 
country,  at  the  clofc  of  a  war  in  which  their  inrerefls 
and  feelings  had  been  interwoven  with  more  than  ufual 
flrength  and  energy,  was  a  talk  of  infinite  difficulty  j 
not  furely  to  be  accompliihcd  in  '.he  lliort  period  be- 
tween the  declaration  of  peace  in  1761,  and  the  pro- 
mulgation of  the  lirft  obnoxious  ncls  of  the  Pritilh  par- 
liament in  1764.  But,if  wetraccihcfe  effcas  60  an- 
other caufe,  to  a  love  of  liberty,  and  a  quick  fenfe  of 
injury,  theirappearance  will  be  naturaland  jufl  ;  con- 
fiftent  with  the  American  charadcr,  and  corrcfpon- 
din«  with  the  condua  which  was  difplayed  in  all  the 
vicilRtudcs  that  attended  the  revolt. 

In  March,  1  764,  a  bill  was  pp.fled,  by  which  heavy 
duties  were  laid  on  goods  imported  by  the  colonills 
from  fuch  We.l- India  I  flands  as  did  not  belong  to  Great 
Britain  ;  at  tlic  fame  time  that  thcfe  daties  were  to  be 
paidiniotheeXLhciiifriiifpecietandinthefamcfenion, 
another  bill  was  fratr.cd  to  rettrain  the  currency  of  pa- 
per-morey  in  the  colonies  themfelves.  Not  only  ihe 
principle  of  taxation,  but  the  mode  of  colkaion  was 
conlideredasanunconftitationHlandorpreffivcinnovar 
lion  ;  for  the  penalties  incurred  by  an  infraaion  ot  the 
actsof  parliament,  inight  be  recovered  in  the  courts  of 


aduiiraltyjbiforea  (ingle  judge  (whofc  falary  was  the 
fruit  of  the  forfeituns  he  decreed)  without  u'n\  by 
jury,  or  any  of  the  other  bcnelits  of  common  law  jiirif- 
prudeuce.  Thefe  aCts  coming  fo  clofc  to  eacli  other 
threw  the  whole  continent  into  the  utmoft  ferment. 
Vehement  renionllrances  were  made  to  the  niinillry, 
and  every  argument  made  ufe  of  that  reafon  ^r  inge- 
nuity could  fuggcU,  but  to  no  purpofc.  'J  heir  reafun- 
ing,  however,  convinced  a  great  number  of  people  in 
Britain  ;  and  thus  the  American  caufe  came  to  be  cou- 
fidered  as  the  caufe  of  liberty. 

The  Americans,  finding  all  arguincntation  vain,  at 
lafl  united  iu  an  agreement  to  import  no  more  of  the 
nianufaaures  of  Great  Britain,  but  to  encourage  to 
the  utmolt  of  their  power  every  thing  of  that  kind  a- 
mung  themfelves.  Thus  the  Britilh  manufadurers  alfo 
became  a  parly  againfl  the  niinillry,  and  did  not  fail 
to  exprcfs  their  refentment  in  the  fircngell  terms; 
but  the  minirtry  were  not  to  be  fo  ealily  daunted,  and 
therefore  proceeded  to  the  lafl  flcp  of  their  iiucnded 
plan,  v.  hith  was  to  lay  on  llamp  duties  '.Iroughout  the 
continent.  Previous  to  this,  indeed,  fcvcral  regula- 
tions were  palled  in  favour  of  the  commerce  of  the  co- 
lonies ;  but  they  had  now  imbibed  fuch  nnfavonrsble 
feniiincntsof  the  Briiifli  niinillry,  that  they  psid  very 
little  regard  to  any  thing  pretended  to  be  done  in  their 
favour  ;  or  if  thefe  aa.s  made  any  favourable impre.Tion, 
it  was  quiekly  obliterated  by  the  news  of  the  ftanip- 
aa.  The  reafon  given  for  thisad,  fo  exceedingly  ob- 
noxious, was,  that  a  fnm  might  be  raifed  fuflicient  for 
the  defence  of  the  colonies  againft  a  foreign  enemy  ; 
but  this  pretence  was  fofar  from  givingany  fatikfadion 
to  the  Americans,  that  it  excited  their  indignation  to 
the  utnioil  degree.  They  not  only  allerted  that  they 
were  abundantly  able  to  defend  themfelves  againll  any 
foreign  enemy,  but  denied  that  the  Britifii  parliament 
had  any  right  to  tax  them  at  all. 

It  would  be  fupcrduous  to  enter  into  any  arguments 
ufcd  by  the  contending  parties  on  this  important  oeca- 
fion.  It  was  evident  that  the  matter  wr.s  not  to  be 
decided  by  argument,  but  by  force  of  arms  ;  and  the 
Britilh  minillry,  too  confident  of  the  authority  and 
power  of  that  country,  determined  to  carry  on  matters 
with  an  high  hand,  to  terrify  the  colonifls  into  an  im- 
plicit fubjedion,  or,  if  that  would  not  do,  to  compel 
them  to  it  by  force.  The  flamp-ad,  after  a  violent 
oppolition  in  parlinmcnr,  was  palfr  J,  and  its  reception 
in  America  was  fuch  as  might  have  been  expeded. 
The  news,  and  the  ad  itfclf,  firfl  arrived  at  Bollon, 
where  the  bells  were  niuflled  snd  rung  a  funeral  peal. 
The  ad  was  firl  hawked  about  the  flrcets  with  a 
Death's  head,  affixed  to  it,  and  llyled  the  "  Folly  of 
F.ngl?nd,and  the  Ruin  of  America  ;"  and  rftcrwards 
publicly  b'.'.rnt  by  the  enraged  I'opulacc  :  The  (lamps 
tliemfclves  were  ftized  and  deftroyed,  unltfs  brouglit 
by  men  of  war,  or  kept  in  fortified  places  ;  thofe  who 
were  to  receive  the  (lamp  duties  were  compelled  to  rc- 
fign  their  offices  :  and  fuch  of  the  Americans  as  fided 
with  government  on  this  occalion,  had  their  houl'es 
plundered  and  dcflroyed. 

Though  thefe  ouiriges  were  committed  by  ihem-:!- 
tit'ide,  they  were  firll  connived  at  by  thofe  of  fuperior 
rank,  and  the  principles  on  which  they  were  founded 
afterwards  openly  patronized  by  them  ;  and  the  doc- 
trine 


Amcr 


1J9 

Which  ex- 
afpcrate 
the  ADicri- 
caon, 


The  (lamp 
awl  friunej. 


Received 

with  unU 
vcrlal  in- 
dignation 
iii.Auicrica. 


A  M  E 


[     577     ] 


A  M  E 


America. 


Repealed. 


•33 
Opinion  of 
Dr  Frank- 
lin uD  this 
fubjsA. 


ilicm  ;  and  the  dodtriiic  became  general  and  openly 
avowed,  that  Britain  had  no  right  \v  hatcvcr  to  tax  the 
colonics  without  ihtirowii  confcnt. 

It  was  now  found  abloluicly  ncccirary  either  to  yield 
to  the  Americans,  by  repealing  the  obnoxious  llatutes, 
or  to  enforce  tliem  by  arms.  'I'he  ferment  had  difFufcd 
itfclf  univcrfally  throughout  the  colonies.  Virginia 
firll,  and  after  dut  all  the  rellofthcprovinces,dcclared 
againfl  the  ri  ht  of  Britain  lo  lay  on  taxes  in  Ame- 
rica ;  and  that  every  attempt  to  veil  others  with  this 
power  bciides  the  king,  or  the  governor  of  the  pro- 
vince and  his  general  ail'cmbly ,  was  illegal,  uncouflitu- 
tioual,  andunjull.  Non-importation  agreements  were 
every  where  entered  into  ;  and  it  was  even  refolved  to 
prevent  the  fale  of  any  more  Brililh  goods  after  the 
piefcnt  year.  American  manufactures,  though  dearer, 
as  well  as  inferior  in  quality  to  the  Britilh,  were  uni- 
vcrfally preferred.  An  allbciation  was  entered  into 
againit  eating  of  lamb,  in  order  to  promote  tlie  growth 
of  wool ;  and  the  ladies  with  chearfulnefs  agreed  to 
renounce  the  ufe  of  every  fpecies  of  ornament  manufac- 
tured in  Britain.  Such  a  general  and  alarming  confe- 
deracy determined  the  miniilry  to  repeal  feme  of  the 
moll  obnoxious  ilatutes  ;  and  to  this  they  were  themore 
inclined  by  a  petitionfrom  the  tirft  American  congrefs, 
held  at  New  York  in  the  beginning  of  October  1765. 

The  flamp-adt  was  therefore  repealed,  to  the  uni- 
verfal  joy  of  the  Americans,  and  indeed  to  the  general 
fatisfaclion  of  the  Englilh,  whofc  manufaftarts  had 
begun  to  fuftcr  very  fcvcrely  in  confcquence  of  the  A- 
merican  aflbciation  againfl  them.  The  difputes  on  the 
fiibjeft  without  doors,  however,  were  by  no  means 
filenced,  but  each  party  continued  to  argue  the  cafe  as 
violentlyasever.  The  celebrated  DrBenjarain  Frank- 
lin was,  on  this  occafion  examined  before  the  Houfc 
of  Commons;  and  his  opinion  was  in  fubllance  as  fol- 
lows : 

"  That  the  t?x  in  queflion  was  imprafticable  and 
ruinous.  The  very  attempt  had  fo  far  alienated  the 
afFeclion  of  the  colonies,  that  they  behaved  in  a  lefs 
friendly  manner  towards  the  natives  of  England  than 
before  ;  confidering  the  whole  nation  as  confpiring 
againft  their  liberty,  and  the  parliament  as  willing  ra- 
ther to  opprefs  than  to  fupport  and  aflift  them.  Ame- 
rica, in  fad,  did  not  ftand  in  any  need  of  Britifli  ma- 
nnfafturcs,  having  already  begun  toconftrucl  fuch  as 
might  be  deemed  abfohitely  necellary,  and  that  with 
fuch  fuccefs,  as  left  no  doubt  of  their  arriving  in  a  (hort 
time  at  perfection.  The  elegancies  of  drefs  had  al- 
ready been  renounced  for  manufaclurcs  of  the  Ameri- 
can kind,  though  much  inferior  i  and  the  bulk  of  the 
people,  conlifting  of  farmers,  were  fuch  as  could  in  no 
way  be  afl'edcd  by  the  want  of  Brililh  comuiodities,  as 
having  every  necclFary  within  themfelves.  Materi- 
als of  all  kinds  were  to  be  had  in  plenty  :  the  wool  was 
fine;  riax  grew  in  great  abundance;  and  iron  was 
cTcry  where  10  be  met  with." 

The  Doctor  alio  inlilled,  That"  the  Americans  had 
been  greatly  niilreprcfented  ;  that  they  hid  been  tra- 
duced as  void  of  gratitude  and  atfeflion  for  the  parent 
lla'e  ;  than  which  nothiu;^ could  be  more  contrary  to 
truth.  In  the  war  of  1755  thry  had,  at  theirowu  ex- 
pence,  raifed  an  army  of  2?, coo  men  ;  and  in  that  of 
1 759,  they  aTifted  the  Britilh  expeditions  agai nil  South- 
Ameri'ra  with  fevcral  thoufaud  uicu,  and  had  made 
Vol.  I. 


many  brave  exertions  againft  the  French  in  North-    AmeriL-.. 

America,     it  was  faid  that  the  war  of  i  755  bad  been  ^—~' 

undertaken  in  defence  of  the  colonies  ;  but  the  truth 
was,  that  it  originated  from  a  contell  about  the  limiti 
between  Canada  and  Nova-Scotia,  and  in  defence  of 
the  Englilh  rights  to  trade  on  the  Ohio.  The  Ame- 
ricans, however,  would  ftill  continue  to  act  with  their 
ufual  fidelity  ;  and,  were  any  war  to  break oijt  in  which 
they  had  no  concern,  they  would  Ihow  themfelves  as 
ready  as  ever  to  affift  the  parent  ftate  to  the  utmoil  of 
theirpower,and  would  never  fail  to  manifell  their  rea- 
dinefs  in  contributing  to  the  emergencies  of  govern- 
ment, when  called  to  do  fo  in  a  regular  and  conllituti- 
onal  manner." 

The  Uiiniftry  were  Confeions,  that  in  repealing  this 
obnoxious  acl,  they  yielded  to  the  Americans;   and 
therefore,  to  fupport,  as  they  thought,  the  dignity  of       ^, 
Great  Britain,  it  was  judged  proper  to  publiih  a  decia-  UecUn- 
ratory  bill,  fetting  forth  the  authority  of  the  mother-  tory  bill 
country  over  her  colonies,  and  her  power  to  bind  them  P"*  of- 
by  laws  and  ftatutes  i/i  ali  caf^s  ■mhattver.    This  much  '^"''" '." 
diininiihed  the  joy  with  which  the  repeal  of  the  ftamp-  America, 
act  was  received  in  America.     It  was  cotilidercd  as  a 
proper  reafon  to  enforce  any  claims  equally  prejudicial 
with  the  llanip-ael,  which  might  hereafter  be  fct  up  ; 
a  fpirit  of  jealoufy  pervaded  the  whole  continent,  and 
a  ftrong  party  was  formed,  watchful  on  every  occafion 
to  guard  againft  the  encroachments  of  the  Britiih  pow- 
er. ,.^ 

It  was  not  long  before  an  occafion  offered,  in  which  AiTcmhiy 
the  Americans  manifefled  a  fpirit  of  independency  ;  of  New 
and  that,  inftead  of  being  bound  by  the  Britith  Ic- Yorkdifo- 
gidarure  in  all  cafes,  they  would  not  be  controuled  by  '*'^'  '°  ^^ 
it  in  the  mod  trivial  affairs.     The  Rockingham  mi-°^f"''*" 
nillry  had  palfed  an  aft,  providing  the  troops' ftaiion- 
ed  in  different  parts  of  the  colonies  with  fuch  ac- 
commodations as  were  nccelfary  for  them.  The  alfem- 
bly  of  New  York,  however,  took  upon  them  to  alter 
the  mode  of  execution  prelcribcd  by  the  acl  of  parlia- 
meiu,  and  to  fublHtute  one  of  their  own.     This  gave 
very  great  offence  to  the  new  niiniftry,  and  rendered 
them,  though  compofed  of  thofe  who  had  been  aclivc 
againft;  the  llamp-bill,  lefs  favourable  to  the  colonies 
tiian  in  all  probability  they  would  o:!icrwife  have  been. 
An  unlucky  circumftance  at  the  fime  time  occurred, 
which  threw  every  thing  once  nore  into  con fufion.       ,,j 
Oneofthenewminiftry,  Mr  Charles  Townlhend,  ha-  Mr  rown- 
ving  declared  that  he  could  tine  a  way  of  taxing  the  fliend's 
Americanswithoutgivingthemorfence,  wascallednp-  P'»n  to  tax 
on  topropofehis  plan.  This  was  "ly  impoiingaduty  up-  America, 
on  tea,  paper,  painters  colours,  aid  glafs  imported  into 
America      The  condud  of  the  New  York  alFonbly, 
refpciHing  the  troops,  and  that  of  Boftnn,  which  had 
proceeded  in  a  limilar  manner,  caufcd  this  bill  to  meet 
with  lefs  oppofition  thanotherwife  it  might  have  done. 
As  apuniflinient  tothercfrartory  ailemblics,  the  legif- 
lativc  power  was  taken  from  that  of  New  York,  until 
it  fliould  fully  ctimply  with  she  terms  of  the  aft.  That 
of  Bofton  at  laft  fubmittcd  with  reluftance.     The  bill 
for  the  new  taxes  was  quickly  palfed,  and  femtoAmc-       1^7 
rica  in  176?.  Isreccivd 

A  ferment  much  greater  than  that  occa(ioned  by  the  •''"■'  ^^'"'> 
ftamp  aft  now  took  place  throughout  the  continent.  I^'''.^''".'"' 
The  populace  renewed  their  outrages,  and  thofe  of  fu-  ',hilf"v '*"' 
perior  ftation  catered  into  regular  aiTociatious  againft  the  a»mp. 
4  IJ  it  aa. 


A  M  E 


[     57«     3 


A  M  E 


MalTucliU' 
fctts-lJay 
aiid  their 
governor. 


>\merica.  it.     Circular  letters  were  ftiil  iVoni  MalTacliufcus  ca- 
*"~^' loiiy  to  ail  till  rcil,  f>;uing  fortii  the  iiijulUcc  and  im- 
propriety ot'  lilt  behaviour  of  the  Uritilli  Icgillaiiirc. 
Meltings  were  hclJii.  all  the  principal  to\viis,iii  which 
it  \va!>  propol'ed  tokfltnthc  coiirumptioiiol'torcifti!  iiia- 
j.g       uut'aCturts,  by  giviii_g  proper  ciicouragemtnt  lo  tluir 
Quarrilbc-  own.  Coiilinu.il  difputtscnlucJ  betwixt  the  governors 
twtcn  the    and  general  alFtniblics  of  their  provinces,  wiiirh  were 
pi-ojijc  of     much  heightened  by  a  letter  from  lord  Shelburiic  to 
governor   Ijtrnard  of  Mallacluifetts-Bay,  containing 
complaints  of  the  people  he  governed,     'i  he  alitnibly 
txafjieraicd  tothehighcrt  degree, charged  thcirgover- 
nor  wiih  having  milrcprefcntcd  them  to  tlic  court  of 
Britain,  rcijuired  him  to  produce  copies  of  the  letters 
lit  had  feiu  ;  and,  on  his  rcfufal,  wrote  letters  to  the 
Knglilh  luiiiillry,  acculing   him  of  mifrtprtfcntation 
and   parti.ility,  complaining  at  the  fame  time    mod 
grievoully  of  the  procttding^i  of  parliamtnt,  as  utterly 
fubveriive  of  the  liberties  of  America,  and  the  rights 
of  Britilh  fubjcirls. 

The  governor,  aialofs  how  to  defend  himfelf,  pro- 
rogued the  aifembly  ;  and,  in  his  fpcech  on  the  occa- 
fion,  gave  a  k»>fc  to  his  refcntment,  accufmg  the  mem- 
bers of  ambitious  dtligns,  incompatible  with  ihufc  of 
dutiful  and  loyal  ful  jecls.  To  counterailit  the  circular 
Ictier  of  the  province  of  Martachufctts-Bay,  Lord 
Hillfborough,<ecretary  for  the  American  department, 
fent  another  to  the  governors  of  the  different  colonies, 
reprobating  the  other  as  fuUof  niilreprefcntation,  and 
tending  to  excite  a  rebellion  againll  the  authority  of 
the  parent  Hate.  , 

Matters  now  haftened  to  a  crifis.  The  governor  had 

been  ordered  to  proceed  with  vigour,  and  by  no  means 

to  (how  any  difpolition  to  yield  to  the   people  as  for- 

Hercquires  merly.     In  particular,  they  were  required  to  rcfcind 

the  aiUm-    that  refolution  by  which  they  had  -written  the  circular 

blytore-     letter  abovernentioned  ;   and,  in  cafe  of  a  rcfufil,  it 

fond  their  ^y^j  (old  them  that  they  would  be  dilTolved.     As  this 

iirculir       letter  had  been  framed  by  the  refolutions  of  a  former 

'  Houfc,  they  defircd,  after  a  week's  confultaiion,  that 

a  rectfs  miglit  be  granted  to  coufult  with  their  confti- 

Whiththey  tuents  ;  but  this  being  rcfufcd,  they  came  to  a  deter- 

refuff.  jnination,  92  againft  17,    to  adhere  to  the  refolution 

which  produced  the  circular  letter.     At  the  fame  time 

a  letter  was  fent  to  Lord  HilHborough,  and  a  mefl'age 

to  the  governor,  in  juflilication  of  their  proceedings. 

In  both  they  expreifed thcmfelvcs with  fuch  freedom  as 

was  by  no  means  calculated  to  accord  with  tin;  fcnti- 

mentsof  thofe  in  power.  They  inliflcd  that  they  hadai 

right  to  communicate  their  ftniimcnts  to  their  fellow- 

fubjcds  upon  matters  of  fuch  importance  ;  complained 

of  the  rcquifiiion  to  refcind  the  circular  letter  as  un- 

conftitutional  and  unjuft  ;  and  particularly  inlr(led,t^iat 

they  werereprcfented  as  harbouring  feditioitsdefigns, 

when  they  were  doing  nothing  but  what  was  lawful 

and  right.   At  the  fame  time  they  condemiied  the  late 

aijls  of  parliament  as  highly  oppreffive,  and  fubverfive 

of  liberty.   The  whole  was  concluded  by  a  lifl  of  ac- 

Tcrnor.and  cufations  againll  thtir  governor,  reprcfenting  him  as 

petition  for  unfit  to  continue  in  his  ftation,  and  petitioning  the 

hisreino-    j^j„g  f^r  his  removal  from  it. 

"  I  I  Thefe  proceedings  wcrefoUowedbyaviolenttumult 

A  tumult    ^'  Bollon.    A  vefFel  belonging  to  a  capital  trader  had 
ac  liofton.  been  feized  in  confcq^uencc  of  liis  having  neglected 


139 


140 

Accufc 
their  go- 


fomc  of  the  new  regulations  ;  and  bciiig  taken  under 
the  protcaioaof  a  niaiiof  war  at  that  linre  lying  in  the 
harbour,  die  populace  attacked  the  houfcs  of  ilit  toin- 
uiiliioners  oltxeile,  broke  their  windows,  deftroycd 
the  coileclar's  boats,  and  obliged  the  cullumhoule  ol- 
licers  to  take  refuge  in  Callle  William,  iituated  at  liie 
entrance  of  the  harbour. 

The  governor  now  took  the  lift  ftep  in  his  power  to 
put  a  Hop  to  the  violent  proceedings  of  his  all'cnibly, 
by  dill'olving  it  entirely  ;  but  this  was  of  little  moment. 
Their  behaviour  had  been  highiy  approved  by  the 
o:licr  colonies, who  hud  written  letters  to  thcni  txpref- 
live  of  their  approbation.  After  the  dill'olutionof  the 
allemb^y,  frtijuent  meetings  of  the  people  were  held 
in  Bolton,  which  ended  in  a  remoullrance  to  tiie  go- 
vernor, to  the  fame  pur}iofe  as  fome  of  the  former  ;  but 
concluding  with  a  requell,  that  he  would  lake  upon 
him  to  order  the  king's  lliips  out  of  the  harbour. 

While  ilie  difpolition  of  the  Bollonians  was  thus 
more  and  more  irritated,  news  arrived  that  the  agent 
for  the  colony  had  not  been  allowed  to  deliver  their 
petition  to  the  king  ;  it  having  been  objected,  that  the 
allenibly  without  the  governor  was  not  fuflicicnt  au- 
thority. Thisdid  not  contribute  to  allay  the  ferment ; 
and  it  was  further  augmented  by  the  news  that  a  num- 
ber of  troops  had  been  ordered  to  repair  to  Boflon,  to 
keep  the  inhabitants  in  awe. 

A  dreadful  alarm  now  took  place.  The  people  called 
on  the  governor  to  convene  a  general  alFcmbly,  in  or- 
der to  remove  their  fears  of  the  military  ;  who,  they 
faid,  were  to  be  alfcmbled  tooverthrovv  their  liberties, 
and  force  obedience  tolaws  towhich  they  were  entire- 
ly averfe.  Thegovernor  replied,  it  was  no  longer  in  his 
power  to  call  an  alTembly  ;  having,  in  his  laft  inftruc- 
tions  from  England,  been  required  to  wait  the  king's 
orders,  the  matter  being  then  under  coniideration  at 
home.  Being  thus  refufed,  tlie  people  took  upon  thcm- 
fclves  the  formation  of  an  alTcmbly,  which  they  called 
a  convention.  The  proceedings  and  refolutions  of  this 
body  naturally  jiartook  of  the  temper  and  difpolition  of 
the  late  aflcmbly  ;  but  they  went  a  ftcp  farther,  and 
having  voted  "  that  there  is  apprehenlionin  the  minds 
of  many  of  an  approaching  rupture  with  France,"  re- 
quefted  the  inhabitants  to  put  thenifclves  in  a  pofture 
of  defence  againfl  any  fudden  attack  of  an  enemy  ;  and 
circular  letters  were  direiiled  to  all  the  towns  in  the 
province,  acquainting  them  with  the  refolutions  that 
had  beicn  taken  in  ihe  capital,  and  exhorting  them  to 
proceed  in  the  fame  manner.  The  town  of  Hatfield 
alone  refufed  its  concurrence.  The  contention,  how- 
ever, thought  proper  to  alTure  the  governor  of  their 
pacific  intentions,  and  renewed  their  rcqucft  that  an 
alTembly  might  be  called  ;  but  being  refufed  any  audi- 
ence, and  threatened  with  being  treated  as  rebels,  they 
at  lafl  thought  proper  to  dilfolve  of  themfclvcs,  and 
fent  over  to  Britain  a  circuiTiflantial  account  of  their 
proceedings,  with  the  rcafon  of  their  having  alTem- 
blcd  in  the  manner  already  mentioned. 

The  expected  troops  arrived  on  the  very  day  on 
which  the  convention  broke  up,  and  had  fome  houfcsin 
the  town  fitted  up  for  their  reception.  Their  arrival 
hadaconfiderablcinfluenceon  the  people,  and  for  fome 
time  f«emed  to  put  a  flop  to  the  difturbancts  ;  but  the 
fpirit  of  the  people  was  now  fo  much  roufed,  that  it 

was 


America. 


Mi 
The  iflcm- 
bly  Jifl'ol- 
vcd. 


M.! 
The  diltur- 
banccs  f^ill 
intreafe. 


144 
Some 
troops  or. 
dcrid  to 
Bollor.. 


145 

The  people 
form  an  af- 
fembly  call- 
ed a  Con- 
vrnlipn  i 


T46 
Which  dif- 
folvcs.  and 
vindicates 
its  owrn 
conduct. 


A  M  E 


[     579     ] 


A  M  E 


mcNt  ad- 
drcf»  the 
king  a- 
gaind   A- 
Bicrica, 


Amsrica.   Was  iiTiponiblc  to  quench  the  flame.     Tlic  late  outra- 

' '  gcous  behaviour  in  Boftoii  had  given  thegreatelt  of- 

B  thvJ  {•  ''^"'^^  ■"  England  ;  and,  notwichitanding  all  tlie  efforts 
ofparlia-  of  oppoliiion,  an  addrcls  from  both  houfes  of  parlia- 
ment was  prefented  to  the  king  ;  in  which  the  beha- 
viour of  the  colony  of  Madachiiletts-Iiay  was  fct  forth 
in  the  mod  ample  manner,  and  the  moft  vigorous  nica- 
furcs  recommended  for  reducing  them  to  obedience. 
The  Americans,  however,  continued  ftedfaft  in  the 
ideas  they  had  adopted.  Though  the  troops  had  for 
fome  time  quieted  the  difturbances,  yet  the  calm  con- 
tinued nolongcr  than  they  appeared  rcfpedablc  on  ac- 
count of  their  number;  but  as  foon  as  this  was  dimi- 
iiillicd  by  the  departure  of  alarge  dctjchment,  the  re- 
mainder were  treated  with  contempt,  and  it  was  even 
rtfolved  to  expel  them  altogether.  The  country  peo- 
ple took  up  arms  for  this  purpofe,  and  were  to  have 
alfifted  their  friends  i."  Boflon  ;  but  before  thisdefign 
could  be  put  in  execution,  an  event  happened  which 
put  an  end  to  every  idea  of  reconcr}iatJou  betwixt  the 
contending  parties. 

On  the  5th  of  iMar'slf  17Y0,  a  (Tuflle  happened  be- 
tween the  foldiers  and  a'party  of  the  town's  people. 
The  inhabitants  poured  in  from  all  quarters  to  the  af- 
fillancc  of  their  fellow-citizens  :  a  violent  tumult  en- 


148 
Some  peo- 
ple killcl 
b^the  fol- 
Oiers  in  a 


149 

All  the  du 
tics  excep- 


niobit  iiof- fued,  during  which  the  military  fired  upon  the  mob, 
ton,  killing  and  wounding  fcveral  of  them.     The  whole 

province  now  rofe  in  arms,  and  the  foldiers  were 
obliged  to  retire  to  Ca  (lie  William  to  prevent  their  be- 
ing cut  in  pieces.  Let  it  be  remembered,  however,  to 
the  praifeof  American  virtue,  that,  on  the  trial,  not- 
withftanding  popular  prejudice  and  apprehcniion,  the 
captain  and  fix  of  the  men  were  acquitted,  two  men 
only  being  found  guilty  of  manllaughter.  In  other  re- 
fpeds  the  determinations  of  the  Americans  continued, 
tingthat'oD  if  poffiblc,  more  firm  than  ever,  until  at  lafl  govern- 
tca  taken  nient,  determining  to  ad  with  vigour,  and  at  the  fame 
"ffi  time  to  behave  with  as  much  condefccnlion  as  poflible, 

without  abandoning  their  principles,  repealed  all  the 
duties  lately  laid  on,  that  of  tea  alone  excepted.  This 
was  left  on   purpofe   to  maintain  the  dignity  of  the 
crowu  of  Britain  j  and  it  was  thought  that  it  could  not 
be  produftive  t)f  any  difcoutent  in  America,  as  being 
an  affair  of  very  little  moment,  the  produce  of  which 
was  not  expct-ted  to  exceed  L. 16,000.     The  oppo- 
fition,  however,  were  llrcnuous  in  their  endeavours 
to  get  this  tax  likewifc  abrogated;  inlilling  that  the 
Americans  would  conlidcr  it  only  as  inlet  toothers;  and 
that  the  repeal  of  all  the  reft,  without  this,  would  an- 
j.^       fwer  no  good  purpofe.*    The  event  fhewcd  that  tlieir 
Which  is a»  opinion  was  well  founded.     The  Americans  opp^jfcd 
violently     the  tea-tax  with  the  fame  violence  as  they  had  done  all 
«Ppofea  =1  the  reft  :  and  at  lart,  on  the  news  that  falaiies  had  been 
allthcrcll.  ftttled  on  thejuflices  of  the  fuperior  court  at  Bofton, 
the  governor  was  addrelTed  on  the  fubjet^;  the  mea- 
furc  was  condemned  in  the  !f  rongeft  terms  ;  and  a  com- 
mittee felcclcJ  out  o("i!ie  fcveral  diflridls  of  the  colo- 
ny appointed  to  inq.iirc  into  it. 

The  newalTtmbly  proceeded  in  the  mofl  formal  man- 
ner tod  ifav'osvth;  fuprcniacy  of  theBritilh  legi:lature  ; 
and  aceufcd  the  parliarrcnt  of  Britain  of  having  violated 
tlie  natural  rights  of  the  .Americans  in  a  number  of 
inftances.  Copies  of  the  tranfad  oifb  of  tiiis  aifcmbly 
were  tranfmittedto  every  town  in  Mafl'achufctts,  cx- 


i5« 

Affembly 
CI  Maffi- 
chufttts- 
Bay  for- 
mally de- 
nies the 
Brftifh 
right  of 
taxation. 


borting  the  inhabitants  to  r^'ufc  themfelvcs,  and  cxetc 
every  nerve  in  oppolition  to  the  iron  hand  of  opprcliion, 
which  was  daily  tearing  the  choiceft  fruits  from  the 
fair  tree  of  liberty.  The  dillutbanccs  were  alfo  great- 
ly heightened  by  an  accidental  difcovcry  iha  Mr 
Hutchinfon,  governor  of  Maflachufctts-Bay,  had  writ- 
ten fevcral  confidential  letters  10  people  in  pov.cr  in 
England,  complaining  of  the  behaviour  of  the  pro- 
vince, recommending  vigorous  meafurcsagiinll  them, 
and,  among  other  things,  averting,  that  "  there  mult 
be  an  abridgement  of  what  is  cal;ed  Britilh  liberty." 
Letters  of  this  kind  had  fallen  into  the  hands  cfibc 
agent  for  the  colony  at  London.  They  were  immedi- 
ately tranfmitted  to  Boflon,  where  the  ailcmbly  was 
fitting,  by  whom  they  were  laid  before  the  governor, 
who  was  thus  reduced  to  a  very  mortifying  lituation. 
Lofing  every  idea  of  refpecc  or  friendfhip  for  him  as 
their  governor,  they  ir.ftaiitly  difpatchcd  a  petition  to 
the  king,  requeuing  him  to  remove  the  govcrnorand 
deputy- governor  from  their  places,  but  to  this  they 
not  only  rcceive'd  no  favourable  anfwer,  but  the  peti- 
tion itfclf  was  declared  groundlefs  and  fcandaloas. 

Matters  were  now  ripe  for  the  utmofl  extremities  op. 
the  part  of  the  Americans  ;  and  ihey  were  brought  on 
in  the  following  manner.  Though  the  colonies  had 
entered  into  a  non-importation  agreement  againfb  tea 
as  Veil  as  all  other  commodities  from  Britain,  it  had 
neverthelefi  found  its  way  into  America,  though  in 
fmaller  quantities  than  before.  This  was  fenlibly  felt 
by  the  Eaft-India  Company,  who  had  now  agreed  to 
pay  a  large  fum  annually  to  government  in  recompcncc 
for  which  compliance,  and  to  make  up  their  loifes  in 
other  refpcifls,  they  were  empowered  to  export  their 
tea  free  from  any  duty  payable  in  Britain  ;  and  in  con- 
fequenceof  thispremifhon.feveral  ihips  freighted  with 
the  commodity  were  fent  to  North-America,  and  pro- 
peragents  appointed  for  difpo(ingof  it.  The  Ameri- 
cans now  perceiving  tliat  the  tax  was  thus  likely  to  be 
enforced  whetlier  they  would  or  not,  determined  to 
take  every  po{Iible  method  to  prevent  the  tea  from  be- 
ing landed,  as  Well  knowing  that  it  would  be  inipofTi- 
blc  to  hinder  fhcfale,  (hould  the  commodity  once  be 
brought  on  Ihore.  For  this  purpofe  the  people  ailcm- 
bled  in  great  numbers,  forcing  thofe  to  whom  the  tea 
was  conligned  to  relign  their  offices,  and  to  promife  fo- 
lemnly  never  to  refume  them  ;  and  comniitiecs  were 
appointed  to  cxa:iiinc.the  accounts  of  merchants,  and 
make  public  tefls,  declaring  Inch  as  would  not  talic 
them  enemies  to  their  country-  Nor  was  this  behavi- 
our confined  to  the  colony  of  Malfachufetts-Kay  ;  the 
refl  of  the  provinces  entered  i.ito  thecontelt  with  the 
fame  Warmth,  and  m-inifefled  the  fame  refolution  to 
oppofe  this  invalion  of  their  rights. 

In  the  midflofthisconfulion.  three  fliips  laden  with 
tea  arrived  in  Boflon  ;  bit  fo  much  were  the  capains 
alarmed  at  the  difpofiiioii  which  feemed  to  prevail 
among  the  people,  ih.it  thry  offered,  providing  they 
could  obtain  the  proger  cifchargcs  from  the  tea  con- 
fignces,  cufloin-ho'ilc,  and  governor,  to  return  to  Bri- 
tain without  landing  their  cargoes.  The  parties  con- 
cerned, however,  though  they  durfl  not  order  the  tea 
to  be  landed,  rcfurcd  to  grant  the  difch.irges  required. 
The  Ihips;  therefore,  would  have  been  obliged  to  re- 
main in  the  harbour  ;  but  the  people  apprchcnfive 
4    D  3  that 


America. 


Gov.Httt- 
chii.lbn'i 
Utters  to 
the  Britifli 
miniitry 
difcsTccct!. 


'53 

The  (^^cti- 
tionagiiolt 
him  rega- 
led. 


«.?4 

Croycd  at 
Bolluii. 


155 


other 

places. 


A  M  E  [58 

America,    tli.it  if  they  remained  there,  llie  tc.i  would  be  Uiidcii 

' '■'—-'  in  fniill  qi.uimitics  and  dilpolcd  ol'iii  fpitc  of  every  tii- 

dcavoitr  10  prevent  it,  rcfolvcd  id  dellroy  it  at  once. 
This  refointion  was  executed  with  equal  fpecd  and  fe- 
crefy.  The  very  evening  after  the  abovenientioncd 
dilcharges  had  been  rctiilcd,  a  number  of  people  drtil- 
ed  like  Mohawk  Indians  boarded  the  Ihips,  and  threw 
into  the  fca  their  whole  c.irgocs^  coniilting  of  342 
cheRsof  tea;  after  which  they  retired  without  making 
any  further  dilturbalicc,  or  doing  any  other  damage. 
No  teaAvas  dellroyed  in  other  places,  though  the  fame 
And  rcfuf-  fpirit  was  every  where  nunifelled.  At  Fhiladelphia 
ed  admit-  the  pilots  Were  enjoined  not  to  conduct  the  vcli'els  up 
ta-icc  in  the  river;  and  at  New-Yoik,  though  the  governor 
caufed  fome  tea  to  be  landed  under  the  protcttion  of 
a  man  of  war,  he  was  obliged  to  deliver  it  up  to  the 
cujlody  of  the  people  to  prevent  its  being  fold. 

The  deflruction  of  the  tea  at  Bollon,  which  hap- 
pened in  November  1773,  was  the  immediate  prelude 
to  the  difafters  attending  civil  difcord.  Government 
finding  themfclves  every  where  intuited  and  dcfpilcd, 
rcfolvcd  to  enforce  their  authority  by  all  pofliblc  means; 
andasBoflon  had  been  the  principal  fcene  of  the  riots 
and  outrages,  it  was  determined  to  puniQi  that  city  in 
anexen<plary  manner.  Parliament  was  acquainted  by 
a  mellage  from  his  m-ijefty  with  the  undutiful  behavi- 
our of  the  city  of  Bollon,  as  well  as  of  all  the  colo- 
nies, recommending  at  the  fame  time  the  moll  vigo- 
rous and  fpirited  exertions  to  reduce  them  to  obedi- 
ence. The  parliament  in  its  addrefs  promifed  a  ready 
compliance;  and,  indeed,  the  Americans fcemed  now 
to  have  lafl  many  of  their  partifans.  It  was  propofcd 
to  lay  afinc  on  the  tO'Wn  of  Bollon  equal  to  tbeprice  of 
the  tea  which  had  been  dellroytd,  .t;id  to  ihut  up  its 
port  by  armed  vell'els  until  the  refradory  fpirit  of  the 
inhabitants  fliould  be  fubdued  ;  which,  it  was  thought, 
muft  quickly  yield,  as  a  total  flop  would  thas  be  put  to 
their  trade.  The  bill  was  ftrongly  oppofcd  on  the  fame 
grotinds  that  the  other  had  been  ;  and  it  was  predielcd, 
that,  in  rteadofliaving  any  tendency  to  reconcile  or  fub- 
due  the  Americans,  it  would  infallibly  exafperate  them 
beyond  any  polTibility  of  a  reconciliation.  The  petitions 
againfl  it,  prcfented  by  the  colony's  agent,  pointed  out 
the  fame  confequencc  in  the  ftrongell  terms,  and  in 
the  mod  politive  manner  declared  that  ihe  Americans 
never  would  fubmit  to  it ;  but  fuch  was  the  infatuation 
attending  every  rank  and  degree  of  men,  that  it  ne- 
ver was  imagined  the  Americans  would  dare  to  refill 
the  parent  (late  openly,  but  would  in  the  end  fubmit 
Andforthe  implicitly  to  her  commands.  In  this  confidence,  a 
impartial  third  bill  Was  propofcd  for  the  impartial  axlmiiiillra- 
sdniiniftra-  ^j^j^  pf  j;,f^[ce  on  fuch  perfons  as  might  be  employed 
in  the  fupprelfion  of  riots  and  tumults  in  the  province 
of  Mallachufetts-Bay.  By  this  aft  it  was  provided, 
that  flionld  any  perfons  atling  in  that  capacity  be  in- 
dialed  for  murder,  and  not  able  to  obtain  a  fair  trial  in 
the  province,  they  might  be  fent  iiy  the  governor  10 
England,  or  to  fome  other  colony,  if  necell'ary,  to  be 
tried  for  the  fuppofed  crime. 

Thefe  three  bills  having  palfed  fo  cafily,  the  mini- 
flry  propofed  a  fourth,  relative  to  the  government  of 
Canada;  which,  it  was  faid,  had  nut  yet  been  fettled 
on  any  proper  plan.  By  this  bill  the  extent  of  that 
province  was  greatly  enlarged ;  its  atfairs  were  put  un- 
der the  direclion  of  a  council  in  which  Romaa  Catho- 


156 

Funifti- 
mcnt  ofBo- 
(lon  rcfol- 
vcd on, 


157 
Argu- 
ments and 
petitions 
n^uiull  it. 


liS 


lion  of  ju- 
fiicc. 


»59 

Qtiebec 
bill. 


o     1  A  M  E 

lies  were  to  be  admitted;  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy 
were  fecured  in  tlieir  polfcllions  and  the  ufual  pcrqui- 
iitc3  from  thole  of  ihcir  own  profcllion.  The  coun- 
cil abovementioned  were  to  be  appointed  by  the 
crown  ;  to  be  rcmoveablc  at  its  plcafurc  ;  and  to  be 
inveUcd  with  every  legidativc  power,  excepting  that 
of  taxation. 

No  fooner  were  thefe  laws  made  known  in  America, 
than  they  cemented  the  union  of  the  colonies  almoit 
beyond  any  polfibiliiy  of  diifolviug  it.  The  alic'mbly 
of  MalfachufcttsBay  had  palled  a  vote  againfl  the 
judges  accepting  l.darics  from  the  crown,  and  put  the 
qutllion.  Whether  they  would  accept  them  as  ufual 
from  the  general  allembly  ?  tour  anfwercd  in  the  af- 
firmative ;  but  Peter  Oliver,  thechief-jullite,  refufed. 
A  petition  againll  him, and  an  accufatioii,  were  brought 
before  the  governor  ;  but  the  latter  refufed  the  accu- 
falion,  and  declined  to  interfere  in  the  matter  ;  but 
as  they  IHU  inlillcd  for  jullice  againll  Mr  Oliver,  the 
governor  thought  proper  to  put  an  end  to  the  matter 
by  didblving  the  allembly. 

In  this  lituation  of  affairs,  a  new  alarm  was  occa- 
lioned  ly  the  news  of  the  port-bill.  Tiiis  had  been 
totally  uilexpcctcd,  and  was  received  witli  the  mofl 
extravagant  exprelhons  of  difpleafure  among  the  po- 
pulace, and  while  thefe  continued,  the  new  governor, 
General  Gage,  arrived  from  England.  He  had  been 
chofen  to  this  olilce  on  account  of  his  being  well  ac- 
quainted in  America,  and  generally  agreeable  to  the 
people  ;  but  human  wifdom  could  not  now  point  out 
a  method  by  which  the  flame  could  be  allayed.  The 
firll  act  of  his  ofnce  as  governor  was  to  remove  the 
alftnibly  to  Salem,  a  town  17  iniles  difiant,  in  confe- 
quencc of  the  late  adl.  When  this  was  intimated  to 
the  affembly,  they  replied  by  requeuing  him  to  ap- 
point a  day  for  public  humiliation  for  deprecating  the 
wrath  of  heaven,  but  met  with  a  refufal.  When  met 
at  Salem,  they  palfcd  a  refolution,  declaring  ihc  necef- 
fity  of  a  general  congrefs  compofed  of  delegates  from 
all  the  provinces,  in  order  to  take  the  affairs  of  the 
colonies  at  large  into  confideration  :  and  five  gentle- 
men remarkable  for  their  oppofition  to  the  Britilli 
meafures,  were  chofen  to  rcprefent  that  of  Malfachti- 
fetts-Bay.  They  then  proceeded  with  all  expedition 
to  draw  up  a  declaralion,  containing  a  detail  of  the 
grievances  they  laboured  under,  and  the  necellity  of 
exerting  themfclves  againfl  lawlcfs  power;  they  fet 
forth  the  difregard  fliown  to  their  petitions,  and  the 
attempts  of  Great  Britain  to  dcftroy  theirancient  con- 
flitution;  and  concluded  with  exhorting  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  colony,  to  obflrucl,  by  every  method  in 
their  power,  fuch  evil  dcfigns,  recommending  at  the 
fame  time  a  total  renunciation  of  every  thing  imported 
from  Great-Britain,  till  a  redrcfs  of  grievances  could 
be  procured. 

Intelligence.of  this  declaration  was  carried  to  the 
governor  on  tlje  very  day  that  it  was  completed;  on 
which  he  diifolved  the  aifembly.  This  was  fono\ved 
by  an  addrefs  from  the  inhabitants  of  Salem  in  favour 
of  thofe  of  Boflon,  and  concluding  with  thefe  remark- 
able words  :  "  By  lliutting  up  the  port  of  Boflon, 
fome  imagine  that  the  courfc  of  trade  might  be  turn- 
ed hither,  and  toour  benefit ;  but  nature,  in  the  for- 
mation of  our  harbour,  forbids  our  becoming  rivals  in 
commerce  with  that  convenient  mart;  and  were  it 

otlicrwife. 


.'\merics. 


160 
Thefe    afls 
exafperate 
the  Anieri- 
cani. 


161 

Refcnt- 
mcnt  occa. 
fiuncd  by 
the  port- 
bill. 


i6x 
Proceed- 
ings of  the 
general  af- 
fembly met 
at  Salem. 


I«3 
Generofity 
of  the  pco- 
plinf  Salem 
to  thofe  of 
Uofton. 


A  M  E 


[     581     ] 


A  M  E 


America,  otlurwifc,  we  niufl  be  dead  to  every  idea  of  jullicc, 
^*~"^^ —  loll  to  all  feelings  of  humanity,  could  we  indulge  one 
thought  to  fcizc  on  wealth,  and  raife  our  fortunes  on 
the  ruin  of  our  fufFcring  neighbours." 

It  had  been  fondly  hoped  by  the  niiniflcrial  party 
at  home,  that  the  advantages  which  other  towns  of 
tlie  colony  might  derive  from  the  annihilation  of  the 
trade  of  Boflon,  would  make  them  readily  acquiefce  in 
the  mcafure  of  ihutiing  up  that  port,  and  rather  re- 
joice in  it  thanotherwifc  ;  but  the  words  of  the  add  rcfs 
abovemcntiuned  fecmed  to  preclude  all  hope   of  this 
kind  ;   and  fubfequent  tranfadions  foon  manifeiled  it 
164       to  be  totally  vain.     No  fooner  did  intelligence  arrive 
Thecaufc  of  tlve  remaining  bills  palfed  in  tiie  fcilion  of  1774, 
ofBofton    than  the  catifc  of  Bofton  became  the  caufc  of  all  the 
efpouledby  colunics.   Tlic  port-bill  iiad already  occalioned  violent 
all  the  reft  commotions  throughout  ihem  all.     It  had  been  rcpro- 

01  tile  coio-  ,  , .  ..,''.  1       ,-  ,\  1 

„ij,_  bated  in  provincial  meetings,  andrciillance  even  to  the 

lad  liad  been  recommended  againll  fuch  oppreirion. 
In  Virginia,  the  firfl  of  June,  the  day  on  which  the 
port  of  Kofton  was  to  be  ihut  up,  was  held  as  a  day 
of  humiliation,  and  a  public  interccllion  in  favour  of 
America  was  enjoined.  The  flyle  of  the  prayer  en- 
joined at  this  time  was,  that  "  God  would  give  the 
people  one  heart  and  one  mind,  firmly  tooppofe  every 
invafion  of  the  American  rights."  The  Virginians, 
however,  did  not  content  tnemfelvcs  with  ac'ts  of  re- 
ligion. They  recommended  in  the  ftrongell  manner 
a  general  congrcfs  of  all  the  colonies,  as  fully  perftia- 
dcd  that  an  attempt  to  tax  any  colony  in  an  arbitrary 
manner  was  in  reality  an  attack  upon  them  all,  and 
mufl  ultimately  end  intiic  ruinof  them  all. 

The  provinces  of  New- York  and  Penfylvania,  how- 
ever, were  lefsfanguine  than  the  refl,  being  fo  clofe- 
]y  connefted  in  the  way   of  trade  with  Great  Britain, 
that  the  giving  it  up  entirely  appeared  a  matter  of  the 
moft  ferious  magnitude,  and  not  to  be  thought  of  but 
ifif       after  every  other  mctliod  had  failed.  The  intelligence 
TheAme-  of  the  remaining  bills  rcfpc(5ling  Boflon,  however, 
ricansfirm-fpreada  frefli  alarm  throughout  the  continent,  andfix- 
ly  united     gj  thofe  who  had  feemed  to  be  the  moll  wavering. 
The  propoful  of  giving  up  al!  commercial  iiitcrcourfc 
with  Britain  was  agiin  propofed  ;  contiibutionsforllie 
inhabitants  of  Bofton  were  raifed  in  every  quarter  ; 
and  they  every  day  received  addrelfcs  commending 
them  for  the  heroic  courage  with  which  they  fuilained 
their  calamity. 

The  Bollonians  on  their  part  were  not  v/aniing  in 

their  endeavours  to  promote  tlie  general  caufe.     An 

agreement  was  framed,  wliicb  in  imitation  of  former 

times,  they  called  a  Solemn   League  and  Covenant. 

^'aEueand  ^Y  ''''^  ''^'  fubfcribers  moll  religioudy  hound  them- 

cHvenant     fclvcs  to  break  ort  all  communication  \\iih  Britain  af- 

fornicd  at    tcr  the  expiration  of  the  month  of  Augufl  enfuing, 

Bufton.       until  the  obnoxious  aifls  were  repealed  ;  at  the  fame 

time  they  engaged  neither  to  purchafe  nor  ufe  any 

goods  imported  after  that  lime,  and  to  renounce  all 

conncilion  with  thofe  who  did,  or  whorefufed  to  fub- 

,67      fciibe  to  this  covenant;   ihreatening  to  publifli  the 

Thcro-       names  of  the  refractory  ;  which  at  this  time  was  apu- 

vcriior  at-  nifliment  by  no  means  to  be  dcfpifcd.    Agreements  of 

tempts  lu    ^  finiilar  kind  were  almoft  inflaiitaneoufly  entered  into 

*^'".'°  jn.  throuirhoui  all  America.     General  Gage  indeed  at- 

:ouiiterai!l  "  ,  ^    ,  i_  i  ■ 

it  by  pro-    tempted  to  counteract  the  covenant  by  a  proclamation, 
ilamjtion,  whacui  it  wasdctlarcd  an  illegal  and  traitcrous  com  bi- 


in  ihcir 
oppofition 
to  liritain. 


166 
Solemn 


nation,  threatening  with  the  painsof  la%v  fuch  as  fr.b-  America, 

fcribcd  or  countenanced  it.    But  matters  were  toofar  ^ — v ' 

gone  for  his  proclamations  to  have  any  elFetl.  The 
Americans  retorted  the  charge  of  illegality  on  his  own 
proclamation,  and  infilled  tliat  the  law  allowid  fub-- 
je£ls  to  meet  in  order  to  conlider  of  their  grievances, 
and  aifociaie  for  relief  from  opprcllion. 

Preparations  were  now  made  for  holding  the  gene- 
ral coiigrefb  fo  often  propofed.     Philadelphia,  as  be- 
ing the  niofl  central  and  conlider  able  town,  was  pitch- 
ed upon  for  the  place  of  its  meeting.    The  delegates, 
of  whom  it  was  to  be  coinpofed,  were  chofen  by  the 
reprcfcntativcs  of  each  province,  and  were  in  number 
from  two  to  fcven  for  each  colony,  though  no  province         ,0 
had  more  than  one  vote.     The  lirft  cor.grefs,  which  CoiiRrcfs 
met  at  Philadelphia,  in  the  beginning  of  September  meets  at 
1774,    conlillcd  ofjr   delegates.      The   novelty  and  I'hiladcl- 
iniportance  of  the  mectingexcitedand  univerfal  alien-  P''"- 
tion  ;  and  their  tranfactions  were  fuch  as  could  not 
but  tend  to  render  them  refpeftable.  i^^ 

The  lirll  act  of  coiigrefs  was  an  approbation  of  the  Account  of 
conduct  of  Mail'achufctts-Bay,  and  an  exhortation  to 't»<f»Dfac- 
continuein  the  fume  fpiritwith  which  they  had  begun.  "<">«• 
Supplies  for  the  fuiicring  inhabitants  (whom  the  ope- 
ration of  the  port-biU  had  reduced  to  great  dillrefs) 
were  (Irongly  reci3i!iinended ;  and  it  was  declared,  that 
in  cafe  of  attt^llpts  to  enforce  the  obnoxious  acts  by 
arms,  all  America  Ihould  join  to  affill  the  town  of  Bof- 
ton ;  and,  ihould  the  inhabitants  be  obliged,  diiring  the 
courfe  of  hoftilities,  to  remove  further  up  the  country, 
the  lodes  they  might  fullain  ihould  be  repaired  at  the 
public  cxpence. 

They  next  addreflTcd  General  Gage  by  letter  ;  in 
wliich,  having  Hated  the  grievances  of  the  people  of 
Mallachufetts  colony,  they  informed  hiiii  of  the  tixcj 
and  unalterable  determination  of  all  the  other  provin- 
ces to  fupport  their  brethren  and  to  oppofe  the  Britilh  , 
acts  of  parliament ;  that  they  themfclvcswere  appoint- 
ed to  watch  over  the  liberties  of  America  ;  and  intrcat- 
cd  him  to  defill  from  military  opcration.s,  lelt  fuch  lio- 
ililities  might  be  brougli  t  on  as  would  frullratc  all  hopes 
of  reconciliation  with  the  parent  Hate. 

The  next  (lep  was  to  publilh  a  declaration  of  their 
rights.  Thefe  they  fummed  up  in  the  rights  belong- 
ing to  Englilhmen  ;  and  particularly  inlirted,  that  as 
their  diflancc  rendered  it  impoHible  for  them  10  be  re- 
prefented  in  the  Britilh  parliament,  their  provincial 
alfemblics,  with  the  governor  appointed  by  the  king, 
conAitutcd  the  only  legillative  power  within  each  pro- 
vince. They  would,  however,  conl'ent  to  fuch  arts  of 
parliament  as  were  evidently  calculatediiierely  for  the 
regulation  of  commerce,  and  fecuring  to  the  parent 
ftate  the  benefits  of  the  American  trade  ;  but  would 
never  allow  that  they  could  impofc  any  tax  on  the  co- 
lonics, for  the  purpofe  of  railing  a  revenae,  without 
their  confent.  They  proceeded  to  reprobate  the  in- 
tention of  each  of  the  ne\V  aifls  of  parliament  ;  and 
infilled  on  all  the  rights  they  had  enumerated  as  being 
unalienable,  and  what  none  could  deprive  them  of. 
The  Canada  aifl  they  particularly  pointed  out  as  being 
extremely  inimical  to  the  colonics,  by  whole  alTiflance 
it  liad  been  conquered  ;  and  they  termed  it  "  An  aft 
for  eftablidiing  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  in  Cana- 
da, abolifhing  the  equitable  fyflem  of  Engliih  laws, 
and  cftablifliinga  tyranny  there."  They  lurthcr de- 
clared 


A  M  E 


[     5«2     ] 


A  M  E 


America,    cljrcil  ill  favour  of  a  p.on-iiiiiiurtatiuii  ;inj  iiou-con- 

* '' '  fuinplion  of  Jirililli  gooJs,  luilil  the  atls  were  repealed 

by  which  duties  were  iinpofed  upon  tea,  coffee,  wine, 
fuf;ar,  and  moUncs,  imported  into  America,  as  well 
as  tlic  Uollon  port-act,  and  the  three  others  palfcd  in 
the  preccdinj;  fellion  of  parliament.  1  he  new  rtgu- 
htions  againll  the  importation  and  confinnpiion  of 
Brititli  comincditics  were  then  drawn  up  with  great  fo- 
)'-inniry;aiidihey  concluded  with  returning  tlic  warm- 
ell  thanks  to  thofc  members  of  parliament  who  had, 
with  r<)  much  zeal,  tiiough  without  any  fucccfs,  op- 
pofcH  the  obnoxious  acts  of  parliament. 

Tlieir  next  proceedings  w  ere,  to  frame  a  petition  to 
the  king,  an  addrels  to  the  Britilhnatio?i,  and  another 
to  tlic  colonies  ;  all  ot  which  were  fo  much  in  the  ufual 
fpirited  Orjin  of  Aintrican  language  for  fome  time  paft, 
that  it  is  ntcillefs  to  cuter  into  any  particular  account 
of  them.  It  isluilicitiu  to  fay,  that  tliey  were  all  drawn 
up  in  a  mafU  rly  manner,  and  ought,  to  have  iniprellcJ 
the  people  of  KnghnJ  with  a  more  favourable  idea  of 
the  Aincricans  than  they  could  at  that  time  be  induced 
to  entertain. 

All  this  time  the  difpofition  of  the  people -had  cor- 
refpoiukd  with  the  warmelt  wiflles  of  congrcfs.  The 
firll  of  J'lne  had  been  kept  as  a  fafl,  not  only  through^ 
out  Virginia,  where  it  was  firll  propofcd,  but  through 
the  whole  continent.     ContributioLis  for  the  diflrelics 
of  Boflon  had  been  raifcd  throughout  America,  and 
people  of  all  ranks  feenicd  to  be  particularly  touched 
with  them.     Even  thofewho  feemcd  to  be  moft  likely 
to  derive  advantage  from  them,  took  no  opportunity, 
,Q       as  has  been  already  inllanced  in  the  cafe  of  Salem. 
■CencroOi/  The  inhabitants  of  Marblehead  alfo  fliowed  a  noble 
oftheinha- example  of  nr.ignaniuiity  in  the  prcfent  cafe.  Thouglt 
kitantsof     fuuattd   in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kollcn,  and  mod 
likely  to  derive  benclit  from  their  dillrelles,  they  did 
not  attempt  to  take  any  advantage,  but  gcneroully  of- 
fered the  ufe  of  their  harbour  to  ilic  Boflonians,  as 
well  as  their  wharfs  and  warchoufcs,  free  of  all  ex- 
pence.     In  the  mean  time  the  Hritidi  forces  at  Boflon 
were  continually  incrcaling  ia  nuirbcr,  which  greatly 
augmented  th;  general  jcaloufyar^diilaiisfac'lion  ;  the 
country  were  ready  to  raifc  a:  a  moment's  warning  ; 
and  the  experiment  was  inaJc  by  giving  a  falfe  al  irm 
iireme      ^j^_^^  ^j^^  co:nmiinicalion  between  the  town  and  country 
of  thecoun-  "'^^  to  be  cut  off,  in  order  to  reduce  the  former  by 
try  people   famine  to  a  compliance  with  the  arts  of  parliament. 
On  this  intelligence,  thcconntr/  people  aliembleil  in 
great  nambcrf,ai".d  could  not  be  fatislied  until  they  had 
fent  jnclTengcrs  in  to  the  city  to  enquire  into  the  truth  of 
the  report.  Thcfcmeflengers  were  enjoined  to  inform 
the  town's  people,  that  if  they  Ihould  be  fo  pufillani- 
nious  as  to  make  a  furrendcr  of  ihtirliberiics,  the  pro- 
vince would  not  tl'.ink  iifcif  bound  by  fuch  exarrples  ; 
.•ind  that  Britain,  l.y  breriking  their  original  charter, 
had  annulled  the  contract  fublilling  between  thtm,  and 
Icffthem  to  aft  as  they  thought  proper. 

The  people  in  every  other  rcfpcct  manifeftcd  their 
inflexible  dtttrnunatioii  to  adhere  to  thf  plan  they  had 
fo  long  followed.  The  new  ronrfellors  and  judges 
were  obliged  torefign  their  rdice s,  inordcr  to  prcfcrvc 
their  lives  and  prf^penies  from  the  fury  of  the  multi- 
tude. In  fonie  places  they  fliut  up  the  avenues  to  the 
court-houfes  ;  and,  when  n  quired  to  make  way  fcr  the 
judges,  replied,  that  they  knew  of  noijc  but  fuch  as 


Marble- 
head  Ui 
tofton. 


17« 
£itreme 


to  the  Bu- 
llonians. 


jiro- 


W'crc  appointed  by  the  ancient  ufagc  and  cuftom  of  the   Americi. 

province.     Every  where  they  maiiifcl'led  the  moll  ar-  ' v ' 

dent  defire  of  learning  the  art  of  war  ;  and  every  indi- 
vidual who  could  bear  arms,  was  moll  alliduous  in  pro- 
curing them,  and  learning  their  cxcrcifc.  j.j 

Matters  at  lall  proceeded  to  fuch  an  height,  that  cen.  Gage 
General  Gage  thought  proper  to  fortify  the  neck  of  fortificsUo- 
land  which  joins  the  town  of  Boflon  to  the  continent,  fton  Neck, 
This,  though  undoubtedly  a  )irudent  meafurc  in  his 
fituation,  was  exclaimed  againll  by  the  Americans  in 
the  moft  vehement  manner  ;  but  the  General,  inftead 
of  giving  ear  to  their  rcmonllrances,  deprived  them  of       j.. 
all  power  of  afling  againfl  liimfelf,  by-Jeizing  the  pro-  a„(1  fijzj, 
vincial   powder,  ammur.ition,  and   military  florcs  at  the  irilita- 
Cambridge  and  Charlcllown.     This  excited  fuch  in-  ry  ftorcs 
dignation,  that  it^ was  with  the  utmoll  difficulty  the '"='°"8'''? 
people  could  be  rcflraincd  from  marching  to  Boflon  '"        f'° 
and  attacking  the  troops.  Even  in  the  town  itfelf,  the 
company  of  cadets  tliat  ufed  to  attend  him  difbandcd 
themfelves,  and  returned  the  llandard  he  had  as  ufual 
prcfented  themwithonhisaccelliontothcgovernmcnt. 
'Phis  was  occalioned  by  his  having  deprived  the  cele- 
brated patriot  John  Hancock,  afterwards  prclidcnt  of 
the  congrcfs,of  his  cominilfion  as  colonel  of  the  cadets. 
A  fimilar  inflancc  happened  of  a  provincial  colonel 
havingaccepted  a  feat  in  the  new  council  ;  upon  which 
24  officers  of  his  regiment  refigncd  their  conimiilioiis 
in  one  day.  i^^ 

In  the  mean  time  a  meeting  was  held  of  the  princi-  OppoCfion 
pal  inhabitants  of  the  towns  adjacent  to  Boflon.     The  'p  ^^'"^  ^f'- 
purport  of  this  was  publicly  to  renounce  all  obedience  '     ^n\i' 
to  the  late  afts  of  parliament,  and  to  form  an  engage-  "n!^,jf,. 
nient  to  indemnify  fuch  as  fhould  be  profccutedontnat 
account ;  the  members  of  the  new  council  were  decla- 
red violators  of  the  rights  of  their  country  ;  all  ranks 
and  degrees  were  exhorted  to  learn  the  ufe  of  arms  ; 
and  the  receivers  of  the  public  revenue  were  ordered 
not  to  deliver  it  into  the  treafury,  but  to  retain  it  in 
their  own  hands  till  the  conflitution  Ihould  be  reflorcd, 
or  a  protincial  congrcfs  difpofe  of  it  otherwifc. 

A  remonftrance  againfl  the  fortifications  on  Boflon 
Neck  was  next  prepared;  in  which,  however,  they  ftill 
declared  their  unwillingncfs  to  proceed  to  any  hoflile 
mcaTurcs  ;  alfertingonly  as  ufual  their  firm  determina- 
tion not  to  fubmit  to  the  a6ls  of  parliament  they  had        1J5 
already  fo  much  complained   of.     The  governor,  to  A  genera) 
reflore  tranquillity,  ifpofiiblc,  called  ageneral  alfein-  afltmbly 
biy  ;   but  fo  many  of  the  council  had  religned  '''cir  "ll^f' *""' 

feats,  ihat  he  was  induced  to  countermand  its  flttinu.'  "'"', 
I  1  •  T-i  •  ,-1,  1        ''  "T  procli- 

by  proclamation.    I  Ins  mealurc,  however,  was  deem-  mition. 

ed  illcg.nl ;  ihcafTcnibly  met  at  Salem  ;  a»l,  afterwait- 

ing  a  day  f<5r  the  governor,  voted  themfelves  into  a 

provincial  congrefs,  of  which  Mr  Hancock  waschofen 

prelidcnt.     A  committee  was  inftanily  appointed,  who 

waitedon  the  governor  with  a  remonllraiicc  concerning 

thcfortificaiions  on  Eofton  Neck  ;  but  nothing  of  con- 

fcqucncc  took  place,  both  parties  mutually  criminating 

each  other.   The  winter  was  now  coming  on,  and  the 

governor,  to  avoid  quartering  the  foluier?  upon  the  in-       jw 

habitants,  propofcd  to cred  barracks  for  them  ;  but  the  Gen.  Gage. 

feleft-men  of  Bollon  compelled  the  workmen  to  dcfifl.  meets  with 

Carpenters  were  fcnt  for  to  New-Vor'k,biit  they  were  g«»'  <i''l^- 

refnfed  ;  and  it  was  with  the  utmofl  difficuliy  that  he  f"'"'* '" 

could  procure  wintcr-lodjiinjrsfor  his  troops.   Kor  was  "™"""?' 

the  difticulty  kfs  in  pro-..uring  clothes  ;  as  the  nier-  ,,c„pj. 

cbants 


A  M  E 


[     5^3     ] 


A  M  E 


liollon. 


America,  chants  of  New- York  told  liiiii,  that  tlify  would  nc- 

' -' '  vtr  fupply  any  article  for  the  Lcncfit  of  men  fciit  as 

177       ciiemits  10  their  country." 
TheAme-      This   difpolition,   known   to    be  almoft  univcrfal 
ricano         throughout  the  coniinent,  was  ill  ihc  liigheft  degree 
make  pre-  fjtisfailcry  10  congrcfs.     Every  oncfaw  that  the  tu- 
paratiotu    f^j^g  fpring  was  to  be  the  fcafon  of  commenci;i;;  ho- 
for  war.      ^jjitij,^^  ^uj  (jje  mofl  indefatigable  liiligtncc  was  ufcd 
by  the  ceicfr.ics  to  be  well  provided  againll  fuch  a  fur- 
midablc  enemy.     A  lift  of  all  thefcnliblc  men  in  each 
colony  was  made  out,  andefpccially  of  thofc  who  had 
ferved  in  the  former  wv  ;  of  whom  tliey  had  the  fitis- 
fattion  to  lind  that  two-thirds  were  Hill  alive  and  fit 
to  bear  arms.    Magazines  of  arms  were  coUcfled,  and 
money  was  provided  for  the  payment  of  troops.     The 
governors  in  vain  attempted  to  put  a  (top  to  tlicfe  pro- 
ceedings by  proclamations  ;   the  fatal  period  was  now 
arrived  :  and  the  more  the  fervants  of  government  at- 
tempted to  reprefs  the  fpirit  of  the  Americaiis,  the 
j.g       more  determined  it  appeared. 
Dillrefsof       In  the  mean  time  the  inhabitants  of  Bofton  wercre- 
the  inhabi-  duced  to  great,  dillrefs.     The  Britilh  troops,  now  dif- 
tant»of       tinguiihcdbythc  name  of  the  f/.'i,-w>',  wereabfolutely  in 
pofleflion  of  it ;  the  inhabitants  were  kept  as  prifoncrs, 
and  might  be  made  accountable  for  the  coiiduft  of 
the  whole  colonies  ;  and  various  meafures  were  con- 
trived to  relieve  the  latter  from  fuch  a  difagrceable 
lituation.      Sometimes  it  was  thought  expedient  to 
remove  the  inhabitants  altogether  ;  but  this  was  im- 
prafticable  witliout  the  governor's  confent.     It  was 
then   propofed  to  fet  fire  to  the  town  at  once,  after 
valuing  the  houfes  and  indemnifying  the  proi>i  ietors  ; 
but  this  being  found  equally  iniprailicable,  it  wasrc- 
folved  to  wait  fonie  other  opportunity,  as  the  garrifon 
T\cre  not  very  numerous,  and,  not  being  fupplied  witii 
ncccfl'aries  by  the  inhabitants,  might  foon  be  obliged 
to  leave  the  place.  The  friends  of  Britifli  government 
indeed  attempted  to  do  fomething  in  oppofition  to  the 
general  voice  of  the  people  ;  bui  after  a  few  incfFeftual 
meetings  and  refolulions,  they  were  utterly  filenced, 
and  obliged  to  yield  to  the  fuperior  number  of  the 
patriots. 

Matters  had  now  proceeded  fofjr  that  the  profpeiSt 
of  reconciliation  or  friendfliip  with  Britain  became 
daily  morcand  more  dirtant.  The  Americans,  there- 
fore, began  to  feize  on  the  military  ftores  and  am- 
munition belonging  to  government.  This  firfl  com- 
menced at  New-port  in  Rhode-Illand,  where  the  in- 
habitants carried  oft'  40  pieces  of  cannon  appointed 
ed  by  the  j-^^.  ^j^^  protcilion  of  the  place  ;  and  on  being  alked 
the  reafon  of  this  proceeding,  they  replied,  that  the 
people  had  fciztd  them  left  they  fliould  be  made  ufe  of 
againrt  thcmfetvcs.  After  i!i  is  the  alfembly  met,  and 
refolvcd  that  ammunition  and  warlike  ftorcs  ftiould  be 
purchafcd  with  the  public  money. 

New-Hamplliire  followed  the  ex.imple  of  Rhodc- 
Ifland,  and  fcized  a  fmall  fort  for  the  fake  of  the  pow- 
der and  military  ftorcs  it  contained.  In  Pcnnfylvania, 
however,  a  convention  was  held,  which  exprclfcd  an 
carneft  delire  of  reconciliation  with  the  mother-coun- 
try ;  though,  at  the  fame  time,  in  the  ftrongeft  manner 
declaring,  that  they  w  ere  refolved  to  take  up  arms  in 
defence  oftheirjuft  rights,  and  defend  to  the  laft  their 
oppolilion  to  the  late  arts  of  parliament  ;  and  the  peo- 
ple were  exhorted  to  apply  themfclvcs  with  tbrgreai- 

3 


179 

Military 
ftorcs  ftiz 


tft  alliduiiy  to  the  profecution  of  fuch  maaufaClures  as  America. 

were  ncceii'ary  for  their  defence  and  fubUftencc,  fuch  ' "^ ' 

as  fait,  fah-petrc,  gunpowder,  ftcel,  &c.  This  was 
the  univcrfal  voice  of  ihc  colonies,  Ncv/-York  only 
excepted.  The  aflembly  of  that  province,  as  yet  igno- 
rant of  the  fate  of  their  laft  remonftrance,  refufedto 
concur  with  the  other  colonies  in  their  determination 
to  throw  off  the  Britifii  yoke  :  their  attachment,  how- 
ever, was  very  faint,  and  by  the  event  it  appeared  that 
a  perfevcrencc  in  the  meafures  which  the  miniftry  had 
adopted  was  fu.Ticient  to  unite  them  to  the  reft. 

As  the  difturbances  had  originated  in  the  province 
of  Mailiichtifctis-Bay,  and  thin;  continued  all  along 
with  the  greatcft  violence,  fo  tliis  was  the  province 
where  the  iirft  hoftilities  were  formerly  commenced.        ,gg 
In  the  b-jginning  of  February  the  provincial  co:;grcfs  Maflachu- 
met  a:  Cambridge;  and  as  from  every  appeariucc  ii  f:tu  affem- 
became  daily  more  evident,  that  arms  mull  ultimately  '^'y  recom- 
decide  the  conteft,   cxpertnefs  in  military  difcipliae  "''"''.  P"' 
was  recommended  in  the  ftrongeft  manner,  and  fevc- P"""'^'' 
ral  military  inllitutions  cnaded  ;  among  which  that 
of  the   iniitiite-v:cu  was  one  of    the  moft  remarka- 
ble.    Thcfe  were  chofen from  the  moft  ailivc  and  ex- 
pert among  the  militia  ;  and  their  bufiucfswas  to  keep 
themfelves  in  conftant  rfcadincfs  at  the  cajlof  their  of- 
ficers ;   from  which  perpetual  vigilance  they  derived 

their  title It  was  nov/  eafily  feeu  that  a  llight  occa- 

lion  would  bring  on  hoftilities,  which  could  not  but  be 
attended  with  the  moft  violent  and  certain  deftruclion 
to  the  vani^uiflied  party  ;  for  both  werefo  much  exaf- 
peratcd  by  a  long  courfe  of  reproaches  and  literary 
warfare,  that  tliey  feemcd  to  be  filled  with  the  uiraoft 
inveteracy  againit  each  other. 

On  the  36th  of  February  General  Gage  having  been 
informed  that  a  numbcrofiicld-pieces  bad  been  brought 
to  Salem,  difpatched  a  party  to  fcize  them.  Their  • 
road  was  obftrucfed  by  a  river,  over  which  was  a 
draw-bridge.  This  the  people  had  pulled  up,  and  re- 
fufcd  to  let  it  down  :  upon  which  the  foldiers  feized  a 
boat  to  ferry  them  over  ;  but  the  people  cut  out  her 
bottom.  Ilo.'lilitics  ■.vould  immediately  have  commtn- 
ced,  had  it  not  been  for  the  interpofaion  of  a  clergy- 
man, who  reprtftnted  to  the  military,  on  the  one  hand, 
the  folly  of  oppoling  fuch  numbers  ;  and  to  the  people, 
on  the  other,  that  as  the  day  v/as  far  fpcnt  the  military 
could  not  execute  tIieirdelign,lo  that  they  migiit  with- 
out any  fear  leave  them  the  quiet  polFellion  of  the  draw- 
bridge. This  was  complied  with  ;  and  the  foldiers,  af- 
ter having  remained  lor  fomc  time  at  the  bridge,  re- 
turned wilhout  executing  their  orders.  ,j- 

The  next  attcmpt,howevcr,wasaticnded  with  more  Skirniilb  tt 
ferious  coufequences.  General  Gage  having  been  in-  Lexiugtuii. 
formed  that  a  lirge  quantity  of  ammunition  and  mili- 
tary ftores  had  been  collccUd  at  Concord,  about  ;o 
miles  from  Bofton,  and  wlicre  the  provincial  congrefs 
was  fitting,  fcnt  a  detachment,  under  the  coniitiandcf 
Colonel  Smith  and  Major  Pitcairn,  todcftroy  the  ftorcs, 
and,  as  was  reported,  to  feize  Mclfrs.  Hancock  and 
Adams,  the  leading  men  of  the  congrefs.  They  fe: 
out  before  day-break,  on  the  19th  of  April,  marching 
with  the  utmoft  liUnce,  and  feeuring  every  one  they 
met  on  the  road,  that  they  might  not  be  ilifcovcrcd. 
But  notwithllanding  all  their  care,  the  continual  ring- 
ing of  bells  and  firing  of  guns  as  ihey  went  along, 
foon  gave  them  notice  that  the  country  was  alarmed. 

About 


A  M  E 


r  sH  J 


A  M  E 


Usfluii. 


Amcrici.    About  tivcin  the  morningtliey  had  reached  Lexington 

" '  1 5  miles  from  Bofton,  where  the  militia  of  the  place 

were  cxerciling.  Major  Pitcairn  called  out  to  tkem, 
dilfiirj'i  y{,u  rebels  :  throvi  dawn  your  arms  and  difpJife  : 
but,  as  they  lliil  continued  in  a  body,  he  advanced, 
difchargcd  his  pillol,  and  ordered  his  Ibldicrs  to  tire  ; 
who  inllantly  obeyed,  and  killed  and  wounded  fcveral 
of  the  miliiia  :  a  difperlion  of  the  militia  was  the  cun- 
fequcnce.  The  detachment  then  proceeded  to  Concord, 
where,  having  deltroycd  the  Uores,  they  tired  upon 
the  Americans  ;  and  <  fcuffle  ciifucd^in  which  fcveral 
fell  on  both  tides.  The  purpofe  of  their  expedition 
being  thus  accomplilhfd,  it  wasnccelTary  for  the  king's 
troops  to  retreat,  which  ihcy  did  through  a  continual 
tire  kept  up  on  them  from  Concord  to  Lexington. 
Here  their  ammunition  was  totally  expended  ;  and 
they  would  have  been  unavoidably  cut  off,  had  not  a 
conliderable  rcinforccmentcommanded  by  Lord  Percy 
met  them.  The  Americans,  however,  continued 
their  attack  witli  great  fpirii  ;  and  the  Briiilh  would  flill 
have  been  in  the  utincll  danger  had  it  not  been  for 
two  tield-picccs  which  Lord  Percy  had  brought  with 
him.  By  thefe  the  impetuolit)  of  the  Ajnericans  was 
checked,  and  the  Brit  Ih  made  good  their  retreat  to 
Bolton,  with  ihclofs  of  273  killed  wounded  and  made 
prifoncrs  :  that  of  the  Amcricans.wasabu.it  50  killed, 
182  38  wounded  and  milTing. 
A  great  ar-  From  the  commencement  of  hoftilities,  the  difpuce 
my  aflcm-  between  great  Britain  and  the  colonics  took  anew  di- 
blcsbcfore  region.  By  this  engagement  the  fpirits  of  the  Ameri- 
cans were  raifcd  ;  a  coniiderable  army  wasalTemblcd, 
who  formed  a  line  of  encampment  from  Roxbury  to 
Myllic,  through  a  fpace  of  ai-iout  :io  miles  ;  and  here 
they  were  foon  after  joined  by  a  large  body  of  Con- 
necticut troops,  underGencral  Putnam,  an  old  officer 
of  great  bravery  and  exprrience.  By  this  formidable 
/orce  was  the  town  of  Bofton  now  kept  blocked  up. 
General  Cage,  however,  had  fo  llrongly  fortified  it, 
that  the  army  powerful  as  they  were,  durft  not  make 
an  attack  ;  while  on  the  other  hand,  his  force  was  by 
far  too  infiguificant  to  meet  fuch  an  army  in  the  tield. 
J5ut  towards  the  end  of  May,  a  coniiderable  reinforce- 
nicnihavingarrived,  with  Generals  Howe,  Burgoyne, 
and  Clinton,  he  was  foon  enabled  toaticmpifomething 
of  confc(]uence.  Some  Ikirniiihcs  in  the  mean  time 
.l^appcned  in  the  illauds  lying  otf  Bofton  harbour,  in 
which  the  Americans  had  the  advantage,  and  burnt 
an  armed  fchooner,\\hich  her  people  had  been  obliged 
to  abandon  after  (lie  was  left  aground  by  the  tide. 
Nothing  dccilive,  h-jwever,  took  place,  till  the  17th 
of  June.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Charleftown,  a 
place  on  the  northern  ftiore  of  tlie  peniufula  on  which 
Bofton  ftands,  is  an  high  ground  called  Bmikir's  Hill, 
which  o\erlooks  and  commands  the  whole  town  of 
Bofton.  in  the  night  of  the  1 6ih  the  provincials  took 
jioficfrion  ofthisplice  :  and  worked  with  fuch  inde- 
fatigable diligence,  that,  to  the  aftouirtiment  of  their 
enemies,  they  had  before  iluy-lighi,  almoft  couiplcied 
a  redoubt,  with  a  ftiong  ciurenchnient  reaching 
half  a  mile  eaftward,  as  tar  as  the  river  Myftic.  Af- 
ter tliis  they  were  obliged  to  fuftain  a  heavy  and  inccf- 
fant  fire  from  the  fhips  and  floating  batteries  with 
which  Charleftown  neck  was  furrounded,  as  well  as 
the  cannon  that  could  reach  the  place  from  Boftun  ; 
infpite  of  which,  however,  they  coutinuedtheir  work, 
and  finilhed  it  before  mid-day.    A  coniiderable  body 


183 

r-Mtle  at 
Sunker'9 
Hiil. 


offoot  was  then  landed  at  thcfootof  Bunker's  Hill,  un-  Amcrict. 
der  the  command  ofGenerals  Howe  and  Pigot ;  the  for-  *"— ^^^ 
mer  being  appointed  toattack  the  lines.aad  the  latter  the 
redoubt.  The  Americans,  however,  having  the  advan- 
tage of  the  ground,  as  well  as  of  their  intrcuchmcnts, 
poured  down  fuch  incellaut  volleys,  as  threatened  the 
whole  body  with  dellruction  ;  and  General  Howe  was  for 
a  little  time  left  almoft  alone,  ail  his  ofiicers  being  kil- 
led or  wounded.  The  provincials  in  the  mean  time 
had  taken  poiiellion  of  Charleftown,  fo  that  General 
Pigot  was  obliged  to  contend  with  them  in  that  place 
as  well  as  in  the  redoubt.  The  confequcnce  was, 
that  be  was  overmatched  ;  his  troops  were  thrown 
into  diforder  ;  and  he  would  in  all  probability  have 
been  iiefeattd,  had  not  General  Clinton  advanced  tohis 
relief:  upon  which  the  attack  was  renewed  with  fuch 
fury,  that  the  provincials  were  driven  beyond  the 
neck  that  leads  to  Charleftown.  In  the  heat  of  the 
engagement  the  Britilh  troops,  in  order  to  deprive  the 
Americans  of  a  cover,  fet  fire  to  Charleftown,  which 
was  totally  confumed  ;  and,  eventually,  the  Americans 
were  obliged  to  retreat  over  Charleftown  neck,  and 
was  raked  by  an  incclTant  fire  from  the  Glafgow  man 
of  war,  and  fcveral  floating  batteries.  The  lofs  on 
the  Briiilli  fide  amounted  to  about  1000,  among  whom 
were  19  officers  killed  and  70  wounded  ;  that  of  the 
Americans  did  not  exceed  139  killed, and  9i4Wound- 
ed. 

The  Britifh  troops  claimed  the  viftory  ofthis  en- 
gagement ;  but  it  muft  be  allowed  that  it  was  dearly 
bought ;  and  the  Americans  boafted  that  the  real  ad- 
vantages were  on  their  tide,  as  they  hadfo  much  weak- 
ened the  enemy  that  they  durft  not  afterwards  venture 
out  of  their  entrenchments.  Although  this  was  the 
firft  time  the  provincials  had  been  in  actual  fervice, 
they  behaved  ihemfelves  with  the  fpirit  of  veterans, 
and  by  no  means  merited  the  appellation  oi  cowards, 
with  which  they  were  fo  ol'ten  branded  in  Britain.  J84 

In  other  places  the  fame  determined  fpirit  of  rcfift-  The  Ame- 
ance  appeared  on   the  part  of  the  Americans.     Lord  ricans  be- 
North's  conciliatory  fcheme  was  utterly  rtjeifled  by  "'"'  """"^ 
the  affembliesofPennfylvaniaand  New-Jcrfey,  and  5",     ".'''. 
afterwards  in  every  other  colony.      The  commence-  ;„  ,1,^;^ 
meiitofhoftilitiesat  Lexingtoii  determined  the  colony  oppoliiion. 
of  New-York,  which  had  hiihertocontinued  towaver, 
to  unite  with  the  reft  ;  and  as  the  fituation  of  New- 
York  renders  it  unable  to  refift  an  attack  from  the  fea, 
it  was,  refolved,  before  the  arrival  of  a  Britilh  fleet, 
to  fecure  the  military  ftores,  fend  off  the  women  and 
children,  and  fet  fire  to  the  city  if  it  was  ftill  found  in- 
capable of  defence.  The  exportation  of  provilions  was 
every   where  prohibited,  particularly  to  the  Britifli 
fifliery  on  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland,  or  to  fuch  co- 
lonies of  America  as  ftiould  adhere  to  the  Briiilh  in- 
tereft.     Congrefs  refolved  on  the  cftabliftiment  of  an 
army,  and  of  a  large  paper  currency  in  order  to  fap-  frown- 
port  it.      In  the  inland  northern  colonics,  colonel  pojnt  and 
Eafton  and  Ethan  Allen,  without  receiving  any  orders  Ticondcra- 
froin  congrefs,  or  comniunicating  their  defigus  to  any  gotak'.i.by 
body,  with  a  party  of  only  3  5omen,fiirpiifcd  the  forts  '^*  Ame- 
of  Crown-Point,  Ticonderago,  and  the  reft  that  form  '■"^'' 
a  communication  betwixt  the  colonies  and  Canada. 
On  this  occallon  aoo  pieces  of  cannon  fell  into  their 
hands,  befides  mortars,  and  a  large  quaniity  of  military 
ftores,  together  with  two  armed  vellcls,  and  materials 
for  the  conftruclion  of  others. 

After 


A  M  E 


[ 


rQ  - 


] 


A  M  E 


Antwica. 


i86 
Troops  in 
](aa<>n  di- 
ftrcffcd. 


1S7 
Arti.lo«  of 


After  the  battle  of  Bunker's  Hill,  the  provincials 
crcfled  ftirtificationsbn  theliiights  which  comiiiaiidc-d 
Charlellown,  and  ftrcngthencd  the  red  in  fuch  a  man- 
ner that  there  was  no  hope  of  driving  them  from 
thence  ;  at  the  fame  time  that  their  a(5liviiy  and  bold- 
nefs  aftonifiied  the  Britiih  officers,  who  had  been  ac- 
cuftomcd  to  entertain  a  mean  and  unjiill  opinion  of 
their  courage. 

The  troops,  thus  Ciat  up  in  Boflon,  were  foon  re- 
duced to  diRrcfs.     Their  necefliiies  obliged  them  to 
attempt  the  carrying  off  the  American  cattle  on  the 
illands  before  Boflon,  which  produced  frequent  fkir- 
milhcs  ;  but  the  provincials,  better  acquainted  with  the 
navigation  of  thcfe  ihorcs,  landed  on  the  illands,  dc- 
ftroy  cd  or  carried  off  whatever  was  of  any  ufc,  burned 
tlic  li^ht-houfe  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbour,  and 
took  prifoiicrs  the  workmen  fent  to  repair  it,  as  well 
as  a  party  of  marines  who  guarded  them.     Thus  the 
garrifon  were  reduced  to  the  necelfity  of  fending  out 
armed  vedcls  to  make  prizes  indifcriminately  of  all 
that  came  in  their  way,  and  of  landing  in  different 
places  to  plunder  for  fubfiftencc  as  well  as  they  could. 
Thecongrcfsin  the  mean  time  continued  to  aft  with 
union  be-    all   the   vigour   which  its  conflituents  had  expeflcd. 
twctn  the    Articles  of  confederation  and  perpetual  union  were 
colonics,      drawn  up  and  folcmnly  agreed  upon  ;  by  which  they 
bound  ihenifdvcs  and  their  polterity  for  ever.  Thefc 
were  in  fubllance  as  follows. 

1.  L'ach  culony  was  to  be  independent  within  itfclf, 
and  to  retain  an  abfolutc  fovercignty  in  all  domeftic 
affairs. 

2.  Delegates  to  be  annually  eleftcd  to  meet  in  con- 
grefs,  at  fuch  time  and  place  as  fliould  be  enadled  in 
the  preceding  congrefs. 

3.  This  alfembly  fhould  have  the  power  of  deter- 
mining war  or  peace,  making  alliances;  and  in  fliort 
all  that  power  which  fovereigns  of  dates  ufually  claim 
as  their  own. 

4.  The  expcnces  of  war  to  be  paid  out  of  the  com- 
mon treafury,  and  raifed  by  a  poll-tax  on  males  be- 
tween 16  and  60;  the  proportions  to  be  determined 
by  the  laws  of  the  colony. 

J.  An  executive  council  to  be  appointed  to  aft  in 
place  of  the  congrefs  during  its  rccefs. 

6.  No  colony  to  make  war  with  the  Indians  with- 
out confent  of  congrefs. 

7.  The  boundaries  of  all  the  Indian  lands  to  be  feeu- 
red  and  afcertaincdto  them  ;  and  nopurchafcsoflands 
■were  to  be  made  by  individuals,  or  even  by  a  colony, 
without  confent  of  congrefs. 

8.  Agents  appointed  by  congrefs  fliould  refide  a- 
niong  the  Indians,  to  prevent  frauds  in  trading  with 
them,  and  to  relieve,  at  the  public  expenfe,  their  wants 
and  diflrclfrs. 

9  This  confederation  to  lafl  until  there  (liould  be 
a  reconciliation  with  Britain  ;  or,  it  that  event  fliould 
not  take  place,  it  was  to  be  perpetual. 

After  the  aftion  of.  Bunker's  Hill,  however,  when 
the  power  of  Great  Britain  appeared  lefs  formidable  in 
the  eyes  of  America  than  before,  congrefs  proceeded 
formally  to  jullify  thtir  proceedings  in  a  declaration 
drawn  up  in  terms  more  expreflivc,  and  well  calculated 
to  excite  attention. 

"Were  it  pofFible  (faid  they)  for  men  who  exer- 
cife  their  re.ifon,  to  btlieve  that  the  divine  Auiiior  of 
Vol.  I. 


188 

Dccla[3tl 
on  on  ta- 
king up 
arwa. 


our  exifltncc  intended  a  part  ofthc  human  race  to  hoy    Amrr.>». 

an  abfolutc   property  ia  and  unbounded  jiov/er  over  ' ^- — 

others,  marked  out  by  His  infinite  goodncfs  and  wif- 
dom  as  the  objects  of  a  legal  domination,  never  right- 
fully rcfiflible,  however  fcvereandopprclfivc  ;  the  in- 
habitants of  thefc  colonies  might  at  lead  require  fro;n 
the  parliamentofGreat- Britain  fonic  evidence  that  this 
dreadful  authority  over  them  had  been  granted  to  that 
body  :  but  a  reverence  for  our  Great  Creator,  princi- 
ples of  humanity,  and  the  diftatcs  of  common  feufc, 
mud  convince  all  thofc  who  rcHtitl  upon  the  fubjcct, 
that  government  was  infiituted  to  promote  the  welfare 
of  mankind,  and  ought  to  be  adminidcred  for  the  at- 
tainment of  that  end. 

"  The  Icgillaturc  of  Great-Britain,  however,  f.i- 
mulatcd  by  an  inordinate  paflion  for  power,  not  only 
unjudifiablc,  but  which  they  know  to  be  peculiarly  re- 
probated by  the  \cry  conditution  of  that  kingdom; 
and  defpairingof  fuccefsin  any  mode  of  contcd  where 
regard  fliould  be  had  to  law,  truth,  or  right  ;  have,  at 
length,  deferting  thofc,  attempted  10  eficft  their  cruel 
and  impolitic  purpofe  of  cnllaving  thefc  colonies  by  vi- 
olence, and  have  thereby  rendered  it  neceflary  for  us 
to  clofe  with  their  lad  appeal  from  rtafon  to  arms. 
Yet,  however  blinded  that  alfembly  may  be,  by  their 
intemperate  rage  for  unlimited  domination,  fo  to  flight 
juftice  in  the  opinion  of  mankind,  we  eftecm  ourfeh  cs 
bound  by  obligations  to  the  reft  of  the  world  to  make 
known  the  juftice  of  our  caufe." 

After  taking  notice  of  the  manner  in  which  their 
anceftors  left  Britain,  the  happinefs  attendingthemu- 
tual  friendly  commerce  betwixt  that  country  and  her 
colonics,  and  the  remarkable  fuccefs  of  the  late  war, 
they  proceed  as  follows  :  "  The  new  miniftry,  fimding 
the  brave  foes  of  Britain,  though  frequently  defeated, 
yet  ftill  contending,  took  up  the  unfortunate  idea  of 
granting  them  a  hafty  peace,  and  of  then  fubduing  her 
faithful  friends. 

"  Thefc  devoted  colonies  were  judged  to  be  in  fuch 
a  date  as  to  prefent  viftories  without  bloodllied,  and 
all  the  eafy  emoluments  of  ftaiutablc  plunder.  The 
uninterrupted  tenor  of  their  peaceable  and  rtrpeclful 
behaviour  from  the  beginning  of  their  colonization  ; 
their  dutiful,  zealous,  and  ufcful  fervices  during  the 
war,  though  fo  recently  and  amply  acknowledged  in 
the  moft  honourable  manner  by  his  majedy,  by  the 
late  king,  and  by  parliament,  could  not  favc  them 
from  the  intended  innovations.  Parliament  was  inrtu- 
enced  toadopt  the  pernicious  projecl ;  and  alfuming  a 
new  power  over  them,  has  in  the  courfe  of  eleven 
years  given  fuch  decifive  fpccimens  of  the  fpirit  and 
confcquenees  attending  this  power,  as  to  leave  nu 
doubt  of  the  effefts  of  acquiefcence  under  it. 

"  They  have  undertaken  to  give  and  grant  our  mo- 
ney without  our  confent,  though  we  have  ever  excr- 
cifed  an  exclulivc  right  to  difpofe  of  our  own  proper- 
ty. Statutes  have  been  patfed  for  extending  the  iurif- 
diftion  of  the  courts  of  admiralty  and  vicc-admjralty 
beyond  their  ancient  limits  ;  for  depriving  us  of  the 
accuftomed  and  incdinublc  rights  of  trial  bv  jury,  in 
cafes  affcfting  both  life  and  property  ;  for  (ufpcndiiig 
the  legillaiure  of  one  of  our  colonics;  far  interdiciing 
all  commerce  to  ihecapital  of  another;  and  for  alter- 
ing fundamentally  the  form  of  government  cdabliflied 
by  charter,  and  fecured  by  afts  of  its  own  Icgillaturc  ; 
4  £  and 


A  M  E 


[    586     ] 


A  M  E 


America,  and  iolcmnly confirmed  by  the  crown  ;  for  exempting 
^—^<^—'  the  murderers  of  coloiiilts  Iroin  legal  trial,  and  in  ef- 
fect from  punil>liiiciu  ;  for  creeling  in  a  iicighbonring 
province,  acquired  by  the  juini  arms  of  Grcii-Britaiii 
and  America,  adel'potifm  dangerous  to  our  very  exill- 
ence  ;  and  for  quartering  foldicrs  upon  the  colonilh  in 
time  of  a  profound  peace.  It  has  alfo  been  rcfolved 
in  parliament, that  coloni(ls,charged  with  committi'.ig 
certain  otFenccs,  Ihall  be  tranfportcd  to  England  to  be 
tried. 

"  But  why  llionld  we  enumerate  our  injuries  in  de- 
tail ? — By  one  llatuie  it  was  declared,  that  parliament 
can  of  right  make  laws  to  bind  us  in  all  cafes  \\  liatc- 
ver.  What  is  to  defend  us  againll  fo  enormous,  fo 
unlimited  a  po»vcr  '.  Not  a  fingle  perfon  who  aliumes 
it  is  cliofcn  by  us,  or  is  fubjeft  to  our  controal  or  in- 
fluence ,  but,  on  the  contrary,  they  are  all  of  them  ex- 
empt from  the  operation  of  fuch  laws  ;  and  an  Ameri- 
can revenue,  if  not  diverted  from  the  odenhble 
purpofes  for  which  it  is  raifed,  would  actually 
lighten  their  own  burdens  in  proportion  as  it  increafcs 
ours. 

"  We  faw  the  mifcry  to  which  fuch  defpL'tifm  would 
reduce  us.  We  for  ten  years  incell'antly  and  ineffec- 
tually bcfiegcd  the  throne  as  fupplicants  ;  we  reafoned, 
we  remonlf  rated  with  parliament  in  the  moll  mild  and 
decent  language  ;  but  adminiflration,  fenfiblc  that  we 
liiould  regard  ihefe  mcafures  as  freemen  ought  to  do, 
fent  over  fleets  and  armies  to  enforce  them. 

"  We  have  purfaed  every  temperate,  every  refpeft- 
ful  meafure  ;  we  have  even  proceeded  to  break  off  all 
commercial  interconrfe  with  our  fellow-fubjeds,as  our 
lall  peaceable  admonition,  that  our  attachment  to  no 
nation  on  earth  would  fupplant  our  attachment  to  li- 
berty ;  this  we  tiatteredourfelves  was  the  ultimate  Hep 
of  thecontroverfy  ;  but  fubfequent  events  have  Siown 
how  vain  was  this  hope  of  finding  moderation  in  our 
•neroies  ! 

"  The  Lords  and  Commons,  in  their  addrefs  in  the 
month  of  February,  faid,  that  a  rebellion  at  that  time 
aftually  exillcd  in  the  province  of  Mailachufetts-Bay; 
and  that  thofe  concerned  in  it  had  been  countenanced 
and  encouraged  by  unlawful  combinations  and  engage- 
ments entered  into  by  hismajcfly's  fubjeds  in  feveral 
»)f  the  colonics  ;  and  therefore  they  befought  his  ma- 
jefly  that  he  would  take  the  moft  etfeftual  meafures  to 
enforce  due  obedience  to  the  laws  and  authority  of  the 
fupreme  legillature.  Soon  after  the  commercial  inter- 
courfcof  whole  colonics  with  foreign  countries  was  cut 
off  by  an  a6l  of  parliament ;  by  another,  feveral  of 
them  were  entirely  prohibited  from  the  fidicries  in 
the  feas  near  their  coafts,  on  which  they  always  de- 
pended for  their  fubliflence  ;  and  large  reinfor;:ements 
of  fhips  and  troops  were  immechately  fent  over  to  Ge- 
neral Gage. 

"  Fruitlefs  were  all  the  intreaties,  arguments,  and 
«loquenccof  an  illunrious  band  of  the  moll  diftinguifli- 
cd  peers  and  commoners,  wlio  nobly  and  flrenuoufly 
afferted  the  jullice  of  our  caufe,  to  flay,  or  even  to  mi- 
gate,  the  heedlefs  fury  with  which  thefe  accumulated 
outrages  were  hurried  on.  Equally  fruitlefs  was  the 
interference  of  the  city  of  London,  of  Brillol,  and 
of  many  other  refpeftable  towns  in  our  favour." 

After  having  reproached  parliament, General  Gage, 
and  the  Briiilh  government  in  general,  they  pro€ccd 


thus:  "Weare  reduced  to  the  alternative  of  choofing  Amtriea. 

an  unconditional  I'ubmiirion  to  tyranny,  or  refillanccby  ' "      ' 

force.  The  latter  is  our  choice.  We  have  counted 
the  coll  of  this  contcll,  and  find  nothing  fo  dreadful 
as  voluntary  llavery.  Honour,  jullice,  and  humanity, 
forbid  us  tamely  to  furrender  that  freedom  which  we 
received  from  onr  gallant  anccllors,  and  which  our  in- 
nocent poftcrity  have  a  right  to  receive  from  us.  Our 
caufe  is  juH  ;  our  union  is  perfect ,  our  internal  re- 
fources  are  great;  and,  if  nccefl'ary,  foreign  aililiance 
is  undoubtedly  attainable.  We  fight  not  for  glory  or 
conquefl;  we  exhibit  to  mankind  the  remarkable 
fpeftacle  of  a  people  attacked  by  unprovoked  enemies. 
They  boall  of  their  privileges  and  civilization,  and  ycL 
proffer  no  milder  conditions  than  fervitude  or  death. 
In  our  native  land,  in  defence  of  the  freedom  that 
is  our  birthright,  for  the  proteiilion  of  our  property 
acquired  by  the  honell  indullryof  our  forefathers  and 
our  own,  againfl  violence  actually  offered,  we  have 
taken  up  arms  ;  we  fhall  lay  them  down  when  hofli- 
lities  fliall  ceafe  on  the  part  of  our  aggreflbrs,  and  all 
danger  of  their  being  renewed  fliall  be  removed — 
and  not  before." 

Thefe  are  fome  of  the  moft  ftriking  paffagcs  in  the 
declaration  of  congrefs  on  taking  up  arms  againfl 
Great-Britain,  and  dated  July  6th,  1775.  The  de- 
termined fpirit  which  it  fliows,  ought  to  have  convin- 
ced the  people  of  Britain,  that  the  eonquefl  of  Ame- 
rica was  an  event  fearce  ever  to  be  cxpefled.  In 
every  other  refpeft  an  equal  fpirit  was  fliown ;  and  189 
the  rulers  of  the  Britifli  nation  had  the  mortification  Quebec  bill 

to  fee  thofe  whom  they  ftyled  rel'^h  and  traitors,  fuc-  'i'%""- 

,  .  .•'■',.,,  ,         ,  ,       '  blc  to  thole 

ceed  in  negociations  m  which  they  theinlclves  were  ^),„ni  it 

utterly  foiled.    In  the  paifing  of  the  Qiiebec-bill,  mi-  wasintend- 
niflry  had  flattered  themfelves  that  the  Canadians  ed  to 
would   be   fo  much   attached    to  them    on    account  plcafe. 
of  rcfloring  the  F'rench  laws,  that  they  would  very 
readily  join  in  any  attempt  againfl  the  colonifts  who 
had  reprobated  that  bill  in  fuch  flrong  terms  :  but  in 
this,  as  in  every  thing  elfc  indeed,  they  found  them- 
felves miflaken.     The  Canadians  having  been  fubjefl 
to  Britain  for  a  period  of  i  5  years,  and  being  thus  ren- 
dered I'enlible  of  the  advantage  of  Britifli  government, 
received  the  bill  itfelf  with  evident  marks  of  difap- 
probation  ;  nay,  reprobated  it  as  tyrannical  and  op- 
prefTive.     A   fchenie  had   been   formed  for  General 
Carleton,  governor  of  the  province,  to  raife  an  army 
of  Canadians  wherew  ith  to  aft  againfl  the  Americans  ; 
and  fo  fanguine  were  the  hopes  of  adminiflration  in 
this  refpeft,  that  they  had  fent  20,000  Hand  of  arms, 
and  a  great  quantity  of  military  flores,  to  Quebec  for 
the  purpofe.     But  the  people,  though  they  did  not 
join  the  Americans,  yet  were  found  immoveable  in 
their  purpofe  to  fland  neuter.     Application  was  made 
to  the  bifliop  ;    but  he  declined  to  intcrpofe  his  influ- 
ence, as  contrary  to  the  rules  of  the  Popifh  clergy  : 
fo  that  the  utmofl  efforts  of  government  in  this  pro- 
vince were  found  to  anfwer  little  or  no  purpofe.  X90 
The  Britifli  adminiflration  next  tried  to  engage  the  Miniftry 
Indians  in  their  caufe.     But  though  agents  were  dif-  attempt  in 
perfed  among  them  with  large  prefents  to  the  chiefs,  »»>•' «" f  nv 
they  univcrfally  replied,  that  they  did  not  underfland*  '   "  '" 
the  nature  of  the  quarrel,  nor  could  they  diflinguifh 
whether  thofe  who  dwelt  in  America  or  on  the  ijther 
iidc  of  the  ocean  were  in  fault :  but  ihey  were  fur- 

prifed 


191 

Speech  of 
the  com- 
luilBoiicrs 


A  M  E  [58 

America,  prifcd  to  fee  Englilhmcn  afk  their  affiftance  againfl 
'•'~~~'  one  another  ;  and  adviicd  chem  to  be  reconciled,  and 
not  tothinkof  lliedding  the  blood  of  their  brethren. — 
To  the  reprcfcntations  of  congrcfs  they  paid  morcre- 
fpefb.  Thcfc  fet  forth,  that  the  Englifti  on  the  other 
fide  ot  the  ocean,  had  taken  up  arms  to  cnflavc,  not 
only  their  countrymen  in  America,  but  the  Indians 
alfo  ;  and  if  the  latter  fliould  enable  them  to  overcome 
the  colonifts,  they  thcmfelves  would  foon  be  reduced  to 
a  ftate  of  flavcry  alfo.  By  arguments  of  this  kind  thefe 
lavages  were  engaged  to  remain  neuter  ;  and  thus  the 
colonifts  were  freed  from  a  moftdangerous  enemy.  On 
this  occalionthe  congrefs  thought  proper  to  hold  afo- 
lemn  conference  with  the  different  tribes  of  Indians. 
The  fpeech  made  by  them  on  the  occafion  is  curious, 
but  too  long  to  be  fully  inferted.  The  following  is  a 
fpecimeu  of  the  European  mode  of  addrcffing  thefe 
people. 

"  Brothers,  Sachems,  and  Warriors! 

"  ^^'c  the  delegates  from  the  Twelve  United  Pro- 
vinces, now  lit  ting  in  general  congrefs  at  Philadelphia, 
from  con-  ^cnd  their  talk  to  you  our  brothers, 
grefsto  the      "  Brothers  and  Friends,  now  attend  ! 
Jndiaus.  <' When  our  fathers  crolled  the  great  water,  and 

came  over  to  this  land,  the  king  of  England  gave  them 
atalk,airuringthem  that  they  andtheir  children  Ihould 
be  his  children  ;  and  that  if  they  would  leave  their  na- 
tive country,  and  make  fettlements,  and  live  here,  and 
tuy  and  fell,  and  trade  with  their  brethren  beyond  the 
■water,  they  (hould  ftill  keep  hold  of  the  fame  cove- 
nant-chain, and  enjoy  peace  ;  and  it  was  covenanted, 
that  the  fields,  houfes,  goods,  and  pofTefnons,  which 
our  fathers  Ihould  acquire,  Ihould  remain  to  them  as 
their  own,  and  be  their  childrens  for  erer,  and  at  their 
folcdifpofal. 

"  Brothers  and  Friends,  open  an  ear  ! 

"  We  will  now  tell  you  of  the  quarrel  betwixt  the 
<:ounfellors  of  KingGeorgc  and  the  inhabitants  and  co- 
lonics of  America. 

<'  Many  of  his  counfellors  have  perfuaded  him  to 
break  the  covenant-chain,  and  not  to  fend  us  any  more 
good  talks.  They  have  prevailed  upon  him  to  enter 
into  a  covenant  againft  us,  and  have  torn  afunder,  and 
call  behind  their  backs,  the  good  old  covenant  which 
their  anccftors  and  ours  entered  into,  and  took  ftrong 
hold  of.  They  now  tell  us  they  will  put  their  hands 
intoour  pocket  without  a/king,  as  though  it  were  their 
own  ;  and  at  their  pleafure  they  will  take  from  usour 
charters,  or  written  civil conftitution,  which  we  love 
as  our  lives  ;  alfo  our  plantations,  our  houfes,  and 
our  goods,  whenever  they  pleafe,  without  alking  our 
leave.  They  tell  us  that  our  vcflels  may  go  to  that  or 
this  illand  in  the  fea,  but  to  this  or  that  particular  illand 
we  (hall  not  trade  any  more  ;  and  in  cafe  of  our  non- 
compliance with  ihcfc  new  orders,  they  Ihut  up  our 
harbours. 

"  Brothers,  we  live  on  tlvc  fame  ground  with  you  ; 
the  fame  ifland  is  our  common  birth-place.  Wc  dcfire 
to  fit  down  under  the  fame  tree  of  peace  with  you  : 
let  us  water  its  roots,  and  chcrilh  the  growth,  till  the 
large  leaves  and  flourifliing  branches  fliall  extend  to 
the  fetting  fun,  and  reach  the  fkies.  If  any  thing  dif- 
agreeablc  Ihould  ever  fall  out  between  us,  the  Twelve 
United  Colonies,  and  you,  the  Six  Nations,  to  wound 
our  peace,  let  as  immediately  feck  mcafures  for  hcal- 


7     ]  A  M  E 

ing  the  breach,     from  the  prcfent  fituation  ©'oura/-    Anuri^i. 
fairs,  we  judge  it  expedient  to  kindle  up  a  fmall  fire  at  *-~^'— ' 
Albany,  where  wc  may  hear  each  other's  voice,  and 
difclofc  our  minds  fully  to  oi;e  another." 

The  other  remarkable  tranfaclions  of  this  congrcfs 
were  the  ultimate  refufal  of  the  conciliatory  propofal 
made  by  Lord  North,  of  which  fuch  fangitine  expcola- 
tions  had  been  formed  by  the  Englifli  miniftry  ;  and 
appointing  a  generaliflimo  to  command  their  armies,       191 
which  were  now  very  numerous.     The  pcrfon  chofen  Genenl 
for  this  purpofe  was  George  Washington:  a  man  ^^"^  °E- 
fo  univerfally  beloved,  that  he  wasraifed  tofjcha  high  '""  *PjJ 
flation  by  the  unanimous  voice  of  coagrtfs  ;  and  his['^^j^j^_ 
fubfcqucnt  conduft  fliowed  him  every  way  worthy  of  jerincjurf. 
it.       Horatio  Gates  and  Charles  Lee,   two  Englilh 
officers  of  confiderable  reputation,  were  cliofen  ;  the 
former  an  adjutant-general,  the  i'econd  a  niajor-gcre- 
ral.    Artemu;  Ward,  Philip  Schuyler,  and  Ifracl  Put- 
nam, were  liken  ifc  nominated  major-generals.     Seth 
Pomeroy,    Richard    Montgomery,    David    Woofter, 
William  Heath,  Jofeph  Spencer,  John  Thomas,  John 
Sullivan,  and  Nathanacl  Green,  were  chofen  briga- 
dier generals  at  the  fame  time.  153 

Congrefs  had  now  alfo  the  fatisfaclion  to  receive  dc-  Georgia 
puties  from  the  colony  of  Georgia,  exprefling  a  dcfire  i^cedc*  to 
to  join  the  confederacy.  The  reafons  they  give  for  re-  ^'  "nfc- 
nouncing  their  allegiance  to  Britain  was,  that  the  con-  '*'^*'y- 
dufl  of  parliament  towards  the  other  colonics  had  been 
oppreffive  ;  that  though  the  obnoxious  afls  had  not  been 
extended  to  them,  they  could  vicwthis  only  asanomif- 
fion,  bccaufe  of  the  feeminglittle  confcquencc  of  their 
colony  ;   and  therefore  looked  upon  it  rather  to  be  a 
flight  than  a  favour.     At  the  fame  time  they  framed  a 
petition  to  the  king,  fimilar  to  that  fent  by  the  other 
colonies,  and  which  met  with  a  fimilar  reception. 

The  fuccefs  which  had  hitherto  attended  the  Ameri- 
cans in  all  their  meafures,  now  emboldened  them  to 
think  not  only  of  defending  thcmfelves,  but  likewifc 
of  acting  offenfivcly  againft  Great-Britain.    1'hc  con-       194 
queft  of  Canada  appeared  an  objci.^  within  their  reach.  The  Arre- 
andone  that  would  be  attended  with  many  advantages  ;  ""»»  »'- 
and  as  an  invafion  of  that  province  was  already  facili-  '^""P'  ''^"^ 

tated  by  the  taking  of  Crown-Point  and  Ticonderoga,  """1"/'^  «^ 

/-  1       1  ■?      /.'I  t  .  .°      Canada- 

It  was  refolved  if  poffible  to  penetrate  that  way  into 

Canada,  and  reduce  Qiiebec  during  the  winter,  before 
the  fleets  and  armies  which  they  were  well  alTured 
would  fail  thither  from  Britain  fliould  arrive.  By  or- 
der of  congrefs,  therefore,  ;ooo  men  were  put  under 
the  command  of  Generals  Montgomery  and  Schuyler, 
with  orders  to  proceed  to  Lake  Champlain, from  whence 
they  were  to  be  conveyed  in  flat-bottonied  boats  to  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Sorcl,  a  branch  of  the  great  river 
St.  Lawrence,  and  on  which  is  (ituatcd  a  fort  of  the 
fame  name  with  the  river.  On  the  other  hand,  they 
were  oppofed  by  General  Carleton,  governor  of  Cana- 
da, a  man  of  great  aiflivity  and  experience  in  war; 
who,  with  a  very  few  troops,  had  hitlierto  been  able  to 
keep  in  awe  the  difaftcc^ed  people  of  Canada,  notwith- 
ftanding  all  the  reprcfcntations  of  the  colonifts.  He 
had  now  augmented  his  army  by  a  confiderable  number 
of  Indians,  and  promifed,  even  in  his  prcfent  fituati- 
on,  to  make  a  very  formidable  reliftance. 

As  foon  as  General  Montgomery  arrived  at  Crown- 
Point,  he  received  information  that  feveral  armed  vef- 
fels  were  ftaiioued  at  St.  John's,  a  ftrong  fort  on  the 
4  E  2  Sorcl, 


America. 


'95 
Chaniblee 


196 
Cen.  Carle, 
ton  defeat' 
cd. 


197 
.■*t  John's 
toic  taken 


198 

And  like- 
wife  Mont 
xcal. 


199 
•Col.  Ar- 
nold pene- 
trates into 

Canada. 


A  M  E  [     jS 

Sard,  wiih  a  \iewto  prevent  his  crolfiiig  the  lake  ;  on 
which  he  look  polfeiriou  ot'  an  illand  which  conimanJs 
the  mouth  of  tlic  Sortl,  and  by  which  lie  could  prevent 
them  from  entering  the  lake.  In  conjiin<;lion  with 
CJeneral  Schuyler,  lie  next  proceeded  to  St  John's  : 
but  findinj;  that  place  too  flrong,  it  was  agreed  in  a 
councilof  war,joretire  tolllc  aux  Noix, where  General 
Schuyler  being  taken  ill,  Montgomery  was  left  to  com- 
mand alone.  Kis  tirlUlcp  was  to  gain  over  tjic  Indians 
whom  Gen.  Carleton  had  employed,  and  this  he  in  a 
great  nieafure  accomplilhed  ;  after  which,  on  receiv- 
ing the  full  number  of  troops  appointed  for  his  expedi- 
tion, he  dctcru'.ined  to  lay  fiege  to  St  John's.  In  this 
he  was  fatilitatcd  by  the  reduction  of  Chamblec,  a 
fmall  fort  in  the  neighbourhood,  where  he  found  a 
large  fupply  of  powder.  An  attempt  Vvas  made  by 
General  Carkton  to  relieve  the  place  ;  for  which  pur- 
pofe  he  witii  great  pains  collcrted  about  1000  Canadi- 
ans, while  Colonel  Maclean  propofed  to  raifc  a  regi- 
nientof  the  Highlanders  who  had  emigratcdfrom  their 
own  country  to  .-\nicrica. 

But  while  Gen.  Carleton  was  on  his  march  with 
thcfc  new  levies,  he  was  attacked  by  the  provincials, 
and  utterly  defeated  ;  which  being  made  known  to  an- 
other body  of  Canadians  who  had  joined  Colonel  Mac- 
lean, they  abandoned  him  witliout  llrikinga  blow, and 
he  was  obliged  to  retreat  to  Qiiebec. 

The  defeat  of  General  Carleton  was  a  fufficient  re- 
compence  to  the  .Americans  for  that  of  Colonel  Ethan 
y\llen,  which  had  happened  fomc  time  before.  The 
fuccefs  which  had  attended  this  gentleman  againfl 
Crown-Point  and  Ticonderago  had  emboldened  him 
to  m.ike  a  fimilar  attempt  on  Montreal ;  but  being 
attacked  by  the  militia  of  the  place,  fupported  by  a 
detachment  of  regulars,  he  was  entirely  defeated  and 
taken  prifoner. 

As  the  defeat  of  General  Carleton  and  the  defertion 
of  Maclean's  forces  left  no  room  for  the  garrifon  of  St 
John's  to  hope  for  any  relief,  they  now  confented  to 
Surrender  thcmfclves  prifoners  of  war;  but  were  in 
otkcr  refpeds  treated  with  great  humanity.  They 
,  were  in  number  500  regulars  and  200  Canadians, 
among  whom  were  many  of  the  French  nobility,  who 
had  been,  very  aftive  in  promoting  the  caufe  of  Britain 
among  iheir  countrymen. 

General  Montgomery  next  took  meafures  to  prevent 
the  Briiilh  (hipping  from  paffing  down  the  river  from 
Montreal  to  Qiiebec.  This  he  accomplilhed  fo  ef. 
feiflually,  that  the  whole  were  taken.  The  town  it- 
felf  was  obliged  to  furrender  at  difcrction  ;  and  it  was 
.  with  the  utmoft  difficulty  that  General  Carleton  efca- 
pcd  in  an  open  boat  by  the  favour  of  a  dark  night. 

No  further  obftacle  now  remained  in  the  way  of  the 
Americans  to  the  capital,  except  what  arofe  from  the 
nature  of  the  country  ;  and  thcfc  indeed  were  very 
conliderablc.  Nothing,  however,  could  damp  the  ar- 
dour of  the  provincials.  Notwithltanding  it  was  now 
the  middle  of  November,  and  the  depth  of  winter  was 
£t  hand,  Colonel  Arnold  formed  a  Jefign  of  penetra- 
ting through  woods,  niorail'es,  and  the  mofl  frightful 
folitudcs  from  New-England  to  Canada  by  a  nearer 
way  than  that  which  Montgomery  had  chnfcn  ;  and 
this  he  accompliflied  in  fpite  of  every  difficulty,  to  the 
aftonifhment  of  all  who  faw  or  heard  of  the  attempt. 
A  third  part  of  his  men  under  another  colonel  had  been 


8     1 


A  M  E 


obliged  to  leave  him  by  the  way,  for  want  of  provifi-  Americi. 
ons  ;  the  total  want  of  artillery  rendered  his  prefcncc  — '^~~~' 
inlignilicant  before  a  place  ihongly  fortilied  ;  and  the 
fmallnefs  of  his  army  rendered  it  even  doubtful  whe- 
ther he  could  have  taken  the  town  by  furprife.  The 
Canadiansiiidccd  were  auia;ied  at  the  exploit, and  their 
incli.ialion  to  revolt  from  Britain  was  fomewhat  aug- 
mented ;  but  U'.'ue  of  them  as  yet  took  up  arms  in  be- 
half of  America.  The  conllernatiou  into  which  tiic 
lownof  <)iicbec  was  thrown  proved  detrimental  rather 
than  otherv.'iie  to  the  expedition;  as  it  doubled  llic 
vigilauceandactiviiy  of  the  inhabitants  to  prevent  any 
furprife  ;and  the  appearance  of  common  danger  united 
all  parties,  who,  before  the  arrival  of  Arnold,  were 
conieiidiugmoll  violently  with  one  another.  He  was 
therefore  obliged  to  content  himfelf  with  bloekingup 
tiie  avenues  to  the  town,  in  order  to  diflrefs  the  garri- 
fon for  want  of  provilions  ;  and  even  this  he  was  una- 
ble to  docMeiitually,  by  reafoaof  the  fmall  number  of 
his  men. 

The  matter  was  not  much  mended  by  the  arrival  of 
General  Montgomery.     The  force  he  had  with  him, 
even  when  united  to  that  ot  Arnold,  was  too  iiUigniti- 
cant  to   attempt  the  reduction  of  a  place  fo  llrongly 
fortilied,  cfpecijlly  with  the  alliflance  only  of  a  few 
mortars  and  tield-pieces.     After  the  fiege  Ind  conti- 
nued through  the  month  of  December,  General  Mont- 
gomery, confcious  that  he  couldaccomplilh  hisendno 
otlier  way  than  by  furprife,   rcfolved  to  make  an  at- 
tempt  on  the  lafl  day  of  the  year  1 775.     The  method  Attempt  to 
he  took  at  this  time  was  perhaps  the  beft  that  haman  furprile 
wifdom  could  dcvife.     He  advanced  by  break  of  day,  Quebec, 
in  the  midfb  of  an  heavy  fall  of  fnow,  which  covered 
his  men  from  the  light  of  the  enemy.     Two  real  at- 
tacks were  made  by  himfelf  and  Colonel  Arnold,  at 
the  fame  time  that  two  feigned  attacks  were  made  oa 
two  other  places,  thus  to  diflradl  the  garrifon,  and 
make  them  divide  their  forces.  One  of  the  real  attacks 
was  made  by  the  people  of  New-York,  and  the  other 
by  thofc  of  New-England  under  Arnold.  Their  hopes 
of  furpriling  the  place,  however,  were  defeated  by  the 
fignal  for  the  attack  being  through  forae  miflakc  given 
too  foon.    General  Montgomery  himfelf  had  the  moft 
dangerous  place,  being  obliged  to  pafs  between  the  ri- 
ver and  fomc  high  rocks  on  which  the  Upper  Town 
flands  ;  fo  that  he  was  forced  to  make  what  hafle  he 
could  to  clofe  with  the  enemy.     His  fate,  however,       jg, 
was  now  decided.     Having  forced  the  firfl  barrier,  a  General 
violent  difcharge  of  mufketry  and  grape-lhot  from  the  Montgo- 
fecond  killed  him,  his  principal  officers,  and  the  moll  mery  kil- 
of  the  party  he  commanded  ;  on  which  thofe  whore-  '?^'i"^ 
mained  immediately  retreated.  Colonel  Arnold,  in  the  ^\^^^^^ 
mean  time,  made   a  defperate  attack  on  the  Lower  fjj,jj,   - 
Town,  and  carried  one  of  the  barriers  after  an  obfli- 
nate  reliftaneeforan  hour  ;  but  in  theaftionhe  himfelf 
received  a  wound,  which  obliged  him  to  withdraw. 
The  attack,   however,  was  continued  by  the  officers 
whom  he  had  left,  and  another  barrier  forced  ;  but  the 
garrifon,  now  perceiving  that  nothing  was  to  be  fear- 
ed except  from  that   quarier,  collefted  their   whole 
force  againfl  it ;  and,  after  a  defperate  engagement  of 
tliree  hours,  overpowered  the  provincials,  and  obliged 
tliem  to  furrender. 

In  this  aftion,  it  muft  be  confelTed  that  the  valour 
of  the  provincial  troops  could  not  be  exceeded.  They 

had 


A  M  E 


L    589    ] 


A  M  E 


America. 


201 
Arnold 
created  a 
IJrigadicr- 
Gencral. 

Difputcs  of 
lx)rd  Dun- 
more  with 
his  pro- 
vince of 
Virginia. 


104 
He  fends 
his  family 
aboard  a 
manofwar. 


had  foiiii-ht  under  as  great  diladvantagcs  as  ihol'c 
which  attended  the  Briiilh  at  Bunker's  Hill,  and  had 
behaved  equally  well.  Such  a  terrible  difafter  left  no 
liopc  remainingof  the accomplithmeii t  ot  ilitir  pur[iofe, 
as  General  .Arnold  could  now  fcarcc  nuniber  !<oo  ef- 
fective men  under  his  command.  He  did  not,  how- 
ever, i:  handout  he  province,  ore  vcn  remove  to  a  greater 
difluiice  than  three  miles  from  Qiicbec  ;  and  here  lie 
ilill  found  means  to  annoy  the  garrifon  very  confider- 
ably  by  intercepting  their  provilions.  The  Canacians 
notwiihilanding  the  bad  fuccefs  of  ihc  American  arms, 
P.ill  continued  friendly  ;  and  thus  he  was  enabled  to 
fullain  the  hardlhips  of  a  winter-encampment  in  (hat 
moft  fcvcrc  climate.  The  eongrefs,  far  from  palling 
any  cenfurc  on  him  for  his  misfortune,  created  him  a 
brigadier-general. 

While  hollilitieswerethus  carried  on  with  vigourin 
the  north,  the  flame  of  contention  was  gradually  ex- 
tending itfclf  in  the  fouth.  Lord  Dunmore,  the  go- 
vernor of  Virginia,  was  involved  in  difputes  (imilar  to 
thofc  which  had  taken  place  in  other  colonies.  Thefc 
had  proceeded  fo  far  that  the  alFembly  was  diffolved  ; 
whic  h  in  this  province  was  attended  with  a  confequence 
unknown  to  the  reft.  As  Virginia  contained  a  great 
number  of  flaves,  it  was  necellary  that  a  miliiia  fhculd 
be  kept  conflantly  on  foot  to  keep  them  in  awe.  Du- 
ring the  dilFolution  of  thcail'embly  the  militia-laws  ex- 
pired ;  and  the  people,  after  complaining  of  the  danger 
they  were  in  from  the  negroes,  formed  a  convention, 
whicli  enacted  that  each  county  Ihould  raife  a  quota 
for  the  defence  of  the  province.  Dunmore,  on  this, 
removed  the  powder  from  Williamfburg;  which  created 
fuch  difconients,  that  an  immediate  quarrel  would  pro- 
bably have  enfued,  had  not  the  merchants  of  the  town 
undertaken  to  obtain  fatisfadtion  for  the  injury  fuppo- 
fed  to  be  done  to  the  community.  This  tranquillity, 
however,  was  foon  interrupted  ;  the  people,  alarmed 
by  a  report  that  an  armed  party  were  on  their  way 
from  the  man  of  war  where  the  powder  had  been  de- 
poliied,  aflembled  in  arms,  and  determined  to  oppofc 
by  force  any  farther  removals.  In  fomcofthe  confe- 
rences which  paflcd  at  this  time,  the  governor  let  fall 
fome  unguarded  cxprciTions,  fuch  as  thrcateningthem 
with  fctting  up  the  royal  ftandard,  proclaiming  liber- 
ty to  the  negroes,  dcilroying  the  town  of  Williamf- 
burg, &c.  which  were  afterwards  made  public,  and 
contributed  greatly  to  incrcafe  the  public  ferment. 

The  people  now  held  frequent  allemblies.  Some  of 
them  took  up  arms  with  a  defign  to  force  the  governor 
toreftorethc  powder,  and  to  take  ihe  public  money 
into  their  own  poireflion  :  but  on  their  way  to  Wil- 
liamft)urg  for  this  purpofe,  they  were  met  by  the  re- 
ceiver-general, who  became  fecurity  for  the  payment 
of  the  gun-powder,  and  the  inhabitants  promifed  to 
take  care  of  the  magazine  and  public  revenue. 

By  thefe  proceedings  the  governor  was  fo  much  in- 
timidated, that  he  fcnt  his  family  on  board  a  man  of 
war.  He  himfcif,  however,  illued  a  proclamation,  in 
which  he  declared  the  bchavionr  of  the  perfon  who 
promoted  the  tumult  trcafonable,  accufed  the  people  of 
diiratisfadion,&c.On  ilicir  part  they  were  by  no  means 
deficient  in  recriminating  ;  and  fome  letters  of  his  10 
Britain  being  about  the  fame  time  difcovered,  confe- 
quences  enfued  extremely  fimilar  to  thofe  which  had 
been  occalioncd  by  thofe  of  Mr  Hutchinfonsat  Boilon. 


In  this  ftatc  of  confuficn  the  governor  tliought  It  America. 

neccli'ary  to  fortify  his  palace  with  artillery,  and  pro-  ^ ^ ' 

cure  a  party  of  marines  to  guard  it.     Lord  North's  r„J^s"',i,-- 
conciliatory  propofal  arriving  alio  about  the  fame  tunc,  piijct. 
he  ufed  his  uiiuoll  endeavours  to  caufc  the  people  com-       ao6 
ply  with  it.     The  arguments  he  ufed  were  plauliblc  ;  Hl«  argu- 
and,  had  not  matters  already  gone  to  fuch  a  pitch  of  ""^""  fi-' 
dillradio!!,  it  is  higlily  probable  that  fome  attention  ^"  '!',?"'' ' 
would  have  been  paid  10  them.     "  The  view  (he  fjid)  """^i^"' 
in  which  the  colonies  ought  to  behold  this  conciliatory 
propofal,  was  no  more  than  an  earncft  admonition  from 
Great-Britain  to  relieve  her  wants  :  that  the  utraoll 
condefccndence  had  been  ufed  in  tlie  mode  of  applica- 
tion ;  no  determinate  lum  having  been  fixed,  as  it  was 
thought  moftworthy  of  Britilhgenerofity  to  take  wluc 
they  thought  could  be  conveniently  fpared,  and  like- 
wife  to  leave  the  niodeof  raifing  it  to  themfclves,"&c. 
But  the  clamour  and  dilfatisfadlion  were  now  fo  univer- 
fal,  that  nothing  elfc  could  be  attended  to.     The  go- 
vernor had  called  an  alfcmbly  for  the  purpofe  of  laying 
this  conciliatory  propofal  before  them  ;  but  it  had  been 
little  attended  to.  The  alfembly  began  their  fcllion  by 
inquiries  into  the  ftate  of  the  magazine.     Jt  had  been 
broken  into  by  fome  of  the  townfmen  ;  for  which  rca- 
fon  fpring-guns  had  been  placed  there  by  the  gover- 
nor,which  difcharged  themfclvesnpon  theoffcndersat 
their  entrance  :  thefe  circumllanccs  with  others  of  a 
fimilar  kind,  raifed  fuch  a  violent  uproar,  that,  as  foon 
as  the  preliminary  buiincfs  of  ihe  fcllion  was  over,  the       jq. 
governor  retired  on  board  a  man  of  war,  informing  the  Thegovcr- 
iil'emhly  that  he  durft  no  longer  trull  himfcif  on  (hore.  nor  rciires 
This  produced  along  courfcof  difputation,  which  end-  ""  board  a 
ed  in  a  politive  refufal  of  the  governor  to  truft  himfcif"*"  "^ 
again  in  WilliamlLurg,  even  to  give  his  alFent  to  the  "^  ' 
bills,  which  could  not  be  palled  v.iihout  it,  and  though 
the  allembly  offered  to  bind  iheinfclves  for  his  perfonal 
fafety.   In  his  turn  he  requcfted  them  to  meet  hirj  on 
board  the  man  of  war,  where  he  then  was;  but  his 
propofal  was  rejedled,  and  all  further  correfpondcncc 
containing  the  leafl  appearance  of  friendiliip  was  dif- 
coniinued.  20* 

Lord  Dunmore,  having  thus  abandoned  his  govern-  Attempts 
nient,  attempted  to  reduce  by  force  thofe  whom  he '" '■'=<ii'<^« 
could  no  longer  govern.     Some  of  the  moll  llrenuous  •'"  'o'""! 
adherents  to  the  Britilh  caufc,  whom  their  zeal  hid    ^  ""' ' 
rendered  obnoxious  at  home,  now  repaired  to  him.  He 
was  alio  joined  by  numbers  of  black  flaves.     With 
fhcfc,  and  the  adiftanccof  the  Britilh  lliipping,  he  was 
for  fome  time  enabled  to  carry  on  a  kind  of  predatory 
war  fufTicient  to  hurt  and  exafpcrate,  but  not  to  fubdue. 
After  fome  inconliderable  attempts  oji  land,  proclaim- 
ing liberty  to  the  Haves,  and  letting  up  the  royal  ftan- 
dard, he  took  up  his  relldence  at  Norfolk,  a  maritime 
town  of  fome  confequence,  where  the  people  were  bet- 
ter affeded  to  Britain  than  in  moll  other  places.     A 
confidcrablc  force,    however,  was  colledcd  againft 
him  ;  and  thcnaturalimpetuolity  of  his  tempcrprompt- 
ing  him  to  aft  againft  them  with  more  courage  than 
caution,   he  was  entirely  defeated,  and  obliged  tore-  "^^,    j^_ 
tire  to  his  Ihipping,  which  was  now  crowded  by  the  fcjtcd. 
number  of  thole  who  had  incurred  the  rcfcntmcnt  of 
the  provincials.  **" 

In  the  mean  time  a  fcheme  of  the  utmoft  magnitude  ^  ,  Conol- 
and  importance  was  formed  by  one  Mr  Conollv,a  Ptnn-  f^^  rt<ju- 
fylvanian,  attached  to  the  caufc  of  Britain.  "The  tiril  cing  Virgi- 

llep  oia. 


109 

Hut  is  en- 


A  M  E 


[     590     ] 


A  M  E 


folic  r. 


An>fri(ii.  Acp  nf  tills  plan  \v:is  to  ciucr  into  a  league  with  the 
"       '         Ohio  Indians.     Tiiis  lie  coniniunicalcd  lo  Lord  Dun- 
iiiorc,  and  it  received  liis  approbation :   Upon  which 
Conolly  ict  out,  and  aifliially  Uiccccdcd  in  his  dcfign. 
(^n  his  rctnrn  he  was  dilpatched  to  General  Cage, 
from  whom  he  received  a  colonel's  conimiliioa,  and 
fct  out  in  order  to  accomplilh  the  remainder  of  his 
i'chemc.     The  plan  in  general  was,  that  he  Ihonld  re- 
turn to  the  Ohio,  where,  by  the  alliftancc  of  the  Bri- 
lilh  and  Indians  in  thcfe  parts,  he  was  to  penetrate 
through  the  back  fcttlcments  into  Virginia,  and  join 
,,,        Lord  Dunmore  at  Alexandria.   But  by  an  accident  ve- 
Hci«Jifco-ry  naturally  tube  expeclcd,  he  was  dil'covercd,  taken 
vcrciland    prifoncr,  and  confined. 

taken  ;)ri-       After  the  retreat  of  Lord  Dunmore  from  Norfolk, 

that  place  was  taken  pollVirion  of  by  the  provincials, 

who  greatly  dillrcifed  thole  on  board  Lord  Dunmore's 

Hcet,  by  refiifing  to  fupply  ihcin  with  any  ncccllarics. 

This  proceeding  drew  a  remondrancc  from  his  Lord- 

ihip  ;   in  which  he  inliftcd  that  the  fleet  Ihould  be  fur- 

nilhed  with  necelVarics  ;  but  his  requcfl  being  denied, 

a  refolution  was  taken  to  fct  fire  to  the  town.     After 

...,  ""       giving  the  inhabitants  pioper  warning,  a  party  landed, 

«!' Norfolk  "'"'cr  cover  of  a  man  of  war,  and  fct  lire  to  that  part 

•  -•ftroycd.    wliich  lay  nearsll  the  lliore  ;   but  the  flames  were  ob- 

ferved  at  the  fame  time  to  break  forth  in  every  other 

quarter,  and  the  whole  town  was  reduced  to  allies. 

This  univerfal  deftrudion,  occafloned  a  loi's  of  more 

than  L.  300,000. 

213  In  the  fouthcrn  colonies  of  Carolina,  the  governors 
Tlie  gover-  were  expelled,  and  obliged  to  take  refuge  on  board  of 
nors  of  [jien  of  war,  as  Lord  Dunmore  had  been  ;  Mr  Martin, 
South  and  governorof  North  Carolina,  on  a  charge  of  attempting 
To\iD3  ex-  ''■^ '■''''^'^  the  back-fettlers,  confiding  chiefly  of  Scots 
relied.         Highlanders,  againft  the  colony.      Having  fccured 

thcmfelves  againll  any  attempts  from  ihel'c  enemies, 
Jiow'evcr,  they  proceeded  to  regulate  their  internal 
concerns  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  reft  of  the  colo- 
Jiies  ;  and  by  the  end  of  the  year  1775,  Britain  beheld 
the  whole  of  America  united  againft  her  in  the  moft 
determined  oppolition.  Her  vafl  polltfliojis  of  that 
trad  of  land  (fince  known  by  the  name  of  the  Thiiteeii 
United  States)  were  now  reduced  to  the  fingle  town  of 
Bofton  ;  in  which  her  forces  were  bcflegcd  by  an 
army  with  whom  they  were  apparently  not  able  to 
cope,  and  by  whom  they  muft  of  courfc  expedin  a  ve- 
ry fhort  time  to  be  expelled.     The  lituaiion  of  the  in- 

214  -liabitants  of  Boflon,  indeed,  was  peculiarly  unhappy. 
Mifcrable  After  having  failed  in  their  attempts  to  leave  the  town, 
Ctuation  of  General  Gage  had  contented  to  allow  them   to  retire 

with  their  crtccfs  ;  but  afterwards,  treacheroully  re- 
fufed  to  fulfil  his  promife.  When  he  religned  his 
place  10  General  Howe  in  Oftober  I77>,  the  latter, 
apprehenfive  that  they  might  give  inielligenee  of  the 
lltuation  of  the  Brilifli  troops,  ftriflly  prohibited  any 
perfon  from  leaving  the  place  under  pain  of  military 
■execution.  Thus  matters  eoniinued  till  the  mouth  of 
March  1776,  when  the  town  was  evacuated. 

On   the   ad   of  that   month.  General  Walhington 
opened  a  battery  on  the  veil  fide  of  the  town,  from 
vtrcly  can-  whence  it  was  bombarded,  \vi:h  a  heavy  fire  of  cannon 
uonadedby  ^x.\\\c  fame  time  ;  and  three  days  after,  it  was  attacked 
diTu"^'"'  hy  another  battery  from  the  eallernlhore.  This  terri- 
ble attack  continued  for  1 4  days  without  intermiflion  ; 
•when  General  Howe,  finding  the  place  no  longer  te- 


BoUoo. 


*I5 
FoftoD  fe 


nablc,  determined  if  poffible  to  drive  the  enemy  from 
their  works.  Preparations  were  therefore  made  for  a 
moft  vigorousattack,on  an  hill  called  Dorchefter  Neck, 
which  the  Americans  had  fortified  in  fuch  a  manner 
as  would  in  all  probability  have  rendered  the  entcr- 
prifc  next  to  defperate.  Nodifficuliies,  however,  were 
fuflicient  to  daunt  the  Ipirit  of  the  general  j  and 
every  thing  was  inreadinels,  whenafuddenllorm  pre- 
vented an  exertion  which  muft  have  been  produiitivc 
of  a  dreadful  wafle  of  blood.  Next  day,  upon  a  more 
clofe  infpedion  of  the  works  they  were  to  attack,  it 
was  thought  advifable  to  deiiil  from  the  cnierprifc  al- 
together. The  fortifications  were  very  flrong,  and 
extremely  well  provided  with  artillery  ;  and,  befides 
other  implements  of  detlrudion,  upwards  of  1 00  hogf- 
hcads  of  ftones  were  provided  to  roll  down  upon  the 
enemy  as  they  came  up  ;  which,  as  the  afcent  was  ex- 
tremely rtecp,  muft  have  done  prodigious  execu- 
tion. 

Nothing  therefore  now  remained  but  to  think  of  a 
retreat ;  and  even  this  was  attended  with  the  utmoft 
difficulty  and  danger. The  Americans, however,  know- 
ing that  it  was  in  the  power  of  the  Briiilh  general  to 
reduce  the  town  to  allies,  which  could  not  have  been 
repaired  in  many  years,  did  not  think  proper  to  give 
the  leaft  moleftation  ;  and  for  the  fpace  of  a  fortnight 
the  troops  were  employed  in  the  evacuation  of  the 
place,  from  whence  they  carried  along  with  them  2000 
of  the  inhabitants,  who  durft  not  ftay  on  account  of 
their  attachment  to  the  Britilh  caufe.  From  Bofton 
they  failed  to  Halifax  ;  but  all  their  vigilance  could 
not  prevent  a  number  of  valuable  Ihipsfrom  falling  into 
the  hands  of  the  Americans.  A  conl'iderable  quantity  of 
cannon  and  ammunition  had  alio  been  left  at  Bunker's 
Hill  and  Bofton  Neck  ;  and  in  the  town,  an  immenfc 
variety  of  goods.principally  woollen  andlinen.ofwhicJi 
the  provincials  ftood  very  much  in  need.  The  eftates 
of  thofe  who  fled  to  Halifax  were  confifcated  ;  as 
alfothofe  who  were  attached  to  government,  and  had 
remained  in  the  town.  As  an  attack  was  expeftcd  as 
foon  as  the  Britifh  forces  fliould  arrive,  every  method 
was  employed  to  render  the  fortifications  already  very 
ftrong,  impregnable.  For  this  purpofc  fome  foreign 
engineers  were  employed,  who  had  before  arrived  at 
Bofton  ;  and  fo  eager  were  people  of  all  ranks  to  ac- 
complish this  bufinefs,  that  every  able-bodied  man  in 
the  place,  without  diftinftion  of  rank,  fct  apart  two 
days  in  the  week,  to  complete  it  the  fooner. 

The  Americans  exafperatcd  to  the  utmoft  by  the 
proceedings  of  parliament,  w'hich  placed  them  out 
of  the  royal  protection,  and  engaged  foreign  merce- 
naries in  the  plan  for  fubduing  them,  now  formally 
renounced  all  connection  with  Britain,  and  declared 
thcmfelves  independent.  This  celebrated  declaration 
was  pnblilhed  on  the  4th  of  July  1776.  Previous  to 
this  a  circular  letter  had  been  feiit  through  each  colony, 
ftating  the  reafons  for  it  ;  and  fuch  was  the  animolity 
nowevery  where  prevailingagainft  Great- Britain, that 
it  met  with  univerfal  approbation,  except  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Maryland  alone.  It  was  not  long,  however, 
before  the  people  of  that  colony,  finding  thcmfelves 
left  in  a  very  dangerous  minority,  thought  proper  to 
accede  to  the  meafuresof  the  reft.  The  manifefto  it- 
felf  was  in  the  ufual  nervous  ftyle,  ftating  a  long  lift 
of  grievances,  for  which  redrcfs  had  been  often  applied 


.\mer!e«. 


216 
The  place  . 
evacuMed. 


217 
Its  fortifi- 
cations 
ftrengthcn- 


2lg 
Congrefi 
declare  the 
States  of 
America 
indepen- 
dent. 


A  M  E 


[     59 


119 
The  ficge 
•r  Quebec 
ilill  conti- 
nued. 


no 
Canadians 
defeated 
by  the 
provin- 
cials; 


America,  in  vain  ;   ani  for  tliefe  reafons  they  determined  on  a 

— V '  final  feparaiion  ;  to  hold  the  people  of  Britain  as  the 

rcftofniankiiid,  "cnemiesin  war,  in  peace  friends." 

After  thus  publicly  throwing  olt  all  allegiance  and 
hope  of  rcconciliition,  the coloiiills  foon found  that  an 
exertion  of  all  their  ftrength  was  required  in  order  to 
fuppon  their  pretcnfions.  Their  arms,  indeed,  had 
not,  during  this  fcafon,  being  attended  with  fucccfs  in 
Canada.  Reinforcements  had  been  promiled  to  Colonel 
Arnold,  who  lliil  continued  the  blockade  of  Quebec  ; 
but  tliey  did  not  arrive  in  time  to  fccond  his  opera- 
tions. Being  fcnfible,  however,  that  he  mull  cither 
delifl  from  the  enterprife,  or  finilh  it  fuccefsfuUy,  he 
recommenced  in  form  ;  attempting  to  burn  the  Ihip- 
ping,  and  even  to  ilorm  the  town  itfelf.  They  were 
unfuccefsful,  however,  by  reafon  of  the  fmallnefs  of 
their  number,  though  they  fuccceded  fo  far  as  to  burn 
a  number  of  houfes  in  the  fuburbs  ;  and  the  garrifon 
were  obliged  to  pull  down  the  remainder,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  tire  from  fprcading. 

As  the  provincials,  though  unable  to  reduce  the 
town,  kept  the  garrifon  in  continual  alarms,  and  in  a 
very  difagreeable  fituation,  fome  of  the  nobility  col- 
leftcd  themfelvcs  into  a  body  under  the  command  of 
one  Mr.  Beaujeu,  in  order  to  relieve  their  capital ;  but 
they  were  met  on  their  march  by  the  provincials,  and 
fo  entirely  defeated,  that  they  were  never  afterwards 
able  to  attempt  any  thing.     Their  want  of  artillery  at 
laft  convinced  them,  that  it  was  impracticable  in  their 
Jituation  to  reduce  a  place  fo  ftrongly  fortified  ;   the 
fmall-pox,  at  the  fame  time  made  its  appearance  in 
their  camp,  and  carried  off  great  numbers  ;  intimida- 
ting the  reft  to  fuch  a  degree,  that  they  deferted  in 
crowds.     To  add  to  their  misfortunes,  the  Britifli  re- 
inforcements unexpectedly  appeared,  and  the  fliips 
made  their  way  through  the  ice  with  fuch  celerity, 
that  the  one  part  of  their  army  was  feparated  from 
Who  are  in  the  other  ;  and  General  Carleton  fallying  out  as  foon 
their  turn    35  jj^g  reinforcement  was  landed,  obliged  them  to  fly 
rf/""f      with  the  utmoft  precipitation,  leaving  behind  them  all 
'  "'"       their  cannon  and  military  ftores ;  at  the  fame  time  that 
their  (hipping  was  entirely  captured  by  velTels  fent  up 
the  river  for  that  purpofe.      On  this  occalion  the 
provincials  fled  with  fuch  preciptation  that  they  could 
not  be  overtaken  ;  fo  that  nunc  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Britilh,  excepting  the  fick  and  wounded.     Gene- 
ral Carleton  now  gave  a  iignal  inftancc  of  his  hu- 
manity :   Being  well  apprifed  that  many  of  the  pro- 
vincials had  not  been  able  to  accompany  the  rell  in 
their  retreat,  and  that  they  were  concealed  in  woods, 
&c.  in  a  very  deplorable  lituation,  he  generoully  iflued 
a  prodajnation,  ordering  proper  perfons  to  feck  them 
out,  and  give  them  relief  at  the  public  cxpcnce  ;   at 
the  fame  time  k«!l,  through  fear  of  being  made  prifon- 
ers,  they  fliould  retufe  thefe  offers  of  humanity,  he 
promifed  that,  as  foon  as  their  Utuation  enabled  them, 
they  fhould  be  at  liberty  to  depart  to  their  refpedivc 
homes. 
He  purfues      The  Britifli  general,  now  freed  from  any  danger  of 
the  pro-      an  attack,  was  foon  enabled  to  act  otfcnfively  againft 
the  provincials,  by  the  arrival  of  the  forces  deftined  for 
that  purpofe  from  Britain.     By  ihcfe  he  was  put  at 
the  head  of  1 2,000  regualar  troops,  among  whom  were 
ihofc  of  Bruufwick.     With  this  force  he  inftanily  fct 
«ut  to  the  Three  Rivers,  where  he  expeftcd  that  Ar- 


an 


General 
Carleton. 


aiz 
Humanity 
•f  the  Uri- 
tifli  gene- 
ral. 


viociaU. 


1     ]  A  M  E 

nold  would  havemadeaftind;  but  he  had  retired  to  So-   Ara-rlca. 

rcl,  a  place  i  50  miles  diftant  from  Quebec,  where  he  ' ^ ' 

was  at  lall  met  by  the  reinforcement  ordered  by  con- 
grefs.     Here,  though  tlie  preceding  events  were  by 
no  means  calculated  to  infpire  much  military  ardour,  a 
very  daring  enterprize  was  undertaken  ;  and  this  was, 
to  furprife  the  Britilli  troops  ported  here  under  Gene- 
rals Krafer  andNcfbit ;  of  whom  the  former  command- 
ed ihofe  on  land,  the  latter,  fuch  as  were  on  board  of 
tranfportsand  svcre  but  a  little  svay  diftant.     The  en- 
terprife was  undoubtedly  very  hazardous,  both  on  ac- 
count of  the  llrengthof  the  parties  againft  whom  they 
were  toad,  and  as  the  main  body  of  the  Britilli  f:r-       214 
ces  were  advanced  within  jomilesofthcplace;  belldes  General 
that  a  number  of  armed  vcffels  and  tranfports  with  r*"'"''"" 
troops  lay  between  them  and  the  Three  Rivers.    Two  def'^*'=<l 
thoufand  chofen  men,  however,  under  General  Thom 


and  taken 
prifoner  by 


fon,  engaged  in  this  enterprife.  Their  fuccefs  was  by  General 
nomeansanfwerable  totheirfpirit  and  valour.  Though  Frafcr. 
they  paflej  the  (hipping  without  being  obferved,  Ge- 
neral Krafer  had  notice  of  their  landing ;  and  thus  be- 
ing prepared  to  receive  them,  they  were  foon  thrown 
into  difordcr,  at  the  fame  time  that  General  Nefbit, 
having  landed  his  forces,  prepared  to  attack  them  in 
the  rear.  On  this  occalion  fome  field-pieces  did  pro- 
digious execution,  and  a  retreat  was  found  to  be  un- 
avoidable. General  Nelbit,  however,  had  got  between 
them  and  their  boats  ,  fo  that  they  were  obliged  to 
take  a  circuit  through  a  deepfwamp,  while  they  were 
hotly  purfucd  by  both  parties  at  the  fame  time,  who 
marched  for  fome  miles  on  each  fide  the  fwamp,  till 
at  laft  the  unfortunate  provincialswere  (heltcred  from 
further  danger  by  a  wood  at  the  end  of  the  fwamp. 
Their  general,  however,  was  taken  with  zcoof  his 
men. 

By  this  difafter  the  provincials  loft  all  hopes  of  ac- 
coraplilhing  any  thing  more  in  Canada.     They  de- 
molilhed  their  works,  and  carried  off  their  artillery      j,- 
with  the  utmoft  expedition.      They  v.-ere  purfued,  The  pro- 
howevcr,  by  General  Burgoync  ;  who  on  the  18th  of  vincials 
June  arrived  at  Fort  St  John's,  which  he  found  aban-  purfued  by 
doned  and  burnt.     Chambleehad  fiiarcd  the  fame  fate,  ^'"- ''"" 
as  well  as  all  the  vcffels  that  were  not  capable  of  being  ^°''^°*' 
dragged  up  againft  the  current  of  the  river  ;  and  the 
provincial   troops  had  retreated  acrofs  the  lake    to 
Crown-Point,  whither  they  could  not  be  immediately      ^^g 
followed.     Thus  was  the  province  of  Canada  entirely  gut  cfcane 
evacuated  by  the  Americans,  who  had  thus  fecured  to  Crown- 
the  frontiers  of  ihc  adjiccnt  ftates  from  invafion  on  Poinu 
the  part  of  the  Britilh  ;   the  objed  of  a  campaign  in 
which  13000  men  were  employed,  and  near  a  million 
of  money  expended,  was  rendered  in  a  great  mcafure 
abortive.     General  Sullivan,  who  conducleJ  this  re- 
treat after  the  afiair  of  General  Thompfon,  had  great 
merit  in  what  he  did,  and  received  the  thanks  of  con- 
grefs  accordingly. 

This  was  followed  by  fume  tranfaftions  in  the 
fouthern  colonies,  which  farther  ev  luced  their  rcfolu- 
tion,  and  raifed  the  fpiritsof  the  Americans — \Vt  have 
formerly  taken  notice  that  Mr  Martin,  governor  of 
North-Carolina,  had  been  obliged  to  leave  his  pro- 
vince and  take  refuge  on  board  a  man  of  war.  Not- 
withftanding  this  he  did  not  dcfpair  of  reducing  it 
again  to  obedience.  For  this  purpofe  he  applied  to 
the  regulators,  a  daring  fct  of  banditti,  who  lived  in  a 

iiud 


A  M  E 


[   sr^    ] 


A  M  E 


Air.erica. 

An  infur- 
rcdion  iii 
North-Ca- 
rolina in 
favour  of 
Britain. 


12S 
The  royal- 
ifts  entire!/ 
-defeated. 


219 
Lord  Dmi- 
more  final- 
ly driven 
out  of  Vir- 
ginia. 


kinJ  of  indcpeiiJciu  llite  ;  anJ  though  confiJcicd  by 
govcinnif.it  as  rebels,  yet  had  iicve:-  been   iiioItlUd, 
on  account  of  their  nnuibcrs  and  know  ii  (kill  in  ihc 
life  of  iirc-arnis.     To  the  chiefs  ot  thefc  jicoplc  coui- 
miilions  were  fent,in  order  to  raifc  fonic  regiments  ; 
and  .1  Colonel  Macdonald  was  appointed  to  command 
them.      In  the  month  of  February  he  crcClcd  the  king's 
flandard,  iiliied  proclamations,  &c.and  collected  fomc 
forces,  expedling  to  be  foon  joined  by  a  body  of  regu- 
lar troops,  who  were  known  to  be  lliipped  from  Britain 
to  aft  againfl  the  foiithern  colonics.  The  Amcricaiis, 
fcnliblc  of  their  danger,  difpatched  immediately  what 
■  forces  they  had  to  act  agaiult  the  royalilts,  at  the  fame 
timethat  tiicy  diligently  exerted  ihcmfclves  to  fnpport 
thefc  with  fuitablc reinforcements.  Their  prcfcnt  force 
was  commanded  by  General  Moore,  whofc   numbers 
were  infei'iorto  Macdonald  ;  for  which  rcafon  the  lat- 
ter fiiinmoned  him  to  join  the  king's  flandard  under 
pain  of  being  treated  as  a  rebel.     But  Moore,  being 
wtll  provided  with  cannon,  and  confcious  that  nothing 
could  be  anempicd  jgainllhim,  returned  the  compli- 
Incnt,  by  acquaiiuing  Colonel  Macdonald,   that  if  he 
and  his  party  would  lay  down  their  arms,  and  lubfcribc 
an  oath  of  lidelity  tocongrefs,  they  Ihould  be  treated 
as  friends  ;  but  if  they  perfiftcd  in  an  undertaking  for 
which  it  was  evident  they  had  not  fullicient  Itrength, 
they  could  not  but  expect  the  fcvcrelt  treatment.     In 
a  few  days  General  Moore  found  himfelf  at  the  head 
of  Socomtn,  by  reafon  of  the  continual  fupplies  which 
daily  arrived  from  all  parts.  The  royal  party  amount- 
ed only  to  2CCO,  and  they  were  delHtute  of  artillery, 
which  prevented  them  from  attacking  the  enemy  while 
they  had  the  advantage  of  numbers.     They  were  now 
therefore  obliged  to  have  recourfc  to  a  defpcratc  exer- 
tion of  perfonal  valour  ;  by  dint  of  which  they  effeftcd 
a  retreat  for  near  80  miles  to  Moore's  Creek,  within  16 
miles  of  Wilmington.      Could  they  jiave  gained  this 
I'lace,  they  expected  to  have  been  joined  by  governor 
Martin  and  general  Clinton,  who  had  lately  arrived 
with  a  conlidcrable  detachment.     But  general  Moore 
with  his  army  purlucd  them  fo  clofe,  that  they  were 
obliged  to  attempt  the  palfage  of  the  creek  itfclf,  tho' 
a  confidcrable  body  of  the  .Americans,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Colonel  Cafwell,  with  fortifications  well  plan- 
ted with  cannon,  was  pofled  en  the  other.   On  attempt- 
:  ing  the  creek,  however,  it  wa:  found  not  to  be  forda- 
ble.     They  were  obliged  therefore  to  crofs  over  a 
wooden  bridge,   which  the  provincials  had  not  time 
to  deftroy  entirely.     They  had,  however,  by  pulling 
up  part  oftlic  planks,  andgrealing  the  rciiainder  in  or- 
der to  render  them  llippcry,  made  tlie  palfage  fodifli- 
cult,  that  the  ro/alifls  could  not  aitcmpt  it.  In  this  litu- 
ation  they  were,  on  the  27th  of  February,  attacked  by 
j;encral  Moore  with  his  fuperior  army,  and  totally  de- 
feated with  the  lofs  of  their  general  and  moflof  their 
leaders,  as  well  as  the  bell  and  bravefl  of  their  men. 
Thus  was  the  powcrof  the  Americans  cflabliflied  in 
North-Carolina.   Nor  were  they  Icfs  fucccfsful  in  the 
pravince  of  Virginia  ;  where  Lord  Dunmore  having 
long  continued  an  ufelefs  predatory  war,  was  at  laft  dri- 
ven I'rora  every  creek  ;;nd  road  in  the  province.  The 
people  he  had  on  board  were  dillrellcd  to  the  highcft 
degree  by  confinement  in  fmall  vcfltls.     The  heat  cf 
the  feafon,  and  the  nambcrs  crowded  together,  pro- 
duced a  peAilcntial  fever,  which  made  great  iiovock, 
cfpecially  among  the  blacks.     At  lal^,  finding  ihcm- 

3 


felves  in  the  utmoft'hazard  of  pcrilhing  by  famine  as  America. 

well  as  difeafc,  they  fet  lire  to  the  kail  valuable  of  ' ' 

their  vcllcls,  referving  only  about  50  tor  tliemfclves, 
in  which  they  bid  a  final  adieu  to  Virginia,  fume  fail- 
ing to  Florida,  fomc  to  Bermuda,  and  the  reft  to  the 
Well-Indies. 

In  South-Carolina  the  Americans  ha-d  a  more  for- 
midable enemy  to  deal  with.  At  Cape-Fear  a  junc- 
tion was  formed  between  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  and 
Sir  Peter  Parker,  the  latter  of  whom  had  failed  with 
his  fquadron  dircdly  from  Europe.  Ihcy  concluded 
to  attempt  the  rcdudion  of  Charlcfton  as  being,  of 
all  places  within  the  line  of  their  iiiflructions,  tlic 
objcft  at  which  they  could  ftrike  with  the  grcatcfl 
profpeft  of  advantage.  They  had  2,800  laivd  forces, 
which  they  hoped,  with  the  co-operation  of  their  fhip- 
ping,  would  be  fully  fufficicnt.  ^.^ 

For  fomc  months  pafl  every  exertion  had  been  made  Britifh  ar- 
to  put  the  colony  of  South-Carolina,  and  efpccially  its  manicnt 
capital  Charlelton,  iv.  a  refpeftable  pofliire  of  defence,  fcntsgainft 
In  fubferviency  to  this  view,  works  had  been  creded  *-'''»''''^('""> 
oa  Sullivan 'si  (land,  which  isfituated  fb  near  the  chan-  ^-^{'^  ' 
nel  leading  up  to  tlic  town,  as  to  be  a  convenient  poll  VoTr' 
for  annoying  vcll'els  approaching  it.  p.  agg, 

SirPetcr  Parker  attacked  the  fort  on  thatilland  with  289. 
two  fifty  gun  Ihips,   the  Briftol  and  Experiment,  four 
frigates,  the  A<5tive,  AiTeon,  Solebay  and  Syren,  each 
of  28  guns.     The  Sphynx  of  20  guns,  the  Friendfliip 
armed  vcllcl  of  22  guns.  Ranger  floop,  and  Thunder 
boiub,  each  of  8  g.ms.     On  the  fort  were  mounted  26 
cannon,  26,  18  and  9  pounders.     The  attack  commen- 
ced between  ten  and  eleven  in  the  forenoon,  and  was 
continued  for  upwards  of  ten  hours.     The  garrifon 
ccnfiliing  of  ^75  regulars  and  a  few  militia,  under  the 
command  of  colonel  Moultrie,  made  a  moll  gallant  de- 
fence. They  fired  deliberately,  for  the  moll  part  took 
aimandfeldom  milTed  theirobjedl.  The  Ihips  were  torn 
almofl  to  pieces,  and  the  killed  and  wouruled  on  board 
exceeded  200  men.    The  lofs  of  the  garrifon  was  only 
ten  men  killed  and  22  wounded.     The  fort  being  built 
of  palmetto  was  little  damaged.  The  fliot  which  llruck 
it  were  ineffcftually  buried  in  its  foft  wood.    General 
Clinton  had  fomc  time  before  the  engagement,  landed 
with  a  number  of  troops  on  Long-llland,  and  it  was  ex- 
pected that  he  would  have  co-operated  with  Sir  Peter 
Parker,  by  crolTingovcrthe  narrow  palfage,  which  di- 
vides the  two  idands,  and  attacking  the  fort  in  its  un- 
finifliedrear ;  but  the  extreme  danger  towhich  hemufl 
unavoidably  have  cxpofed  his  men,  induced  him  to  de- 
cline the  perilous  attempt.     Colonel  Thomfon  with  7 
or  800  men  was  flationed  at  the  cafl  end  of  Sullivan's 
illand  to  oppofe  their  crolTing.    No  ferious  attempt  was 
made  to  land  either  from  the  fleet  or  the  detachment 
commanded  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton.     The  firing  ceaftsd 
in  the  evening,  and  foon  after  the  Ihips  flipped  their 
cables      Before  morning  they  had  retired  about  two 
miles  from  the  illand.     Within  a  few  d  lys  more  the 
troops  re-cmbarkcd  and  failed  from  New- York.   The 
thanks  of  congrcfs  were  given  to  General  Lee,   uho 
had  been  fcnt  on  by  congrefs  to  take  the  command  in 
Carolina,  and  alfo  to  colonels  Moultrie  and  Thomfon, 
for  their  good  conduft  on  this  memorable  day.     In 
compliment  to  the  commanding  ofiiccr  the  fort  from 
that  time  was  called  Fort  Moultrie. 

Thisyearalfo, theAmcricans,  havingfo  frequently 
made  trial  of  their  valour  by  land,  became  dclirous  of 

trying 


A  M  E 


[     S'jZ     ] 


A  M  E 


Amfrica. 


53* 
ArmaBicnt 
fcnt  at;ain(l 
New-York. 


«33 
General 
Homelands 
on  i>taten 
lOnnd. 


»34 
General 
WaOilng- 
ton  rcfufcs 
a  letter 
from  Lord 
Huwei 


trying  it  by  feaalfo,  and  of  forming  a  navy  that  miglu 
in  fonie  mcafiire  be  able  to  proteft  their  trade,  and  do 
ellcntial  hurt  to  the  enemy.  In  the  beginning  of 
Marih,  Commodore  Hopkins  wasdifpatched  with  live 
frigates  to  the  Bahama  illands,  where  he  made  himfelf 
mafter  of  the  ordnance  and  military  (lores  ;  but  the 
gunpowder  which  had  been  the  principal  objedt,  was 
removed.  On  his  return  he  captured  fcveral  velFels  ; 
but  was  foiled  in  his  attempt  on  the  Glafgow  frigate, 
w  hich  found  means  to  efcape  notwichftanding  the  ef- 
forts of  his  whole  fquadron. 

The  time,  however,  was  now  come  when  the  forti- 
tude and  patience  of  the  Americans  were  lo  undergo  a 
fevere  trial.  Hitherto  ihcy  had  been  on  the  whole  fuc- 
cefsful  in  their  operations:  but  now  they  were  doomed 
to  experience  misfortune, mifcry,  and  diftppoiiitment ; 
the  enemy  over-running  their  country,  and  their  own 
armies  notable  to  face  them  in  the  Held.  The  province 
of  New-York,  as  being  the  moll  central  colony,  and 
mofl  accellible  by  fea,  was  pitched  upon  f  t  the  objecSt 
of  the  main  attack.  1  he  force  fent  againfl  it  coniilled 
of  6  (hips  of  the  line,  30  frigates,  belides  other  armed 
ved'cls,  and  a  vaft  number  of  tranfports.  The  fleet  was 
commanded  by  Lord  Howe,  and  the  land  forces  by 
his  brother  General  Howe,  who  was  now  at  Hali- 
fax. The  latter,  hosvever,  a  confidcrable  time  before 
his  brother  arrived,  had  fet  fail  from  Halifax,  and 
Jay  before  New-York,  but  without  attempting  to  com- 
mence hodilities  until  he  fliould  be  joined  by  his  bro- 
ther. The  Americans  had,  according  to  cuitom,  for- 
tified New-York  and  the  adjacent  iilands  in  an  extra- 
ordinary manner.  However,  General  Howe  wasfuf- 
fered  to  land  his  troops  on  Staten  llland,  where  he  was 
foon  joined  by  a  number  of  the  inhabitants.  About  the 
middle  of  July,  Lord  Howe  arrived  with  the  grand  ar- 
mament; and  being  one  of  the  commiirioners  appoint- 
ed to  receive  the  fubmilhonof  the  colonids,  he  publilh- 
cd  a  circular  letter  to  thispurpofe  to  the  fevcral  gover- 
nors who  had  lately  been  expelled  from  their  provinces, 
dcfiring  them  to  make  the  extent  of  his  commilTion, 
and  the  powers  he  wasinvelted  witli  by  parliament,  as 
public  as  poflible.  Here,  however,  congrefs  faved  him 
trouble,  by  ordering  his  letter  and  declaration  to  be 
puhliflicd  in  all  the  newfpupers,  "  That  every  one 
might  fee  the  inhdioufnefs  of  the  Briti(h  miniftry,  and 
that  they  had  nothing  to  trull  to  belides  the  exertion  of 
their  own  valour." 

Lord  Howe  next  fent  a  letter  to  General  W'afhing- 
ton  ;  but  as  it  was  direded  "  To  George  Wafliington, 
hfq."  the  General  refufcd  to  accept  of  it,  as  not  be- 
ing direftcd  in  theftyle  fuitable  to  his  llation.  To  ob- 
viate this  objeftion.  Adjutant-general  Patterfon  was 
fent  with  another  letter,  directed  "  To  George  Walli- 
ington,  Stc.  &c.  &c."  But  though  a  very  polite  recep- 
tion was  given  to  the  bearer.  General  Walhington  ut- 
terly refufed  the  letter  ;  nor  could  any  explanation  of 
the  adjutant  induce  him  to  accept  of  it.  The  only  in- 
tereding  part  of  the  converfation  was  that  relating  to 
the  powers  of  the  com  midioners,  of  whom  Lord  Howe 
was  one.  The  adjutant  told  him,  that  thcfe  powers 
were  very  extenlive:  that  the  commillioners  were  de- 
termined to  exert  themfclves  to  the  utmoft,  in  order  to 
bring  about  a  reconciliation  ;  and  that  he  hoped  the  Ge- 
neral would  conlider  this  vifit  as  a  fttp  towardsit.  Ge- 
neral Wafliington  replied,  that  it  did  not  appear  that 
Vol.  1. 


tlufe  powers  confifted  in  any  thing  elfc  than  granting 
pardons  ;  and  as  America  had  committed  no  offence, 
Ihe  alked  no  forgivencfs,  and  was  only  defciidiug  her 
unqucftionable  rights. 

I'he  decilion  of  every  thing  being  now  by  confent 
of  both  parties  left  to  the  fword,  no  time  was  loft, 
but  hodilities  commenced  as  foon  as  the  Briii(h  troops 
could  be  coUeCled.  This,  however,  was  not  done  be- 
fore the  month  of  Auguft  ;  when  they  landed  without 
any  oppolition  on  Long-Ifland,  oppofite  to  the  Ihorc  of 
Siaten-Ifland.  General  Putnam,  with  a  large  body  of 
troops,  l.iy  encamped  and  (Irongly  fortified  on  a  peniu- 
Cula  on  tiie  oppofite  (hore,  with  a  range  of  hills  be- 
tween the  armies,  theprincipalpafsof  which  was  near 
a  place  called  t'lat-bujh.  Here  the  centre  of  the  Bri- 
tith  army,  confiding  of  Heffians,  took  pod  ;  the  left 
wing,  under  General  Grant,  lying  near  the  ilwre  ; 
and  the  right,  confiding  of  the  greater  part  of  the  Bri- 
ti(h  forces,  lay  under  Lord  Percy,  Cornwallis,  ani 
GeneralClinton.  Putnam  had  ordered  the  pafles  to  be 
fccurcd  by  large  detachments,  which  was  executed  aS' 
to  thofe  at  hand  j  but  one  of  the  uimod  imporiaiice, 
that  lay  at  a  dillance,  was  entirely  neglected.  This 
gave  an  opportunity  to  a  large  body  of  troops  under 
Lord  Percy  and  Clinton  to  pals  the  mountains  aj.d  at- 
tack the  Americans  in  the  rear,  while  tliey  were  en- 
gaged with  the  Hoflians  in  front.  Through  tins  piece 
of  negligence  their  defeat  became  inevitable.  Ihofe 
who  were  engaged  with  the  Hellians  lint  perceived 
their  millake,  and  began  a  retreat  tov.ards  tlicir  camp  ; 
but  the  pallage  was  intercepted  by  the  Britilh  troops, 
who  drove  them  back  into  the  woods.  Here  they 
were  met  by  the  Hellians  ;  and  ilius  they  were  for  ma- 
ny hours  ilaughtered  between  the  two  parties,  no  way 
of  efcape  remaining  but  by  breaking  tiirough  the  Bri- 
tifh  troops,  and  thus  regaining  their  camp.  In  this  at- 
tempt many  perilhed  ;  and  the  right  wing,  tng.'.ged 
with  General  Grant,  fliared  the  fame  fate.  The  vic- 
tory was  complete  ;  and  the  Americans  loft  on  this  fa- 
tal day  (Augud  27th)  conlidcrably  upwards  of  1000 
men,  and  two  generals  :  feveral  olKcers  of  difliac- 
tion  were  made  prifoners,  with  a  number  of  pri- 
vates. Amongthe  flain,a  regiment  couliding  of  young 
gentlemen  of  fortune  and  family  in  Maryland,  was  ?.l- 
mod  entirely  cut  in  pieces,  and  of  the  furvivers  not  one 
efcapcd  without  a  wound. 

Tlie  ardour  of  the  Britifh  troops  was  now  fo  great, 
that  they  could  fcarcc  be  rellrained  from  attacking  the 
lijies  of  the  provincials  ;  but  for  this  there  \s  as  iiow  no 
occalion,  as  it  was  certain  they  could  not  be  defended. 
Of  the  BritiQi  and  Hcdians  about  450  were  loll  in  this 
engagement. 

As  none  of  tlic  American  commanders  thought  it 
proper  to  rilk  another  attack,  it  was  refolved  to  aban- 
don their  camp  as  foon  as  poliible.  Accordingly,  on 
thenightof  the  29th  of  Augud,  the  wliole  of  the  eon- 
tint  ntal  troops  were  ferriedover  with  the  utmall  fecre- 
cy  and  filencc  ;  fothat  in  the  morning  the  Britilli  had 
nothing  to  do  but  take  pofleflion  of  the  camp  and  wiiat 
artillery  they  had  abandoned. 

This  vidory,  though  complete,  was  very  far  from 
being  fo  decilive  as  the  conquerors  imai'jned.  Lord 
Howe,  fuppoling  that  it  would  be  fufficicnt  to  iiiiimi- 
datc  the  congrefs  into  fome  terms,  fent  General  Sulli- 
van, who  had  been  taken  prifoner  in  the  late  aflion,  to 
4  K  congref* 


Amcrita. 


i35 
Ho(liliiie< 
coDMncrce. 


J36 
Situation  of 
ihc  IJritifn 
and  Ani«- 
ricaii  ar- 
iT.ics. 


^37 
The  Ame- 
ricans de- 
feated with 
great 
daughter. 


»38 
They  aban- 
don their 
camp  in  the 
night* 


'3!> 
Lord  Howe 

i-i^''  to  con* 


A  M  E 


L     594     1 


A  M  E 


America. 


■140 
And  is 
waited  on 
\y  a  com- 
micicc. 


1*1 
The  coa- 
Icrencc  t«r- 
inin^itcs  in- 


14a 
New- York 
ilb<indoncil 
hy  the  pro- 
vuicials. 


»4.1 
Situation  of 
ilie  BritiRi 
■*nd  /\nic- 
lican  ar- 
>pics> 


congiefs,  widi  a  iiielljgt,  importing,  that  thou^li  he 
could  not  condrtenily  ticat  with  liicm  :is  a  legal  all'cm- 
bly,  yet  lie  would  be  very  gUJ  to  confer  with  any  of 
the  members  in  their  private  capacity  ;  letting  forth  at 
the  fame  time  the  nature  and  extent  of  his  powers  as 
commi'.Iioner.  \iui  the  congrtfs  were  not  fo  humbled 
as  to  derogate  in  the  leall  (rom  the  dignity  of  character 
they  had  aiituned.  They  replied,  that  the  congrcfsof 
the  free  and  indcpendclit  dates  of  America  could  not 
confillenily  fend  any  o(  its  members  iaanother  capaci- 
ty tlian  that  which  they  had  publicly  allnmcd  ;  but  as 
they  were  extremely  delirousof  reltoring  peace  to  their 
country  upon  equitable  conditions,  they  would  appojnt 
a  committee  of  their  bovly  to  wait  upon  liim,  and  leani 
what  propiifiis  he  had  to  make. 

This  produced  a  new  conference.  The  committee 
appointed  by  coiigrcfs  was  compofi.'d  of  Dr  Kranklinj 
Mr  Adams,  and  Mr  Rutledgc.  They  were  very  po- 
litely received  by  his  Lordlhip  ;  but  the  conference 
proved  as  fruiilefs  a->  before  independency  had  been  de- 
clared J  and  the  linal  anfwer  of  the  deputies  was,  that 
they  were  extremely  W!llin:Tto  enter  into  any  treaty 
■with  Great  Britain  that  might  conduce  to  the  good  of 
toih  nations,  but  that  they  would  not  treat  in  any 
other  character  than  that  of  independent  Hates.  This 
politive  declaration  inllantly  put  an  end  to  all  hopes  of 
reconciliation  ;  andit  wasrifolvcd  toprofccute  the  war 
with  the  ntmoft  vigour.  Lord  Howe,  after  publilhing 
a  maiiifcllo,  in  which  he  declared  the  refufal  of  con- 
grefs,aiid  that  he  himfelfwas  willing  to  confer  with  all 
well  difpofedperfons  about  the  means  of  re  (loring  pub- 
lic tranquilliry,  fet  about  the  nioft  proper  methods  for 
reducing  the  city  of  New-York.  Here  the  provincial 
troops  were  ported,  and  from  a  great  number  of  batte- 
ries kept  continually  annoying  the  Britilh  ihipping. 
The  Eaft  River  lay  between  them,  of  about  1300 
yards  in  breadth,  which  the  Britilh  troops  were  ex- 
tremely defirous  of  palling.  At  lill,  the  fliips  having, 
after  au  inccllant  cannonade  of  fevcral  days,  lilcnced 
the  mort  troublcfome  batteries,  a  body  of  troops  was 
fciit  up  the  liver  to  a  bay,  about  three  miles  dillant, 
where  the  foriitications  were  Icfs  (Iroiig  than  in  other 
places.  Here,  having  driven  off  the  provincials  by  the 
cannon  of  the  fieet,  they  marchcil  dire.tly  towards  the 
city  ;  but  the  Americans  Hnding  that  they  Ihould  now 
be  attacked  on  all  lides,  abandoned  the  city,  and  re- 
tired to  the  north  of  the  iiland,  where  their  principal 
force  was  colledeJ.  In  thcirpalTagc  thither  they  (kir- 
Jiiilhed  with  the  Britilh,  but  carefully  avoided  a  gene- 
ral eng.ageincnt  ;  and  it  wasobferved  that  they  did  not 
behave  with  that  ardour  and  impetuous  valour  which 
had  hitherto  marked  their  charader. 

The  Briiilh  and  provincial  armies  were  not  now 
above  two  miles  dilfant  from  each  other.  Tlie  former 
lay  encamped  from  (hoic  to  ftiorc  for  an  extent  of  two 
niilc.>,  being  the  breadth  of  the  in,)nd,  which,  thcigh 
1 5  miles  long,  exceeds  not  two  in  any  part  in  breadth. 
The  provincials.wliolay  dire<5llyoppolite,had  flrcngth- 
cned  their  camp  with  many  fortifications  ;  at  the  fame 
time  being  maltersof  al^the  palles  and  defiles  betwixt 
liie  twocamps, they  were  enabled  todefend  themfelvcs 
again  II  an  army  much  more  numerous  than  their  own  ; 
and  they  had  alfo  flrongly  fortified  a  pafs  railed  King^ s- 
Bridgc,  whence  they  could  fecure  a  palTagetothe  con- 
tinent in  cafe  of  any  misfortune.  IIcr<;Gcneral  Wash- 


ington, in  order  to  inure  the  provincials  to  aiflual  fcr-  Amcrfta. 

vice,  and  at  the  fame  time  to  annoy  the  enemy  as  much  •j—* 

as  poiiible,  employed  his  troops  in  continual  (kirmilh- 
cs  ;  by  which  it  wasobferved  that  they  foon  recovered 
their  fi)irits,  and  behaved  with  their  ufual  boldncfs. 

As  the  lituation  of  the  two  armies  was  now  highly 
inconvenient  for  the  Britilh  generals,  it  was  relblved  to 
make  fuch  movements  as  might  oblige  General  Walh- 
ington  torelinquilh  his  Urong  lituation.  The  polfelliott 
of  New-York  had  been  lefs  beneficial  than  was  ex-        144 
pedcd.     A  few  days  after  it  was  evacuated  by  the  A-  New- York 
mericans,  a  dreadful  lire  broke  ont,  occalioncd,  proba-  ''^  "°  S"'** 
bly,  by  the  licentious  condud  of  foinc  of  its  new  maf- 
tcrs,  and  had  it  not  been  for  the  active  exertions  of  the 
failors  and  foldicry,  the  whole  town  might  have  been 
confumed,  the  wind  being  high,  and  the  weather  re- 
markably dry.  About  a  thoufand  houfes  wercdcftroy- 
cd.     General  Howe  having  left  Lord  Percy  with  fuf- 
licicnt  force  to  garrifon  New- York,  he  embarked  his 
army  in  flat-bottomed  boats  by  which  they  were  con- 
veyed throughlhe  dangerous  paiTagccalled  Mell-Catf, 
and  landed  near  the  town  of  Well-Chcftcr,  lying ou 
the  continent  towards  Connefticut.     Here  having  re- 
ceived a  fupply  of  men  and  provisions,  they  moved  to 
Ncw-Rochclle,  fituated  on  the  found  which  fcparatcs 
Long-I!land  from  the  continent.    After  this  receiving 
ftill  frclh  reinforcements,  they  made  fuch  movements 
as  threatened  to  diftrefs  the  provincials  very  much  by 
cutting  off  their  convoys  of  provilions  frc/m  Connefti- 
cut,  and  thus  force  them  to  an  engagement.     This, 
howevcr,Gencral  Walhington  determined  at  all  even cs 
toavoid.     He  thcreforecxtcnded  hisforcesintoalong        ,.- 
lineoppoiitc  to  the  way  in  which  the  enemy  marched,  General 
keeping  the  Brnnx,  a  river  of  confiderable  magnitude,  Wafliing- 
betwecn  the  twoarmies,  with  the  North-River  on  his  ton  obliged 
rear.     Here  again  the  provincials  continued  for  fome  J°  "'""'^ 
time  to  annoy  and  (kirniifli  with  the  royal  army,  until  r"L'^M,_. 
at  lafl,  by  fome  other  manoeuvres,  the  Britiih  |eiicrdl  York, 
found  means  to  att-ack  them  advantagcoully  at  a  place        146 
called  the  IVhitc-P/aim,  and  drove  them  from  fome  of  Is  defeated 
tlieir  ports.      The  fucccfs  on  this  occafion  was  much  "'  '^"^ 
lefs  ccmplete  than  the  former  :  however  it  obliged  the  yj  .'" 
provincials  once  more  to  ihift  their  ground,  and  to  re-     *'"*■ 
treat  farther  up  the  country.     General  Howe  pnrfiicd 
for  fouic  time  ;  but  at  laft  finding  all  his  endeavours 
vain  to  bring  the  Americans  toa  pitched  battle,  he  de- 
termined to  give  over  fuch  an  ufelcfs  chace,  and  em- 
ploy himfelfin  reducing  the  forts  which  the  provincials 
Piili  retained  in  the  neij;hbourlu.od  of  New- York.    In 
tliishe  met  with  the  moftcomplctc  fnccefs.  The  Ame- 
ricans, on  thcapproach  of  the  king's  forces,  retreated 
from  King's-Bridgc  into  Fort-Wafhington  ;  and  this, 
as  well  as  Kort-Lcc,  which  lay  in  the  neighbourhood, 
was  quickly  reduced,  though  the  garrifon  made  their       ^ 
cfcapc.     Thus  the  Jcrfcys  were  laid  entirely  open  to  xi,^  y^. 
the  incurlions  of  the  Briiifli  troops,  and  fo  fully  were  feys  eutire- 
thcfe  provinces  taken  poircinon  of  by  the  royal  army,  ly  over-run 
that  its  winter-quarters  extended  from  New-Brunf-  ^y'^"^  '•'"" 
wick  to  the  river  Delaware.   Had  any  number  of  boats '""P** 
been  at  hand,  it  was  thought  Philadelphia  would  have 
fallen   into  their  hands.      All  thefe,  however,  had 
been  carefully  removed  by  the  Americans.     In  lieu  of  „ 

this  enterprife.  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  undertook  an  ex-  R),(,dj. 
pedition  toRhodc-Iiland,  and  became  mailer  of  it  with-  ifl.,nd  ta- 
ont  lolini'  a  man.      His  cxpcdiiion  was  alfo  attended  km. 

Tvjih 


A  M  E 


[     595     J 


A  M  E 


Amtt'iet- 


t49 
ThcBritifti 
convey  vcf- 
fcls  tip  the 
lakeCham- 
plaia, 


with  iliis  further  advantage,  that  the  American  fleet 
under  commodore  Hopkins  was  obliged  to  fail  as  far  as 
pofiibic  up  tlie  river  Providence,  and  thus  remained 
entirely  ufelcfs. 

The  fame  ill  fiiccefs  continued  to  attend  the  Ame- 
ricansin  otiicr  parts.  After  their  cxpullion  ironi  Ca- 
nada, they  had  eroded  the  Lake  Chaniplain,  and  taken 
up  their  quarters  at  Crown-Point,  as  we  have  already 
mentioned.  Here  they  rtniaincd  for  fomc  time  in 
fafety,  as  the  Britilh  had  no  vcffels  on  the  lake,  and 
confeqnently  general  Burgoyne  could  not  purfue  them. 
To  remedy  this  dchcitncy,  there  was  no  [M>flible  me- 
thod, but  cither  to  conflruct  vellcls  on  the  fpot,  or  take 
to  pieces  (ome  vellcls  already  conftrufted,  and  drag 
them  up  the  river  into  the  lake.  This,  however,  was 
effcfted  in  no  longer  a  fpace  than  three  monllis;  and 
the  Britifli  general,  after  incredible  toil  and  didiciilty, 
faw  himfelf  in  poirtilion  of  a  great  number  of  vcf- 
fels, by  which  means  he  was  enabled  to  purfiic  his 
enemies,  and  invade  them  in  his  turn.  The  labour 
undergone  at  this  time  by  the  fea  and  land  forces  mufl 
indeed  have  been  prodigious  ;  iincc  there  were  con- 
veyed over  land,  and  dragged  up  the  rapids  of  St  Law- 
rence, no  fewer  than  thirty  large  long-boats,  400  bat- 
tcaux,  befides  a  vaft  number  of  Hat-bottomed  boats, 
and  a  gondola  of  30  tons.  The  intent  of  the  expedi- 
tion was  to  pu(h  forward,  before  winter,  to  Albany, 
where  the  army  would  take  up  its  winter-quarters, 
and  next  fpringefFct'l  a  jundlion  with  tliat  under  Gene- 
ral Howe,  w  hen  it  was  not  doubted  tliat  the  united 
force  and  fKill  of  thefe  twocommandcrs  would  fpecdi- 
ly  put  a  termination  to  the  war. 

By  reafon  of  the  difficulties  with  whicli  the  equip- 
ment of  this  fleet  had  been  attended,  it  was  tlie  be- 
ginning of  Oilober  before  tlic  expedition  could  be  un- 
dertaken. It  was  now,  however,  by  every  judge,  al- 
lowed to  be  completely  able  to  anfvver  the  purpofe  for 
whichit  wasiutcnded.  It  conlillcdofone  large  vellel 
with  three  marts,  carrying  18  twelve, pounders  ;  two 
fchooners,thcone  carrying  14,  theother  12  fix  poun- 
ders ;  a  large  flat  bottomed  radeau  with  fix  twenty- 
four  and  6  twelve  pounders  ;  and  a  gondola  with  8  nine 
pounders.  Befidcs  thefe,  were  20  vellcls  of  a  fmallcr 
lize,  called  gun-boati,  carrying  each  a  piece  of  brafs 
ordnance  from  nine  to  twenty-four  pounders,  or  how- 
itzers. Several  long-boats  were  lilted  out  in  the  fame 
manner  ;  and  befidcs  all  thefe,  there  was  a  vail  num- 
ber of  boat's  and  tenders  of  various  lizcs  to  be  ufed  as 
tranfports  fur  the  troops  and  baggage.  It  was  manned 
by  a  number  of  fclcift  feamen,  and  the  guns  were  to  be 
fcrveii  by  a  detachment  from  the  corps  of  artillery  ; 
thcofiicers  ami  foldicrs  appointed  for  this  expedition 
Wcrealfo  chofen  out  of  the  whole  army. 

To  oppofc  lliis  formidable  armament  the  Americans 
had  only  a  very  inconliderable  force,  commanded  by 
general  Arnold  ;  who,  after  engaging  part  of  the  Bri- 
tifli licet  for  a  whole  day,  took  advantage  of  the  dark- 
nefs  of  the  night  to  let  fail  without  being  perceived, 
and  the  next  morning  was  out  of  light  :  but  he  v  as  fo 
hotly  purfiied  by  the  Britilh,  that  on  the  fecoiul  day 
a  Iter,  he  was  over  taken,  and  forced  to  a  lecond  engage- 
ment. In  this  he  behaved  with  great  gallantry  ;  but 
his  force  being  very  inferior  to  that  of  the  enemy,  he 
waaobligcd  to  run  hislliips  aflioreand  let  them  on  lire. 
A  few  only  cfcaped  to  lake  George  ;  and  the  garrifou 


of  Crown-Point  having  dcllroycd  or  carried  oft'every 
thing  of  value,  retired  to  Ticotidtrago.  Tliithcr  ge- 
neral Carleton  intended  to  hav«  purfued  them  ;  but 
the  difficulties  he  had  to  encounter  appeared  fomany 
and  f)  great,  thatit  wasthought  proper  to  march  bicJc 
into  Canada,  and  dclill  from  any  further  opcratious 
till  next  fpring. 

Thus  the  affairs  of  the  Americans  feeincd  every 
where  going  towreck;cven  thofc  who  had  been  moil 
fanguinc  in  their  caufe  began  to  waver.  The  time, 
alfj,  for  which  the  foldicrs  had  cnlifted  thcmfclves 
was  now  expired  ;  and  the  bad  fuccefs  of  the  pre- 
ceding campaign  had  been  fo  very  difcouraging,  that 
no  pcrfpn  was  willing  to  engage  himfelf  during  the 
continuance  of  a  war  of  whicli  the  event  fcemed 
to  be  fo  doubtful.  In  confeqiiencc  of  this,  there- 
fore. General  WaQiington  found  his  army  daily  de- 
crealing  in  (Ircngth  ;  lo  that,  from  30,009,  oi  wliich 
it  conlilted  whengeneralHowelandedonStatcnIlland, 
fcarcc  a  tcntii  partcoidJ  now  bcmuftered.  To  aliilt 
the  chief  commander  as  much  as  polSblc,  general  Lee 
had  collefted  a  body  of  forces  in  the  north  ;  but  on  hii> 
way  fouthsvard,  havingimprudently  taken  up  hiilodg-. 
ing  at  fome  dillance  from  his  troops,  information  was 
given  to  colonel  Harcourt,  who  happened  at  that  time 
to  be  in  the  neighbourhood, and  Lee  was  made  prifoner. 
The  lofsof  this  general  was  much  regretted,  the  more 
efpecially  as  he  wasoffuperior  quality  toauy  prifoner 
in  the  polfelhon  of  the  colonills,  and  could  not  there- 
fore be  exchanged.  Six  litld-oflicers  were  oilcred  in 
exchange  for  him,  and  refufed;  and  the  congrels  was 
highly  irritated  at  its  bring  reported  that  he  was  to 
be  treated  as  a  dcferter,  having  been  a  halt-pay  olh- 
cerin  the  Britilh  fcrvicc  at  the  commencement  of  the 
war.  In  confeqiiencc  of  this  they  ilUied  a  procl  inu- 
tion,  threatening  to  retaliate  on  the  prifoncrs  in  their 
polfeinon  whatever  punilhiueiit  would  be  inllicted  on 
any  of  thofc  taken  by  the  Britilh,  and  efpecially  that 
their  conduit  (hould  be  regulated  by  the  treatment  of 
general  Lee. 

In  the  meantime  they  proceeded  with  the  moft  i;;- 
dcfatigablc  diligence  to  recruit  their  army,  and  bound 
their  foldicrs  10  ftrve  for  a  term  of  three  years,  or 
during  the  continuance  of  the  war.  Tlie  array  de- 
figncd  for  tlie  enfuing  campaign,  was  to  conliil  of  83 
battalions  ;  of  which  each  province  was  to  contribute 
its  quoia;  and  20  dollars  were  offered  as  a  bounty  fo 
each  foldicr,  bclides  anallottmcut  of  lands  at  tiie  end 
of  the  war.  No  lands  wcre])romifed  to  thofc  wlio  cn- 
lilled  only  for  three  years.  All  otiiccrs  or  Uddicr* 
dilablcd  through  wounds  received  in  the  fcrvicc  were 
to  enjoy  half-pay  during  life.  To  defray  the  cxpence, 
congre fs  borrowed  rive  millions  of  dollars  at  five  per 
cent.  ;  for  the  payment  of  wliich  the  Uniud  States  be- 
came furcty.  At  the  fame  time,  in  order  to  animate 
the  people  to  \igorous  exertions,  a  declaration  wa^ 
pjblilhcd,  in  which  they  iVt  forth  the  necelhiy  ihcic 
was  for  taking  piojicr  nieihoik  10  infurc  fuccrfs  in 
their  caufe:  they  cndtavotired  to  palliate  as  much  *< 
poTible  the  misfortunes  which  had  already  happened  ; 
and  lepreUiucd  the  luie  caufe  of  ihcirtfcnt  Ji:lrif^ 
to  be  the  (lion  term  of  enliilmeut. 

Thisdcclarjiion,  together  with  the  imminent  din- 
ger of  Pliiladrluliia,  detcrmi.ied  the  .Americans  to  ex- 
ert thrmftlvcs  to  the  iitmoil  In  order  m  reinforce  ge- 
4  l"  2  neral 


.'Vmcno^. 


»5f 
The  Amc- 
ricai:s  :il- 
moll  ci;- 
tircljr  dif- 
perfcd. 


»5» 

Lee  tjlurn 
prifoner. 


»5.^ 
Coniiiifit- 
tal  arniy- 
for  !••-• 


A  M  E 


[     596     ] 


A  M  E 


America, 


254 
The  HcfTi- 
ans  defeat- 
ed at  Tren- 


155 
Gen.Wifli- 

ingtoh 
marches 
his  army  to 
Priaceton. 


Hfral  Wafiiineton's  army,  who,  even  in  this  time  of 
dcprcHion  anil  difcouragcniem,  formed  the  bold  dcfign 
of  rccro:Ii'.ig  the  Delaware,  and  attacking  that  part 
ol  riic  ciieiiiy  which  was  polled  at  Trenton.  As  the 
R'lyal  army  extended  in  diirercnt  cantonments  for  a 
great  way,  general  Wallungton,  perceiving  the  im- 
minent danger  to  which  Pniladclphia  was  cxpofed, 
refolved  to  ni.ilte  fome  attempt  on  thofe  divifions  of 
the  enemy  which  lay  ncarell  that  city.  Thcfe  hap- 
pened to  be  the  Hcliians,  who  lay  in  three  divifions, 
the  lad  only  jo  miles  dillant  from  Philadelphia.  On 
the  251I1  of  December,  having  coHedcd  as  confi- 
derable  a  force  as  lie  could,  lie  fet  out  with  an  intent 
to  furprifc  that  body  of  the  enemy  which  lay  at  Tren- 
ton. His  army  was  divided  into  three  bodies  ;  one 
of  which  lie  ordered  to  crofs  the  Delaware  at  Tren- 
ton Kerry,  a  little  below  the  town  :  the  fccond  at  a 
good  diltance  below,  at  a  place  called  BorJeiitowri, 
xihere  the  fccond  divilion  of  HelFians  was  placed  ;  while 
he  himfelf,  with  the  third,  directing  his  coiirfe  to  a 
ferry  fome  miles  above  Trenton,  intended  to  have  paf- 
fed  it  at  midnight,  and  attack  the  Hcliians  at  break 
of  day.  But  by  rcafoii  of  various  impediments,  it  was 
eight  in  the  morning  before  he  could  reach  the  place  of 
hisdclUnution.  The  enemy,  however,  did  not  perceive 
his  approach  till  they  were  fuddenly  attacked.  Colonel 
Halle,  who  commanded  them,  did  all  that  could  be 
•expected  from  a  brave  and  experienced  officer  ;  but 
every  thing  was  in  fuch  confulion,  that  no  efforts  of 
valour  or  ikill  could  now  retrieve  matters.  The  Colo- 
nel himfelf  was  mortally  wounded,  his  troops  were 
entirely  broken,  their  artillery  fcizcd,  and  about  1000 
taken  prifoncrs.  After  this  gallant  exploit.  General 
Walhington  again  returned  into  Pennfylvania. 

This  action,  though  feeniingly  of  no  very  decifive 
nature,  was  fufHcient  at  that  time  to  turn  the  fortune 
of  war  in  favour  of  America.  It  tended  greatly  to 
leflcn  the  apprehenfions  which  the  provincials  had  of 
the  Hellians,  at  the  fame  time  that  it  equally  abated  the 
confidence  which  the  Britilh  had  till  now  put  in  them. 

Reinforcements  came  in  from  feveral  quarters  to  Ge- 
neral \V'alliington,  fothat  he  was  foon  in  a  condition 
once  more  to  pafs  the  Delaware,  and  take  up  his  quar- 
ters at  Trenton,  where  he  was  emboldened  tomaintain 
his  Ration,  notwithllanding  the  accounts  that  were  re- 
ceived of  the  enemy's  rapid  advance  towards  him. 
LordCornwallis,  accordingly,  made  his  appearance  in 
full  force  ;  and,  on  the  evening  of  his  arrival,  the  lit- 
tle town  of  Trenton  contained  the  two  hoflile  armies, 
feparated  only  by  a  fmall  creek,  wliich  was  fordable 
in  many  places.  This  was,  indeed  the  crifis  of  the  .^- 
merican  revolution  ;  and  had  his  Lordlhip  made  an  im- 
mediate attack, in  purfuanceofwhai  is  reported  to  have 
been  the  advice  of  Sir  William  Erikine,  General  Wa(h- 
ington's  defeat  fecms  to  have  been  inevitable  :  but  a 
night's  delay  turned  the  fate  of  the  war,  and  produced 
an  enterprifc,  the  magnitude  and  glory  of  which,  can 
only  be  equalled  by  its  fuccefs.  General  WaQiington 
having  called  a  council  of  war,  ftated  the  calamitous  fi- 
tuation  to  which  his  army  was  reduced  ,  and  having 
heard  thevariousopinionsofhisofficers,  finally  propo- 
fed  a  circuitous  march  to  Princeton,  as  the  means  of 
avoiding,  at  once,  the  imputation  of  a  retreat,  and  the 
dan<Ter  of  a  battle,  with  numbers  fo  inferior,  and  in  a 
fituation  fo  ineligibk.    The  idea  was  unanimoudy  ap- 


proved ;  aud,as  foonasitwas  dark,  the  neccfTary  mea-  Americi. 

furcs  were  taken  for  accomplilhiug  it.     A  line  of  tires  * v ' 

waskindled,  which  ferved  to  give  light  to  the  Ameri- 
cans, while  it  obl'curcd  them  from  the  oblervation  of 
the  enemy  :   and  by  a  providential  interpolition,  the 
Weather,  which  had  been  for  fome  time  pall  warm, 
iiioift,  and  foggy,  fuddenly  changed  to  a  hard  froil ; 
and,  in  a  moment  ai.  it  were,  rendered  the  road,  which 
had  been  deep  and  heavy,  firm  and  fmooth  as  a  pave- 
ment.   At  break  of  day  General  Walhington  arriving  , 
near  Princeton,  was  difcovered  by  a  party  of  Britilh  BritUh  de- 
troops,  confifting  of  three  regiments  under  the  com-  fcatcd  at 
mand  of  Col.  Mawhood,  who  were  on  their  march  to  I'rinccton; 
Trenton.   With  thefe  the  centre  of  the  Americans  en- 
gaged, and  after  killing  60,  wounding  many,  and  ta- 
king 300  prifoncrs,  obliged  the  reft  to  make  a  precipi- 
tate efcapc,  fome  towards  Trenton,  and  others  in  a  re- 
trograde routto  Brunfwick.  Thelofsof  the  Americans 
was  inconlidcrablc  in  point  of  numbers  ;  but  ihefall  of 
the  amiable  General  Mercer  rendered  it  important.  ^\nd  re- 
Thc  Briiifli  afloniihed  and  difcouragcd  at  the  fuccefs  treat  to 
and  fpirit  of  thcfe  repeated  enterprizes,  abandoning  iiruniwick- 
both  Trenton  and  Princeton,  retreated  to  Brunfwick  ; 
while  the  triumphant  Americans  retired   to  Morris- 
town.  General  Walhington,  however,  omitted  no  op- 
portunity of  recovering  what  had  been  loll  ;  and  by 
dividing  his  army  into  finall  parties,  which  could  be 
reunited  on  a  few  hours  warning,  he  in  a  manner  en- 
tirely covered  the  country  with  it,  and   repoll'elicd 
himfelf  of  all  the  important  places. 

Thus  ended  the  campaign  of  1776,  with  fcarce 
any  other  real  advantage  than  the  acquifnion  of  the 
city  of  New  York,  and  of  a  few  fortreflcs  in  its  neigh- 
bourhood ;  where  the  troops  were  conllrained  to  aft 
with  as  much  circumfpetlion  as  if  they  had  been  be- 
fieged  by  a  viiflorious  army,  inAcad  of  being  them- 
fclves  the  conquerors.  « 

The  army  at  New- York  began  in  1777  to  exercif*  £,<;„, fiom 
a  kind  of  predatory  war,  by  fending  out  parties  to  de-  of  the  Uri- 
ftroy  magazines,  make  incurlions,  and  take  or  deftroy  tifli  from 
fuch  forts  as  lay  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  to  which  their  New  York, 
great  command  of  [hipping  gave  them  accefs.     In  this 
they  were  generally  fuccefsful :  the  provincial  maga- 
zines at   Peek's  Hill,  a  place  about  50  miles  dillant 
from  New-York,  were  deflroyed,   the  town  of  Dun- 
bury  in  Conneflicut  burnt,  and  lliat  of  Ridgefield  in 
the  fame  province  was  taken poflcUionof.  In  returning 
from  the  laft  expedition,  however,  the  Britifli  were 
greatly  harraffed  by  the  Americans  under  Generals  Ar- 
nold, Wooftcr,  and  Sullivan;  but  they  made  good  their 
retreat,  though  with  the  lofs  of  above  ioo  killed  and 
wounded.     On  the   American  fide  the  lofs  was  con- 
fiderable  ;   General  Woofter  was  killi  ',  and  Arnold 
in  the  moll  imminent  danger.     On  the  other  hand, 
the  Americans  dellroyed  the  flores  ui  blagg-harbonr, 
in  Long-Kland,  and  made  prifonef^  ol  all  who  defen- 
ded the  place. 

As  this  method  of  making  war,  i'.owever,  could  an- 
fwer  but  little  purpofe,  and  favoured  more  of  the  bar- 
barous incurfions  of  lavages  than  01  a  war  car:  .-.J  on  by 
a  civilized  people,  it  was  refolved  to  make  ..u  .itempc 
on  Philadelphia.  At  firfl;  it  was  ihoug':t  liut  this 
could  be  done  through  the  Jeiftys  ;  but  -lie  cruelties 
exercifedbythe  Britifli  plundering  panics  bad  excited 
fo  general  an  abhorrence,  and  General  Walhington 

had 


A  M  E 


[     597     ] 


A  M  E 


America. 


2S9 

Geni-ral 
Vrefcot  ta- 
ken pri- 
foncr. 


a6o 
The  fleet 
fciltfur 
Fhiladel- 
ptiia. 


56l 
The  army 
laodtat  the 
head  of  the 
Elk, 


had  received  fuch  large  reinforcements,  and  ported 
him  rcUT<>ftrongly,tliatic  was  found  to  be  ini  practicable. 
Many  ftratagems  wereufed  to  draw  him  from  his flroiig 
fituation,  but  without  fiicccfs  ;  fothat  it  was  found  nc- 
celfary  to  make  the  attempt  on  Philadelphia  by  fea. 
While  the  preparations  neccirary  for  this  expedition 
were  going  forward,  the  Americans  found  means  to 
make  amends  for  the  capture  of  General  Lee  by  that 
of  General  Prefcot,who  wasfcizcdin  his  quarters  with 
his  aid  dc  camp,  in  much  the  fame  manner  as  General 
Lee  had  been.  This  was  exceedingly  mortifying  to 
the  General  himfelf,ashehad  not  long  before  fetapricc 
upon  General  Arnold,  by  ottering  a  lum  of  money  to 
any  one  that  apprehended  him  ;  which  the  Utter  an- 
fwered  by  fetting  a  lower  price  upon  General  Prcfcot. 

The  month  of  July  was  far  advanced  before  the  pre- 
parations for  the  expedition  againfl  Philadelphia  were 
completed  ;  and  it  was  the  23d  before  the  rieet  was 
able  to  fail  from  Sandy  Hook.  The  force  employed 
in  this  expedition  conliftcd  of  36  battalions  of  Britifli 
and  HelFians,  a  regiment  of  light  horfe,  and  a  body  of 
loyalillsraifcdat  New-York.  Theremainderof  thcfe, 
with  I  7  battalions,  and  another  body  of  light  horfe, 
were  (lationcd  at  New- York  under  Sir  Henry  Clinton. 
Seven  battalions  were  flaiionedat  Rhodc-llland.  Af- 
ter a  week's  failing  they  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Delaware  ;  but  there  having  received  certain  intelli- 
gence,that  the  navigation  of  the  river  was  fo  effedual- 
ly  oblirufted,  that  no  poflibility  of  forcing  a  palTagc  re- 
mained ;or  more  probably  that  Gen.  Wafliington  had 
marched  withinafliortdirtanceof Philadelphia;  itwas 
refol ved  topreceed  further  fouth ward  to  Ch cfapcak  Bay 
in  Maryland,  fromwhcnce  thediftance  to  Philadelphia 
was  not  very  great,  and  where  the  provincial  army 
would  find  Icfs  advantage  from  the  nature  of  the  coun- 
try than  in  the  Jerfeys. 

The  navigation  from  Delaware  to  Chefapeak  took 
up  the  bed  part  of  the  month  of  AuguA,  and  that  up 
the  bay  itfelf  was  extremely  ditficult  and  tedious.  At 
lafl,  having  failed  up  the  river  Elk,  as  far  as  was  prac- 
ticable, the  troops  were  landed  withoutoppoiition,  and 
fet  forward  on  their  intended  expedition.  On  the 
newsof  theirarrival  at  Chelapeak,  General  Wafliing- 
ton left  the  Jerfeys,  and  haftened  to  the  relief  of  Phi- 
ladelphia ;  and  in  the  bcginningof  September  met  the 
royal  army  at  Brandy-wine  Creek  about  mid- way,  be- 
tween the  head  of  the  Elk  and  Philadelphia.  Here 
he  adhered  to  hisformer  method  of  fkirmilliingandha- 
raffing  the  royal  army  on  its  march  ;  but  as  this  pro- 
ved inl'ufficient  to  ftop  its  progrcfs,  he  retired  to  that 
fide  of  the  creek  next  to  Philadelphia,  with  an  intent 
to  difpute  the  palfagc.  This  brought  on  a  general  en- 
gagement on  the  nth  September.  The  royal  army 
advanced  at  day  break  in  two  columns,  commanded 
by  lieutenant  general  Knyphaufcn,  and  by  lord  Corn- 
wallis.  The  firll  took  the  dired  road  to  Chadd's  Ford, 
and  made  a  (hew  of  palTing  it,  in  front  of  the  main  bo- 
dy of  the  Americans.  At  the  fame  time  the  other 
column  moved  up  on  the  weft  fide  of  the  Brandywine 
to  its  fork,  and  crolfedboth  its  branches  about  2  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon,  and  then  marched  down  on  the  ea(l 
fide  thereof,  with  the  view  of  turning  the  right  wing 
of  their  adverfaries. 

This  ihcy  etfected  and  compelled  them  to  retreat 
with  great  lofs.   -General  Knyphaufcn  amufed  tic  A- 


mencanswith  the  appearance  of  crofling  the  ford,  but    Amerie». 

did  not  attempt  it  until  lord  Cornwallis  having  crolf-  ' •- ' 

ed  above  and  moved  down  on  the  oppofitc  lide,  had 
commenced  bis  attack.  Knyphaufcn  then  crolFed  the 
ford,  and  attacked  the  troops  polled  for  its  defence. 
Theie,  after  a  feverc  conflia,  were  compelled  togive  261 
way.  The  retreat  of  the  Americans  foon  became  American* 
general,  and  was  continued  to  Chcfter,  under  cover  of  <l<:f"«d- 
general  Weeden's  brigade,  which  came  off  in  good 
order.  The  final  ilTuc  of  battles  often  depends  on  fmall 
circumftances,  which  human  prudence  cannot  con- 
trol---one  of  thefe  occurred  here,  and  prevented  gene- 
ral Walhington  from  executing  a  bold  dclign,  to  efTecl 
which,  his  troops  were  adually  in  motion.  This  was 
to  have  crolfed  the  Brandywine,  and  attacked  Knyp- 
haufcn, while  general  Sullivan  and  lord  Stirling,  Ihould 
keep  earl  Cornwallis  in  check.  In  the  mofl  critical 
moment,  general  Walhington  received  intelligence 
which  he  was  obliged  to  credit,  that  the  column  of  lord 
Cornwallis  had  been  only  making  a  feint,  and  was  re- 
turning tojoin  Knyphaufcn.  This  prevented  the  exe- 
cution of  a  plan,  which,  if  carried  into  effeCl,  would 
probably  have  given  a  dittisrcnt  turn  to  the  events  of 
the  day.  The  killed  and  wounded  in  the  royal  army, 
werenearlix  hundred.  The  lofs  of  the  Americans  was 
twice  that  number.  The  celebrated  Marquis  de  la  Kay- 
eite  here  firftbled  in  ihecaufc  ot  liberty ,  which  he  had 
efpoufed  with  enthufiadic ardor.  His  wound  was  (light,, 
but  it  endeared  him  to  the  Americans. 

The  lofs  of  this  battle  proved  alfo  the  lofs  of  Phi- 
ladelphia. General  Walhington  retired  towards  Lan- 
cafter,  tofave  the  flores  which  had  been  depolitcd  at 
Reading.     But  though  he  could  not  prevent  the  lofs 
of  Philadelphia,  lie  (till  adhered  to  bis  original  plan  of        263 
diftreiring  the  royal  party,  by  laying  ambulhes  and  An  Am«- 
cutting  oft  detached  parties;  but  in  tins  he  was  lefsfuc-  "can  J<;- 
cefsful  than  formerly ;  and  one  of  his  one  detachments  tachmert 
which  lay  in  ambufli  in  a  wood  were  thcmfclvesfurpri-  ^"TV'^'* 
fed  and  entirely  defeated,  with  the  lofs  of  300  killed  ^j  ,,^1^"" 
and  wounded,  befides  70  or  80  taken,  and  all  their  great 
arms  and  baggage.  flaughter. 

General  Howe  now  perceiving  that  the  Arafricans 
would  not  venture  another  battle  even  for  the  fake  of       *"*, 
their  capital,  took  peaceable  poUefTion  of  it  on  the  f^°^l 
26th  of  September.      His  firfl  care  was  then  to  cuttatespof- 
off,  by  means  of  flrong  batteries,  the  commnnication  fcffion  ot 
between  the  upper  and  lower  parts  of  the  river;  which  Phila.ld^ 
was  executed,  noiwithflanding  the  oppofitionof  fomc  P*^'*- 
American  armed  velfels  ;  one  of  which,  carrying  36 
guns,  was  taken.     His  next  talk  was  to  open  a  com- 
munication with  it  by  fea  ;  and  this  was  a  work  of 
no  fmall  difnculty.     A  vaft  number  of  batteries  and 
forts  had  been  erefled,  and  immenfe  machines  formed 
like  chivaux  di  frize,  from  whence  they  took  their 
name,  funk  in  the  river  to  prevent  its  navigation.  As 
the  fleet  was  fcni  round  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  in 
order  to  co-operate  with  the  array,  this  work,  how- 
ever difficult,  was  accompliflied  ;  nor  did  the  provin- 
cials give  much  oppolition,  as  well  knowing  that  all 
places  of  this  kind  were  now  untenable.     General       i^j 
Walhington,  however,  took  the  advantage  of  the  royal  Royal  ai^. 
army  being  divided  to  attack  the  camp  of  the  princi-  my  "tack- 
pal  divifion  of  it  that  lay  at  German  town,  in  the  ncigk-  "*  "  ^"- 
bourhood  of  Philadelphia.     In  this  he  met  with  very  """W^- 
link  fucccfs  ;  for  though  he  reached  the  place  of  defli- 

nation 


A  M  E 


[     598     ] 


A  M 


pulled. 


Hnwfty'i 

V..1.  ii. 
p.  17. 


Amer!c>,    ngtion  \3J  clircc  o'clock  in  the  morning,  the  patrolcs 

" '■' '  had  time  to  call  the  troops  to  arms.     The  Americans, 

notwiihrtanding  niadeavcry  rcfolutc  attack  :  b.itthcy 
were  received  with  fomuch  bravery,  that  they  were 
_,  *,  compelled  to  abandon  the  attempt,  and  retreat  in  ijrcat 
ricans  re-  li'loro"  •  With  the  advantage, however,  ot  carryingort 
their  cannon,  though  pnrlUed  for  a  conlidcrablc  way, 
after  having  upwards  of  200  killed,  and  about  500 
•wounded,  and  upwards  of  400  taken  prifoners,  among 
whom  were  54  oHicers.  On  the  Britilh  fide,  the  lols 
amounted  to  450  wounded  and  prifoners, and  70  killed 
hut  among  the  lall  were  General  Agnew and  Colonel 
Bird,  w  it hfonie other  excellent  officers. 

TheUriiilliwerc  well  apprizcd.that  without  the  com- 
mand of  the  Delaware,  t  heir  polleflion  of  Philadelphia 
would  be  of  no  advantage.  They  therefore  Itrained 
every  nerve,  to  open  the  navigation  of  that  river, ---to 
this  end  lord  Howe  had  early  taken  the  moft  eft'edual 
ineafures  for  conducting  the  fleet  and  tranfports  round 
from  the  Chefapcak  to  the  Delaware,  and  drew  them 
up  on  the  Pcnnfylvania  (hore,  from  Rcedy-llland  to 
New  CalUe.  Eirly  in  Otlobcr,  a  detachment  from  the 
Britilh  army  crollcd  the  Delaware,  with  a  view  of  dif- 
lodging  the  Americans  from  Billingfport.  On  theirap- 
proath,  the  place  was  evacuated.  Asthe  feafon  ad- 
vanced, more  vigorous  meafures  for  removing  tlic  ob- 
llrudions  were  concerted  between  the  general  and  the 
admiral.  Batteries  were  erected  on  the  Pcnnfylvania 
Ihorc  to  alhft  in  dillodf;ing  the  Americans  from  Mud- 
Idand.  At  the  fame  lime  Count  Donop with  20ooracn, 
having  trolfcdinto  New-Jerfcy,  oppolite  to  Philadel- 
phia, marched  down  on  the  eallern  fide  of  the  Dela- 
ware, to  attack  the  redoubt  at  Kcd-Bank.  This  was 
defended  by  about  400  men  under  tlie  command  of 
colonel  Greene.  The  attack  immediately  commenced 
by  a  fmart  cannonade,  under  cover  of  which  the  Count 
advanced  to  tlic  redoubt.  This  place  was  intended  for 
a  much  larger  gariilon  than  was  then  in  it.  It  had 
therefore  become  necclfary  to  run  a  line  in  the  mid- 
dle thereof,  and  one  part  of  it  was  evacuated.  That 
part  was  ealily  carried  by  the  ad'ailants  on  which  they 
indulged  in  loud  huzzas  for  their  fuppofed  vidlory. 
The  garrifon  kept  up  a  fcvcre  well  directed  fire  on  the 
allailants  by  which  they  were  compelled  to  retire. 
Theyfjffered  n»t only  iniheaffault, but  intheapproach 
to,  and  retreat  from  the  fort.  There  whole  lofs  in 
killed  and  wounded  was  about  400.  Count  Donop  was 
mortally  wounded  and  taken  prifoncr.  Congrefs  re- 
folved  toprcfent  colonel  Greene  with  a  fword  for  his 
good  conduct  on  this  occafion.  An  attack  made  about 
the  fame  time  on  fort  Mifflin  by  men  of  war  and 
frigates,  was  not  more  fuccefsful  than  the  alfault  on 
Red-Bank.  The  Augufta  man  of  war  of  64  guns, 
and  the  Merlin,  two  of  the  veifels  which  were  enga- 
war  buxae.  ged  in  it,  got  a  ground.  The  former  was  fired  and 
blew  up.     The  latter  was  evacuated. 

Though  tlic  firft  attempts  of  the  Britilh,  for  open- 
ing the  navigation  of  the  Delaware,  were  unfucccfs- 
ful,  they  carried  their  point  in  another  way  that  was 
unexpected.  The  chevaux  de  frife,  having  been  funk 
fomc  confidcrable  time,  the  current  of  the  water  was 
diverted  hy  this  great  bulk  into  new  channels.  In 
eonfcquence  thereof  the  palfage  between  the  iltands 
and  the  Pcnnfylvania  fliore  was  fo  deepened  as  to  ad- 
mit vefTels  of  fomc  confidcrable  draught  of  water. 


i67 
BritiOi 
fliips  of 


Through  this  paffage,  the  Vigilant,  a  Iirgc  fiiip,  ctit  Amtric*. 
down  fo  as  to  draw  but  little  water,  mounted  witli  24  v  • 
pounders,  maile  her  way  10  a  poiuion  from  which  Ihc 
might  enfilade  the  works  on  Mud-liland.  This  gave 
the  Britidi  fuch  an  advantage,  that  tiic  poll  was  no 
longer  tenable.  Colonel  Smith,  wlio  had  with  great 
gallantry  defended  the  fort  from  the  latter  end  of 
September,  to  the  i  ith  of  November,  being  wound- 
ed, was  removed  to  the  main.  Within  five  days  af- 
ter his  removal,  major  Thayer,  who  as  a  volunteer 
had  nobly  ofiered  to  take  charge  of  this  dangerous 
poll,  was  obliged  to  evacuate  it. 

This  event  did  not  take  place  till  the  works  were 
entirely  beat  down---evcry  piece  of  cannon  difmoun- 
tcd,  and  one  of  the  Britilh  Ihips  fo  near  that  flic  thrcNT 
granadoes  into  the  fort,  and  killed  the  men  uncover- 
ed in  the  platform.     The  troops  who  had  fo  bravcljr 
defended  fort   Mifflin,  made   a  fiife  retreat  to  Red- 
Bank.     Congrefs  voted  fwords  to  be  given  to  lieute- 
nant colonel  Smith  and  Commodore  Hazlewood,  for       jgg 
their  gallant  defence  of  the  Delaware.    Within  three  All  the 
days  after  Mud-Iiland  was  evacuated,   the  gariifon  fort«  near 
was  alio  withdrawn  from  Red- Bank,  on  the  approach  l^h'ladcl- 
of  lord  Cornwallis,  at  the  head  of  a  large  force  pre-  ^^^  "'^"- 
pared  to  allault  it.     Someof  the  American  gallics  and 
armed  vefl'els  cfcapcd  by  keeping  clofe  in  with  the 
Jerley  Ihorc,  to  places  of  fecuriiy  above  Philadelphia, 
but  r  7  of  them  were  abandoned  by  their  crews,  and 
fired.     Thus  the  Britilh   gained  a  free   communica- 
tion between  their  army  and  fliipping.      This  event 
was  to  them  very  dtiirable.     They  had  bven  prcvi- 
oudy  obliged  to  draw  their  provilions   from   Chcfter, 
a  dillance  of  fixteen  miles,  at  fomc  rifque,  and  a  cer- 
tain great  expence.     The  long  protraitcd  defence  of 
the  Delaware,  deranged  the  plans  of  the  Britilli,  for 
the  remainder  of  the  campaign,  and   confequently 
favcd  the  adjacent  country. 

Thus  the  campaign  of  177  7,  in  Penfylvania,  conclu- 
ded, upon  the  whole,  fuccclsfuUy  on  the  part  of  the 
Britilh.  In  the  north,  however,  matters  wore  a  difFc-  s6j 
rent  afpect.  The  expedition  in  that  quarter  had  been  E»pcditio« 
projected  by  the  Briiilh  miniflry  as  the  moft  ell'eiflual  projc^ed 
method  thai  could  be  taken  to  erufli  the  colonies  at  once.  !?^'"  ^ 
The  four  provinccsof  New -England  hadorigiually  be-  \^^^' ' 
gini  the  confederacy  agaiuft  Britain,  and  were  ftill 
coiilidered  as  the  moft  active  in  the  continuation  ot  it  ; 
and  it  was  thought,  that  any  impreflion  made  upon 
them,  would  contribute  in  an  cfieChial  manner  t«  tjic 
reduction  of  all  the  reft.  For  this  purpofe,  an  army  of 
4000  chofcn  Britifli  troops  and  5000  Germans  were 
put  under  the  command  of  General  Burgoyne  ;  Gene- 
ral Carlcton  was  direCled  to  ufe  his  interell  with  the 
Indians  to  perfuade  them  to  join  in  this  expedition  ; 
and  the  province  of  ^iicbcc  was  to  furnilh  large  par- 
ties to  join  in  the  fame.  The  officers  who  command- 
ed i;nder  General  Burgoyne  were,  General  Philips  of 
the  artillery.  Generals  Frafer,  Pow  ell,  and  Hamilton, 
with  thcGcrinan  officersCencralReidefel  andSpcccht. 
The  foldiers,  as  has  already  been  obferved,  were  all 
excellently  difciplined,  and  had  beenkcpt  in  their  win- 
ter-quarters with  all  imaginable  care,  in  o:  dcr  to  pre- 
pare them  for  the  expedition  on  which  they  were  go- 
ing. To  aid  the  principal  expedition,  another  was 
projected  on  the  Mohawk  River  under  Colonel  St  Lc- 
gcr,  who  was  to  bcaffifted  by  Sir  John  Johnfon,  fon  to 

the 


A  M  E 


[    599    ] 


A  M  E 


»7I 
rcncral 
Urgoyne 
nucd  by 


America,    the  famous  Sir  William  Johnfoii  who  had  fo  grcutly 

■ — dillingiiilhcd  himfclf  in  the  war  of  lyjj. 

>    ^^.°     ,      Onthcaiftof  Tune  1777,  the  army  encamped  on 
lefcitcd  by  'hc  weftern  lidc  of  the  Lake  Champlain  ;  where,  being 
and  and     joined  by  a  conlidcrable  body  of  Indians,  General  Bur- 
rater,        goyne  made  a  fpeech,  in  which  it  is  faid  he  exhorted 
thcfe  new  allies,  but  inelfetlually,  to  lay  afide  their  fe- 
rocious and  barbarous  manner  of  making  war;  to  kill 
only  fuch  as  oppofed  thein  in  arms  ;  and  to  fparc  pri- 
foiiers,  with  fuch  women  and  children  as  Ihould  fall 
into  their  hands.  After  iffuing a  proclamation,  in  which 
the  force  of  Britain,  and  that  which  he  coniniandcd, 
was  fet  forth  in  very  oftentatious  terms,  the  campaign 
opened  with  the  fiegeof  Ticonderago.    The  place  was 
very  firong,  and  garrifoned  by  6000 men  under  Gene- 
lal  St  Clair  ;  ncvcrthelefs,  the  works  were  fo  cxten- 
iclodiins,  five,  that  even  this  number  was  fcarcc  fufficient  to  de- 
fend them  properly.     They  had  therefore  omitted  to 
fortify  a  rugged  eminence  called  Sngar-Hul,  the  top 
of  which  overlooked  and  efFcdually  commanded  the 
whole  works  ;  imagining,  perhaps,  that  the  difficulty 
of  theafcent  would  be  fufficient  to  prevent  the  enemy 
from  taking  polFeflion  of  it.     On  the  approach  of  the 
lirft  divilion  of  the  army,  the  provincials  abandoned 
and  ftt  fire  to  their  outworks  ;  and  fo  expeditious  were 
the  Britilh  imops,  that  by  the  5th  of  July  every  poft 
wasfccured  which  was  judged  nccelTary  for  inverting 
il  completely.   A  road  was  Ibon  after  made  to  the  very 
fuinmit  of  that  eminence  which  the  Americans  had 
fuppofed  could  not  be  afcended  ;  and  fo  much  were  they 
now  dilhearicncd,  that  they  inflanily  abandoned  the 
fort  entirely,  taking  the  road  to  Skenciborough,  a  place 
to  the  fouth  of  Lake  George  ;  while  their  baggage, 
with  what  artillery  and  military  ftores  theycould  carry 
off,  were  fent  to  the  fame  place  by  water.     But  the 
Briliih  generals  were  determined  not  to  let  them  pafs 
J.J       focalily.  Boih  were  purfued  and  both  overtaken. Their 
icoiidera-  armed  velFcls  conlilled  only  of  five   galleys  ;   two  of 
ihcfiegcd  which   Were   taken,  and  three  blown  up  ;  on  which 
d  taken,   they  fet  fire  to  their  boats  and  fortifications  at  Skenef- 
borough.     On   this  occafion  the  provincials  loft  200 
boats,  1 70  pieces  of  cannon,  wiih  all  their  provilions 
and  baggage.    Their  land-forces  under  Colonel  Fran- 
cis made  a  brave  defence  againft  General  Krafer  ;  and 
fuperiorinnun'ber.hidalmoft  overpowered  him, when 
General  Reidefel  with  a  large  body  of  Germans  came  to 
his  alfiftancc.  The  provincials  were  now  overpowered 
in  their  turn;  and  their  commander  being  killed,  they 
Hcd  on  all  fides  with  great  precipitation.     In  this  ac- 
tion 200  Americans  were  killed,  as  many  taken  pri- 
foncrs,  and  above  600  wounded,  many  of  whom  pe- 
rilhcd  in  the  woods  for  want  of  allillance. 

During  the  engagement  General  St  Clair  was  at 
Caftlcton,  about  lix  miles  from  the  place  ;  but  inftead 
of  going  forward  to  Kort  Anne,  the  next  place  of 
flrength,  he  repaired  to  the  woods  which  lie  between 
that  fortrcfsand  New-England.  General  Burgoyne, 
however,  detached  Colonel  Hiil  with  ihe  ninth  regi- 
ment, in  order  to  intercept  f.ich  as  Ihould  attempt  to 
retreat  towards  Kort  Anne.  On  his  way  he  met  with 
a  body  of  [he  Americans  more  numerous  than  his  own  ; 
but  after  an  engagement  of  three  hours,  they  were 
n  Aaat.  "^igcd  to  retire  with  great  lofs.  After  fo  many  dif- 
allers,  defpuiring  of  being  able  to  make  any  Aand  at 
Fort  Aunc,  ihcy  fet  lire  to  U  andfciired  to  Fort  Ld- 


»73 
ity  are 
kin  dc- 
(cd,  and 

lUdi'M 


ward.     In  all  thefe  engagements  the  lofs  of  killed  Araci.^a. 

and  wounded  in  the  royai  army  did  not  exceed  100  men.  ' >< ' 

General  Burgoyne  was  now  obliged  to  fufpcr.d  his 
operations  for  fonie  lime,  and  wait  at  Skencitorough 
for  the  arrival  of  hii  tents,  provilions,  &c.  but  employ- 
ed this  interval  in  making  roads  through  the  country 
about  St  Anne,  and  in  clearing  a  palDgc  for  his  troops       j,. 
to  proceed  againft  the  Americans.  This  was  attended  General 
with  incredible  toll  -,  but  all  obflades  were  furmountcd  Burgoyne 
with  equal  patience  and  refoluiiun  by  the  army.     In  raakc*  hi* 
fhort,  after  undergoing  the  utniofl  difliculty  and  ma- '"'"°'^''" 
king  every  exertion,  iic  arrived  with  his  army  before 


hdward 
nith  (:rcat 


cult). 


i-J 


Fort  Edward  about  the  end  of  Jul/.  Here  General  JiJ^', 
Schuyler  had  been  for  fome  time  ende3vour:ng  10  re- 
cruit the  Ihattered  .American  forces,  and  ]iad  been  join- 
ed by  General  St  Clair  with  the  remains  of  Iiis  army  ; 
the  garrifunof  Fort  George  alio,  lituated  on  the  lake  of 
that  name,  had  evacuated  the  place  and  retired  to  Fore 
Edward. 

But  on  the  approach  of  the  royal  army,  they    re-  Amcricsu- 
tired  from  thence  alio,  and  formed  their  head-quar- «'''- toSi- 
lers  at  Saratoga.     Notwithllaading  the  great  fuccefs  "-"S*- 
of  the  Briiifli  general,  they  Ihowed  not  the  leaR  dif- 
polition  to  fubmit,  but  feemed  only  to  confidcr  how 
they  might  make  the  moft  effcclual  reliilance.     For 
this  purpofc,  the  militia  was  e\cTy  where  raifed  and 
draughted  to  join  the   army  a:  Saratoga  ;  and  fuch 
numbersof  volunteers  were  daily  added,  that  ihey  foon 
began  to  recover  from  the  alarm  into  which  they  h»4 
been  thrown.      That  they  might  have  a  commander 
whofe  abilities  could  be  relied  on.  General  .^rnoU  was 
appointed,  who  repaired  to  Saratoga  with  a  conlidera- 
ble  train  of  artillery  j  but  receiving  intelligence  that 
Colonel  St  Legcr  was  proceeding  with  great  rapidity 
in  his  expedition  on  the  Mohawk  River,  he  removed  to 
Still  water,  a  place  about  half-way  between  Saratoga 
and  the  jundion  of  the  Mohaw-k  and  Kudfon's  Kivcr.       j.g 
The  Colonel,  in  the  mean  time,  had  advanced  as  far  Fort  Stan- 
as  Fort  Stanwix  ;   the  (iege  of  which  he  prelTed  with  wix  bciieg- 
grcat  vigour.    On  the  6th  of  Augult,  underftanding  ed. 
that  a  fupply  of  provilions,  efcorted  by  800  or  900  men, 
was  on  the  way  to  the  fort,  hedifpatchedSirJohnJohn-       177 
fon  with  a  ftrong detachment  to  intercept  it.  This  he  A  dctach- 
did  fo  efTedually,  that,  beiides  intercepting  the  pro- """"of  •^- 
vilions,  400  of  its  guard  were  ilain,  200  taken,  and  '"e'7'^*"» 
the  reft  efcaped  with  great  difficulty.     The  garrifon,  'V  "* 
however,  were  not  10  be  intimidated  by  the  threats  or  P""*" 
reprefentationsof  the  Colonel:  on  the  contrary,  they 
made  feveral  fuccefsful  failles  under  Colonel  \Villet, 
the  fecond  in  command  ;  and  this  gentleman,  in  com- 
pany with  another,  even  ventured outof the  fort, and, 
eluding  the  vigilance  of  the  enemy,  palled  ihrouhg 
them  in  order  to  haftcn  the  march  of  General  ArHold 
to  their  alTiftance.  ^.e 

Thus  the  affairs  of  Colonel  St  Lcger  ftcmed  to  be  The  I'udi- 
in  no  very  favourable  fituation  notwithftanding  his  late  ao<  dcfert 
fuccefs,  and  ihcy  were  foon  totally  ruined  by  the  defer-  ""d  f"'" 
tionof  the  Indians.  They  Lad  been  alarmed  by  the  re-  '•"  coloi;cl 
port  of  General  Aruold's  advancing  with  2000  men  ^*'.  " 
to  the  relief  of  the  fort  ;  and  while  the  Colonel  was 
atttuiptingtogivcibemencouragcmeni,anothcr  report 
was  fpread,  that  General  Burgoyne  had  been  defeated 
with  great  flaughter,  and  was  now  flying  before  the 
provincials.     On  this  he  was  obliged  to  do  as  they 
thought  proper :  and  the  retreat  could  not  be  ctl'eded 

wiihoHt 


fic^e. 


A  M  E 


[     600     ] 


A  M  E 


America. 


179 
GciutM 
Uurgiiyne 
dittrclTcd 
for  want  of 
provilions. 


280 
Makts  an 
jitlempt  on 
<hc  provin- 
cial maga- 
zincs  at 
i'enniug- 
ton. 


28 1 
Colonel 
i.laum  ut- 
terly dc- 
fejti.d  and 
t  alien  pri- 
foncr. 


Colonel 

jjreyman 

defeated. 


wiiliout  the  lofs  of  the  tents,  the  artillery  anJ  milita- 
ry llores. 

General  Burgoync,  in  the  mean  lime,  noiwithfland- 
ing  all  the  dithculiics  he  had  already  fulUiucd,  tonnd 
that  he  mull  llill  encounter  more.     The  roads  he  had 
made  with  fo  much  labour  and  pains  were  deltroyed, 
citlier  by  thcwetnersofthcfeafouorby  thcAmcricansj 
fo  that  the  provilions  he  brought  from  Kort  George 
could  not  arrive  at  his  camp  without  the  mofl  prodigi- 
ous toil.  On  hearing  of  the  licgc  of  Kort  Slanwix  by 
Colonel  St  Legcr,  he  determined  to  move  forward,  in 
hopes  of  incloling  the  enemy  betwixt  his  own  army 
and  that  of  St  Lcger,  or  of  obtaining  the  command  of 
all  the  country  between  Fort  Stanwix  and  Albany  ;  or, 
at  any  rate,  a  jundion  with  Colonel  St  Lcger  would  be 
cf!c(5led,  which  could  not  but  be  attended  with  the  moft 
happy  confcquenccs.  The  only  difficulty  was  the  want 
of  provilions;  and  this  it  was  propofed  to  remedy  by 
reducing   the   provincial   magazines  at   Bennington. 
For  this  purpofe.  Colonel  Baum,  a  German  officer  of 
great  bravery,  was  chofen  with  a  body  of  500  men. 
Tlie  plice  was  about  20  miles  from  Hudlbn's  Kiver; 
and  10  fupport  Colonel  Baum's  party,  the  whole  army 
marched  up  the  river's  bank,  and  encamped  almoft 
oppolite  to  Saratoga,  with   the  river  betwixt  it  and 
that  place.     An  advanced  party  was  ported  at  Batten 
Kill,  between  the  camp  and  Bennington,  in  order  to 
fupport  Colonel  Baum.     In  their  way  the  Briiilh  feiz- 
cd  a  large  fupply  of  eattle  and  provilions,  which  were 
immediately  fent  to  the  camp;  but  the  badnefs  ot  the 
roads  retarded  their  march  fo  much,  tliat  intelligence 
of  their  defign  was  fent  to  Bennington.    Underlland- 
ing  now  that  the  American  force  was  greatly  fupe- 
rior  to  his  ow  n,  tlie  Colonel  acquainted  the  General, 
^  ho  immediately  difpatclied  Colonel  Breyman  W'ith  a 
party  to  his  allillance  ;   but  through  the  fame  eaufes 
that  had  retarded  the  marcli  of  Colonel  Baum,  this  af- 
lillance  could  not  arrive  in  time.   General  i>tarke  who 
commanded  the  American  militia  at  Bennington,  en- 
gaged with  them  before  the  junition  of  the  two  royal 
detachments  could  beetftcleJ.    On  this  ocealion  about 
Sooundilcipliacd  militia,  without  bayonets,  or  a  fin- 
gle  piece  of  artillery,  attacked  and  routed  500  regu- 
lar troops  advantageoully  ported  behind  entrenchments 
— furnilhed  with  the  belt  arms,  and  defended  with 
two  pieces  of  artillery.     The  held  pieces  v^'ere  taken 
from  the   party  commanded   by  Col.  Baum,  and  the 
greateft  part  of  his  detachment  was  either  killed  or 
captured.  Colonel  Breyman  arrived  on  the  fame  ground 
and  on  the  fame  day,  but  net  till  the  attion  was  over. 
Inftead  of  meeting  his  friends,  as  heexpeftcd,  he 
found  himfclf  brilkly  attacked.     This  was  begun  by 
colonel  Warner,  (who  with  his  continental  regiment, 
which  having  been  fent  for  from  Manchefter,  came 
opportunely  at  this  time  J  and  was  well  fupported  by 
Stark's  militia,  which  had  juft  defeated   the  party 
commanded   by   colonel  Baum.     Breyman's   troops, 
tliough  fatigued  with  their  preceding  march,  behaved 
with  great  refolution,   but  were  at  length  compelled 
to  abandon  their  artillery  and  retreat.     In  thefe  two 
aftions  the  Americans  took  four  brafs  field  pieces, 
twelve  brafs  drums,  250  dragoon  fwords,  4  ammuni- 
tion waggons,  and  about  700  piifoners.     The  lols  of 
the  Americans,  inclulivc  of  their  wounded,  wasabout 
100  men. 


General  Burgoyne,  thus  difappointed  in  his  attempt    Amen'ci 
on  Bennington, applied  hiuifelf  with  indefatigable  diii-  »   - 

gence  to  procure  provilions  from  Fort  George  ;  and  ha- 
ving at  length  amalicd  a  fufficient  quantity  to  lall  for  a 
month,  he  threw  a  bridge  of  boats  over  the  river  Hud- 
fon,  which  he  crolkd  about  the  middle  of  September,        jg^ 
encamping  on  the  hills  and  plains  near  Saratoga.  As  The  Am 
foon   as    he  approached  the  provincial  army,  at  this  ricans  at- 
time  encamped  at  Still  wat«r  under  General  Gates,   he  ""^''  '*" 
determined  to  make  an  attack  ;  for  which  purpofe  he  '^"y^' 
put  himfclf  at  the  head  of  the  central  divilion  of  his       '^' 
army,  having  General  Frafer  and  Colonel  Breyman  on 
the  right,  with  Generals  Reidefel  and  Philips  on  the 
left,     in  this  poiition  he  advanced  on  the  19th  of 
September.     But  the  Americans  did  not  now  wait  to 
be  attacked:  on  the  contrary  they  attacked  the  cen- 
tral divilion  w:th  the  utmort  violence  ;  and  it  was  not        2S4 
until  General  Philips  with  the  artillery  came  up,  and  ^|"'  '" 
at  eleven  o'clock  at  night,  that  they  could  be  induced 


with 


gr« 


difficuit^r 
rcpuUcd. 


to  retire  to  their  camp.     On  this  occafion,  the  Britilh 
troops  loll  about  500  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  the 
Americans  about  ■^ig.     The  former  were  very  much 
alarmed  at  the  obltinute  refolution  Ihown  by  the  Ame- 
ricans, but  this  did  not  prevent  them  from  advancing, 
and  porting  themfelvcs   the  next  day  within  canon- 
(liot  of  their  lines.     But  their  allies  the  Indians  began  _,    ^   ,■ 
to  dcfert  in  great  numbers  ;  and  at  the  fame  time  the  ansdafer 
general  was  in  the  liighelt  degree  mortified  by  having 
no  intelligence  of  any  aliirtance  fiom  Sir  Henry  Clin-       ^o^ 
ton,    as  had  been  ftipulated.     He  now  received  a  let- ^^  |j„5r 
ter  from  him  by  which  he  was  informed  that  Sir  Hen-  from  Sit 
ry  iiitei\ded  to  make  a  diverlion  on  the  North  River  Henry 
in  his  favour.  This  afforded  but  Utile  comfort :  how-  <-'llnton, 
ever,  he  returned  an  anfwer  by  fcveral  trufty  perfons  "'""  t'='' 
whom  hedifpatched  different  ways,  rtating  his  pre-  L^,yn"''j"i 
fent  dirtrell'ed  lituation,  and  mentioning  that  the  pro-  f„„. 
villous  and  other  necelfarics  he  had  would  only  ena- 
ble him  to  hold  out  until  the  12th  of  October.  ^j. 
In  the  mean  time  the  Americans,  in  order  to  cut  Expcditi( 
off  the  retreat  of  the  Briiilh  army  in  the  mortcffedual  of  the  pr 
manner, undertook anexpeditionagainrtTiconderago;  vinciaU  i 
but  were  obliged  to  abandon  the  entcrprife  after  ha-  f*'"'^  ^' 
ving  fiirprifedall  the  out-ports,  and  taken  a  great  num-  '**"  '"^ 
ber  of  boats  with  fome  armed  veilels,  and  a  number  of 
prifoners.     The  army  under  general  Burgoyne,  how- 
ever, continued  tolabour  under  the  greatell  dillrelles; 
fo  that  in  the  beginning  of  Oelober  he  had  been  obli- 
ged to  diminilh  the  foldiers  allowance.  On  the  7th  of 
that  month  he  determined  to  move  towards  the  enemy. 
For  this  purpofe  he  fent  a  body  of  i  joo  men  to  recon- 
noitre their  left  wing;  intending,  if  poffible,  to  break       288 
through  it  in  order  to  effect  a  retreat.     The  detach-  They  ma 
ment,  however,  had  not  proceeded  far  when  a  fpirit-  3  bold 
cd  attack  was  made  upon  the  left  wing  of  the  Britiffi  at"<:k  on 
army,  which  was  w  ith  great  difficulty  preferved  from  '  '  '"^ 
being  entirely  broken  by  a  reinforcement  brought  up        ^g. 
by  general  Frafer,  who  was  killed  in  the  attack.  Af-  Rill  Uer 
ter  the  troops  had  with  the  moft  defperate  efforts  re-  ral  Frafti 
gained  their  camp,  it  was  moft  vigoroully  alfaulted  by 
general  Arnold  ;  who,  notwiihllanding  all  oppofition, 
would  have  forced  the  entrenchments,  had  he  not  re-        ipo 
ceived  a  dangerous  wound,  w  hich  obliged  him  to  re-  And  dcfi 
tire.     Thus  the  attack  failed  on  the  left,  but  on  the  '•'«  Get- 
right  the   camp  of  the  German  referve  was  forced,  '"''""  "' 
Colonel  Breyman  killed,  and  his  countrymen  defeat-  l^^gbtei 


A  M  E 


f     6oi     J 


A  M  E 


191 

The  roy»l 
army  in 


rounded. 


192 
Attempts 
a  retreat 
without 
fucccit. 


America,  ej  with  great  (laughter,  and  the  lofs  of  all  their  artil- 

" " '  lery  and  baggage. 

This  was  by  far  the  heaviefl  lofs  the  Briiifli  army 
had  fuftaincd  iiiice  the  action  at  Bunker's  Hill.  The 
lift  of  killed  and  wounded  amounted  to  near  1 200,  cx- 
clufive  of  the  Germans ;  but  the  greatell  misfortune 
was,  that  the  Americans  had  now  an  opening  on  the 
danger  of  right  andrcarof  the  Britilh forces,  fo  thatthearmy  was 
being  fur-  threatened  with  entire  dellruflion.  This  obliged  Ge- 
neral Burgoyne  once  more  to  fliift  his  pofition,  that  the 
Americans  might  alfo  be  obliged  to  alter  theirs.  This 
was  accomplilhedon  the  night  of  the  7th,  without  any 
lofs,  and  all  the  next  day  he  continued  to  offer  the  Ame- 
ricans battle;  but  they  were  now  too  well  afllircd  of 
obtaining  a  complete  victory,  by  cutting  oft  all  fupplies 
from  the  Britilli,  to  riik  a  pitched  battle.  Wherefore 
they  advanced  on  the  right  fide,  in  order  toinclofe  him 
entirely  ;  which  obliged  the  General  to  diredt  a  retreat 
towards  Saratoga.  But  the  Americans  had  now  ftation- 
cd  a  great  force  on  the  ford  at  Hudfon's  river,  fo  that 
the  only  poffibility  of  retreat  was  by  fccuring  a  paflagc 
to  Lake  George  ;  and  to  effeft  this,  a  body  of  work- 
men were  detached,  with  a  flrong  guard,  to  repair  the 
roads  and  bridges  that  led  to  Fort  Edward.  As  foon 
as  they  were  gone,  however,  the  Americans  feemed  to 
prepare  for  an  attack  ;  which  rendered  it  necclfary  to 
recal  the  guard,  and  the  workmen  being  ofcourfe  left 
cxpofed,  could  not  proceed. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  boats  which  conveyed  provi- 
fions  down  Hudfon's  river  were  expofed  to  the  conti- 
nual fire  of  the  American  niarkfmen,  who  took  many 
of  them;  fo  that  it  became  neceflary  to  convey  the 
provilions  over  land.  In  this  extreme  danger,  it  was 
refolved  to  march  by  night  to  Fort  Edward,  forcing 
the  palFagcs  at  the  fords  either  above  or  below  the 
place  ;  and,  in  order  to  eff'efl  this  the  more  eafily,  it 
was  refolved  that  the  foldicrs  lliould  carry  their  provi- 
fions  on  their  backs,  leaving  behind  their  baggage  and 
every  other  incumbrance.  But  before  this  could  be 
executed.intelligencc  was  received  that  the  Americans 
had  raifedftrong  entrench  mentsoppofite  to  thefe  fords, 
well  provided  with  cannon,  and  that  tiiey  had  likewile 
taken  polfcirion  of  the  riling  ground  between  Fort 
George  and  Fort  Edward,  which  in  like  manner  was 
provided  Kith  canon. 

All  this  time  the  American  army  was  incrcadng  by 
fituationof  the  continual  arrival  of  militia  and  volunteers  from  all 
the  royal  parts.  Their  parties  extended  all  along  the  oppofite 
army.  bank  of  Hundfon's  River,  and  fome  had  even  palled  it 

in  order  to  obfcrve  the  leaft  movement  of  the  Britilh 
army.     Every  part  of  the  Britilh  camp  was  reached 
by  the  grape,  and  ritie-iliot  of  the  Americans,  bclides 
a  difcharge  from  their  artillery,  which  wasalmoft  in- 
cciraiu.    In  this  ftate  of  extreme  dillrcfs  and  danger, 
the  aiiny  continued  with  the  greateft  conllancy  and 
pcrfeverance  till  the  evening  of  tlie  13th  of  October, 
when  an  inventory  of  provifions  being  taken,  it  was 
found  that  no  more  remained  than  what  were  fuffici- 
jp4       ent  to  ferve  for  three  days  ;  and  a  council  of  war  be- 
lt itobliged  ing  called,  it  was  unanimoully  determined  that  there 
«o  capita-    was  no  method  now  remaining  but  to  treat  with  the 
'*"•  Americans,     in  conlequcnce  of  this,  a  ncgociation 

was  opened  next  day,  which  Cpeedily  terminated  in 
a  capitulation  of  the  whole  Britifli  army  ;  the  arti- 
cles of  which  were  I.  The  troops  under  lieut.  gen. 
Vol.  I. 


293 
Diftreffed 


Burgoyne,  to  march  out  of  their  camp  with  the  ho-    Anaerici. 

nours  of  war,  and  the  artillery  of  the  intrenchmenti   «' ' 

to  the  verge  of  the  river  where  the  old  fort  flood, 
where  the  arms  and  artillery  are  to  be  left. — The  arms 
to  be  piled  by  word  of  command  from  their  own  offi. 
cers  : — 2.  A  free  palfage  to  be  granted  to  the  army 
underlict.  gen.  Burgoyne  to  Great-Britain,  upon  con- 
dition of  not  ferving  again  in  North-America  during 
the  prefent  conteft;  and  the  port  of  Bofton  to  be  af- 
figned  for  the  entry  of  tranfports,  to  receive  the  troops 
whenever  gen.  Howe  ihall  fo  order: — 3.  Should  any 
cartel  take  place,  by  which  the  army  under  lieut.  gen. 
Burgone,  or  any  part  of  it,  may  be  exchanged,  the 
foregoing  article  to  be  void,  as  far  as  fuch  exchange 
lliall  be  made : — 4.  The  army  under  lieut.  gen.  Bur- 
goyne to  march  to  Maflachufeus-Bay,  by  the  caficft, 
andmoft  expeditious  and  convenient  route  ;  and  to  be 
quartered  in,  near,  or  as  convenient  as  poffible  to  Bof- 
ton,  that  the  march  of  the  troops  may  not  be  delayed 
when  tranfports  arrive  to  receive  them : — The  troops 
to  be  fupplied  on  the  march,  and  during  their  being 
in  quarters,  with  provifions,  by  major  general  Gates's 
orders,  at  the  fame  rate  of  rations  as  the  troops  of  his 
own  army ;  and,  if  poiTiWe,  the  officers  horfes  and 
cattle  are  to  be  fupplied  with  forage  at  the  ufual 
rates : — 6.  All  the  officers  to  retain  their  caraiages, 
bat-horfes  and  other  cattle,  and  no  baggage  to  be  mo- 
lefted  or  fearched  ;  lieut.  gen.  Burgoyne  giving  his 
lionour,  that  there  are  no  public  llores  contained  there- 
in. Major  gen.  Gates  will  ofcourfe  take  the  necefla- 
ry meafures  for  the  due  performance  of  this  article: 
fliould  any  carri.iges  be  wanted  during  the  march,  for 
the  tranfportation  of  officers  baggage,  they  are,  if 
poffible,  to  be  fupplied  by  the  country  at  the  ufual  rates  : 
—  7.  Upon  the  march,  and  during  the  time  the  army 
Ihall  remain  in  quarters,  in  the  MalTachufctts-Bay, 
the  officers  are  not,  as  far  as  circumllances  will  admit, 
to  be  feparated  from  their  men — The  officers  are  to 
be  quartered  according  to  their  rank,  and  are  not  to 
be  hindered  from  their  aflembling  their  men  for  roll- 
callings,  and  otlier  necelfary  piirpofes  of  regularity  : 
— 8.  All  corps  whatever  of  lieut.  gen.  Burgoyne's 
army,  whether  compofcd  of  failors,  batteau-men,  ar- 
tificers, drivers,  independent  companies,  and  follow- 
ers of  the  army,  of  whatever  country,  fliall  be  includ- 
ed in  the  fulleft  fenfe  and  utmoft  extent  of  the  above 
articles,  and  comprehended  in  every  refpect  as  Bri- 
tilh fubjects: — 9.  All  Canadians,  and  perfons  belong- 
ing to  the  Canadian  eftabliHimen  t,  coulifting  of  failors, 
batteau-men,  artificers,  drivers,  independent  compa- 
nies, and  many  other  followers  of  the  army,  who 
come  under  no  particular  defcription,  are  to  be  per- 
mitted to  return  there  :  they  are  to  be  conducted  im- 
mediately,  by  the  fliorteft  ro.ite,  to  the  firft  Britilh 
poll  on  Lake  George,  are  to  be  fupplied  with  provi- 
fions in  the  fame  manner  as  the  other  troops,  and  to 
be  bound  by  the  fame  condition  of  not  ferving  during 
the  prefent  conteft  in  Nonh-Aineriea: — 10.  PalTports 
to  be  immediately  granted  for  three  officers,  not  ex- 
ceeding the  rank  of  captains,  who  Ihall  be  appointed 
by  lieut.  gen.  Burgoyne,  to  carry  difpatches  to  Sir 
Wm.  Howe,  Sir  Guy  Carleton,  and  to  Great-Britain 
by  the  way  of  New-York;  and  major  general  Gates 
engages  the  public  faith,  that  thefe  difpatches  (lull 
not  be  opened.  Thefe  officers  are  to  fct  out  immedi- 
4  G  ately 


A  M  E 


[     602     1 


A  M  E 


Ancric:.  atcly  afier  receiving  their  difpatchcs,  and  arc  to  tra- 
■  "  '  vel  by  the  flioncft  route,  and  in  the  moft  expeditious 
manner: — 11.  During  tlie  itay  of  the  troops  in  the 
IVlaiiachufctis-Bay,  the  officers  arc  to  be  admitted  on 
parole,  and  arc  to  be  permitted  to  wear  their  iidc  arms: 
— i;.  Should  the  army  under  lieut.  gen.  Burgoyne, 
rind  it  neccil'ary  to  fend  for  their  cloathing  and  other 
baggage  from  Canada,  they  are  to  be  permitted  to  do 
it  in  the  moll  convenient  manner,  and  ncccifary  pall- 
ports  to  be  granted  for  that  purpol'c  : — i  3.  Thefc  ar- 
ticles are  to  be  mutually  ligned  and  exchanged  co-mor- 
row morning  at  nine  o'clock  ;  and  the  troops  under 
licui.  gen.  Burgoyne,  are  to  march  out  of  their  in- 
irenchmcnts  at  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  Camp 
at  Saratoga,  Oelober  16,  1777. 

HORATIO  GATES,  Major-General. 

To  prevent  any  doubts  that  niiglit  arife  from  lieut. 
gen.  Burgoyne's  name  not  being  mentioned  in  the 
above  treaty,  major  general  Gates  hereby  declares, 
that  he  is  underltood  to  be  comprehended  in  it,  as 
fully  as  if  his  name  had  been  fpecitically  mentioned. 

HORATIO  GATKS. 

Such  was  the  impatience  of  fome  of  the  militia  to 
return  home  before  the  royal  army  had  been  brought 
to  furrender,  and  fo  little  their  concern  to  be  fpceta- 
lors  of  the  event,  that  one  of  the  Northampton  regiments 
went  off  the  day  before  tlie  liag  came  out  from  Bur- 
goyne. Another  regiment  took  iiftlf  away  wliile  the 
treaty  was  in  agitation.  But  the  fate  of  the  army  will 
confirm  the  truth  of  what  its  commander  wrote  to 
lord  George  Germain,  Aiigiill  the  20lh,  "  the  great 
bulk  of  tilt  country  is  undoubtedly  with  the  congrefs 
in  principle  and  zeal."  When  after  the  convention 
the  oiRcers  went  into  the  American  camp,  they  were 
furprifed  ;  and  fome  of  them  faid,  that  of  all  the  camps 
they  had  ever  fecn  in  Germany,  or  elfewhere,  they 
never  faw  any  better  difpofcd  and  fecured. 

The  return  (igncdhy  gen.  Burgoyne,  of  the  foreign- 
ers at  the  time  of  the  convention,  amounted  to  2412. 
The  Brililh  coiilifled,  according  to  him,  of  10  officers 
prefent — 145  commilfioncd — the  ftatf  26 — fergeants 
and  drummers  297 — rank  and  file  2901 — in  all  3^79: 
this  added  to  the  Germans,  makes  5791.  The  Ame- 
rican acco*ir.t,  to  lliow  what  was  the  fum  total  of  the 
royal  army  aJling  in  the  northern  department  againfl 
the  country,  goes  on  to  reckon,  the  fick  taken  928 — 
the  wounded  528 — prlfoncrs  of  war  before  the  con- 
vention 400 — defertcrs  3C0 — lofl  at  Bennington  1220 
— killed  between  the  i  7th  of  September  and  the  i8th" 
of  October  600 — taken  at  Tyconderoga  41  3 — killed 
in  gen.  Herkimer's  battle  about  300— makini^  in  all 
4689.  According  to  this  way  of  reckoning,  the  royal 
force  was  10480.  It  was  probably  full  10,000  llrong, 
including  Canadians  and  provincials,  and  excUilive  of 
Indians,  drivers,  futilcrs,  &c.  Among  the  prifoners 
taken  were  fix  members  of  parliament. 

The  train  of  brafs  artillery  was  a  fine  acquifition  ; 
it  conlilled  of  2  twenty-four  pounders — 4  twelves — 
20  (ixes — 6  threes — a  eight  inch  howitzers — 5  five 
and  a  half  royal  ditto — and  three  five  and  a  half  inch 
royal  mortars — in  all,  42  pieces  of  ordnance.  There 
were  alio  4''47  mulkcts — 6coo  dozen  of  cartridges, 
befidc  Ihot,  carcalles,  cafes,  fiiells,  &c. 

Burj^oyne.  was  dclirous  of  a  general  return  of  the 
army  commanded  by  Gates  at  the  time  of  the  conven- 


tion. The  latter  underftood  him,  and  was  careful 
not  to  leilcn  the  return  by  fupprclling  a  fingle  man. 
The  contijicntals,  all  ranks  included,  were  9093  ;  the 
militia  4129,  in  all  132-22  ;  but  of  the  former,  the  lick 
and  on  furlough  were  2103;  and  of  the  latter,  561. 
The  number  of  the  militia  was  continually  varying  ; 
and  many  of  them  were  at  a  conlidcrable  dillancc 
from  the  oamp. 

Sir  Henry  Clinton,  in  the  mean  time,  had  failed  up 
tlie  North  River,  and  dellroycd  the  two  forts  called 
Montgomery  and  Clinton,  with  Fort  Conftitution,  and 
another  place  called  Continental  Village,  where  were 
barracks  for  2000  men.  Seventy  large  cannon  were 
carried  away,  belides  a  number  of  fmaller  artillery, 
and  a  great  quantity  of  floreii  and  ammunition  ;  a  large 
boom  and  chain  reaching  acrofs  the  river  from  Fort 
Montgomery  to  a  point  of  land  called  St  Anthony's 
Nofe,  and  which  cofl  not  Icfs  than  L.  70,000  Ster- 
ling, were  partly  deftroyed  and  partly  carried  away, 
as  was  alfo  another  boom  of  little  lefs  value  at  Fort 
Conftitution.  The  lofs  of  the  Britilh  army  was  but 
fmuU  in  number,  though  fome  officers  of  great  merit 
were  killed  in  the  dittcrcnt  attacks. 

Another  attack  was  made  by  Sir  James  Wallace  with 
fome  frigates,  and  a  body  of  land-forces  under  Gene- 
ral Vaughan.  The  place  which  now  fuffcred  was 
named  Efopus  :  the  fortifications  were  deftroyed,  and 
the  town  iifelf  was  wantonly  reduced  to  aflves,  as  that 
called  Continental  Village  had  been  before.  Thus 
the  Brililh  armament  fpent  their  time  in  wafting  the 
adjacent  country,  when  by  pulhing  forward  136  miles 
in  lix  days  they  might  have  effedually  relieved 
Burgoyne. 

But  thefe  fucceflcs,  of  whatever  importance  they 
might  be,  were  now  difrcgarded  by  both  parties.  They 
ferved  only  to  irritate  the  Americans,  flulhed  with 
their  fnccels ;  and  they  were  utterly  infufficient  to 
raife  the  fpiritsof  the  Brililh,  who  were  now  thrown 
into  the  uimofl  difmay. 

On  the  i6thof  March  1778,  Lord  North  intimated 
to  the  houfe  of  commons,  that  a  paper  had  been  laid 
before  the  king  by  the  French  ambailador,  intimating 
the  conclufion  of  an  alliance  between  the  conrt  of 
France  and  the  United  States  of  America.  The  pre- 
liminaries of  this  treaty  had  been  concluded  in  the 
end  of  the  year  1  777,  and  a  copy  of  them  fcnt  to  con- 
grefs,  in  order  to  countcraiS  any  propofals  that  might 
be  made  in  the  mean  lime  by  the  Britilh  miniftry. 
On  the  6th  of  February  1778,  the  articles  were  for- 
mally figncd,  to  the  great  fatisfaftion  of  the  French 
nation.     They  were  in  fubftance  as  follows: 

1.  If  Great-Britain  fliould,  in  confequencc  of  this 
treaty,  proceed  to  boftiliiics  againft  France,  the  two 
nations  (hould  mutually  affiil  one  another. 

2.  The  main  end  of  the  treaty  was,  in  an  effedual 
manner  to  maintain  the  independency  of  America. 

3.  Should  thofe  places  of  North-America  ftill  fub- 
je<5t  to  Britain  be  reduced  by  the  colonies,  they  ftiould 
be  confederated  with  them,  or  fubjcded  to  their  jurif- 

4.  Should  any  of  the  Weft  India  iflands  be  reduced 
by  France,  ihey  ffiould  be  deemed  its  property. 

J.  No  formal  treaty  with  Great  Britain  ffiould  be 
concluded  cither  by  France  or  America  without  the 
coHfenc  of  each  other ;  and  it  was  mutually  engaged 

that 


Amerreav 


»95 

SucccUful 
expedition 
of  Sir  Hen- 
ry CUntoB. 


196 
Crtit  d»- 
jcdion  on 
account  of 
13urgoyne*5 
capture. 


«97 
Treaty  be- 
tween 
France  and 
America. 


A  M  E 


r  603  ] 


A  M  E 


Ame»ici.  that  they  flioulJ  not  lay  down  their  arms  t'll  the  in- 
"^ >'— — '  dependency  of  the  States  had  been  formally  acknow- 
ledged. 

6.  The  contrafting  parties  mutually  agreed  to  invite 
thofe  powers  that  had  received  injuries  from  Great 
Britain  to  join  the  common  caufe. 

7.  The  United  Slates  guaranteed  to  F'rance  all  the 
poflcflions  in  the  Well  Indies  Wliich  flic  fliould  con- 
«iucr  ;  and  France  in  her  turn  guaranteed  the  abfulute 
independency  of  the  States,  and  their  fupremc  autho- 
rity over  every  country  they  polTcired,  or  might  ac- 

t^8         quire  during  the  war. 
Bcbamoc-      The  notification  of  fuch  a  treaty  as  this  could  not 
caGoncd  by  [jm  [jc  looked  upon  as  a  declaration  of  war.     On  its 
the  treaty,  bejng  announced  to  the  houfc,  every  one  agreed  in  an 
addrefs  to  his  niajcfty,   promifing  to  Hand  by  him  to 
the  utmofl  in  the  prefcnt  emergency  ;  but  it  was  warm- 
ly contended  by  the  members  in  oppolition,  that  the 
prefcnt  miniftry  ought  to  be  removed  on  account  of 
their  numberlefs  blunders  and  mifcarriages  in  every 
inllance.     Many  were  of  opinion,  that  the  only  way 
to  extricate  the  nation  from  its  trouble  was  to  acknow- 
ledge the  independency  of  America  at  once  ;  and  thus 
they  might  ftill  do  with  a  good  grace  what  mull  ine- 
vitably be  done  at  lad,  after  expending  much  more 
blood  and  treafure  than  had  yet  been  lavilhed  in  this 
unhappy  conteft.     The  minifterial  party,  however, 
entertained  different  ideas.  Inftigated  by  zeal  for  the 
national  honour,it  was  determined  at  once  to  refent  the 
arrogance  of  France,  and  profccute  hofliiities  againft 
America  with  more  vigour  thancvcr,  fliould  the  terms 
jno       now  offered  them  be  rcjedlcd. 
Americani      The  Americans  in  the  mean  time  afllduoufly  em- 
fend  agcntj  ployed  their  agents  at  the  courts  of  Spain,  Vienna, 
to  different  Pruflia,  and  Tufcany,  in  order,  if  pofliblc,  to  conclude 
Gonrti.        alliances  with  them,  or  at  kaft  to  procure  an  acknow- 
ledgment of  their  independency.  As  it  had  been  report- 
ed that  Britain  intended  to  apply  for  aififlancc  to  Ruf- 
iia,  the  American  commilhoners  were  enjoined  to  ufe 
their  utmoft  intiuence  with  the  German  princes  to 
prevent  fuch  auxiliaries  from  marching  through  their 
territories,  and  to  endeavour  to  procure  the  rccal  of 
the   German  troops  already  fent  to  America.     To 
France  they  offered  aceihonof  fuch  Weft  India  iflands 
as  fliould  be  taken  by  the  united  ftrength  of  France 
and  America;  and  ihould  Britain  by  their  joint  en- 
deavours bcdifpofle  fled  of  Newfoundland, CapeBreton, 
and  Nova  Scotia,  thofe  territories  ftiould  be  divided 
betwixt  the  two  nations,  and  Great  Britain  be  totally 
excluded  from  the  hlhery.  Tiie  propofals  to  the  Spa- 
nifti  court  were,  that  in  cafe  they  fliould  think  pro- 
per to  efpoufe  their   quarrel,    the  American  ftates 
Jiould  afllll  in  reducing  I'enfacola  under  the  domini- 
on of  Spain,  provided  their  fubjeds  were  allowed  the 
free  navigation  of  the  river  Mifliflippi  and  the  ufe  of 
the  harbour  of  Penfacola;  and  they  further  offered, 
that,  if  agreeable  to  Spain,  they  would  declare  war 
againft  Portugal,  (liould  that  power  expel  the  Anieri- 
2o<3       can  fliips  from  its  ports. 
r.encral  In  the   mean  time  the  troops  under  General  Bur- 

liurgoync's  goyne  were  preparing  to  embark  for  Britain  accord- 
troops  de-    ing  to  ihc  convention  at  Saratoga  ;  but  congrcfs  having 
taint   in      j-eceivcd  information,  that  many  articles  of  animuni- 
tion  and  accoutrements   had  not  been   furrcndercd 
agreeably  to   the  ftipulated  terms,  and  fiudiug  fome 


caufe  to  appreliend,  that  fiuiftcr  dcfigns  were  h.ir-    America. 

bourcd  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain  to  convey  tlufc  ^ ' 

troops  tojoin  the  army  at  Philadelphia  or  New-York, 
pofitively  refufed  to  let  them  embark,  until  an  expli- 
cit ratification  of  the  convention  Ihould  be  propcrl/ 
notified  by  the  Britilli  court. 

The  feafon  for  aftion  was  now  approaching  ;  and 
congrcfs  was  indefatigable  in  iis  preparations  for  a  new 
campaign,  which  it  was  confidently  faid  woul  J  be  the 
laft.  Among  other  methods  taken  for  this  purpofe,  it 
was  recommended  to  all  the  young  gcnilcmcn  of  ihc 
colonics  to  form  thcmfclvcs  into  bodies  of  cavalry  to 
fcrve  at  their  own  expence  during  the  war.  General 
Wafliington  at  the  fame  time,  to  remove  all  incum- 
brances from  his  army,  lightened  the  baggage  as  muck 
as  pofhble,  by  fubrtituting  facks  and  portmanteaus  in 
place  of  cheils  and  boxes,  and  uflng  pack-horfcs  in- 
ftead  of  waggons.  On  tlie  other  hand,  the  Britifli  ar- 
iny,expefting  to  be  reinforced  by  20,000  men,  thought 
of  nothing  but  concluding  the  war  according  to  their  jct 
wiflies  before  the  end  of  the  campaign.  It  was  with  Cor.ciiiato- 
the  utmoft  concern,  as  well  as  indignation,  therefore,  T  liill  rc- 
that  they  received  the  news  of  Lord  North's  concili-  5"^*  ^}'^ 
atory  bill.  It  was  univerfally  looked  upon  as  a  national  ""^K"^"- 
difgracc  ;  and  fome  even  tore  the  cockades  from  their  j^I 
hats,  and  trampled  them  under  their  feet  as  a  token  of 
their  indignation.  By  the  colonifts  it  was  received  3** 
with  indifference.  The  Britifli  commifrioners  endea-  ^<:fp''<^<"»r 
voured  to  make  it  as  public  as  polhble  ;  and  the  con-  * .«  '"  "" 
grefs,  as  formerly,  ordered  it  to  be  printed  in  all  the 
newfpapers.  On  this  occalion  Governor  Tryon  in- 
clofed  fevcral  copies  of  the  bill  to  General  Wafliington 
in  a  letter,  intreating  that  he  would  allow  them  to  be 
circulated  ;  to  which  the  General  returned  for  anfwer 
a  copy  of  a  ncwfpaper  in  which  the  bill  was  printed, 
with  the  refolutions  of  congrcfs  upon  it.  Thcfewere, 
That  whoever  prefumed  to  make  a  feparaie  agree- 
ment with  Britain  fliould  be  deemed  a  public  enemy  ; 
that  the  United  States  could  not  with  any  propriety 
keep  correfpondencc  with  the  commiinoncrs  until 
their  independence  was  acknowledged,  and  the  Bri- 
tifh  fleets  and  armies  removed  from  America.  At  the 
fame  time,  the  colonies  were  warned  not  to  futter 
themfclvcs  to  be  deceived  into  fecurity  by  any  offers 
that  might  be  made  ;  but  to  ufe  their  litmoft  endea- 
vours to  fend  their  quotas  with  all  diligence  into  the 
field.  The  individuals  with  whom  the  commiflioncrs 
converfed  on  the  fubjedl  of  the  conciliatory  bill,  gene- 
rally returned  for  anfwer,  that  the  day  of  reconcilia- 
tion was  pail ;  and  that  the  haughtinefs  of  Britain  had 
extinguilhed  all  filial  regard  in  the  brcaiU  of  Amc- 
cans. 

About  this  time  alfo  Mr  Silas  Dean  arrived  from 
France  with   two  copies  of  the  treaty  of  commerce 
and  alliance  to  be  ligncd  by  congrcfs.     Advices  of  the 
moft  agreeable  nature  were  alfo  received  from  varieus 
parts,  rcprefentiiig  in  the  moft  favourable  light  the 
difpofitionsof  the  European  powers  ;  all  of  whom,  it 
was  faid,  wi(hed  to  fee  the  independence  of  America 
ftttled  upon  the  moft  permanent  bafis.     Conlidering  p,<i  fuccels 
the  fituation  of  matters  with  the  colonifts  at  this  time,  of  ihc  co-n- 
thcreforc,  it  was  no  wonder  the  commifrioners  found  miiConcrs. 
ihemfelves  unable  to  accomplilh  the  errand  on  which 
they  came.     Their  propol'als  were  utterly  rejcftcd, 
themfclvcs  treated  as  fpies,  and,  after  a  vain  attempt 
4  G  2  bf 


A  M  E 


[    604    ] 


A  M  E 


A:oerica.  by  governor  Joliiiftonc,  one  of  the  commiirioiiers,  to 

^ bribe  fcvcral  members  of  congrefs,   all  intercoiirfc 

30^       with  them  was  interdi<5led. 
rhlladel-         But  before  any  tinal  aiifwer  could  be  obtained  from 
phia  evacu-  congrefs,  Sir  Henry  Clinton  had  taken  the  refoluiion 
-■■■-"''■  of  evacuating  Philadelphia.  Accordingly,  on  the  loth 

of  June,  after  having  made  all  nccelTary  preparations, 
the  army  marched  out  of  the  city  and  crolled  the  De- 
laware before  noon  with  all  its  baggage  and  other  in- 
cumbrances.    General  Wafliington,  apprifcd  of  this 
defign,haddifpatchcd  exprclfcs  into  the  Jerfeys  with 
orders  to  collert  all  the  force  that  could  be  affcmblcd 
in  order  to  obflrui5l  the  march  of  the  enemy.     After 
various  movements  on  both  fides,  Sir  Henry  Clinton, 
with  the  royal  army,  arrived  on  the  27th  of  June  at  a 
place  called  Freehold  j  where,  judging  that  the  ene- 
my would  attack  him,  he  encamped  in  a  very  ftrong 
(ituation.     Here  General  Wafliington  determined  to 
make  an  attack  as  foon  as  the  army  had  again  begun 
its  march.     The  uight  was  fpent  in  making  the  nc- 
cellary  preparations,  and  General  Lee  with  his  divi- 
liuu  was  ordered  to  be  ready  by  day-break.     But  Sir 
Henry  Clinton,  apprehending  that  the  chief  object 
of  the  Americans  was  the  b.iggage,  committed  it  to 
the  care  of  General  Knyphaufen,  whom  he  ordered  to 
fctout  early  in  the  morinng,  while  he  followed  with 
the  rell  of  the  army-     The  attack  was  accordingly 
made  ;  but  the  Britilh  general  had  taken  fuch  care  to 
arrange  his  troops  properly,  and  fo  eftcftually  fupport- 
cJ  iiis  furces  w  hen  engaged  with  the  Americans,  that 
the  latter  not  only  made  no  imprclFion,  but  were  witii 
diificulty  prefcrved  from  a  total  defeat  by  the  advance 
of  General  Waihingtoii  with  tlie  whole  army.     The 
Britidi  troops  effected  their  retreat  in  the  night  with 
the  lofs  of  300  men,  of  whom  many  died  through 
mere  fatigue,  without  any  wound.     In  this  aftion  Ge- 
neral Lee  was  charged  by  General  Walhington  with 
difobcdiencc  and  mifcoiulua  in  retreating  before  the 
Britilh  army.     He  was  tried  by  a  court-martial,  and 
fcntenccdtoa  temporary  fufpenlion  from  his  command. 
After  they  had  arrived  at  Sandy-Hook,  a  bridge  of 
boats  was  by  Lord  Howe's  directions  thrown  from 
thence  over   the  channel  which  feparated  the  illand 
from  the  main  land,  and  the  troops  were  conveyed 
aboard  the  fleet ;  after  which  they  failed  to  New-York. 
After  fending  fomc  light  detachments  to  watch  the 
enemy's  motions.  General  Walhington  marched  to- 
wards the  North-River,  where  a  gseat  force  had  been 
collefled  to  join  him,  and  where  it  was  now  expeited 
that  fome  very  capital  operations  would  take  place. 

In  the  mean  time  France  had  fet  about  her  prepa- 
rations for  the  alfillauce  of  the  American!.  On  the 
14th  of  April  Count  d'Eftaing  had  failed  from  Toulon 
with  a  ftrongfquadrou  of  Ihipsof  theline  and  frigates, 
and  arrived  on  the  coaft  of  Virginia  in  the  beginning  of 
July,  whilft  the  Briiidi  fleet  was  employed  in  convey- 
ing the  forces  from  Sandy-hook  to  Ncsv-York.  It 
confided  of  one  (hip  of  90  guns,  one  of  80,  fix  of  74, 
and  four  of  64,  belides  feveral  large  frigates  ;  and,  ex- 
chifiveof  its  complement  of  failors,  had  6000  marines 
and  foldiers  on  board.  To  oppofe  this  the  Britifli  had 
only  fix  dips  of  64  guns,  three  of  50,  and  two  of 
40,  with  fome  frigates  and  (loops.  Notwithftanding 
this  inferiority,  however,  the  Britifh  admiral  polled 
himfclf  fo  advantagcoudy,  and  fiiowed  fuch  fupcrior 


305 

Vrcncli 
fleet  ar- 
rives in 
America. 


fkill,  that  d'Kllaing  did  not  think  jropcr  to  attack  Amcric«. 

him  ;  particularly,  as  the  pilots  informed  him  that  it  ' ■^—' 

was  iinpra(5licablc  to  carry  his  large  fliipsover  the  bar 
into  the  hook,  and  General  Walhington  prclfcd  liini 
to  fail  for  Newport.  He  therefore  remained  at  anchor 
four  miles  off  Sandy-liook  till  the  22d  of  July,  with- 
out effecting  any  thing  more  than  the  capture  of  fomc 
vellcls,  which,  through  ignorance  of  his  arrival,  fell 
into  his  hands.  ^26 

The  next  attempt  of  the  French  admiral  was,  in  Attempt! 
conjunftion  with  the  Americans,  on  Khode-Illand.  It  Rhode- 
was  propoftd  that  d'Eflaing,  with  the  6000  troops  he  IHand 
had  Willi  him,  fliould  make  a  dcfceni  on  the  (buthern  p'"*'out 
part  of  the  illand,  while  a  body  of  the  Americans  fliould  "  '' 
take  pollcdiou  of  the  north  ;  at  the  fame  time  the 
French  fquadron  was  to  enter  the  harbour  of  Newport, 
and  take  and  dellroy  all  the  Britilh  fliipping.  On'thc 
8th  of  Auguft  the  French  admiral  entered  the  harbour 
as  \Vas  propofcd,  but  found  himfclf  unable  to  do  any 
material  damage.  Lord  Howe,  however,  inflantly 
fet  fail  for  Rhode-Kland  ;  and  d'Eftaing,  conliding  in  , 
his  fuperioriiy,  immediately  came  out  of  the  harbour 
toattack  him.  A  violent  ftorm  parted  the  two  fleets, 
and  did  fo  much  damage  that  they  were  rendered  to- 
tally unfit  for  action.  The  French,  however,  fuffered 
molt ;  and  feveral  of  their  Ihips  being  afterwards  at- 
tacked fingly  by  the  Britilh,  very  narrowly  efcaped 
being  taken.  On  the  20th  of  Augufl  he  returned  to 
Newport  in  a  very  (battered  condition  ;  and,  not  think- 
ing himfclf  fafe  there,  failed  two  days  after  for  Bof- 
tou.  General  Sullivan  had  landed  in  the  mean  time  on 
the  northern  part  of  Rhode-Kland  with  10,000  men. 
On  the  17th  of  Augufl  they  began  their  operations 
by  erefling  batteries,  and  making  their  approaches  to 
the  Britifh  lines.  But  General  Pigot,  who  command- 
ed in  Newport,  had  taken  fuch  effectual  care  to  fccure 
himfclf  on  the  land-lide,  that  without  the  alhftancc 
of  a  martne  force  it  was  altogether  inipoflible  to  attack 
him  with  any  probability  offuccefs.  The  conduct  of 
d'Eflaing,  therefore,  who  had  abandoned  them  when 
mafler  of  the  harbour,  gave  the  greateft  difgufl  to  the 
people  of  New-England,  rind  Sullivan  began  to  think 
of  a  retreat.  On  perceiving  his  intentions,  the  gar- 
rifon  fallied  out  upon  him  with  fo  much  vigour,  that  it 
was  not  without  difficulty  that  he  effefted  his  retreat. 
He  had  not  been  long  gone  when  Sir  Henry  Clinton 
arrived  with  a  body  of  4000  men  ;  which,  had  it  ar- 
rived fooner,  would  have  enabled  the  Britilh  comman- 
der to  have  gained  a  decifive  advantage  over  him,  as 
well  as  to  have  deftroycd  the  town  of  Providence, 
wliich,  by  its  vicinity  toRhode-Ifland,  and  the  cnter- 
prifes  which  were  continually  projefled  and  carried  on 
in  that  place,  kept  the  inhabitants  of  Rhode-Iflandin 
continual  alarms.  307 

The  tirfl  Britilh  expedition  was  to  Buzzard's- Bay,  The  coafls 
on  the  coafl  of  New-England  and  neighbourhood  of  of  America 
Rhode-Illand.  Here  they  dcftroyed  a  great  number  of  invaded  by 
privateers  and  merchantmen,  magazines,  with  ftore-  '"eBntia 
houfes,  &c. ;  whence  proceeding  to  a  fertile  and  pe-    "  ' 
pulous illand,  called  Martha's-Vineyard,  they  carried 
off  2000  (heep  and  500  black  cattle.     Another  expe- 
dition took  place  up  the  North-River,  under  Lord 
Cornwallis  and   General  Knyphaufen  ;  the  principal 
event  of  which  was,  the  deliruftion  of  .a  regiment  of 
American  cavalry  knowa  by  the  name  of  Wafliing- 

ton's 


A  M  E 


[     605     ] 


A  M  E 


toil's  Li;;ht  Horfe.  A  third  expedition  wasdircftcd  to 
Little  Egg-Harbour  in  Ncw-fcrfcy,  aplacc  noted  for 
privateers,  the  denruclion  of  which  was  its  principal 
intention.  It  was  conducted  by  Captains  F'crgufon  and 
Collins,  and  ended  in  the  dcftruction  of  the  American 
vcircls,  as  well  as  of  the  place  itfelf.  At  the  fame 
time  part  of  another  body  of  American  troops,  called 
Piilafki's  legion,  was  furprifed,  and  a  great  number  of 
them  put  to  the  fword. 

Tlic  Americans  had  in  the  beginning  of  the  year 
projected  the  conqucftnf  Weft-FJoridi  ;  and  one  Cap- 
tain Willing,  with  a  party  of  rcfoliitc  men,  had  made 
a  fuccefsfuliiicurfion  into  the  country.  This  awaken- 
ed the  attention  of  the  Britilh  to  the  fouthern  colotiics, 
and  an  expedition  againil  them  wasrefolvedon.  Geor- 
gia was  theplace  of  deflination  ;  and  the  more  efFcdlu- 
iilly  to  enfurc  fucccfs,  Colonel' Campbell,  with  a  fuf-. 
ficieni  force,  under  convoy  of  fomefliips  of  war,  com- 
niauded  by  Commodore  Hyde  Parker,  embarked  at 
Ncw-York  ;  while  General  Provoft,  who  commanded 
in  Eart-Florida,  was  dircded  to  fct  out  with  all  the 
force  he  could  fpare.  The  armament  from  New- York 
arrived  oft'  the  coaftof  Georgia  in  the  month  of  De- 
cember ;  and  though  the  Americans  were  very  flrong- 
ly  ported  in  an  advantageous  fituation  on  the  fliore,  the 
Britiih  troops  made  good  their  landing,  and  advanced 
towards  Savannah  the  capital  of  the  province.  That 
very  day  they  defeated  the  force  of  the  provincials 
■w^ich  oppofed  them  ;  and  took  poffelTion  of  the  town 
with  fuch  celerity,  that  the  Americans  had  not  time  to 
execute  arefolutionthey  had  takenof  fettingit  on  lire. 
In  ten  days  the  whole  province  of  Georgia  was  reduc- 
ed, Suubury  alone  excepted  ;  and  this  wasalfo  brought 
under  fubjefiion  by  General  Prevoft  in  his  march 
northward.  Every  proper  method  was  taken  to  fecure 
the  tranquillity  of  the  country  ;  and  rewards  were  of- 
fered for  apprehending  committee  andalTcmbly  men, 
or  fuch  as  they  judged  moA  inimical  to  the  Britifli  in- 
lerefts.  On  the  arrival  of  General  Prevoft,  the  com- 
mand of  the  troops  naturally  devolved  on  him  as  the 
fenior  officer  ;  and  the  conquefl  of  Carolina  was  next 
proje(5lcd. 

In  this  attempt  there  was  no  fmall  probability  of  fuc- 
cefs.  The  country  contained  a  great  number  of  friends 
to  government,  who  now  eagerly  embraced  the  oppor- 
tunity of  declarin;;;  thcmfelves  ;  many  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Georgia  had  joined  the  royal  (landard  ;  and 
there  was  not  in  the  province  any  condderablc  body  of 
provincial  forces  capable  ofoppoling  the  efforts  of 
regular  and  well-difcipllned  troops.  On  thcfirft  news 
of  General  Prevoil's  approach,  the  loyalifts  aflcnibled 
in  a  body,  imagining  themfclves  able  to  ftand  their 
ground  until  their  allies  (hould  arrive  ;  but  in  this 
they  were  difappointed.  The  Americans  attacked 
and  defeated  them  with  the  lofs  of  half  their  number. 
The  remainder  retreated  into  Georgia  ;  and  after  un- 
dergoing many  difficulties,  at  lall  eifeded  a  jun<^ion 
with  the  Britifli  forces. 

In  thcmean  time.  General  Lincoln,  withaconfider- 
able  body  of  American  troops,  had  encamped  within 
20  miles  of  the  town  of  Savannah  ;  and  another  ftronj; 
party  had  polled  thcmfelves  at  a  place  called  Briar's 
Creek,  farther  up  the  river  of  the  fame  name.  Thus 
the  extent  of  the  BritilTi  government  was  likely  to  be 
circurafcribeJ  within  very  narrow  bounds.     General 


Prevoft  therefore  determined  to  diilodge  the  party  at  Amcrin. 

Briar's  Creek  :  and  the  latter,  trufling  to  their  flrong  ' — ;;"• ' 

fituation,  and  being  rcmifs  in  their  guard,  fuflercd  /^mtri'cans 
thcmfelves  to  be  furprifcdon  the  jotli  of  March  1779  ;  defeated 
when  they  were  utterly  routed  with  the  lofs  of  mere 
than  300  killed  and  taken,  btlidcs  a  great  number 
drowned  in  the  river  or  ihc  fwamps.  The  whole  ar- 
tillery, flores,  baggage,  and  almofl  all  thearmsof  thi^ 
unfortunate  party  were  taken,  fo  that  they  could  no 
more  make  any  ftand  ;  and  thus  the  province  of  Geor- 
gia was  once  more  freed  from  the  Americans,  and  a 
communication  opened  with  thofe  places  in  Carolina 
where  the  royalilb  chiefly  relided. 

The  vidory  at  Briar's  Creek  proved  of  confiderable 
fervice  to  the  Britilh  caufe.  Great  numbers  of  the 
loyalifls  joined  the  army,  and  conliderably  incrcafcd 
its  force.  Hence  he  was  enabled  to  flretch  his  polls 
further  up  the  river,  and  to  guard  all  the  principal 
palFes  :  fo  that  General  Lincoln  was  reduced  to  a  flatc 
of  inaction  ;  and  at  lafl  moved  off  towards  Augufta,  in 
order  to  protect  the  provincial  aifembly,  which  was 
obliged  to  lit  in  that  place,  the  capital  being  now  in 
the  hands  of  the  Britilh. 

Lincoln  had  no  fooner  quitted  his  port,  than  it  was 
judged  a  proper  time  by  the  Britifh  general  to  put  in 
execution  the  grand  fcheme  which  had  Leen  meditated 
againft  Carolina.     Many  difficulties  indeed  lay  in  his 
way.     The  river  Savannah  was  fo  fwelled  by  the  ex- 
celTive  rains  of  the  feafon,  that  it  feemed  impaffable  ; 
the  oppolite  fhore,  for  a  great  way,  was  fo  full  of  fwamps 
and  marllies,  that  no  army  could  march  over  it  without 
the  greateft  difficulty  ;  and,  to  render  the  palFagc  flill 
more  difficult.  General  Moultrie  was  left  with  a  confi- 
derable body  of  troops  in  order  to  oppofe  the  enemy's       jn 
attempts.     But  in  fpite  of  every  oppolition,  the  con-  The  Britilh 
ftancy  and  perfeverance  of  the  Britilh  troops  at  lall  "<«>?•  ad- 
prevailed.     General  Moultrie  was  obliged  to  retire  to-  I*°"j '° 
wards  Charlefton  ;  and  the  purfuing  army,  after  hav-  ^'"'■''"'"'• 
ing  waded  through  the  marlhcs  for  fome  time,  at  laft 
arrived  in  an  open  country,  through  which  they  pur- 
fued  their  march  with  great  rapidity,  towards  the  capi- 
tal ;  while   General  Lincoln  made  preparations   to 
march  to  its  relief.  313 

Certain  intelligence  ofihc  danger  to  which  Charlef-  General 
ton  was  expofed,  animated  the  American  general      A  Lincoln 
chofen  body  of  infantry,  mounted  on  horfeback  for  the  ="•"""» 
greater  expedition,  was  difpatched  before  him  ;  while  """" 
Lincoln  himfclf  followed  with  all  the  forces  he  could 
coUedl.     General  Moultrie  too,.with  the  troops  he  had 
brought  from    Savannah,   and    fome  others  he  had 
colleclcd  lincc  his  retreat  from  thence,  had  taken  pof- 
feiHon  of  all  the  avenues  leading  to  Charlellon,  and 
prepared  for  a  vigorous  defence.     But  all  oppofition 
proved  inefTeclual  ;  and  the  BritiQi  army  was  allowed 
to  come  within  cannon  fhoi  of  Charlefton  on  the  12th 
of  May. 

Thctown  was  now  fummoned  to  furrender,  and  the 
inhabitants  would  gladly  have  agreed  to  obfcrve  a  neu- 
trality during  the  rcll  of  the  war,  and  would  have  en- 
gaged alfo  for  the  rell  of  the  province.  But  thefc 
terms  not  being  accepted,  they  made  preparations  for 
a  vigorous  defence.  It  was  not,  however,  in  the  pow- 
er of  the  Britiili  commander  at  this  time  to  make  an  ,j 
attack  with  any  profpcd  of  fuccefs.  His  artillery  was  xhe'at- 
not  of  fufScient  weight ;  there  were  no  Ihips  to  fup-  tempt  on  it 

port  abarJcntd- 


A  M  E 


L     606     ] 


A  M  E 


America,  port  liis  attack  by  land  ;  and  General  Lincoln  advan- 
■ " cing  rapidly  with  a  rupenor  army,  threatened  to  in- 
dole him  between  his  own  force  and  the  town;  fo  that 
(hould  he  fail  in  his  firit  attempt,  certain  deftruC^ion 
would  be  the  confequcncc.  For  thefc  rcafons  he  with- 
drew his  forces  from  before  the  town,  and  took  polief- 
fion  of  two  illjnds,  called  St  Jama's  and  St  John's,  ly- 
ingtothefoiithw^ard  ;  where  having  waited  ibmctime, 
his  force  was  augmented  by  the  arrival  of  two  frigates. 
With  thefe  he  determined  to  make  himfclf  niaUcr  of 
Port-Royal,  another  illand  poUclfed  of  an  excellent 
harbour,  and  many  other  natural  advantages,  fnun  its 
fituationalfo  commanding  all  the  fca-coaft  from  Charlcf- 
ton  to  Savannah  River.  The  American  general, 
however,  did  not  allow  this  to  be  accomplilhcd  with- 
out oppolition.  Perceiving  that  his  opponent  had  oc- 
cupied an  advantageous  pod  on  St  John's  ifland  prcpa- 
315  ratory  to  his  enterprifcagainll Port-Royal,  he attempt- 
Thc  Ame-  cd,  on  the  iothof  June,  to  dillodgc  them  from  it  ;  but, 
ricansde-  after  anobllinate  attack,  the  provincials  were  obliged 
fcated.  to  retire  with  confiderablclofs.  On  thisoccafion  the 
fucccfs  of  the  Briiifli  arms  was  in  a  great  meafure  ow- 
ing to  an  armed  float,  which  galled  the  right  flank 
of  the  enemy  fo  effcdually,  that  they  could  direft 
their  efforts  only  againft  the  ftrongeft  part  of  the  lines, 
which  proved  impregnable  to  their  attacks.  This  dif- 
appointraent  wasinflantly  followed  by  thclofsof  Port- 
Royal,  which  General  Prevoft  took  polfeffion  of,  and 
put  his  troops  into  proper  Rations,  waiting  for  the  ar- 
rival of  fuch  reinforcements  as  were  necelFary  for  tl* 
intended  attack  on  Charleiton. 

The  profligate  conduft  of  the  refugees,  and  the  of- 
ficers and  foldiers  of  the  Britilh,  in  plunderirig  the 
houlcs  of  individuals,  during  their  incurlion,  is  incre- 
dible. Negroes  were  feduced  or  forced  from  their 
raallers  ;  furniture  and  plate  were  fcized  without  de- 
cency or  authority  ;  and  the  mofl  infamous  violations 
of  every  law  of  honour  and  honcfty  were  openly  per- 
petrated. Individuals  thus  accumulated  wealth,  but 
tlie  reputation  of  the  Britifli  arms  incurred  au  ever- 
u6  lailing  Higma. 
D'Eftaing's  In  the  mean  time  Count  d'Eftring,  who,  as  we 
prodauia-  ),jve  already  obferved,  had  put  into  Bofton  harbour  to 
refit,  had  ufed  his  utmoll  efforts  to  ingratiate  himfelf 
with  the  inhabitants  of  that  city.  Zealous  alfo  in  the 
caufc  of  his  mafter,  he  had  publilhed  a  proclamation  to 
be  difperfed  through  Canada,  inviting  the  people  to 
return  to  their  original  fricndlhip  with  France,  and 
declaring  that  all  who  renounced  their  allegiance  to 
Great  Britain  (hould  certainly  find  a  protedor  in  the 
king  of  France.  All  his  endeavours,  however,  pro- 
ved infufficieni  at  this  time  to  produce  any  revolution, 
or  ever  to  form  a  party  of  any  confequence  among  the 
Canadians. 

As  foon  as  the  French  admiral  had  refitted  his  fleet, 
he  took  the  opportunity,  while  that  of  Admiral  Byron 
Weft  Indies  bad  been  fluttered  by  a  ftorm,  of  failing  to  the  Well- 
Indies.  During  his  operations  there,  the  Americans 
•■"^  having  reprcfented  his  conduft  as  totally  unfcrviccablc 
to  them,  he  received  orders  from  Europe  to  aflift  the 
colonics  with  all  pofTible  fpeed. 

In  compliance  with  thefc  orders,  he  directed  his 
courfe  towards  Georgia,  with  a  defign  to  recover  that 
province  out  of  the  handsof  the  enemy,  and  to  put  it, 
as  well  as  South  Caroiinaj  in  fuch  a  pollurc  of  defence 


klon 


3»7 
n'Eftaing 

fails  to  the 


D'Eftaiii^'s 
expedition 
againft 
Georgia. 


as  would  cffeftually  fecure  them  from  any  futuf-o  at-  Anierie<< 

tack.     This  fecmed  to  be  an  eafy  matter,  from  the  * ■■'—' 

little  force  with  which  he  knew  he  Ihould  be  oppofed  ;  , 

and  the  next  objcft  in  contemplation  was  no  lefsthan 
the  dcltrudlioH  of  the  Britilh  fleet  and  army  at  New, 
York,  and  their  total  rxpullion  from  the  continent  of 
America.  Full  of  thefe  hopes,  the  French  command- 
er anived  off'  the  coall  of  Georgia  with  a  fleet  of  22 
fail  of  the  line  and  10  large  frigates.  His  arrival  was 
fo  little  expeded,  that  feveral  velFcls  laden  with  pro- 
vilions  and  military  llorcs  fell  into  his  hands  ;  the  Ex- 
periment alio,  a  velfcl  of  50  guns,  commanded  by  Sir 
James  Wallace,  was  taken  after  a  Aout  refiflance. 
On  the  continent,  the  Britifli  troops  were  divided. 
General  Pre  voll,  with  an  inconliderable  part, remained 
at  Savannah  ;  but  the  main  force  Was  under  Colonel 
Maitland  at  Port  Royal.  On  the  firll  appearance  of 
the  French  fleet,  an  cxprefs  was  difpatched  to  Colonel 
Maitland  :  but  it  was  intercepted  by  the  Americans  ;  fa 
that  before  he  could  let  out  in  order  to  join  the  com- 
mander in  chief,  the  Americans  had  fecured  moll  of 
the  partes  by  land,  while  the  French  fleet  efFcflually 
blocked  up  the  palFage  by  fea.  But,  by  taking  advan- 
tage of  creeks  and  inlets,  and  marching  over  land,  he 
arrived  juft  in  time  to  relieve  Savannah.  .^g 

D'Ellaing  had  allowed  General  Prevofl  24  hours  to  Conduiflof 
deliberate  whether  he  fliould  capitulate  or  not.     This  the  French 
time  the  general  employed  in  making  thebeflprepara-  coniman- 
lions  he  could  for  a  defence  ;  and  during  this  time  It  ^"' 
was  that  Colonel  Maitland  arrived.  D'Ellaing's  fum- 
mons  was  now  rejedled.     The  garrifon  now  confifled 
of  3000  men,  all  of  approved  valour  and  experience, 
while  the  united  force  of  the  French  and  Americans 
did  not  amount  to  10,000.     The  event  was  anfwera- 
ble  to  the  expedations  of  the  Britilh  general.  Havings 
the  advantage  of  a  flrong  fortification  and  excellent 
engineers,  the  fire  of  the  allies  made  fo  little  impref- 
fion  that  D'Eflaing  rcfolved  to  bombard  the  towij, 
and  a  battery  of  nine  mortars  was  crcfted  for  the  pur-        ,jg 
pofc.    This  produced  a  requeft  from  General  Provoft,  The  French 
that  the  women  and  children  might  be  allowed  to  re-  a»d  the  A- 
tire  to  a  place  of  fafety.     But  the  allied  commanders,  nieriean  ge- 
from  motives  of  policy,  refufed  compliance  ;  and  they  nefa'srefufa 
rcfolved  to  give  a  general  alfault.     This  was  accor-  'o  P""""' 
dingly  attempted  on  the  9th  of  Oftober  :  but  the  af-  ^^  ^^j,. 
failants  were  every  where  repulfed  with  fuch  flaugh-  draw; 
ter,  that  1200  were  killed  and  svounded  ;  among  the       311 
former  were  Count  Pulalki,  the  celebrated  confpira-  They  are 
tor  againfl  the  reigning  king  of  Poland,  and  among  <l'f'*"^* 
the  latter  was  D'Eflaing  himfclf. 

This  difaftf  r  entirely  overthrew  the  fanguine  hopes 
of  the  Americans  and  French  ;  but  fo  far  from  re- 
proaches or  animofity  arifing  between  them,  their 
common  misfortune  feemed  to  increafe  their  confi- 
dence and  efleem  for  each  other  ;  acircumflance  fairly 
to  be  afcribed  to  the  conciliatory  conduft  of  General 
Lincoln  upon  every  occafion.  After  waiting  eight 
days  longer,  both  parties  prepared  for  a  retreat ;  the 
French  to  their  iliipping,  and  the  Americans  into 
Carolina.  -it 

While  the  allies  were  thus  unfuccefsfully  employed  Succefsful 
in  the  foutliernculonics,  theirantagonifls  were  nolefs  expedition* 
afliduous  indiflrclfing  them  in  the  northern  parts.  Sir  agamft  the 
George  Collier  was  fent  with  a  fleet,  carrying  on  board  ""'"g^ 
General  Matthews,  with  a  body  of  land  forces,  into  •' 

the 


A  M  E 


[     607     ] 


A  M  E 


America,  the  province  of  Virginia,    Their  firil  attempt  was  on 

>"~~ the  town  of  Ponfniouth;  where  though  tlie  Americans 

had  dellroycd  forac  Ihips  of  great  value,  the  Britilh 
troops  arrived  in  time  tofave  a  great  nnmbcr  of  others. 
On  this  occafion  about  120  veiTels  of  different  lizcs 
were  burnt,  and  jo  carried  oft';  and  an  immcnfe  quan- 
tity of  provilions  defigned  for  the  ufe  of  General  Wafli- 
iiigton'sanny  was  cither  deflroyrdor  carried  otf,  togc- 
tlicr  with  a  great  variety  of  naval  and  military  ftores. 
The  fleet  and  army  returned  with  little  or  no  lofs  to 
^!ew-York. 

The  fuccefs  with  which  this  expedition  was  attend- 
ed, foon  gave  encouragement  to  attempt  another. 
The  Americans  had  for  fome  time  been  employed  in 
theere{flion  of  two  ftrong  forts  on  the  river  ;  the  one 
.  at  Verplanks  Neck onthe  cart, and  tlie  oherat  Stoncy 
Point  on  the  weft  lidc.  Thcfc  when  completed  would 
'  have  been  of  the  utmoft  fervice  to  the  Americans,  as 
commanding  the  principal  pafsjcallcd  the  King' s  Firry, 
between  the  northern  and  fouthern  colonies.  At  pre- 
fent,  however,  they  were  not  in  a  condition  to  make 
any  cffeflual  defence  ;  and  it  was  therefore  determined 
to  attack  them  before  the  works  Ihould  be  completed. 
The  force  employed  on  this  occafion  was  divided  into 
two  bodies  ;  one  of  which  dire^ed  its  courfe  againft 
Verphnks,  and  the  other  againft  Stoney  Point.  The 
former  was  commanded  by  general  Vaughan,  the  lat- 
ter by  General  Patterfon,  while  the  fliipping  was  under 
the  direftion  ef  Sir  George  Collier.  General  Vaughan 
met  with  no  re/iftancc,thc  Americans  abandoning  their 
works,  and  fettingfirc  to  every  thing  conibuftible  that 
they  could  not  carry  ofJ.  At  Stoney  Point,  however, 
a  vijiorous  defence  was  made,  though  the  garrifon  was 
at  laft  obliged  to  capitulate  upon  honourable  conditions. 
To  fecurc  the  pofieffion  of  this  laft,  which  was  the 
more  important  of  the  two.  General  Clinton  remov- 
ed from  his  former  fitaation,  and  encamped  in  fuch  a 
manner  that  General  Wafhington  could  not  give  any 
afliftance.  The  Americans,  however  revenged  them- 
felves  by  diftreffing,  with  their  numerous  privateers, 
the  trade  to  New- York. 

This  occafioned  a  third  expedition  to  ConneAicut, 
where  thcfc  privateers  were  chiefly  built  and  harbour- 
ed. The  commaBd  was  given  to  Governor  Tryon  and 
to  General  Garth,  an  officer  of  known  valour  and  ex- 
perience. Under  convoy  of  a  confidcrable  number  of 
armed  vefTcls  tlicy  landed  at  Newhaven,  where  they 
demolilhed  the  batteries  that  had  been  ereflcd  to  op- 
pofc  them,  and  deftroycd  the  (hipping  and  naval  ftores 
but  they  fparcd  the  town  itfelt,  as  the  inhabitants  had 
abftaincd'fromtiringoutof  their  houfes  upon  the  troops. 
From  Newhaven  they  marched  to  Kairfield.whcrc  they 
proceeded  as  before,  reducing  the  town  alio  toaflies. 
Morwalk  was  next  attacked,  which  in  like  manner  was 
reduced  to  alhcs  ;  as  was  alfo  GreenficKI,  a  fmall  fea- 
port  iu  the  ncit^hbourhood.  Such  repeated  conflagra- 
tions, wantonly  and  cruelly  fpread,  fcrved  only  to  in- 
creafe  the  difguft  which  was  felt  by  every  friend  to 
the  American  caufe. 

Thefe  fuccellcs  proved  very  alarming  as  well  as  de- 
trimental to  the  Americans  ;  fo  that  General  Walhing- 
ton  determined  at  all  events  to  drive  the  enemy  from 
Stoney  Point.  For  this  purpofe  he  lent  Gen.  Wayne 
■with  a  detachment  of  chofcn  men,  direfting  him  to 
attcmiit  the  recovery  of  it  by  furprilc.    On  this  occa- 


fion the  Americans  fliowd  a  fpirit  and  refolution  ex-  Air.erU*. 
ceeding  any  thing  cither  party  had  performed  during  ~  "  ' 
the  courfe  of  the  war.  Though  after  the  capture  of  it 
by  the  Britiih  the  fortifications  of  this  place  had  been 
completed,  and  were  very  ftrong,  they  attacked  the 
enemy  with  bayonets,  after  palling  through  a  heavy- 
fire  of  mufquetry  and  grape  (hot  j  and,  in  fpite  of  all 
oppolition,  obliged  the  furviving  part  of  the  garrifon, 
amounting  to  500  men,  to  furreuder  themfeivcs  pri- 
foners  of  war. 

Though  the  Americans  did  not  at  prefent  attempt  to 
retainpoirellionof  Stoney  Point,  the  fuccefs  they  had 
met  with  in  the  entcrprife  emboldened  them  tomakea 
fiinilar  attempt  on  Paulus  Hook,  a  fortified  poll  on  the 
Jcrfty  fide,  oppolite  to  New- York  ;  but,  although  the 
licroifm  of  the  intcrprife  and  the  fpirit  with  which  it 
was  executed  defcrves  applaufe,  after  having  com- 
pletely furprifed  the  pofls,  the  American  commander. 
Major  Lee,  tinding  it  impoHihlc  to  retain  them,  made 
an  orderly  retreat,  with  about  i6i  prifoners,  among 
whom  were  fcven officers.  „, 

Another  expedition  of  greater  importance  was  now  Unfucceft- 
projcfted  on  the  part  of  the  Americans.     This  was  f"'  eipcdi- 
again-ftapoft  on  the  river  Penobfcot,  on  the  borders  of ''""  "'''"•= 
Nova  Scotia,  ot  which  the  Britilh  had  lately  taken  pof-  ^"""i""' 
feffion,  and  where  they  had  begun  to  erefl  a  fort  which  nobfcL  '" 
threatened  to  be  a  very  great  inconvenience  to  the  co- 
lonirts.  The  armament  deftined  againft  it  was  fo  foon 
got  in  readinefs,that  Colonel  Maclanc,thecoramanding 
officer  at  Pcnobfcot,  found  himfclf  obliged  to  drop  the 
execution  of  pan  of  his  fchemc;  and  inftcad  of  a  regular 
fort,  to  content  himfclf  with  putting  the  works  already 
conftrufted  in  as  good  a  pofturc  of  defence  as  poffible. 
The  Americans  could  not  cffctft  a  landing  without  a 
great  deal  of  ditiiculry,  and  bringing  the  guns  of  their 
largeft  vellels  to  bear  upon  the  Ihore.  As  foon  as  this 
wasdone,  however,  they  erededfcveral  batteries,and 
kept  up  a  briik  fire  for  the  fpace  of  a  fortnight ;  after 
which  they  propofed  to  give  a  general  alfault  :  but  be- 
fore this  could  be  eifcaed,  they  perceived  Sir  George 
Collier  with  a  Britilh  fleet  failing  up  the  river  to  at- 
tack them.  On  this  they  inftantly  embarked  their  ar- 
tillery and  military  Qores,  failing  up  the  rircrasfaras 
polfible  in  order  to  avoid  him.     They  were  fo  clofely 
purfued,  however,  that  notafingle  vclfol  could  efcape, 
fo  that  the  whole  fleet,  con  lifted  of  19  armed  velTels 
and  24tranfports,wasdcrtroyed;  moft  of  them  indeed 
being  blown  up  by  themfeivcs.   The  foldicrs  and  fail- 
ors  were  obliged  to  wander  through  immenfe  dcfari!, 
where  they  futfered  much  for  want  of  provilions  ;  and 
to  add  to  their  calamities,  a  quarrel  broke  out  between 
the  foldiers  and  feamen  concerning  the  caufe  of  their 
difafter,  which  ended  in  a  violent  fray,  wherein  agreat 
number  were  killed. 

To  add  to  the  diftrefs  of  the  Americans,  the  Indians,  indiinlind 
accompanied  by   a  number  of  refugees,  attacked  the  refugees 
back  fettlemenrs  of  Pennfylv.inia.    No  efFec=lual  mea-  »'"•=''  'f"' 
fares  being  taken  to  reprtfs  the  hoftile  fpirit  of  the  *'"''  '^='- 
Indians,  numbers  joined  the  tory  refugees,  and  with  'J'^""^'"' "^ 
thefe  commenced  their  horrid   depredations  and  ho   a\i 
ftililies  upon  the  back  fctilers,  being  headed  by  coL 
Butler  and  Brandt,  an  half  blooded  Indian,  of  dcfpc- 
ratc  courage,    ferocious  and  cruel  beyond  example. 
Their  expeditions  were  carried  on  to  great  advantage, 
by  the  exaft  knowledge  which  the  refugees  poiFcired 

.->f 


A  M  E 


[     Go8     ] 


A  M  E 


Aniciua,  ol'every  obje(?lof  ilicir  iiucrpiifc,  and  the  iiiimcJiate 

' •J~~'  intelligence  they  receivcil  (roni  their  tViends  on  the 

fpot.  The  weight  of  their  hoUilities  fell  iijion  the 
fine,  new  and  rioiirilliing  feitlemeiu  of  Wyoming, 
litaatcd  on  the  eallern  branch  of  the  .Snfqiiehanna, 
in  a  moll  beautiful  country  and  delightful  cliniate.  It 
was  fettled  and  cultivated  with  great  ardor  by  a  num- 
ber of  people  from  Connerticut, which  claimed  the  ter- 
ritory as  included  in  i.s  original  grant  from  Charles 
II.  The  fettlemeiu  confided  of  eight  towiilhips,  each 
live  miles  fquare,  beautifully  placed  on  each  lidc  of 
the  river.  It  had  increafed  fa  by  a  rapid  population, 
that  they  fent  a  thoufand  men  to  ferve  in  the  conti- 
nental army.  To  provide  againftthe  dangers  of  their 
remote  fituation.  Four  forts  were  conflrudcd  to  co- 
ver them  from  the  irruptions  of  the  Indians But  it 

was  their  unhappinefs,  to  have  a  coniiderable  mix- 
ture of  royalills  among  them  ;  and  the  two  parties 
were  afttiated  by  fentimeius  of  the  moil  violent  ani- 
niofity  which  was  not  confined  to  particular  families 
or  places  :  but  creeping  within  the  roofs  and  to  the 
hearths  and  floors  where  it  was  leafl  to  be  expe<5led, 
ierved  equally  to  poifon  the  fources  of  domeflic  fccuri- 
ty  and  happinefs,  and  to  cancel  the  laws  of  nature  and 
humanity. 

They  had  frequent  and  timely  warnings  of  the  dan- 
ger to  which  they  were  expofed  by  feuding  their  belt 
men  to  fo  great  a  dillauce.  Their  quiet  had  been  in- 
terrupted by  the  Indians,  joined  by  marauding  parties 
of  their  own  countrymen,  in  the  preceding  yoar  ;  and 
it  was  only  by  a  vigorous  oppolition,  in  a  courfc  of 
fuccefsful  ikirniillies,  that  they  had  been  driven  off. 
Several  tories,  and  others  not  before  fufpcded,  had 
then  and  fincc  abandoned  thefettlcment  :  and  befide  a 
perfcil  knowledge  of  all  their  particular  circumflan- 
ccs,  carried  along  with  them  fuch  a  (lock  of  private 
refcntnient,  as  could  not  failof  dirciSing  the  fury,  and 
even  giving  an  edge  to  the  cruelty  of  their  Indian  and 
other  inveterate  enemies.  An  unufual  number  of 
flrangcrs  had  come  among  them  under  various  preten- 
ces, whofe  behaviour  became  fo  fufpicious,  that  upon 
being  taken  up  and  examined,  fuch  evidence  appeared 
againfl  feveral  of  them,  of  their  acting  in  concert 
with  the  enemy,  on  a  fcheme  for  the  dellruition  of 
the  fettlcments,  that  about  twenty  were  fent  off  to 
Connedlicut  to  be  there  imprifoucd  andtricil  fur  tlicir 
lives,  while  the  remainder  were  expelled.  Thefc 
nicafures  excited  the  rage  of  the  tories  in  general  to 
tile  moll  extreme  degree  ;  and  the  tlircats  formerly 
denounced  againlt  the  fettlers,  were  now  renewed 
with  aggravated  vengeance. 

As  the  time  approached  for  the  final  cataftrophe,  the 
Indians  pra6liftd  unul'ual  treachery.  For  feveral 
weeks  previous  to  the  intended  attack,  they  repeated- 
ly fent  fmall  parties  to  the  fcttlement,  charged  with 
the  flrongell  profeliions  of  fricudlhip.  Thcfe  parties, 
befide  attempting  to  lull  the  people  into  feeurity,  an- 
fwered  the  purpofcs  of  communicating  v\ith  their 
friends,  and  of  obferving  the  prcfent  ftate  of  affairs. 
Tlic  fettlers,  however, were  not  infendble  to  the  dan. 
gcr.  They  h.id  taken  the  alarm,  and  col.  Zcbulon 
Butler  had  feveral  times  written  letters  to  congrefs 
and  gen.  Wafliington,p.cquainiing  them  with  tiie  dan- 
ger the  fettlement  was  in,  and  reqnefling  adiftancc  ; 
but  tlic  letters  were  never  received,  having  been  iu- 


Treachery 
of  the 
Indians. 


CCS  on  the 
Sufijuehi- 
iia. 


teiccpted  by  the  Pennfylvania  tories.  A  little  before  Araciici, 
the  main  attack,  fome  fmall  parties  made  fudden  ir-  *^ — ^'~~' 
rnptions,  and  committed  feveral  robberies  and  mur- 
ders ;  and  from  ignorance  or  a  contempt  of  all  ties 
wliatcver,  mallacred  the  wife  and  five  children  of 
one  of  the  pcrfons  fent  for  trial  toConncfticut  in  their 
own  caufe.  ^^g 

At  length,  in  the  beginning  of  July,  the  enemy  Ci.l.  Joh» 
fuddenly  appeared  in  full  force  on  the  Sufquehanna,  L-utlcrap- 
headed  by  col.  John  Butler,  a  Conneclicnt  tory,  and  pears  with 
coutin  to  col.  Ztb.  Butler,  the  fecond  in  command  in  ""  '"'  ^°^' 
the  fettlement.     He  was  alliflcd  by  moft  of  thofe  lea- 
ders, w  lio  had  rendered  themfelves  terrible  in  the  prc- 
fent frontier  war.     Their  force  was  about  1600  men, 
near  a  lourth  Indians,  led  by  their  own  chiefs  ;  the 
others  w  ere  fo  difguifed  and  painted  as  not  to  be  diflin- 
guilhed  from  the   Indians,  excepting  their  officers, 
who  being  drefied  in  regimentals,  carried  the  appea- 
rance of  regulars.     One  of  the  fmallcr  forts,  garrif- 
oned  cliicriy  by  tories,  was  given  up  or  rather  betray- 
ed.   Another  was  taken  by  llorm,  and  ail  but  the  wo- 
men and  children  malfacred    in  the  mofl  inhuman 
manner. 

Colonel  Zeb.  Butler,  leaving  a  fmall  number  to 
guard  fort    Wilkelborough,  eroded  the  river  with 
about   400   men,  and    marched  into   Kingflon   fort, 
\\  hither  the  women,  children  and  dcfcncelefs  of  all       ^j^ 
forts  crowded  for  protection.    He  fufFcrcd  himfelf  to  Col.  Zeb, 
be  enticed  by  his  coufin  to  abandon  the  fortrefs.     He  i'utlcreQ- 
agrecd  to  march  out,  and  hold  a  conference  with  the  •'^"'  '" 
enemy  in  tlie  open  field   fat  fo  great  a  diflancc  from  i?"'**  "  '°°* 
the  fort,  as  to  llmt  out  all  pollibility  of  protection  from  „[,(,  [,,» 
it)   upon  their  withdrawing  according  to  their  own  coufin,  and 
propofal,   in  order  to  the  holding  of  a  parley  for  the  betrayed, 
conclulion  of  a  treaty.    He  at  the  fame  time  marched 
out  about  400  men  well  armed,  being  nearly  the  whole 
flrcngth  of  the  garrifon,  to  guard  his  perfon  to  the 
place  of  parley,  fuch  was  his  diflru(.t  of  the  enemy's 
dellgns.     On  his  arrival  he  found  no  body  to  treat 
with  him,  and  yet  advanced   toward  the  foot  of  the 
mount:iin,  where  at  a  diflancc  he  faw  a  flag,  the  hol- 
ders of  which,  fcemingly  afraid  of  treachery  on  his 
fide,  retired  as  he  advanced  ;  whilft  he,  endeavouring 
to  remove  this  pretended  ill-impreflion,  purfued  the 
flag,  till  his  party  was  thoroughly  endofed,  when  he 
was  fuddenly  freed  from  his  delufion,  by  finding  it  at- 
tacked at  once  on  every  fide.     He  and  his  men,  not- 
Milhllanding  the  furprife  and  danger,  fought  with  rc- 
folutio)!  and  bravery,  and  kept  up  fo  continual  and  hea- 
vy a  fire  for  three  quarters  of  an  hour,  that  theyfeem- 
ed  to  gain  a  marked  iuperiority.     In  this  critical  mo- 
ment, a  foldier,  through  a  fuddca  impulfe  of  fear,  or 
I'remeditated  treachery,  cried  out  aloud,  "  the  colo- 
nel has  ordered  a  retreat."  The  fate  of  the  party  was 
now  at  once    determined.     In  the  ftate  of  confulion 
tliat  cnfued,  an  unrelirted  (laughter  commenced,  while 
the  enemy  broke  in  on  all  fides  without  obflrudlion. 
Col.  Zeb.  Butler,  and  about  fevcnty  of  his  men  efca- 
ped  ;  the  latter  got  acrofs  the  river  to  fort  Wilkefbo- 
rough,    tlie  colonel  made  his  way  to  fort  Kingflon  ;        3^8 
which  was  inverted   the  next  day  on  the  land  fide.  Fort  King- 
— The  enemy,     to    fadden  the    drooping  fpirits   offtoninveft- 
the  weak  remaining  garrifon,  fent  in  for  their  con- "^"5"''* 
tcmplation  the  bloody  fcalps  of  one  hundred  and  nine-  '       ^' 
ty-lix  of  their  late  friends  and  comrades. — They  kept 

up 


A  M  E 


[     609     ] 


A  M  E 


America,   up  a  continual  fire  upon  the  fort  the  whole  day.     In 

' " '  the  evening  the  colonel  quitted  the  fort  and  went  down 

the  river  with  his  family.  He  is  thought  to  be  theon- 
.j.  ly  officer  that  cfcaped. 
Diftrcflcd  Colonel  Nathan  Dennifon,  who  fiicceedcd  to  the 
Ctuation  of  command,  feeing  the  impollibility  of  an  effectual  de- 
thc  garri-  fence,  wcntoutwith  a  flag  to  col.  John  Butler,  10  know 
*""■  what  terms  he  would  grant  on  a  fiirrcndcr  ;  to  which 

application  Butler  anfwered  with  more   than  lavage 

phlegm  in  two  Ihort  words — i/ie  hatchet. Ucnnifon 

having  defended  the  fort,  till  moll  of  the  garrifon 
were  killed  or  difablcd  was  compelled  to  lurrender  at 
difcretion.  Some  of  the  unhappy  perlons  in  the  fort 
were  carried  away  alive  ;  but  the  barbarous  conque- 
rors, to  fave  the  trouble  of  murder  in  detail,  fliut  up 
the  refl  promifcuoudy  in  the  houfes  and  barracks  ; 
which  having  fet  on  fire,  they  enjoyed  the  favage 
plcafurc  of  beholding  the  whole  confunied  in  one  ge- 
neral blaze. 

They  then  crolTed  the  river  to  the  only  remaining 
fort,  Wilkesborough,  which  in  hopes  of  mercy  fur- 
rendered  without  demanding  any  conditions.  They 
found  about  fevcnty  continental  foldicrs,  who  had 
been  engaged  merely  for  the  defence  of  the  frontiers, 
whom  they  butchered  with  every  circumftance  of  hor- 
rid cruelty.  The  remainder  of  the  men,  with  the 
women  and  children,  were  fhut  up  as  before  in  the 
houfes,  which  being  fet  on  fire,  they  pcriflied  altoge- 
ther in  the  flames. 

A  general  fcene  of  devaflation  was  now  fpread 
through  all  the  townfliips.  Fire,  fword,  and  the  other 
different  inflruments  of  deftruftion  alternately  trium- 
phed. The  fettlcments  of  the  tories  alone  generally 
cfcaped,  and  appeared  as  illands  in  the  midll  of  the 
furrounding  ruin.  The  mercilefs  ravagers  having 
deflroyed  the  main  objefls  of  their  cruelty,  dircded 
their  animofity  to  every  part  of  living  nature  belong- 
ing to  them  ;  Ihot  and  deflroyed  lome  of  their  cattle, 
and  cut  out  the  tongues  of  others,  leaving  them  lUU 
alive  to  prolong  their  agonies. 

Thus  the  arms  of  America  and  France  being  alinofl 
every  where  unfuccefsful,  the  independency  of  the 
former  feemed  yet  to  be  in  danger,  notwithflanding  the 
330       afliflance  of  fo  powerful  an  ally,  when  farther  cncou- 
Spain  joins  ragemcnt  was  given  by  the  acccllion  of  Spain  to  the 
ihcconfc.    confederacy  againfl  Britain  in  thcmonthof  June  1  779. 
.  .-.^-         The  firfl  etfeft  of  this  appeared  in  an  invalion  of  Well 
Florida  by  the  Spaniards  in  September  1 779.     As  the 
country  was  in  no  Hate  of  defence,  the  enemy  eafily 
made  themfelves  mafters  of  the  wliolc,  almoft  without 
oppofition.     Their  next  ciucrprife,  was  againfl  the 
Bay  of  Honduras,  where  the  Britilh  logwood-cutters 
were  fettled.     Thefe  finding  themftlvcs  too  weak  to 
rcfifl,  applied  to  the  governor  of  Jamaica  for  relief, 
who  fcnt  them  a  fupply  of  men,  ammunition,  and  mi- 
litary flores,  under  Captain  Dalryniplc.     Before  the 
arrival  of  tliis  detachment,  the  principal  fcttleincnt  in 
thofe  parts,  called  St  George's  Key,  had  been  taken  by 
the  Spani.-irds  and  retaken  by  the  Brililli.   In  his  way 
Captain  Dalrymple  fell  in  with  a  fquadron  I'rom  Ad- 
miral Parker  in  fearch  of  fume  rcgirter  lliips  richly 
laden  ;  but  which,  retreating  into  the  harbour  of  Omoa, 
were  toollrongly  protected  by  the  fort  to  be  attacked 
with  fafety.     A  project  was  then  formed,  in  coi.junc- 
Vol.  I. 


Jcracy 
igaiiid 
Britain. 


lion  with  the  people  of  Honduras,  to  reduce  this  fort. 
The  defign  was  to  firprife  it  ;  but  the  Spaniards  ha- 
ving difcovered  them,  they  were  obliged  to  tight. 
Victory  quickly  declared  for  the  Britilli  ;  but  the  for- 
tifications were  fo  flrong,  that  the  artillery  they  had 
broughtalong  with  liiem  were  found  too  light  to  make 
any  imprcllioii.  It  was  then  determined  to  try  the 
fucccfs  of  an  efcalade  ;  and  this  was  executed  with  fo 
much  fpirit,  that  the  Spaniards  Rood  alloaiilicd  with- 
out making  any  rellllance,  and,  in  fpite  of  all  the  ef- 
forts of  the  ofliccrs,  threw  down  their  arms  and  fir- 
reudcrcd.  The  fpoil  was  ir.imcnfe,  being  valued  at 
three  millions  of  dollars.  The  Spaniards  chiefly  la- 
mented tile  lofs  of  250  quintals  of  quicklilvcr  ;  a  coui- 
modity  indifpenl'ably  neccffary  in  the  working  of  their 
gold  and  lilver  mines,  fb  that  they  offered  to  ranfoni 
it  at  any  price  ;  but  this  was  refufcd,  as  well  as  the 
ranfom  of  the  fort,  though  the  governor  ofi'crcd 
500,000  dollars  for  it.  A  fmall  garrifon  was  leftrfor 
the  defence  of  the  place  :  but  it  was  quickly  attacked 
by  a  fuperior  force,  and  obliged  to  evacuate  it,  though 
not  without  deflroying  every  thing  that  could  be  of 
ufc  to  the  enemy  ;  fpiking  the  guns,  and  even  locking 
the  gates  of  the  fort  and  carrying  off  the  keys.  All 
this  was  done  in  light  of  the  bcfiegers  ;  after  which 
the  garrifon  embarked  without  the  lofsof  anian. 

As  no  operations  of  any  confequcnce  took  place  this 
year  in  the  province  of  New-York,  the  congrefs  made 
ufc  of  the  opportunity  to  difpatch  General  Sullivan 
with  a  confiderablc  force,  in  order  to  take  vengence  on 
the  Indians  for  their  ravages  and  depredations.  Of 
this  the  Indians  were  apprifed  ;  and  colleclingall  their 
flrength,  refolved  to  come  to  a  dccifivc  engage- 
ment. Accordingly  they  took  a  flrong  poll  in  the 
moH  woody  and  mounianious  part  of  the  country  ; 
ereding  abreafl-work  in  their  Iront,  of  large  logs  of 
wood  extending  half  a  mile  in  length, while  their  right 
flank  was  covered  by  a  river,  and  the  left  by  a  hill  of 
difficult  accefs.  This  advantageous  polition  they  had 
taken  by  the  advice  of  the  refugees  who  were  among 
them,  and  of  Vv'hom  200  or  300  were  prefent  in  the 
battle. 

Thus  ported,  the  Indians  waited  the  approach  of 
the  American  army  :  but  the  latter  having  brought 
fomc  artillery  along  with  them,  played  it  agaiuft  the 
bread-work  of  the  enemy  with  fuch  fucccfs,  that  in 
two  hours  it  was  almoll  dellroycd  ;  and  at  the  fame 
time  a  party  having  reached  the  top  of  the  hill,  they 
became  apprehenfive  of  being  furroundcd,  on  which 
they  inltanily  tied  with  precipitation,  leaving  a  great 
nunil  .r  of  killed  and  wounded  behind  them.  The  A- 
niericaiis  after  this  battle  met  with  no  further  refill- 
ance  of  any  confequence.  They  were  fuflered  to  pro- 
ceed without  interruption.  On  entering  the  country 
of  the  Indians,  it  appeared  that  they  had  been  ac- 
quainted with  agricidture  and  the  arts  of  peace  far  be- 
yond what  had  been  fuppoled.  From  General  Sulli- 
van's account  it  was  learned,  that  the  Indian  houfes 
were  large,  convenient,  and  c\en  elegant;  their 
grounds  were  exccUeiuly  cultivated,  and  their  gar- 
dens abounded  in  fruit-trees  and  vcg-etablcs  of  all 
kinds  tit  for  loud.  The  whole  of  this  fine  country 
would  now  have  been  ccnvcrtcd  into  a  defart,  had  it 
not  been  for  the  !•.;  mane  forbearance  of  Gc.eral  Ihnd 
4  II  and 


America, 

Ten  Omcl 
taken  by 
the  Briufli  ■ 


L'ut  are 
obliged  to 
evacuate  it. 


i3i 
Americans 
take  venge- 
ance on  the 
Indians, 


Americi. 


334 
Expedition 
of  Sir  H«  Il- 
ly Clinton 
againd 
Charlef- 

tOD. 


335 
The  town 
defended 
by  Lincoln. 


A   M  E  [     6i 

arid  Colonel  Durbin.  The  dcfolation,  however,  was 
cxtenlivc,  and  only  lo  be  jufUtied  by  the  favage  cha- 
laiScr  and  example  of  their  enemy. 

We  mull  now  take  a  view  of  the  tranfaflions  in  the 
fouthcrn  colonies  ;  to  which  the  war  was,  in  theytar 
1780,  fo  tft'cdiially  transferred,  that  the  operations 
there  became  at  lall  decifivc.  The  fiiccefs  of  Central 
Prcvod  in  advancing  to  the  very  capital  of  Soiuh-Ca- 
rolina  has  been  already  related,  together  with  the  ob- 
ftaclcs  which  prevented  him  from  becoming  maflcr  of 
it  at  that  time.  Towards  the  end  of  the  year  1779, 
however.  Sir  Henry  Clinton  fet  fail  from  New- York 
with  aconfiderablc  body  of  troops,  intended  for  the  at- 
tack of  Charlcllon,  iioiuh-Carolina,  in  a  Hect  of  Ihips 
of  war  and  tranfports  under  the  command  of  Vice-ad- 
miral Arbiithnot.  They  had  a  very  tedious  voyage; 
the  weather  was  uncommonly  bad  ;  feveralof  the  tranf- 
ports were  loft,  as  were  alio  the  greater  part  of  the 
horfes  which  they  carried  with  them,  intended  for  ca- 
valry or  other  public  uies  ;  and  an  ordnanccrlliip  like- 
wife  foundered  at  fca.  Having  arrived  at  Savannah, 
where  they  eni:cavoured  to  repair  the  damages  fuf- 
taincd  on  their  voyage,  they  proceeded  from  thence 
on  the  loth  of  February,  1780,  to  North  Kdillo, 
the  place  of  debarkation  which  had  been  previoully 
appointed.  They  had  a  favourable  and  fpccdy  pallage 
thither:  and  though  it  required  time  to  have  the  bar 
explored  and  the  channel  marked,  the  tranfports  all 
entered  the  harbour  the  next  day  ;  and  the  army  took 
polfcliion  of  St  John's  iiland,  about  30  miles  from 
Charleflon,  without  oppofition.  Preparations  were 
then  made  for  palFing  the  fquadron  over  Charleflon 
bar,  where  the  higli-watcr  fpring-tides  were  only  19 
feet  deep  :  but  no  opportunity  ofl'ered  of  going  into  the 
harbour  till  the  20ih  of  March,  when  it  was  etfedled 
without  any  accident,  though  the  American  galleys 
continually  attempted  to  prevent  the  Englifli  boats 
from  founding  the  channel.  The  Britilh  troops  had 
previoully  removed  from  John's  to  James's  iiland  ;and 
on  the  29th  of  the  fame  month  they  effedled  their  land- 
ing on  CharlcUon  neck.  On  the  ift  of  April  they 
broke  ground  within  800  yards  of  the  American  works  ; 
and  by  the  8ih  the  bclicgers  guns  were  mounted  in 
battery. 

As  foon  as  the  army  began  to  ereft  tlicir  batteries 
againft  the  town,  Admiral  Arbuthnot  embraced  the 
lirft  favourable  opportunity  of  palling  Sullivan's  iiland, 
upon  which  there  was  a  ftrong  fort  of  batteries,  the 
chief  defence  of  the  harbour.  He  weighed  on  tlic 
9ih,  with  the  Roebuck,  Richmond,  and  Romulus, 
Blonde,  Virginia,  Raleigh,  and  Sandwich  armed  iliip, 
the  Renown  bringing  up  the  rear  ;  and,  paffing  thro' 
a  fevere  fire,  anchored  in  about  two  hours  under 
James's  iiland,  with  the  lofs  of  27  feamen  killed  and 
wounded.  The  Richmond's  forc-top-mafb  was  fliot 
away,  and  the  fliips  in  general  fuflained  damage  in 
their  marts  and  rigging,  though  not  materially  in 
their  hulls.  But  the  Acetus  tranfport,  having  on 
board  fonie  naval  flores,  grounded  within  gun-fliot  of 
Sullivan's  iiland,  and  received  fo  much  damage  that 
ihe  was  obliged  to  be  abandoned  and  burnt. 

On  the  10th,  Sir  Henry  Clinton  (having  received 
a  reinforcement  of  ;;coo  men  from  New  York)  and 
Admiral  Arbuthnot  fummoncd  the  town  to  furrcnder 
to  his  majcfty's  arms:  but  Major-general  Lincoln, 


0     ]  A    IM  E 

who  commanded  in  Charleflon,  returned  them  an  an- 
fwer,  declaring  it  to  be  his  intention  to  defend  the 
place.  The  batteries  were  now  opened  againfl  the 
town  ;  and  from  their  etf'etl  the  fire  of  the  American 
advanced  works  conlidcrably  abated.  It  appears  that 
the  number  of  troops  under  the  command  of  Lincoln 
were  by  far  too  few  for  defending  works  of  fuch  ex- 
tent as  thofe  of  Chsrlellon  ;  and  that  many  of  thefc 
were  men  little  accullomed  to  military  fcrvice,  and 
very  ill  provided  with  clothes  and  other  neceflarics. 
Lincoln  had  been  for  fome  time  expedling  rcinforce- 
nunts  and  fupplies  from  Virginia  and  other  places  : 
but  they  came  in  very  llowly.  Earl  Cornwallis,  and 
Lieutenant-colonel  Tarleton  under  him,  were  alfo  ex- 
tremely adtivc  in  intercepting  fuch  reinforcements 
and  fupplies  as  were  fent  to  the  American  general. 
They  totally  defeated  i  conliderable  body  of  cavalry 
and  militia  which  was  proceeding  to  the  relitf  of  the 
town  ;  and  alfo  made  themfclves  mafters  of  fomc  pods 
which  gave  them  in  a  great  degree  the  command  of 
the  country,  by  which  means  great  fupplies  of  pro- 
vilions  fell  into  their  hands.  Tarleton  was  himfelf, 
however,  defeated  in  a  rencounter,  with  Lieutenant 
Colonel  Wafliington,  at  the  head  of  a  regular  corps 
of  horfe. 

Such  was  the  (late  of  things,  and  Fort  Sullivan  had 
alfo  been  taken  by  the  king's  troops,  when  on  the 
1 8th  of  May  General  Clinton  again  fummoned  the 
town  to  furrcnder  ;  an  offer  being  made,  as  had  been 
done  before,  that  if  they  furrendered,  the  lives  and 
property  of  the  inhabitants  fliouldbeprefervedto  them. 
Articles  of  capitulation  were  then  propofed  by  Gene- 
ral Lincoln  ;  but  the  terms  were  not  agreed  to  by  Ge- 
neral Clinton.  At  length,  however,  the  town  being 
clofely  invcfled  on  all  fides,  and  the  preparations  to 
florm  it  in  every  part  being  in  great  forwardnefs,  and 
the  ihips  ready  to  move  to  the  ailault,  General  Lin- 
coln, who  had  been  applied  to  for  that  purpofe  by  the 
inhabitants,  furrendered  it  on  fuch  articles  of  capitu- 
lation as  General  Clinton  had  before  agreed  to.  This 
was  on  the  4th  of  May,  which  was  one  month  and 
two  days  after  the  town  had  been  firfl  fummoiied  to 
furrcnder. 

A  large  quantity  of  ordnance,  arms,  and  ammuni- 
tion, was  found  in  Charleflon  ;  and,  according  to 
Sir  Henry  Clinton's  account,  the  number  of  prifoners 
taken  in  Charleflon  amounted  to  5618  men,  exclu- 
five  of  near  a  ihoufand  failors  inarms;  but  accord- 
ing to  General  Lincoln's  account  tranfmitted  to  (he 
congrefs,  the  whole  number  of  continental  troops  ta- 
ken prifoners  amounted  to  no  more  than  197.  The 
remainder,  therefore,  included  in  General  Clinton's 
account,  confifted  of  militia  and  inhabitants  of  the 
town.  Several  American  frigates  were  alfo  taken 
or  deftroyed  in  the  harbour  of  Charleflon. 

The  lofs  of  Charleflon  evidently  excited  a  conli- 
derable alarm  in  America  :  and  their  popular  writers, 
particularly  the  author  of  the  celebrated  performance 
entitled  Common  Senfe,  in  fome  other  pieces  made  ufe 
of  it  as  a  powerful  argument  to  lead  them  to  more  vi- 
gorous exertions  againfl  Great  Britain,  that  they  might 
the  more  effetbually  and  certainly  fecure  their  inde- 
pendence. 

While  Sir  Henry  Clinton  was  employed  in  his  voy- 
age to  Charleflon,    and   in  the  fiege  of  that  place 

the 


America; 


336 

Several  re- 
inforce- 
ments in- 
tended for 
his  relief 
intercepted. 


337 
The  place 
furrcnderfc 


338 
Apprclien. 
fions  at 
New  York. 


ABieric*. 


J39 
forward- 
■cfi  of  ths 
inhabitants 
to  be  inrol- 
Icd  for  it> 
defence. 


340 
The  pro- 
»inciaU  at- 
tack Staten 
maud ; 


341 
But  are  in- 
duced to 
make  a 
precipitate 
retreat. 


A  M  E  [61 

tliegarrifon  at  New- York  feem  not  to  have  been  whol- 
ly free  from  apprchcnlions  for  their  own  fafcty.  An 
iiucnfc  frort,  accompanied  with  great  falls  of  fnow, 
began  about  the  middle  of  December  1779,  and  fhut 
up  the  navigation  of  the  port  of  New-York  from  the 
fca,  wiihin  a  few  days  after  the  departure  of  Admiral 
Arbuthnot  and  General  Clinton.  The  feverity  of  the 
weather  incrcafed  to  fo  great  a  degree,  that  towards 
the  middle  of  January  all  communications  with  New- 
York  by  water  were  entirely  cut  off,  and  as  many  new 
ones  opened  by  the  ice.  The  inhabitants  could  fcarce- 
]y  be  faid  to  be  in  an  infular  flatc.  Horfes  with  heavy 
carriages  could  go  over  the  ice  into  the  Jcrfcys  from 
one  illand  to  another.  The  pallage  on  the  North  Ri- 
ver, even  in  the  widefb  part  from  New- York  to  Paulus 
Hook,  which  was  aooo  yards,  was  about  the  19th  of 
January  prafticable  for  the  hcaviclt  cannon  :  an  event 
which  had  been  unknown  in  the  memory  of  man. 
Provifions  were  foon  after  tranfportcd  upon  (ledges, 
and  a  detachment  of  cavalry  marched  upon  the  ice 
from  New- York  to  Staten-Illand,  which  was  a  diftancc 
of  I  r  miles. 

The  city  of  New- York  being  thus  circumftanced, 
was  confidered  as  much  expofed  to  the  attacks  from 
the  continental  troops  :  and  it  was  Arongly  report- 
ed that  General  Walhington  was  meditating  a  great 
flroke  upon  New-York  with  his  whole  force,  by 
different  attacks.  Some  time  before  this.  Major- 
general  Pattifon,  commandant  at  New- York,  having 
received  an  addrefs  from  many  of  the  inhabitants, 
offering  to  put  themfelves  in  military  array,  he 
thought  the  prefcnt  a  favourable  opportunity  of  trying 
the  fincerity  of  their  profelhons.  Accordingly  he  if- 
fued  a  proclamation,  calling  upon  all  the  male  inhabi- 
tants from  16  to  60  to  take  up  arms.  The  rcquifition 
was  fo  readily  complied  with,  that  in  a  few  days  40 
companies  from  the  fixwardsof  the  city  were  inrolled, 
officered,  and  under  arms,  to  the  number  of  2600, 
many  fubflantial  ci'izcns  ferving  in  the  ranks  of  each 
company. Other  volunteer  companies  we  re  for  medjand 
the  city  was  put  into  a  very  ftrong  pollure  of  defence. 

No  attack,  however,  was  made  upon  New-York, 
whatever  defign  might  originally  have  been  medi- 
tated ;  but  an  attempt  was  made  upon  Statcn-Ifl- 
and,  where  there  were  about  iSoo  men,  under  the 
command  of  Brigadier-general  Sterling,  who  were 
well  intrenched.  General  Wathington,  whofc  army 
was  hutted  at  Morris-Town,  fent  a  detachment  of 
2700  men,  with  fix  pieces  of  cannon,  two  mortars, 
and  fome  horfes,  commanded  by  Lord  Sterling,  who 
arrived  at  Staten-Illand  early  in  the  morning  of  the 
1  jth  of  January.  The  advanced  ports  of  the  Britifli 
troops  retired  upon  the  approach  of  the  Americans, 
who  formed  the  line,  and  made  fome  movements  in 
the  courfc  of  the  day  ;  but  they  withdrew  in  ihc  night 
after  having  burnt  one  houfc,  pillaged  fome  others, 
and  carried  off  with  them  about  200  head  of  cattle. 
Immediately  on  tiic  arrival  of  the  Americans  on  Sta- 
ten-Illand, Lieutcnat-general  Knyphaufcn  h.id  em- 
barked 600  men  to  attempt  a  pafTage,  and  to  fupport 
General  Sterling  :  but  the  lloatingicc compelled  them 
to  return.  It  is,  however,  imagined,  that  the  appjar- 
ance  of  ihefc  tranfpoits,  with  the  Hritilli  troops  on 
board,  which  the  Americans  could  fee  towards  the 


J  A  M  E 

clofc  of  theday,  induced  the  latter  to  make  fopre:i-   Am-r.ci. 

pitate  a  retreat.  "■ ^ 

After  Charlefton  had  furrendcrcd  to  the  king's  proclar-..(- 
troops,  General  Clinton  ifTued  two  proclamations,  and  ti.un  bv 
alfo  circulated  a  hand-bill  among  the  inhabitants  ofGciitril 
South-Carolina,  in  order  to  induce  them  to  return  to  Clinton, 
their  allegiance,  and  to  be  ready  to  join  the  kino-'s 
troops.  It  was  faid,  that  liie  helping  hand  of  every 
man  was  wanted  to  re-eftablilh  peace  and  good  go- 
vernment;  and  that  as thccommandcrin  chief  wilhcd 
not  to  draw  the  kings  friends  into  danger,  while  any 
doubt  could  remain  of  their  fucccfs  ;  fo,  now,  ihat  this 
was  certain,  he  truftcd  that  one  and  all  would  heartily 
join,  and  by  a  general  concurrence  giveettefl  to  fuch 
necefl'ary  meafures  for  that  purpofe  as  from  time  to 
time  might  be  pointed  out.  Thofe  who  had  families 
were  to  form  a  militia  to  remain  at  home,  and  occa- 
fionally  to  alfcmblc  in  theirown  diftrifts,  when  requi- 
red, under  officers  of  their  own  chnofing,  fcr  the 
maintenance  of  peace  and  good  order^  Thofe  who 
had  no  families,  and  who  could  conveniently  be  fpareJ 
for  a  time,  it  was  prefumed,  would  cheerfully  aliill  his 
majefty 's  troops  in  driving  their  oppreflbrs,  ading  un- 
der the  authority  of  congrefs,  and  all  the  mifcries  of 
war,  far  from  tliat  colony.  For  this  purpofe  it  wss 
faid  to  be  nccclfary  that  the  young  men  ihould  be  ready 
toaii'emble  when  required, and  to  ferve  with  the  kind's 
troops  for  any  fix  months  of  the  enfuing  twelve  that 
might  be  found  requilite,  under  proper  regulations. 
They  might  choofe  officers  to  each  company  to  com- 
mand them  ;  and  were  to  be  allowed,  when  on  fcrvicc, 
pay,  ammunition,  and  provifions,  in  the  fame  manner 
as  the  king's  troops.  When  they  joined  tlic  army, 
each  man  was  to  be  furniflied  with  a  certiticate,  decla- 
ring that  he  was  only  engaged  to  ftrve  as  a  militia-man 
for  the  time  fpecified  ;  that  he  was  not  to  be  marched 
beyond  North-Carolina  and  Georgia  ;  and  that,  when 
the  time  was  out,  he  was  freed  from  all  claims  what- 
ever of  military  fervicc,  excepting  the  common  and 
ufual  militia-duty  where  he  lived.  He  would  then, 
it  was  faid,  have  paid  his  debt  to  his  country,  and  be 
inlitled  to  enjoy  undilhirbcd  that  peace,  liberty,  and 
property,  at  home,  which  he  had  contributed  to  fe- 
cure.  The  proclamations  and  publications  of  General 
Clinton  appear  to  have  produced  fome  cffcil  in  South 
Carolina  ;  though  they  probably  operated  chiefly  upon 
thofe  who  were  before  not  much  inclined  to  the  caufc 
of  American  independence.  Two  hundred  and  ten  of 
the  inhaliitants  of  Charlefton  figned  an  addrefs  to 
General  Clinton  .ind  Admiral  Arbuthnot,  folicitin  j^  to 
be  readmitted  to  the  charadcr  and  condition  of  Bri- 
tifli fubjcds,  the  inhabitants  of  that  city  having  been 
hitherto  confidered  as  prifoners  on  parole  ;  declaring 
their  dif.ipprobaiion  of  the  dortrine  of  American  in- 
dependence J  and  cxprelling  their  regret,  that  after 
the  repeal  of  thofe  flatuics  which  gave  rife  to  the 
troubles  in  America,  the  overtures  made  by  his  ma- 
jcfty's  commiirioners  hid  not  been  regarded  by  tlic 
congrefs.  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  in  one  of  the  procla- 
mations ilfucd  at  this  lime,  declared,  that  if  any  pcr- 
fons  fliould  thenceforward  appear  in  arms  in  order  to 
prevent  the  cftablilhmcntof  his  majcfly's  government 
in  that  country,  or  Ihould,  under  any  pretence  or  a«- 
thority  whaifocvcr,  attempt  to  compel  any  other  per- 
4  H  2  foa 


A  M  E 


f     612     ] 


A  M  E 


Amcr'ca. 


343 
Proceed- 
ings of 
congrcfs. 


344 
Bifliciiltics 
^rifing 
from  the 
»lepreci:i'i- 
t>n  of  the 
paper- cur- 
nncy. 


fun  or  pcrfons  to  do  fo,  or  who  Ihoiild  hinder  or  inti- 
jiiidjtc  thckiiig's  t'aiiliUil  and  loyal  fiibjecls  from  join- 
ing his  forces  or  othcrwifc  pcrforniinjr  tliofr  diilics 
their  allegiance  required,  fuch  perfons  ihouldbe  treat- 
ed with  the  uinioll  fcvcrity,  and  tlicir  cllatcs  be  im- 
medi.itely  feizcd  in  order  to  be  contifcatcd. 

JVIean  time  the  ravages  of  war  did  not  prevent  the 
Americans  from  paying  fonie  aiteniion  to  the  arts  of 
peace.  On  the  4th  of  Mayan  art  palled  by  the  coun- 
cil and  hoiifc  of  r'.'prcfcni.uives  of  Mallachnfctts-Bay 
for  incorporating  and  cilablilhinga  focicty  for  the  cul- 
tivation and  promotion  ot  the  arts  and  fcienccs.  Sec 
Academy,  p.  43.  col.  2. 

Some  doubts  having  arifen  in  the  congrtfs,  towards 
the  dole  of  the  preceding  year,  about  the  propriety 
of  their  ali'cmbling  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  it  was 
now  rcfolved  that  they  Ihoiild  continue  to  meet  there  : 
and  a  committee  of  liiree  members  was  ajipointed,  to 
report  a  proper  place  \\hcrc  buildings  might  be  provi- 
ded for  the  reception  of  the  congrcfs,  together  wilh 
an  ellimatc  of  the  expence  of  providing  fuch  build- 
ings, and  the  nectliary  offices  for  the  feveral  boards. 
Jl  was  alfo  rcfolved  by  the  congrefs,  that  a  monument 
Ihould  be  crcrted  to  the  memory  of  their  late  general 
Richard  Montgomery,  wiio  fell  at  Q_ucbcc,  in  telli- 
inony  of  his  (ignal  and  important  fervices  to  the  United 
States  of  America,  with  an  iufcriiuion  exprellivc  of 
his  amiable  chararter  and  lieroic  atchicvements  ;  and 
that  the  continental  treafurcrs  Ihould  be  dirertcd  to 
advance  a  fum  not  exceeding  L.300  to  Dr  Franklin 
to  defray  the  expence  ;  that  gentleman  being  dclired 
loeaufethe  monument  to  be  executed  at  Paris,  or  in 
fome  other  part  of  France.  It  was  likewife  rcfolved 
by  the  congrefs,  that  a  court  fliould  be  eAablilhed 
for  the  trial  of  all  appeals  from  the  court  of  admi- 
ralty of  the  United  States  of  America,  in  cafes  of 
capture  ;  to  confill  of  three  judges,  appointed  and 
commiffioned  by  congrefs,  and  who  were  to  take  an 
oath  of  office  ;  and  that  the  trials  in  this  court  ffiould 
be  determined  by  the  ufagc  of  nations. 

The  difficulties  of  the  congrefs  and  of  the  people  of 
America  had  been  greatly  increafed  by  the  deprecia- 
tion of  their  paper  currency.  At  the  time  when  the 
colonics  engaged  in  a  war  with  Great  Britain,  they 
had  no  regular  civil  governments  ellabliffied  among 
them  of  fufficicnt  energy  to  enforce  ihe  colledion  of 
taxes,  or  to  provide  funds  for  the  redemption  of  fuch 
bills  of  credit  as  their  ncceffities  obliged  them  to  illuc. 
In  confequcnce  of  this  ftate  of  things,  their  hills  in- 
creafed in  quantity  far  beyond  the  fum  nccellary  for  the 
purpofeof  a  circulating  medium  :  and  as  they  wanted 
at  the  fame  time  fpecilic  funds  to  rcfl  on  for  their  re- 
demption, tlicy  law  their  paper-currency  daily  link  in 
value.  The  depreciation  continued,  by  a  kind  of  gra- 
dual progrelhon,  from  the  year  i  777  to  i  780  :  fo  that, 
at  the  latter  period,  the  continental  dollars  were  parted, 
by  common  confent,  in  mofb  parts  of  America,  at  ihc 
rate  of  at  leafl  ijths  below  their  nominal  value.  The 
irapodibility  of  keeping  up  the  credit  of  the  currency 
to  any  fixed  fiandard,  occalioned  great  and  almofb  in- 
furmountable  embarradmcnts  in  afcertaining  tlic  value 
of  property,  or  carrying  on  trade  with  any  fufficient 
certainty.  Thofe  who  fold,  and  ihofe  who  bouglit, 
were  left  without  a  rule  whereon  to  form  a  judgment 
of  their  profit  or  their  lofs  ;  and  every  fpecies  of  com- 


merce or  exchange,  whether  foreign  or  domeftic,  was    Americ», 

cxpolcd  to  numbcrlefs  and  increafuig  difficulties.  The  *■ « 

confequences  of  the  depreciation  of  the  paper  currency 
were  alfo  felt  with  peculiar  fcvcrity  by  fuch  of  the  A- 

niericansas  were  engaged  in  their  niilitaryferviccs,  and 
greatly  augmented  their  other  hardlhips.  The  rcquifi- 
tions  made  by  the  congrefs  to  tlie  fevcral  colonies  for 
fupplies,  were  alfo  far  from  being  always  regularly 
complied  with  :  and  their  troops  were  not  unfrc- 
quently  in  want  of  the  moll  common  nccefTarics  ; 
which  naturally  occafumcd  complaints  and  difcontcnt 
among  them.  Such  difficulties,  refulted  from  their 
circumOances  and  lituation,  as  perhaps  no  wifdom 
could  have  prevented.  The  caufe  of  the  Americans 
appears  alfo  to  have  fuffcred  fomewhat  by  iheir  de- 
pending too  much  on  temporary  enlillmcnts.  But  the 
congrefs  endeavoured,  towards  the  clofc  of  the  year 
1  7S0,  to  put  their  army  upon  a  more  permanent  loot- 
ing, and  to  give  all  the  futisfaciion  to  their  officers 
and  foldiers  which  their  circumflances  would  permit. 
They  appointed  a  commiltee  for  arranging  iheir  fi- 
nances, and  made  fome  new  regulations  refpeding 
the  war-ollice  and  trcafury-board,  and  other  public 
departments. 

iSotwithflanding  the  difadvantages   under  which  Ai..iivcr- 
thcy  laboured,  tlic  Americans  fecmed  to  entertain  nofary  of  A- 
doubts  but  that  they  fhotild  be  able  to  maintain  their '"'■'''^""'n- 
independency.     The  4th  of  July  was  celebrated  this  ^"^P'n'lfnci 
year  at  Philadelphia  with  fome  pomp,  as  the  anni-  jf  ph^"'' 
verfary  of  American  independence.     A  commence-  dclpfii'a," 
mcnt  for  conferring  degrees  in  the  arts  was  held  the 
fame  day,   in  the  hall  of  the  univerfity  there  ;    at 
which  the  prelident  and  members  of  the  congrefs  at- 
tended, and   other  perfons  in  public  offices.      The 
Chevalier  de  la  Luzerne,  miniUcr  plenipotentiary 
from  the  French  king  to  the  United  States,  was  alfo 
prefent  on  the  occalion.     A  charge  was  publicly  ad- 
drell'ed  by  the  provofl  of  the  univerfity  to  the   flu- 
dents;  in  which  he  laid,  that  he  could  not  but  con- 
gratulate them  "  on   that  aufpicious  day,  which,  a- 
midll  the  confulions  and  defulations  of  war,  beheld 
learning  beginning  to  revive  ;  and  animated  them 
with  the  plealing  profpcdt  of  feeing  the  facred  lamp 
of  fcicnce  burning  wilh  a  Aill  brighter  flame,  and 
fcaitering  its  invigorating  rays  over  the  unexplored 
dcfarts  of  this  extenfive  continent;  until  the  whole 
world  ffiould  be  involved  in  the  united  blaze  of  know- 
ledge, liberty,  and  religion.     When  he  flretehed  his 
views   forward   (he   faid),  and    furveyed  the  rifing 
glories  of  America,  the  enriching  confequcnees  of 
tlieir  determined  flruggle  for  liberty,   the  extcnfivc 
fields  of  intclleflual  improvement  and  ufeful  inventi- 
on, in  fciencc  and  arts,  in  agriculture  and  commerce, 
in  religion  and  government,  through  which  the  un- 
fettered mind  would  range,  with  increaling  delight, 
in  quefl  of  the  undifcovered  treafure  which  yet  lay 
concealed   in   the    animal,    vegetable,    and    mineral 
kingdoms  of  the  new  world  ;  or  in  the  other  fertile 
fourccs  of  knowledge  wilh  which  it  abounded, —  his 
heart  Iwelled  wilh  thcplcafing  profpeft,  that  thefons 
of  that  iuflitution   would  diflinguiffi  themfelves,  in 
tlie  different  walks  of  life,  by  their  literary  contri- 
butions to  the  embelliffiments  and  increafc  of  human 
happinefs." 

On  the  loth  of  July,  M.  Tcrnay,  with  a  fleet  con- 

fifling 


A  M  E 


[     6 


America,  fifting  of  fcTen  (hips  of  the  line,  bcfides  frigates,  and 
'■""^'7 —  a  large  body  of  Krencli  troops,  commanded  by  the 
,  ,^''^g       Count  de  Rochambeau,  arrived  at  Rhodc-Illand  ;  and 
body  of       the  following  day  6000  men  were  landed  there.     A 
French        committee  from  the  general  aflcnibly  of  Rhodc-Ifland 
troops  land  was  appointed  to  congratulate  the  Krench  general  iip- 
it  Rhode-   Q^  ]ijs  arrival :   whereupon  he  returned  au  anfwcr,  in 
Ifland.         which  he  infornied  them,  that  the  king  his  mailer  had 
fcnt  him  to  the  aliiflance  of  his  good  and  faithful  al- 
lies the  United  States  of  America.     At  prefent,  he 
iaid,  he  only  brought  over  the  vanguard  of  a  much 
greater  force  deflined  for  their  aid  ;   and  the  king  had 
ordered  him  to  affurc  them,   that  his  whole  power 
Ihould  be  exerted  for  their  fupport.     He  added,  that 
the  French  troops  were  under  the  ftriilcftdifcipline  ; 
and,  adling  under  the  orders  of  General  Walhington, 
■would  live  with  the  Americans  as  their  brethren. 

A  fcheme  was  foon  after  formed,  of  making  a  com- 
bined attack  with  Englilh  Ihips  and  troops,  under  the 
command  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton  and  Admiral  Arbulli- 
not,  againfl  the  French  tieet  and  troops  at  Rhode- 
Ifland.  Accordingly  a  confidcrable  part  of  the  troops 
at  New-York  were  embarked  for  that  purpofe.  Ge- 
neral Walhington  having  received  information  of  this, 
palTed  the  North  River,  by  a  very  rapid  movement, 
and,  with  an  array  increafed  to  12,000  men,  proceeded 
with  celerity  towards  King's  Bridge,  in  order  to  attack 
New- York  ;  but  learning  that  the  Britilh  general  hid 
changed  his  intentions,  and  difembarked  his  troops  on 
the  3iftof  the  month.  General  Walhington  recrolTcd 
the  river  and  returned  to  his  former  ftation.  Sir 
Henry  Clinton  and  the  Admiral  had  agreed  to  rclin- 
qui(h  their  defign  of  attacking  the  French  and  Ameri- 
cans at  Rhode-llland  as  impradicable  for  the  prefent. 
An  unfuccefsful  attempt  was  alfo  made  about  this 
time  in  the  Jerfeys  by  General  Knyphaufen,  with 
tion  m  the  7000  Briiifli  troops  under  his  command,  to  furprifc 
Jerfcyi,  jj^^  advanced  po.'ls  of  General  Wafliington's  army. 
TheyproceededveryrapiJlytowardsSpringfield, meet- 
ing little  oppofition  till  they  came  to  the  bridge  there, 
which  was  very  gallantly  defended  by  l  70  of  the  con- 
tinental troops,  for  15  minutes,  againft  the  Britilh  ar- 
my :  but  they  were  at  length  obliged  to  give  up  fo 
Tinequal  a  conteft,  with  the  lofs  of  37  men.  After  fe- 
curing  this  pafs,  the  Britilh  troops  marched  into  the 
place,  and  let  fire  to  moft  of  the  houfes.  They  alfo 
committed  fonie  other  depredations  in  the  Jerfeys  ;  bot 
gained  no  laurels  there,  being  obliged  to  return  about 
the  beginning  of  July  without  cfFetling  any  thing  ma- 
terial. 

But  in  South-Carolina  the  royal  arms  were  attended 
■with  more  fuccefs.   Earl  Cornwallis,  who  commanded 
the  Britilh  troops  there,  obtained  afignal  victory  over 
General  Gates  on  the  i6thof  Auguft.  The  Aftion  be- 
gan at  break  of  day,  in  a  fituation  very  advantageous 
for  the  Britilh  troops,  but  very  unfavourable  to  the  A- 
.,g        mericans.  The  latter  were  much  more  numerous;  but 
Viaory      the  ground  on  which  both  armies  flood  was  narrowed 
ohiaincdby  by  fwamps  on  the  right  and  left,  fo  that  the  Americans 
Lord  Corn-(-oulil  not  propCTly  avail  thcmfclvcs  of  their  fiiperior 
walln  oTcr  numbers.    The  attack  was  made  by  the  Britidi  troops 
g'"'  with  great  vigour,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  aiflion  was 

general  along  the  whole  line.  It  was  at  this  time  a 
dead  calm  with  a  little  hazinefs  in  the  air,  which  pre- 
venting the  fmokc  from  riling,  occalioncd  fo  thick  a 


AiRccua. 


.U9 


13     ]  A  M  E 

darkncfs,  that  it  was  difficult  to  fee  the  efTcit  of  a  ve- 
ry iieavy  and  well  fupportcd  fire  on  both  (ides.  The 
Briiifli  troops  cither  kept  up  a  court  int  tire,  ormarfc 
life  of  bayonets,  as  opportunities  offered  ;  and  after  aa 
obftinate  reliftancc  during  three  quarters  of  an  hour, 
threw  the  Americans  into  total  confulion,  and  forced 
tiiem  to  give  way  in  all  quarters.  The  continental 
troops  beiiavcd  remarkably  well,  b.it  tiic  militia  were 
foon  broken,  and  left  the  former  tooppofc  the  whole 
force  of  tlie  Britilh  troops.  General  Gates  did  all  in 
his  power  to  rally  the  militia,  but  witho'.it  effect :  the 
continentals  retreated  in  fome  order ;but  the  rout  of  the 
militia  was  fo  great,  that  the  Britilh  cavalry  arc  faid 
to  have  continued  the  purf.iit  of  them  to  the  diftance 
of  22  miles  from  the  place  where  the  action  happened. 
The  lo(s  of  the  Americans  was  very  conliderablc  : 
about  1000  prifoners  were  taken,  and  more  are  faid  to 
hive  been  killed  and  wounded,  but  the  number  is  not 
very  accurately  afcertained.  Seven  pieces  of  brafs  can- 
non, a  number  of  colours,  and  all  the  ammunition-wag- 
gons of  the  Americans,  were  alfo  taken.  Of  the  Bri- 
tilh troops,  the  killed  and  wounded  amounted  to  21;. 
Among  the  prifoners  taken  was  Major-general  Baron 
de  Kalb,  a  PrulFian  officer  in  the  American  fcrvicc, 
who  was  mortally  wounded,  having  exhibited  great 
gallantry  in  the  courfe  of  the  adion,  and  received  1 1 
woun.ls.  The  Britilh  troops  by  which  this  vidory  was 
atchicvcd,  did  not  much  exceed  icco,  while  the  Ame- 
rican army  is  faid  to  have  amounted  to  6000  ;  ofwliich 
liowever,  ihegreateft  part  was  militia. 

Lieutenant-colonel  Tarleton,  who  had  greatly  di-  AoliTity  of 
ftinguiflied  himfelf  in  this  aftion,  was  detached  the  Lieut.  Co. 
following  day,  with  fome  cavalry  and  light  infantry,  Tarleton. 
amounting  to  about  350  men,  to  attack  a  corps  of 
Americans  under  General  Sumptcr.  He  executed  this 
fcrvicc  with  great  activity  and  military  addrcfs.  He 
procured  good  information  of  Sumptcr's  movements  ; 
and  by  forced  and  concealed  marches  came  up  with 
.and  furprifed  him  in  the  middle  of  the  day  on  the 
l8th,  near  the  Catawba  fords.  He  totally  deflroyed 
or  difpcrfed  his  detachment,  which  conllfled  of  700 
men,  killing  150  on  the  fpoc,  and  taking  two  pieces  of 
brafs  cannon,  300  prifoners,  and  44  waggons.  ^-^ 

Not  long  after  thefe  events,  means  were  found  to  General 
detach  Major-general  Arnold,  who  had  engaged  fo  ar-  Arnold  d«- 
denily  in  the  caufe  of  America,  and  who  had  exhibit-  •«■"'  '•>« 
cd  fo  much  bravery  in  the  fupport  of  it,  from  the  inte-  ^"'•'■'^''  "^ 
reds  of  the  congrcfs.     Major  Andre,  adjutant-gene-  ""«"■*''• 
ral  to  the  Britilh  army,  was  a  principal  agent  in  this 
tranfai'Uon :  or,  if  the  overture  of  joining  the  king's 
troops  came  lirfl  from  Arnold,  this  genilcinm  was  the 
perfon  employed  to  concert  the  alfair  with  him.    Mo-.-c 
muft  have  been  originally  comprehended  in  the  fcheme 
than  the  mere  dtfcrtionof  the  Anicrican  caufe  by  Ar- 
nold :  The  furrenderof  Wcft-Poi:it  into  the  hands  of 
the  royal  army,  was  the  probable  objcl ;  but  whate- 
ver deligns  had  been  formed  for  promoting  the  views 
of  the  Briiilh  government,   they  were  fnillratcd  by 
the  apprehending  of  M.ijor  Andre.     He  was  taken  in 
difguil'e,   after  having  alfamed  a  falfc  name,  on  the 
23d  of  September,   by   three   American  fnldicrs,  to 
whom  he  ottered  conliderablc  rewards  if  ihcy  would 
have  fuftcrcd  him  to  efcape,  but  without  etfc^^^.     Se- 
veral p  ipers  written  by  .Arnold  were  found  upon  him  ; 
and  when  Arnold  had  learnt  that  Major  Andre  wjk 

fciwd^ 


A  M  E 


[     6 


America,    feizcd,  lie  found  means  to  get  on  board  a  barge,  and 
"  to  el'capc  tooneof  the  king's  lliips.  General  Wailiing- 

Unhappv  '°"  rtl'crrcd  the  cafe  of  Major  Andre  to  tiic  exami- 
fatcof  Ma-  nation  and  dccifion  of  a  board  of  general  officers,  con- 
jor  Andre,  filling  of  Major-general  Green,  Major-general  Lord 
Stirling,  Major-general  the  Marquis  dc  la  Kayette, 
Major-general  the  Baron  de  Steuben,  two  other  major- 
generals,  and  eight  brigadier-generals.  Major  An- 
dre was  examined  before  them,  and  the  particulars  of 
his  cai'c  inquired  into  ;  and  they  reported  to  the  Ame- 
rican commander  in  chief,  that  NIr  Andre  came  on 
lliore  from  the  Vulture  lloop  of  war  in  the  night,  on 
an  interview  with  General  Arnold,  in  a  private  and 
fecrct  manner  ;  that  he  changed  his  drcfs  within  the 
An)erican  lines  ;  and,  under  a  feigned  name,  and  in 
a  difguifed  habit,  palled  the  American  works  at  Sioney 
and  Verplank's  points,  on  the  evening  of  the  22d  of 
September  ;  that  he  was  taken  on  the  morning  of  the 
23d  at  Tarry-town,  he  being  then  on  his  way  for  New 
York  :  and  that,  when  taken,  he  had  in  his  j  olfcHion 
fevcral  papers  which  contained  intelligence  for  the 
enemy.  They  therefore  determined,  that  he  ought 
to  be  confidered  as  a  fpy  from  the  enemy  ;  and  that, 
agreeable  to  the  law  and  ufage  of  nations,  he  ought 
to  fuffcr  deaih.  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  Lieutenant-ge- 
neral Roberlfon,  and  the  late  American  gener;il  Ar- 
nold, all  wrote  preiiing  letters  to  General  Walhington 
on  the  occalion,  in  order  to  prevent  the  decilion  of  the 
board  of  general  officers  from  being  put  in  force  :  But 
their  applications  were  ineffectual.  Major  Andre  was 
hanged  at  Tappan,  in  the  province  of  New-York,  on 
the  2d  of  Otlobcr.  He  met  his  fate  \^ith  great  tirm- 
ncls  ;  but  appeared  lomewhat  hurt  that  he  was  not  al- 
lowed a  more  military  death,  for  which  he  had  foli- 
ciied.  He  was  a  gentleman  of  very  amiable  quali- 
ties, had  a  tafle  for  literature  and  the  fine  arts,  and 
poireflcd  manyaecomplilhments.  His  death,  therefore, 
was  regretted  even  by  his  enemies;  and  the  feeming 
feverity  of  the  determination  concerning  him  was 
much  exclaimed  ajiainfl  in  Great  Britain.  It  was,  how- 
ever, generally  acknowledged  by  impartial  pcrfons, 
that  there  was  nothing  in  the  execution  of  this  unfor- 
tunate gentleman  but  what  was  perfei'lly  conlbnant  to 
the  rules  of  war. 

Arnold  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in  the  king's 
fervice,  and  publilhed  an  addrcfs  to  the  inhabitants  of 
America,  dated  from  New- York,  October  7,  in  which 
he  endeavoured  tojullify  his  defenion  of  their  caufe. 
Motivcsaf-  He  faid,  that  when  he  firfl  engaged  in  it,  he  concei- 
figncd  by     vcd  the  rights  of  his  country  to  be  in  danger,  and  that 
Arnold  for  j|,jy  g,,^  j,onour  called  him  to  her  defence.  A  rcdrcfs 
'"""         of  grievances  was  his  only  aim  and  objefl ;  and  there- 
fore he  acquiefccd  unwillingly  in  the  declaration  of  in- 
dependence, becaufe  he  thought  it  precipitate.     But 
what  now  induced  him  to  defert  their  caufe  was  the 
difgull  he  had  conceived  at  the  French  alliance,  and 
at  the  refufal  of  Congrcfs  to  comply  with  the  lafl  terms 
offered  by  Great  Britain,  which  he  thought  equal  to 
all  their  expcitaiions  and  all  to  their  wilhcs. 

Thi  Americans,  however,  accounted  for  the  con- 
duS  of  Arnold  in  a  different  and  in  a  more  probable 
and  falisfadory  manner.  They  allcdged  that  he  had 
fo  involved  himfelf  in  debts  and  difficulties  by  his  ex- 
travagant manner  of  living  in  America,  that  he  had 
rendered  it  very  inconvcnicut  for  him  to  continue 


351 
His  amia 
ble  qualii 
ties. 


353 


14     ]  A  M  E 

there  :  that  after  the  evacuation  of  Philadelphia  by 
the  Britilh  troops,  Arnold,  being  invelled  with  the 
command  in  that  ciiy,  had  made  the  houfe  of  Mr  Penn, 
which  was  the  belt  in  the  city,  his  head-quarters. 
This  he  had  furnilhcd  in  an  elegant  and  cxpenfive 
manner,  and  lived  in  a  ftyle  far  beyond  his  income.  It 
was  manifeft,  they  faid,  that  he  could  at  firll  have  no 
great  averlion  to  the  French  alliance,  becaufe  that 
when  M.  Gerard,  miniller  plenipotentiary  from  the 
court  of  Prance,  arrived  at  Philadelphia  in  July  1 778, 
General  Arnold  early  and  earneftly  folicitcd  that  mi- 
nilter,  with  his  whole  fuite,  to  take  apartments  and 
bed  and  board  at  his  houfe,  until  a  proper  houfe  could 
be  provided  by  the  order  of  the  congrefs.  This  offer 
M.  Gerard  accepted,  and  continued  with  him  fomc 
weeks.  The  French  minifler  rellded  upwards  of  14 
months  in  Philadelphia;  during  which  time  General 
Arnold  kept  up  the  moft  friendly  and  intimate  ac- 
quaintance with  him,  and  their  was  a  continued  inter- 
change of  dinners,  balls,  routes,  and  concerts  :  fo  that 
M.  Gerard  mufl  have  believed,  that  in  General  Arnold 
he  had  found  and  left  one  of  the  warmefl  friends  the 
court  of  France  had  in  America.  He  was  alfo  one  of 
the  firfl  in  congratulating  the  Chevalierde  la  Luzerne, 
the  fecond  French  niinifter.  About  this  time  com- 
plaints and  accufitions  were  exhibited  againfl  him  by 
the  government  of  Philadelphia  for  divers  mal-pradi- 
ces  ;  among  which  charges  were,  the  appropriation  of 
goods  and  merchandifc  to  his  own  ufe,  which  he  had 
feized  as  Britilh  property  in  Philadelphia  in  July  1 778. 
It  was  determined  by  a  court-martial  that  his  condud 
was  highly  reprehenliblc  ;  but  he  was  indulgently 
treated,  and  was  therefore  only  reprimanded  by  the 
commander  in  chief  General  Walhington.  It  was  in 
thcfc  circumltances,  the  Americans  faid,  bankrupted 
in  reputation  and  fortune,  loaded  with  debts,  and  hav- 
ing a  growing  and  expenlive  family,  that  General 
Arnold  firfl  turned  his  thoughts  towards  joining  the 
royal  arms. 

After  the  defeat  of  General  Gates  by  Earl  Cornwal- 
lis,  that  nobleman  exerted  himfelf  to  the  utmoft  in 
extending  the  progrefs  of  the  Britifli  arms,  and  with 
conliderable  effeCl.  But  one  enterprife,  which  was 
conducted  by  Major  Fergufon,  proved  unfuccefsful. 
That  officer  had  taken  abundant  pains  to  difcipline  fomc 
of  the  Tory  militia,  as  they  were  termed  ;  and  with 
a  party  of  thefe,  and  fome  Britilh  troops,  amounting 
in  the  whole  to  about  1400  men,  made  incurfions  into 
the  country.  But  on  the  7th  of  Odober  he  was  at- 
tacked by  a  fuperior  body  of  Americans,  at  a  place 
called  King's-mountain,  and  totally  defeated.  One 
hundred  and  fifty  were  killed  in  the  aflion,  and  810 
made  prifoners,  of  which  1 50  were  wounded.  Fifteen 
hundred  (lands  of  arms  alfo  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Americans,  whofe  lofs  was  inconliderable.  But  the  fol- 
lowing month  Lieuienant-Colonel  Tarleton,  with  a 
party  of  1  70,  chiefly  cavalry,  attacked  General  Sump- 
ter,  who  is  faid  to  have  had  1000  men,  at  a  place 
called  Black- Stocks,  and  obliged  him  to  retire.  Sump- 
ter  was  wounded,  and  about  120  of  tlie  Americans 
killed,  wounded,  or  taken.  Of  the  Britifli  troops 
about  50  were  killed  or  wounded. 

On  the  5d  of  September,  the  Mercury,  a  congrefs 
packet,  was  taken  by  the  Veflal,  Captain  Keppel,  near 
Newfoundland.  On  board  this  packet  was  Mr  Lau- 
rens, 


America. 


354 
Different 
rcafons  al- 
leged by  the 
American  la 


3SS 
Aiflions  !* 
South-Ca- 
rolina. 


35  fi 
Capture  of 
Mr  Lau- 
rens. 


A  M  E 


[     615     ] 


A  M  E 


America. 


.  357 
Difcon- 
tcnts 

anions  ttic 
American 
truops. 

358 
Revolt  of 
the  Pcnn- 
fylviaia 
line. 


359 
Incfl'edual 
attempts  tu 
ioJucc 
them  to 
](tin  the 
Toy^l  army. 


rens,  late  prefident  of  the  congrefs,  who  was  bound 
on  an  embairy  to  Holland.  He  bad  thrown  his  papers 
overboard. but  great  partof  them  were  recovered  with- 
out having  received  much  damage.  He  was  brought 
to  London,  and  examined  before  the  privy-council ;  in 
confequcncc  of  which  be  was  committed  clofc  prifoner 
to  the  Tower  on  the  6th  of  O£lober,  on  a  charge  of 
high  treafon.  His  papers  were  delivered  to  the  mini- 
ftry,  and  contributed  to  facilitate  a  rupture  with  Hol- 
land, as  among  them  was  found  the  Iketch  of  a  trea- 
ty of  amity  and  commerce  between  the  Republic  of 
Holland  and  the  United  States  of  America. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1781,  an  affair  hap- 
pened in  America,  from  which  expectations  were 
formed  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  that  fome  conliderablc 
advantage  might  be  derived  to  the  royal  caufc.  The 
long  continuance  of  the  war,  and  the  difficulties  under 
which  the  congrefs  laboured,  had  prevented  their 
troops  from  being  properly  fwpplied  with  necclFaries 
and  conveniencies.  In  confequcncc  of  this,  on  the  tirfl 
of  January,  the  American  troops  that  were  hutted  at 
Morris-town,  and  who  formed  what  was  called  the 
i'innjyhania  line,  turned  out,  being  in  number  tjoo, 
and  declared,  that  they  would  fcrve  no  longer,  unlefs 
their  grievances  were  redrelTed,  as  they  had  not  re- 
ceived their  pay  or  been  furniOied  with  the  necelfary 
clothing  or  provifions.  It  is  faid  that  they  were  fome- 
what  inflamed  withliquor,  inconfequenccof  rum  hav- 
ing been  diftributed  to  them  more  liberally  than  ufual, 
new  year's  day  being  confidered  as  a  kind  of  fellival.' 
A  riot  enfucd,  in  which  an  officer  was  killed,  and  four 
wounded;  five  or  fix  of  the  infurgents  were  alfo 
wounded.  They  then  coUcded  the  artillery,  (lores, 
provilions,  and  waggons,  and  marched  out  of  the 
camp.  They  palled  by  the  quarters  of  GcneralWayne, 
who  fcnt  ameflage  to  them,  requeuing  themtodelift, 
or  the  confequences  would  prove  fatal.  They  refufed, 
and  proceeded  on  their  march  till  the  evening,  when 
they  took  pofl  on  an  advantageouspieceof  ground,  and 
cleded  officers  from  among  themfelves.  On  the  fc- 
cond  day  they  marched  to  Middlebrook,  and  on  the 
third  to  Princetown,  where  they  fixed  their  quarters. 
On  that  day  a  flag  of  truce  was  fent  to  them  from  the 
officers  of  tiie  American  camp,  with  a  melTage,  delir- 
ing  to  know  what  were  their  intentions.  Some  of 
them  anfwered,  that  they  had  already  ferved  longer 
than  the  time  for  which  they  were  enlilled,  and  would 
ferve  no  longer;  and  others,  that  they  would  not  re- 
turn, uulefs  their  grievances  were  redrelFed.  But  at 
the  fame  time  they  repeatedly,  and  in  the  flroni;efl 
terms,  denied  being  influenced  by  the  lead  difaffcclion 
to  the  American  caufe,  or  having  any  intentions  of 
deferting  to  the  enemy. 

Intelligence  of  this  tranfadlion  was  foon  conveyed  to 
New-York.  A  large  body  of  Britilh  troops  were  im- 
mediately ordered  to  hold  themfelves  in  readincfs  to 
move  on  the  Ihortell  notice,  it  being  hoped  that  the 
American  revoliers  might  be  induced  tojoin  the  royal 
army.  MelFcngerswcrc  alfo  fent  to  them  fromGeneral 
Clinton,  acquainting  them  that  they  (hould  directly  be 
taken  under  the  protection  of  ihe  Britilh  government  ; 
that  (hey  (hould  have  a  free  pardon  for  all  former  of- 
fences ;  and  that  the  pay  due  to  them  from  the  con- 
grefs (hould  be  faithfully  paid  them  without  any  ex- 
pedation  of  military  fervice,  unlefs  it  ihould  be  volun- 


tary, upon  condition  of  their  hying  d jwn  their  arms,    Americr. 

and  returning  to  their  allegiance.    It  wasaKb  rccom-  ' •'—^ 

mended  to  them  to  move  beyond  the  South  River  ;  and 
they  were  alTuicd,  that  a  body  of  Britilh  troops  ihoulJ 
be  ready  to  protect  them  whenever  they  delired  it. 
Thefc  propoiitions  were  rejected  with  difdain  ;  and 
they  even  delivered  up  two  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton's 
melFcngcrs  to  the  congrefs.  Jol'eph  ReiJ,  Efq:  pre- 
lident  of  the  (late  of  I'ennfylvania,  afterwards  repair- 
ed to  them  at  Princeton,  and  an  accommodation  took 
place  :  fuchofthcm  as  had  ferved  out  their  full  terms 
were  permitted  to  return  to  their  own  homes,  and 
others  again  joined  the  American  army,  upon  receiv- 
ing Fatisfaclory  aflurances  that  their  grievances  fhould 
be  redrelFed. 

On  the  nth  of  January  Lord  Cornwallis  advanced  Exertion, 
towards  North  Carolina.     He  wiffied  to  drive  Gen.  of  Lord 
Morgaii  from  his  ftation,  and  to  dcier  the  inhabitants  ComwalUi 
from  joining  him     The  execution  of  thisbuliiicfs  wa!  '■>  Nor.h- 
intrulled  to  Lieut.  Col.  Tarlcton  ;  who  was  detached  Carolina 
with  the  light  and  legion  infantry,  the  fufileers,  the 
firll  battalion  of  the  71ft  regiment,  about  3J0  cavalry, 
two  field  pieces,  and  an  adequate  proportion  of  men 
from  [he  royal  artillery,  upward  of  11 00  in  the  whole. 
This  detachment,  after  a  progrefs  of  fome  days,  by 
fatiguing  marches,  at  about  ten  o'clock  on  the  even- 
ing of  the  16th  of  January,  reached  the  ground  which 
Morgan   had   quitted  but  a  few  hours  before.     The 
purfuit  recommenced  by  two  o'clock  the  next  morn- 
ing, and  was  rapidly  continued  through  marlhes  and 
broken  grounds  till  daylight,  when  the  Americans 
were  difcovered  in  frant.    Twoof  their  videttes  were 
taken  foon  after,  who  gave  information  that  Morgan 
had  halted  and  prepared  for  aiflion,  at  a  place  called 
the  Cowpens,  near  Pacolct  river.     The  Britilh,  be- 
lide  their  field  pieces,  had  the  fuperiority  in  infantry, 
in  the  proportion  of  five  to  four,  and  in  cavalry  of 
more  than  three  to  one.     BeFidc,  nearly  two  thirds 
of  the  troops  under  Morgan  were  militia.     Morgan 
had  obtained  early  intelligence  of  Tarleton's  force 
and  advances ;  and  had  drawn  up  his  men  in   two 
lines.     The  whole  of  the  North  and  South  Caroli- 
na militia  prefent  was   put  under  the  command  of 
Col.  Pickens,   and  formed  the  fir(t  line  ;  which  was 
advanced  a  few  hundred  yards  before  the  fecond,  with 
orders  to  form  on  the  right  of  the  fecond  when  forced 
to  retire.     The  fecond  line  conlilied  of  the  li;jht  in- 
fantry under  Lieut.  Col.  Howard,  and  the  \'Trginia 
riflemen.     Lieut.  Col.  Waihington,  with  his  cavalry, 
and  about  forty-five  niiliiia  men,  mounted  and  equip- 
ped  with  fwords,    under  Lieut.  Col.  M'Call,   were 
drawn  up  at  fome  diftance  in  the  rear  of  the  whide. 
The  open  wood  in  which  they  were  formed,  was  nei- 
ther fecured  in  front,  flank  or  rear.     Without  the  de- 
lay of  a  (ingle  moment,   and  in  defpite  of  extreme 
fatigue,  the  light  legion  infantry  and  fufileers  were 
ordered  to  form  in  line.     Before  the  order  was  exe- 
cuted, and  while  Major  Newmarlh,  who  commanded 
the  latter  corps,  was   poRing  his  officers,  the  li::c, 
though  far  from  coir.plctc,  was  led  to  the  attack  by 
Tarlcton  himfclf.  The  Britilh  advanced  with  a  iho.u, 
and  poured  in  an  incelFant  fire  of  niufquetry.     Col. 
Pickens  dircfted  the  militia  not  to  fire  till  the  Bririih 
were  within  forty  or  i^hy  yards.    This  order,  ihoa ^h 
executed  with  great   firmnefs  and  fuccefs,  was  not 

fuiRcienc 


A  M  E 

America.  fufRcient  to  repel  the  enemy 


[     6i6     ] 


A  M  E 


The  American  militia 
gave  way  on  all  quarters.     The  Brililh  advanced  ra- 
pidly, and  engaged  the  lecond  line.     The  continen- 
tals, after  an  obltinatc  confli(ft,  were  compelled  to  re- 
treat 10  the  cavalry.     Col.  Ogili/c,  with  his  troop  of 
forty  men,  had  been  ordered  to  charge  the  right  flank 
of  ilie  Americans,  and  was  engaged  in  cutting  down 
the  njililia  ;   but  being  expofed  to  a  heavy  lire,  and 
charged  at  the  fame  time  by  Wafliington's  dragoons, 
was  forced  to  retreat  in  confulion.     A  great  number 
of  the  Britilh  infantry  otiicers  had  already  fallen,  and 
nearly  a  proportionable  number  of  privates.    The  re- 
mainder being  too  few  and  loo  much  fatigued,  could 
not  improve  the  advantage  gained  over  the  continen- 
tals ;   and  Tarlccon's  legion  cavalry  Handing  aloof  in- 
Atad  of  advancing,  Lieut.  Col.  Howard  fci/ccd  the  fa- 
vourable opportunity,   rallied  the  continentals,  and 
charged  with  fixed  bayonets,  nearly  at  the  fame  mo- 
ment when  Walhingiou  made  his  fuccefsful  attack. 
The  example  was  inllantly  followed  by  the  militia. 
ISoihing  could  exceed  the  allonilhment  of  the  Britilh, 
occaiioued  by  thcfe  uncxpcfted  charges.     Their  ad- 
vance fell  back,  and  communicated  a  panic  to  others, 
which  foon  became  general.     Two  hundred  and  fifty 
horfe  which  had  not  been  engaged,  tied  through  the 
woods  with  tlie  utmoll  precipitation,  bearing  down 
fuch  officers  as  oppofcd  their  flight  ;  and  the  cannon 
were  foon  feized  by  the  Americans,  the  detachment 
from  the  train  being  either  killed  or  wounded  in  their 
defence.    The  greatcil  confulion  now  followed  among 
the  infantry.     In  the  moment  of  it  Lieut.  Col.  How- 
ard called  to  them  to  lay  down  their  arms,  and  promi- 
fcd   them  good  quarters.     Some   hundreds  accepted 
the  otier,  and  furrendered.    The  firll  battalion  of  the 
71  ft  regiment,  and  two  Britilh  light  infantry  compa- 
nies laid  down  their  arms   to  the  American  militia. 
The  only  body  of  infantry  that  efcaped,  was  a  detach- 
ment left  at  fomc  dillance  to  guard  the  baggage.   Early 
intelligence  of  their  defeat  v.as  conveyed  to  the  offi- 
cer commanding  that  corps  by  fome  royalifls.    What 
part  of  the  bag-gage  could  not  be  carried  off  he  imme- 
diately dcllroyed  ;  and  with  his  men  mounted  on  the 
wai'gon  andfpare  horfes,  hexetreatcd  to  Lord  Corn- 
waflis.     The  Britilh  had   10  commillioncd  officers, 
and  upward  of  too  rank  and  file  killed.  Two  hundred 
wounded,  29  commiCioned  officers,  and  above  500  pri- 
vates prifoners,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Americans, 
befiJc  two  piecesof artillery  (firll  taken  from  the  Bri- 
tilh at  Saratoga,  then   retaken  by  them  at  Camden, 
and  now  recovered  by  the  Americans)  two  ftandards, 
800  mulkets,  35  baggage  waggons,  and  upward  of  ico 
dragoon  h.orfes.     Walhington  purfued  Tarleton's  ca- 
valry for  feveral  miles  ;    but  the   far  greater  part  of 
them  efcaped.     They  joined  their  army  in  two  fepa- 
rate  divifions.     One  arrived  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Britilh  encampment  upon  the  evening  of  the  lame 
day  ;  the   other  under   Tarlcton  appeared  tlie  next 
morning.     Although   Tarleton's  corps  had  waged  a 
mod  cruel  warfare,  and  their  progrefs  had  been  mark- 
ed with  burnings  and  devallations,  not  a  man  of  them 
•was  killed,  wounded,  or  even  infulted  after  he  had 
furrendered.     The  Americans  had  only  twelve  men 
killed  and  lixty  wounded. 

This  defeat  of  the  troops  under  Tarleton,  while  it 
reanimated  the  dcfponding  friends  of  America,  and 

4 


brightened  their  hopes,  was  a  fcverc  ftroke  to  Lord  America, 
Cornwallis,  as  the  lofs  of  his  light  infantry  was  a  great  — v— ' 
difadvantagc  to  him.  The  day  after  the  event  he  em- 
ployed in  coUciiling  the  remains  of  Tarleton's  corps, 
and  in  endeavouring  to  form  a  junction  with  General 
Lcllic,  who  had  been  ordered  to  march  towards  him 
with  a  body  of  Britilh  troops  from  Wynnefborough. 
Conliderable  exertions  were  then  made  by  part  of  the 
army,  without  baggage,  to  retake  the  prifoners  in  the 
hands  of  the  Americans,  and  to  intercept  General 
Morgan's  corps  on  its  retreat  to  the  Catawba.  But  that 
American  officer,after  his  defeat  of  Tarleton,  had  made 
forced  marches  up  into  the  country,  and  eroded  the 
Catawba  the  evening  before  a  great  rain, which  fwcUed 
the  river  to  fuch  a  degree,  as  to  prevent  the  royal  ar- 
my from  crolfing  for  feveral  days  ;  during  which  time 
the  Britiffi  prifoners  were  got  over  the  Yadkin  ; 
whence  they  proceeded  to  Dan  River,  which  they  alfo 
palled,  and  on  the  14th  of  February  had  reached 
Court-houfc,  in  the  province  of  Virginia. 

Lord  Cornwallis  employed  a  halt  of  two  days  in  col- 
le(fling  fome  flour,  and  in  dellroying  fuperfluous  bag- 
gage and  all  his  waggons,  excepting  thofe  laden  with  . 
hofpital  ftores,  fait,  and  ammunition,  and  four  referve- ,  ?^' 
ed  empty  in  rcadinels  for  f\ck  or  wounded.  Being  ^jUj, 
thus  freed  from  all  unnecellary  ineumbrancec,  he  niarcho 
marched  through  N.;rth-Carolina  with  great  rapidity,  through 
and  penetrated  to  the  remotell  extremities  ofihatpro-Nonh-Ci- 
vince  on  the  banks  of  the  Dan.  His  progrefs  was'"'""*' 
fometimes  impeded  by  parties  of  the  militia,  and  lomc 
fkirmilhes  enfucd,  but  he  met  with  no  very  confidcra- 
ble  oppolition.  On  the  flrft  of  February  the  king's 
troops  crolFed  the  Catawba  at  M'Cowan'sFord,  where 
General  Davidfon,  with  a  party  of  American  militia, 
was  polled,  in  order  to  oppofe  their  paflage  ;  but  he 
falling  by  the  firll  difchargc,  the  royal  troops  made 
good  their  landing,  and  the  militia  retreated.  When 
Lord  Cornwallis  arrived  at  Hillfborough,  he  crefted 
the  king's  (landard,  and  invited,  by  proclamation,  all 
loyal  fubjeifs  to  repair  to  it,  and  to  fland  forth  and  take 
an  adive  part  in  allilling  his  Lordfliip  to  reflore  order 
and  government.  He  had  been  taught  to  believe  that 
the  king's  friends  were  numerous  in  that  part  of  the 
country  :  but  the  event  did  not  confirm  the  truth  of 
the  reprefcntations  that  had  been  given.  The  Roy- 
alifls were  but  few  in  number,  and  fome  of  them  too 
timid  to  join  the  king's  ftandard.  There  were,  in- 
deed, about  200  who  were  proceeding  to  Hillfborough, 
under  colonel  Pyle,  in  order  to  avow  their  attachment 
to  the  royal  caufe  ;  but  they  were  met  accidentally, 
and  furrounded  by  a  detachment  from  the  American 
army,  by  whom  mofl  of  them  were  cut  in  pieces. 
Meanwhile  General  Greene  was  marching  with  great 
expedition  with  the  troops  under  his  command,  in  or- 
der to  form  a  jundion  with  other  corps  of  American 
troops,  that  he  might  thereby  be  enabled  to  put  fome 
cffeclual  flop  to  the  progrefs  of  Lord  Cornwallis. 

In  other  places  foutc  conliderable  advantages  were       362 
obtained  by  the  royal  arms.     On  the  4th  of  January,  Large 
fome  ffiips  of  war  with  a  number  of  tranfports,  on  quantities 
boardwhich  was  alarge  body  of  troops  under  thecom-"'  '^""^r** 
mand  of  Brigadier-general  Arnold,  arrived  at  Well- ^^J^^.*^"'^'^' 
over,  about  140  miles  from  the  Capes  of  Virginia,  |,y  ^^^y^ 
where  the  troops  ininiediitcly  landed  and  marched  to 
Kichmoitd  ;  which  ihey  reached  without  oppofition, 

the 


A  M  E 


[     617     ] 


A  M  E 


America,  the  militia  that  was  collected  having  retreated  on  their 

■*—'  approach.     Lieuicnant-coloncl  Sinicoc  marched  from 

hence  with  a  dctachmentof  the  BritiJh  troops  to  Weft- 
ham,  where  they  dc/iroj-cd  one  ofthehiicll  foun- 
derics  lor  cannon  in  /-'inciita,  and  a  large  quantity  of 
llorcs  and  cannon.  Central  Arnold,  on  his  arrival  at 
Richnioni ,  found  there  large  quantities  ot"falt,  rum, 
fail-cloih,  aiid  tobacco,  the  lail  of  which  be  dellroyed 
to  a  stfj  great  amount.  The  britiih  troops  afterwards 
attacked  and  difpcrfcd  feme  imall  panics  of  the  Ame- 
ricans, took  fonie  lloresand  a  few  pieces  of  cannon, 
and  on  the  20th  ol  the  fame  month  marched  into  Ponf- 
inouth.  Oa  the  25th,  Captain  Barclay,  with  fevtral 
Clips  of  svar,  anda  body  ot  tioops  under  the  command 
of  Major  Craig,  arrived  in  Cape-Kear  Kivcr.  The 
troops  landed  about  nine  miles  Irom  Wilmington,  and 
on  the  aSth  entered  th.it  town.  It  was  unJcntood  thit 
their  having  policffion  of  ihat  town,  and  being  mailers 
of  .Cape-Kear  River,  would  be  productive  of  veiy  bc- 
nelicial  cifeols  to  Lord  Loriiwallii's  army. 

General  Greene  having<  fleeted  a  junction  about  the 
10th  of  March  with  a  continental  regiment  of  what 
were  called  eighteen  Vitnths  men,  and  two  large  bodies 
of  militia  belonging  to  Virginia  and  North-Carolina, 
formed  a  refolution  to  attack  the  Britiih  troops  uidec 
the  command  of  Lord  C^  rnwallis.  i  he  American 
army  marched  from  the  High  Rock  Ford  on  the  lath 
of  the  month,  and  on  the  14th  arrived  at  Guildford. 
Lord  Cornwallis,  from  the  inforniaiion  he  ha<i  received 
of  the  motions  of  the  American  gc.icral,  concluded 
g  what  were  his  dcligns.  As  they  apjiroai  hed  more 
Different  nearly  to  each  other,  a  few  Ikirmilhes  eufued  between 
kinuithci*  lome  advanced  panics,  in  which  the  advantage  was 
fometimes gained  by  the  Americans  ana  fometim-s  by 
the  Britiih.  On  the  niorningof  the  15th,  Lord  Corn- 
wallis marched  w  ith  his  troops  at  diy-bi  eak  in  order  10 
meet  the  Americans  or  to  attack  them  in  their  encamp- 
ment. About  four  miles  from  Guildford,  the  advanced 
guard  ot  the  Britiih  army,  commanded  by  Lieutenant- 
colonel  Tarleton,  fell  in  with  a  corps  of  the  Ameri- 
cans, conlifting  of  Lic>itcnant-cjlonel  Lee's  legion, 
fome  Back-Mountain  rne nand  Virginian  militia,  with 
whom  he  had  a  fcvcre  Ikirmilh,  and  was,  at  length, 
obliged  to  retreat. 

The  greater  part  of  the  country  in  which  the  adlion 
happened  is  a  wildcrnefs,  with  afew cleared  fields  in- 
tcrfperfed.  The  American  army  was  ported  on  a 
riling  ground  about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  Guildford 
court  houfe.  It  was  drawn  up  in  three  lines  :  the  front 
line  was  compofcd  of  the  North-Carolina  militia,  un- 
der the  command  of  the  generals  Builer  and  Katon  ; 
the  fecond  line,  of  Virginian  militia,  commanded  by 
the  generals  Stephens  and  Lawfon,  forming  two  bri- 
gades ;  the  third  line,  confuting  of  two  brigades,  one 
of  Virginia  and  one  of  Maryland  continental  troops, 
commanded  by  General  Huger  and  Colonel  Williams. 
Lieutenaiu-colond  Walhington,  with  the  dragoons  of 
thefirft  and  third  regiments,  a  detachment  of  light  in- 
fantry compofcd  of  continental  troops,  and  a  regiment 
of  riflemen  under  colonel  Lynch,  formed  a  corps  of 
obfcrvation  for  the  fccurity  of  their  right  flank.  Lieu- 
tenant-colonel Lee,  with  his  legion,  a  detachment  of 
light  infantry,  and  a  corps  of  rillemen  under  Colonel 
Campbell,  formed  a  corps  of  obfervation  for  the  fccu- 
rity of  their  left  flank.  The  a:tack  of  the  American 
Vol.  I. 


artfiy  was  direfled  to  be  made  by  Lord  Cornwallii  in    Americi. 

the  loUowing  order  :  On  the  right,  the  rej^imeut  of  -^ ' 

Bofc  and  the  7ilt  regiment,  led  by  Major-general 
Lcllie,  and  fupported  by  the  firll  battalion  of  guards  ; 
on  the  left,  the  23d  and  33d  regiments,  led  by  Lieu- 
tenant-colonel Wcblier,  and  fupported  by  the  grena- 
diersand  fecond  battalionofgiuriisconimandeii  uy  Bri- 
gadier-general O'Hara  ;  the  Yagers  and  light  ii:f«nt- 
ry  of  the  guards  remained  in  a  wood  on  the  left  of 
the  guns,  and  the  cavalry  in  the  road,  ready  to  act  as 
circumftances  might  require.  j^^ 

About  half  an  hour  alter  one  in  the  afteinoon,  the  Uait'e  it 
adion  commenced  by  a  cannonade,  which  lallcd  abou:  Gudd/ord. 
twenty  minutes  ;  when  the  Britiih  troops  advanced  in 
three  columns  and  attacked  the  North-Carolinian  bri- 
gades with  great  vigour,  and  foon  obliged  partof  ihtfc 
troops  to  quit  the  field  :  but  the  Virginia  militia  gave 
them  a  warm  reception,  and  kept  up  a  heavy  tire  lor 
a  long  time,  till,  being  beaten  back,  the  action  became 
general  almoft  every  where.  The  American  corps 
under  the  lieutenant-colonels  Walhington  and  Lee 
were  alfo  warmly  engaged,  and  did  conliderablc  ex- 
ecution. Lieutcnant-coljnel  Tarleton  had  directions 
to  keep  his  cavalry  compact,  and  not  to  charge  with- 
out politive  orders,  excepting  to  protect  any  of  the 
corps  from  the  moll  evident  danger  of  being  defeated. 
Thecxcelfive  thicknefsof  the  woods  rendered  the  Bri- 
tiih bayonets  of  little  ufe,  and  enabled  the  broken  corps 
of  .-Americans  to  make  frequent  Hands  with  an  irregu- 
lar tire.  The  fecond  battalion  of  the  guards  tirrt  gain- 
ed the  clear  ground  near  Guihiford  coart-houfe,  and 
found  a  corps  of  continental  infantry,  fuperier  in  num- 
ber, formed  in  an  open  field  on  the  left  of  the  road. 
Deliroiis  of  (ignalizing  thenifelves,  they  immediately 
attacked  and  foon  defeated  them,  taking  two  fix  poun- 
ders :  but  as  they  purfued  the  .-Americans  into  the  wood 
with  too  much  ardour,  they  were  thrown  into  cont'ulion 
by  a  heavy  fire,  and  inftantly  charged  and  driven  back 
into  the  field  by  Lieutenant-colonel  W a Ihington's  dra- 
goons, with  the  lofs  of  the  tw'o  fix  pounders  they  had 
taken.  But  the  .American  cavalry  were  afterwards rc- 
pulfed,  and  the  two  lix  pounders  again  fell  into  the 
handsof  the  Britiih  troops.  The  Britiih  troops  having 
at  length  broken  the  fecond  Maryland  regiment,  and  j<^ 
turned  the  left  flank  of  the  An;ericans,  got  into  the  The  Arae. 
rear  of  the  Virginia  brigade,  and  appeared  to  begain- rican». 
ing  their  ri^ht, which  would  have  encircled  the  whole  defeated- 
of  the  continental  troops,  when  Gen.  Greene  thought 
it  prudent  to  order  a  retreat.  AJiny  of  t!ie  American 
militia  difpcrfed  in  the  woods;  but  the  continental 
troops  retreated  in  good  order  to  Recc'vl''ork  River, 
and  eroded  at  the  ford  about  three  miles  fri>ai  the  field 
of  ailion,  and  there  halted.  When  they  had  colled- 
ed  their  llragglers,  they  retreated  to  the  iron-works, 
ten  miles  diftant  from  Guildford,  where  they  encamp- 
ed. They  loft  their  artillery  and  two  waggons  laden 
with  ammunition.  It  was  a  hard  fought  action,  and 
lafted  anhourand  ah.ilf.  Of  the  Bri:ilh  ircKjps,  the 
lofs,  as  Aated  by  Lord  Cornwallis,  was  J52  killed, 
wounded,  and  miffing.  General  Greene  in  his  ac- 
count of  the  action  tranfmitted  to  the  Congrefs,  ftatcii 
the  lofsof  the  continental  troops  toamountto  339  kill- 
ed, wounded,  and  milGng  ;  but  he  made  nocftimaie  of 
the  lofs  of  the  militia,  which  was  feme  what  ninie  ihar 
100.  Lieutenant-colonel  Stuart  was  killed  in  the  ac 
4  I  I'-on; 


A  M  E 


[    6i8     ] 


A  M  E 


Amnick. 


366 

Hardthips 
endured  by 
the  liritilh 
U-oopt- 


3*7 
Cencral 
Grtcnc  at- 
tacked in 
hh  camp 
by  L  .rd 
Rawdon, 
and  defeat- 
ed. 


lion  ;  and  Lieutenant-colonel  Webftcr,  and  the  cap- 
tains Scluu/;,  Mayuard,  and  Goodriche,  died  of  the 
wounds  th.u  they  had  rcccivcd-in  it.  Brigadicr-gcncial 
O'Hara,  Brigadier-general  Howard,  and  Liciucnaiit- 
coloncd  Tarleton,  were  alfo  wounded.  Of  the  Ame- 
ricans the  principal  ofliccr  killed  was  Major  Andcrlon 
of  the  Maryland  line,  and  the  generals  Stephens  and 
Hiigcr  were  wounded. 

ThcBriti(h  troops  underwent  great  hardfliips  in  the 
courfe  of  til  is  campaign  ;  and  in  a  letter  of  LordCorn- 
wallis's  to  Lord  George  Germain,  dated  March  17th 
he  obf;rvcd,  that  "  the  foldiers  had  been  two  days 
without  bread."  His  lordlliip  quitted  Guildford  three 
days  after  ilie  hattle  which  was  fought  in  that  place  ; 
and  on  the  7ih  of  April,  after  a  retreat  marked  with 
proofsof  great  alarm  and  precipiiatioti,  arrived  in  the 
nci.4hbj  irhood  of  Wilmington.  Soon  after,  General 
Greene,  notwitliftauding  his  late  defeat, endeavoured 
to  make  fome  vigorous  attempts  againft  the  king's  for- 
ces in  South-Carolina.  Lord  Kawdon  had  been  ap- 
pointed to  defend  the  poft  of  Camden,  with  about  800 
iiritirti  and  provincials  ;  and  on  the  r9th  of  April  Ge- 
neral Greene  appeared  before  that  place  witlialarge 
body  of  coutinentjls  and  militia.  lie  found  it,  l-.ow- 
cvcr,  impollible  to  attempt  to  liorin  the  town  with  any 
profpeCt  of  fucccfs;  and  therefore  endeavoured  to  take 
fuch  a  polltion  as  Ihould  induce  the  Britiih  troops  to 
fally  from  their  works.  He  polled  the  Americans 
about  a  mile  from  the  town,  on  an  eminence  which 
was  covered  with  woods,  and  flanked  on  tiic  left  by  an 
impalFaUle  fwamp.  But  on  the  morning  of  the  2  5th, 
Lord  Rawdon  marched  out  of  Camden,  and  attacked 
General  Greene  in  liiscamp.  The  Americans  made  a 
vigorous  reliftaiice,  but  were  at  length  compelled  to 
give  way  ;  and  the  purfuit  is  faid  to  have  been  conti- 
nued three  miles.  Kor  fimie  time  after  the  a>.'tion com- 
menced,GcneralGrccne  entertained  great  hopes  of de- 
fe.lting  the  liriiillt  troops  ;  in  which,  as  the  Americans 
were  fuperior  in  poiut  of  numbers,  lie  would  probably 
have  fucceeded,  had  not  fome  capital  military  errors 
been  committed  by  one  or  twoof  theofficers  who  ferv- 
ed  under  him.  On  the  American  fide  Colonel  Walh- 
ington  had  behaved  extremely  well  in  this  adtion, 
having  made  upwards  of  200  of  the  Englifh  prifoners, 
with  10  or  12  oflicers,  before  he  perceived  that  the 
Americans  were  abandoning  the  field  of  b.ittle.  The 
lofsof  the  Englilh  was  about  100  killed  and  wounded. 
Upwards  of  100  of  the  Americans  were  taken  prifon- 
ers ;  and,  according  to  tlie  account  publilhed  by  Gene- 
ral Greene,  they  had  126  killed  a^id  wounded.  After 
this  aflion,  Greene  retreated  to  Riigeley's  mills,  12 
niles  from  Canideu,  jn  order  to  colled  his  troops  and 
wait  for  reinforcements. 

•Nor  with  (landing  the  ad  vantage  which  Lord  Rawdon 
had  obtained  over  General  Greene  at  Camden,  tliat 
nobleman  foon  after  found  it  necelPary,  having  burned 
the  goal,  mills,  many  private  houfes,  and  a  part  of  his 
own  bagga  'e,  to  quit  that  pofl ;  and  the  Americans 
made  tlieinfelves  mafters  of  fevcral  other  poAs  that 
were  occupied  by  the  k-i fig's  troops,  and  the  garrifons 
of  which  were  obliged  to  furrendcr  theinfelves  prifon- 
ers of  war.  Thefe  troops  were  afterwards  exchmged 
under  a  cartel  which  took  pjjce  between  Lord  Corn- 
wallis  and  General  Greene  for  the  releafe  of  all  pri- 
foners of  war  in  the  fouihern  didrid.     After  thcfc 


events,  General  Greene  laid  clofc  liege  to  Ninety-fix,  America; 

which  was  confidcred  as  tlie  mod  commanding  and  ' '^^~~' 

important  of  all  the  polls  in  the  back  country  -,  and  on     ,  ^        . 
the  I9tli  of  June  he  attempted  to  (torin  the  garrifon,  i,ys(\t„t.t„ 
but  was  repulfcd  by  the  gallantry  of  the  Britiih  troops,  {.jinety  lU ; 
with  the  lofs  of  about  1 50  killed,  wounded,  and  inif-  but  is  re- 
fing.     General  Greene  then  raiftd  the  ficge,  and  re-  pulfed. 
tired  with  his  army  behind  tlie  Siiuda,  to  a  Itroiig  l\ia- 
ation,  within  16  miles  of  Ninety  lix. 

On  the  i8th  of  April  a  large  body  of  Britidi  troops, 
under  the  command  of  Major-general  I'liilips  and  Bri- 
gadier-general Arnold,  embaiked  at  Poitfnioiuh  in 
Virginia,  in  order  to  proceed  on  an  expedition  for  the 
purpofeof  dcflroyingfomc  of  the  ."Imerican  Aorei.  A 
party  of  light-infantry  were  fent  10  or  12  miles  up  the 
Chickahomauy  ;  where  they  dellroyed  fcveral  armed       369 
fliips.fundry  ware-houfes,aiid  the  American  Hate  (Itip-  DcOruai- 
yards.     At   Pctcrfburg,  the  Knglilh   deilroyed  4J00  """^ '^^■"'' 
hoglheads  of  tobacco,  one  Ihip,  and  a  number  of  fmall  ■■"*°""''" 
vell'cls on  the  flocks  and  in  the  river.     At  Chefterficld     « 
court-houfc,  they  burnt  a  range  of  barracks  for  2000 
men  and    ^00  barrels   of  flour.     At  a   place  called 
Ojboni'i,  they  made  tlicnifelves  maflers  of  feveral  vcf- 
fcls  loaded  with  cordage  and  flour,  and  dellroyed  about 
2000  hoglheads  of  tobacco,  and  fundry  vell'els  were 
funk  and  burnt.     At  Warwick,  they  burnt  a  maga- 
zine of  500  barrels  o(  flour,  fome  tine  mills  belonging 
to  Colonel  Carey,  a  large  range  of  public  rope-walks 
and  flore-houfes,  tan  and  bark  houfes  full  of  hides  and 
bark,  and  great  quantitiesof  tobacco.     A  like  dellrnc- 
tion  of  (lores  and  goods  was  made  in  other  parts  of 
Virginia. 

From  the  account  already  given  of  fome  of  the  prin- 
cipal military  operations  of  the  prefent  year  in  America, 
it  appears,  that  though  advantages  had  been  gained  by 
the  royal  troops,  yet  no  event  had   taken  place  from 
wliich  it  could  rationally  be  expeiled  that  the  final  ter- 
mination of  the  war  would  be  favourable  to  Great-Bri- 
tain.  It  was  alfo  a  difadvantageous  circuinflance,  that  fj.-?^°. 
there  was  a  mifundcr/landins;  between   Admiral  Ar-  a     .•       " 
buthnot  and  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  and  a  mutual  dilappro-  between 
bation  of  each   other's  conduel.     This  was  manifcfl  the  I'lritifli 
from  their  difpatches   to  government,  and  efpecially  admiralaiu 
from  thofc  of  General  Clinton,  whole  exprclTions  rcf-  general. 
pe<5ling  the  conduit  of  the  admiral  were  by  no  means 
eq\iiv6cal. 

On  the  i6th  of  March  i7Sr,a  partial  a<5lion  happen-  Aaionbi. 
ed  ortthe  Capes  of  Virginia,  between  the  fleet  under  twecn  the 
Admiral  Arbuthnot,coiiii(liiigof  feven  fliipsof  theline  Iritilh  anc 
and  one  fifty-gun  niip,anila  French  Apiadron  eonfifling  French 
of  the  f  me  number  of  fliipsof  the  line,  and  one  forty-  ""'*  """ 
gun  rtiip.   Someof  thefliips  in  both  fleets  received  con-  ','\,^''^j"- 
lid'  rabie  damage  in  the  ae^ion,  and  the  lufs  of  the  En-  ^' 

glifli  was  ;o  killed  and  75  wounded  ;  but  no  fliip  was 
taken  on  either  fide.  The  Britiih  fleet,  however, 
claimed  the  advantage  ;  as  the  French  were  obliged  to 
retire,  and  were  fuppofcd  lobe  preventcel*  l-y  this  ac- 
tion from  carrying  troops  upon  theChefapeak,  in  order 
to  attack  Gem  ral  Arnold  and  impede  the  progrefs  of 
Lord  Cornwallis.  But  it  was  thought  an  unfortunate 
circunUlance,  that  fome  time  before  this  engagement 
the  Romulus,  a  fliip  of  44  guns,  was  capiured  by  the 
French  off'  the  Capes  of  Virginia. 

Lord  Ccrnwallis,  aficr  his  vidlory  over  General 
Greene  at  Guildford,  proceeded,  as  wc  have  fecn,  to 

Wil- 


A  M  E 


[     619     ] 


A  M  E 


America. 

372 
Prochiiia- 
tiuii  by 
Lordl-'orn 


373 
Difftrcnt 
Anions. 


374 
General 
Grcciic  <!«■ 
fcan  Col. 

Stuart- 


Wilmington,  where  he  arrived  on  the  7th  of  April. 
But  before  he  reached  that  place,  he  publilhcd  a  pro- 
clamation, calling  upon  all  loyal  fiibjtcti  to  Hand  forih 
and  take  an  adive  part  in  rtllorini^  good  order  and 
government  ;  and  declaring  to  all  ptrl'ons  who  had  en- 
gaged in  the  prclent  rebellion  againit  his nujelly's  au- 
thority, but  who  were  now  convinced  of  their  error, 
and  dclirous  of  returning  to  their  duty  and  allegiance, 
that  if  they  would  furrendcrthemiclves  with  their  arms 
»nd  ammunition  at  head  quarters,  or  to  the  officer  com- 
manding in  the  dilhi,.'ts  contiguous  to  their  rcfpeitive 
places  of  rclidcnce,  on  or  before  the  20th  of  tliat 
month,  tliey  lliould  be  permitted  to  return  to  their 
homes  upon  giving  a  military  p.irolc  ;  they  would  be 
protected,  in  their  perfons  and  properties,  from  all 
forts  of  violence  from  the  Briiilh  troops  ;  and  would 
be  rellored,  as  foon  as  polfiblc,  to  all  the  privileges  of 
legal  and  conilitutioii.il  government.  But  it  does  not 
appear  that  any  conliderable  number  of  the  Americans 
were  allured  by  thefe  proniifcs  to  give  any  evidences  of 
their  attachment  to  the  royal  caufe. 

On  the  20th  of  May,  his  Lordlhip  arrived  at  Pcterf- 
burg  in  Virginia,  where  he  joined  a  body  of  Britilh 
troops  that  had  been  under  the  command  of  Major- 
general  Philips  ;  but  the  command  of  which,  in  coii- 
fcquencc  of  the  death  of  that  officer,  had  devolved  up- 
on Brigailicr-general  Arnold.  Before  this  juncUon  he 
had  encountered  conliderable  inconveniences  from  the 
difficulty  of  procuringprovilions  and  forage  ;  fo  that  in 
a  letter  to  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  he  informed  him,  that 
his  cavalry  wanted  every  thing,  and  his  infantry  eve- 
ry thing  but  ffiocs.  He  added,  that  he  had  experien- 
ced the  diflrelles  of  marching  hundreds  of  miles  in  a 
country  chiefly  hoflile,  without  one  adive  or  ufcful 
friend,  without  intelligence,  and  without  communica- 
tion with  any  part  of  the  cotmtry. 

On  the  26th  of  June,  about  fix  miles  from  Willi- 
amiburg,  Lieutenant-colonel  Simcoe,  and  350  of  the 
queen's  rangers,  with  80  mounted  yagers,  were  at- 
tacked by  a  much  fuperior  body  of  the  Americans; 
but  whom  they  repulfed  with  great  gallantry  and  with 
equal  fuccefs,  making  four  officers  and  twenty  private 
men  prifoncrs.  The  lofs  of  the  Americans  in  this  ac- 
tion is  faid  to  have  been  upwards  of  120,  and  that  of 
the  Britilh  troops  not  more  than  40. 

On  the  6th  of  July  an  acbion  happened  near  the 
Green  Springs  in  Virginia,  between  a  reconnoitring 
party  of  the  AmericansunderGencral  Wayne, amount- 
ing to  about  Soo,  and  a  large  part  of  the  Britiffi  army 
under  Lord  Cornwallis  ;  in  v.-hich  the  Americans  had 
127  killed  and  wounded,  and  the  lofs  of  the  royal 
troops  is  fuppofed  to  have  been  conlidcrably  greater. 
It  was  an  action  in  which  no  fmall  degree  of  military 
■flcill  and  courage  was  exhibited  by  the  American?.  In 
a  variety  of  Ikirmiffies,  the  Marquis  dcla  Fayette  very 
mncli  diflinguilhcd  himfelf,  and  difplayed  the  utmoft 
ardour  in  the  American  caufe. 

In  South-Carolina,  an  adlion  happened  on  the  9th 
of  Septcm ber  near  the  Eutaw  Springs,  between  a  large 
body  of  Britilh  troops  under  the  command  of  Lieute- 
nant-colonel Stuart  and  an  equal  body  of  Americans, 
under  the  command  of  General  Greene.  It  was  an  ob- 
ftinate  engageijientt  and  lafled  near  two  hours.  The 
Britilh,  with  a  conliderable  lofs,  were  in  the  tirll  partof 
the  battle  routedin  all  quarters,  but  fouic  having  taken 


pod  in  a  piquetted  garden,  and  others  tbrow'n  them-  Ameti,-*. 

felvesintoa  brick  houfe,  the  cigernefs  of  the  Ameri-  ' * ', 

can  purfuit  was  conlidcrably  checked,  and  gave  Colo- 
nel Stuart  an  opportunity  on  the  evening  of  the  next 
day.toabandonthe  Kutaw.and  march  tosvards  Charles- 
ton, taking  a  number  of  his  wounded,  and  about  one 
thoufand  lland  of  arms.  375 

In  the  courfe  of  the  fame  month.  General  Arnold  Expcditien 
was  fent  on  an  expedition  againft  New-London,  in  ?P'° , 
Connedicut,  where  he  delkoyed  a  great  part  of  the  ^  ""'  "*' 
lliipping,  and  an  immenfe  quantity  of  naval  ftores,  Eu- 
ropean manufacburcs,  and  Eaft  and  Weft  India  com- 
modities. The  town  itfclf  was  alfo  burnt,  which  is 
faid,  but  untruly,  to  have  been  unavoidable,  on  accoont 
of  the  explolions  of  great  quantities  of  gun-powder 
which  happened  to  be  in  the  ftorc-houfes  that  were  fet 
on  fire.  A  fort,  of  which  it  was  thought  neceflary  to 
gain  pofll-ffion  in  this  expedition,  was  not  taken  with- 
out conliderable  lofs.  This  was  Fort  Grifwold  ;  which 
was  defended  by  the  Americans  with  great  gallantry, 
and  the  alTault  vvras  made  by  the  Engliffi  with  equal 
bravery.  The  Britiffi  troops  entered  the  works  with 
fixed  bayonets,  and  wcreoppofed  with  great  vigour  by 
the  garrifon  with  long  fpears.  After  a  mofl  obftinatc 
defence  of  near  forty  minutes,  the  allailants  gained 
poflcffionofthefortjin  which  85  Americans  were  found 
dead,  and  60  wounded,  nioft  of  them  mortally  ;  but  of 
the  killed,  it  is  paiirful  to  obfervc,  that  the  greater 
number  fell  after  the  Britiffi  entered  the  fort,  and  when 
refinance  had  ceafed.  Of  the  Britiffi  troops  Major 
Montgomery  was  killed  by  a  fpear  in  entering  the 
American  works  ;  and  192  men  were  alfo  killed  and 
wounded  in  this  expedition.  ,.5 

Notwithftanding  the  advantages  that  LordCornwal-  Criticil  fi- 
lls had  obtained  over  the  Americans,  his  fituation  in  tuition  of 
Virginia  began  by  degrees  tobe  very  critical ;  and  the  lordi."or«- 
rather  becaufehe  did  not  receive  thofe  reinforcements  '^'^'• 
and  fupplics  from  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  of  which  hchad 
formed  expeftations,  and  v  hich  he  conceived  to  be 
neccll'ary  to  the  fuccefs  of  his  operations.  Indeed,  the 
commander  in  chiefwas  prevented  from  fending  ihofc 
reinforcements  to  Lord  Cornwallis  which  he  otherwifc 
might  have  done,  by  his  fears  refpefting  New-York, 
againft  which  he  entertained  great  apprehenfions  that 
General  Waffiington  intended  to  m.kc  a  very  formi- 
dable attack.  In  faft,  that  able  American  general 
had  this  objedl  in  view  ;  and  while  the  attack  was  iu 
ferious  contemplation,  a  Ictttrfrom  him  dctaiingthc 
particulars  of  the  intended  operations  of  the  campaign, 
being  intercepted,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Sir  Henry 
Clinton.  After  the  plan  was  changed,  the  royal  com- 
mander was  fo  much  under  the  imprcffion  of  the  ia- 
tclligence  contained  in  the  intercepted  letter,  that  lie 
believed  every  movement  towards  Virginia  to  be  a 
feint,  calculated  to  draw  otT  his  attention  from  the  de- 
fence of  New- York.  Under  the  influence  of  this 
opinionhe  bent  his  whole  force  toftrengthedthat  port, 
aud  fiiffered  the  French  and  American  armies  to  pafs 
without  any  moleftation.  When  the  firft  opportuni- 
ty of  ftriking  at  them  was  clapfed,  then  for  the  firft 
time  he  w.'.s  brought  to  believe  that  the  allies  had  fix- 
ed on  Virginia,  for  the  theatre  of  their  combined  ope- 
rations. As  truth  may  be  made  to  anfwer  the  pur- 
pofes  of  deception,  fo  nofeintof  attacking  New-York, 
could  have  been  more  fuccefsful  than  the  real  inten- 
4  I  3  tion. 


A  M  E 


[     620     ] 


A  M  E 


America,  tion.  At  the  fame  time  Gen.  Wafiiington,  by  a  variety 
"■ — '  ofjuilicioiis  military  manoeuvres,  in  which  he  com- 
pletely out-gencrallcd  the  Britilh  commander,  incrcaf- 
cJ  his  apprchcnlions  about  New-York,  and  prevent- 
ed him  trom  fending  proper  ailiPiance  to  Lord  Corn- 
wallis.  Having  for  a  conliderdblc  time  kept  Sir  Henry 
Clinton  in  perpetual  alarm  in  New- York,  though  with 
£n  army  much  inferior  to  the  garrifon  of  that  city.  Ge- 
neral Walhington  fuddenly  quitted  his  camp  at  White- 
Plains,  crolicd  the  Delaware,  and  marched  towards 
Virginia, apparently  with  a  defign  to  attack  Lord  Corn- 
wallis.  Sir  Henry  Clinton  then  received  information, 
that  the  Count  dc  Gralfe,  with  a  large  French  fleet, 
was  expedtd  every  moment  in  the  Chcfapeak,  in  or- 
der to  co-operate  with  General  Wafhingion.     In  the 
mean  time,  Lord  Cornwallis  had  taken  poileffion  of 
the  pofls  of  Y'ork-Town  and  Gloucefler  in  Virginia. 
He  applied  himfclf  with  the  utmoft  diligence  to  for- 
tify thefc  pods,  and  to  render  them  equally  refpeifla- 
bic  by  land  and  water.     His  whole  force  amounted  to 
about  yoooexcellent  troops.     Before  his  lordlhiphad 
lixed  himfclf  and  army  in  thefc  pods,  a  feries  of  ma- 
roeuvres  had  taken  place  between  him  and  the  Marquis 
de  la  Fayette  ;  in  which  the  Britilh  general  difplayed 
the  boldnefs  of  cnterprife,  and  the  marquis  the  judg- 
ment of  age,  blended  with  the  ardor  of  youth.     Fay- 
ette, under  various  pretences,  fent  the  Pennfylvania 
troops  to  the  fouth  fide  of  James  River  ;  collefted  a 
force  in  Gloucefler  county  ;  and  made  fundry  excel- 
lent arrangements,  which  he  early  communicated  to 
.yj       Count  de  Gralfe  by  an  officer. 
Allied ar-        The  French  and  American  armies  continued  their 
ni7  arrive    march  from  the  northward,  till  they  arrived  at   the 
at  Head  of  Head  of  Elk  :  within  an  hour  after,  they  received  an 
^  cxprefs  from  Count  de  Grade,  with  the  joyful  account 

of  his  arrival  and  lituation.  This  circumllance  will 
appear  the  more  remarkable,  when  we  conlider  the 
original  dillance  of  the  parties,  as  well  from  the  fcene 
ofattion  as  from  each  other,  and  the  various  accidents, 
diffiruhies,  and  delays,  to  which  they  were  all  liable. 
The  greateib  harmony  fublifled  between  Walhington 
and  Rochambcau,  which  Itlfcned  fome  of  the  difficul- 
ties attending  theirjoint  operations.  The  former  be- 
ing without  a  fufficiency  of  money  to  fupply  his  troops, 
applied  to  the  count  for  a  loan,  which  was  inllantly 
granted.  In  order  to  haftcn  the  arrival  of  the  allied 
troops,  de  Gralfe  fclec^ed  fcvcn  velfels,  drawing  the 
lead  Witer,  to  iranfport  them  down  the  Chcfapeak 
Bay.  But  the  moment  they  were  ready  to  fail  on  this 
ferviee,  the  count  was  obliged  to  prepare  for  repelling 
the  Britilh  fleet.  When  Mr  de  Barras  arrived,  he 
fent  up  thofc  tranfports  he  brought  with  him  for  the 
troops  :  de  Grufle  after  that  added  to  them  as  many 
frigates  as  he  could.  By  the  asth  of  September  all  the 
troops  were  arrived  and  landed  at  Williamiburg,  and 
preparations  were  made  with  all  polfible  difpatch  for 
putting  the  army  in  a  lituation  to  move  down  towards 
York  Town.  General  Walhington  and  Count  de  Ro- 
thambeau,  with  their  fuitcs  and  other  officers,  jiad 
reached  Williamfburgby  hard  travelling,  on  the  14th, 
eleven  days  fooncr.  Here  the  general  found  a  vcf- 
fel  waiting  to  convey  him  to  the  Capes  of  Virginia, 
fent  by  Count  de  Gralle,  as  be  could  not  with  propri- 
ety leave  his  fleet.  The  commander  in  chief  and  the 
Countde Rochambcau,  accompanied  by  GcneralsChaf- 


tellux,  Du  Portail,  and  Knox,  immediately  proceeded  Americ*. 

to  vifit  the  count  on  board  the  Ville  de  Paris.     A  coun-  * v ' 

cil  was  held,  and  the  Count  de  Grafle  detailed  his  en- 
gagements to  be  in  the  Well  Indies  at  the  latter  end 
of  Oftobcr  or  beginning  of  November.  But  he  finally 
agreed  to  continue  in  the  Chcfapeak  until  the  opera- 
tion againd  Lord  Cornwallis  Ihould  be  decided.  After 
which  the  company  returned.  g 

All  the  American  and  French  troops  formed  a  June-  Number  of 
tion  at  Williamlburg.  The  Marquis  de  la  Fayette  had  force*, 
been  joined  by  3000  under  St  Simon  fome  days  before 
the  25th  of  September.  The  whole  regular  force  thus 
collected  amounted  to  between  11  and  12,000  men. 
The  militia  of  Virginia  were  alfo  called  out  to  ferviee, 
and  were  commanded  by  Gov.  Nelfon.  On  the  27tli 
Gen.  Wafli  ington  gave  out  in  general  orders — < '  If  the 
enemylhould  be  tempted  to  meet  the  army  on  its  march, 
the  general  particularly  enjoins  the  troops  10  place 
their  principal  reliance  on  the  bayonet,  that  they  may 
prove  the  vanity  of  the  boafl  vihich  the  BritiJ}}  7iiake  of 
ihiir  peculiar  prowifs  in  deciding  battlet  with  that  wea- 
pon." The  next  morning  the  army  marched,  and 
halted  about  two  miles  from  York  Town  juJl  before 
fun  fet.  The  officers  and  foldicrs  were  ordered  to  lie 
on  their  arms  the  whole  niglu.  On  the  30th,  Col. 
Scammel  (being  officer  of  the  day)  in  approaching  the 
enemy's  outer  works,  to  fee  if  they  had  really  left 
them,  was  mortally  wounded  and  taken  prifoner  by  a 
party  of  the  enemy's  horfc,  which  lay  fecreied.  This 
day  Lord  Cornwallis  was  clofely  inveded  in  York 
Town.  The  French  extended  from  the  river  above 
the  town  to  a  morafs  in  the  centre,  where  they  were 
met  by  the  Americans,  who  occupied  the  oppofite  fide 
from  the  river  to  that  fpot.  The  poll  at  GlouceAer 
Point  was,  at  the  fame  time,  inveded  by  the  Duke  dc 
Lauzun  with  his  legion,  and  a  number  of  Virginia 
militia  under  General  Weeden. 

Before  the  troopsleft  Williamfburg,  Gen.  Wafliing- 
ton  received  a  letter  from  the  Count  de  Gralfe,  inform- 
ing him,  that  in  cafe  of  the  appearance  of  a  Britilh 
fleet,  the  count  conceived  it  to  be  his  duty  to  go  out  and 
meet  them  at  fea,  inftead  of  fighting  in  a  confined  fitu- 
ation.  This  information  exceedingly  alarmed  the  ge- 
neral, who  inllantly  faw  the  probability  of  the  Britifli 
fleet's  manoeuvring  in  fuch  manner,  as  to  reinforce  or 
withdrawLordCornwallis.  To  prcventameafure  preg- 
nant with  fo  much  evil,  his  excellency  wrote  to  the  jy„ 
count  on  the  26th  :  "lam  unable  to  defcribe  the  painful  Gen.  Wa- 
anxiety  under  which  1  have  laboured  fince  the  recepti-  ftiington's 
on  ofyour  letter  of  the  23d  inflant.  It  obliges  me  warm-  '^t'<;"  to 
ly  to  urge  a  perfeverence  in  the  plan  agreed  upon. The  ^°""'  de 
attempt  upon  York,  under  the  proteftion ofyour  (hip- 
ping is  as  certain  of  fuccefsas  a  fuperior  force  and  a  fu- 
periorityof  meafures  can  render  any  militaryoperation. 
Thccaptureof  the  Britifli  army  isamattcrfo  important 
iu  itfelf  and  in  its  confequences,  that  it  raufl  gre.itly 
tend  to  bring  an  end  to  the  war. — If  your  excellency 
quits  the  Bay,  an  accefs  is  open  to  relieve  York,  of 
which  the  enemy  will  indantly  avail  themfelves.  The 
confcquence  of  this  will  be,  not  only  the  difgrace, 
but  the  probable  difbanding  of  the  whole  army  ;  for 
the  prefent  feat  of  war  being  fuch,  as  abfolutely  pre- 
cludes the  ufe  of  waggons,  from  the  great  number  of 
large  rivers  which  iiitcrfci5l  the  country,  there  will 
be  a  total  want  of  proviliong.    This  province  has  been 

fo 


Graffc. 


A  M  E 


[     6 


^Vnierica.   fa  cxhaufted,  that  fubfiftcncc  muft  be  drawn  from  a 

^■^ '  diftance,  and  that  can  only  be  done  by  a  fupcrior  Hcct 

in  the  Bay.  I  carncftly  beg  your  excel. cncy  to  con- 
fidcr,  that  if  by  moving  your  tieet  from  the  lituation 
agreed  upon,  \vc  lofe  the  prefcnt  opportunity,  we 
fliall  never  hereafter  have  it  our  power  to  llrike  fo 
decilive  a  flroke,  and  the  period  of  an  honorable  peace 
will  be  further  diftant  than  ever.  Suppofing  the  force, 
faid  to  have  arrived  under  Adm.  Digby,  to  be  true, 
their  whole  force  united  cannot  be  fach  as  to  give 
them  any  hope  of  fucccfs  in  the  attacking  your  fleet. 
I  am  to  prcfs  your  excellency  to  perfevcre  in  the 
fchcme  fo  happily  concerted  between  us.  Permit  me 
to  add,  that  the  abfence  of  your  fleet  from  the  Bay 
may  fruftrate  our  dciign  upon  the  garrifon  at  York. 
For,  in  the  prefent  iituation,  Lord  Cornwallis  might 
evacuate  the  place  with  the  lofs  of  his  artillery,  bag- 
gage, and  a  few  men — facrifices,  which  would  be 
highly  juftifiablc,  from  the  defirc  of  faving  the  body 
of  the  army. — The  Marquis  de  la  Fayette  carries 
this.  He  is  not  to  pafs  the  Cape  for  fear  of  accident, 
in  cafe  you  fliould  be  at  fea."  This  letter,  with  the 
Marquis's  perfuafions,  had  the  dcfired  cfFcfl  ;  and  the 
fame  hour  when  the  combined  army  appeared  before 
York-Town,thc  French  fleet  was  brought  to  the  mouth 
of  York  river,  and  by  their  pofition  cfFedually  covered 
allfubfequent  military  operations, and  prevented  either 
the  retreat  or  fuccour  of  Lord  Corn  wallis's  army  by  wa- 
ter. The  poRs  of  York  and  Gloucellcr  were  the 
mofl  favourable  of  any  in  the  country  for  beficging 
the  Britifh,  and  preventing  their  efcapc,  when  the 
fiegc  was  fupported  by  a  fuperior  land  and  naval 
force. 

Lord  Cornwallis  was  fufficiently  flrong  for  fighting 
the  Marquis  de  la  Fayette,  even  after  he  had  been 
joined  by  St  Simon  ;  and  is  thought  to  have  been  mif- 
takcn  in  not  engaging  them  eiiher  feparately  or  toge- 
ther. The  moment  he  heard  that  the  allied  troops 
were  at  the  Head  of  Elk,  and  that  de  GralTe  was  ar- 
rived with  fo  powerful  a  fleet  at  the  Chefapeak,  his 
lordfhip  Ihould  have  pufhed  off  for  Charlefton.  There- 
fore it  was  that  Gen.  Greene  wrote  to  Baron  Steuben 
on  the  17th — "  Nothing  can  fave  Cornwallis  but  a 
rapid  retreat  through  NorthCarolina  to  Charlellown." 
His  lordlhip's  conduil  was  influenced  by  an  expedta- 
tion  of  a  reinforcement  from  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  and 
a  full  perfuafion  that  thofe  exertions  would  be  made 
at  New-York,  and  fuch  a  naval  ftrength  would  arrive 
from  thence  in  time,  as  would  efteftually  relieve  him. 
This  may  be  gathered  from  his  wriiing  on  the  16th  : 
"  If  I  had  no  hopes  of  relief,  I  would  rather  rifle  an  ac- 
tion than  defend  my  half-finilhed  works.  But  as  you 
lay,  Adm.  Digbyis  hourly  expelled,  and  have  promifcd 
exertions  to  aflift  me,  1  do  not  think  myfelf  jullitiable 
in  putting  the  fate  of  the  war  upon  fo  dcfperate  an 
attempt."  He  inufl  have  meant  that  of  fighting  Fay- 
ette and  St  Simon,  for  the  troops  of  Generals  Wafh- 
ington  and  Rochambtau  did  not  arrive  till  afterward. 
T'ayeitc  had  taken  a  flrong  polition  :  but  the  at- 
tempt would  not  have  appeared  fo  defperate  to  his 
lordlhip,  had  he  known  the  real  number  of  the  enemy. 
The  trenches  were  opened  by  the  combined  armies 
on  the  6ih  of  Oc'ober,  at  600  yards  diftance  from 
Cornwallis's  works.  The  night  being  dark  and  rainy 
was  well  adapted  to  the  fcrvice,  in  which  there  was 


21     ]  A  M  E 

not  a  man  hurt.     In  tMe  afternoon  of  the  9th,  the  re-  Arerrici. 

doubts  and  batteries  being  completed,  a  general  dil-  '' " ' 

charge  of  34  and  t8  pounders  and  of  10  inch  mortars 
commenced  by  the  Americans  on  the  right,  and  con- 
tinued all  night  without  intcrmilfion.  1  he  next 
morning,  the  French  opened  their  batteries  on  the 
left,  and  a  tremendous  roar  of  canon  and  mortars  was 
continued  for  fix  or  eight  hours  without  cealr.ig. 
There  was  an  incelFant  tire  through  the  fuccee  iiiig 
night.  By  one  of  the  French  fliells,  the  Charon  of 
44  guns  and  a  tranfport  fliip  were  fct  on  fire  and 
burnt.  The  following  morning,  the  enemy's  other 
guard  {hip  was  fired  by  one  of  the  American  (hells 
and  confumed.  At  night,  the  befiegers  opened  their 
fccond  parallel,  200  yards  from  the  works  of  the  be- 
fieged.  The  Americans  had  3  men  killed  and  i 
wounded  by  a  French  cannon,  whiih  fired  too  low. 
On  the  14th  in  the  evening,  an  American  battalion 
was  ordered  into  the  fccond  parallel,  and  to  begin  a 
large  battery  in  advance  on  the  right.  A  few  minutes 
before  they  began  to  break  ground,  the  enemy  kept 
a  conftant  fire  upon  them  :  one  of  their  iliells  burft  in 
centre  of  the  battalion,  and  killed  a  captain  and  one 
private,  and  wounded  a  fccond.  1  he  fire  of  the  be- 
Jieged  was  very  great  through  the  night ;  and  it  was 
thought  that  the  befiegers  lofl  as  many  men  within  24 
hours  at  this  period,  as  they  had  done  nearly  the 
whole  fiege  before.  381 

Two  redoubts,  which  were  advanced  about  200  Britifli  re- 
yards  on  the  left  of  the  Britilh,  greatly  impeded  ihe  doubt*  t*. 
progrefsof  the  combined  armies.  An  attack  on  thefe 
was  therefore  propofed To  excite  a  fpirit  of  emu- 
lation the  reduction  of  the  one  was  comniiucd  to  the 
French,  of  the  other  to  the  Americans.  The  light 
infantry  of  the  latter  were  commanded  by  ihe  Mar- 
quis de  la  Fayette  ;  and  the  fervice  was  allotted  to  a 
fcleift  corps.  The  Marquis  faid  to  General  Walhing- 
ton — "  The  troops  fliould  retaliate  on  the  Britilh,  for 
the  cruelties  they  have  praftifcd."  The  general  an- 
fwered — "  You  have  full  command,  and  may  order  as 
you  pleafe."  The  marquis  ordered  the  party  to  re- 
member New  London,  and  to  retaliate,  by  putting  the 
men  in  the  redoubt  to  the  fword  after  having  carried 
it.  The  men  marched  to  the  aflault  with  unloaded 
arms,  at  dark  on  the  night  of  the  1 4th,  palled  the  aba- 
tis and  palil'ades,  and  attacking  on  all  fides  carried 
the  redoubt  in  a  few  minutes,  with  the  lofs  of  8  kill- 
ed and  28  wounded.  Lieut.  Col.  Laurens  perfonally 
took  the  commanding  officer.  The  cdoncl's  huma- 
nity and  that  of  the  .'\mericans  fo  overcame  their  re- 
fentments,  that  they  fpared  the  Britilh.  When  bring- 
ing them  off  as  prifoners,  they  faid  among  themfelves 
— "Why!  how  is  thi->  f  We  were  ordered  to  put 
them  to  death."  Being  afked  by  others  why  they 
had  npt  done  it,  they  anfwered — "  We  could  not, 
when  they  begged  and  cried  fo  upon  their  knees  for 
their  lives."  About  five  of  the  Britilh  were  killed, 
and  I  major,  I  captain,  and  I  enfign,  and  20  privates 
captured.  Col.  Hamilton,  who  conduced  the  enter- 
prife  with  much  addrefs  and  intrepidity,  in  his  re- 
port to  the  marquis,  mentioned,  to  the  honor  of  his 
detachment — "  that,  incapable  of  imitating  examples 
of  barbarity,  and  forgetting  recent  provocations,  they 
fpared  every  man  that  ceafcd  to  rcfift."  The  French 
were  equally  fucccfsf'.'.l  on  their  fide.     They  carried 

ihc 


A  M  E 


[     622     ] 


A  M  E 


America,   the  redoubt  comniiticil  to  them  with  ripidity,  but  loll 

* ^ a  conlidcrablc  number  of  men.     Thefc  two  works 

being  taken  into  the  lecond  parallel  facilitated  the 
fublcqutr.t  operations. 

The  Britilh  were  To  weakened  by  the  lire  oftlic 
combined  armies,  but  chietiy  by  lickncfs,  that  Lord 
Cornwallis  could  not  venture  any  conliderable  num- 
ber in  the  making  ot'  lallies.  Thcprclciit  cmcrgeney 
however  was  I'uch,  thai  a  little  before  day  break  of 
the  morning  of  the  i6ih  he  ordered  a  fortie  of  about 
400  men,  under  Lieut.  Col.  Abercroniby,  to  attack 
two  batteries  which  appeared  to  be  in  the  grcaicll  for- 
wardnefs,  and  to  fpike  the  guns.  Two  detachments 
■were  appointed  to  the  fervice  ;  and  both  attacks  were 
made  with  fucli  impetuoiity,  that  the  redoubts  which 
covered  the  batteries,  were  forced,  and  eleven  pieces 
of  cannon  ipikcd.  The  French  troops,  who  had  the 
guard  of  that  part  of  the  iatrcnchniciu,  fuffered  con- 
lidcrably.  This  fuccefsful  iiVion  did  honor  to  the 
officers  and  troops  engaged,  but  produced  no  cil'cntial 
benefit.  The  cannon,  being  haftily  fpiked,  were  fooa 
rendered  again  fcrviccable  ;  and  the  combined  forces 
were  fo  indullrious,  that  they  finilhcd  their  batteries, 
opened  tlieni  about  4  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and 
tired  brifkly.  Their  feveral  ba;terics  were  now  co- 
vered with  near  too  pieces  of  heavy  ordnance  ;  and 
the  Britilh  works  were  fo  dcftroyed,  that  they  could 
.jj  fcarcely  Ihow  a  lingle  gun. 
Briti(h  at-  Thus  was  Lord  Cornwallis  reduced  to  the  necefllty 
tempts  an  of  preparing  for  a  furrender,  or  of  attempting  an  cf- 
rfcape.  cape.  He  determined  upon  the  latter.  Boats  v,  ere 
prepared  under  ditf'ercnt  pretexts,  for  the  reception 
of  the  troops  by  ten  at  night,  in  order  to  pafs  them 
over  to  Glouceller  Point.  The  arrangements  were 
made  with  the  utnioll  fccrecy.  The  intention  was 
to  abandon  the  baggage,  and  to  leave  a  dciachment 
behind  to  capitulate  for  the  towns  people,  and  for  the 
iick  and  wounded,  his  lordlhip  having  already  prepa- 
red a  letter  on  the  fubjecl,  to  be  delivered  to  Gen. 
Walhington  after  his  departure.  The  firft  embark- 
ation had  arrived  at  Glouceflcr  Point,  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  troops  were  already  landed,  when  the  wea- 
ther, which  was  before  moderate  and  calm,  inflantly 
changed  to  a  niofl  violent  florm  of  wind  and  rain. 
The  boats  with  the  remaining  troops  were  all  driven 
down  thcriver,  and  the  delignof  paffing  was  not  only 
entirely  frnflrated,  but  the  abfencc  of  the  boats  ren- 
dered it  impolfible  to  bring  back  the  troops  from 
Gloucefler.  Thus  weakened  and  divided,  the  army 
was  in  the  mofl.  imminent  danger.  The  boats  how- 
ever rcuirncd  :  and  the  troops  were  brought  back 
without  much  lofs  in  the  courfc  of  the  forenoon. 

Matters  were  now  hafteningto  a  crifis,  which  could 
not  be  longer  averted.  The  Britilh  works  were  link- 
ing under  the  weight  of  the  American  and  French  ar- 
tillery. The  continuance  of  the  allied  fire,  only  for 
a  few  more  hours,  would  reduce  them  to  fuch  a  con- 
dition that  it  would  be  raflinefs  to  attempt  their  de- 
fence.— The  time  for  expecting  relief  from  New  York 
was  elapfed.  The  ftrengih  and  fpirits  of  the  royal 
troops  were  worn  down  by  con  Qaut  watching, and  unre- 
mitting fatigue.  Lord  Cornwallis  therefore  fent  out  a 
flag  at  loo'clockin  the  morning  of  the  17th  with  alet- 
tcr  to  General  Walliington,  rcqneAing  a  ceflation  of 
arms  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  that  commilfioncrs 


383  . 

Cornwallis 
capitulatcE. 


might  be  appointed  for  digcAing  the  terms  of  capi-  Amerioa. 

tulation.     An  anfwcr  was  given  ;  and  a  reply  for-  <^—* 

warded  in  the  afternoon  ;  to  which  Gen.  Walhington 
rejoined  the  next  day,  declaring  the  general  baits  oi\ 
which  the  capitulation  might  take  place.  Commilli- 
oncrs  were  appointed — on  the  fide  of  the  allies  Vif- 
count  de  Noailles, and  Lieut.  Col.  Laurens,  whofe  fa- 
ther was  in  clofc  confinement  at  the  tower,  while  the 
fon  was  drawing  up  articles  by  which  an  LnglKh  no- 
bleman and  a  Britilh  army  became  prifoners.  %\hile 
fettling  the  terms,  the  vifcount  willied  his  lordfliip  to 
flate,  upon  his  honor,  the  yalue  of  the  military  chert. 
His  lordlhip  declared  it  to  be  about  iSool.  rterling» 
The  vifcount  obferved  that  the  fum  was  fo  trilling, 
that  it  was  not  worth  bringing  into  the  account,  and 
therefore  was  for  leaving  it  entirely  at  Cornwallis's 
difpofal.  Laurens  interfered,  and  obferved  to  his  col- 
league, that  tliongh  it  was  natural  for  a  fubjei?t  of  on« 
of  tlie  grcateft  monarchs  in  the  world  to  think  1800I. 
an  inconliderable  fum,  yet,  for  his  part,  being  a  fub- 
jecl  of  an  infant  flate,  llruggling  with  infinite  incon- 
veniences, and  where  money  was  very  rare,  he  mud 
deem  it  a  very  conliderable  lum  ;  and  therefore  he  in- 
lilled  that  it  fliould  be  accounted  for.  This  was  ac- 
cordingly done  ;  and  afterward  it  was  paid  into  the 
hands  of  Timothy  Pickering,  tfq;  American  quarter 
mailer  general,  to  the  amount  of  2113I.  6s.  llerling, 
efiimating  the  dollar  at  4s.  8d. — There  being  a  mani- 
fclt  impropriety  in  the  Americans  flipulaiing  for  the 
return  of  the  negroes,  while  they  themfeltcs  were 
avowedly  fighting  for  their  own  liberties,  they  co- 
vered their  intcniion  of  repoifeiring  them,  under  thefc 
general  terms  with  which  the  fourth  article  clofed — 
"  It  is  underptood,  that  any  property  obvioully  belong- 
ing to  the  inhabitants  of  thcfe  (lates,  in  the  polFcflion 
of  the  garrifon,  Ihall  be  fnbjed  to  be  reclaimed."  jg^ 

The  polls  of  York  and  Glouceflcr  were  furrendered  Surrender 
on  the  19th.  The  honorof  marchingout  with  colours  of  York 
flying,  which  had  been  denied  Gen.  Lincoln,  was  ^"^  Glou- 
now  refufed  to  Lord  Cornwallis  ;  and  Lincoln  was  ap-  """■• 
pointed  to  receive  the  fabmilFion  of  the  royal  array  at 
York  Town,  prccifely  in  the  fame  way  his  own  had 
been  condudled  about  18  months  before.  The  troops 
of  every  kind  that  furrendered  prifoners  of  war,  ex- 
ceeded 7000  men  ;  but  fuch  was  the  number  of  lick 
and  wounded,  that  there  were  only  3800  capable  of 
bearing  arms.  The  officers  and  foldiers  retained 
thei»  baggage  and  effefls.  Fifteen  hundred  feamea 
partook  of  the  fate  of  the  garrifon.  The  Guadaloupe 
frigate  of  24  guns,  and  a  number  of  tranfports  were 
furrendered  to  the  conquerors:  about  20  tranfports 
had  been  funk  or  burnt  during  the  liege.  The  land 
forces  became  prifoners  to  congrcfs  ;  but  the  feamea 
and  Ihips  were  aUigned  to  the  French  admiral.  The 
Americans  obtained  a  numerous  artillery,  75  brafs 
ordnance  and  69  iron  cannon,  howitzers  and  mortars. 
Lord  Cornwallis  endeavoured  to  obtain  pcrmilTion 
for  the  Biitifli  and  German  troops  to  return  to  their 
refpeclive  coinitries,  under  engagements  not  to  ferve 
againfl  France  or  America  j  and  alfo  an  indemnity 
f(jr  thofe  who  had  joined  him  :  but  he  was  obliged  to 
confent,  that  the  former  fliould  be  retained  in  the  go- 
vernments of  Virginia,  Pennfylvania  and  Maryland  ; 
and  that  the  latter,  whofe  cafe  lay  with  the  civil  au- 
thority of  the  rtatcs,  ihould  be  given  «p  to  the  uncon- 
ditional 


A  M  E 


[     623     1 


A  M  E 


385 

Thankf. 


Amerifa.  ditional  mercy  of  their  countrymen.  His  lord(hip 
— ■^——'  however  obtained  pcrmiflion  for  ilie  Jionctta  Hoop  ot 
war  to  pals  unexamined,  which  gave  aa  opportunity 
of  fcrecniag  thofc  of  the  royalills  who  were  inoft  ob- 
noxious to  the  refcniments  of  the  Americans.  He 
tooic  care  alfo  to  have  it  ftipulatcd,  that  no  article  of 
the  capitulation  Ihould  be  infringed  on  pretext  of  re- 
prifal.  His  lordihip,  with  all  civil  and  military  offi- 
cers, except  thofc  of  the  latter  who  were  ncceliarily 
left  behind  for  the  proteflion  and  government  of  the 
foldiers,  were  at  liberty  to  go  upon  parole,  cither  to 
Great  Britain  or  New  York.  He  acknowledged  in 
his  public  letter,  that  the  treatment  which  he  and 
the  army  had  received  after  the  furrendcr,  was  per- 
feftly  good  and  proper.  His  lordlliip  fpake  in  thefc 
warm  terms  of  the  kindnefs  and  attention  Ihown  to 
them,  by  the  French  ofliccrs  in  particular — "  Their 
deliberate  fenfibility  of  our  lltuation,  their  generous 
2nd  preffing  otfcrs  of  money,  both  public  and  private, 
to  any  amount,  has  really  gone  beyond  what  1  can 
poflibly  dcfcribe." 

On  the  29th  of  Oilobcr,  the  American  commander 
giving  np-  jn  chief,  congratulated  in  general  orders  the  army  on 
pointed  by  [),j  glorious  event  of  the  preceding  day  j  and  tendcr- 
thcgciicral.  ^j  ^^  j|^g  g(.[jcrals,  ofEcers  and  privates,  his  thanks  in 
the  warmcll  language.  He  with  gratitude  returned 
his  finccre  acknowledgments  to  Gov.  Nclfonof  Vir- 
ginia,  for  the  fuccours  received  from  him  and  the  mi- 
litia under  him.  To  fpread  the  general  joy  in  all 
hearts,  he  commanded  that  thofc  of  the  army,  who 
were  under  arrcft,  ihould  be  pardoned  and  fct  at  li- 
berty. The  orders  clofed  with — Divine  I'crvice  Ihall 
be  performed  to-morrow  in  the  different  brigades 
and  divifions.  The  commander  in  chief  recommends, 
that  all  the  troops  that  are  not  upon  duty,  do  alfifl  at 
it  with  a  fcrious  deportment,  and  that  fenfibility  of 
ieart  which  the  recollection  of  the  fiirpriling  and 
paiticular  intcrpofuion  of  Providence  in  our  favor 
claims." 

The  BiitiHi  fleet  and  army  deftincd  for  the  relief  of 
Lord  Cornwall:s,  arrived  off  the  Chcfapcak  on  the 
24th  ;  but  on  receiving  authentic  accountsof  his  fur- 
render,  they  returned  to  New  York.  A  few  days  af- 
ter their  rirll  return,  the  rieet  was  incrcafed  by  four 
fllips  of  the  line  :  but  fuch  was  the  fuperiority  of  the 
French  byJcBarras's junflion  with  theCountde  Grade, 
that  nothing  lliort  of  defperatc  circumllances  could  juf- 
tifyattcmpiingafrclh  engagement.  ThcfecircumrtaH- 
ccs  however  exifting,  ihe  Britiih  naval  commanders 
ufcd  all  polfiblc  expedition  in  refitting  the  Ihips,  with 
the  dclign  of  extiicatiug  Cornwallis  and  his  army. 
The  delay  occafioncd  by  this  bulincfs  feemed  to  be 
compcnfatcd  by  the  arrival  of  the  Frince  William  and 
Torbay  men  of  war  from  Jamaica.  It  was  determin- 
ed that  every  exertion  Iho^iid  be  ufcd  both  by  the  fleet 
and  army,  to  form  ajundion  with  the  Biitiih  force  in 
Virginia.  Sir  Ileniy  Clinton  embarked  with  about 
7000  of  his  heft  forces.  It  was  neverthelcfs  the  iQih  of 
Odobcr  before  the  Hcct  could  fall  down  to  the  Hook. 
They  amounted  to  25  Ihips  of  the  line,  afifties,  and  8 
frigates.  When  they  appeared  off  the  Chcfapcak,  the 
French  made  no  manner  of  movement,  though  they 
had  56  thiiisof  the  line,  being  fitisfiej  wall  their 
prcf'-nt  Uicccfs.  The  main  error,  which  paved  the 
way  10  the  capture  of  the  Britilh  array,  appears  to  be 


the  omjffion  of  fending  a  larger  force  from  the  Weft  Amerii», 

Indies  than  that  which  was  difpatchcd  under  Sir  Sa-  ' -' ' 

muel  Hood.  A  few  more  lliips  in  the  Jjrft  inftance 
might  have  prevented  tuat  molt  woful  diftppoiatmcnt 
with  wliich  both  Sir  Henry  Clinton  and  Lord  Corn- 
wallis have  been  painfully  exercifed.  386 

livery  argument  and  pcrfualion  was  nfed  with  the  De  GralTe 
Count  de  Grade  to  induce  him  to  aid  the  combined  ar-  '^i''  f'"'  i*" 
my  in  an  operation  againll  Charlellown  ;   but  the  ad-  '^'''^-'n- 
vanccd  feafon,  the  orders  of  his  court,  and  his  own**'"* 
engagements  to  be  pundual  to  a  certain  time  lixed 
for  his  ulterior  operations,  prevented  his  compliance. 
His  inftrudions  had  fixed  his  departure  even  to  the 
15th  of  October  ;  he  however  early  engaged  to  Aay 
longer.     Could  he  have  extended  his  co  operation 
two  months  more,   there  would  moft  probably  have 
been  a  total  extirpation  of  the  Britifh  force  in  the  Ca- 
rolinas  and  Georgia.     On  the  27th,  the  troops  under 
the  Marquis  St  Simon  began  to  embark  for  the  W'efl 
Indies  ;  and  about  the  5th  of  November  the  Count 
de  Gralfc  failed  from  the  Chcfapcak. 

The  Marquis  de  la  Fayette  being  about  to  leave 
America,  ;Iie  foUouing  expreliions  made  a  part  of  the 
orders  ilTued  by  him  previous  to  his  departure  from 
York  Town— "' Orders  for  the  firft  brigade  of  light 
infantry,  ilfued  by  major  general  the  marquis  de  la 
Fayette,  Oa.  31,  1781.  In  the  moment  the  major 
general  leaves  this  place,  he  wiihcsoncc  more  to  ex- 
prefs  his  gratitude  to  the  brave  corps  of  light  infan- 
try, who  for  nine  months  pall  have  been  the  compa- 
nions of  his  fortunes.  He  will  never  foruct,  that 
with  them  alone  of  regular  troops,  he  hadthe  good 
fortune  to  manoeuvre  before  an  army,  which  aficr  all 
its  reduffions,  is  Uill  fix  times  fupcr'ior  to  the  regular 
force  he  had  at  the  time."  Four  days  after,  this  bri- 
gade embarked  for  the  Head  of  Elk;  the  invalids  «>f 
the  American  troops  dtllined  (or  the  norihv;ard  hav- 
ing previoully  done  it.  The  New  Jerfey  and  part  of 
the  New  York  lines  marched  by  land,  and  were  to 
join  the  troops  which  went  by  water,  at  the  Head  of 
tlk.  Such  cavalry  as  were  wanted  by  General  Greene 
marched  feveral  days  before  ;  and  on  the  jth  of  No- 
vember a  reinforcement  marched  under  Gen.  St 
Clair,  in  order  to  ftrengthen  him  for  further  offen- 
five  operarations  in  South  Carolina.  The  feafon  of 
the  year  was  unlavorable  for  the  return  of  the  troops 
to  the  North  river,  fo  that  they  fufiered  much  in  do- 
ing  it.  But  they  and  their  comrades  had  been  blcflcd 
with  a  feries  of  the  moft  delightful  weather  from  the 
beginning  of  their  march  toward  York  Town,  until 
the  reduction  of  the  place.  j 

No  fooncr  had  congrefs  received  and  read  General  Con^rcf* 
Waihington's  letter,  giving  information  of  the  reduc-  «ppoii.t  a 
tionof  the  Briiiih  army,  than  they  refolved,  onthc'^yf 
24th  of  October,  that  they  would  at  two  o'clock  go  in  t'-'nl-'b'^- 
proccllion  to  the  Dutch  Lutheran  Church,  and  return  '"S" 
thanks  to  Almighty  God,  for  crowning  the  allied  arms 
of  the  United  States  and  France,  with  fuccefs  by  the 
furrenJer  of  the  whole  Britilh  army  under  the  com- 
mand of  Earl  Cornwallis.     This  army  had  fpread 
Waftc  and  ruin  over  the  face  of  \'irginia  for  400  miles 
on  the  fca-coaft,  and  for  200  to  the  weftward.   Their 
numbers  enabled  them  to  go  where  they  plcafcd  ;  and 
their  rage  for  plunder  difpofed  them  to  take  whate- 
ver they  cftcemed  moft  valuable.     The  reduction  of 

a  fuch 


A  M  E 


[    6a4    ] 


A  M  E 


America. 


,;ir  Guy 
Carleton 
arrivti  at 
New- 

York,  with 
powers  to 
ertat  of 
peace. 


fucli  in  array  occadoned  iranfports  of  joy  in  the  bread 
of  every  American.  But  th.it  joy  was  incrcafed  and 
maintained,  by  the  further  conlidcration  of  the  intiu- 
cnce  it  would  hjvc  in  procuring  fuch  a  peace  as  was 
delircd.  Two  days  after,  tht;  congrefs  ilfiicd  a  pro- 
cliniaiiou  (or  rcligioudy  oblcrving  throughout  the 
United  States,  the  I3tli  of  Uccembcr,  as  a  day  of 
thankfgiviiig  and  prayer.  On  the  29th  of  October 
they  relolvcd,  that  thanks  fltould  be  prefcnte  J  to  Gen. 
Waitington,  Count  dc  Rochanibcau,  Count  de  Grallc, 
and  the  officers  of  the  different  corps,  and  the  men 
under  their  command,  for  their  ferviccs  in  the  reduc- 
tion of  Lord  Cornwallis They  alfo  refolvcd  to  erect 

in  York  Town  a  nuirble  column,  adorned  with  em- 
blems of  the  alliance  between  the  United  States  and 
his  Moll  Ciirirtian  Majcfty  ;  and  infcribed  witii  a 
fuccinit  narrative  of  the  furrender  of  the  Britilh  ar- 
my. Two  (lands  of  colours  taken  from  the  royal 
troops,  under  the  capitulation,  were  prcfcntcd  to  Gen. 
Wall'.iiigton  in  the  name  of  the  United  States  in  Con- 
grcfs  allemblcd  ;  and  two  pieces  of  field  ordnance  fo 
taken,  were  by  a  refolve  of  Congref^,  to  be  prefented 
by  Gen.  Walhington  to  Count  de  Rochambeau,  with 
a  Ihort  memorandum  engraved  (hereon,  "  that  Con- 
grcfs  were  induced  to  prefcnt  them  from  coni'dcra- 
tionsof  the  illuftrious  part  which  he  bore  in  etf'eftu- 
atingthc  furrender  "  It  was  further  refolvcd  to  re- 
queft  the  Chevalier  de  Luzerne,  10  inform  his  moil 
Chriflian  Majclly,  that  it  was  the  wilh  of  Congrefs, 
that  Count  de  GralFe  might  be  permitted  to  accept  a 
tcftimony  of  their  approbation,  limilar  to  th.it  which 
was  to  be  prefented  to  Count  dc  Rechambeau.  Le- 
gilLitivc  bodies,  executive  councils,  city  corporations, 
and  many  priv.ite  focictics,  prefented  congratulatory 
addrcli'ts  to  Gen.  Wafliiugton,  accompanied  with  the 
v.armell  acknowledgments  to  Count  dc  Rochambeau, 
Count  de  Grallt  and  the  other  officers  in  the  fcrvice 
of  his  Moft  Chriftian  Majcfty.  Places  of  public  wor- 
fhlp  refounded  with  grateful  praitcs  to  the  Lord  of 
Holl.T.,  the  God  of  batlles,  before,  at,  and  after  the 
dny  of  thankfgiving.  The  lingularly  inicrelliiig  event  ■ 
of  captivating  a  fccond  royal  army,  produced  fuch 
ftrong  emotions  in  numbers,  both  of  miniflers  and 
people,  that  they  could  not  wait  the  arrival  of  the 
day. 

As  no  rational  expeftation  now  remained  of  a  fubju- 
gaiionofthc  colonies,  the  military  operations  that  fuc- 
cceded  in  America  were  of  little  confcquencc.  Some 
inconfidcrable  aftions  and  fkirmiffies  did  indeed  take 
place  after  that  event ;  in  which  the  refugees  chiefly 
diltinguiihcd  themfelves,  and  difcovered  an  inveterate 
inimolity  againft  the  Americans.  On  the  5th  of  May 
17S2,  Sir  Guy  Carleton  arrived  at  New- York,  being 
api dinted  to  the  command  of  the  Britith  troops  in  A- 
mcrica  in  the  room  of  sir  Henry  Clinton.  Two  days 
after  hisarrival,  he  wrotealcticr  toGencral  Wafhing- 
tou,  acquaintinghim,  that  Admiral  Digby  was  joined 
with  himfeif  in  a  commilTion  to  tre  it  of  peace  with 
the  people  of  .America  ;  iranfmitting  to  him,  at  the 
fame  time,  fomc  papers  tending  to  manifcft  the  pacific 
difpoffion  of  the  government  and  people  of  Britain 
towards  ihofc  of  Ameri-ra.  He  alfo  deiircd  a  paflTport 
for  Mr  Morgan,  who  was  appointed  to  trinfmit  a  li- 
Jnilir  letter  of  compliment  to  ihe  congrefs.  General 
Walhington  declined  figning  any  paflport  till  he  had 


taken  the  opinion  of  congrefs  upon  that  meafure  J  and    Air.orisa, 

by  them  he  wasdiretled  torclufeany  palTport  for  fuch  ' ' 

a  purpofc.  However,  another  letter  was  feiit  to  Ge- 
neral Walhington,  dated  the  adof  Auguft,  ligncd  by 
Sir  Guy  Carleton  and  Rear-admiral  Digby,  in  which 
they  informed  him,  that  they  were  acquainted  liy  au- 
thority thatnegociations  fora  general  peace  had  alrea- 
dy commenced  at  Paris  J  that  Mr  Grcnvillewasiiivcft- 
td  with  full  powers  to  treat  wilh  all  the  parties  at  war  j 
and  was  then  at  Paris  in  the  execution  of  hiscommif- 
iion.Thcy  farther  informed  him, that  his  Britannic  ma- 
jefty,  in  order  to  remove  all  obllaclcs  to  that  peace  which 
hefoarJently  wilhed  to  rellorc,  had  commanded  his  mi- 
nillers  to  dired  Mr  GrcnviUt,  that  the  independency 
of  the  thirteen  provinces  Ihoulo  be  propofcd  by  him,  in 
the  tint  inllancc,  inftead  of  making  it  the  coiuiiiion  of  ,  j. 
a  general  treaty.  But  fome  jcalouiics  were  entertain-  Rcfolutiont 
ed  by  the  Americans,  that  it  was  the  uclign  of  the  ofcongrcft 
Britilh  court  cither  to  difunite  them,  or  to  bring  them  '"  ""U- 
to  treat  of  a  peace  fcparately  from  their  ally  the  king  ''/"""'^'j. 
of  France  :  they  therefore  refolvcd,  that  any  man,  or  "^'"''*" 
body  of  men,  who  fhould  prefume  to  make  any  fcpa- 
rate  or  partial  convention  or  agreement  with  the  king 
of  Great-Britain,  or  with  any  conimiHioner  or  com- 
milfioners  under  the  crown  of  Great-Britain,  ought  to 
be  conlidcred  and  treated  as  open  and  avowed  enemies 
of  the  United  States  of  America  j  and  alfo  that  thofe 
ftatcs  could  not  w  ith  propriety  hold  any  conference  or 
treaty  with  any  commillioners  on  the  part  of  Grear 
Britain,  unlefs  they  fliould,  as  a  preliminary  thereto, 
either  withdraw  their  tieets  and  armies,  or  elfc,  in  po- 
fitivc  or  cxprcfs  terras,  acknowledge  the  independence 
of  the  faid  flates.  They  likewife  refolvcd,  that  any 
propoiitions  which  might  be  maile  by  the  court  of 
Great  Britain,  in  any  manner  lending  to  violate  the 
treaty  fubliiting  between  them  and  the  king  of  France, 
ought  to  be  treated  with  every  mark  of  indignity  and 
conteinpt.  300 

In  the  month  of  June,  the  town  of  Savannah,  and  Difftrcrt 
the  whole  province  of  Georgia,  were  evacuated  by  the  r'="^<^«  '**» 
Britilh  troops;    as  was  alio  CharleUon,    South-Ca- '^"'"'^'^. *!' 
rolina,  about  the  (lofc  of  the  year.    In  the  mean  time,  '  "^  ^j""* 
the  negociaiions  lorpeaccbtingcontinucd,  provifional  ' 

articles  of  peace  were  ligned  at  Paris  on  ihc  50th  of 
Movembtr  by  the  comniillioner  of  his  Britannic  Ma-       ,.. 
jelly  and  the  American  commiinoncrs,  in  which  his  indcpcn- 
Majcily  acknowledged  the  united  colonics  of  New-  dcrcy  of 
Hamplhirc,^ialfachuretts-Bay,Rhode-llland,andPro-  America 
vidcnce  Plantations,  Connecticut,  New- York,  New-  "^""w* 
Jerfty,  Pcnfylvaiua,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  ''''S'"- 
North-Carolina,  South-Carolina,  and  Georgia,  to  be 
"  free,  fovcrcign,  a  d  independent  flates."  They  had 
conftituted  themfelves  fuch  on  the  4th  of  July  1776  ; 
they  had  been  acknowlet'gedfuch  by  the  French  king 
on  the  joth  of  January  1)78,  when  he  concluded  with 
them  a  treaty  of  amity  and  commerce  j   Holland  had 
acknowledged  them  as  fuch  April  19th  1782;  Sweden 
acknowledged  them  as  fuch  Februaiy  5th  1785  ;  Den- 
mark the  25ih  February,  Spain  in  March,  and  Riiffia       jpj 
in  July,   the  fame  year.  The  Ame- 

Thc  Definitive  Treaty  was  figned  on  the  tjjof  Sep-  rk-iu  army 
tercber  1785  ;  and  in  Ang.  Sir  Guy  Carleton  had  re-  dilbandcd, 
ceived  his  final  orders  for  the  eva(  u.iiion  of  Ncw-York.  w  /v*^"' 
Tucfday,  No\  ember  the  2jih,  was  the  day  agreed  £„„  r|.'|^?jj, 
upon  for  this  evacuation.  To  prevent  every  dilorder  his  com- 

which  miilioii. 


A  M  E 


[     625     ] 


A  M  E 


America,  which  might  otherwife  enlue  from  fucli  an  eveut,  the 

'^- — w '  American  croops   under   the  command  of  Gen.  Knox 

marched  from  Hacrlcni  to  the  Bowery. laiic  in  the 
morning.  They  remained  thereiill  aboutoue  o'cloci^, 
when  the  Britilh  forces  left  the  ports  in  the  Bowery, 
and  the  Americans  marched  lor  ward  and  took  puiitl- 
Aoa  of  the  city.  This  being  cffcclcd,  Gcu.  knox  and  a 
number  of  citizens  on  iiorfcback  rode  to  the  Bowery  to 
receive  their  excellencies  Gen.  Walhington  and  Go- 
Ytrnor  Clinton,  who,  with  their  fuites,  made  their 
p'.iblic  entry  into  the  city  on  horlcbick  ;  followed  by 
ihe  lieui.  governor  and  the  members  of  council,  for 
the  temporary  government  of  the  fouthcrndillricl,  four 
abrcuft — Gen.  Knox  and  the  officers  of  ihcarniy  tight 
abreall — citizens  on  horfeback,  eight  abrcalh — the 
fpeakcr  of  the  alfembly  and  citizens  on  foot,  eight  a- 
brcait.  The  proccilion  ccafed  at  Cape's  t.ivern.  The 
governor  gave  a  public  dinner  at  Frances's  tavern  ;  at 
which  the  commsnder  in  chief  and  other  general  of- 
ficers Were  prci'cnt.  The  arrangements  for  the  whole 
buliaefs  were  fo  well  made  and  executed,  that  the 
moll  admirable  tranquillity  fucceeded  through  the  day 
and  night.  Soon  after  this  e^-ent,  the  foldiers  of  ihc 
American  army,  chcarfully  refuming  the  charadcr  of 
citizens,  returned  peaceably  to  their  rcl'pec^ive 
homes  ;  while  their  ijeloved  and  ever-honoured  com- 
mander, having  takena  pathetic  leave  of  his  officers, 
repaired  to  Annapolis,  and,  on  the  ijdof  December, 
at  an  audience  with  Congrefs  (perhaps  the  mofl  lin- 
gular and  interelling  that  ever  occurred)  riling  with 
great  dignity,  he,  delivered  this  addrefs. 

<'_Mr.  Prelident,  The  great  events  on  which  ray 
refignation  depended  having  at  length  taken  place,  I 
ton  rcfigns  have  now  the  honour  of  offering  my  linccrc  Congratu- 
hi5  com-  lations  to  Congrefs,  and  of  prefcnting  myfelf  before 
them,  to  furrender  into  their  hands  the  truft  commit- 
ted tome,  and  to  claim  the  indulgence  of  retiring  from 
the  fervice  of  my  country. 

"  Happy  in  the  confirmation  of  our  independence 
and  fovereignty,  and  pleafed  with  the  opportunity 
afforded  the  United  States,  of  becoming  a  refpeftable 
nation,  I  refign  with  fatisfaclion  the  appointment  I 
accepted  with  diffidence — a  diffidence  in  my  abili- 
\  tics  to  accompliffi  io  arduous  a  talk  ;  which  however 
was  fuperfedcdby  a  confidence  in  the  reditude  of  our 
caufe,  the  fupport  of  thefupreme  power  of  the  union, 
and  the  patronage  of  Heaven. 

'<  The  fuccefsful  termination  of  the  war  has  veri- 
fied the  moft  fanguinc  expeftations  ;  and  my  grati- 
tude for  the  intcrpolition  of  Providence,  and  tiic  afli- 
flance  1  have  received  from  ray  countrymen,  increafes 
with  every  review  of  the  momentous  contefl. 

"  While  I  repeat  my  obligations  to  the  army  in 
general,  I  ffiould  do  injuftice  to  my  own  feelings  not 
to  acknowledge  in  this  place,  the  peculiar  fervices 
and  dillinguilhed  merits  of  the  gentlemen  who  have 
been  attached  to  my  perfon  during  the  war.  Itwasim- 
poflible  (he  choice  of  confidential  officers  to  compofc 
iny  family  Ihould  have  been  more  fortunate.  Permit 
me.  Sir,  to  recommend  in  particular  thofe  who  have 
continued  in  the  fervice  to  theprefentmoment,as  wor- 
thy of  the  favorable  notice  and  patronage  of  Congrefs. 

"  I  conlider  itas  an  indifpenfable  doty  to  clofe  this 
lall  ad  of  my  official  life  by  commending  the  intcrclls 
of  our  dcareft  country  to  the  protcftion  of  Almighty 
Vol.  h 


393 
Gen. 
Walhir 


million  to 
congrefs. 


God,  and  thofe  who  have  the  fupcrinceadence  of  them   America. 
to  his  holy  keeping.  '      "      ' 

' '  Having  now  riniflied  the  work  affigned  me,  I  retire 
from  the  great  theatre  of  a6liou,jand bidding  an  affecti- 
onate farewcl  to  this  augallbody,  under  whole  ordere 
1  have  fo  long  aclcd,  I  lure  offer  my  comniiiiion,  and 
take  my  leave  of  all  the  employ  mtnti  of  public  life." 

The  general  was  fo  powerfully  inipreifed,  with  the 
great  and  interelHng  fccncs  that  crowded  in  upon  his 
imagination  while  fpraking,  that  he  would  have  bcea 
fcarce  able  to  have  uttered  more  than  the  clofing  pe- 
riod. He  advanced  and  delivered  to  the  prcfident 
his  commiffion,  with  a  copy  of  his  addrefs.  Having 
rcfumed  hi«  place,  he  received  in  a  ftanding  pollure 
the  following  anfwer  of  Congrefs;  which  the  preli- 
dent delivered  wiih  elegance  ;  but  not  without  fuch 
a  fcnlibiliiy  as  changed,  and  fprcad  a  degree  of  pale- 
nefsover  his  countenance. 

"  Sir,  The  United  States  in  Congrefs  aflembled  re- 
ceive, with  emotions  too  affcdling  for  utterance,  the 
folemn  refignation  of  the  authorities  under  which 
you  have  led  their  troops  with  fuccefs  through  a 
perilous  and  a  doubtful  war.  Called  upon  by  yoar 
country  to  defend  its  invaded  rights,  you  accepted 
the  facred  charge,  before  it  had  formed  alliances,  and 
whilft  it  was  without  funds  or  a  guvernraent  to  Aip- 
port  you.  You  have  conduced  the  great  military 
conrcft  with  wifJomand  fortitude,  invariably  regard- 
ing the  rights  of  the  civil  power  through  all  difafters 
and  changes.  You  have  by  the  love  and  confidence  of 
your  fellow-citizens,  enabled  them  to  difpby  their 
martial  genius,  and  tranfiuit  their  fame  to  poitcrity. — 
Y'ou  have  perfevered,  till  thcfe  United  States,  aided 
by  a  magnanimous  king3i;d  nation, have  been  enabled 
under  a  jull  Providence,  to  clofe  the  war  in  freedom, 
fafcty,  and  independence  ;  on  which  happy  event  we 
fmcerely  join  yoa  in  congratulations. 

"  Having  defended  the  ftandard  of  liberty  in  this 
new  world  :  having  taught  a  lellon  ufeful  to  thofe  who 
intlii5tand  to  thofe  who  feel  oppreffion,  you  retire  from 
the  great  theatre  of  aftion,  with  the  bleffings  of  your 
fellijw-citizens — but  the  glory  of  yoar  virtues  will  not 
terminate  with  your  military  command,  it  will  comi- 
ng c  to  animate  rcmotcft  ages. 

'<  We  feel  with  you  our  obligations  to  the  army  in 
general,  and  will  particularly  charge  ourfelvcs  with 
the  intcrclls,  of  thofe  conlidcniial  officers,  who  have 
attended  your  perfon  to  this  affecting  moment. 

"  We  join  you  in  commending  the  intercrts  of  oar 
deareft  country  to  the  protection  of  Almighty  God, 
bcfceehing  him  to  difpofe  the  hearts  and  minds  of  its 
citizens,  to  improve  the  opportunity  afforded  them, 
of  becoming  a  happy  and  refpeclable  nation.  And 
for  you  we  addrefs  to  him  our  earnell  prayers,  that 
a  life  fo  beloved,  may  be  foftered  with  all  his  care  ; 
that  your  days  may  be  happy  as  they  have  been  illuf- 
trious  ;  and  that  he  will  finally  give  you  that  reward 
which  this  world  cannot  give." 

Having  thus  religned  his  commiffion  into  the  hands 
of  the  prefident  of  that  honoarablc  body,  he  retired 
from  public  life  amidll  the  acclamations  of  his  grate- 
ful and  admiring  countrymen. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  eoniniiitee  appoint-  .  ^" t 
ed  for  that   purpofe,  the  t'cnig;:  D^.->f  »'"  the  United  n,^n  "od 
States  incurred  by  tlic  war,  amounted  to  7,885,085  ,reafure  by 
4  K  dollars,  the  war. 


A  M  E  L     32 

Aatrlfi.  Jollars,  snd  the  DomcJIic  Debt  to  ^4,115,290,    total, 

~ V- al  4s.  6J.   each,  equal  to  9,450,084  1.  Sterling,  the 

imcrcll  ot  which  at  6/'eT.  c.'«/.  is  $67,0051.  But  the 
coft  to  Orcat  Biiiaiii  is  moderately  computed  at 
t  i>/'54>9i4l-  *'"'  ''"  addiiioual  annual  burthen  by 
Jt  4,5577575 1-  li'ice  January  i  77J.  As  to  (he  lufs  ot 
men  durinj^  the  war,  the  Sutes  et' America,  it  is  fup- 
pofed,  loft  by  the  fword  and  in  prifon  near  80,000 
men  ;  and  by  the  Britifli  returns  at  New-York,  the 
number  of  loldicrs  killed  iu  the  fcrvice  amounted  to 

Ot  the  extent  of  territory,  population,  commerce, 
revenues  and  wealth  of  this  growing  empire  ;  and,  al- 
fo,  of  the  rife,  progrcfs,  and  eftablilhment  of  the  pre- 
fent  happy  form  of  government,  a  particular  account 
fliall  be  given,  under  the  article  Usitf.d  States- 

AMERICAN  NIGHT-SHADE.  See  Phytolacca. 

AMERICAN  CROUND-Ntrr.     See  Ar  rag  his. 

AMERICUS  Vespucius,  aKlorentine  gentleman, 
from  whom  America  derived  its  name — The  mer- 
chantsof  Seville  having  obtained  peruiillion  to  attempt 
difcovcries  as  private  adventurers,  lent  out  four  Ihips  in 
1499,  under  the  command  of  Alonzo  de  Ojeda  (who 
had  accompanied  Columbus  in  his  fecond  voyage),  af- 
iiftcd  by  AuicricuE  Vcfpucius,  who  was  known  to  be 
deeply  (killed  in  the  fcif  nee  of  navigation.  This  fleet 
touched  on  that  part  of  the  vvellern  continent  already 
difcovercd  by  Columbus,  whofe  track  Ojeda  followed ; 
and  Americus,  who  was  a  man  of  much  addrcfs,  as  well 
as  pollcired  of  confiderable  literary  talents,  by  publilh- 
in<T  the  firft  voyages  on  the  fubjeCt,  and  other  artful 
means,  gave  his  name  tothe  New- World,  in  prejudice 
to  the  illuftrious  Genocfe.  ThcimpoUure,  though  long 
detected,  has  been  fan(5lified  by  time  :  and  the  fourth 
divilion  of  the  globe,  fo  long  unknown  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Europe,  Alia,  and  Africa,  ftill  continues  to  be 
diftinguidied  by  the  name  of  America. 

AMERSKORT,  a  city  in  the  Netherlands,  in  the 
province  of  Utrecht,  fcatedtmthc  river  Ems,  E.  Long. 
J.  20.  N.  Lat.  52.  14.  The  moft  remarkable  things 
are,  thetown-houfe  ;  the  grand  palace,  which  ii  trian- 
gular ;  the  public  walk,  planted  with  trees  ;  and  the 
great  church,  dedicated  to  Si  George.  The  land  to  she 
eaft  and  fouth  of  this  city  is  very  fruitful ;  on  the  north 
there  is  nothing  but  paihire-ground,  and  on  the  weft 
it  is  woody.  Not  far  from  hence  is  a  mountain  called 
Amersjort-bsrg,  on  which  they  have  planted  a  villa  of 
trees,  which  reaches  to  Utrecht. 

AMERSHAM,  or  Agmondesham,  a  market- 
town  in  BuckinghamQiire,  confifting  of  about  200 
houfes,  with  afree-lchool,  and  four  alms-houfes.  It 
fends  two  members  to  parliament,  and  has  a  market 
onTuefday.  It  is  a  reftory  rated  at  48I.  16s.  8d.  in  the 
king's  books.  The  market-Jioufe  is  a  very  handfome 
ftrufture.     W.  Lons.  o.  15.  N.  Lat.  51.  47. 

AMES  {Willirim,  D.  D.)  a  learned  independent  di- 
vine, famous  for  hiscontroveriial  writings,  was  born  in 
1 576,  and  educated  at  Chrift's  college,  in  Cambridge. 
In  the  reign  of  King  James  I.  he  left  the  univerfity, 
.ind  loon  after  the  kingdom,  on  account  of  his  being 
unwilling  to  conform  to  the  rules  of  the  church  ;  and 
retired  to  the  Hague,  where  he  had  not  been  long  be- 
fore he  was  invited  10  accept  of  tlie  divinity-chair  in 
ihenniverlityofFrantkcr,inFrielland,  which  he  filled 
with  admirablcabilities  for  above  twelve  years ;  during 


6     1  A  M  E 

which  his  fame  was  fo  great,  that  many  came  from  re-  Amenrah^ 
mote  nations  to  be  educated  under  him.     He  from  Amcthyft. 
thence  removed  to  Rotterdam  for  a  change  of  air,  which  '       "      ' 
his  health  demanded;  and  here  hecontinucd  during  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  His  conirovcrfial  writings,whicli 
compofe  the  greateft  part  of  his  works,   are  chiefly 
againft  Bellarmine  and  the  Arniinians.  He  alio  wrote, 
I.  A  frefli  Suit  againft  the  Ceremonies.     2.  Lcdiones 
in  Pfalmos  Davidii.     3.  Medulla  Theologitt  t  and  fc- 
vcral  pieces  relative  to  the  fcicnces.     He  died  of  an 
afthma,  at  Rotterdam,  in  Nov.  1633. 

AMESTRATA,  a  town  of  Sicily, "(Cicero)  ;  Ame- 
flratos,  (Stcphanus)  j  Avtajira  (Silius  Italicus)  ;  Mul- 
tiftratot,  (Poly  bins)  :  Now  iMiJInlta,  in  the  Val  di  De- 
mona,on  the  river  Halcfus.  It  wasa  very  llrongfortof 
the  Carthaginians,  belieged  in  vain  by  the  Romans  for 
feven  months  with  conlldcrable  lofs  ;  at  length,  after 
another  fiege  taken  and  razed  (Diodor.  Siculus). 

AMETHYST,  a  tranfparent  gem  of  a  purple  co- 
lour, which  fccms  compofcd  ol  a  (hong  blue  and  a 
deep  red  ,  and,  according  as  cither  of  thole  prevails,  af- 
fording diticrcnt  tingesof  purple,  foinctimcs approach- 
ing to  violet,  and  fometimts  even  fading  to  a  pale-rofc 
colour.  Though  the  aniclhyll  is  generally  of  a  purple 
colour,  it  is  neverthclcfs  fomciiincs  found  naturally  co- 
lourlefs,  and  may  at  any  time  be  eahly  made  ("0  by  pul- 
ing it  into  the  fire;  in  which  pellucid  or  colon  rlefs  (late, 
it  fo  refembles  the  diamond,  that  its  want  of  hardnefs 
feenis  the  only  way  of  diftinguilhing  it.  Some  derive 
the  name  antcthyji  from  its  colour,  which  refembles 
wine  mixed  with  water;  whilft  others,  with  more 
probability,  think  it  got  its  name  from  its  fuppofed 
virtue  of  preventing  drunkennefs  ;  an  opinion  which, 
however  imaginary,  prevailed  to  that  degree  among 
the  ancients,  that  it  was  ufual  for  great  drinkers  to 
wear  it  about  their  necks.  Be  this  as  it  will,  the 
amethyft  is  fcarce  inferior  to  any  of  the  gems  in  the 
beauty  of  its  colour;  and  in  its  pureft  ftatc  is  of  the 
fame  hardnefs,  and  at  leaft  of  equal  value,  with  the 
ruby  and  fapphire.  It  is  (bund  of  various  fizes,  from 
the  bignefsof  a  fmall  vetch, (to  an  inch  and  an  half  in 
diameter,  and  often  to  much  more  than  that  in  length. 
Its  (hape  is  extremely  various,  fometinies  roundilh, 
fometimes  oblong,  and  at  others  flatted,  at  kaft  on 
one  (ide  ;  but  its  moft  common  appearance  is  in  a 
cryftalliform  figure,  confiding  of  a  thick  column, 
compofcd  of  four  plants,  and  terminated  by  a  flat  and 
ihort  pyramid,  of  the  fame  number  of  (ides  ;  or  elfc, 
of  a  thinner  and  longer  hexangiilar  column ;  and 
fometimes  of  a  long  pyramid,  without  any  column.  It 
makes  the  gayeft  figure  in  the  laft  of  thefe  dates,  but 
is  hardeft  and  moft  valuable  in  the  roundilh  and  pebble- 
like  form.  The  amethyft  is  found  in  the  Eaft  and 
Weft-lndics,  and  in  feveral  parts  of  Europe  ;  tho 
oriental  ones,  at  leaft  fomeof  the  finer  fpecimcns,  be- 
ing fo  hard  and  bright  as  to  equal  any  of  the  coloured 
gems  in  value.  However,  by  far  the  greater  number 
of  ameihyfts  fall  infinitely  (liort  of  thefe  ;  as  all  the 
the  European  ones,  and  not  a  few  of  thofc  brought 
from  the  Eaft  and  Weft-Indies,  are  very  little  harder 
than  common  cryftal. 

Counteijeit  or  faBhiouf  Amethyst.  Spars  and 
cryftals  tinged  red  and  yellow,  &c.  are  fold  for  ame- 
thyfts.  The  falfc  ones  come  from  Germany,  are  ting- 
ed by  vapours  in  the  mines,  and  contain  fome  lead. 

AniethyUs  may  be  counterfeited  by  glafs,  to  which 

ihs 


A  M  E 


[     627     ] 


A  M  I 


Amtthyft  the  proper  colour  or  /lain  is  given.     There  were  fine 

U         ones  made  in  France  about  the  year  1690,  which  may 

Amhar.    even  impofc  on  connoiireurs,  unlefs  the  ftonc  be  taken 

' ^ 'out  of  the  collet. — The  method  of  giving  this  colour 

to  glafs  is  diredcd  as  follows:  Take  chryflal-frit, 
made  with  the  moft  perfect  and  fine  tarfo  :  Then  pre- 
pare a  mixture  of  mangancfc  in  powder,  one  pound; 
and  zafFcr  prepared,  one  ounce  and  a  half:  Mix  thefe 
powders  well  together  ;  and  add  to  every  pound  of  the 
frit  an  ounce  of  this  powder.  Let  it  be  put  into  the 
pots  with  the  frit,  not  into  the  already  made  metal. 
When  the  whole  has  Hood  long  cnougli  in  fulion  to 
be  perfcftly  pure,  work  it  into  vefTcls,  and  then  will 
rcfeniblc  the  colour  of  the  amethyit. 

Amethyst  in  heraldry,  a  term  for  the  purple  co- 
lour in  the  coat  of  a  nobleman,  in  ufc  with  thoi'c  who 
blazon  with  precious  ftoncs,  inftead  of  metals  and  co- 
lours. This,  in  a  gentleman's  efcutchton,  is  called 
Purpura ;  and  in  thofc  of  fovcreign  princes.  Mercury. 

AMETHYSTEA,  Amethyst  :  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  diandria  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and, in  the  natural  method,  ranking  under,  the 
/i2d  order,  Fertici/Iat^e.  The  characters  arc  :  The  ca- 
(>*confiflsofafinglc-leavcdpcrianthium,bcll-lhaped, 
angular,  femiquinquefid,  and  perliftent :  The  orolla 
is  nionopctalous  ;  the  border  quinquepartite,  the  low- 
cft  divifion  more  expanding  :  The  fiam'tna  confift  of 
two  (lender  filaments  approximated  ;  the  antherae  are 
fimple  and  roundilh  :  the />///;//«;«  has  a  four-cleft  ger- 
men  ;  flylus,  the  fize  of  the  ftamina  ;  Iligmata,  two,  a- 
cute  :  no  corolla:  the  feeds,  four,  gibbous,  and  (horter 
than  the  calyx  : — there  is  only  one  known  fpecies. 

This  plant  is  a  native  of  Siberia,  from  whence  the 
feeds  were  fcnt  tothe  imperial  garden  at  I'eterlburgh, 
and  thence  carried  to  Britain.  It  is  an  annual  plant, 
Mith  an  upright  llalk,  which  rifcs  about  a  foot  high. 
Towards  the  top  it  puts  forth  two  or  three  fmall  late- 
ral branches,  garnilhcd  with  fmall  trifiJ  leaves,  fawed 
tin  their  edges,  of  a  very  dark  green  colour.  Tlic 
flowers  appear  in  June  or  July,  and  are  produced  in 
fmall  umbels  at  the  extremities  of  the  branches.  They 
are  of  a  fine  blue  colour,  as  are  alio  the  upper  part  of 
tlic  branches,  and  the  leaves  immediately  under  the 
umbel,  fo  that  they  make  a  fine  appearance. 

Culture.  The  feeds  of  the  amethyftea  (hould  be 
fown  in  autumn,  as  tliey  are  apt  to  remain  a  whole 
year  in  the  ground,if  kept  till  thefpring.  When  the 
plants  come  up,  nothing  elfe  is  necclFary  than  to  keep 
ihcm  clear  of  weeds,  and  to  thin  them  where  ihey  are 
loo  clofe.  They  ought  to  be  fown  where  they  are  to 
remain,  as  they  do  not  thrive  when  traufplanted. 

AMETHYSTINE  is  applied,  in  antiquity,  to  a 
kind  of  purple  garment  dyed  of  the  hue  of  amethyft. 
In  this  fcufe  amethyflinc  differed  from  'Tyrian  as  well 
as  from  hyiicinthine  purple,  being  a  kind  of  medium 
between  both. 

AMH.AR,  or  Amhara,  a  province  of  Abyllinia, 
faid  to  extend  40  leajv'cs  from  eafl  to  wefl.  It  is  con- 
fidcrcd  as  the  mod  nobk  in  the  whole  empire,  b  uh  on 
account  of  its  being  the  ufual  refidence  of  the  Abylfi- 
ni.in  monarchs,  and  liaviiig  a  particular  dialed  diffe- 
rent from  all  the  reft,  which,  by  reafon  of  the  empe- 
rors being  brought  up  in  this  province,  is  become  the 
language  of  the  court  and  of  the  politer  people.  Here 
h  the  fame  J  rock  Amba-gclhen,  where  the  young  mo- 
narchs were  formerly  coiiliucd.     Sec  A.mba. 


Amida. 


AMHUPiST  (Nicholas),  an  Englifli  poet  and  poii-  Anihurft 
lical  writer,  was  born  at  Marden  in  Kent,  and  entered 
of  St  John's  college  Oxford  j  from  whence  he  was  ex- 
pelled for  irregularity  of  conduct  and  libertine  princi- 
ples. Retaining  great  refentmentagainflthc  univcrfity 
on  this  account,  he  abufed  its  learning  and  difcipliue, 
and  fome  of  the  mod  refpcijtable  charatlcrs  i.i  it,  in  a 
poem  publiihcdin  17^4,  called  Ocului  Britumtia,  and 
in  a  book  iatitled  Terra  t'lliui.  He  publiQied  a  Mifcel- 
lany  of  Poems,  facred  and  profane  ;  and.  The  Con- 
vocation, a  poem  in  five  cantos,  which  was  a  facire  on 
the  Bilhop  of  Bangor's  antagonifts.  But  he  is  belt 
known  for  the  Ihare  he  had  in  the  political  paper  call- 
ed Tlie  Craftfman  :  though,  after  having  been  the 
drudge  of  his  party  for  near  20 years,  he  was  as  much 
forgot  in  the  famous  compromifc  of  1  742  as  if  he  had 
never  been  born  ;  and,  when  he  died  in  that  year  of 
a  broken  heart,  was  indebted  to  the  charity  of  his 
bookfeller  for  a  grave. 

AMIANTHUS,  or  Earth-flax,  in  natural  hif- 
tory,  a  fibrous,  flexile,  elallic,  mineral  fubftance,  con- 
fiding of  fliort,  abrupt,  and  interwoven  filaments.  It 
is  found  in  Germany,  in  the  ftrata  of  iron  ore,  fome- 
timcsformingveinsof  an  inch  in  diameter.  Its  fibres 
are  fo  flexible  that  cloth  has  been  made  of  them,  and 
thefhorter  filaments  that  feparatc  in  the  wafliingof  the 
done  may  be  made  into  paper  in  the  common  manner. 
For  the  method  of  its  preparation  for  manufacture  into 
cloth,  fee  Asbestos. 

Amianthus  is  clafTed  by  Mr  Kirwan  in  the  muriatic 
genus  of  earths,  becaufe  it  contains  about  a  fifth  part 
ofmagnefia.  Its  other  condituents,  are,  fiint,  mild 
calcareous  earth,  barytes,  clay,  and  a  very  fmall  pro- 
portion of  iron.  It  is  fufiblc  per  fe  in  a  ftrong  heat, 
and  alfo  with  the  common  fluxus.  It  diflcrs  from  af- 
bedos  in  containing  fome  ponderous  earth. 

AMICABLE,  in  a  general  fenfe,  denotes  any  thing 
done  in  a  friendly  manner,  or  to  promote  peace. 

AMic-iBLK-Bench:s,  in  Roman  antiquity,  were,  ac- 
cording to  Piiifcjs,  lower  and  lefs  honourable  feats  al- 
lotted for  \.htj:id'tcei  pedaiui,  or  inferior  judges,  who, 
upon  being  admitted  of  the  emperor's  council,  were 
dignified  by  him  with  the  title  am'tci. 

'^MiciRLE-r^uiniirs,  fuch  as  are  mutually  equal  to 
thcfumof  one  another's  aliquot  parts.  Thus  the  num- 
bers 2S4and  220  are  amicable  numbers:  for  the  ali- 
quot parts,  I,  2,  4,  J,  10,  II,  20,  22,  44,  jj,  no,  of 
220,  are  together  equal  to  the  other  number  2S4;  and 
ilic  aliq^tot  parts  i,  2,  4,  71,  1 42,  of  2S4,  are  together 
equal  to  220. 

AMICTUS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  was  any  upper 
garment  worn  over  the  tunica. 

Amictus,  among  ecclelladical  writers,  the  upper- 
moft  garment  anciently  worn  by  the  clergy  ;  the  other 
five  being  the  alba,  finguUim,  ftola,  manipulus,  and 
plancta.  Theainic^us  was  a  linen  garment,  of  a  fquarc 
figure,  covering  the  he^d,  neck,  and  Ihouldcrs,  and 
buckled  or  clafped  before  the  bread.  It  is  dill  worn 
by  the  religious  abroad. 

AMICULUM,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  woman's  up- 
per garment,  wlujh  diirered  from  the  pala.  It  was 
worn  both  by  matrons  and  courte/,aus. 

AMICUS  cuKix,  a  law-term,  to  denote  a  by- 
dander  who  informs  the  court  of  a  matter  in  law  that 
is  doubtf.il  or  midaken. 

AMID.A,  a  god  worfliippcd  by  tlic  Japancfc,  who 
4  K  2  has 


A  M  I 


f     6aS     J 


A  M  I 


Am;<1a,    has  many  temples  creeled  to  him  ia  the  ifland  of  Ja- 
Amitm.    pan,  of  which  the  principal  is  at  Jedo.    Thejapanefe 
^""^"^         hnve  fuch  a  confidence  in  their  idol  Amida,  that  they 
hope  to  obtain  eternal  felicity  by  the  frequent  invoca- 
tion of  his  name.     One  of  the  figures  of  this  idol  is 
reprefe-.KcJ  at  Rome, 

Amida  (anc.  geog.),  a  principal  city  of  Mefopo- 
tamia  (Liber  Notitix)  ;  .-iinvi.ta  (Ptolemy)  ;  lituated 
on  a  high  mountain,  on  the  tordcrs  of  AHyria,  on  the 
Tigris,  where  it  receives  the  Nymphius. — It  was  ta- 
ken from  the  Romans,  in  the  time  of  the  emperor 
Conftans,  by  Sapores  king  of  Perha.  The  lifge  is 
faid  to  have  cod  him  30,000  men  ;  however,  lie  re- 
duced it  to  fuch  ruin,  that  the  emperor  afterwards  wept 
over  it.  According  10  Amniiaiius  MarccUinus,  the 
city  was  razed  ;  the  chief  officers  were  crucified  ;  and 
the  reft,  with  the  f(jldicrsand  inhabitants,  either  put  to 
the  fword  or  carried  into  captivity,  except  our  hillori- 
au  himftlf,  and  two  or  three  more,  who,  in  the  dead  of 
the  night,  cfcaped  through  a  pollern  unperccivcd  by 
the  enemy.  The  inhabitants  of  Nifibis,  however, 
being  obliged  to  leave  their  own  city  by  Jovian's  trea- 
ty with  the  Pcrfians,  foon  rcftored  Amida  to  its  for- 
mer ftrength  ;  but  it  was  again  taken  by  Cavades  in 
501,  but  was  rcftored  to  the  Romans  in  503.  On  the 
dcclcnfion  of  the  Roman  poAcr,  it  fell  again  into  the 
hands  of  the  Periians  ;  but  was  taken  from  them  by 
the  Saracens  in  899.  It  is  now  in  the  poiftllion  of  the 
Turks.  Here  are  above  20,000  Chriftiaus,  who  are 
better  treated  by  the  Turks  than  in  other  places.  A 
great  trade  is  carried  on  in  this  city,  of  red  Turkey 
leather,  and  cotton  cloth  of  the  fame  colour.  The 
Arabian  name  of  Amida  is  Diarbiktr,  and  the  Turkilh 
one  Kara  Anted.     K.  Long.  39.  o.  N.  Lat.  36.  58. 

AMIENS,  a  large  hanJfomc  city  of  France,  the 
capital  of  Picardy.  It  is  agreeably  iituated  on  the  ri- 
ver Somme,  and  faid  to  have  received  its  Latin  name 
Ambiaiium  from  being  every  where  cncom palled  with 
water.  It  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity  ;  being  men- 
tioned by  Cxfar  as  a  town  that  had  made  a  vigorous 
refinance againft  the  Romans, and  where  he  convened 
a  T;eneral  alfembly  of  the  Gauls  after  having  made  him- 
felf  maftcr  of  it.  The  emperors  Antoninus  and  Mar- 
cus Aurcliiis  enlarged  it ;  and  Conftantine,  Conftans, 
Julian,  and  fcveral  others,  refidcd  here  aconfiJerable 
time.  The  town  is  encompafled  with  a  wall  and  other 
fortifications  ;  and  the  ramparts  are  planted  withtrees, 
which  from  a  delightful  walk.  The  river  Somme  en- 
ters Amiens  by  three  different  cliannels,  under  as  many 
bridges;  and  thefe  channels,  after  walhing the  town  in 
fcveral  places,  where  they  are  of  ufe  in  its  different 
manufadures,  unite  at  the  other  end  by  the  bridge  of 
S.  Michael.  Here  is  a  quay  for  the  boats  that  come 
from  Abbeville  with  goods  brought  by  fea.  At  the 
j;atc  of  Noyon  there  is  a  fuburb  remarkable  for  the 
abbey  of  S.  Achen.  Next  to  this  gate  you  come  to 
that  of  Paris,  where  they  have  a  lung  mall  between 
two  rows  of  trees.  The  houfes  arc  well  built  ;  the 
flreets  fpacio-.is,  eaibcliiflied  with  handfome  fquares 
and  good  buildings  ;  and  the  number  of  inhabit.uits 
between  40  and  50  thoufand.  The  cathedral,  dedica- 
ted 10  our  Lady,  is  one  of  the  largcll  and  moft  mag- 
nificent churches  in  France  ;  adorned  with  handfome 
paintings,  fine  pillars,  chapels,  and  tombs;  particu- 
larly the  nave  is  greatly  admired.     The  other  places 


worth  feeing  arc  the  palace  of  the  baiiiwic,  the  town- 
boufe,  the  iquare  det  Fkurs,  and  the  great  market- 
place. 

Amiens  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards,  Ln  1597,  by 
the  following  ftratagem  :  Soldiers,  difguiftd  like  pia- 
fants,  conducted  a  cart  laden  with  nuts,  and  let  a  bag 
of  them  fall  juft  as  the  gate  was  opened.  While  the 
guard  was  billy  in  gathering  up  the  nuts,  the  Spaniards 
entered  and  became  raaftersof  the  town.  It  was  re- 
taken by  Henry  IV.  who  built  a  citadel  there. 

Thistown  is  the  feat  of  abilhop,fiiftraganof  Rhcims, 
as  alfo  of  a  prefidial,  baiiiwic,  vidani,  a  chaniber  of 
accounts,  and  a  generality.  The  bilhop's  revenue  is 
jo.ooolivres.  They  luvefome  linen  and  woollen  ma- 
nufactures, and  they  alfo  make  a  great  qviautity  of 
black  and  green  foap.  It  lies  in  £.  Long.  2.  30. 
N.  Lat.  49.  50. 

AMILCAR,  the  name  of  fevcral  Carthaginian  cap- 
tains. The  moft  celebrated  of  them  is  Aniikar  Barcas, 
the  father  of  Hannibal,  who  during  five  years  in- 
fefted  the  coaA  of  Italy  ;  when  the  Romans,  fending 
out  their  whole  navalltrength,  defeated  him  near  Tra- 
pani,  242  years  before  C  hrift  ;  and  thus  put  an  end  to 
the  firft  Punic  war.  Aroilcar  begin  the  fccond,  and 
landed  in  Spain,  where  he  fubducd  the  moil  warlike 
nations  ;  but  as  he  was  preparing  for  an  expedition 
againft  It;tly,he  was  killed  iu  battle,  228"ycars  bclore 
the  Chriftian  aera.  He  left  three  fous,  w  horn  he  had 
educated,  as  he  faid,  like  three  lions,  to  tear  Rome  in 
pieces  ;  and  made  H.innabcl,  his  cldeft  Ion,  fvvcar  an 
eternal  enmity  againft  the  Romans. 

AMILIC'I  1,  in  the  Chaldaic  theology,  denote  a 
kind  of  intellectual  powers,  or  perfons  iu  the  divine 
hierarchy.  The  Amilicti  are  reprel'ented  as  three  in 
number  ;  and  couftitute  one  of  the  tryads,  in  the  third 
order  of  hierarchy. 

AMIRANTK,  in  the  Spaniih  polity,  a  great  officer 
of  ftaie.anf'.verin^  to  the  lord  high-admiral  in  England. 

AMiSUS,  the  chief  city  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of 
Pontus.  It  was  biiilt  by  the  Milcilans,  and  peopled 
partly  by  them,  and  partly  by  a  colony  from  Athens. 
It  was  at  firft  a  free  city,  like  the  other  Greek  cities  in 
Afia;  but  afterwards  fubducd  by  Pharnaccs  king  of 
Ponius,  who  made  ii  liis  metropolis.  It  was  taken  by 
Lucullus  in  the  Mithridatic  war,  who  rcftored  it  to  its 
ancient  liberty.  Clofc  by  Amifus  ftood  another  city 
called  Eupitiria,  from  Mithridatcs  Enpator  its  foun- 
der. This  city  was  likewife  taken  by  Lucullus,  who 
levelled  it  with  the  gri>und  ;  but  it  was  afterwards  re- 
built by  Pompcy,  who  united  it  with  Amifus,  giving 
them  the  r\&Taeof  Pcnpciopoiis.  It  was  taken  during 
the  war  between  Cxixt  and  Pompcy,  by  Pharnaces 
king  of  Pontus,  who  put  moft  of  its  inhabitants  to  the 
fword  ;  butCajfar,  having  conquered  Pharnaces,  made 
it  again  a  free  city. 

AMITKRNUAl,  a  town  of  the  Sabines,  in  Italy, 
(Livy,  Pliny);  now  extinct :  The  ruins  are  to  be  feen 
on  the  level  ridgt  of  a  irountain,  near  S.  Vittorii;o, 
and  the  Springs  oi  the  Aternus  ;  not  far  from  Aquila, 
which  rofe  out  or  the  ruins  of  Aniiiernum. 

AMITTERE  legem  terrx,  among  l.nwyers,  a 
phrafe  importing  the  lofs  of  liberty  of  fwearing  ia  any 
court  :  The  puniOiment  of  a  champion  overcome  or 
yielding  in  battle,  of  jurors  found  guilty  in  a  writ  of 
attaint^  and  of  apcrfon  outlawed. 

AM-KAS 


A  M  K 


[     629     ] 


A  M  M 


Am-ta»,        AM-KAS,  in  hiilory,  a  name  given  loaf^jacious  fa- 
ll        loon  ill  the  palace  of  the  Grcat-Wogul,  where  he  gives 
^  ■Arnmi.     audience  to  his  fubjcfts,  and  where  he  appears  on  fo- 
^       '  lemn  ftftivals  wiih  extraordinary  magnilicence.  His 
throne  is  fupiJoncd  by  fix  large  fleps  of  niaflTy  gol.l, 
let  with  rubies,  emeralds^  and  diamonds,  cftiiuaied  at 
60,000,000! . 

AMIVIA,  among  ccclefiailical  writers,  a  term  ufcd 
lodcnote  an  abbtfs,  or  fpiritual  mother. 

AMMAN,  or  Ammant,  in  the  German  or  Bclgic 
policy,  a  judge  who  lias  the  cognifaucc  of  civil  catilcs. 
— his  alfoufed  among  the  French  for  a  public  notary, 
•r  officer  who  draws  up  inliruments  and  deeds. 

AMWANIA  :  A  genus  of  ihenionogyniaorder,  be- 
longing to  the  tetrandris  clafs  of  plaiits  ;  and  iii  the 
natural  method  rankingundcrihc  1  7th  order,  6'a/vfa/;- 
thevict.  The  chara<5lcrs  are  :  The  calyx  is  an  oblong, 
txi-Sl,  bell-fliapcd  perianthium,  with  eight  lbi«,  qua- 
drangulatcdjoilodentatcd,  andperlillcnt :  The  corolla 
is  either  wanting,  or  it  conliflsof  fourovate  expanding 
petals  iiiferted  in  the  calyx  :  The  jlamina  confift  of 
four  briftly  tihsncnts  the  length  of  the  calyx  ;  the  an- 
thera;  arc  didymous  :  The  pijlillum  has  a  large  ovate 
get  men,  above  ;  the  ftylus  iimplc  and  very  fnort ;  the 
fligma  headed  :  The  Fericarpium  is  a  roundifli  four- 
celled  capfnle,  covered  by  the  calyx:  the  feeds  are  nu- 
merous and  fuiall. — Of  ihisgcnus  there  are  three  fpe- 
ciescnumeraLed  ;  allof  tluin  nativesof  warm  climates. 
They  liaveno  beauty  or  other  remarkable  property. 

AMMI,  bishop's  weed  :  a  genus  of  the  digynia 
erdcr,  belonging  to  thepentandriaclafs  of  plants  ;  and 
ranking,  in  the  natural  method,  under  the  45th  order, 
Vmbellata.  The  .characters  "are  :  Of  tlie  fa/>.v  the 
uaiverfal  umbel  is  manifold  ;  the  partial  one  ihort  and 
crowded  ;  theiavolucra  arepinnatifid,  with  numerous 
leariets  :  The  ciroUa  are  radiated,  and  all  hermaphro- 
dite :  The  Jl-amitia  confifl  of  five  capillary  filaments  ; 
ihcantherae  roandith  :  'The  fijlillutnha  a  gcrmen be- 
neath :  the  ftyli  are  two,  and  retlecled  ;  and  the  ftig- 
niata  are  obtufe  :  There  is  no perkarpiuin ;  the  fruit  is 
roundifli,  polilhcd,  flriaied,  fmall,  and  partible  :  The 
feeds  are  two,  plano-convex,  and  flriated.  Of  :..is 
there  are  three 

Species.  I.  The  majus,  or  common  biiliop's-weed, 
the  feeds  of  which  are  ufed  in  medicine.  The  glau- 
cifolium, with  all  its  leaves  cut  in  the  fhapeof  a  fpear. 
3.  The  coplicum,or  Egyptian  bilhop's-wccd. 

Culture,  Sec.  Thefirftis  an  annud  plant  ;and  there- 
fore is  to  be  propagated  by  feeds  fown  in  the  autumn, 
in  the  place  where  the  plants  are  to  remain.  They 
will  flower  in  June,  and  the  feeds  will  ripen  in  Augult. 
This  plant  will  grow  in  any  open  fituation,  but  thrives 
bed  in  a  light  fandy  foil.  The  fecond  fort  is  peren- 
nial, and  very  hardy.  It  thrives  bell  in  a  moill  foil, 
•  and  may  be  propjgatcd  by  feeds  in  the  fame  manner 
as  the  former. 

The  third  fpecies  is  now  nootlicrwife  known  than 
by  the  figurcof  its  feeds,  which  were  formerly  ufcd  in 
medicine,  but  have  long  fmce  given  place  to  thofc  of 
the  common  kind.  The  feeds  of  the  ammi-copticum 
are  fmall,  ftria:ed,of  a  redJiih  brown  colour,  and  have 
a  warm  pungent  talle,  and  apleafant  fmell  approaching 
to  that  of  origanum.  They  are  recommended  as  llo- 
machic,  carminative,  and  diuretic  ;but  have  long  been 
Grangers  to  the  (hops.  The  feeds  of  the  ammi-majus, 


which  arc  ufed  in  their  place,  are  much  weaker  both  Ammianw 
in  taftc  and  fmell,  and  without  thc^origanum  flavour         || 
of  the  other,  Amnion. 

AMMIANUS  (Marccllinus),  a  Grecian  and  a  fol^  ' " ' 

dier  as  he  calh  hiniftlf,  was  born  at  Antioch,  and  flou- 
rilhed  under  Conllantiusand  the  preceeding  emperors 
as  late  as  Theodofius.  He  fcrved  under  Julian  in  the 
eaft  ;  and  wrote  in  Latin  an  inierefting  hiftory,  from 
the  reign  of  Xerva  to  the  death  of  Valtns,  in  31  books 
of  which  only  18  remain.  Though  a  Pagan,  he  fpeaks 
with  caJidour  and  moderation  of  the  Chriflian  religion, 
and  even  praifcs  it  :  his  hero  is  the  emperor  Julian. 
He  died  about  the  year  590.  The  bed  edition  of  hi3 
hiftory  is  that  of  Gronovius,  in  1693. 

AMMIRATO  (Scipio),  an  eminent  Italian  hiftori- 
an,  born  at  Lecca  in  Naples  in  1531.  After  travel- 
ling over  great  part  of  Italy,  without  fettling  to  his  ' 
faiijfadion,  he  was  engaged  by  the  great  duke  of 
Tufcany  to  write  Thi  HiJIory  of  Florence  ;  for  which 
he  was  prefented  to  a  canonry  in  the  cathedral  there. 
He  wrote  other  works  while  in  this  ftation  ;  and  died 
in  1 600. 

AMMOCHRYSOS,  from  «</«x.  fatid,  and  i;p<-»«, 
gold,  a  name  given  by  authors  to  a  Aone  very  common 
in  Germany,  and  fceniing  to  be  compofcd  of  a  golden 
fand.  It  is  of  a  yellow  golv-like  colour,  and  its  par- 
ticks  are  vtry  glofly,  being  all  fragments  of  a  colour- 
ed talc.  It  is  ufually  fo  foft  as  to  be  ealily  rubbed  to  a 
powder  in  the  hand  ;  fomctimesit  requires  grinding  to 
powder  in  a  mortar,  or  otherwife.  It  is  ufcd  only  as 
fand  to  ftrew  over  writing.  The  Germans  call  it. (a/=;/.-- 
gold.  There  is  another  kind  of  it,  lefs  common,  but 
much  more  beautitul,  confifting  of  the  fame  fort  of 
glolly  fpangles,  but  thofe  not  of  a  gold  colour,  but  of  a 
bright  red,  like  vermilion. 

AMMODYTES,  or  sanc-eel,  in  ichthyology, 
a  genus  of  fiflies  belonging  to  the  order  of  apodes. 
This  tiih  refembles  an  eel,  and  feldom  exceeds  a  foot 
in  length.  The  head  of  the  ammody  tes  is  compreired 
and  narrower  than  the  body  ;  the  upper  jaw  is  lai'ger 
than  the  under  ;  the  body  is  cylindrical,  with  fcales 
hardly  perceptible.  There  is  but  one  fpecies  of  the 
ammodytes,  viz.  the  tobianus,  orlaunce,  a  native  of 
Europe.  Tliis  fifli  gathers  itfelf  into  a  circle,  ar.d  pier- 
ces the  fand  with  its  head  in  the  centre.  It  is  found 
inmoftof  the  fandy  iliores  during  fome  of  the  fummer- 
months;  it  conceals  itfelf,  on  the  recefs  of  the  tides, 
beneath  the  fand,  in  fuch  places  where  the  water  is 
left,  at  the  depth  of  about  a  foot ;  and  is  in  fomc  places 
dug  out,  in  others  drawn  up  by  means  of  a  hook  con- 
trived for  that  purpofc.  They  arc  commonly  ufcd  as 
baits  for  other  (ifli,  but  they  are  alfo  very  delicate  eat- 
ing. Thcfe  fi(h  are  found  in  the  ftomach  of  ihePcr- 
pefs  :  an  argument  that  the  laft  roots  up  the  fand  with 
its  nofe,  as  the  hogs  do  the  ground. 

AM.MON,ancient  ly  a  city  of  M?.rmarica  (Ptolemy). 
Arrian  calls  it  3.placf,  not  a  city,  in  which  ftood  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  round  which  there  was  no- 
thing but  fandy  waftes.  Pliny  fays,  Thattlie  oratic 
of  Ammon  was  12  days  journey  from  Memphis,  and 
among  the  Nomi  of  Egypt  he  reckons  the  Nokos  j^h:- 
t/ioiiiac  is:  Diodorus  Siculus,  That  the  dillricl  where  the 
temple  Hood,  though  furronnded  with  dcfaris,  was  wa- 
tered by  dews  which  fell  nowhere  elfc  in  all  that  coun- 
try. It  was  agreeably  adorned  with  fruitful  trees  and 

fprings 


A  M  M 


[     630     ] 


A  M  M 


Amnion,  fprings,  and  full  of  villages.  In  the  middle  Hood  the 
• — yr—-  acropolis  or  citadel,  ciicompa(rcd  vvith  a  triple  wall ;  the 
firll  and  iiimofl  of  which  contained  the  palace  ;  the 
others  the  apartments  of  the  women,  the  relations  and 
children,  as  alio  the  temple  of  the  god,  and  the  facrcd 
fountain  for  luilrations.  Without  the  acropolis  llood, 
at  no  great  diftance,  another  temple  of  Ammoii,  lliad- 
cd  by  a  number  of  tall  trees  :  near  which  there  was  a 
fountain,  called  that  of  the  fun,  or  Solis  Fous,  bcciiifc 
fubjcck  to  extraordinary  changes  according  to  the  time 
of  the  day  ;  morning  and  evening  warm,  at  noon  cold, 
at  midnight  extremely  hot.  A  kind  of  foffil  fdt  was 
faid  to  be  naturally  produced  here.  It  was  dug  out  of 
the  earth  in  large  oldong  pieces,  fometimcs  tjircc  fin- 
gers ill  length,  and  tranfparent  as  cryflal.  It  was 
thought  to  be  a  prcfent  worthy  of  kings,  and  iifed  by 
the  Egyptians  in  their  facrifices. — From  this  our  fal- 
ammoiiiac  has  taken  its  name. 

Ammon,  or  Hammon,  in  heatlien  mythology,  the 
name  of  the  Egyptian  Jupiter,  worlliipped  under  the 
figure  of  a  ram. 

Bacchus  having  fubdued  Afia,  and  pafling  with  his 
army  through  the  dcfartsof  Africa,  was  in  great  want 
of  water:  but  Jupiter,  his  father,  allhming  the  fliape 
of  a  ram,  led  him  to  a  fountain,  where  he  refreflied 
himfelfand  his  army;  in  gratitude  for  which  favour, 
Bacchus  built  there  a  temple  to  Jupiter,  under  the  title 
of  Amvion  from  the  Greek  ««,uo©.,,  which  fignifies 
fjiid,  alluding  to  the  fandy  defart  where  it  was  built. 
in  this  temple  was  an  oracle  of  great  note,  which 
Alexander  the  Great  confultcd,  and  which  laded  till 
the  time  of  Theodofms. 

Hammon  the  god  of  the  Egyptians,  was  the  fame 
with  the  Jupiter  of  the  Greeks;  for  which  reafon 
thefc  latter  denominate  the  city  which  the  Egyptians 
call  No- Hammon,  or  the  habitation  of  Ammon,  Dlof- 
folis,  or  the  city  of  Jupiter.  He  is  thought  to  be  the 
fame  with  Ham,  who  peopled  Africa,  and  was  the  fa- 
ther of  Mizraim,  the  founder  of  the  Egyptians. 

Ammon,  or  Ben-Ammi,  the  fon  of  Lot,  begot  by 
that  patriarch  upon  his  yoiingeft;  daughter  (Gen.  xix. 
38.)  He  was  the  father  of  the  Ammonites,  and  dwelt 
to  the  eaft  of  the  Dead  Sea,  in  the  mountains  of  Gi- 
lead.     Sec  Ammonitis  and  Ammonites. 

Ammon  (Andreas),  an  excellent  Latin  poet,  born 
at  Lucca  in  Italy,  was  fent  by  Pope  Leo  X.  to  England, 
in  the  characters  of  prothonotary  of  the  Apoftolic  See, 
and  colleftor-general  of  the  kingdom.  Being  a  man 
of  lingular  genius  and  learning,  he  foon  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  principalliteratiofihofc  times;  par- 
ticularly with  Erafmus,  Colct,  Grocin,  and  others, 
for  the  fake  of  whofc  company  he  relided  fome  lime  at 
Oxford.  The  advice  wliich  Erafmusgivcs  him,  in  re- 
gard to  pudiinghis  fortune,  has  a  good  deal  of  liumour 
in  it,  snd  was  certainly  intended  as  a  fatirc  on  the  art- 
ful methods  generally  prattifcd  by  the  fcltilh  and  am- 
bitious part  of  mankind:  "  In  the  firfl  place  (fays  he), 
throw  otf  all  fenfeof  fliame  ;  thrufl  yourfclf  into  every 
one's  bufinefs,  and  elbow  out  whomfoever  you  can  ; 
neither  love  nor  hate  anyone  ;  meafure  every  thing  by 
your  own  advantage;  let  this  be  the  fcope  and  diift 
of  a'l  your  ailions.  Give  nothing  but  what  is  to  be 
re;urned  with  ufury,  and  be  complajfant  to  every  body. 
Have  always  two  firings  to  your  bow.  Feign  that  you 
are  folicited  by  many  froui  abroad,  and  get  every  thing 


ready  for  your  departure.     Show  letters  inviting  you  Ammonijt 

elfewhcre,  with  great  promifes."    Ammon  was  Latin  « ■ 

fecretary  to  Henry  VIII.  but  at  what  time  he  was 
appointed  does  not  appear.  In  1512  he  was  made 
canon  and  prebendary  of  the  collegiate  chapel  of  St 
Stephen,  in  the  palace  of  Wcrtminller.  He  was  like- 
wife  prebendary  of  Wells  ;  and  in  15  14  was  prefcnted 
to  the  rertory  of  Dychial  in  that  diocefc.  About  the 
fame  time,  by  the  king's  fpccia!  recommendation,  he 
was  alio  made  prebendary  of  Salifbury.  He  died  in 
the  year  IJ17,  and  was  buried  in  St  Stephen's  chapel 
in  the  palace  of  Wcftminfler.  He  was  efteenied  an 
elegant  Latin  writer,  and  an  admirable  poet.  The 
cpilUesof  Erafmus  to  Amnion  abound  with  encomiums 
on  his  genius  and  learning. — His  works  arc,  i.  Epif- 
tola:  ad  Erafmiim,\\\>.  \.  2.  Scotici  confiifliis  hijioria, 
lib.  I.  3.  Bttcolicx  vcl  echgie,  lib.  i.  Brafil  IJ46.  4. 
De  rebus  nihil,  lib.  I.  5,  Panegyrkus  quidavi,  lib.  i, 
6.  Varii gtiierii  epigramviata,  lib.  i.  7.  Poemata  di- 
verfa,  lib.  i. 

AMMONIAC,  a  concrete  gummy  refmous  juice, 
brought  from  the  Eall-Indics,  ufually  in  large  mafl'es, 
compofed  of  little  lumps  or  tears,  of  a  milky  colour, 
but  foon  changing,  upon  being  expofed  to  the  air,  of  a 
yellowifli  hue.  We  have  no  certain  account  ol  the 
plant  which  affords  this  juice  ;  the  feeds  ufually  found 
among  the  tears,  refemble  thofe  of  the  umbelliferous 
clafs.  It  has  been,  however,  alleged,  and  not  without 
fome  degree  of  probability,  that  it  is  an  exudation 
fromafpeciesofthc  ferula,  another  fpecics  of  which 
produces  the  aflafoetida.  The  plant  producing  it  is  faid 
to  grow  in  Nubia,  AbyfTinia,  and  the  interior  parts  of 
Egypt.  It  is  brought  to  the  weflern  part  ©f  Europe 
from  Egypt,  and  to  England  from  the  Red-Sea,  by 
fome  of  the  fhips  belonging  to  the  Eaft-India  Com- 
pany trading  to  thofe  parts.  Such  tears  as  are  large, 
dry,  free  from  little  flones,  feeds,  or  other  impurities, 
Ihould  be  picked  out,  and  preferred  for  internal  ufe  : 
the  coarfer  kind  is  purified  by  folution  and  colarure, 
and  then  carefully  infpid'ating  it ;  unlefs  this  be  art- 
fully managed,  the  gum  will  lofe  a  confiderable  deal  of 
its  more  volatile  parts.  There  is  often  vended  in  the 
/hops,  under  the  name  of  ftraincd  gum-ammoniacum, 
a  compofition  of  ingredients  much  inferior  in  virtue. 

Ammoniac  has  a  naufeousfweet  tafle,  followed  by  a 
bitterone  ;  and  a  peculiar  fmcll,  fomewhat  like  that  of 
galbanum,  but  more  grateful  :  it  foftens  in  the  mouth, 
and  grows  of  a  whiter  colour  upon  being  chewed. 
Thrown  upon  live  coals,  it  burns  away  in  flame  :  it  is 
ill  fome  meafure  foluble  in  water  and  in  vinegar,  with 
which  it  affumes  the  appearance  of  milk  ;  but  therc- 
finous  part,  amounting  to  about  one  half,  fubfides  on 
Aanding. 

Ammoniac  is  an  ufcful  deobllruent,  and  frequently 
prcfcribed  for  opening  obftruclions  of  the  abdominal 
vifcera,  and  in  hyflerical  diforders  occafioned  by  a 
deficiency  of  the  mcn.lrual  evacuations.  Itislikewife 
.•"uppofed  to  deterge  the  pulmonary  vciTels  ;  and  proves 
ofconfiderablefervicein  fome  kinds  of  aflhmas,  where 
the  lungs  arc  opprcflcd  by  vifcid  phlegm  :  in  this  inten- 
tion, a  folution  of  gum-ammoniac  in  vinegar  of  fi;uills 
prove;:  a  medicine  of  great  efhcacy,  though  not  a  little 
uiipleafant.  In  long  and  obflinate  cholics  proceeding 
from  vifcid  matter  lodged  in  the  inteflines,  this  gummy 
refiahas  produced  happy  efFecls,  after  the  purges  and 

tlic 


A   M  M 

ADimoniac  the  common  carmiiiitives  had  been  ufcJ  in  vain.  Am- 

II  moniac  is  raoflcommodiouny  taken  in  the  form  of  pills; 

Aninio-    about  a  fcruplc  may  be  given  every  night,  or  oftencr. 

°"'^'      Externally,  it  foftens  and  ripens  hard  tumours  :  a  folu- 

^~"^'         lion  of  it  in  vinegar  Hands  recommended  by  fomc  for 

rcfolving  even  fchirrous  fwellings.  A  pladcr  made  of 

it  and  fqaill- vinegar  is  recommended  by  fomein  white 

fweUings.     A  dilute  mixture  of  the  fame  is  likcwife 

rubbed  on  the  parts,  which  are  alfo  fumigated  wiili  the 

fmoke  of  juniper-berries.     In  tlie  Ihops  is  prepared  a 

folution  of  it  in  pennyroyal  water  called  from  its  milky 

colour  lac-amm^ntaci.     It  is  an  ingredient  alfo  in  the 

fquill  pills. 

Sal- Ammoniac,  a  volatile  fait,  of  which  there  arc 
two  kinds,  ancient  and  modern.  The  ancient  fort, 
defcribed  by  Pliny  and  Diofcoridcs,  was  a  native  fait, 
generated  in  thofe  large  innsor  caravanfcras  wlicrethe 
crowd  of  pilgrims,  coming  from  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Amnion,  ufed  to  lodge  ;  who,  in  thofe  parts,  travel- 
ling upon  camels,  and  thofe  creatures  when  in  Cy  rene, 
a  province  of  Egypt,  where  that  celebrated  temple 
flood,  uriningiii  the  ft;ables,or(fay  forae)  in  the  parch- 
ed fands,  GUI  of  this  urine,  whicli  is  remarkably  Itrong, 
arofe  a  kind  of  fait,  denominated  fometimes  (from  the 
temple)  Ammoniac,  and  fometimes  (Irom  the  country) 
Cyriniac.  Since  the  celfation  of  thefe  pilgrimages,  no 
more  of  this  fait  is  produced  there  ;  and,  from  this  de- 
ficiency, fome  fufpecl  there  never  was  any  fuel)  thing : 
But  this  fufpicion  is  removed,  by  the  large  quantities 
of  a  fait,  nearly  of  the  fame  nature,  thrown  out  by 
mount  jttna.  The  charaiShers  sf  the  ancient  fal- am- 
moniac are,  that  it  cools  water,  turns  aqua-foriis  into 
aqua-regia,  and  confequcntly  dilfolves  gold. 

The  modern  fal-ammoniac  is  entirely  faditious  :  for 
which,  fee  Chemistry-//;i3'i'.v. 

AMMONTAN  PHiLosorHY.     SccAmmonius. 

AMIMONIT.*;,  in  natural  hiflory.  Sec  Corkv 
Amyiionis. 

AMMONITES,  a  people  defcended  from  Ammon 
the  fon  of  Lot.  The  Ammonites  deflroyed  thofe 
giants  which  they  called  Zamzummims  (Deut.  ii.  19 
— 21.),  and  feizcd  upon  their  country.  God  forbad 
Mofes,  and  by  him  the  children  of  Ifracl  {id,  19.), 
to  attack  the  Ammonites  ;  becaufe  he  did  not  intend 
to  give  their  lands  unto  the  Hebrews.  Before  the  If- 
raelites  entered  the  land  of  Canaan,  the  Aniorites  had 
by  conquefl  got  great  part  of  the  countries  belonging 
to  the  Ammonites  and  Moabites.  This  Mofes  retook 
from  the  Amorites,  and  divided  between  the  tribes  of 
Gad  and  Reuben.  In  the  time  of  Jepluha,  the  Am- 
monitcsdeclaredwaragainft  the  lfratlites(Judgesxi.) 
under  pretence  that  they  detained  a  great  part  of  the 
country  which  had  formerly  been  theirs  before  the 
Amorites  polfelfed  it.  Jcphtha  declared,  that  as  this 
was  an  acquifition  whicn  the  Ifraclites  had  made  in  a 
jullwar,  and  what  they  had  taken  from  the  Amorites, 
who  had  long  enjoyed  it  by  right  of  conqucft,  he  was 
under  no  obligation  to  rellore  it.  The  Ammonites 
were  not  fatislied  with  thisreafon  ;  wherefore  Jcphtha 
gave  them  battle  and  defeated  them.  The  Ammonites 
and  Moabites  generally  united  whenever  there  was  any 
defign  fct  a-foot  of  atiacking  tlie  Ifraclites.  After 
the  death  of  Othniel  {id.  iii.),  the  Ammonites  and 
Amalekitcs  joined  with  Eglon  king  of  Moab  10  op- 
prefs  the  Hebrews  ;  whom  they  fubducd  and  governed, 
lor  the  ipace  of  18  years,  till  they  were  delivered  by 

4 


[     631     1  A  M  M 

Ehud  the  Son  of  Gera,  who  flew  Eglon  king  of  Moab.    .\mnio- 
Somc  timcaftertliis,  the  Ammonites  made  waragainA      n^"- 

the  Ifraclites,  and  greatly  dillreficd  them.     But  thcfc 

were  at  laft  delivered  by  the  handsof  Jcphtha  ;  who  ha- 
vingattacked  the  Ammonites.raadea  very  great  daugh- 
ter among  them  (chap.  xi.).  In  the  beginning  of 
Saul's  reign  (i.  Sam.  xi.),  Naalh  king  of  the  Am- 
monites havingfat  down  before  Jabelh-gilead,  reduced 
the  inhabitants  to  the  extremity  of  demanding  a  capi- 
tulation. Naalh  anfwercd,  that  he  would  capitulate 
with  ihcin  upon  no  other  conditions  than  ihtir  fub- 
mitting  every  one  to  have  his  right  eye  plucked  out, 
that  fo  they  might  be  made  a  reproach  to  Kracl  :  buc 
Saul  coming  feafonably  to  the  relief  of  Jabclh,  deli- 
vered the  city  and  people  from  the  barbarity  of  the 
king  of  the  Ammonites.  David  had  been  ihe  king  of 
Amnion's  friend  ;  and,  after  the  death  of  this  prince, 
he  fent  amball'adors  to  make  his  compliments  of  con- 
dolence to  Hanun  his  fon  and  fucctlfor  ;  who,  ima- 
gining that  David's  ambafladors  were  come  as  fj'ies  to 
obfcrve  his  flrength,  and  the  condition  of  his  king- 
dom, treated  them  in  a  very  injurious  manner  (2  Sam. 
x.  4.).  David  revenged  this  indignity  thrown  upon 
his  amballadors,  by  fubduing  the  Ammonites,  the 
Moabites,  and  the  Syrians,  their  allies.  Ammon  and 
Moab  continued  under  the  obedience  of  the  kings 
David  and  Solomon  ;  and,  after  the  feparaiion  of  the 
ten  tribes,  were  fubje(5l  to  the  kings  of  Ifracl  till  tha 
death  of  Ahab  in  the  year  of  the  world  5107.  Two 
years  after  the  death  of  Ahab,  Jehoram  his  fon,  and 
fucceiror  of  Ahaziah,  defeated  the  Moabites  (2  Kiujjs 
iii.)  :  but  it  does  not  appear  that  this  victory  was  fj 
complete  as  to  reduce  them  to  his  obedience.  At  tlie 
fame  time,  the  Ammonites,  Moabites,  and  other  peo- 
ple, made  an  irruption  upon  the  lands  bclongiiio-  to 
Judah  ;  but  were  forced  back  and  routed  by  Jeholha- 
phat  (2  Chr.  xx  r,  2.).  After  the  tribes  of  Ueuben, 
Gad,  and  the  half-tribe  of  Manalfeh,  were  carried  in- 
to captivity  by  Tiglath-pilefcr  in  tlie  year  5264,  the 
Ammonites  and  Moabites  took  poUtliion  of  the  cities 
belonging  to  thcfc  tribes.  Jeremiah  (xlix.  i.)reproach- 
es  them  for  it.  The  amballadors  of  the  Ammouitts 
were  fome  of  thofe  to  whom  this  prophet  (chap,  xxvii. 
2 — 4-)  prefented  the  cup  of  the  Lord's  fury,  and  di- 
reded  to  make  bonds  and  yokes  for  themfdves  ;  ex- 
horting them  to  fubmit  themfelves  to  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  threatening  them,  if  they  did  not,  with  captivity 
and  llavcry.  Ezekiel  (xxv.  4 — 10.)  denounces  thtir 
entire  dellruilion  ;  and  ttlls  them  that  God  would 
give  them  up  to  the  people  of  the  call,  who  Ihould  fct 
their  palaces  in  their  country,  fo  that  ihcre  Ihuuld  bo 
no  more  mention  of  the  Ammonitesaiiiong  the  nations. 
It  is  believed  that  thcfc  misfortunes  h.^ppened  to  the 
Ammonites  in  thetifth  yearafter  the  taking  of  Jarnfa- 
lein,  when  Nebuchadnezzar  made  waragainft  all  the 
people  that  dwelt  upon  the  contincs  of  judea,  in  the 
year  of  the  world  3420. 

It  is  alio  thought  probable,  that  Cyrus  gave  the 
Ammonites  and  Moabites  the  liberty  of  returning  i:i:o 
their  own  country,  from  whence  they  had  been  rcn:o- 
ved  by  Nebuchadnezzar :  for  we  fee  them,  in  ihi-  place 
of  their  former  ftttlement,  expofed  to  thofe  revolu- 
tions which  were  common  to  ihc  people  of  Syria  and 
ralcrtine  ;  l.ibjeds  foniciimcs  to  the  kings  of  Kgypr, 
and  at  other  limes  to  the  kii;gs  of  Syria.  We  a.c 
told  by  Poly  bins,  that  Autiochus  the  Great  took  Rab- 

both. 


A  M  M 


[    ^3^    ] 


A  M  M 


Ammonirisbotli,  or  riiiladdphia,  thtir  capujl,  JcmoliflicJ  tlic 
Aninioiiiji  walls,  and  put  a  garrifon  in  it  in  3806.     Diiriiitr  the 

*      ** '  pcrfccutionsof  AiuiochusEpiphantSiJofcphiisinioriiis, 

that  the  Ainmonitcs  lliowcd  their  iiatrcd  10  ilic  Jews, 
and  cxcrcifcd  grcit  cruelties  aj!;ainll  Inch  of  thtm  as 
lived  about  their  country.  Jiilhii  Martyr  iays,  Tliat 
in  his  time  there  were  Aill  many  Ammonites  remain- 
ing ;  but  Origcn  allures  us,  that  when  he  was  living 
they  were  known  only  under  the  general  name  ot 
Arabians.  Thiiswasthcpredi(i:1ionofE7,ekicl(xxv. 10) 
acconiplilhcd  ;  «hofaidthat  the  Ammonites  Ihoiild  be 
deftroyc.i  in  fuch  a  manner  as  not  to  be  remembered 
among  the  nations. 

ANMONITIS  (anc.  gcog.),  a  country  of  Arabia 
Petr;:ea,  occupied  by  the  children  ef  Amnion,  whence 
the  appellation.  Itslimits,  partly  coihe  wcii,  andpart- 
Ij'  to  the  north,  where  the  river  Jabbok,whofecourfe  is 
no  where  determined  ;  though  Jofephus  fays,  that  it 
runs  between  Rabbath-Ammon,  or  Philadelphia,  and 
Cerafa,  and  falls  into  the  Jordan. 

AMMONIUS,  firnamed  Saccas,  was  born  in 
Alexandria,  and  floiirilhed  about  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century.  He  was  one  of  the  moll  celebrated 
philofophcrs  of  his  age  ;  and,  adopting  with  altera- 
tions the  Eccleaic  philofophy,  laid  the  foundations 
of  that  feft  which  was  dillinguiflied  by  the  name  of 
new  Neii)  riatonks.  Sec  Ecclectics  and  Pi.ato- 
N I  s  M  . 

This  learned  man  was  born  of  Chriftian  parents  and 
educated  in  their  religion  ;  the  outward  profcliion  of 
which,  it  is  faid,  he  never  entirely  defertcd.  As  his 
genius  was  vafl and  comprchen live,fo were  his  projcfts 
bold  and  fingular  :  For  he  attempted  a  general  coali- 
tion of  all  feiHs,  whether  philofophical  or  religious,  by 
framing  a  fyftem  of  doftrincs  which  he  imagined  cal- 
culated to  unite  them  all,  the  Chriftians  not  excepted, 
in  the  moftperfccl  harmony.  In  purfuance  of  tliisdc- 
lign,  he  maintained,  that  the  great  principles  of  all 
philofophical  and  religious  truth  were  to  be  found  e- 
qiially  in  all  feels  j  that  they  differed  from  each  other 
only  in  their  method  of  exprclFrng  them,  and  in  fomc 
opinions  of  little  or  no  importance  ;  and  that,  by  a 
proper  inierpretation  of  their  refpeftivc  fentiments, 
they  might  eafily  be  united  into  one  body.  Accord- 
ingly, all  the  Gentile  religions,  and  even  the  ChriAian, 
Were  to  be  illuflratcd  and  explained  by  the  principles 
of  this  univcrfal  philofophy  ;  and  the  fables  of  the 
priefls  were  to  be  removed  from  Paganifm,  and  the 
comments  and  interpretations  of  the  difciplcsof  Jcfus 
from  Chrilliaiiity.  In  conformity  to  this  plan,  he  in- 
firted.that  all  the  religious  fyftcms  of  all  nations  fliould 
be  reftorcd  to  their  original  purity,  and  reduced  to 
their  primitive  Aandard,  viz.  the  ancient  philofophy 
of  the  Eaft,  prefervcd  uncorruptcd  by  Plato  :  and  he 
affirmed,  that  this  project  was  agreeable  to  the  inten- 
tions of  Jcfus  Chrift  ;  whofc  folc  view  in  defcending 
upon  earth  was  to  fet  bounds  to  the  reigning  fuperfti- 
tion,  to  remove  the  errors  that  had  blended  them- 
felves  with  the  religion  of  all  nations,  but  not  to  abo- 
lifli  the  ancient  theology  from  which  they  were  deri- 
ved. He  tlicrefore  adopted  the  doftrines  whicli  were 
received  in  Egypt  concerning  the  nniverfe  and  the 
Deity,  confidercd  as  conftituting  one  great  whole  ; 
concerning  the  eternity  of  the  world,  the  nature  of 


fouli,  the  empire  of  Providence,  aud  thegorcrnmrnt  Ammoniu 
of  the  world  by  daemons.    He  alfo  ellabliilicd  a  fyttcm         1 
of  moral  dikipline  ;  which  allowed  the  j<coplc  in  gc-     ■^"'°'- 
ncrrl  to  live  according  to  the  laws  of  their  country  and  ' 

the  dictates  of  nature  ;  but  required  the  wife  to  exalt 
tlieir  minds  by  contemplation, and  to  mortify  the  body, 
fo  that  they  might  be  cipablc  of  enjoying  the  prclencc 
and  aflillaiice  Ci  the  damons,  and  ol  afeenduig  after 
death  to  the  prcfencc  of  the  Supreme  Parent.  In  or- 
der to  reconcile  ihcpopular  religions,  and  particularly 
the  Chriftian, with  this  new  fyltcm,hc  madcthc  whole 
hillory  of  the  Heathen  gods  an  allegory  ;  maintaining 
tiiatthcy  were  only  cclcftial  minilters,  intitled  to  ati 
inferior  kind  ot  worlhip.  And  he  acknowledged  that 
Jefus  ChriAwas  an  excellent  man,  and  the  friend  of 
God  ;  but  alleged  that  it  was  not  his  dclign  entirely 
to  aboliili  the  worlhip  ofdsemons,  and  that  his  only 
intention  was  to  purify  the  ancient  religion.  Thisfy- 
Aem,  fo  plaufible  in  its  firA  rife,  but  fo  comprehen- 
five  and  complying  in  itsprogrefs,  has  been  the  fourcc 
of  innumerable  errors  and  corruptions  in  the  ChriAian 
church.  At  its  firA  cAabliflinient  it  is  faid  to  have 
had  the  approbation  of  Athenagoras,  Panta;nus,  and 
Clemens  the  Alexandrian,  and  of  all  who  had  the  care 
of  the  public  fchool  belonging  to  the  ChriAians  at  A- 
Icxandria.  It  w-as  afterwards  adopted  by  Longinus 
the  celebrated  author  of  the  treaiife  on  the  Sublime, 
Ploiinus,  Herennius,  Origcn,  Porphyry,  Jamblichus 
the  difcipleofPorphyry,Sopatcr,  Edilius,  EuAathius, 
Maximusof  Ephefus,  Prifcus,  Chryfanthius  thcniailcr 
of  Julian,  Julian  the  ApoAate,  Hicrocles,  Proclus, 
and  many  others,  both  Pagans  and  ChriAians. 

Theabove  opiiiionsof  Ammoni.is  arecollcCled  from 
the  writings  and  difputations  of  his  difciples,  the  mo- 
dern Platonics;  for  he  himfclfleft  nothing  in  writing 
behind  him  ;  nay,  he  ivnpofcdalaw  upon  his  difciples 
not  to  divulge  his  doftrincs  among  the  multitude  ; 
which  injunction,  however,  they  made  nofcruple  to 
ncglefl  and  violate. 

Am  MO  NIL'S,  furnamed  I.ithotome,  a  celebrated 
furgcon  of  Alexandria  ;  fo  calledfrom  hisinventingthe 
operation  of  cxtrafting  the  Aone  from  the  bladder. 

AMMUNITION,  a  general  name  for  all  w^arlike 
provifions  ;  but  more  particularly  powder,  ball,  &c. 

Ammunition,  arms,  utcnfils  of  war,  gun-powder, 
imported  without  licence  from  his  Maje Ay,  are,  by  the 
laws  of  England,  forfeited,  and  triple  the  value.  And 
again,  fuch  licence  obtained,  except  for  furnilhinghis 
Majefty's  public  Aorcs,  is  to  be  void,  and  the  offender 
to  incur  a  premunire,  and  to  be  difabled  to  hold  any 
office  from  the  crown. 

A.v.vuNnios  Bread,  Shoes,  &c.  fuch  as  are  ferved 
out  to  the  foldiers  of  an  army  or  garrifon. 

AMNESTY,  in  matters  of  policy,  denotes  a  pardon 
granted  by  a  prince  to  his  rebellious  fubjefls,  ufually 
with  fome  exceptions  :  fuch  was  that  granted  by 
Charles  II.  at  his  rcAoration. — Tiic  word  is  formed 
from  the  Greek  «^TiirT;«,  the  name  of  an  edi<5lof  this 
kind  publithcd  by  Thrafibulus,  on  hisexpulfion  of  the 
tyrants  out  of  Athens. 

AMNIOS,  in  anatomy,  a  thin  pellucid  membrane 
which  furronnds  the  foetus  in  the  womb.     See  Poe- 

TUS. 

AMOEBjEUM,  in  ancient  poetry,  a  kind  of  poem 

repre» 


A  M  O 


[     ^33     3 


A  M  O 


AmoT, 

Imamtim 


reprefentlng  a  difputc  between  two  perfons,  who  arc 
maile  to  anlwer  each  other  aUernatcl/  ;  fuch  are  the 
third  and  fcvcnth  of  Virgil's  eclogues. 

AMOL,  a  town  of  Alia,  in  the  country  of  the  Uf- 
becks,  fcated  on  the  river  Gihon.  E.  Long.  64.  30. 
N.  Lat.  39.  20. 

AMOMUM,  Ginger  :  A  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  belonging  to  the  monaudriaclafsof  plants.  The 
charaflers  are  :  The  ca/yx  is  an  obfcure  three-toothed 
perianthium,  above  :  The  corolu  is  inonopetalous, 
the  tubus  Ihort,  the  limbus  tripartite  :  The  Jtamina 
is  an  oblong  filament,  with  the  anthcras  adjoining  : 
The  pijlilluin  has  a  roundifti  germen,  bencaih  ;  the 
flylus  is  filiform,  the  ftigmaobtufc  :  The  pcrtcarpi- 
um  is  leathery,  fubovate,  trigonous,  trilocular,  and 
threc-valvcd  :  The  ftsdi  are  numerous. — Of  this 
genus  there  arc  four 

Species.  I.  The  zingiber,  or  common  ginger,  is  a 
native  of  the  Eaft,  and  alio  of  fome  parts  of  the  Weft 
Indies;  whercit  grows  naturally  without  culture. The 
roots  are  jointed,  andfpreadin  the  ground  :  they  put 
out  many  green  reed-like  ftalks  in  the  fpring,  which 
arife  to  the  height  of  two  feet  and  an  half,  with  nar- 
row leaves.  The  tlower-ftems  arile  by  the  lideofthcfc, 
immediately  from  the  root ;  thefe  arc  naked  ;  ending 
with  an  oblong  fcaly  fpikc.  From  each  of  thefe  fcalcs 
is  produced  a  fingle  blue  llower,  whofe  petals  are  but 
little  lower  than  the  fquamous  covering.  2.  The  ze- 
rumbet,  or  wild  ginger,  is  a  native  of  India.  The 
roots  arc  larger  than  thofc  of  the  lirft,  but  arc  jointed 
in  the  fame  maimer.  The  ftalks  grow  from  three  to 
near  four  feet  high,  with  oblong  leaves  placed  alter- 
nately. The  flowcr-ftems  arife  immediately  from  the 
root :  thefe  arc  terminated  by  oblong,  blunt,  fcaly 
heads;  out  of  each  fcale  is  produced  a  fmglc  white 
flower,  whofe  petals  extend  a  confiderable  length  be- 
yond the  fcaly  covering.  3.  The  cardaniomum,  or  car- 
damom, is  likcwife  a  native  of  India ;  but  is  little 
known  in  Kurope  except  by  its  feeds,  which  arc  ufcdin 
medicine.  Of  this  there  is  a  variety,with  fmaller  fruit, 
which  makes  the  diftinftion  into  cardamoraum  majus 
and  minus.  The  firft,  when  it  comes  to  us,  is  a  dried 
fruit  or  pod  about  an  inch  long,  containing,  under  a 
thick  fkin,  two  rows  of  fmall  triangular  feeds  of  a 
warm  aromatic  flavour.  The  cardamomum  minus  is  a 
fruit  fcarce  half  the  length  of  the  foregoing,  but  con- 
liderably  ftronger  both  in  fmell  and  tafte.  4.  The 
grana  paradili  fpecies  is  likcwife  a  native  of  the  Eaft 
Indies.  The  fruit  containing  the  grains  of  paradife  is 
about  the  lizeof  afig,  divided  into  three  cells,  in  each 
of  which  are  contained  two  roots  of  fmall  feeds  like 
cardamoms.  They  are  fomewhat  more  grateful,  and 
conlidcrably  more  pungent,  than  cardamoms. 

Culture.  The  firft  two  fpecies  are  tender,  and 
require  a  warm  rtove  to  prcfcrve  them.  They  arc 
calily  propagated  by  parting  the  roots  in  the  fpring. 
Thefe  ihould  be  planted  in  pots  filled  with  lij^lit  rich 
earth,  and  plunged  into  a  hot-bed  of  tanner's-bark, 
where  they  muft  conftantly  remain.  If  we  may  be- 
lieve the  Abbe  Raynal,  cardamoms  propagate  thcm- 
felves,  in  thofc  countries  where  they  are  natives, 
witliout  either  fowing  or  planting.  Nothing  more  is 
required  than,  as  foon  as  the  rainy  feafon  is  over,  to 
fct  fire  to  the  herb  which  has  produced  the  fruit. 
Vol.  I. 


Vfes.  The  dried  roots  of  the  firft  fpecies  are  of  great  Ahwmoj* 
ufc  in  the  kitchen,  as  well  as  in  medicine.  They  fur-         II 
nilh  a  confiderable  export  from  fomc  of  the  American  Amorit«. 
iflands.  The  green  roots,  prefcrvcd  as  a  fweet-meat,  '       "     ^ 
arcprefcrable  to  every  other  kind.   The  Indians  mix 
them  with  their  rice,  which  is  their  common  food,  to 
corre(ft  its  natural  infipidity.  This  fpice,  mixed  with. 
others,  gives  the  dilhes  fcafoned  with  it  a  ftroug  taftc, 
which  is  extremely  difagreeable  to  ftrangcrs.     The 
Europeans,  however,  who  come  into  Alia  without  fur- 
tunes,  arc  obliged  to  conform  to  it.     The  others  a- 
dopt  it  out  of  complaifance  to  their  wives,  wlio  arc  ge- 
nerally natives  of  the  country Giugeris  a  very  ufc- 

ful  fpice,  in  cold  flatulent  colics,  and  in  laxity  and  dc- 
bilityof  theinteftines ;  it  docs  not  heat  fo  much  as  thofc 
of  the  pepper  kind,  but  its  effefls  arc  much  morcdura- 
ble.  The  cardamoms  and  grains  of  paradife  have  the 
fame  medicinal  qualities  with  ginger. — In  Jamaica, the 
common  people  employ  it  in  baths  and  fomentations 
with  good  fuccefs,  in  complaints  of  the  vifcera,  in 
plcurilics,  and  inobftinate  and  continued  fevers. 

^MomuM  Ferum,  or  True  Amoniiaii,  is  a  round 
fruit,  about  the  fize  of  a  middling  grape  ;  containing, 
under  a  membranous  cover,  a  number  of  fmall  rough 
angular  feeds,  of  a  blackilh  brown  colour  on  the  out- 
iidc,  and  whitilh  within  :  the  feeds  are  lodjied  in  three 
diflincl  cells  ;  thofc  in  each  cell  are  joined  clofcly  to- 
gctlitr,  fo  as  that  the  fruit,  upon  being  opened,  ap- 
pears to  contain  only  three  feeds.  Ten  or  twelve  of 
thefe  fruits  grow  together  in  a  cluftcr  ;  and  adhere 
without  any  pedicle,  to  a  woody  ftalk  about  an  inch 
long  ;  each  linglc  fruit  is  furrounded  by  fix  leaves,  in 
form  of  a  cup  ;  and  the  part  of  the  ftalk  void  of  fruit  is 
clothed  witii  leafy  fcalcs. — The  hulks,  leaves,  and 
ftcms,  have  a  light  grateful  fmcll,  and  a  moderatcl/ 
warm  aromatic  taftc  :  the  feeds,  freed  from  the  hulks, 
are  in  both  rcfpeds  much  ftronger  ;  their  fmell  is 
quick  and  penetrating,  their  talle  pungent,  approach- 
ing to  that  of  camphor.  Notwithftanding  amomum. 
is  an  elegant  aromatic,  it  has  long  been  a  ftranger  ta 
the  fhops. 

Amomum  Vulgare.     Sec  Si  son. 

A  MONTONS(  William),  an  ingenious  experimen- 
tal philofopher,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1665.  Wliile 
he  was  at  the  grammar-fchool,  he  by  fickncfs  contrac- 
ted adeafnefs  that  almoft  excluded  him  converfation. 
In  this  frtuation,  he  applied  himfclf  to  mechanics  and 
geometry  ;  and,  it  isfaid,refufcd  to  try  any  remedy  for 
hisdiforder,  either  becaufe  he  deemed  it  incurable,  or 
becaufc  it  increafed  his  attention.  He  ftudicd  the  nature 
of  barometers  and  thermometers  with  great  care  ;  and 
wrote  Oi/ervat'ions  and  Experiuieiits  coitc:rni>ig  a  new 
Hour-glaji,  and  concerning  Barometers,  Thcrmome- 
{lTs,  and  Hygrofcopes  ;  which,  with  fomc  pieces  ia 
the  Journal  des  Sfavans,  are  all  his  literary  works. 
When  the  Royal  academy  was  new-regulated  ini  699 
he  was  admitted  a  member ;  and  read  his  ne-ai  Theory  of 
Fridion,  in  which  he  happily  cleared  up  an  imporiaac 
objec't  in  mechanics.     He  died  in  1  70J. 

AMOR-^ANS,  a  fcft  or  order  of  gcmaric  doftors, 
or  commentators  on  the  Jeruf.ilem  Talmud.  The  A- 
morxans  fuccceded  the  Mifchnic  dodors.  They  fub- 
fifted  250  years  ;  and  were  fuccceded  by  the  Sebu- 
rxans. 

4  L  AMORGOS, 


A  M  O 


[     634     ] 


A  M  O 


Amorgos        AMORGOS,    or  AmurGUS   (anc.  gcog.),  now 

II         Morgo,  not  far  Iroin  Naxus  to  the  cart,  one  of  the  Eu- 

Amorpha.  j-ppcan  SporaJes  ;  tlie  cotintry  of  Simonidcs  the  lain- 

^       '  bic  poet.  To  this  illinJ  criminals  were  banilhcd.     It 

was  famous  for  a  tine  flax  called  Emorgis. 

AMORITES,  a  people  defccndcd  from  Amorrhas- 
ns,  according  to  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate;  Emorae- 
us,  according  to  other  expolitors  ;  Hxmori,  according 
to  the  Hebrew  ;  or  Emorite,  according  to  our  verliou 
of  the  Bible  ;  who  was  the  fourth  fon  of  Canaan, 
Gen.  X.  16. 

The  Amorites  firft  of  all  peopled  the  mountains  ly- 
ing to  the  weft  of  the  Dead  Sea.  They  had  likewifc 
cftabliflimcnts  to  the  eaft  of  the  fame  fca, between  the 
brooks  of  Jabbock  and  Arnon,  from  whence  they  for- 
ced the  Ammonites  and  Moabitcs.  Num.xiii.  30.  xxi. 
29.  Jofli.  V.  I.  and  Judges  xi.  19,  20.  Mofcs  made  a 
conquell  of  this  country  from  tlicir  kings  Sihon  and 
Og,  in  the  year  of  the  world  2555. 

The  prophet  Amos  (ii.  9.),  fpeakingof  the  gigan- 
tic ftatureand  valour  of  the  Amorites,  compares  their 
height  with  that  of  cedars,  and  their  ftrength  with 
that  of  an  oak.  The  name  Amoritc  is  often  taken  in 
Scripture  for  all  Canaanitcs  in  general.  The  lands 
which  the  Amorites  poilelFcd  on  this  lide  Jordan  were 
given  to  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  thofe  which  they  had 
enjoyed  beyond  this  river  were  diflributcd  between 
the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad. 

AMORIUM,  a  town  of  Phrygia  Major,  near  the 
river  Sangarius,  on  the  borders  of  Galatia — It  was 
taken  from  the  Romans  by  the  Saracens  in  668  ;  but 
foon  after  retaken  by  the  Romans — A  war  break- 
ing out  again  between  thcfe  two  nations  in  837,  the 
Roman  emperor  Thcophylus  deftroyed  Sozopetrathe 
birth-place  of  the  khilif  Al'  Motafcm,  notwithlland- 
ing  his  eainefl  intrcatics  to  him  to  fpare  it.  Tliisfo 
enraged  the  khalif,  that  he  ordered  every  one  to  en- 
grave upon  his  lliicld  the  word  A/tiorium,  the  birth- 
place of  Theophylus,  which  he  refolved  at  all  events 
to  deftroy.  Accordingly  he  laid  liege  to  the  place, 
but  met  with  a  vigorous  rcfiflance.  At  length,  after  a 
liege  of  J5  days,  it  was  betrayed  by  one  of  iheinha- 
l^iants  who  had  abjured  the  Chriftian  religion.  The 
khalif,  cxafperatcii  at  the  lofs  he  had  fuftained  during 
the  fiege,  put  mofl  of  the  men  to  the  fword,  carried 
the  women  and  children  into  captivity,  and  levelled 
the  city  with  the  ground.  His  forces  being  diflreflcd 
for  want  of  water  on  their  return  home,  the  Chriftian 
prifoncrs  rofe  upon  fomc  of  them,  and  murdered  them; 
upon  which  the  khalif  put  6000  of  the  prifoncrs  to 

death .According  to  the  eaftern  hirtorians,  30,000 

of  the  inhabitants  of  Amoriura  were  (lain,  and  as  many 
carried  into  captivity. 

AMORPHA,  False  Indigo  :  A  genus  of  the  de- 
candria  order,  belonging  to  the  diadelphia  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
^2d  order,  /'■;;> /7;o«<'c.'.r.  The  charaflers  are  :  The 
talyx  is  a  fiuglc-leaved  periantbium,  tubular  and  per- 
fiftent :  The  corolla  conliflsof  an  ovate,  concave,  erect 
petal,  fcarccly  larger  than,  and  placed  on  the  upper 
iide  of  the  calyx  :  The //aw/A.-J  conlill  of  ten  eredl 
nnequal  tilamtnts,  longer  than  the  corolla;  the  an- 
cherse  are  limple  :  The  ;>;/?/////?// has  a  roundilh  ger- 
mcn ;  the  ftylus  fubulated,  and  the  length  of  the  ila- 


Anioi. 


raina  ;  the  ftigma  fun  pic  :  The  pericarpium  is  a  luna-  Amortiza. 
ted  unilocular  legumcn,  reliecled,  larger  than  the  ca-       tion, 
lyx,  and  tuburculatcd  :    The  Jitfdj  arc  two,  and  kid- 
ney-ihapcd.     By  the  corolla  alone  this  genus  may  be  ' 
dillinguilhed  from  all  the  known  plants  in  the  uni- 
verfe  :  The  petals  are  the  banner  ;    the  wings  and 
keel  are  wanting,  which  is  very  fingular  in  a  papili- 
onaceous corolla. 

Of  this  there  is  only  one  known  fpccies,  a  native  of 
Carolina,  where  the  inhabitants  formerly  made  from 
it  a  coarie  kind  of  indigo,  whence  the  plant  took  its 
name.  It  rifcs,  with  many  irregular  items,  to  the 
height  of  12  or  14  feet.  The  leaves  arc  late  in  the 
fpring before  their  loliage is  fully  difplayed.  The,cndg 
of  their  branches  are  generally  deftroyed  by  the  froft; 
or,  if  they  recover  it,  they  have  the  appearance  of  be- 
ing dead;  whilft  other  plants  teftiiy  the  cffeifls  of  the 
reviving  montlis.  But,  notwithftanding  thefc  defctSs, 
this  tree  has  fome  other  good  properties  that  in  pare 
make  amends  for  them,  i'he  leaves,  when  out,  arc 
admired  by  all.  They  are  of  a  pleafant  green  colour; 
arc  very  large,  beautifully  pinnated,  the  lolioles being 
arranged  along  the  ftalk  by  pairs,  and  terminate  by  an 
odd  one.  The  flowers  are  of  a  purple  colour  ;  they 
grow  in  fpikes,  fe  ven  or  eight  inches  long,  at  the  ends 
of  the  branches,  and  are  of  a  lingular  ftrudure.  In 
order  to  make  iliis  tree  have  its  bcft  cffcit,  it  fliould 
be  planted  among  others  of  its  own  growth,  in  a  well- 
flieltered  lituation  ;  by  which  means  the  ends  will  not 
be  fo  liable  to  be  deftroyed  by  the  winter's  frofts ;  the 
branches  will  not  fuffer  by  the  violence  of  the  winds; 
and,  as  itis  fubjedl  to  put  out  many  branches  near  the 
root,  thefe  indelicacies  and  imperfeiiUons  will  be  con- 
cealed ;  whilft  the  tree  will  Ihow  itfelf  to  the  utmoft 
advantage  when  in  blow,  by  elevating  its  purple-fpiked 
flowers  aniongft  the  others  in  a  pleating  view. 

Cutturc.  The  amorpha  is  moll  readily  propagated 
by  feeds.  It  may  alfo  be  propagated  by  laying  down 
iheyoungbranclies,  wliich  in  one  year  will  makegood 
roots  ;  and  may  then  be  taken  oft,  and  planted  cither 
in  the  nurfcry,  or  in  tlic  jilaces  where  they  are  defign- 
ed  to  remain.  If  lliey  arc  put  into  a  nurfery,  they 
lliould  not  remain  there  more  than  one  year  ;  for  as 
the  plants  make  large  flioots,  they  do  not  remove  well 
when  they  have  remained  long  in  a  place. 

AMORTIZATION,  in  law,  ihe  alienation  of  lands 
or  tenements  to  a  corporaiion  or  fraternity,  and  their 
fucccffors.     See  Mortmain. 

AMOS,  the  fourth  of  the  fmall  prophets,  who  in 
his  youth  had  been  a  herdfman  in  Tekoa,  a  fmall  towa 
about  four  leagues  fouthward  of  Jcrufalcm,  was  fent  to 
the  kine  of  Balhan,  that  is,  to  the  people  of  Samaria, 
or  the  the  kingdom  of  Ifracl,  to  bring  them  back  to  re- 
pentance, and  an  amendment  of  their  lives  ;  whence  it 
is  thought  probable  that  he  was  born  within  the  terri- 
tories of  Ifracl,  and  onl)^rciircd  to  Tekoa  on  his  being 
driven  from  Bethel,  by  Amaziah  the  pricft  of  the  gol- 
den calves  at  Bcihcl. 

The  prophet  being  thus  retired  to  Tekoa,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Judah,  continued  to  prophefy.  He  com- 
plains in  many  places  of  the  violence  otf'eicd  him,  by 
endeavouring  to  oblige  him  to  lilcnce.  He  boldly  re- 
nionftr.''.tcs  againft  the  crying  llns  that  prevailed  among 
the  Ifraelitcs,  as  idolatry,  opprtllion,  wantonncfs,  and 

obftinacy. 


A  M  O 


[     (>iS     ] 


A  M  O 


obftinacy.  He  likewifc  reproves  thofc  of  Jndah,  fucli 
as  their  carnal  fccurity,  fcnfualijy,  and  injiiAicc.  He 
'  terrifies  them  both  with  frequent  thrcatcnings,  and 
pronounces  that  their  lins  will  at  lafl  end  in  the  ruin 
of  Judah  and  Ifrael,  which  he  illuArates  by  the  vifions 
of  a  plumb-line  and  a  balkct  of  furamer-fruit.  It  is 
obfervable  in  this  prophecy,  that  as  it  begins  with  de- 
nunciation of  judgment  and  deftruftion  againft  the  Sy- 
rians, Phillftines,  Tyrians,  and  other  enemies  of  the 
Jews,  foit  concludes  with  comfortable  promifcs  of  jc- 
itoring  the  tabernacle  of  David,  ami  erefiing  the  king- 
dom of  thrift.  Amos  was  chofen  to  the  prophetic  of- 
fice in  the  timeof  Uzziah  king  of  Judah,  and  Jero- 
boam the  fon  of  Joafii,  king  of  Ifracl,  two  years  be- 
fore the  earthquake  (Amosi.  i.),  which  happened  in 
the  24th  or  2  jth  year  of  Uzziah,  according  to  the  rab- 
binsand  mod  of  the  modern  commentators;  or  the  year 
of  the  world  32  i9,whcn  this  prince  ufurpcdthepricll's 
office,  and  attempted  to  oiFer  inceufe  to  the  Lord : 
but  it  is  obfcrved,  that  this  cannot  be  the  cafe,  be- 
caufe  Jotham,  the  fon  of  Uzziah,  who  was  born  in 
3221,  was  of  age  to  govern,  and  confcquenily  was  be- 
tween I J  and  20  years  of  age,  when  his  father  under- 
took to  ofrer  incenfe,  and  was  ftruck  with  a  leprofy. 
The  firft  of  the  prophecies  of  Amos,  in  order  of  time, 
are  thofe  of  the  7th  chapter  :  the  reft  he  pronounced 
in  the  town  of  Tekoa,  whither  he  retired.  He  fore- 
told the  misfortunes  whiclithe  kingdom  of  Ifrael  (hould 
fall  into  after  the  death  of  Jeroboam  11.  who  was  then 
living  ;  he  foretold  the  death  of  Zechariah,  the  inva- 
fionof  the  lands  belonging  to  Ifracl  by  Phul  andTig- 
lath-pilefer  kings  of  AlTyria  ;  and  he  fpcaks  of  the  cap- 
tivity of  the  ten  tribes,  and  their  return. 

The  time  and  manner  of  thisprophct'sdcath  arc  not 
known.  Some  old  authors  relate  that  Amaziah,  prieft 
of  Bethel,  provoked  by  the  difcourfes  of  the  prophet, 
had  his  teeth  broke  in  order  to  filence  him.  Others 
fay,  that  Hofcaor  Uzziah,  the  fon  of  Amaziah,  ftruck 
him  with  aftakeupon  the  temples,  knocked  him  down, 
and  wounded  him  much  ;  in  which  condition  he  was 
carried  to  Tekoa,  where  he  died,  and  was  buried  with 
his  fathers  ;  but  it  is  generally  thought  that  he  prophe- 
ficd  a  long  time  at  Tekoa,  after  the  adventure  which 
he  had  with  Amaziah  ;  and  the  prophet  himfclf  taking 
no  notice  of  the  ill  treatment  which  he  is  faid  to  have 
received,  is  an  argument  that  he  did  notfulfcr  in  the 
manner  they  relate. 

St  Jcrom  obferves,  that  there  is  nothing  great  or 
fublime  in  the  ftyle  of  Amos.  He  applies  the  words 
of  St  Paul  (2  Cor.  xi.  6.)  to  him,  '  rude  in  fpeech 
though  not  in  knowledge.'  And  he  farther  obferves, 
that  he  borrows  his  comparifonfrom  thcftateandpro- 
feflion  to  which  he  belonged. 

AMOY,  an  illand  in  ihe.  province  of  Fokien,  in 
China,  Long,  i  36.  o.  Lat.  24.  30.  It  has  a  fine  port 
that  will  contain  many  ihoufand  velTcls.  The  emperor 
has  a  garrifon  of  litre  7000  men. 

AMPELlS,  the  vine,  in  botany.  Sec  Viris. 

Ampelis,  the  Chaturer,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of 
birds  belonging  to  the  order  of  palferes  ;  the  diftin- 
g\iifliing  characters  of  which  arc,  that  the  tongue  is 
furnilhcd  with  a  rim  or  margin  all  round,  and  the  bill 
is  conical  and  ftrait.  There  are  feven  fpecies  all  na- 
tives of  foreign  countries,  except  the  garrulus,  which 
is  a  native  both  of  Europe  and  of  Weft  ladies.     In 


the  former,  the  native  country  of  ihefe  birds  is  Bohe-  Ampelitn 
mia  :  from  whence  they  wanoer  over  the  reft  of  Eu-  II 

rope,  and  were  once  fupcrftitioully  confidered  as  pre-  Amphi»r»- 
fages  of  a  pcllilcnce.  1  hey  appear  annually  about  E- 
dinburgh  in  February  ;  and  feed  on  the  berries  of  the 
inountain-a(h.  They  alfo  appear  as  far  fouth  as  North- 
umberland ;  and,  like  the  field-fare,  make  the  berries 
of  the  white-thorn  their  food.  It  is  but  by  accident 
that  they  ever  appear  farther  fouth.  They  arc  grega- 
rious; feed  on  grapes,  where  vineyards  are  cultivated  ; 
are  eafily  tamed;  and  are  efteemed  delicious  food.  This 
fpecies  is  about  the  fize  of  the  black-bird  :  the  bill  is 
fliort,  thick,  and  black  ;  on  the  head  is  a  fliarp  point- 
ed creft  reclining  backwards  :  the  lower  part  of  the 
tail  is  black  ;  the  end  of  a  rich  yellow  ;  the  quill-fea- 
thers are  black,  the  three  firft  tipt  with  white  ;  the 
fixnext  have  half  an  inch  of  their  exterior  margin  edg- 
ed with  fine  yellow,  the  interior  with  white.  But  what 
diftinguillies  this  from  all  other  birds,  arc  the  horny 
appendages  from  the  tips  of  feven  of  the  fecondary 
feathers,  of  the  colour  and  glofs  of  the  beft  red  wax. 

AMPELITES,  CANNEL-coAL,  or  candle-coax., 
a  hard,  opaque,  folTile,  inflammable  fubftance,  of  a 
black  colour.  It  does  not  efFcrvefce  with  acids.  The 
arapelites,  though  much  inferior  to  jet  in  many  re- 
fpetts,  is  yet  a  very  beautiful  folfile  ;  and,  for  a  body 
offocompadla  ftruilurc,  remarkably  light.  Examined 
by  the  mifcrofcope,  it  appears  compofed  of  innumera- 
ble very  fmall  and  thin  plates  laid  clofcly  and  firmly 
onone  another  ;  and  fuUofvery  fmallfpecksofa  black- 
er and  more  Ihining  matter  than  the  reft,  which  is  c- 
vidently  a  purer  bitumen  than  the  general  mafs.  Thefe 
fpecks  are  equally  difFiifed  over  the  ditfercnt  parts  of 
the  malTes.  There  is  a  large  quarry  of  it  near  Alen- 
fon  in  France.  It  is  dug  in  many  parts  of  England, 
but  the  fineft  is  in  Lancaihire  and  Chefliire  ;  it  lies 
ufually  at  confiderable  depths.  It  makes  a  very  brilk 
fire,  flaming  violently  for  a  lliort  time,  and  after  that 
continuing  red  and  glowing  hot  a  long  while  ;  and  fi- 
nally is  reduced  into  a  fmall  proportion  of  grey  aflics, 
the  greater  part  of  its  fubftance  having  flown  off  in 
the  burning It  is  capable  of  a  very  high  and  ele- 
gant polilli  ;  and,  in  the  countries  where  it  is  produc- 
ed, is  turned  into  a  vaft  number  of  toys,  as  fuff-boxes 
and  the  like,  which  bear  all  the  nicety  of  turning,  and 
are  made  to  pafs  for  jet. — Hufbandmen  fmcar  their 
vines  with  it,  as  it  kills  the  vermin  which  infefts 
them.  It  is  likewifc  ufcd  for  the  dycingof  hair  black. 
In  medicine  it  is  reputed  good  in  colics,  agaiuft  worms, 
and  of  being  in  general  an  emoUicut  and  difcuticut; 
but  the  prefeiit  pradlicc  takes  no  notice  of  it, 

AMPELUSIA,  (anc.geog.)  a  promontory  of  Mau- 
ritania Tingitana,  called  Cottcs  by  the  natives,  which 
is  of  the  fame  fignification  with  a  town  of  the  fame 
name  not  far  from  the  River  Lixus,  near  the  ftraits 
of  Gibraltar  :  now  Capc-Sfartel.  W.  Long.  6.  30. 
N.  Lat.  36.   o. 

AMPHERES,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  veDels  where- 
in the  rowers  plied  two  oars  at  the  fame  time,  one 
with  the  right  hand  and  the  other  with  the  left. 

AMPHIATHROSIS,  in  anatomy,  a  term  for  fuch 
jundures  of  bones  as  have  an  evident  motion,  but  dif- 
ferent from  the  diathrolis,  &c.    See  Diathrosis. 

AMPHIARAUS,  in  pagan  mythology,  a  cclebrat- 

cd  prophet,  who  poffcflcd  part  of  the  kingdomof  Ar- 

4  L  2  gos. 


AMP 


[     636.    ] 


AMP 


Amphibia. 


•  Dr  far- 
fun  I  ;  in  a 
paper  read 
licforc  the 
Royal  So- 
ciety. 


f  See  the 
article  fbf 
ta. 


gos.  ric  was  believed  to  excel  in  divining  by  dreams, 
and  is  faid  to  be  the  tirfl  who  divined  by  fire.  Am- 
phiaraiis  knowing,  by  the  fpiiit  of  prophecy,  that  he 
would  lofc  his  lite  in  the  war  again/l  Thebes,  hid  him- 
fcll'in  order  to  avoid  engaging  in  thai  expedition  ;  but, 
his  wife  Eiiphyle,  bting  prevailed  upon  by  a  prcfcut, 
difcovercd  the  place  in  which  he  had  concealed  him- 
fclf ;  I'o  that  he  was  obliged  to  accompany  the  other 
princes  who  marched  jgainJl  Thebes.  This  proved  fa- 
tal to  him  i  for  the  earth  being  fplit  afundcr  by  a  thun- 
der-bolt, both  he  and  his  chariot  were  fwallowed  up  in 
the  opening Aniphiaraus,  after  his  death,  was  rank- 
ed among  the  gods  ;  temples  were  dedicated  to  him  ; 
and  his  oracle,  as  well  as  the  fports  inftitnted  to  his  ho- 
nour, were  very  famous. 

AIStPHlBl.A,  in  zoology,  the  name  of  Linnaeus's 
third  tlal's  of  animals  ;  iiicKuiing  all  thofe  which  live 
j)anly  in  w-ater  and  partly  on  laud.  This  clafs  he  fub- 
divides  into  four  orders,  viz.  The  amphibia  reptiles  ; 
the  amphibia  ferpcntesj  the  amphibia  names;  and  the 
amphibia  meantes.     See  Zoology. 

It  has  been  a  quclVion  whether  the  animals  common- 
ly called  awphibiotii,  live  molt  in  the  water  or  on  land. 
If  we  conlider  the  words  «/*?/  {utriiiq:ie,  both  ways), 
and  ySiot  [vita  life),  from  whence  the  term  ampkibious 
is  derived  ;  we  ihouldinuierfland,  that  animals,  having 
this  title,  ihould  be  cap.able  of  living  as  well  by  land,  or 
in  the  air,  as  by  water  ;  or  of  dwelling  in  either  con- 
ilantly  at  will :  but  it  will  be  difficult  to  find  any  ani- 
mal that  can  fultil  this  derinilion,  as  being  equally  qua- 
lified for  either.  An  ingenious  naturalift,*  therefore, 
from  confidering  their  oeconomy  refpedively,  divides 
them  into  two  orders,  viz.  l.  Such  as  enjoy  their  chief 
funilions  by  land,  but  occafionally  go  into  the  water. 
2.  Such  as  chieriy  inhabit  the  water,  but  occafionally 
go  afliorc.  What  he  advances  on  this  fubjeeb  is  cu- 
rious, and  well  illuftrates  the  nature  of  this  clafs. 

I.  Of  the  firll  order,  he  particularly  confiders  the 
phocae  ;  and  endeavours  to  Ihow,  that  none  of  them 
can  live  chiefly  in  the  water,  but  that  their  chief  en- 
joyment of  the  fun(5lions  of  life  is  on  (liorc. 

Thefeanimals(hcobferves)arcreallyquadrupedst; 
but  as  their  chief  food  is  fifli,  they  are  under  a  nccef- 
lity  of  going  out  to  fca  to  hunt  their  prey,  and  to  great 
dillances  from  (liore  ;  taking  care  that,  however  great 
the  dirtance,  rocks  or  fmall  illands  are  at  hand,  as 
refting-places  when  they  are  tired,  or  when  their  bo- 
dies become  too  much  macerated  in  the  water  ;  and  they 
return  to  the  places  of  their  ufual  rcfort  to  llcep,  copu- 
late, and  bring  forth  their  young,  for  the  following 
xcafons,  \i/..  It  is  well  known,  that  the  only  effential 
difference  (as  to  the  general  ilruc'hirc  of  the  heart) 
between  amphibious  and  mere  land  animals,  or  fuch  as 
never  go  into  the  water,  is,  that  in  the  former,  the  o- 
■yal  hole  remains  always  open.  Now,  in  fuch  as  are 
■without  this  hole,  if  they  were  to  be  immerfed  in  water 
for  but  a  little  time,  r.  fpiration  would  ceafe,  and  the 
animal  muft  die  ;  bccaufe  a  great  part  of  the  mafs  of 
blood  partes  from  the  heart  by  the  pulmonary  artery 
through  the  lir.igs,  and  by  the  pulmonary  veins  returns 
10  the  heart,  while  the  aorta  is  carrying  the  greater 
part  of  the  mafs  to  the  head  and  extremities,  &c. 

Now,  the  blood  palfes  through  the  lungs  in  a  conti- 
nual uninterrupted  ftrcam,  while  rcfpiration  is  gentle 
aud  moderate  :  but  when  it  is  violent,  then  the  circu- 


lation is  interrupted,  forinfpirationand  exfpiration  are  Amphibir.. 

now  carried  to  their  extent ;  and  in  thi<  (late  the  dood  v^— ' 

cannot  pal's  through  the  lungs  either  during  the  total 
iufpiraiion  or  total  exfpiration  of  the  air  in  breathing  : 
for,  in  the  former  cafe,  the  inflation  comprellcs  the  re- 
turning veins;  and,  in  the  latter,  by  ihc  coUaplion  of 
the  lungs,  thcfc  veins  are  interrupted  alfo  ;  fo  that  it  is 
only  between  thcfc  two  violent  actions  that  the  blood 
can  pafs :  and  hence  it  is,  that  the  lives  of  animals  arc 
fliortened  and  their  health  i  1  p.iired,  when  they  arc 
fubjcded  to  frequent  violent  relpiralion  ;  and  thus  it  is, 
that  when  animals  have  once  breathed,  they  mufl  con- 
tinue to  refpire  ever  after,  for  life  is  at  an  end  when, 
that  ceafes. 

There  arc  three  neccfTary  and  principal  nfes  of  rcfpi- 
ration in  all  land-aniuials,  and  in  tlmfc  kinds  that  are 

counted  amphibious The  fir/t  is  that  of  promoting 

the  circulation  of  the  blood  through  the  whole  body 
and  extremities.  In  real  fillies,  the  force  of  the  heart 
is  alone  capable  offending  the  blood  to  every  part,  as 
they  are  not  furniilied  with  limbs  or  extremities  ;  but 
in  the  others  mentioned,  bein;^  all  furnilhed  with  ex- 
tremities, rcfpiration  is  an  allilhint  force  to  the  arte- 
ries in  fending  blood  to  the  extremities  ;  which,  being 
fo  remote  from  tlie  heart,  have  need  of  fuch  alllllance, 
otherwileihccirculaiion  would  be  very  languid  in  thefe 
parts  :  thus  we  fee,  that  in  perfonsfubjeiit  to  afihmatic 
complaijits,  the  circulation  grows  languid,  the  legs 
grow  cold  and  eodematous,  and  01  her  parts  fufTer  by  the 
defeft  in  rcfpiration. — A  fccond  ufe  of  breathing  is, 
that,  in  infpiration,  the  variety  of  particles,  of  different 
qualities,  which  float  always  in  the  air,  might  be 
drawn  into  the  lungs,  to  be  infinnatcd  into  the  mafs  of 
blood,  being  highly  neccflary  to  con  temperate  and  cool 
the  agitated  mafs,  and  to  contribute  refined  pabulum 
to  the  finer  parts  of  it,  which,  meeting  with  the  daily 
fupply  of  chyle,  ferves  to  affimilatcand  more  intimate- 
ly mix  the  mafs,  and  render  its  conflitution  the  fitter 
for  fiipporting  the  li'e  of  the  animal.  Therefore  it  is, 
that  valetudinarians,  by  changing  foul,  or  unwholefonic 
air,  for  a  free,  good,  open  uir,  often  recover  from  lin- 
gering difeafcs. — A  tliird  principal  ufe  of  rcfpiration 
is,  to  promote  the  exhibition  of  voice  in  animals  ; 
which  all  thofc  that  live  on  the  land  do  according  to 
their  fpecific  nature. 

From  thefe  conliderationsit  appears,  that  the  phocas 
of  every  kind  arc  under  an  abfolutc  neccfiiiy  ot  mak- 
ing the  land  their  principal  refidence.  But  there  is 
another  very  convincing  argument  why  they  refide  on 
fliore  the  greatefl  part  of  their  time  ;  namely,  that  the 
fiefli  of  thefe  creatures  is  analogous  to  that  of  other 
land  animals:  and  therefore,  byover-long  maceration, 
added  to  ilie  fatigue  of  their  chafing  their  prey,  they 
would  fuffer  fuch  a  relax.ition  as  would  deftroy  them. 
It  is  well  known,  that  animals  which  have  lain  long 
under  water,  arc  reduced  to  a  very  lax  and  even  pu- 
trid ftatc  ;  and  the  phoca  mufl  bafkin  the  airon  fhoie  : 
for  while  the  folids  arc  at  rcfl,  they  acquire  their  for- 
mer degree  of  trnllon,  and  the  vigour  of  the  animal  is 
reflorcd;  and  while  lie  has  an  uninterupted  placid  rc- 
fpiration, his  blood  is  refreflicd  by  the  new  fupjily  of 
air,  as  explained  above,  and  he  is  rendered  fit  for  his 
next  cruife:  for  aiflion  wafies  the  moA  exalted  fluids  of 
the  body,  mere  or  lefs,  according  to  its  duration  ani 
violence  ;  and  thcrcllorative  reflmult  continue along- 

tr 


AMP 


[     637    ] 


AMP 


Amphibia,  er  Or  fliorter  time,  according  to  the  quantity  of  the 
'*'    "        previous  fatigue. 

Let  us  now  examine  by  what  power  thefe  animals 
ttrc  capable  uf  remaining  longer  under  water  than  land- 
animais. 

All  thefe  have  the  oval  liolc  open  b«ween  the  right 
and  left  auricles  of  the  heart ;  ami,  in  many,  the  ca- 
ralis  arteriofusalfo :  and  while  the  phoca  remains  under 
Water,  which  he  may  continue  an  hour  or  two  more  or 
lefs,  his  refpiration  is  flopped  ;  and  the  blood,  not 
finding  the  palfage  through  the  pulmonary  artery  free, 
ruflics  through  the  hole  from  the  right  to  the  left  au- 
ricle, and  partly  through  the  arterial  canal,  being  a 
fliort  palFagc  to  the  aorta,  and  thence  to  every  part  of 
the  body,  maintaining  the  circulation  ;  but,  upon  rifing 
to  come  afliore,  the  blood  finds  its  paflage  again  thro' 
the  lungs  the  moment  he  rcfpires. 

Thus  the  foetus  in  utero,  during  its  confinement, 
having  the  lungs  compreired,anJconfcquently  the  pul- 
monary arteries  and  veins  impervious,  has  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood  carried  on  through  the  oval  hole  and 
the  arterial  canal.  Now,  fo  far  the  phoca  in  the  water, 
and  the  foetus  in  utero,  are  analogous  ;  but  they  differ 
in otlier  material  circumflances.  One  is,  that  the  foetus 
having  never  refpired,  remains  fufficiently  nouriflied 
by  the  maternal  blood  circulating  through  him,  and 
continues  to  grow  till  the  time  of  his  birth,  without 
any  want  of  refpiration  during  nine  months  confine- 
ment: the  [fiioca,  having  refpired  the  moment  of  his 
birthy  cannot  live  very  long  without  it,  for  tlie  reafons 
given  before  ;  and  this  hole  and  canal  would  bcclofed 
in  tliem,  as  it  is  in  land-animals,  if  the  dam  did  not, 
foon  after  the  birth  of  the  cub,  carry  him  fo  very  fre- 
quently into  the  water  to  teach  him  ;  by  which  pr.ic- 
ticc  thefe  palfagesare  kept  open  during  life,  oiherwifc 
they  would  not  be  capable  of  attaining  the  food  dc- 
figned  for  them  by  Providence. 

Another  difF.  rence  is,  that  the  phoca,  as  was  faid  be- 
fore, would  be  relaxed  by  maceraiiou  in  remaining  too 
long  in  the  w  ater  ;  whereas  the  foetus  in  utero  fuffers 
no  injury  from  continuing  its  full  number  of  months 
in  the  fluid  it  fwims  in  :  the  rcafon  is,  that  water  is  a 
powerful  folvent,  and  penetrates  the  pores  of  the  fkins 
of  land-animals,  and  in  time  can  dilTol  vet  hem  ;  where- 
as the  ItftiQr  amnii  is  an  indpiil  foft  fluid,  impregnated 
with  particles  more  or  Icfs  mucilaginous,  and  utterly 
incapable  of  making  the  leaft  alteration  iu  the  cutis  of 
the  foetus. 

Otters,  beavers,  and  fomc  kinds  of  rats,  go  occafion- 
ally  into  the  water  for  their  prey,  but  cannot  remain 
very  long  under  water.  "  I  have  often  gone  to  flioot 
etters  (fays  our  author),  and  watched  all  their  mo- 
tions :  I  have  feen  one  of  them  go  fofily  from  a  bank 
into  the  river,  and  dive  down  ;  and  in  about  two  mi- 
nutes rife,  at  10  or  15  yards  from  the  place  he  went 
in,  with  a  middling  falnion  in  his  nioutli,  which  he 
brougJt  on  lluTc.  1  flioi  him,  and  faved  the  hlh 
whole."  Now,  as  all  foeitifeihave  ihe!'e  pail'agcsopen, 
if  a  whelp  of  a  true  watcr-f|ianicl  was.  immediately  af- 
ter its  birch,  ferved  as  the  phoca  does  her  cubs,  and 
immer'cd  in  w;itfr,  to  ftcp  refpiration  for  a  little  time 
every  day,  it  is  probable  that  the  hole  and  canal  would 
be  kept  open,  and  the  dog  be  made  capable  of  remain- 
ing a>  loiijr  under  water  as  the  phoca. 

frogs,  how  capable  focvcr  of  remaining  in  the  wa- 


ter, yet  cannot  avoid  living  on  land,  for  they  refpire  ;  Amphibia, 

and  if  a  frog  be  thrown  into  a  river,  he  makes  to  the  ' f—' 

fliorc  as  fall  as  he  can. 

The  lizard  kind,  fuch  as  may  be  called  water-liz- 
ards (fee  Lacerta),  are  all  obliged  to  como  to  land, 
in  order  to  depolite  their  eggs,  to  refl,  and  to  llccp. 
Kven  the  crocodiles,  who  dwell  much  in  rivers,  deep 
and  lay  their  eggs  on  (hore  ;  and,  while  in  the  water, 
are  compelled  to  rife  to  the  I'urface  to  breathe  ;  yet,  from 
the  texture  of  his  fcaly  covering, he  iscapable  of  remain- 
in;;  in  the  water  longer  by  far  than  any  fpccies  of  the 
phoca,  whofclkin  is  analogous  to  that  of  a  horfe  or  cow. 

The  hippopotamus  (See  Hippopotamus),  who 
wades  into  the  lakes  or  rivers,  is  a  quadruped,  and  re- 
mains under  the  water  a  confidcrablc  time  ;  yet  his 
chief  refidence  is  upon  land,  and  he  mufl  come  on  fhors 
for  refpiration. 

Thcteftudo,  or  fcatortoife  (fee  Testo do),  though 
he  goes  out  to  fea,  and  is  often  found  far  from  land  ; 
yet,  being  a  refpiring  animal,  cannot  remain  longun- 
der  water.  He  has  indeed  a  power  of  rendering  him- 
felf  fpecifically  heavier  or  lighter  than  the  water,  and 
therefore  can  let  himfclf  down  to  avoid  an  enemy  or  2 
florm  :  yet  he  is  under  a  necedity  of  rifing  frequently 
to  breathe,  for  reafons  given  before;  and  hismoflufual 
fituation,  while  at  fea,  is  upon  the  furface  of  the  water, 
feeding  upon  the  various  fub!>ances  that  float  in  great 
abundance  every  where  about  him  ;  thefe  animals  deep 
fccurely  upon  the  furface,  but  not  under  water  ;  and 
can  remain  longer  at  fea  than  any  other  of  this  clafs, 
except  the  crocodile,  becaufe,  as  it  is  with  the  latter, 
his  covering  is  not  in  danger  of  being  too  much  mace- 
rated ;  yet  they  mufl  go  on  Ihorc  to  copulate  and  lay 
their  eggs. 

2.  The  confidcration  of  thefe  is  fufficient  to  inform 
us  of  the  nature  of  the  tirftorder  of  the  clafs  of  amphi- 
bious animals  ;  let  us  now  fee  what  is  to  be  faid  of  the 
fecond  in  our  divifion  of  them,  which  are  fuch  as  chief- 
ly inhabit  the  waters,  but  occaConally  go  on  Ihore. 

Thcfc  are  but  of  two  kinds:  the  eels,  and  water  fer- 
pents  or  fnakes  of  every  kind.  It  is  their  form  that 
qualifies  them  for  loco-motion  on  land,  and  they  know 
their  way  back  to  the  water  at  will ;  for  by  their  flruc- 
tiire  they  have  a  flrong  periflaltic  motion,  by  which 
they  can  go  forward  at  a  pretty  good  rate  :  whereas  all 
other  kinds  of  filh,  whether  vertical  or  horizontal,  are 
incapable  of  a  voluntary  loco-motion  on  fhore  ;  and 
therefore,  as  foon  as  fuch  hfh  are  brought  out  of  the 
water,  after  having  flounced  a  while,  they  lie  moiion- 
lefs,  and  foon  die. 

Let  us  now  cxamifie  into  the  reafon  why  thefe  ver- 
micular filh,  the  eel  and  ferpent  kinds,  can  live  a  confi- 
dcrablc lime  on  land,  and  the  vertical  and  horizontal 
kinds  die  almofl  immediately  when  taken  out  of  the 
water  :  and,  in  this  rcfcarch,  we  Ihall  come  to  know 
what  analogy  there  is  between  land  animals  and  thofc 
of  the  waters.  All  land-animals  have  lungs,  and  can 
live  no  longer  than  while  thefe  arc  inHared  by  the  am- 
bient air,  and  alternately  comprcfl'ed  for  its  expullion; 
that  is,  while  refpiration  is  duly  carried  on,  ly  a  re- 
gular infpiration  and  exfpiration  of  air. 

In  like  manner,  the  filli  in  general  have,  infte-.dof 
lungs,  gills  or  branchia:  :  and  as  in  l.ind-animals  the 
lungs  have  a  large  portion  of  the  mafs  of  blood  cjrcu- 
Uting  through  them,  which  mull  be  flopped  if  die  air 

ba5 


AMP 


[     638     ] 


AMP 


Airi)hibia.  has  not  a  free  ingrefs  and  egrefs  into  and  from  them  ; 

* ^ ■  fo,  in  filh,  there  is  a  great  numberof  blood-vclFcls  iliat 

pal's  through  the  branchix,andagrcat  portion  of  their 
blood  circulates  through  them, which  mufl  in  like  iiian- 
jicr  be  totally  flopped,  if  the  branchix  are  not  perpe- 
tually wetwithwatcr.  Sothat,  as  the  air  is  to  thehings 
in  land-animals  a  conftant  aliiftant  to  the  circulation  ; 
fo  is  the  water  to  the  branchix  of  thofe  of  the  rivers 
and  ftas:  for  when  thefc  are  out  of  the  water,  the  bran- 
chiae very  foon  grow  crifp  and  dry, the  blood-veficls  are 
flirnnk,  and  the  blood  is  obflrntted  in  its  paflage  ;  fo 
when  the  former  are  inimerfed  in  water,  or  otherwifc 
prevented  from  having rclpiration,  thecirculationcea- 
fes  and  the  animal  dies. 

Again,  as  land-animals  would  be  deflroycd  by  too 
much  maceration  in  water  ;  fo  fillies  would, on  tlieoihcr 
hand,  be  ruined  by  too  much  exficcation  ;  the  latter 
being  from  tiicir  general  flrutfure  and  conftiiution, 
made  fit  to  bear,  and  live  in,  the  w-ater  ;  the  former, 
by  their  conftitution  and  form,  to  breathe  and  dwell  in 
the  air. 

i3ut  it  may  be  aflced,  why  eels  and  water-fnakes  are 
capable  of  living  longer  in  the  air  than  the  other  kinds 
of  ti(h  ?  Thisisanfwcred,  by  confidering  the  providen- 
tial care  of  the  great  Creator  for  thefc  and  every  one 
of  his  creatures:  for  fince  they  were  capable  of  loco- 
motion by  their  form,  which  they  need  not  be  if  they 
were  never  to  goon  lliore,  itfeemed  necelTary  that  they 
fliould  be  rendered  capable  of  living  a  conficlerable  time 
on  lliorc,  othcrwifetheir loco-motion  would  bein  vain. 
How  is  this  provided  for  ?  M'hy,  in  a  moll  convenient 
manner  ;  for  this  order  of  filhes  have  their  branchiaj 
well  covered  from  the  external  drying  air  ;  they  arealfo 
furniflied  with  a  lliiny  mucus,  which  hinders  their  be- 
coming crifp  and  dry  for  many  hours  ;  and  their  very 
fkins  always  emit  a  mucous  liquor,  which  keeps  them 
fupplc  and  moift  for  along  time  :  whereas  the  branchiae 
of  other  kinds  of  filh  are  much  expofed  to  the  air,  and 
■want  the  (limy  matter  to  keej)  them  moifl.  Now,  if 
any  of  thefc,  when  brought  out  of  the  water,  were  laid 
in  a  velTcl  w  ithout  water,  they  might  bepreferved  alive 
a  conlidcrable  time,  by  only  keeping  the  gills  and  fur- 
face  of  the  Ikin  conllantly  w  et,  even  without  any  water 
to  fwim  in. 

It  has  been  advanced,  that  r/zari  may,  by  art,  be  ren- 
dered amphibious,  and  able  to  live  under  waier  as  well 
as  frogs.  As  the  foetus  lives  //;  ttteio  without  air,  and 
ihe  circulation  is  there  continued  by  means  of  tl:e  fora- 
men ovale  ;  by  prefcrving  the  palTagc  open,  and  the 
otherparts  in  flat;/  qi.n,  after  the  birth,  the  fame  facul- 
ty would  ftill  continue.  Now,  the  foramen,  it  is  al- 
leged, would  be  prcferved  in  its  open  ftaie,  were  peo- 
ple accuflomcd,  from  their  infancy,  10  hold  their  breath 
a  conlidcrable  time  once  a-day,  that  the  blood  might 
be  forced  to  refumc  its  priftine  pnliage,  and  prevent  its 
drying  up  as  it  ufu  lly  docs.  This  conjefture  frems, 
in  fome  mcafure,  fupported  by  the  practice  of  divers, 
\vho  arc  taught  from  their  childhood  to  hold  their 
breath,  and  keep  long  underwater,  by  w  liich  means  the 
ancient  channel  is  kept  open. — A  Calabrian  monk  at 
Madrid  laid  claim  to  this  amphibious  capacity,  making 
an  offer  to  the  king  of  Spain,  10  continue  twice  twen- 
ty-four hours  under  Water,  without  ever  coming  up  to 
t.ike  breath.  Kircher  gives  an  account  of  a  Sicilian, 
named  \.htfiJJ}Colai,  who,  by  a  long  habitude  from  his 


youth,  had  foaccuflomcdhimfelf  to  live  in  water,  that  Amphibo- 
his  nature  feemed  to  be  quite  altered  ;  fo  that  he  lived       '"B7 
rather  after  the  manner  of  a  filh  than  a  man.  II . 

AMPHIBOLOGY,   in  grammar  and  rhetoric,  ^     ^l^'^' 
term  ufed  to  denote  a  phrafe  fufceptible  of  two  differ-  w2-^^_l-> 
ent  interpretations.    Amphibology  arifesfrom  the  or- 
der of  the  phrafe,  rather  than  from  the  ambiguous 
meaning  of  a  word. 

Of  I  his  kind  was  that  anfwer  which  Pyrrhus  received 
from  the  oracle :  ^-lio  tc,  JEaada,  Romuncs  vtnarc  pof- 
fc  ;  where  the  amphibology  conliils  in  this,  that  the 
Words /.'and  Romanes,  may  cither  of  them  precede,  or 
either  of  them  follow,  the  \iOiA%  fojj'ivincerc,  indiffe- 
rently.    See  Oi^CLE. 

Tlie  Englifli  l^guagc  ufually  fpeaks  in  a  more  na- 
tural manner,  and  is  not  capable  of  any  amphibologies 
of  this  kind  :  nor  is  it  fo  liable  to  amj'hibologies  in  the 
articles,  as  the  French  and  mofl  other  modern  tongues. 

AMPHIBRACHYS,  in  ancient  poetry,  the  namcof 
a  foot  confiding  of  three  fyllabks,  whereof  that  in 
the  middle  is  long,  and  the  other  twolliort;  fuchisthc 
word  [a hire]. 

AMPHICOME,  in  natural  hiftory,  a  kind  of  figu- 
red flone,  of  a  round  fliape,  but  rugged,  and  befet  with 
eminences,  celebrated  on  accouRt  of  its  ufe  in  divina- 
tion. The  word  is  originally  Greek  ct/jifucufih,  g.  d. 
utrinque  cot)iata,ox  "  hairy  on  all  fides."  ThisAoneis 
alfo  called  Erotylos,  Ep«Ti/>,ot,  Amatorit,  probably  on 
account  of  its  fuppofcd  power  of  creating  love.  The 
amphicomc  is  mentioned  by  Dcmocritus  and  Pliny, 
though  little  known  among  the  moderns.  Mercatus 
takes  it  for  the  fame  \s'\\.\x\\\c  ta^is  lumbrkaius,  of 
which  he  gives  a  figure. 

AMPHICTYONS,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  an  alTem- 
bly  compofed  of  deputies  from  the  different  flates  of 
Greece:  and  refembling,  in  fomemeafure,  the  diet  of 
the  German  empire.  Some  fuppofe  the  word  A/x^/ktiotic 
to  be  formed  of  a/i<f /,  "  about,"  and  «Ti(/y  or  trs^m,  in 
regard  the  inhabitanssof  the  country  around  about  met 
here  in  council:  others,  with  more  probability,  from 
Amphifljof!,  fon  of  Deucalion,  whom  they  fuppofe  to 
liavebeen  the  founderof  this  affembly  ;  though  others, 
will  have  Acrilius,  king  of  the  Argives,  to  have  been 
the  firfl  who  gave  a  form  and  laws  to  it. 

Authors  give  different  accounts  of  the  number  of  the 
Amphittyons,  as  well  as  of  the  flates  who  were  enti- 
tled to  have  their  rcprefentatives  in  this  council.  Ac- 
cording to  Strabo,  Harpocration,  and  Suidas,  they 
were  twelve  from  their  firft  inflitution,  fent  by  the 
following  cities  and  flates  ;  the  lonians,  Dorians,  Per- 
rhasbians, Boeotians,  Magnclians,  Acha;ans,Phthians, 
Meiians,  Dolopians,  yl-^nianians,  Delphians,  and  Pho- 
cians.  jtfchines  reckons  no  more  than  eleven  ;  in- 
flead  of  the  Achseans,  j+^nianians,  Delphians,  and 
Dolopians,  he  only  gives  the  Theifalians,  Oetians, 
and  Locrians.  Lcflly,  Paufanias's  lift  contains  only 
ten,  viz.  the  lonians,  Dolopians,  ThefTalians,  j^lnia- 
nians,  Magn elians,  Meiians,  Phthians,Dorians,Phfci- 
ans,  and  Locrians. 

In  the  time  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  the  Phocians 
were  excluded  the  alliance,  for  having  plundered  the 
Delphian  temple,  and  the  Lacedaeironians  were  ad- 
mitted in  their  place  ;  but  tlie  Phocians,  60  years  af- 
ter, having  behaved  gallantly  againfl  Brennusandhis 
Gauls,  were  reflored  to  their  feat  in  the  Amphidyonic 

council. 


AMP 


[     639     J 


AMP 


Amphidro-  admitted  into  the  body;  and  to  make  room  for  it,  the 

«nia        Magnefians,  Mclians,  Plithians,  and  ytnianians,  who 

''. ..      till  then  had  diilincl  voices,  were  ordered  to  be  iiura- 

^^  °"  bered  with  the  Thcllalians,  and  to  have  only  one  com- 

•  nion  reprefcntative.     Strabo  fpeaks  as  if  this  council 

were  cxtind  in  the  times  of  Auguftus  and  Tiberius  : 

but   Paufanias,  who  lived  many  years  afier,  under 

Antoninus  Piu3,  allures  us  it  remained  entire  in  his 

time^  aiid  that  the  number  of  Amphii^tyons  was  then 

30. 

The  members  were  of  two  kinds.  Each  city  fent 
two  deputies, under  different  denominations;  one  called 
*ltfi/xtii^n,  whole  bufmcfs  fcems  to  have  been  more  im- 
mediately to  infpei^  what  related  to  lacritices  and  cere- 
monies of  religion  ;  thcotiier  nc-xaj-ojiat,  ciiarged  with 
hearing  and  deciding  of  caufes  and  dirfcrenccs  between 
private  perfons.  Both  hau  an  equal  right  to  deliberate 
and  vote,  in  all  that  related  to  the  common  intcrclls 
of  Greece.  The  hn^romntmon  was  elected  by  lot;  the 
fylagoras  by  plurality  of  voices. 

Though  the  Aniphiftyons  were  firft  inftituted  at 
Thermopylae,  M.  de  Valois  maintains,  that  their  lirll 
place  of  relidence  was  at  Delphi  ;  where,  for  fonie 
ages,  the  tranquillity  of  the  times  found  them  noother 
employment  than  that  of  being,  if  wc  may  fo  call  it, 
church-wardens  of  the  temple  of  Apollo.  In  aftcr- 
tiracs,  the  approach  of  armies  frequently  drove  them 
to  Thermopylae,  where  they  took  their  llation,  to  be 
nearer  at  hand  tooppofe  the  enemies  progrefs  and  or- 
der timely  fuccour  to  the  cities  in  danger.  Their  or- 
dinary relidence,  however,  was  at  Delphi. 

Here  they  decided  all  public  ditFerenccs  and  dffputes 
between  any  of  the  cities  of  Greece  ;  but  before  they 
entered  on  bufinefs,  they  jointly  facriliced  an  ox  cut 
into  fmall  pieces,  as  a  fymbol  of  their  union.  Their 
determinations  were  received  with  the  grcatell  vene- 
ration, and  even  held  facrcd  and  inviolable. 

The  Amphiclyons,  at  their  admiiFion,  took  afolemn 
oath  never  to  divert  any  city  of  the  right  of  deputa- 
tion ;  never  to  avert  its  running  waters ;  and  if  any  at- 
tempts of  this  ivind  were  made  by  others,  to  make  mor- 
tal war  againft  them  :  more  particularly,  in  cafe  of  any 
attempt  to  rob  the  temple  of  any  of  its  oruanicnis,  that 
they  would  employ  hands,  feet,  tongue,  their  whole 
power  to  rcvenj;c  it This  oath  was  backed  with  ter- 
rible imprecations againll  fuch  as  ihould  viol  uc  ii  ;  e.g. 
May  they  meet  all  the  vengeance  of  Apollo,  Disna, 
Minerva,  &c.  their  foil  produce  no  fruit,  their  wives 
bring  forth  nothing  but  monllers,  Sec. 

The  llatcd  terms  of  their  meeting  was  in  fpring  and 
autumn  ;  the  fpring  meeting  was  called  E<ifit»  Tiuxaua 
that  in  autumn  MircTUfita.  On  cxtraordiniry  occali- 
ons,  however,  they  met  at  any  time  of  the  year,  or 
even  continued  lltiing  all  the  year  round. 

Philip  of  Maccdonufurped  the  right  of  prcliding  in 
the  ailembly  of  the  Amphyclions,  and  of  riril  confulc- 
ing  tlie  oracle  wl\ich  was  called  nfo^»tTi/«. 

AMPHIDIIOMIA,  a  fcaft  cekbraicd  by  the  anci- 
ents on  the  tifth  day  after  the  birth  of  a  child. 

AMPHIDRYON,  i.i  ecclclialiical  writers,  denotes 
the  veil  or  curtain  which  wa>  drawn  betorc  the  door 
of  the  bema  in  ancient  churches. 

AMi'HlLOCHlA  (anc.gcog.),  the  territory  cf  the 
city  of  Argos  in  Arcanania  ;  .■!r,tphi:ichtum,  (Thuci- 
dydcs)  ;  called  Ai'ifkitacht  (from  ihc  people,)  in  the 
council.     Under  Augullus,  the  city  of  Nito^'olis  was 


lower  age,   (Stephanus).     A  town  alfo  oi  Spain,  in  Amphilu- 
Gallicia,  built  by  Teuccr,  and  denominated  from  Am-      chiut 
philochusoneof  hiscompanions,  (Strabo):  now  Gr;///^.  II 

W.  Long.  8.  20.   Lat.  42.   36.  Ainphifl>«- 

AMPHILOCHIUS,  bilhopoflconium,  in  the  fourth  .  "*' 
century,  was  the  friend  of  St  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and 
St  Balil.  He  ainftedat  thefirrtgcncralcouncilof  Con- 
rtantinoplcin38i  ;  prelided  at  the  council  of  Sidae;  and 
was  a  rtrenuous  oppofer  of  the  Arians.  He  died  in 
394,  and  his  works  were  publilhcd  in  Greek  and  La- 
tin at  Paris  1644,  by  Francis  Conibelis. 

AMPHILOCHUS,  fon  ofAmphiaraus  and  Eriphyle, 
was  a  celebrated  diviner.  He  had  an  altar  ereetcd 
to  him  at  Athens,  and  an  oracle  at  Mallus  in  Cilicia, 
which  city  was  founded  by  him  and  Mopfus.  The  an- 
fwers  of  this  oracle  were  given  by  dreams  ;  the  party 
inquiring  ufed  to  pafs  a  night  in  the  temple,  and  that 
night's  dream  was  the  anfwer.  Dion  Callius  mentions 
apicture  done  by  orderof Scxtus-Condianus,  reprcfent- 
ing  the  anfwer  he  received  of  the  oracle,  in  the  rciga 
of  the  emperor  Conimodus. 

AMPHIMACER,  in  ancient  poetry,  a  foot  confifl- 
ing  of  three  fyllablcs,  whereof  the  tirft  and  laft  arc 
long,  and  that  in  the  niidolc  Ihort ;  fuch  is  the  word 
[Caiiius.] 

AMPHION,  fon  of  Jupiter  and  Antiope  ;  who,  ac- 
cording to  the  potts,  made  tiie  rocks  follow  his  mulic  ; 
and  ai  his  harp  the  (tones  of  Thebes  danced  into  walls 
and  a  regular  city. 

AMPHIPOLES,  in  antiquity,  the  principal  magi- 
rtratcs  of  SyracuCe.  They  were  ert  .l.liihed  ly  Timo- 
leoninthc  109th  Olympiad,  after  theexpullion  of  the 
tyrant  Dionylius.  They  governed  Syracufe  for  the 
fpace  of  300  years  :  and  Diodorus  Siculus  adures  us, 
that  they  fublilted  in  his  time. 

AMPHlPOLlS,  a  ciiy  of  Macedonia,  an  Athenian 
colony,  on  the  Strymoii,  but  on  which  fide  is  not  fo 
certain  ;  Pliny  places  it  in  Macedonia,  on  this  lidc  ;  but 
Seylax,  in  Thrace,  on  the  other.  The  name  of  the 
town,  A»;phipolis,  however,  fecms  to  reconcile  their 
difference  ;  becaufe,  as  Tliuciiiydcs  obfcrvcs,  it  was 
walhed  on  two  (ides  by  the  Strymon,  which  dividing 
iifelf  into  two  channels,  the  city  Hood  in  the  mi.ldlr, 
and  on  the  lide  towards  the  fta  there  was  a  w.ill  built 
from  channel  to  channel.  Its  ancient  name  was  £>;<• 
0/0;,  the  Ni'ti  IVayj,  (Thuci^iydes,  Herodotus.)  The 
citizens  were  called  yV////>^/.«/;/j/,i,  (Livy.)  It  Mas 
afterwards  called  Chrijlopilij ;  now  Ctn/cpoO,  or  Chi' 
fofoit,  (Holftcnius.) 

A.MPHiroLis,  a  town  of  Syria,  on  the  Euphrates, 
built  by  Scleucus,  called  by  the  Syrians  Turmeda, 
(Stephanas)  :  the  fame  with  Thapfacui,  (Pliny)  ;  and 
luppofed  to  have  been  only  renewed  and  adorned  by 
Seleucus,  becaufe  long  famous  before  his  time,  (Xe- 
nojihon.) 

AMPHIPPIJ,  in  Grecian  auiiquity,  foldicrs  who, 
in  war,  ufed  two  horles  without  faddles,  and  were 
dextrous  eno.igh  to  leap  from  one  to  the  othrr. 

AMPi:lPROR/E,  in  the  naval  affairs  of  tlie  anci- 
ents, vellcls  with  :i  prow  at  each  end  They  were 
ufed  chieiiy  in  rapid  rivers  and  nairow  channels, 
where  it  was  not  cafy  to  tack  about.. 

AMPHIPROS  rVLE,  in  the  architeJtureof  the  an- 
cients, a  temple  wliich  had  four  .  olumi  s  in  the  front, 
anJ  as  many  in  ihc  alptA  bchinj. 

AMPH.SB.-tN.-^,  ill  zoology,  agenuso/  ftrpents 

belong^- 


AMP 


[     640     1 


AMP 


Ampliif-    belonging  10  the  order  of  amphibia  ferpents,  fo  called 
bxna,     from  (be  (Me  notion  of  its  having  two  heads,  bccaufe 
Aniphiffa.  „  gloves  with  eitlitr  end  foremoU. 

The  bead  of  the  amphiibina  is  fraall,  fmooih,  and 
blunt  i  the  nollrils  are  very  fmall ;  the  eyes  are  minute 
and  blackilh ;  and  the  mouth  i^  furnilhcd  with  a  great 
cumber  of  fmall  teeth.  The  body  is  cylindrical,  about 
a  foot  long,  and  divided  into  about  200  annular  convex 
fegmcnts  like  thofe  of  a  worm  ;  and  it  has  about  40 
longitudinal  (Ireaks,  of  which  12  on  each  lidc  are  in 
the  form  of  fmall  crolTes  like  the  Roman  X  ;  the  anus 
is  a  tranfverfe  Ilit ;  and  the  laft  ring  or  fegment  of  the 
belly  has  eight  fmall  papillx,  forming  a  tranfverfe  line 
before  the  anus  ;  the  tail,  i.  e.  all  the  fpace  below  the 
anus,  isfliort, coniifting of  goanrmlar fegmcnts,  with- 
out being  aiarked  with  the  crofs-lines,  and  is  thick 
and  blunt  at  the  point.  The  colour  of  the  whole  ani- 
mal is  black,  variegated  with  white  ;  but  the  black 
prevails  moll  on  the  back,  and  the  white  on  the  belly. 
It  has  a  great  refeniblance  to  a  worm,  living  in  the 
earth,  and  moving  eijually  well  with  either  end  fere- 
moll.  There  are  but  two  fpecies,  viz.  i.  The  fuligi- 
nofa,  which  anfwers  exaflly  to  the  above  defcription, 
and  is  found  in  Libya  and  in  different  parts  of  Ame- 
rica, a.  The  alba,  which  is  totally  white,  is  a  native 
of  both  the  Indies,  and  is  generally  found  in  ant-hil- 
locks. The  bite  of  the  amphilbaena  is  reckoned  to  be 
mortal  by  many  authors  ;  but  as  it  is  not  furnilhcd 
with  dog-fangs,  the  ufualinftruments  of  conveying  the 
puifon  of  ferpents,  later  writers  efteem  it  not  to  be  poi- 
lonous.  They  feed  upon  ants  and  earth-worms,  but 
particularly  the  latter.     See  Plate  XVlll. 

j4MPHiiBMSAj4quatica,3.azme.gi\cii\hyBtrX.rM.n\i, 
Albertus,  and  feveral  other  authors,  to  that  long  and 
/lender  infect,  called  by  others  ihcfcta  aijuatica,  and 
verviisjctarius.  It  has  the  name  ainfhijbittia,  from  its 
going  backwards  or  forwards  with  equal  eafe  and  cele- 
rity. The  ufual  fize  is  four  er  live  inches  long,  and 
the  thicknefs  of  a  large  hair. 

Dr  Liitcr  accidentally  found  out  the  origin  of  this 
worm,  in  his  refcarchcs  into  the  hiftory  of  a  very  dif- 
ferent fort  of  infcci.  Diil'efling  one  of  the  common 
black  beetles  dug  up  in  a  garden,  he  found  in  its  belly 
twoof  thefe  hair  worms,  or  amphilbsenae  ;  and  renew- 
ing theexperimcnton  othcrbeetles  of  the  famefpccies, 
he  found  that  they  ufually  contained,  one,  two,  or  three 
of  thefe  worms.  As  foon  as  the  body  of  the  beetle  is 
opened,  they  always  crawl  out.  When  put  into  wa- 
ter they  will  live  a  conliderable  time,  and  fwim  nimbly 
about ;  but  often  pnt  up  their  heads  above  water,  as  if 
endeavouring  to  make  their  efcape,  andfometiines  fa- 
ftening  themfelves  by  the  mouth  to  the  lides  of  the  vcf- 
fel,  and  drawing  their  whole  bodies  after  them.  Thefe 
creatures  are  not  only  found  in  the  waters,  but  buried 
in  earth,  and  fometimes  on  the  leaves  of  trees,  in 
gardens  and  hedges.     Phil.  Tranf.  N°  83. 

AMPHISCII,  among  geographers,  a  name  applied 
to  the  people  who  inhabit  the  torrid  zone.  The  Am- 
phLfcii,  as  the  word  imports,  have  their  (hadows  one 
part  of  the  year  towards  the  north,  and  the  other  to- 
wards the  foutb,  according  to  the  fun's  place  in  the 
ecliptic.     They  are  alfo  called  yi^c;/.     SecAscii. 

AMPHISSA,  (anc.  gcog.),  the  capital  of  the  Locri 
Oxolas,  laoftadia  (or  15  miles)  to  the  weft  of  Delphi, 
(Paufanias.)  So calicd, bccaufe  furrouudedouallhauds 


by  mountains,  (Stephanus.)  Hence  Amphif^aiy  the  in-  Amphlfaae 
habitants  ;  who  plundered  the  temple  at  Delphi,  (De-  Amphithe- 
mollhenes.) — Alloa  town  of  Magna  Graecia,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Sagra,  on  the  coaft  of  the  Farther  Cala- 
bria, fituated  between  Locri  and  Cauluna  ;  now  called 
Roiella.     Amfhiffiui  the  epithet,  (OviJ.) 

AMPHITANE,  among  ancient  naturalifts,  a  ftone 
faid  to  attrad  gold  as  the  loadftonc  docs  iron.  Pliny 
fays  it  was  found  in  that  part  of  the  Indies  where  the 
native  gold  lay  fo  near  the  furface  of  the  earth  as  to 
be  turned  up  in  fmall  malfes  among  the  earth  of  ant- 
hills ;  anddefcribes  it  to  have  been  of  a  fquare  figure, 
and  ofthe  colour  and  brightnefsof  gold.  The  defcrip- 
tion plainly  points  out  a  well-known  foffil,  called,  by 
Dr  Hill,  fjricubium  :  this  is  common  in  the  mines  of 
moft  parts  of  the  world  ;  but  neither  this  nor  any  other 
flonc  was  ever  fiippofed,  in  our  times,  to  have  the 
power  of  attrafting  gold. 

AMPHI THEATRE,  in  antiquity,  a  fpacioiis  edifice, 
built  either  round  or  oval,  with  a  number  of  riling 
feats,  upon  which  the  people  ufed  to  behold  the  com- 
bats of  gladiators,  of  wild  beafls,  and  other  fports. 

Amphitheatres  were  at  firft  only  of  wood  ;  audit  was 
not  till  the  reign  of  Auguftus,  that  Sutilius  Taurus 
built  one,  for  the  firit  time,  of  ftone.  The  lower  part 
wis  of  an  oval  figitre,  and  called  art'wa,  becaufe,  for  the 
convcniency  of  the  combatants,  it  was  ufually  ftrewed 
with  fand;  and  round  the  arena  were  vaults  llyled  j/j- 
■oeje,  in  which  were  confined  the  wild  bcafts  appoint- 
ed for  the  Ihews. 

Above  the  caveae  was  erefted  a  large  circular  pc- 
riflyle,  or  podium,  adorned  with  columns.  This  was 
the  place  of  the  emperors,  fcnators,  and  other  pcrfont 
of  diflindlion. 

The  rows  of  benches  were  above  the  podium.  Their 
figure  was  circular ;  and  they  were  entered  by  avenues, 
at  the  end  of  which  were  gates  called  vomitorix. 

This  theatre  was  built  in  form  of  a  femicirtle,  only 
exceeding  a  juft  femicircle  by  one  fourth  part  of  the 
diameter;  and  the  amphitheatre  was  nothing  elfe  but 
a  double  theatre,  or  two  theatres  joined  together  :  fo 
that  the  longcfb  diameter  of  the  amphitheatre  was  to 
the  fliorteft  as  if  to  i. 

There  are  amphitheatres  ftillft.inding at  Rome,  at 
Pola,  at  Nifmes,  S:c.  The  amphitheatre  of  Vefpa- 
fian,  called  the  Colifettm,  and  that  at  Verona  in  Italy, 
are  the  mofl  celebratednowremainingof  all  antiquity. 
Remains  of  amphitheatres  are  (hown  alfo  at  Aries, 
Bourdeaux,  &c.  The  amphitheatre  at  Pola,  an  ancient 
republic  of  Iflria,  is  very  entire  :  it  confills  of  two  or- 
ders of  Tufcan  pillars,  one  over  the  other.  The  lower 
have  pedeflals,  which  is  extraordinary;  this  order 
having  fcarce  ever  more  than  bafes  to  fupport  them. 
The  amphitheatre  of  Vefpallan  is  computed  to  have 
been  capable  of  holding  87,000  fpeftators.  That  of 
Verona  is  the  bell  prefcrved  :  for  though  raofl  of  the 
great  and  beft.  ftones  of  the  outfide  are  picked  out, 
yet  the  great  vault,  on  which  the  rows  of  the  feats 
are  laid,  is  entire;  the  rows  alfo  (which  are  44  in 
number)  arc  entire.  Every  row  is  a  foot  and  a  half 
high,  and  as  much  in  breadth;  fo  that  a  man  fits  con- 
veniently in  them  ;  and  allowing  for  a  feat  a  foot  and 
a  half,  the  whole  will  hold  23,000  perfons.  Pliny 
mentions  an  amphitheatre  built  by  Curio,  which  turn- 
ed on  large  iron  pivots ;  fo  that  of  the  fame  amphithe- 
a  atr« 


^/«//V//  ///K.  I  TliKS. 
re/jka/ta/iLi  •      f/n/i/i/V/uotir,  //  ///r//  , 


J'lHtcWl. 


n>lfm/lW  f/n/ifu.)ft  f/i  //ii'ii.irr/u^  .)/ift/i///'r.j.   £j 


AMP 


[     641     ] 


AMP 


tnipHthe-  atTC  two  fcvcral  theatres  were  occafionally  made, 
atrc       whereon  different    entertainments  were  Ibmctimcs 
II.       prefcnted  at  the  fame  time.  Mr  Brydonc  (vol.  i.  295), 
Amplia-    jnctions  an  amphitheatre  at  Syracufc,  the  theatre  of 
'""'    .  which  is  fo  entire,  that  the  gradini  for  feats  ftill  re- 
main ;  but  it  isa  fraall  theatre,  he  fays,  in  comparifon 
of  the  others.     See  Plate  XVI. 

Amph  IT  HEATRE,  in  gardening,  certain  difpofitions 
of  trees  andflirubson  the  fides  of  hilly  places,  which, 
if  the  hill  or  rifing  be  naturally  of  a  circular  figure, 
always  have  the  belt  effeft.  They  are  to  be  formed  of 
evergreens,  fuch  as  hollies,  phillcreys,  lauruflines, 
bays,  and  fuch  plants,  obfcrving  to  plant  the  fliortell 
growing  trees  in  the  front,  and  thofe  which  will  be 
the  tallcfl  behind,  fuch  as  pines,  firs,  cedars  of  Leba- 
non, &c. 

Amphitheatres  are  alfo  fometimes  formed  of  flopes 
on  thcfidcsofhills,  covered  only  with  turf ;  and  when 
well  kept,  they  are  a  great  ornament  to  large  gardens. 

AMPHITRITE,  (a/^ifiTfiTii,  from  circumj'ereiido), 
in  the  heathen  mythology,  the  wife  of  Neptune,  and 
goddefs  of  the  fea,  fometimes  taken  for  the  fea. 

AMPHITRYON,  fon  of  Alcseus,  lefs  known  by  his 
own  exploits  than  from  his  wife  Alcmena's  adventure. 
See  Alcmena. 

AMPHORA,  in  antiquity,  a  liquid  meafure  among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  Roman  amphora  con- 
tained 48  fcxtaries,  equal  to  about  feven  gallons  one 
pint  Englifh  wine-meafure  ;  and  the  Grecian  or  Attic 
amphora  contained  one-third  more. 

Amphora  was  alfo  a  dry  meafure  ufed  by  the  Ro- 
mans, and  contained  about  three  bulhels. 

Amphora,  among  the  Venetians,  is  the  largell 
meafure  ufed  for  liquids,  containing  about  16  quarts, 

AMPHORARIUM  vinum,  in  antiquity,  denotes 
that  which  is  drawn  or  poured  into  amphora  or  pitch- 
ers; by  way  of  diflinflion  from  vinum  doliare,  or  cafk 
wine. — The  Romans  had  a  method  of  keeping  wine 
in  amphorae  for  many  years  to  ripen,  by  faflening  the 
lids  tight  down  with  pitch  or  gypfum,  and  placing 
them  either  in  a  fituation  where  the  finoke  came,  or 
under  ground. 

AMPHOTIDES.  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  armour  or 
covering  for  the  cars,  worn  by  the  ancient  pugilcs,  10 
prevent  their  advcrfarics  from  laying  hold  of  that  part. 

AMPHRYSUS,  or  Amphryssvs,  (anc.  geog.)  a 
river  of  Phthiotis,  a  diilrid  of  Thclfaly,  running  by 
the  foot  of  mount  Othrys,  from  fouth  to  north,  into 
the  Enipcus  at  Thebes  of  Tiielfaly ;  where  Apollo 
fed  the  herds  of  king  Admetus  (Virgil,  Lucan).  Ano- 
ther Amphryfiis  in  Phrygia,  renderiu^;  women  bar- 
ren, according  to  Pliny:  Hence  the  epithet  Awp/nyjia- 
c:is  (Statins).  Alfo  a  town  of  Phocis,  at  the  foot  of 
mount  Parnaflus,  enconipalFed  with  a  double  wall  by 
the  Thebans  in  the  war  with  Philip  (I'aufanias) ; 
^mphryfiaVatis,  in  Virgil,  ('enotes  the  Sibyl. 

AMPHTHILL,  a  town  in  Bcdfordlliire,  fcatcd 
pleafantly  between  two  hills,  but  in  a  barren  foil.  W. 
Long.  o.  29.  N.  Lat.  52.  2. 

AMPLIATION,  in  a  general  fcnfc,  denotes  tjie  aft 
of  enlarging  or  extending  the  compafs  of  a  thing. 

On  a  medal  of  the'enipcror  Antoninus  Pius,  we  find 

the  title   j^mpiiator  civiuiu  given  him,  on  account  of 

his  having  extended  the  jus  civitatii,  or  right  of  ciii- 

zcnthip,  to  many  ftatcs  and  people  before  excluded 

Vol.  L 


from  that  privilege.  In  effcfl,  it  is  generally  fuppof- 
ed  to  have  been  this  prince  that  made  the  famous 
conflitution,  whereby  all  the  fubjeds  of  the  emjJirc 
were  made  citizens  of  Rome. 

Ampliation,  in  Roman  antiquity,  wasthedefer- 
ringtopafsfentence  in  certain  caufcs.  This  thcjudg-c 
did,  by  pronouncing  the  word  amplius  ;  or  by  writing 
the  letters  N.  L.  for  iion  liquet;  thereby  fignifying, 
that,  as  the  caufe  was  not  clear,  it  would  be  uecelfary 
to  bring  further  evidence. 

AMPLIFICATION,  in  rhetoric,  part  of  a  dif- 
courfe  or  fpcech,  wherein  a  crime  is  aggravated,  a 
praife  or  commendation  hcightened,ora  narration  en- 
larged, by  an  enumeration  of  circumftances  ;  fo  as  to 
excite  the  proper  emotions  in  the  fouls  of  the  auditors. 
Such  is  the  palTage  in  Virgil,  where,  inftcad  of  fay- 
ing merely  that  Tiirnus  died,  he  amplifies  the  cir- 
cumHanccs  of  his  death. 

—  Afl  iltifolvuntur  Jrigore  membra, 

Vitaque  cum  getnitu  fugit  indignatafub  umbrai. 

The  mafters  of  eloquence  made  amplification  to  be  the 
foul  of  tLfcourfe.  See  Oratory,  n°  39. 

AMPLITUDE,  in  aflronomy,  an  arch  of  the  hori- 
zon intercepted  between  the  eafl  or  weft  point  and 
the  centre  of  the  fun,  or  a  planet,  at  its  riling  or  fct- 
ting;  and  fo  is  cither  north  and  fouth,  or  ortivc  and 
occafive. 

Mtignetical  Amputvde,  the  different  riling  or  fet- 
ting  of  the  fun  from  the  call  or  well  points  of  the  com- 
pafs. It  is  found  by  obfcrving  the  fun,  at  its  rifing  and 
fctting,  by  an  amplitude-coinpafs. 

AMPSAGA,  a  river  of  ancient  Numidia.  Sec 
Algiers,  n°  yy. 

AMPSANCTI  Valus,  or  Ampsancti  Lacus,  a 
cave  or  lake  in  the  heart  of  the  Hirpini,  or  Principato 
Ultra,nearthecityTricento  (Cicero,  Virgil,  Pliny); 
it  is  now  called  Moffctta,  from  Mephitis,  the  goddefs 
of  flench,  who  had  a  temple  there.  The  ancient  poets 
imagined  that  this  gulph  led  to  hell.  The  Moffetta  is 
thus  defcribed  by  Mr  Swinburn  :  "We  were  led  into 
a  narrow  valley,  extending  a  confiderable  way  to  the 
fouth-weft,  and  preffed  in  on  both  fides  by  high  ridges 
thickly  covered  with  copfes  of  oak.  The  bottom  of 
the  dell  is  bare  and  arid  :  in  the  loweft  part,  and  dole 
under  one  of  the  hills,  is  an  oval  pond  of  muddy  alh- 
coloured  water,  not  above  jo  feet  in  diameter  :  it  boils 
up  in  fcveral  places  with  great  force  in  irregular  tits, 
wjiich  are  always  preceded  by  a  hiffing  found.  The 
water  was  feveral  times  fpouted  up  as  high  as  our  heads 
in  a  diagonal  direftion,  a  whirlpool  being  formed  round 
the  tube,  like  a  bafon,  to  receive  it  as  it  fell.  A  large 
body  of  vapour  is  continually  thrown  out  with  a  loud 
rumbling  noife.  The  flones  on  the  riling  ground  that 
hangs  over  the  pool  are  quite  yellow,  being  AaiueJ 
with  the  fumes  of  fulphur  and  fal-ainmoniac.  A  moll 
naufcous  fmell  rifing  with  the  fleam  obliged  us  to  watch 
the  wind,  and  to  keep  clear  of  it,  to  avoid  fuflbcation. 
The  water  is  quite  infipid  both  at  to  tafte  and  fmell ; 
the  clay  at  the  edges  is  white,  and  carried  into  Pug- 
lia  to  rub  upon  fcabby  fliecp,  on  which  account  the 
lake  is  farmed  out  at  100  ducats  a-year.  On  a  hill 
above  this  lake  flood  formerly  a  temple  dedicated  to  the 
goddefs  Mephitis;  but  I  perceived  no  remains  of  it." 

AMPULLA,  in  antiquity,  a  round  big-bcllicd  vef- 
4  M  fcl. 


A  M  R 


[     642     ] 


A  M  S 


fcl  which  the  ancients  ufcd  in  their  baths,  to  contain 
oil  for  anointing  their  bodies. — Alio  ihc  name  ol  a 
cup  tor  drinking  out  ot"  at  table. 
.  Ampulla,  among  tcclcliallical  writers,  denotes  one 
of  the  facred  velitls  ufed  at  the  altars.  Ampulla:  were 
alfo  ufcd  for  holding  the  oil  ufed  in  clirifmation,  con- 
fccration,  coronation,  &c.  Among  the  ornaments  of 
churches  we  find  frequent  mention  made  of  ampuls  or 
vials.  In  the  inventory  of  the  cathedral  of  Lincoln 
we  meet  with  ampuls  of  chryllal,  varioully  enriched 
with  fiWcr  feet  and  covers  j  one  containing  a  tooth  of 
St  Chrillopher,  another  a  tooth  of  St  Cecily,  another 
a  bone  of  the  head  of  St  John  Baptift. 

K/iighti  (//  St  Ampvi.L4,  belong  to  an  order  infti- 
tuted  by  Clovis  I.  king  ol  Krancc  ;  at  the  coronation 
xhcy  bear  up  the  canopy,  under  which  the  ampulla  is 
carried  in  procellion. 

AMPURA,  a  province  of  the  kingdom  of  Peru, 
before  itsconqucft  by  the  Spaniards.  Here  the  inha- 
bitants worlliipped  tw'o  lofty  mountains  from  a  princi- 
ple of  gratitude,  bccaufe  of  the  defcent  of  the  water 
from  them  by  which  their  lands  were  fertilized.  It  is 
faid  to  have  been  conquered  by  Virachoca,  the  eighth 
iiica. 

AMPURIAS,  the  capital  of  the  territory  of  A m- 
purdan,  in  Catalonia,  fcated  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Fluvia,  in  E.  Long.  2.  56.  N.  Lat.  42.  5.  The  land 
about  it  is  barren,  full  of  briars  and  bulruflics,  except 
infome  places  which  produce  Hax. 

AMP UTATION,  in  furgery,  the  cutting ofFa limb, 
or  any  part  from  the  body.    See  Svv.c^v.\-Iiidiix. 

A.MRAPHEL,  the  king  of  Shinar,  or.  Babylonia, 
confederated  with  Chcdorlaomer,kingof  the  Elamites, 
and  two  other  kings,  to  make  w  ar  againft  the  kings 
of  Peiitapolis;  that  is  to  fay,  of  Sodom,  Gomorrah, 
and  the  three  neighbouring  cities.  The  kings  who 
were  in  league  with  Amraphel  worfled  ihofc  of  Pen- 
lapolis,  plundered  their  city,  and  carried  off  abundance 
of  captives,  among  whom  was  Lot,  Abraham's  ne- 
phew :  but  Abraham  purfued  them,  retook  Lot,  and 
recovered  all  the  fpoil.     See  Abraham. 

AMRAS,  a  flrong  caftle  of  Germany,  feated  in  Ti- 
rol ;  by  fome  German  writers  called  /^rx  Anibiofiaiia, 
■which  was  the  houfe  of  pleafurc  for  the  archdukes  10 
retire  to  in  the  heat  of  the  fummer.  By  others  this 
fort  is  called  Oinhrafs  ;  a  name  derived  from  the  defign 
of  it,  which  was  to  be  a  Ihady  fummer-houfe.  It  is 
moft  delightfully  fituated  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain, 
but  has  no  great  external  beauty.  All  the  furniture 
of  ordinary  nfe  has  been  carried  away;  yet  it  is  ftill 
Tcmarkable  for  its  galleries,  which  contain  a  very  large 
collertion  of  antiquities,  and  both  natural  and  artifici- 
al curiolities.  It  excels  all  others  in  its  curious  col- 
Iccftion  of  armour  and  coats  of  mail,  many  of  which  be- 
longed to  very  great  men.  There  is  alfo  a  great  col- 
Icftion  of  gold  medals,  %vhich  weigh,  as  they  affirm, 
about  16  pounds  ;  there  are  alfo  3000  cameos  and  in- 
taglios, but  few  of  them  very  fine.  A  great  part  of 
thcfc  antiquities  were  fent  to  this  place  by  Charles  V. 
On  the  walls  and  cieling  there  are  fome  very  good 
paintings  ;  and,  among  the  rcfl,  they  have  an  admira- 
ble pidlure  of  Noah's  ark,  done  by  Balfano,  for  which 
ihc  grand  duke  of  Tufcany  is  faid  to  have  offered 
100,000  crowns.  They  have  a  library,  which  is  not 
in  very  good  order  ;   and  a  gallery  full  of  Lufts  and 


other  pieces  of  antiquity,  bcfides  many  other  apart- 
ments adorned  w  ith  pictures  of  great  value.  E.  Long. 
II.  40.  N.  Lat.  47.  o. 

AMS.'\NC'l  I.     Sec  Ampsancti.  ^ 

AMSBURY,  or  A.meersbury,  a  town  in  Wilt- 
fliire,  lying  in  W.  Long.  i.  20.  N.  Lat.  ji.  29.  It 
is  the  I  agus  Aii.bri,  famous  for  a  uionaflery  built  by 
one  Ambrus,  and  afterwards  for  a  nunnery  of  noble 
women.  There  is  a  nobleman's  feat  here  built  by 
Inigojones,  to  which  new  works  svere  added  under  the 
direction  of  Lord  Burlington.  It  is  80  miles  welt  of 
London,  and  fix  miles  north  of  Saliibury. 

AMSDOREIANS,  in  church-hillory,  a  fcft  of 
Proteflants  in  the  i6ih  century,  who  took  their  name 
from  Amfdorf  ihtir  leader.  They  maintained,  that 
good  works  were  not  only  unprofitable,  but  were  ob- 
Aaclcs  to  falvation. 

AMSTERDAM,  the  capital  city  of  the  province 
of  Holland  and  of  the  United  Netherlands,  is  feated 
on  the  river  Aniflel  and  an  arm  of  the  fca  called  the 
Wye.  The  air  is  but  indifferent,  on  account  of  the 
marlhes  that  furround  it,  and  render  the  city  almoll 
inacceflible  :  but  this  inconvenience  is  abundantly  rc- 
conipeiifed  by  the  utility  of  its  commerce,  which  the 
port  ferves  greatly  to  promote  ;  for  it  will  contain 
above  a  ihouiand  large  lliips. 

In  1204,  it  was  nothing  but  a  fmall  caflle,  called 
Avijiilixom  the  name  of  the  river,  which  its  lords 
made  a  retreat  for  riflurmcn,  who  at  firfl  lived  in  huts 
covered  with  thatch  :  but  it  foon  became  confiderable, 
and  had  a  bridge  and  towers  built  about  it,  inforauch 
that  it  rofe  to  a  fmall  city ;  though,  till  the  year  1  490, 
it  was  furrounded  with  nothing  but  a  weak  pallifado. 
The  walls  were  then  built  with  brick,  to  defend  it 
from  the  incurfionsof  the  inhabitants  of  Utrecht,  with 
whom  the  Hollanders  were  often  quarrelling;  but  fome 
months  afterwards  it  w  as  almoft  reduced  to  a.Oics.  In 
1512,  it  was  befieged  by  the  people  of  Guelderland; 
who,  not  being  able  to  take  it,  fet  fire  to  the  Ihips  in 
the  harbour.  In  1525,  an  Anabaptift  leader,  with  600 
ofhis  followers,  got  into  the  city  in  the  night-time,  at- 
tacked the  tow'n-houfe,  and  defeated  thofe  that  made 
any  refinance.  At  length  they  barricaded,  with  wool 
and  hop-facks,the  avenues  to  the  market-place, where 
thefe  enthuliaflswere  pofted  ;  and  fo  put  a  flop  to  their 
fury  till  day  appeared,  at  which  time  the  citizens  fell 
upon  them  on  all  fides,  and  forced  them  to  retire  into 
the  town-houfe,  where  mofl  of  them  were  cut  to  pieces. 
About  ten  years  after,  there  was  anoihertumult  raifcd 
by  a  parcel  of  fanatics,  conlifling  of  men  and  women, 
who  ran  about  the  ftrcets  flark  naked,  and  had  a  de- 
fign of  nuking  thenifclves  mailers  of  the  town-lioufe. 
Their ilirieks  and  crirs,  which  were  dreadful  enough, 
foon  alarmed  the  inhabitants,  who  icized  the  grcatefl 
partof  theui,  and  gave  them  the  chaftifcmcnt  they  de- 
ferved. 

Amflerdam  was  one  of  the  laft  cities  that  embraced 
the  reformed  religion.  It  was  befieged  by  the  Holian- 
dersin  1578, and  fubmi;ted  al'ter  aliegcof  ten  months. 
One  article  of  the  capitulation  was,  a  free  excrcifc 
of  the  Roman-catholic  religion  :  but  this  was  not  ob- 
ferved  by  the  Proteflants  ;  for  they  foon  drove  the  ec- 
clefiaflics,  monks,  and  nsns,  out  of  the  city,  broke  the 
images,  and  demolilhed  the  .iltars.  From  this  time  it 
became  the  general  rendezvous  of  all  nations  and  of 

every 


Amfanftl 

It 

Amfter- 

dani. 


A  M  S 


[     643     ] 


A  M  S 


Amftcfdam  every  te&,  which  raifed  it  to  that  degree  of  grandeur 
*■  " and  opulence  it  now  enjoys.  The  inhabitants  were  of- 
ten obliged  to  enlarge  the  bounds  of  their  ciiy,  and  in 
167  J  it  was  incrtafed  to  its  prefcnt  extent.  It  was  fur- 
rounded  with  a  brick  w^ll,  and  a  large  ditch,  80  feet 
broad,  full  of  running  water.  The  walls  were  fortified 
with  26  baftions,  on  cachof  which  there  is  nowawiud- 
tnill.  Thrrc  are  eight  gates  towards  the  land,  and 
one  towards  the  water. 

Amrterdini  being  fcated  on  a  marfliy  foil,  is  built  on 
piles  of  wood  ;  for  which  reafoii  no  coaches  are  allow- 
ed, excejit  to  great  men  and  phyficians,  who  pay  a  tax 
for  that  privilege  j  and  all  kinds  of  goodsare  drawn  on 
fledges.  It  Hands  fo  low,  that  they  would  be  expofed 
to  inundations,  if  they  did  not  fccure  theniftlvcs  by 
dikes  and  iliiiccs.  The  linell  jftrectsarc,  the  keyfar's 
Graft,  or  Emperor's  Canal  ;  the  HeerGraft,  or  Lord  s 
Canal  ;  The  Cingcl ;  and  the  itrcet  01  Haerlem.  The 
principal  canal  is  remarkable  tor  its  houfes,  which  are 
magnificent  ftructures  of  an  equal  height.  Here  are 
three  prodigious  lluices,  and  a  great  number  of  canals, 
whichcrofs  the  city  in  many  parts,and  render  the  flreets 
clean  and  plcafant.  The  canals  arc  deep,  their  fides  are 
lined  with  hewn  flone,  they  have  generally  rows  of 
trees  planted  on  each  lide,  and  many  (lone  bridges  over 
ditlerent  parts  of  them. 

The  fincll  is  that  called  the  ^niniarack,  which  is 
formed  by  the  waters  of  the  Amftel,  into  which  the 
lide  comes  up,  and  on  the  iides  of  which  are  two  large 
quays.  This  canal  has  fcveral  bridges.  The  principal 
is  that  next  the  fea,  called  Po>it-Ner,f,  or  the  Niw- 
Bridgi :  it  is  600  feet  long,  and  70  broad,  W'th  iron 
balullradcs  on  each  lidc  ;  it  has  ;6  arches,  of  which  1 1 
are  very  high,  and  eight  arc  (hut  up  to  inclofe  the 
yachts.  From  this  bridge  there  is  a  mod  charming 
profpedl  of  the  city,  port,  and  fea.  The  port  is  a 
mile  and  a  half  in  length,  and  about  looo  paces  in 
breadth.  It  is  always  lillcd  with  a  multitude  of  vef- 
fels,  which  look  like  a  foreft,  or  rather  a  floating  city. 
Tlic  ftrcets  in  general  are  well  paved,  and  the  houfes 
built  of  brick  or  ftone.  Towards  the  (ides  of  the  ha- 
Yciv,  I  he  city  is  inclofcd  with  great  poles  driven  into 
the  ground,  which  are  joined  by  large  beams  placed 
horizontally.  There  are  openings  to  let  the  (hips  in 
and  out,  which  arc  (hut  every  night  at  the  ringing  of  a 
bell. 

Amfterdam  is  computed  to  be  half  as  big  as  Lon- 
don, including  the  fortifications,  and  almoft  as  popu- 
lous in  proportion.  There  are  people  here  of  almoft 
every  nation  and  religion  in  Europe,  who  are  all  tole- 
rated in  their  refpedivc  pcrfixalions  ;  but  none  admit- 
ted toany  (hare  in  the  government  except  the  Calvinirts. 
There  are  eleven  churches  for  the  Dutch  of  the  cfta- 
blilhed  or  Calviniftical  rclig  on,  with  two  French  and 
one  High  Dutch.  Tiic  Englilh  have  alfo  three  church- 
es in  this  city  ;  one  for  the  Prclbyterians,  whofe  mini- 
Acrs  are  paid  by  the  magidrates  ;  a  ferond  for  thofc  of 
the  church  of  Enghnd,  who(e  minillcr  is  paid  by  his 
Britannic  majeliy  ;  and  a  third  for  the  Brownilis,  who 
maintain  their  own  miiiiftcrs.  None  but  the  Calrinifts 
are  allowed  to  have  bells,  and  their  nii.iirtcrsare  main- 
tained by  the  inagiftrates.  All  tliefe  churches  or  con- 
gregations make  up  only  a  third  part  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  city.  The  Roman  Catholics,  who  have 
a?  houfes  or  chapels,  for  their  worlhip,  form  another 


third  part.     Here  they  have  a  long  fqaare  of  houfes  An-.fterdM 

for  their  beguines  (a  kind  of  nuns)  to  live  in  ;  who  are  ^ ' 

not  (hut  up  in  cloyfters  as  other  nuns  in  Pioman-Catho- 
lic  countries,  but  have  liberty  to  walk  abroad,  and  :tiaf 
even  marry  when  they  are  tired  of  thii  kind  of  life. 
Thefe  chapels  ofihe  Roniaii-Catholicshave  no  bells 
allowed  them,  being  looked  upon  as  conventicles,  and 
may  be  (hut  up  and  opened  acgorJing  as  the  govern- 
ment pleafes.  The  other  third  part  of  the  city  is 
made  up  of  Jews,  Lutherans,  Arminians,  Aua'aaptills, 
&c.  none  of  whom,  as  was  faid  of  the  Roman-Catho- 
lics, are  allowed  to  have  bells  in  their  churches.  Thofe 
who  marry,  and  are  not  of  the  ertabliihed  religion,  are 
obliged  to  be  joined  lird  by  tiie  inagiftrates,  and  then 
tliey  may  perform  the  ceremony  in  their  own  atfem- 
blies.  The  Jews,  wlio  are  very  confidcrablc  in  this 
place,  have  two  fynagogues  ;  one  of  which,  namely, 
the  Portuguefe,  is  thelargellin  Europe.  Within  the 
court-yard,  where  their  fyiugogue  (lands,  they  have 
fcveral  rooms  or  fchools,  where  their  children  arc 
taught  Hebrew,  and  very  carefully  inArucled  in  the 
Jewilh  religion. 

The  molt  remarkable  of  the  religious  building"!  is 
the  New  Church,  dedicated  to  St  Catharine.  It  was 
begun  in  the  year  1408,  others  fay  1414;  and  was 
100  years  a-building.  It  had  the  misfortune  of  being 
burnt  in  the  year  1645,  but  was  in  a  (liort  time  af- 
ter built  in  a  more  magnificent  manner.  The  foun- 
dation of  a  fleeple  is  laid  before  this  church,  whicii 
was  deligiicd  to  be  very  higli.  The  piles  on  which  it 
was  to  be  erected  are  not  above  100  feet  fquare,  and 
yet  they  are  6334  in  number,  and  thofe  very  large. 
Neverthelefs  it  was  thought  that  thefe  vail  piles,  or 
rather  the  ground,  were  not  able  to  fupport  the  pro- 
digious weight  they  intended  to  lay  upon  it  1  for  which 
rcafon  the  fteeple  remains  unfinithed.  The  pulpit  is  a 
maiierpiece  of  the  kind,  where  the  four  evangelills  anu 
many  other  curious  pieces  of  fculpture  are  rcprefented. 
Theglafs-windowsare  adorned  with  paintings,  among 
which  the  emperor  Maximilian  is  defcribcd,prefenting 
an  imperial  crown  to  the  burgomallers  of  Amlferdara 
for  the  crert  of  the  arms  oi  this  city.  The  organ  is 
very  large,  and  reckoned  one  of  the  bed  in  the  world. 
It  has  a  fet  of  pipes  that  counterfeit  a  chorus  of  voices, 
and  has  52  whole  ftops,  belides  half  flops,  with  two 
rowsof  keps  for  the  feet,  and  three  rows  of  keys  for 
the  hands.  Thefe  u  ho  hear  it  play  for  the  li  r(l  time, 
imagine  they  hear  a  human  voice.  The  grate  dividing 
the  chanctl  from  the  body  of  the  church  is  all  of  Co- 
rinthian brafs.  The  branches  of  candleflicks  are  the 
richeft  in  the  Seven  Provinces.  There  is  a  very  fine 
marble  monument  ereded  to  Admiral  Ruyter,  who 
was  killed  at  Mcffina. 

The  public  buildings  of  a  civil  nature  are  very  mag- 
nificent. The  ftadi-houfc  was  founded  in  1648.  It  is 
built  upon  i4,oco  wooden  piles  ;  and  its  front  is  282 
feet  long,  its  (ides  2J5  feet,  and  its  height  to  the  roof 
116.  There  is  a  marble  pediment  in  the  front,  whereon 
a  woman  is  carved  in  relievo,  holding  ihe  arms  of  the 
city ;  (lie  is  feated  in  a  chair,  fipported  by  two  lions, 
with  an  olive  branch  in  her  right  hand  ;  on  each  fide 
are  four  Naiads,  who  prefcnt  her  w  iih  a  crown  of  palm 
and  laurel,  and  two  other  matine  goddrfles  prefent  her 
with  different  forts  of  fruit ;  belides,  there  is  Neptune 
with  his  trident;  accompanied  with  Tritons,  a  fea-uni- 
4  M  3  com, 


A  M  S 


r 


AmftcrJaai  corn,  and  a  fea-horfe.     On  the  top  ftaiiJ  three  (latucs 

^■' — * ■  in  bronze,  reprefenting  Jufticc,  Strength,  and  Plenty. 

On  the  top  of  the  Ilrudurc  is  a  round  tower,  50  feet 
ajjovc  the  roof,  adorned  with  llatues,  and  an  harmoni- 
ous chime  of  bells,  the  biggeft  of  which  weighs  about 
7000  pounds,  and  the  next  6000.  Tiicy  arc  made  to 
play  different  tunes  every  month.  It  has  not  one 
liandfomc  gate,  but  only  i'cven  doors  to  ajifwcr  to  the 
number  of  the  United  Provinces.  On  the  Hoorof  the 
great  hall  arc  two  globes,  the  celeftial  and  tcrreftria!, 
which  are  22  feet  in  dianuter  and69in  circumference. 
They  arc  made  of  white  and  black  marble,  and  arc  in- 
laid with  jafper  and  copper.  In  general  all  the  cham- 
bers are  enriched  with  paintings,  carvings,  and  gild- 
ings. \\'hilc  this  ftadt-houfc  was  building,  the  old 
one  was  fct  on  lire,  and  confumcd  with  all  the  archives 
and  regiflers. 

Under  the  ftadt-houfc  is  a  prodigious  vault,  where- 
in is  kept  the  bank  of  Amfterdam,  where  there  is  a 
vaft  quantity  of  ingots  both  of  gold  and  (ilver,  as  alfo 
b.igs,  which  arc  fuppofed  to  be  full  of  money.  The 
doors  are  proof  againft  petards,  and  are  never  opened 
but  in  the  prefence  of  one  of  the  burgomafters.  The 
prifons  for  debtors  and  criminals  are  likewifc  under 
the  ftadt-houfc  :  as  alio  the  guard-room  for  the  citi- 
zens, wherein  the  keys  of  the  city  are  locked  every 
night.  At  the  end  of  the  great  hall  is  the  fchepens 
or  aldermen's  chamber,  where  civil  caufes  are  tried. 
Bcfides  thefe,  there  are  the  chambers  of  the  fenate  and 
council,  the  burgomafters  chamber,  the  chambers  of 
accounts,  &c.  In  the  fecond  ftory  is  a  large  maga- 
zine of  arms  ;  and  on  the  top  of  the  building  are  lix 
large  ciftcrns  of  water,  which  maybe  conveyed  toany 
room  in  the  houfe  in  cafe  of  fire  ;  to  prevent  which 
the  chimnics  are  lined  with  copper. 

The  bourfe,  or  exchange,  where  the  merchants 
alfemble,  is  all  of  frec-ftone,  and  built  upon  2000 
wooden  piles.  Its  length  is  about  250  feet  and  its 
breadth  1 40.  The  galleries  arc  fupported  by  26  mar- 
ble columns,  upon  each  of  which  are  the  names  of  the 
people  that  arc  to  meet  there.  They  are  all  numbered; 
and  there  is  a  place  affixed  for  every  merchandize  un- 
der fome  one  of  thefe  numbers.  On  the  right  hand 
«f  the  gate  is  a  fuperb  ftair-cafc  which  leads  to  the 
galleries  ;  on  one  (ide  of  which  tlierc  are  feveral  fhops, 
and  on  the  other  a  place  to  fell  clothes.  It  is  not  un- 
like the  royal  exch.inge  in  London. 

The  ac'niiralty-oflice,  is  in  a  houfe  which  belonged 
formerly  to  the  princes  of  Orange.  The  arfenal  for 
their  men  of  war  is  in  the  harbour.  This  is  a  very 
handfome  building,  20ofeet  long  and  22  broad.  The 
groiMid  floor  is  filled  with  bullets  ;  the  fecond  floor 
contains  the  arms  and  cordage  ;  the  third  their  fails, 
pulleys,  flags,  &c.  This  arfenal  contaias  a  great  many 
curiolities  ;  among  the  reft  an  Indian  canoe  brought 
from  the  ftraits  of  Davies,andaconfervatory  of  water 
en  the  top  of  the  houfe  that  holds  1600  tuns  of  water. 
Which  may  be  diftributcd  in  cafe  of  fire  into  16  difl^er- 
ent  parts  by  leaden  pipes.  Hard  by  this  edifice  you 
f«c  the  dock  or  yard  where  they  build  their  men  of 
"war.  This  dock  is  jo8  feet  long,  and  contiguous  to  it 
are  houfes  for  lodging  the  fhip-carpenters.  The  dock 
is  plentifully  fopplied  with  every  thing  neceflary  for 
the  conftruftion  of  (hips. 

The  Eaft-India  company  occnpy  a  large  building 


644     J  A  M  S 

divided  into  feveral  offices  or  apartments.     In  fome  AmfterJam 

of  thofe  they  have  great  ftores  of  packed  goods,  and  ^-^ ' 

likewifc  a  room  wiih  all  forts  of  drugs,  tea,  wax, 
ambcrgrife,  and  niuflc.  Here  they  have  a  magazine 
full  of  medicaments  for  furgcons  chefts,  to  furnilh  the 
company's  fliips  and  garrifons  in  the  Indies  ;  as  alfo 
large  magazines  of  nutmegs,  cloves,  mace,  and  cinna- 
mon. In  the  court-yard  thercisaguard-chamber, where 
every  night  the  houfe-kecper  has  a  watch  ;  and  on  the 
other  fide  of  the  gate,  there  is  a  chcmift,  who  with  his 
men  prepares  medicines  for  the  Indies  ;  and  adjoining 
to  this  court-yard  is  their  warehoufe  and  packhoufe  for 
pepper  and  grofs  goods.  In  the  new  part  of  the  city 
they  have  a  magazine  or  palace,  which  may  properly 
be  called  an  ar fatal.  The  ground  on  which  the  build- 
ing ftands  is  2000  feet,  and  fquare  every  way,  reckon- 
ing the  moats  or  burgwall  about  it.  The  two  rope- 
alleys  are  1800  feet  long,  on  the  backfide  of  which  is 
a  ftore  of  joo  large  anchors  befides  fmall  ones.  In 
this  arfenal  they  build  the  lliips  belonging  to  the  India 
chamber  of  Amfterdam;  for  which  reafon  they  have 
all  fortsofworkhoufes  here  for  the  artificers  that  ferve 
the  company. 

The  academy,  called  the  Illuflrious  School,  is  like- 
wife  a  very  fine  building.  It  vvas  formerly  a  convent 
belonging  to  the  nuns  of  St  Agnes.  Here  they  teach 
Latin,  the  oriental  languages,  theology,  philofophy, 
hiftory,  &c.  The  lawyers  and  phylicians  have  like- 
wife  their  fchools. 

Belldes  thefe,  there  are  feveral  hofpitals,or  houfes 
for  orphjns,  for  poor  widows,  for  Tick  perfons,  and  for 
mad  people  ;  all  which  are  regulated  with  much  pru- 
dence. The  Rafp-houfe,  which  was  formerly  a  nun- 
nery, is  now  a  fort  of  a  work-houfc  for  men  that  be- 
have ill.  They  are  commonly  fet  to  faworrafp  Brafil 
wood  ;  andif  they  will  not  perform  their  taflc,  they  are 
put  into  a  cellar  which  the  water  runs  into,  where  if 
they  do  not  almoft  conftantly  ply  the  pump,  they  run 
the  rilk  of  being  drowned.  There  is  likewifc  a  fpin- 
houfefor  debauched  women,  where  they  are  obliged  to 
fpin  wool,  flax,  and  hemp,  and  do  other  work.  All 
the  hofpitals  are  extremely  neat,  and  richly  adorned 
with  pictures.  They  are  maintained  partly  by  volun- 
tary contributions,  which  are  raifed  by  putting  money 
into  the  poor's  boxes  fixed  up  all  over  the  city  ;  and 
partly  by  taxing  all  public  diverfions,  as  well  at  fairs 
as  ellewhere.  Likewifc  every  perfon  that  paiTes 
through  any  of  the  gates  at  candle-light  pays  a  penny 
for  the  fame  ufcs.  Thefe  charities  are  taken  care  of 
by  certain  officers  called  deacons.  The  governors  arc 
nominated  by  the  magiftratcs  out  of  the  moft  confider- 
able  men  in  ihc  city. 

The  common  fort  have  places  of  diverfion  called 
Spile -houfes,  where  there  are  mufic  and  danci  ng.  They 
are  much  of  the  fame  kind  as  the  hops  which  were  fo 
frequent  about  London.  If  ftrangers  go  there,  they 
rouft  take  care  not  to  make  their  addreffes  to  a  woman 
that  is  engaged  to  any  other  man. 

There  are  two  fuburbs  to  this  city  ;  one  at  the  gate 
of  the  regulars:  and  the  other  goes  as  far  as  Ovcrtoon, 
a  village  a  little  way  from  Amfterdam,  where  boats 
which  conic  from  Ltyden  arc  rolled  over  land  upon 
wooden  rollers.  There  is  likewifein  this  city  an  hof- 
pit.ilfor  thofe  thai  are  infected  with  the  plague  ;  which 
was  built  in  the  year  1630,  and  lias  360  windows. 

The, 


A  M  S 


t     645     ] 


A  M  T 


Amflcrdaoi      The  city  is  governed  by  a  fciiatc  or  council,  which 

*■ "^ '  coniifts  of  36  perfons  called  a  Vrosdjhaf,  who  enjoy 

their  places  for  life  ;  and  when  any  of  them  dies,  the 
remainder  choofc  another  in  his  Aead.  This  fcnatc 
cledls  deputies  to  be  fent  totlic  States  of  Holland,  and 
appoints  the  chief  magiftratcs  of  the  city, called  £«rgo- 
t/iajlers  or  Echevins,  who  are  like  our  aldermen.  1  he 
number  is  twelve  ;  out  of  which  four  arc  chofcn  every 
year  to  execute  the  office,  and  are  called  Burgomajlert- 
regent.  Three  of  thofe  are  difcharged  every  year,  to 
make  room  for  three  others.  One  of  the  four  is  kept 
in  to  inform  the  new  ones  of  the  ftate  of  affairs,  and 
alfo  prefides  the  three  tirft  months  in  the  year,  and  the 
others,  three  months  each  ;  fo  that,  when  they  are  in 
this  office,  they  may  be  compared  to  the  lord-mayor  of 
the  city  of  London.  Thefc  alterations  and  appoint- 
ments are  made  by  their  own  body.  They  dil'pofe  of 
all  inferior  offices  which  become  vacant  during  their 
regency.  They  have  likewifcihc  dircdionof  all  pub- 
licworks,  which  regard  the  fafety,tranquilli[y,and  cm- 
bcllifliment  of  the  city.  The  keys  of  the  famous  bank 
of  this  city  are  in  the  hands  of  thefe  magiftrates. 

The  college  confiftsof  new  burgomallersor  echevins, 
who  are  judges  in  all  criminal  affairs,  without  appeal ; 
but  in  civil  caufes  they  may  appeal  to  the  council  of  the 
province-  There  are  two  ireafurers,  a  bailiff,  and  a 
penfionary.  The  bailiff  continues  in  his  office  three 
years  ;  and  fearchcs  after  criminals,  takes  care  to  pro- 
fecutc  them,  and  fees  their  fentcnce  executed.  The 
penfionary  is  the  minifler  of  the  magiftracy,  is  well 
verfed  in  the  laws,  makes  public  harangues,  and  is 
the  defender  of  the  interefts  of  the  city.  The  city  of 
Amflerdam  contributes  to  the  public  income  above 
50,000  livres  per  day,  befides  the  excife  of  beer,  fleffi, 
and  corn;  which,  in  all,  amounts  to  above  i,6oo,oool. 
a-year.  This  is  more  than  is  paid  by  ail  the  rell  of 
the  provinces  put  together  ;  and  yet  Amflerdam  bears 
but  the  fifth  rank  in  the  alTembly  of  the  Hates  of  Hol- 
land, with  this  diflin(Sl;ion,  that  whereas  other  cities 
fend  two  members,  this  fends  four. 

The  militia  of  Amflerdam  is  very  coniiderablc. They 
have  60  companies,  each  of  which  has  from  200  to 
300  men.  Jews  and  Anabaptifts  are  excluded  from 
this  fervice,  not  being  admitted  to  bear  arms :  But  they 
arc  obliged  to  contribute  to  the  maintenance  of  the 
city-guard,  which  confiils  of  1400  foldiers  ;  as  alfo  to 
the  night-watch,  who  patrole  about  the  ftrects  and 
proclaim  the  hour.  Beiides  thefe,  there  arc  trum- 
peters on  every  church  ftecple,  who  found  every  half 
hour  ;  and  if  there  happens  afire,  they  ring  the  fire- 
bell,  and  (how  where  it  is.  The  inhabitants  have  ex- 
cellent contrivances  to  cxtinguilh  it  fpeedily. 

The  trade  of  Amflerdam  is  prodigious  :  for  almofl 
the  whole  trade  of  theEafl  India  company  centres  in 
this  city,  which  befides  carries  on  a  commerce  with  all 
the  refl  of  the  world,  infomuch  that  it  may  be  called 
the  magazine  or  ftorc-houfe  of  Europe.  They  import 
a  vafl  deal  of  corn  from  the  Baltic,  not  fo  much  for 
prefcnt  confuraption,  as  to  lay  up  againll  times  of  fear- 
city.  The  richell  fpices  are  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
the  EaA-India  company,  who  furnifli  all  Europe  thcrc- 
■with.  They  have  vaft  quantities  of  military  (lores, 
with  which  they  fupply  feveral  nations  ;  which  is  ow- 
ing to  [heir  cngrolEng,  mod  of  the  iron-works  on  the 
Rhine  and  other  great  rivers  that  run  into  Holland, 


The  longitude  of  Amflerdam  is  4.  30.  E.  ;  the  lati-  AmCcrrtam 

tude,  52.  25.  N.  ' » ' 

A.MSTERDAM,  is  alfo  thc  name  of  an  idand  in  the 
fouth-fea,  faid  to  have  been  difcuvered  by  Tafman,  a 
Dutch  navigator.  It  was  vifncd  by  Captain  Cook  in 
his  late  voyages.  Its  greatefl  extent  from  caft  to  weft 
is  about  21  miles,  and  from  north  to  fouth  about  13. 
It  is  broad  at  thc  cafl  end,  and  runs  taper  towards  the 
wefl,  where  it  turns,  and  runs  to  a  point  due  north. 
It  is  about  fix  leagues  to  the  wed  of  Middlcburgh. 
The  fliore  is  furrounded  by  a  coral  rock,  and  its  moft 
elevated  parts  are  not  above  fix  or  eight  yards  above 
the  level  of  thefea.  S.  Lat.  21.  11.  W.  Long.  175. 
It  is  wholly  laid  out  ia  plantations,  in  which  arc  culti- 
vated fome  of  the  richefl  produflions  of  nature. 

Here  are  bread-fruit,  cocoa-nut  trees,  plantains,  ba- 
nanas, (haddocks,  yams,  and  fome  other  roots,  fugar- 
cancs,  and  a  fruit  like  a  nedlaiiuc,  called  by  the  na- 
tives ^_^/itf^<7.     There  did  not  appear  an  inch  ofwaftc 
ground  :  the  roads  occupied  no  more  fpaec  than  was 
abfolutely  neceflary  :  the  fences  did  not  take  up  above 
four  inches  each  ;  and  even  thefc  were  not  wholly  loft, 
for  in  many  grew  fome  ufeful  trees  or  plants  :  it  was 
every  where  the  fame, change  of  place  altered  not  the 
fcene  :  nature,  affified  by  a  little  art,  no  v  liere  appear- 
ed with  more  fplendour  than  on  this  illand.     Water  is 
not  fo  plentiful  here  as  at  the  Society-illands  ;  but  thc 
chief  pointed  out  a  pool  of  frelh  water  unafked,  to  fup- 
ply the  (hips  with  that  necefTary  article.    Cafuarinas, 
pandangs,  and  wild  fago-palms,  appear  here  with  their 
various  tints  of  green,  and  barringtoniac  as  big  as 
the  loftiefl  oaks.  The  bread-fruit  docs  not,  however, 
thrive  here  with  the  fame  luxuriance  as  at  the  Sociciy- 
illands;  the  coral  rock,  which  compofcs  the  bafisof 
this  fpot,  being  much  more  thinly  covered  with  mould. 
Both  men  and  women  are  of  the  common   fize  of 
Europeans,  and  [hcircolouristhatofalighti(h  copper  ; 
they  are  well-fliapcd,  have  regular  features,  are  ac- 
tive, brifk,  and  lively.     They  have  fine  eyes,  and  in 
general  good  teeth,  even  to  an  advanced  age.     The 
women  are  the  merricfl  creatures  imaginable,  and  in- 
ccdant  talkers.  In  general,  they  appear  to  be  niodefl  ; 
although  there  was  no  want  of  thofe  of  a  different 
damp.    Among  the  natives,  who  fwam  about  the  (liip 
very  vociferoufiy,  were  a  conCderablc  number  of  wo- 
men, who  wantoned   in  the  water   like  amphibious 
creatures,  and  were  eafily  perfuadeJ  10  come  on  board 
perfedly  naked  ;  but  none  of  them  ventured  to  day 
there  af'tcr  fnni'ct,  but  returned  to  the  (hore  to  pafs  the 
night,  like  the  greater  part  of  the  inh.ibitanis,  under 
thc  fhade  of  thc  wild   wood  which  lined  the  coad. 
There  they  lighted  great  fires,  and  were  heard  con- 
verling  almoU  the  whole  night.     The  hair  of  both 
fexcs  in  general  is  black,  but  cfpecially  that  of  thc 
women  j  both  fexcs  wear  it  fliort,  except  a  fingle  lock 
on  thc  top  of  the  head,  and  a  fniall  quantity  on  each 
fide.     The  men  cut  or  (have  ihcir  beards  quite  clofc, 
which  operation  they  perform  with  two  (hells.     The 
hair  of  many  wasobfcrved  to  be  burnt  at  the  ends,  and 
Hrewed  with  a  wliite  powder,  which  was  found,  on. 
examining  it,  to  be  lime  made  of  fhell  or  coral,  which 
had  corroded  or  burnt  thc  hair  ;  fome  made  u('e  of  a 
blue  powder,  and  others,  boih  men  and  women,  of  an 
orange-coloured  powder  made  of  turmeric. 

The  drcfs  of  both  fexcs  conljds  of  a  piece  of  cloth 


AMU 


[    646    ] 


AMU 


Amulet.   %r  matting  wrapped  round  the  waift,  and  hanging 

^" — " down  btlow  tht  knees,  from  the  waill  upwards  ihcy 

arc  generally  naked,  and  it   fecnis  to  be  a  cuilom  to 
anoint  thcl'c  parts  every   morning.     Tlie  practice  of 
tatiowing,  or  piuitUuiiig  tlie  ikin,  likewile  prevails. 
The  iiien  are  tatiowcd  Ironi  the  middle  of  the  thigh  to 
above  the  hips  ;  tiic  women  have  it  only  on  their  arms 
and  lingers,  and  on  thole  parts  but  very  liightly.  Their 
ornaments  arc  anmlcts,  necklaces,  and  bracelets,  the 
bone,  lliclls,  and  beads  o('  mother-of  pearl,  tortoifc- 
Ihell,  6cc.  which  are  worn  by  men  as  well  .is  women. 
The  women  alfo  wear  on  their  lingers  neat  rings  made 
of  tortoile-lhell,  and  pieces  in  their  cars  about  the 
fizeof  a  fmall  quill ;  but  here  ornaments  are  not  com- 
monly worn,    though  all  have  their  cars    pierced. 
They  have  alfo  a  curious  apron,  made  of  the  cocoa- 
nut  flicll,  and  compoftd  of  a  number  of  fmall  pieces 
fewed  together  in  fueh  a  manner  as  to  form  liars, 
half-moons,  little  fquares,  &c.  ;  it   is  ftudded  with 
beads  and  fliells,  and  covered  with  red  feathers,  fo  as 
to  have  a  plcaling  ettcft.     They  make  the  fame  kind 
of  cloth,  andof  the  fame  materials,  as  at  O- Taheiiee, 
though  they  have  not  fuch  a  variety,  nor  do  they 
make  any  fo  fine  ;  but,  as  they  have  a  method  of  gla- 
zing it,  it  is  more  durible,  and  will  rclifl  rain  forfonie 
time,  which  the  other  cloth  would  not.  Their  colours 
are  black,  brown,  yellow,  purple,  and  red  ;  all  made 
from  vegetables.     They  make  various    forts  of  mat- 
ting, fome  of  a  very  fine  texture,  which  is  generally 
iifed  for  cloiJiing  ;   and  the  thick  and  ftrongcr  fort 
ferves  to  lle«^  upon,  and  to  make  fails  for  their  canoes, 
&c.     Among  other  ufeful  uienfils,  they  have  various 
forts  of  bulkcts,  fome  made  of  the  fame  materials  as 
the  mats,  and  others  of  the  twilled  fibres  of  cocoa- 
nuts.  Thefe  arc  not  only  durable,  but  beautiful,  being 
generally  compofed  of  different  colours,  and  ftuddcd 
with  beads  made  of  fhells  or  bones.    They  have  many 
little  nicknacks  among  them,  which  fliow  that  they 
neither  vv.int  tafle  todelign,  nor  fkill  to  execute,  wliat- 
ever  tlity  take   in  hand.     Their  fifning  implements 
are  much  the  fame  as  in  other  illauds  :  here  was  pur- 
chafed  a  filh  net  made  like  our  calling-nets,  knit  of 
very  firm  though  (lender  threads. 

Notwithllanding  their  very  friendly  difpofition, 
thefe  people  have  very  formidable  weapons  ;  fome  of 
their  fpears  have  many  barbs,  and  mufl  be  very  dan- 
gerous weapons  when  they  take  efl'eft.  A  large  flat 
fliell  orbreafl-jilate  was  purchafcd,  made  of  a  roundifli 
bone,  white  and  polifhed  like  ivory,  about  18  inches 
in  diameter,  which  appeared  to  have  belonged  to  an 
animal  of  the  whale  tribe. 

AMULET,  a  charm,  or  prcfervative  againft.  mif- 
chief,  witchcraft,  or  difeafes. 

Amulets  were  made  of  flone,  metals,  ffmples,  ani- 
mals, andinaword,  of  every  thing  that  imagination 
fuggcfled. 

Sometimes  they  confifled  of  words,  c'larafters,  and 
fentences,  ranged  in  a  particular  order,  and  enj^ra- 
ved  upon  wood,  &c.  and  worn  about  the  neck,  or 
Jbmc  other  part  of  the  body.     See  Abracadapra. 

At  other  times  they  were  neither  written  nor  en- 
graved ;   but  prepared  with  many  fuperflitious  cere- 
monies, great  regard  being  ufually  paid  to  the  inilii- 
^  ence  of  the  (lars.     The  Arabians  have  given  to  this 

Ipccics  of  amulet  tlic  name  of  talisman. 


All  nations  have  been  fond  of  amulets:  tlie  ]e\V5 
were  extremely   fuperiliiious   in  the  ufe  of  them, 
to  drive  away  difcalcs  ;  and  the  Mifna  forbids  them,  ' 
unlcfs  received  Irum  an  approved  man  «  ko  had  cured 
at  kail  three  pcrfons  before  by  the  fame  means. 

Among  the  C  hriflians  of  the  early  times,  amulets 
were  made  of  the  wood  of  the  crofs,  or  ribbands  with 
a  text  of  fcripture  written  in  them,  as  prefcrvaiives  a- 
gainll  difeafes.  Notwilhilandiugthe  progreG  of  learn- 
ing and  refinement,  there  is  not  any  country  in  Europe, 
even  at  this  day,  who  do  not  believe  in  fome  charm  or 
other.  The  pope  is  fuppofed  to  have  the  virtue  of 
making  amulets,  which  he  exertifes  in  the  confecrat- 
ing  ot  A^/irts  D<:is,&c.c.  The  fpunge  which  has  wiped 
liis  table,  was  formerly  in  great  veneration  as  a  pre- 
fcrvative  from  wounds,  and  from  death  itfelf :  on  this 
account  it  was  fent  with  great  folemnity  by  Gregory  II. 
to  the  duke  of  Aquitain. 

Anuilcts  arc  now  much  fallen  from  the  repute  they 
were  anciently  in:  yet  tlie  great  Mr  Boyle  alleges 
them  as  an  inftanceof  the  increafc  of  external  effluvi* 
into  the  habit,  iu  order  to  fliow  tlie  great  poroliiy  of 
the  human  body.  He  adds,  that  he  is  perfuadcd  fome 
of  thefe  external  medicines  do  anfwcr  ;  for  that  he 
bimfelf,  havingoncebeen  fubjeft  tobleed  at  the  nofe, 
and  reduced  to  ufe  feveral  remedies  tocheck  it,  found 
the  inofs  of  a  dead  man's  ikull,  though  only  applied 
fo  astotouch  the  Ikin  till  the  inofs  was  warm  thereby, 
the  moft  cffedual  of  any.  The  fame  Mr  Boyle  (hows 
how  the  effluvia,  even  of  cold  amulets,  may,  in  traft 
of  time,  pervade  the  pores  of  a  living  animal  ;  by 
fuppoilngan  agreement  between  the  pores  of  the  (kin 
and  the  figure  of  the  corpufcles.  Bellini  has  demon- 
ftratcd  the  pollibiliiy  of  the  thing  in  his  laft  propoll- 
tious  Dir  Fcbribi(S  ;  and  the  like  is  done  by  Dr  Wain- 
right,  Dr  Ktill,  &c. 

AMUKAT,  or  Amurath,  I.  the  fourth  emperor 
of  tht  Turks,  and  one  of  the  greattll  princes  of  the 
Ottoman  empire,  fucceed  Solyman  in  i;56o.  He  took 
from  tjic  Greeks,  Gallipoli,  Thrace,  and  Adrianople, 
wiiicli  laft  he  cliofe  for  the  place  of  his  rtlidence.  He 
defeated  the  prince  of  Bulgaria,  conquered  Mifnia, 
clnftifed  his  rebellious  bjfltawi,  and  is  faid  to  have 
gained  ;6  battles.  This  prince,  in  order  to  form  a  bo- 
dy of  devoted  troops  that  mijfht  fcrveas  the  immediaic 
guards  of  his  peribn  and  dignity,  ap])oiiited  his  offi- 
cers to  feize  annually,  as  the  imperial  property,  the 
fifth  part  of  tlic  Chrillian  youth  taken  in  war.  Thefe, 
after  being  inlirudcd  in  tlie  Mahometan  religion,  in- 
ured to  obedience  by  fevere  diff  ipline,  and  trained  to 
warlike  exercifes,  vvcreforniedintoa  body  dillinguifli- 
cd  by  the  name  of  JaiiijfariiS,  ox  N  w  Soldiers.  E- 
very  leniiuicnt  which  e:ithu(iafra  can  infpire,  every 
mark  of  dillinc-lion  tiiat  ilie  favour  of  the  prince  could 
confer,  were  employed  in  order  to  animate  this  body 
with  martial  ardour,  and  with  a  confcioufnefs  of  its 
own  pre-eminence.  The  Janiflariesfoou  became  the 
chief  ilrcngth  and  pride  of  the  Ottoman  armies,  and 
Were  diftinguilhtd  above  all  the  troops  whole  duty  it 
was  to  attend  on  the  perfonof  the  Sultan. — At  length 
the  death  of  Lazarus,  defpot  of  Servia,  who  had  en- 
deavoured in  vain  10  flop  the  progrcfs  of  Amurath's 
arms,  touched  Milo,  one  of  his  fcrvants,  in  fo  fcnfi- 
ble  a  manner,  that,  in  revenge,  he  ftabljcd  the  fultan 
in  the  midft  of  his  troops,  and  killed  liim  upon  the 

fpot. 


Amulet, 
Amurat. 


AMY 


[     647     1 


AMY 


Amycla,    fpot, 
Amygdalus  years, 


A.  D.    1389,     after    he    had     reigned    23 


A/'.URAT  H.  the  loth  cniperorof  the  Turks,  was 
tlic  cUtil  foil  of  Malioiiict  I.  and  fuccceded  his  father 
in  1 42 1.  He  btlicged  Conllaiiiiiioplc  and  Belgrade 
willioiit  fucccfs  ;  but  he  took  1  hclfalonica  from  the 
Venetians,  and  compelled  the  prince  of  Bofnia  and 
John  Callrioc  prince  of  Albany  to  pay  him  tribute. 
He  obliged  the  latter  to  fend  his  three  fons  as  hofla- 
ges  ;  among  whom  was  George,  celebrated  in  hillory 
by  tlie  name  of  Hdniderbig.  John  Hunniadcs  de- 
feated Aniurat's  troops,  and  obliged  him  to  make 
peace  with  the  Chrillian  princes,  in  1442.  Thefe 
princes  afterwards  breaking  the  peace,  Amurat  de- 
feated them  in  the  famous  battle  of  Varna,  November 
loth,  1444,  whicii  proved  fo  fatal  to  the  Chriftians, 
and  in  which  Ladidaus  king  of  Hungary  was  killed. 
He  afterwards  defeated  Hunniades,  and  killed  above 
20,oooof  his  men  ;  but  George  Caftriot,  better  known 
by  the  name  of  Scandcrbig,  being  re-eflablilhcd  in  the 
citatesof  his  father,  defeated  the  Turks  feveral  times, 
and  obliged  Amurat  to  raife  the  fiege  of  Croia,  the  ca- 
pital of  Albany.  Amurat  died,  chagrined  with  his 
ill  fuceefs,  and  infirm  \\  'th  age,  February  i  ith,  1451, 
at  Adrianople.  It  is  obfervcd  to  this  prince's  honour, 
that  heahvayskept  his  treatieswith  ihegreatefl  fidelity. 

AMYCLyE,  a  city  of  Laconia,  dillant  about  18 
miles  from  the  metropolis,  founded  by  Aniyclas  the 
fon  of  Lacedsenion,  and  famed  afterwards  forthe  birth 
of  Caflor  and  Pollux  the  fons  of  Tydarcus,  eighth 
king  of  Sparta.  It  was  afterwards  famed  for  fending 
a  confidcrable  colony  of  its  own  inhabitants  into  Up- 
per Calabria,  who  built  there  a  city  which  they  called 
by  the  fame  name.  This  laft  city  was  fituated  between 
CaietaandTerracina,  and  gave  its  name  to  the  neigh- 
bouring fea.  According  to  Pliny  and  Solinus,  the 
territory  of  Amyclx  was  fo  infcfted  with  vipers  and 
other  ferpents,  that  the  inhabitants  were  obliged  to 

abandon  rhcir  dwellings  and  fettle  elfewherc A- 

jDong  the  ancient  poets,  the  Amyeli,  or  inhabitants 
of  this  city,  obtained  the  epithet  of  taciti  or  fitent. 
The  reafon  of  this  was,  either  bccaufe  it  was  built  by 
the  Laccdxmonians,  who,  as  they  followed  the  doc- 
trine of  Pythagoras,  were  always  inculcating  the  pre- 
cept of  filenee,  and  thence  called  taciti:  er  bccauicof 
a  law  which  obtained  in  this  place,  forbidding  any 
enc,  under  fevere  penalties,  to  mention  the  approach 
of  an  enemy.  Before  this  law  was  made,  the  city 
was  daily  alarmed  by  falfe  reports,  as  tiie  enemy  had 
been  already  at  the  gates.  From  terrorsof  this  kind 
the  abovemcntioiicd  law  indeed  delivered  them  :  but 
in  the  end  it  proved  the  ruin  of  the  city  :  for  the 
Dorians  appearing  unexpeftedly  under  the  walls,  no 
one  ventured  to  tranfgrefs  the  law  ;  fo  that  the  city 
vas  ea/ily  taken.  They  reduced  it  to  an  inconfider- 
able  hamlet  ;  in  which,  however,  were  fecn  fume  of 
the  remains  of  its  ancient  grandeur.  One  of  the  finefb 
buildings  that  cfcapcd  the  common  ruin,  was  the 
temple  and  flatuc  of  Alexandra,  whom  the  inhabit- 
ants pretend  to  be  the  fame  with  Cadhndra  the  daugh- 
ter of  Priam. 

AMYGDALUS,  the  Almond  and  Peach  :  Age- 
Bus  of  the  monogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  icofin- 
dria  dafs  of  plants  ;  and,  iuiiie  natural  UKihod  rank- 


ing under  the  36th  order,  Pomacea.    The  chara^ers  Ai»ygdiliii 

are :  The  calyx  is  a  linglc-leaved  perianthium  beneath,  ' ■^~~' 

tubular,  and  quinquefid  ;  The  corolla  confuls  0/  five 
oblong  petals,  which  arc  infcrtcd  into  thccalyx:  Tho 
patiiiiiu  conlift;  of  30  (lender  credt  filaments,  half  the 
length  of  the  corolla,  and  inferted  into  the  calyx  ;  the 
antlier«are  fimple  :  The  pijiiilum  has  a  round  villous 
germen  above  ;  a  fimple  ftylus,  the  length  of  the  fta- 
mina  ;  and  the  ftigma  headed  :  The  piricarpium  is  a 
large  roundifli  villous  drupa,  with  a  longitudinal  fur- 
row :  the  feed  is  an  ovate  compreflcd  nut,  perforated 
in  the  pores. 

Species.  I.  The  Communis,  or  Common  Almond,  a 
native  of  Africa,  will  grow  to  near  20  feet  high  ;  and 
whether  planted  fingly  in  an  open  place,  or  mixed 
with  others  in  clumps,  llirubbcry-quarters,  &c.  fliows 
itfelf  one  of  the  fincfl  flowering  trees  in  nature. 
Thofe  whonevcryct  fawit,may  eafily  conceive  what  a 
noble  appearance  this  tree  mud  make,  when  covered 
all  over  with  a  bloom  of  a  delicate  red,  which  will  be 
in  March  ;  a  time  when  very  few  trees  arc  ornamen- 
ted either  with  leaves  or  flowers.  No  ornamental 
plantation,  therefore,  of  what  fort  or  kind  foever, 
Ihould  be  without  almond  trees.  Neither  arc  the 
beauties  of  the  flowers  the  only  tiling  defirable  in  this 
tree  :  The  fruit  would  render  it  worthy  of  planting, 
were  there  no  other  motive.  It  ripens  well,  and  its 
goodncfs  is  well  known. — The  white-flowering  al- 
mond is  a  variety  of  this  fpccies,  and  is  cultivated  for 
the  fake  of  the  flowers  and  the  fruit,  though  the  flow- 
ers are  inferior  to  the  others. 

2.  The  Nana,  Dwarf  Almond,  is  a  native  of  Afia 
Minor.  Of  this  flirub  tliere  are  two  forts,  the  fingle 
and  the  double.  Both  grow  to  about  four  or  five  feet 
high,  and  are  in  the  firfl  eftecm  as  flowering  flirubs. 
The  fingle  fort  has  its  beauties  ;  but  the  double  kind  is 
matchlcfs.  In  both,  the  flowers  are  arranged  the  whole 
length  of  the  laft  year's  flioots  ;  their  colour  is  a  deli- 
cate red  ;  and  they  Ihow  theinfelves  early  in  the 
fpring,  which  Aill  enhances  their  value. 

3.  The  Pcrfica,  or  Peach,  is  faid  to  be  a  native  of 
Europe  ;  but  of  what  place  is  not  known.  Cultivation 
has  produced  many  varieties  of  this  fruit  ;  of  whicb 
the  following  arc  the  mofl  efteemed. 

1.  The  White   Nutmeg  15.  The  Bellegardc 

2.  The  Red  Nutmeg  16.  The  Bourdinc 
The  Early  Purple  17.  The  Rolfanna 
The  Small  Mignon       18.  The  Admirable 
The  White  Magdalen  19.  The  Old  NewingtoB 
The  Yellow  Albcrge     20.  The  Royal 


8. 

9- 
10. 

II. 
12. 

14 


The  Large  French 

Mignon 
The  Beautiful  Chev- 

rcufe 

The  Red  Magdalen 
The  Chancellor 
Smith's  Newingion 
The  Montauban 

The  Malta 
The  \'iiuufe 


21.  The  Rambouillet 

22.  The  Portugal 
2?.  The  Late  Admirable 
24.  The  Nivette 
2  J.  Venus's  Nipple 
36.  The  Late  Purple 

27.  The  Perifque 

28.  The  Catharine 

29.  The  Monftrous  Pavy 
50.  Tlie  Blooi'y  Peach. 

The  ^^■hitc  Nutmeg  is  the  firfl  peac  h  iu  feafon,  it 
being  often  in  perfection  by  the  end  of  July.  The 
leaves  are  doubled  ferratcd,  the  flower  large,  and  of 
a  pule  colour ;  the  fruit  is  white,  iiuall,  and  round  : 

the 


AMY 


[     648     J 


AMY 


AmrgJalut  tlie  flcdi,  too,  is  white,  parts  from  the  ftone,  and  has 
V         a  fugary,  mulky  flavour. 

The  Kcd  Nutmeg  hath  yellowifli  green  leaves,  with 
ftrpcntine  edges,  which  are  flighily  fcrrated.  The 
flowers  arc  large,  open,  and  of  a  deep  bliiilh  colour. 
The  fruit  is  larger  and  rounder  than  the  former,  and 
is  of  a  bright  vermilion  next  the  fun,  but  more  yellow 
on  the  other  fide.  The  flclh  is  white,  except  next 
the  llonc,  freni  which  it  feparates,  and  has  a  rich 
mulky  flavour.  It  ripens  jull  after  the  white  nut- 
meg. 

The  Early  Purple  hath  fmooth  leaves,  terminated 
in  a  (harp  point.  The  flowers  are  large,  open,  and 
of  a  lively  red.  The  fruit  is  large,  round,  and  co- 
vered with  a  fine  deep  red  coloured  down.  The  flcfli 
is  white,  red  next  tlie  flone,  and  full  of  a  rich  vinous 
juice.     Ripe  about  the  middle  of  Augufl. 

The  fniall  Mignon  hathleavcsflightly  ferratcd,  and 
the  flowers  fmall  and  contracted.  'Fhe  peach  is  round, 
of  a  middling  fize,  tinged  with  darkilh  red  on  the  fun- 
fide,  and  is  of  a  pale  yellowilh  colour  on  the  other. 
The  flelh  is  white,  parts  from  the  ftone,  where  it  is 
red,  and  contains  plenty  of  a  vinous  fugary  juice.  Ri- 
pens rather  before  the  former. 

The\VhiteMagdalcnhaililong,(hining,  pale-green 
leaves,  deeply  ferrated  on  the  edges,  and  the  wood  is 
moftly  black  at  the  pith.  The  flowers  are  large  and 
open,  appear  early,  and  are  of  a  pale  red.  The  fruit 
is  round,  rather  large,of  ayellowilh-white  colour,  ex- 
cept on  the  funny  iide,  wiiere  it  is  flightly  flreaked 
with  red.  The  flelh  is  while  to  the  llone,  from  which 
it  feparates,  and  the  juice  is  pretty  well  flavoured. 
Ripe  at  the  end  of  Augufl. 

The  Yellow  Alberge  hath  deep  red,  niiddle-fized 
flowers  ;  the  peach  is  fmallcr  than  the  former,  of  a 
yellow  colour  on  the  Ihady  fide,  and  of  a  deep  red  on 
the  other.  The  flelh  is  yellow,  red  at  the  flone,  and 
the  juice  is  fugary  and  vinous. 

The  great  French  Mignon  hath  large,  finely  fer- 
rated leaves,  and  beautiful  red  flowers.  The  fruit  is 
large,  quite  round,  covered  with  a  fine  fatiny  down, 
of  a  brownilh  red  colour  on  the  funny  iide,  and  of  a 
greenidi  yellow  on  the  other.  The  flelli  is  white,  ca- 
lily  parts  from  the  Ikin,  and  is  copioully  flored  with  a 
fugary  high-flavoured  juice.  Ripe  near  the  middle  of 
Aiigurt. 

The  beautiful  Chevreufe  hath  plain  leaves,and  fmall 
contrafted  flowers.  The  fruit  is  rather  oblong,  of  a 
middling  fize,  of  a  fine  red  colour  next  the  fun,  but 
yellow  on  the  other  fide.  The  flclh  is  yellowilh,  parts 
from  the  llonc,  and  is  fall  of  a  rich  fugary  juice.  It 
ripens  a  little  after  the  former. 

The  Red  Magdalen  hath  deeply  ferrated  leaves, 
and  large  open  flowers.  The  fruit  is  large,  round,  and 
of  a  fine  red  next  the  fun.  The  flelh  is  firm,  white, 
feparates  from  the  flone,  where  it  is  very  red  ;  the 
juice  is  fugary,  and  of  an  exquifite  rich  flavour.  Ripe 
at  the  end  of  Auguft. 

The  Chancellor  hath  large,  flightly  ferrated  leaves. 
The  peach  is  about  the  fize  of  the  Beautiful  Chev- 
reufe, but  rather  rounder.  The  Ikin  is  very  thin,  of 
a  fine  red  on  the  fanny  fide;  the  flclh  is  white  and 
melting,  parts  from  the  flone,  and  the  juice  is  very 
rich  and  fugary.     It  ripens  with  the  former. 

The  leaves  of  Smith's  Newington  are  ferrated,  and 


the  flowers  are  large  and  open.  The  fruit  is  of  a  mid-  Amygdalw 

die  fize,  of  a  fine  red  on  the  funny  fide  ;  the  flelh  white  ' ^— ^ 

and  firm,  but  very  red  at  the  flone,  to  which  it  flicks 
clofcly,  and  the  juice  has  a  pretty  good  flavour.  Ri- 
pens with  the  former. 

The  Montauban  hath  ferrated  leaves,  and  largfe 
open  flowers.  The  fruit  is  about  the  fize  of  the  for- 
mer, of  a  pur^'lifli  red  next  the  fan,  but  of  a  pale  one 
on  the  fliady  lidc.  The  flelli  is  melting,  and  white 
even  to  the  ftone,  from  which  it  feparates.  The 
juice  is  rich,  and  well  flavoured.  It  ripens  a  little 
before  the  former. 

The  Malta  hath  deeply  ferrated  leaves,  and  the  flow- 
ers are  large  and  open.  The  fruit  is  alinofl  round,  of 
a  fine  red  next  the  fun,  marbled  with  a  deeper  red,  but 
the  Ihady  fide  is  of  a  deep  green.  The  flelh  is  fine, 
white,  except  at  the  flone,  from  which  it  parts,  where 
it  is  of  a  deep  red  ;  the  juice  is  a  little  mulky,  and  a- 
greeable.  It  ripens  at  the  end  of  Augufl;,  or  begin- 
ning of  September. 

The  Viueufe  hath  large  deep  green  leaves,  and  full 
bright  red  flowers.  The  fruit  is  round,  of  a  middle 
fize  ;  the  Ikin  is  thin,  all  over  red  ;  the  flclh  fine  and 
white,  except  at  the  flone,  where  it  is  very  red,  and 
the  juice  is  copious  and  vinous.  Ripe  in  the  middle 
of  September. 

The  Bellegarde  hath  fmooth  leaves,  and  fmall  con- 
tra.5led  flowers.  The  fruit  is  very  large,  round,  and 
of  a  deep  purple  colour  next  the  fun.  The  flelli  is 
white,  parts  from  the  flone,  where  it  is  of  a  deep  red, 
and  the  juice  is  rich  and  excellent.  It  ripens  early 
in  September. 

The  Bourdine  hath  large,  fine  green,  plain  leaves, 
and  fmall  flefli-coloured  contraftcd  flowers.  The  fruit 
is  round,  of  a  dark  red  next  the  fun  ;  the  flelli  white, 
except  at  the  flone,  where  it  is  of  a  deep  red,  and  the 
juice  is  rich  and  vinous.     Ripens  with  the  former. 

The  RoiTana  hath  plain  leaves,  and  fmall  contract- 
ed flowers.  The  fruit  is  rather  longer  than  the  al- 
berge, and  lome  count  it  only  a  variety  of  the  latter. 
The  flefli  is  yellow,  and  parts  from  the  flone,  where 
itisred;  the  juice  is  rich  and  vinous.  Ripecarlyin 
September. 

The  Admirable  hath  plain  leaves,  and  fmall  con- 
tracted flowers,  which  are  of  a  pale  red.  The  fruit 
is  very  large  and  round ;  the  flelli  is  firm,  melting, 
and  white,  parts  from  the  flone,  and  is  there  red  ;  and 
the  juice  has  a  fwect,  fugary,  high  vinous  flavour. 
Ripe  early  in  September. 

The  Old  Newington  hath  ferrated  leaves,  and  large 
open  flowers.  The  fruit  is  large,  of  a  fine  red  next 
the  fun  ;  the  flelli  is  white,  flicks  clofe  to  the  flone, 
where  it  is  of  a  deep  red,  and  the  juice  has  an  excel- 
lent flavour.     It  ripens  juft  after  the  former. 

The  Royal  hath  plain  leaves,  and  fmall  contracted 
flowers.  The  fruit  is  about  the  fize  of  the  admirable, 
and  rcfcmbles  it,  except  that  it  has  fometimts  a  few 
knobs  or  warts.  The  flelli  is  white,  melting,  and  full 
of  a  rich  juice  ;  it  parts  from  the  flone,  and  is  there  of 
a  deep  red.     Ripe  about  the  middle  of  September. 

The  Rambouilltt  hath  leaves  and  flowers  like  tile 
royal.  The  fruit  is  rather  round  than  long,  of  a  mid- 
dling fize,  and  deeply  divided  by  a  furrow.  It  is  of  a 
bright  yellow  on  the  Ihady  fide,  but  of  a  fine  red  on 
the  other.     The  flelh  is  melting,  yellow,  parts  from 

I  the 


AMY  l[    649 

Amygdalas  the  flone,  where  it  is  of  a  deep  red,  undthcjuice  is 
' " '  rich  and  vinous.     Ripe  with  the  former. 

The  Poniiga)  hath  plain  leaves,  and  hrgeopen  flow- 
ers. The  fruit  is  large,  fpotted,  and  of  a  beautiful  red 
on  the  funny  lidc.  The  flclh  is  firm,  white,  flicks  to 
the  (lone,  and  is  there  red.  The  llone  is  fmall,  deep- 
ly furrowed,  and  the  juice  is  rich  and  fugary.  Ripe 
towards  the  end  of  September. 

The  late  Admirable  hath  ferrated  leaves,  and 
brownilh  red  fuiall  contrafted  flowers.  The  fruit  is 
rather  large  and  round,  of  a  bright  red  next  the  fun, 
marbled  with  a  deeper.  The  fiefli  is  of  a  greenilh- 
white,  and  (licks  to  the  ftone,  where  it  hath  feveral 
red  veins ;  thejuice  is  rich  and  vinous.  Ripeabout 
the  middle  of  September. 

TheNivettehathferratedleaves.andfmalleontraft- 
ed  flowers.  The  fruit  is  large  and  roundilh,  of  a  bright 
red  colour  next  the  fun,  but  of  a  pale  yellow  on  the 
fliady-lide.  The  fle(h  is  of  a  greenilh  yellow,  parts 
from  tlie  ftone,  where  it  is  very  red,  and  is  copioufly 
flored  with  a  rich  juice.  Ic  ripens  about  the  middle 
of  September. 

Venus's  Nipple  hath  finely  ferrated  leaves,  and 
rofe-coloured,  fmall  contrafted  flowers,  edged  with 
carmine.  The  fruit  is  of  a  middling  fize,  and  has  a 
riling  like  a  breaft.  It  is  of  a  faint  red  on  the  funny- 
fide,  and  on  the  ihady  one  of  a  ftraw-colour.  The  flefli 
is  melting,  white,  feparatcs  from  the  ftone,  where  it 
is  red,  and  the  juice  is  rich  and  fugary.  Ripens 
late  in  September. 

The  Late  Purple  hath  large,  ferrated  leaves,  which 
arc  varioully  contorted,  and  the  flowers  are  fmall 
and  contrafted.  The  fruit  is  round,  large,  of  a 
dark  red  on  the  funny  fide,  and  yellowilh  on  the 
'other.  The  flcdi  is  melting,  white,  parts  from  the 
ftone,  where  it  is  red,  and  the  juice  is  fweet  and 
high-flavoured.     Ripens  with  the  former. 

The  Perfique  hath  large,  very  long  indented  leaves, 
and  fmall  conira(Sled  flowers.  The  fruit  is  large,  ob- 
long, of  a  fine  red  next  the  fun  ;  the  flelh  firm,  white, 
but  red  at  the  ftone,  juicy,  and  of  a  high  plcafani  fla- 
vour. The  ftalk  has  frequently  a  fmall  knot  upon  it. 
Ripe  late  in  September. 

The  Catharine  hath  plain  leaves,  and  fmall  flow- 
ers. The  fruit  is  large,  round,  of  a  very  dark  red 
next  the  fun.  The  flelh  white,  firm,  fticks  chife  to 
the  ftone,  and  is  there  of  a  deep  red.  The  juice  is 
rich  and  pleafant.     It  ripens  early  in  Oftober. 

The  Monftrous  Pavy  hath  large,  very  llightly  fer- 
rated leaves,  and  large,  but  rather  contrailed  flow- 
ers. The  fruit  is  round,  and  very  large,  whence  its 
name.  It  is  of  a  fine  red  on  the  funny-fide,  and  of  a 
grecni(h-whiie  on  the  other.  The  flefli  is  white, 
melting,  fticks  clofe  ro  the  ftone,  and  is  there  of  a 
deep  red.  It  is  pretty  full  of  juice,  which  in  dry  fca- 
f(  ns  is  fugary,  vinous,  and  agreeable.  Ripe  towards 
the  end  of  Oclobrr. 

"The  Bloody  Peach  hath  rather  large,  ferrated 
leaves,  which  turn  red  in  autumn.  The  fruit  is  ot' 
a  middling  fize,  the  (kin  all  over  of  a  dull  red,  and 
the  flclh  is  red  down  to  the  ftone.  The  fruit  is  but 
dry,  and  thejuice  rather  Iharp  and  bitierilh.  It  is 
well  worth  cultivating  notwithftanding,  for  the  fruit 
bake  and  preferve  extremely  well. 

The  ptach-tree  has  hiiLeno  been  planted  againft 
Vol.  I. 


] 


AMY 


walls  for  the  fake  of  the  fruit :  "  but,  (faysHanbury),  AmypdiUi. 

as  I  hardly  ever  knew  a  perfon  wlio  was  not  ftruck  * •■' ' 

with  the  beauty  of  the  flowers  when  in  full  blow 
againft  a  wall,  why  lliould  it  not  have  a  ftiare  in  wil- 
dernefs  quarters,  and  flirubberies,  amongft  the  forti 
of  almonds,  &c.  .'  It  may  be  Jcept  down,  or  permit- 
ted to  grow  to  the  height  of  the  owner's  fancy  :  and 
the  flowers  are  inferior  to  none  of  the  other  forts. 
Add  to  this,  they  frequently,  in  well-lhcltered  places, 
produce  fruit  which  will  be  exceeding  well-flavour- 
ed ;  and  thus  the  owner  may  enjoy  the  benefit  of  a 
double  treat."  The  above  obfervations  refpeft  the 
fingle  peach  ;  with  regard  to  the  double-flowered,  it 
is  generally  propagated  for  ornamental  plantations, 
and  is  univerfally  acknowledged  to  be  one  of  the 
fineft  flowering-trees  yet  known.  Againft  a  wall, 
hosvever,  thefe  trees  are  always  the  faireft  ;  and  if 
they  have  this  advantage,  they  arc  fucceedcd  by  very 
good  fruit. 

The  Nectarine,  according  to  Linnasus,  is  only« 
variety  of  the  peach,  its  having  a  fmooih  coat  being 
only  an  accident  originally.  Of  this  alfo  many  varie- 
ties are  now  cultivated  ;  and  the  following  are  forac 
of  the  moft  efteemed  :  i.ThcElruge.  2.  The  Ncw- 
ington.  3.  The  Scarlet.  4.  The  Roman.  5.  The 
Murrey.  6.  The  Italian.  7.  The  Golden.  8.  The 
Temple's. 

The  Elruge  hath  large  ferrated  leaves,  and  fmall 
flowers.  The  fruit  is  of  a  middling  fize,  of  a  dark 
purple  colour  next  the  fun,  and  of  a  greenilh  yellow 
on  the  ft)ady  fide.  The  flelli  parts  from  the  ftone,  and 
has  a  foft,  melting,  good  flavoured  juice.  Ripe  early 
in  Angnft. 

The  Ncwington  hath  ferrated  leaves,  and  large 
open  flowers.  The  fruit  is  pretty  large,  of  a  beauti- 
ful red  on  the  funny-fide,  but  of  a  bright  yellow  on 
the  other.  The  fle(h  fticks  to  the  ftone,  is  there  of  a 
deep  red  colour,  and  thejuice  has  an  excellent  rich 
flavour.     Ripe  towards  the  end  of  Auguft. 

The  fcarlet  is  rather  lefs  than  the  former,  of .-» 
fine  fcarlet  colour  next  the  fun,  but  fades  to  a  pale 
red  on  the  Oiady  fide.  It  ripens  near  the  time  of  the 
former. 

The  Roman,  or  clufter  red  neftarine,  hath  plain 
leaves,  and  large  flowers.  The  fruit  is  large,  of  a 
deep  red  towards  the  fun,  but  yellowilh  on  the  (hady 
fide.  The  flclh  is  firm,  fticks  to  the  ftone,  and  is 
there  red  ;  the  juice  is  rich,  and  has  an  excellent 
flavour.     Ripe  about  the  end  of  Auguft. 

The  Murrey  is  a  middling-fizcd  fruit,  of  a  dirty 
red  colour  on  the  funny  fide,  and  yellowilh  on  the 
(hady  one.  The  flelh  is  firm,  and  tolerably  well  fla- 
voured.    It  ripens  early  in  Septcnibei . 

The  Italian  Neflai  ine  hath  fmooth  leaves  and  fmall 
flowers  ;  the  fruit  is  red  next  the  fun,  but  yellowilli  on 
the  other  fide  ;  flefli  firm,  adheres  to  the  ftone,  where 
it  is  red,  and  when  ripe,  which  is  early  in  Septem- 
ber, has  an  excellent  flavour. 

The  Golden  Ncftarinc  has  an  agreeable  red  colour 
next  the  fun,  bright  yellow  on  theoppolite  fide  ;  flefh 
verv  yellow,  fticks  to  the  ftone,  where  it  is  of  a  pale 
red,  lias  a  rich  fl  'vour,  and  ripens  in  September. 

Temple's  Neiflarine  is  of  a  middling  fize,  of  a  fair 

red  next  the  fun,  of  3  yellowilh  green  on  the  other 

fide  ;  flelh  white  near  the  ftone,  from  which  it  fepa- 

4  N  rates 


AMY 


[     65 


Ainrg<^alus  rates ;  ripens  in  September^  and  has  a  liigh  poignant 
' '' '  tiavoiir. 

Propagation,  &c.  All  the  above  fpecies  are  propa- 
gated by  inoculating  tlicni  into  plum  llocks  in  Avigali. 
The  ftocks  ihould  be  lirll  planted  in  the  nurfcry  when 
of  the  lize  of  a  ftraw  ;  and  the  firft  or  iVcond  I'limmcr 
after  they  will  be  ready  to  receive  the  bud.  The  ufual 
method  of  inoculation  mull  be  obfcrved,  and  there  is 
no  danger  of  fuccefs  ;  though  it  may  be  proper  to  ob- 
ferve,  that  the  double-bloiromed  peach  lliould  always 
be  worked  into  the  ftocks  of  the  inuH'cl-pKim.  The 
two  forts  of  dwarf-almond  may  alfo  be  propagated  by 
layers,  or  from  the  fuckers,  which  they  fometimts 
lend  forth  in  great  plenty. 

The  varieties  of  the  peach  are  produced  like  thofc 
of  the  liner  flowers,  by  lowing  the  feeds  ;  and  though 
many  raifed  this  way  will  be  of  little  value,  as  is  alio 
ihe  cafe  of  flowers,  yet  probably  among  a  parcel  of 
lloncs,  faved  from  the  hner  kinds  of  peaches,  there 
would  be'fome  new  kinds  produced.  The  bed  method 
of  faving  the  flones  is,  to  let  fome  of  the  fined  peaches 
of  the  bell  kinds  hang  till  they  drop  of  thcmfclvesfrom 
the  tree,  and  then  the  Aones  lliould  be  immediately 
planted  on  a  bed  of  light  dry  earth,  planting  them 
about  three  inches  deep  in  the  earth,  and  at  about  four 
inches  afundcr.  The  beds  Ihould  be  covered  to  pre- 
ferve  them  in  the  winter  ;  and  in  fpring,  when  the 
plants  come  up,  they  mull  be  cleared  of  weeds,  and 
well  watered.  The  next  fpring  they  ihould  be  care- 
fully taken  up,  and  planted  in  the  nurfery,  in  rows 
three  feet  afunder,  and  one  foot  diflant  from  each  o- 
thcr ;  laying  a  little  mulch  upon  the  furface  of  the 
ground  about  their  roots,  and  in  a  dry  fpring  watering 
them  once  in  a  week  ;  and  after  one  or  two  years  Hand- 
ing here,  they  may  be  removed  to  the  places  where 
they  are  to  remain  ;  or  they  may,  at  that  time,  when 
the  condition  of  their  fruit  is  known,  be  grafted  on 
other  flocks. 

There  are  two  general  rules  given  for  the  pruning 
of  peach  and  nectarine  trees  ;  viz.  I.  Always  to  have 
enough  of  bearing  wood  ;  and,  2.  Not  to  lay  in  the 
branches  too  clofe  to  one  another.  All  peach  trees 
produce  their  fruit  from  the  young  wood  cither  of  the 
fame,  or  at  the  mofl  of  the  former  year's  (hoot ;  for 
which  reafon  the  branches  are  to  be  fo  pruned,  as  to 
encourage  them  to  throw  out  new  flioots  in  every  part 
of  the  tree  :  and  this  is  to  be  done  in  May  ;  when  by 
pinching,  or  ftopping  the  flrong  Ihoots,  there  may  be 
new  wood  forced  out  in  any  part  of  the  tree.  This  is 
the  method  of  the  funimer  pruning  :  the  winter  pru- 
ning is  ufually  done  in  February  or  March  ;  but  is 
much  better  done  at  Michaelmas,  as  foon  as  their 
leaves  begin  to  fall ;  and  the  wounds  will  then  have 
time  to  heal  before  the  fevere  frofls  coire  on. 

In  pruning  of  thefe  trees  it  mud  always  be  obfcr- 
ved alfo,  that  it  is  beil  done  under  a  wood  bud,  not  a 
blolTom  bud  ;  which  may  be  didinguiftied  by  ilie  \rood 
bud's  being  Icfs  turgid,  and  longer  and  narrower  than 
the  blo/Tom  bud ;  for  if  the  {hoot  have  not  a  leading 
bud  where  it  is  cut,  it  will  commonly  die  down  to  the 
leading  bud.  In  nailing  the  Ihoots  to  the  wall,  they 
fhould  be  placed  at  as  equal  diflances  as  polliblc  ;  and 
fo  far  apart  that  the  leaves  may  have  room  ;  and  iliey 
mufl  always  be  trained  as  horizontally  as  pofliblc,  that 


o     ]  AMY 

the  lower  part  of  the  tree  may  be  well  wooded,  which  AmygdJ 

it  will  not  be  if  the  branches  are  fuffcred  to  run  up-  *■ v — 

right.  When  the  fruit  is  fct  and  grown  to  the  fize  of 
a  fmall  nut,  it  Ihuuld  be  thinned,  and  Icf:  live  or  fix 
inchei  afundcr  :  by  this  management  the  fruit  « ill  be 
laiger  and  better  tailed,  and  tlic  trees  iti  a  condition 
to  bear  well  the  fuccecding  year.  The  quantity  of 
fruit  to  be  left  on  large  full  grown  trees  fliould  never 
be  greater  than  live  dozen  upon  each  ;  but  on  middling 
trees,  threeor  four  dozen  will  be  enough.  If  the  fea- 
fon  ihould  prove  hot  and  dry,  it  will  be  proper  to  draw 
up  the  earth  round  the  Hem  of  each  tree,  to  form  a 
hollow  bafon  of  about  fix  feet  in  diameter,  and  cover 
the  furface  of  the  ground  in  this  bafon  with  mulch  ; 
and  once  in  a  week  or  fortnight,  according  to  the 
drought  of  the  fcafon,  10  pour  down  eight  or  ten  gal- 
lons of  water  to  the  root  of  each  tree  ;  or  the  water 
may  be  fprinkled  by  an  engine  over  the  branches  of 
the  trees,  which,  fluking  down  to  the  roots,  will  pro- 
mote the  growth  of  the  fruit  and  prevent  it  falling  olF 
the  trees.  This,  however,  lliould  be  coniinucd  on- 
ly while  the  fruit  is  growing. 

Th  e  peach-tree,  as  w  ell  as  t'le  rofc-tree,are  very  fub- 
jeft  to  be  over-run  with  the  aphides  ;    which  may  be 
deftroyed  by  fumigating  the  houfe  in  which  the  plants 
arc  kept  with  tobacco,  or,  which  is  faid  to  be  the 
moll  etfcdual  method,  by  fleam  raifed  from  water 
poured  over  the  flues*. — Soap-fuds  are  faid  to  dcdroy  .  see  Jf  / 
cffcftually  the  different  fpecies  of  infedls  that  itfell  nfcrdng 
fruit-trees  growing  againd  walls,  and  pariicularly  x\\t  fcadci,  &. 
peach,  cherry,  and  plum.     For  this  purpofe,  a  pcr- 
ibn  on  a  ladder,  fliould  pour  them  from  a  watering- 
pot  over  both  trees  and  wall,  beginning  at  the  top  of 
the  wall,  and  bringing  it  on  in  courfes  from  top  to 
bottom.     The  fuds  contribute  likewifc,  it  is  faid,  to 
prefervc  the  wood  of  the  delicate  and  tender  kinds  pf 
peaches. 

Vfcs.  Sweet  almonds  are  reckoned  to  afford  little 
nourilhment;  and,  when  eaten  in  fubllance,  are  not 
eafy  of  digcllion,  unlefs  tiioroughly  comminuted  : 
Peeled,  and  eaten  lix  or  eight  at  a  time,  they  forr.e- 
times  give  prefent  relief  in  the  heart-burn.  But  in 
medicine  they  are  inodly  ui'td  for  making  cmulfions  ; 
and  they  abound  nor  only  with  an  oil,  but  likewifc 
with  a  mucilage  fit  for  incorporating  oil  and  water 
together. 

Emnlllons  are  commonly  prepared  from  almonds,  by 
beating  an  ounce  of  them,  after  being  blanched,  into 
a  fine  pulp,  in  a  marble  or  done  mortar  ;  and  tritura- 
ting them  well  with  half  an  ounce  (more  or  lefs)  of 
fine  fugar  ;  and  then  adding  by  little  at  a  time,  a 
quart  of  water;  taking  care  to  continue  grinding 
them  while  the  water  is  poured  on  ;  after  which  the 
white  milky  liquor  is  drained  through  a  cloth,  and  put 
into  a  quart  bottle.  Some  people  add  a  drachm  of 
blanched  bitter  almonds  to  an  ounce  of  the  fvvcct, 
which  they  think  make  the  emullions  more  agreeable. 
Such  emullions  have  been  much  ufcd  as  drink  in  acute 
difeafes,  for  diluiing  and  blunting  acrimoniousjuices 
in  the  fird  palfages,  and  acrid  falinc  particles  in  the 
blood  ;  and  for  foftening  and  hibricating  the  fibres  and 
membranes. 

It  has  been  a  common  praflice  to  difiblve  from  half 
an  ounce  to  an  ounce,  or  more,  of  gum-arabic  in  tli« 

wate? 


AMY 


L     651     1 


AMY 


Amyliceoui  ^^atcr  ufed  for  making  ihf  emulfions  ;  and  to  make 

I         p.iticms  drink  freely  of  them,  while  blilkrs  arc  ap- 

Amyntor.  pijcd  to  the  body,  in  order  to  prevent  ftrangiiry  ;  and 

""      "         to  order  them  10  be  ufcd  in  cafes  of  gravel,   and  of 

inriammation  of  the  bladder  or  urethra  ;  and  in  heat 

of  urine  from  virulent  gonorrhcua  or  other  caufcs. 

Camphor,  refm  of  jalap,  and  other  refinous  fub- 
Aances,  by  being  triturated  with  almonds,  become  niif- 
ciblc  with  water,  and  more  mild  and  plcafant  than 
they  were  before  ;  and  therefore  they  are  frequently 
ordered  to  be  rabbed  with  them,  and  made  up  into 
pills  or  bolufcs,  with  the  adJiiion  of  fomc  confcrvc 
or  gum-aribic  mucilage  ;  or  they  are  incorporated 
■with  watery  liquors  into  the  form  of  an  emullion. 

Formerly  the  feeds  of  the  lettuce,  of  the  cucumber, 
of  the  white  poppy,  and  of  a  number  of  other  plants, 
were  employed  for  making  emulfions  ;  but  now  the 
fweet  almonds  fiipply  the  place  of  ail  the  reft. 

The  bitter  almonds  are  not  fo  much  ufed  as  they 
were  formerly;  becaufe  they  have  been  found  to  de- 
flroy  fomc  forts  of  animals  :  this  tfted  was  related  by 
the  ancients,  but  believed  to  be  fiftitious  ;  becaufe 
when  eaten  by  men  they  appear  to  be  innocent,  and 
to  produce  no  deleterious  etfctts.  However,  the  facts 
related  by  Wepfcr  in  his  Treatife  di;  Cicuta  Aquatica, 
having  been  confirmed  by  latter  experiments  ;  and  it 
having  been  difcovered  that  a  water  drawn  from  them 
had  deleterious  effefts,  and  that  the  dillilled  water 
from  tbc  lauro-cerafus  leaves,  which  have  a  bititer 
tafte  rcfenibling  that  of  bitter  almonds,  was  ftill  more 
puifonous  ;  it  raifed  a  fufpicion  of  the  wholefomcnefs 
of  thofe  bitter  fubftances,and  has  made  phylitians  more 
cautious  of  uling  them,  though  they  have  been  em- 
ployed for  making  orgcatc  and  other  liquors,  without 
producing  any  bad  cffeils. 

As  to  the  peach  and  ncdarine,  they  are  fufficicntly 
\  nown  as  delicious  fruits.  Peach-flowers  have  an  a- 
grccable  fnicll,  and  a  bitterilh  ta(le  :  dirtilied,  with- 
out any  addition,  by  the  heat  of  a  water-bath,  they 
yield  one-fixth  their  weight,  or  more,  of  a  whitilh  li- 
quor, which,  as  Mr  Bolduc  obferves,  communicates 
to  a  large  quantity  of  other  liquids  a  flavour  like  that 
of  the  kernels  of  fruits.  An  infulion  in  water  of  half 
an  ounce  of  the  frefli  gathered  flowers,  or  a  dram  of 
them  when  dried,  fweclened  with  fugar,  proves  for 
children  an  ufeful  laxative  and  anthelmintic  :  the 
leaves  of  the  tree  are,  with  this  intention,  foracwhat 
more  cfiicacious,  tliough  lefs  agreeable.  The  fruit 
has  the  fame  quality  with  the  other  fweet  fruits,  that 
of  abating  heat,  quenching  thirft,  and  gently  loofcn- 
ing  the  belly. 

AMYLACKOUS,  from  aruylum  "  ftarch  ;"  a  term 
applied  to  the  fine  flour  of  farinaceous  feeds,  in  which 
confifls  their  nutritive  part.     See  Bread. 

AMYNTA,  in  literary  hiftory,  a  beautiful  paftoral 
comedy,  corapofed  by  TalFo  ;  the  model  of  all  drama- 
tic pieces  wherein  fhcpherds  arc  aftors.  The  Pajlor 
Fido,  and  Filli  di  Scire,  are  only  copies  of  this  cxcel- 
Jcnt  piece. 

AMYNTOR,  a,ui/7Ta.f,  formed  of  the  verb  «.avTf,  / 
defend,  or  avenge,  properly  denotes  a  perfon  who  de- 
fends or  vindi-ates  a  caufe.  In  ibis  fcnfe,  Mr  Toland 
inlitlcs  his  dcfenre'of  Milton's  life,  /t/.'v«^5r.  as  being 
a  vindication  of  that  work  agaiuft  Mr  Blackball  and 
others,  who  liad  charged  him  with  queftioning  the  au- 


thority of  fomc  of  the  books  of  the  New  Tcftamcnt, 
and  declaring  his  doubt  that  fcvtral  pieces  under  the 
name  of  Chrift  and  his  apoiUcs,  received  now  by  the 
whole  Chriilian  church,  were  fuppolititious. 

AMYOT  (James),  bifliop  of  Aiixcrrc  and  great  al- 
moner of  f'rance,  was  born  of  an  ebfcurc  family  at 
Wclun,  the  30th  of  October  1514,  and  ftudied  philo- 
fophy  at  Paris,  in  the  college  of  cirdinal  Le  Moinc. 
He  was  naturally  dull  and  heavy  ;  but  diligence  and 
application  made  amends  for  thcle  natural  defects.  He 
left  Paris  at  the  age  of  twenty-three  ;  and  went  to 
Bourgcs  with  the  Sieur  Colin,  who  had  the  abbey  of 
St  Ambrofe  in  that  city.  At  the  recommendation  of 
this  abbot,  a  fecrctary  of  ftatc  took  Amyot  into  his 
houfe  to  be  tutor  to  his  children.  The  great  Lm- 
provcmcnts  they  made  under  his  direction  induced  tiic 
fecrctary  to  recommend  him  to  ilie  princcfs  Margaret 
duchcfs  of  Berry,  only  liller  of  Krancis  I.  and  by- 
means  of  this  recommendation  Amyot  was  made  pub- 
lic profelFor  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  the  Univerfity  of 
Bourgcs.  It  was  during  this  time  he  tranflated  into 
French  the  "  Amours  of  Thcagines  and  Chariclea," 
which  Francis  I.  was  fo  pleafed  with,  that  he  confer- 
red upon  him  the  abbey  of  Bellofane.  He  alfo  tranf- 
lated Plutarch's  Lives,  which  he  dedicated  to  the 
king ;  and  afterwards  undertook  that  of  Plutarch's 
Morals,  which  he  ended  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX. 
and  dedicated  to  that  prince.  Charles  conferred  up- 
on him  the  abbey  of  St  Cornelius  dc  Compiegnc,  and 
made  him  great  almoner  of  France  and  bilhop  of  Au- 
xcrre.     He  died  in  1595,  aged  79. 

AMYR,'\LDISM,  a  name  given  by  fomc  writers 
to  the  doctrine  of  univerfal  grace,  as  explained  and  af- 
ferted  by  Amyraldus,  or  Mofes  Amyrault,  and  others 
his  followers,  among  the  reformed  ia  France,  towards 
the  middle  of  the  i  7[h  century. 

This  doctrine  principally  conllftcdof  the  following 
particulars,  viz.  that  God  dtfirei  the  happinefs  of  all 
men,  and  none  arc  excluded  by  a  divine  decree  ;  that 
none  can  obtain  falvation  without  faith  in  Chri.'l ;  that 
God  refufes  to  none  the  [-ovjcr  oi  beliiviiig,  though  he 
docs  not  grant  to  all  his  alfiitance,  that  they  may  im- 
prove this  power  to  faving  purpofes ;  and  that  many 
perilh  through  their  own  fault.  Thofe  who  embraced 
thisdodtrine  were  aWdUiiherfatili t ;  though  it  iscvi- 
dent  they  rendered  gra.cc  unwtrfal  in  words,  hai  far- 
tial  in  reality,  and  arc  chargeable  with  greater  incon- 
fiftencics  than  the  Supralaffarians. 

AMYRAULT  (Mofes),  an  eminent  French  Pro- 
teftant  divine,  born  at  Bourgueil  in  Touraine  in  I J96. 
He  ftidied  at  Saumur,  where  he  was  ehofcn  piofeifor 
cf  thcolo^'iy  J  and  his  learned  works  gained  him  the 
eftecm  of  Catholics  as  well  as  Protcltanrs,  particular- 
ly of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  who  confukcd  him  on  a  plan 
of  re-uniting  their  churches,  which,  however,  as  may 
well  be  fuppofed,  came  to  nothing.  He  publiOicd  a 
piece  in  which  he  attempted  to  explain  the  myftery 
of  predcftination  a;id  grace,  v.  hich  occalioncd  a  con- 
troverfy  between  him  and  forae  other  divines.  He 
alfo  wrote.  An  Apology  for  the  Protcftants  ;  a  Para- 
phrafc  on  the  New-Tcftatnent ;  and  fevcral  other 
books.     This  eminent  divine  died  in  1664. 

AMYRIS  :  A  genus  ofthcmonogynia  order,  belong- 
ing to  the  decandria  cljfs  of  plants.     The  charafters 
are  :  The  calyx  is  a  fmall  llnglc-leavcd  perianthium, 
4  N  2  foar- 


AMY 


[     652     ] 


ANA 


Amyfis.  lour-tootheJ  and  pcrfiftent :  The  coroUa  confiRs  of  four 
^~—>^—^  oblong  petals,  concave  and  exiuuiiing  :  The  Jh/miua 
couliit  of  eight  crciit  fiibnlitcd  tilamcnts  ;  the  aiitlicrac 
arc  oblong,  crcc^t,  and  the  length  of  the  corolla  :  The 
f'ijlilliiin  h;is  an  ovate  gcrmcn,  above  ;  a  thickilh  Uylus, 
the  lcni;th  of  the  llaniina ;  and  a  fonr-corncrcd  Itig- 
lua  :  The  i>ericari<:i!ii  is  a  round  drupaceous  berry  : 
Thcyiri'fl' is  a  globular  glolly  nut. — The  uiolt  rcniark- 
I'lateXVII-  able  fpecicsare  :  i.The  eltniifera,orlhrub  which  bears 
the  gum-clcnii,  a  native  of  South-America.  It  grows 
10  the  height  of  about  lix  feet,  producing  trifoliatcd 
lliff"  Ihining  leaves,  growing  oppolite  to  one  another 
on  footdalks  two  inches  long.  At  the  ends  of  the 
branches  grow  four  or  live  flendcr  ftalks  fet  with  many 
very  Hnall  white  tlowcrs.  2.  The  giliadenfis,  or  opo- 
balfanium,  is  au  evergreen  ihrub,  growing  fpontane- 
onlly  in  Arabia-Kelix,  from  whence  the  opobalfani, 
or  balm  of  gikad,  is  procured.  3.  Toxifera,  or  poi- 
fon-wood,  is  a  fmall  tree,  with  a  fmooth  light-coloured 
bark.  Its  leaves  are  winged  ;  the  middle  rib  is  feven 
or  eight  inches  long,  with  pairs  of  pinnae  one  againfl 
another  on  inch-long  footflalks.  The  fruit  hangs  in 
.bunches,  is  (liapid  like  a  pear,  and  is  of  a  purple  co- 
lour, covering  an  oblong  hard  llonc.  From  the  trunk 
of  this  tree  diliils  a  liquid  as  black  as  ink.  Birds  feed 
on  the  fniit  :  particularly  one,  called  Vat  purple  grafs- 
baik,  on  the  mucilage  that  covers  the  Hone.  It  grows 
iifually  on  rocks,  in  Providence,  Ilathcra,  and  others 
of  the  Bahama  illands.  4.  The  balfamifcra,  or  rofe- 
wood,  is  found  on  gravelly  hills  in  Jamaica  and  others 
of  the  Weft  India  illands.  It  rifcs  to  a  confiderable 
height,  and  the  trunks  arc  remarkable  for  having  large 
protuberances  on  them.  The  leaves  are  laurel-lhaped  ; 
the  fmall  blue  Jlowcrs  are  on  a  branched  fpike  ;  and 
the  berries  are  fmall  and  black. 

Properties.  From  the  tiril  fpecies,  which  is  called 
by  the  natives  of  the  flralils  icicariha,  is  obtained  the 
rclin  improperly  called^«w-c7<rw/,  or  gum-lemon. This 
drug  is  brought  to  us  from  the  Spanifli  Weft  Indies, 
and  Ibmctimes  from  the  Eaft  Indies,  in  long  roundifli 
cakes,  generally  wrapped  up  in  flag  leaves.  The  bed 
fort  is  foftiili,  fomcwhat  tranfparcnt,  of  a  pale  whitifli 
yellow  colour,  inclining  a  liitle  to  green,  of  a  ftrong 
not  nnplcafaiu  fmell.  It  almoft  totally  dillblves  in  pure 
fpirit,  and  fends  over  fome  part  of  its  fragrance  along 
with  ihis  menftruum  in  diftillalion  :  dillilled  with  wa- 
ter, it  yields  a  conlidcrable  ([uantity  of  pale-coloured, 
chin,  fragrant,  elfentialoil.  This  rclin  gives  name  to 
one  of  the  ofEciual  unguents,  and  is  at  prefcnt  fcarcc 
any  othcrv/ifc  made  ufe  of;  though  it  is  certainly  pre- 
ferable, for  iniernal  purpofes.tofome  oihcrswhich  are 
held  in  greater  cfkcem.  The  fecond  fpecies  yields  the 
balfani  of  Mecca,  of  Syria,  or  of  Gilead,  which  is 
iljc  mofl  fragrant  and  pleafant  of  any  of  the  balfams. 
The  true  balfaui  treeis  found  near  to  Mecca,  which  is 
lijuated  about  a  day's  journey  from  the  Red  Sea,  on 
the  Ali  iiic  fide.  It  has  a  yellowifh  or  greenilh  yellow 
colour,  a  warm  bitterilh  aromatic  tafte,  and  an  acidu- 
lous frag'-ant  fmell.  It  has  long  been  held  in  great 
eileem.  The  Turks,  who  arc  in  poflellion  of  the  coun- 
try in  which  it  grows,  value  it  much  as  an  odoriferous 
nnjTiient  and  ccfmetic,  and  fet  fuch  a  high  price  upon 
rt.  that  it  is  adulicrated  when  it  comes  into  the  hands 
of  the  dealers,  fo  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  get  genu- 
iflc  fpecimensof  it.  Ithasbccurcconimcadetl in  great 


tiftt. 


variety  of  complaints  ;  but  now  it  is  generally  believed  An*, 
that  the  Canada  and  copaiva  balfams  are  equally  cffi-  || 
cacious,  and  will  an fwcr  every  purpofc  for  which  it  can  Anabap. 
be  ufed.  Dr  Alllon  fays,  that  the  fureft  mark  of  this 
balfam  being  pure  and  unaduherated  is,  its  fpreading 
quickly  on  the  furfacc  of  water  when  dropped  into  it ; 
and  that  if  a  llngle  drop  of  it  is  let  fall  into  a  large 
faucer  full  of  water,  it  immediately  fpreads  all  over 
its  furfacc,  and  as  it  were  dillblves  and  dilapjiears  : 
but  in  about  half  an  hour  it  becomes  a  tranfparcnt  pel- 
licle covering  the  whole  furfacc,  and  may  be  taken  up 
with  a  piu,  having  loft  but  its  fluidity  and  colour, 
and  become  while  and  foft,  cohering,  and  communi- 
cating its  fniell  and  tafte  to  the  water.  This  teft,  he 
fays,  all  the  balfant  he  fa\\-  in  Holland  bore,  though  it 
is  rare  to  get  any  from  London  that  anfwers  it.  The 
balfaniifera,  or rofe-wood, affords  an  excellenttiniber  : 
it  is  alio  replete  with  a  fragrant  balfam  or  oil,  and  re- 
tains its  flavour  and  folidity  though  expofed  to  the  wea- 
ther many  years.  Hy  fubjedling  this  wood  to  diftilla 
tion,  Dr  VV'right  thinks,  a  perfume  equal  to  the  oleum 
rhodii  may  probably  be  obtained. 

ANA,  among  phylicians,  denotes  a  quantity  equal 
to  that  of  the  preceding  ingredient.  It  is  abbrevia- 
ted thus,  aa,  or  a. 

Ana,  in  matters  of  liscrature,  a  Latin  termination, 
adopted  into  the  titles  of  feveral  books  in  other  lan- 
guages  Altai,  or  books  in  ana,  are  colledf  ions  of  the 

memorable  fayings   ofperfons   of  learning  and  wit ; 
much  the  fame  with  what  weotherwife  call  table-talk. 

Wollius  has  given  the  hiftory  of  books  in  ana,  in 
the  preface  to  the  Cafanboniana.  He  there  obferves, 
that  though  fuch  titles  be  new,  the  thing  itfelf  is  ve- 
ry old  ;  that  Xenophon's  books  of  the  deeds  and  fay- 
ings of  Socrates,  as  well  as  the  dialogues  of  Plato,  are 
Socratiana  ;  that  the  apophthegms  of  the  philofo- 
phers  collefted  by  Diogenes  Laertius,  the  fentenccsof 
Pythagoras  and  ihofe  of  Epiftetus,  the  works  of  Athe- 
nxus,  Stobeus,  and  divers  others,  are  fo  many  anas. 
Even  the  Gemara  of  the  Jews,  with  feveral  other  ori- 
ental writings,  according  to  Wolfius,  properly  be- 
long to  the  fame  clafs.  To  this  head  of  ana  may  like- 
wife  be  referred  the  Orphica,  the  Pythagorasa,  jtfo- 
pica,     Pyrrhonea,  &c. 

Scaligerana  was  the  firft  piece  that  appeared  with 
a  title  in  ana.  It  was  compofed  by  Ifan  dc  Vaflfan,  a 
young  Champanois,  recommended  to  Jof.  Scaligcr 
liy  Cafaubon.  Being  much  with  Scaligcr,  who  was 
daily  vilited  by  the  men  of  learning  at  Leydcn,  De 
Vallan  wrote  down  whatever  things  of  any  moment 
he  heard  Scaligcr  fay.  And  thus  arofc  the  Scaliger- 
ana, which  was  not  printed  till  many  years  after,  at 
Geneva,  in  1666.  Patln.  Let.  431. — Soon  after  came 
the  PerroHiana,  Thuana,Nandaeana,Patineana,  Sorbe- 
riana,  Menigiana,  Anti-Meuagiana,  Knretiana,  Chev- 
rasana,  Leibnitziana,  Arlequiniana,  Poggima,  &c. 

ANABAPTISTON,  the  fame  with  Abaptiston. 

ANABAPTISTS,  a  name  which  has  been  indif- 
criminatcly  applied  to  Chriftians  of  very  different 
principlesand  prafticcs  ;  though  many  of  them  objeft 
to  the  denomination,  and  hold  nothing  in  common, 
befidesthe  opinion  that  baptiifm  ought  always  to  be 
performed  by  immerlion,  and  not  adminiftered  before 
the  age  of  difi.retion. 

The  word  Anabaptiflis  compounded  of «»«,  "new," 

ana 


ri.M,  ,\\  II 


'^*>iiii^ii^  hitti/.r:.^ 


J-     ./•<.-.,-  N 


ANA 


[     (>SZ     ] 


ANA 


Anabap' 

tiftv 


and^«»T/c»t,  "  a  baptiH  ;"  and  in  this  fcnfe  the  No- 
vatians,  theCataphrygians,  and  the  Donatifts,  may 
be  conlidcred  as  a  kind  of  AnabapiilU  in  the  carlicr 
ages,  though  not  then  denoted  by  this  name;  for  they 
contended,  that  thofe  Chriflians  of  the  Catholic 
church  who  joined  thcmfclves  to  ihtir  refpcdivc  par- 
ties Ihould  be  rebaptized.  Uut  we  mull  not  clal's  un- 
der the  fame  denomination  thofe  bithops  of  Alia  and 
Africa,  who,  in  the  third  century,  maintained,  that 
baptifm  adminillered  by  thofe  whom  they  called  here- 
tics was  not  valid,  and  therefore  that  Aich  as  returned 
into  their  churches  ought  to  be  rcbaptizcd.  Nor  do 
the  Englilh  and  Dutch  Baptifts  conlidcr  the  denomi- 
nation as  at  all  applicable  to  their  fe£t :  by  whom  ihe 
baptifm  appointed  by  Chrillis  held  to  be  "  nothing 
(holt  o{ h/t>/ierfio>i,  upon  a [>:rffjnat  prrijelpon  oj Jaitl:  :" 
of  which  profeffion  infants  being  incapable,  and  fprink- 
ling  being  no  adaquate  fymbol  of  the  thing  intended, 
the  baptizing  of  profclytes  to  their  comminiion,  who 
in  their  Lnfancy  had  undegone  the  ceren\ony  of  Iprink- 
Jing,  cannot,  it  is  urged,  be  interpreted  a  repetiti- 
on of  the  baptifmal  ordinance. 

Anabaptifls,  in  a  (Iriii^  and  proper  fcnfe,  appear  to 
be  thofe  who  not  only  rebaptize,  when  they  arrive  at 
an  adult  age,  perfons  that  were  baptized  in  their  in- 
fancy, but  alfo,  as  often  as  any  pcrfon  comes  from 
one  of  their  feds  to  another,  or  as  often  as  any  one  is 
excluded  from  their  communion  and  again  received  in- 
to the  bofom  of  their  church,  they  baptize  him. 
And  fuch  were  many  of  the  German  Baptifts.  But 
the  iingle  opinion  common  to  all  tlic  feels  to  which  the 
name  of  yiO/a^/j/i/fy/jhasbeenindifcriminately  applied, 
is  that  of  the  invalidity  oiinjtint  iapti/nj,  in  whatever 
way  adminiftercd  :  And  hence  the  general  denomina- 
tion of  Antipadcbaptijh ;  which  includes  Anabapiifts, 
Baptifts,  Mennonites,  Waterlandians,  &c.  as  dillin- 
guiflicd  by  their  rcfpcftive  peculiarities  :  though  Ana- 
tapiifis  feem  to  have  been  adopted  by  mod  writers  as 
the  general  term. 

To  the  above  peculiar  notion  concerning  the  baptif- 
mal facranient  the  Anabaptifts  added  principles  of  a 
different  nature,  depending  upon  certain  ideas  which 
they  entertained  concerning  a  perfect  church-ella- 
blifliment,  pure  in  its  members,  and  free  from  the 
inftitutions  of  human  policy. 

The  Anabaptifts  appear  to  have  made  little  noife,  or 
to  have  been  little  noticed  before  the  time  of  the  re- 
formation in  Germany.  The  moft  prudent  and  rati- 
onal part  of  them  confidercd  it  poliible,  by  human 
wifdom,  induftry,  and  vigilance,  to  purify  the  church 
from  the  contagion  of  the  wicked,  provided  the  man- 
ners and  fpirit  of  the  primitive  ChriiUans  could  but 
recover  their  loft  dignity  and  liiftrc  ;  and  feeing  the 
attempts  of  Luther,  feconded  by  feveral  perfons  of 
eminent  piety,  prove  fo  fucccfsful,  they  hoped  that 
the  happy  period  was  arrived  in  which  the  reftoration 
of  the  church  topurity  was  to  be  accomplilhed,  under 
the  divine  protei^ion,  by  the  labours  and  coiinfclsof 
pious  and  eminent  men.  Others,  far  from  being  fa- 
lisfied  with  the  plan  of  retormaiion  propofed  by  Lu- 
ther, looked  upon  it  as  much  beneath  the  fublimity  of 
their  views  ;  and  confequer.tly  undertook  a  more  per- 
it6t  reformation,  or,  to  exprefs  more  properly  their 
^ifionary  enterprife,  they  propofed  to  found  a  uew 
church,  entirely  fpiritual,  and  truly  divine. 


Thisfcfft  was  foon  joined  by  great  numbers,  and  (as  Aoabapu 
ufually  happensinfuddenrevolutionsofihisnaturc)  by  "ft»- 
many  perfons  whofc  characters  and  capacities  were  '  ""^^ 
very  ditfcrtnt,  though  their  views  fccmcd  to  turn 
upon  the  fame  objedt.  Their  progrefs  was  rapid ;  for, 
in  a  very  Ihort  fpacc  of  time,  their  difcourics,  vili- 
ons,  and  prcditlions,  excited  comnioiious  in  a  great 
part  of  huropc  and  drew  into  their  communion  a  pro- 
digious multitude,  whofc  ignorance  rendered  them 
eafy  vidinis  to  the  illuiions  of  cnthuiiafm.  The  moft 
pernicious  faction  of  all  thofe  which  compofed  this 
motley  multitude,  was  that  which  pretended  that  the 
founders  of  the  new  and /•t'r/t'if/  church,  already  men- 
tioned, were  under  the  dircL^tion  of  a  divine  impulfe, 
and  were  armed  againft  all  oppoliiion  by  the  power 
of  working  miracles.  It  was  this  fa>;iion  that,  in  the 
year  1521,  began  their  fanatical  work,  under  the 
guidance  of  Munzer,  Stubner,  Siorck,  &c. 

Thefc  perfons  were  dilciplesof  Luther  :  but  well 
knowing  that  their  opinions  were  fuch  as  would  receive 
nofandion  froinhini,  they  availed  themfclvesof  hisab. 
fence  to  dillirminatc  them  in  \V  ittcmhurgh,  and  had 
tJie  addrefs  to  over-reach  the  piety  of  Mclancthon. 
Their  principal  purpofe  was  to  gain  over  the  populace, 
and  to  form  a  conliderable  pariy.  To  etf'edt  this,  fays 
Bayle,  they  were  induftrious  and  a<Sive,  each  in  his 
own  way.  Storck,  wanting  knowledge,  boaftedofin- 
fpiration  ;  and  Stubner,  who  had  both  genius  and  e- 
rudition, laboured  at  commodious  explications  of  Scrip- 
ture. Not  content  with  difcrediting  the  conrt  of 
Rome,  and  decrying  thcauthorityofconliftories,  they 
taught.  That  among  Chriftians,  who  had  the  precepts 
of  the  gofpel  to  direct  and  the  Spirit  of  God  to  guide 
iliem,  the  office  of  magiftracy  was  not  only  unnecef- 
fary,  but  an  unlawful  encroachment  on  their  fpiritual 
liberty  ;  that  the  diftini.ioiis  occafioncd  by  birth,  or 
rank,  or  wealth,  being  contrary  to  the  fpirit  of  the 
gofpel,  which  confiders  all  men  as  equal,  fliould  be 
entirely  aboliihed  ;  that  all  Chriftians,  throwing  their 
polTcffions  intoone  common  (lock,  fliould  live  together 
in  that  llatc  of  equality  which  becomes  members  of 
the  fame  family  ;  that,  as  neither  the  laws  of  nature 
nor  the  precepts  of  the  New  Tcftament  had  placed 
any  reftraint  upon  men  w^ith  regard  to  the  number  of 
wives  which  they  might  marry,  they  Ihould  ufe  that 
liberty  which  God  himfelf  had  granted  to  the  patri- 
archs. 

They  employed  at  firft  the  various  arts  of  perfuafion 
in  order  to  propagate  their  doctrine.  They  preached, 
exhorted,  adnioniihcd,  and  rcafoned  in  a  manner  that' 
feeincd  proper  toimprefs  the  muliitude  ,  and  related  a 
grtfat  number  of  vilions  and  revelations  with  which 
they  pretended  fohavc  been  favoured  from  above.  But 
when  they  faw  that  thefc  methods  of  making  profc- 
lytes were  not  attended  with  lucii  a  rapid  fuccefs  as 
they  fondly  expected,  and  that  the  miniftry  of  Lu- 
ther and  other  eminent  reformers  were  detrimental 
to  their  caufe,  they  then  had  recoufe  to  more  expedi- 
tious meafures,  and  madly  attempted  10  propagate 
ihcir  f;Miatical  doctrine  by  force  ol  arras.  Munzer  and 
his  alTociatcs,  in  the  year  152},  put  themfelves  at  the 
head  of  a  numerous  army,  compofed  for  the  moft  part 
of  the  pcafants  of  Suibia,  Thuringia,  Franeonia,  and 
Saxony,  and  declared  war  igainlt  all  laws,  govern- 
iHcnt,  and  ia.ij^illrates  of  every  kind,  under  tlie  chi- 
merical 


ANA 


L    654    ] 


ANA 


tllU. 


Arabap-  mcrical  prf  text  that  Chrift  was  now  to  take  the  reins 
'•'*•  of  civil  and  cccltliiillical  goveriinicnt  into  his  own" 
'  hands,  and  to  rule  alone  over  tlic  nations.  But  this 
fcditioiis  crowd  was  routed  and  dilpcrfcd,  ■without 
much  difiiculty,  by  the  Eiedor  of  Saxony  and  other 
princes  ;  and  Munzcr  their  ringleader  ignoniiniouily 
put  to  death,  and  his  factious  counlcllors  fcattered 
abroad  in  dittcrent  places. 

Many  of  his  followers,  however,  furvived,  and  pro- 
pagated their  opinionsthroughGerniaiiy,Switzerlaiid, 
and  Holland.  In  the  ye.ir  I533i  a  party  of  ihcni  fet- 
tled at  Miuiftcr  under  the  direction  of  two  Anabaptiil 
prophets,  John  Matthiasa  bakcrof  Haerlcni,  and  John 
Bockholdi  a  journeyman-taylor  of  Leyden.  Having 
made  thcmftlvcs  mailers  of  the  city,  they  depofed  the 
magillratcs,  conlifcatcd  the  eftatcsof  fuch  as  hadefca- 
ped,  and  dcpoliicd  the  wealth  they  amalfcd  together 
in  a  public  treafury  for  common  ule.  They  made  prepa- 
rations of  every  kind  for  the  defence  of  the  city  ;  and 
fent  out  cmillaries  to  the  Anabaptifts  in  the  Losv  Coun- 
tries, inviting  them  loali'cmble  at  Munfter,  which  was 
now  dignified  with  the  name  of  Mount  Sion,  that  from 
hence  they  might  be  deputed  to  reduce  all  the  nations 
ot  the  earth  under  iheir  dominion.  Matthias,  who  was 
the  livllin  command,  wasfooncutofFin  anadoi  phren- 
iy  by  the  bilhopot  Munftcr'sarmy  ;  and  was  fucceedcd 
by  Bockholdt,  who  was  proclaimed  by  a  fpecialdcfig- 
nation  of  Heaven,  as  he  pretended,  king  of  Sion,  and 
inverted  with  Icgillativc  posvcrs  like  thofc  of  Mofes. 
The  extravagancesof  Bockholdt  were  too  numerous  to 
be  recited  :  it  will  be  fuffitient  to  add,  that  the  city  of 
Munllcr  was  taken  after  a  long  fiege  and  an  obfti- 
nate  refillance  ;  and  Bockholdt,  the  mock  monarch, 
was  puniflicd  with  a  moll  painful  and  ignominious 
death. 

It  mull,  however,  be  acknowledged  that  the  true 
rife  of  the  numerous  infurrcftions  of  this  period 
ought  not  to  be  attributed  to  religious  opinions.  The 
lirft  infurgents  groaned  under  the  moft  grievous  op- 
prclfions  ;  they  took  up  arms  principally  in  defence 
of  their  civil  liberties  ;  and  of  the  commotions  that 
took  place.  The  An.:baptift  leaders  abovenientioned 
feem  rather  to  have  availed  themfelves,  than  to  have 
been  the  prime  n\overs.     Sec  the  article  Rekorma- 

TioN That  a  great  part  of  the  main  body,  indeed, 

confided  of  Anabaptids  fcemsindifputablc  ;  and  what- 
ever fanaticifni  exillcd  among  them  would  naturally 
be  called  forth  or  be  inflamed  by  the  fitiialions  that  oc- 
curred, and  run  riot  in  its  wildeft  fhapes.  At  the 
fame  time  it  appears  from  liiftory,  that  a  great  part 
alfo  confuled  of  Roman-Catholics,  and  a  flill  greater 
of  pcrfons  who  had  fcarccly  any  religious  principles 
at  all.  Indeed,  when  we  read  of  the  vaft  numbers 
that  were  concerned  in  ihofe  infurrcctions,  of  whom 
it  is  reported  ihnt  100. oco  fell  by  the  fword,  it  ap- 
pears reafunable  to  conclude  that  a  great  majority  of 
them  were  not  Anabapiiils. 

Before  concluding  this  article,  it  muft  be  remark- 
ed, that  the  Baptifts  or  Mennonites  in  England  and 
Holland  are  to  be  conlidered  in  a  very  different  light 
from  the  enlhufiafts  we  have  been  dcfcribing  :  and  it 
api  cars  equally  uneaudid  and  inviuious,  to  trace  up 
tlic'r  diftinguifliing  fentiment,  as  fomc  of  their  adver- 
faiics  have  done,  to  thofc  obnoxious  characters,  and 


there  to  flop,  in  order  as  it  were  to  aflbciate  with  it    Antbifil 
the  ideas  of  turbulence  and  fanaticifm,  with  which  it         II 
certainly  has  no  natural  connection.     Their  coinci-  Anacilyp. 
deuce  with  fome  of  thofc  opprelfed  and  infatuated  .   "'"*'    , 
people  in  denying  baptifm  to  infants,  is  acknowledged 
by  the  Baptifts  :  but  they  difavowthc  praiJtice  which 
the  appellation  of  A/iaiaptiJh  implies;  and  their  doc- 
trines feem  referable  to  a  more  ancient  and  refpefta- 
ble  origin.     They  appear  fupportcd  by  hillory  incon- 
lidering  themfelves  as  the  defcendants  of  the  Wal- 
denfes.who  were  fogrievoullyopprelTedandperfecuted 
by  the  defpotic  heads  of  the  Romilh  hierarchy  ;  and 
they  profcfs  an  equal  avcrlion  to  all  principles  of  re- 
bellion on  one  hand,  and  to  all  fuggefiions  of  fanati- 
cifm on  the  other.     See  Baptists. — The  denomin- 
ation of /l/iviwowz/w,  by  which  they  are  dirtinguifhcd 
in  Holland,  they  derive  from  Menno,  the  famous  man 
who  latterly  gave  conliftencc  and  liability  to  their  fedt. 
Sec  Mennonites. 

ANABASII,  in  antiquity,  were  couriers  who  were 
fent  on  horfcback,  or  in  chariots,  with  difpatches  of 
importsnce. 

ANAB.ATHRA,  in  ancient  writers,  denote  a  kind 
of  f!cp5;  or  ladder  whereby  toafcend  to  fome  eminence. 
In  this  fenfe  we  read  of  the  anabathra  of  theatres,  pul- 
pits, Sec.  Anabathra  appears  to  have  been  fomctimes 
alfo  applied  to  ranges  of  feats  riling  gradually  over 
each  other. 

Anabathra  is  more  particularly  applied  toa  kind 
of  Itone  blocks  raifed  by  the  high-way  (ides,  to  aflifl 
travellers  in  nionnting  or  alighting,  before  the  ufe  of 
llirrups  was  invented The  firfl  author  of  this  con- 
trivance among  the  Romans  wasC.  Gracchus  brother 
of  Tiberius. 

ANABLEPS,  in  ichthyology,  the  trivial  name  of  a 
fpecies  of  cobitis.     SeeCoBiTis. 

ANABOA,  a  fmall  iiland  liiuated  near  the  coaftof 
Loango  in  Africa,  in  E.  Long.  9°.  N.  Lat.  1°.  Here 
are  feveral  fertile  valleys,  which  produce  plenty  of 
bananas,  oranges,  pine  apples,  lemons,  citrons,  ta- 
marinds, cocoa-nuis,  Sec.  together  uith  vafl  quanti- 
ties of  cotton.  In  this  idand  are  two  high  mountains, 
which,  being  continually  covered  wiih  clouds,  occa- 
fion  frequent  rains. 

AN  ABOLyJ'UM,  or  ANABOLE,in  antiquity,  akind 
of  great  or  upper  coat,  worn  over  the  tunica. 

ANABOLEUS,  in  antiquity,  an  appellation  given 
to  grooms  of  the  ftaWe,  or  equerries,  who  allifted 
their  mailers  in  mounting  their  horfes.  Ai  the  anci- 
eiits  had  no  ftirrups,  or  inftrumcnts  that  are  now  in 
ufc  for  mounting  a  horfc,  they  either  jumped  upon  his 
back,  or  were  aided  in  mounting  by  anabolei. 

ANACALYPTERIA,  according  to  Suidas,  were 
prefcnts  made  to  the  bride  by  her  huiband's  relati- 
ons and  friends  when  fhe  firfl  uncovered  her  face  and 
(bowed  herfelf  to  men.  Thefe  prefents  were  alfo 
called  iT«u)i«i«:  for  among  the  Greeks,  virgins  be- 
fore marriage  were  under  Itrift  confnement,  being 
rsrely  permitted  to  appear  in  public,  or  converfe  with 
the  other  fex  ;  and  when  allowed  that  liberty,  wore 
a  veil  over  their  faces  termed  Kax:/irTf«y,  or  Kawvrfa, 
which  was  not  left  ofFin  the  prefencc  of  men  till  the 
third  day  after  marriage  ;  whence,  according  to  He- 
fychius,  this  was  alio  called  aiiacalyptirion. 

ANA- 


ANA 


[    655    ] 


ANA 


ADacan>p- 
fcros 


ANACAMPSEROS,  in  botany,  a  fynonimc  of  the 
portulaca  and  fcvcral  ether  plants. 

ANACAMFTERIA,  in  ecclcliadical  antiquity,  a 
kind  of  little  edifices  adjacent  to  the  churches,  dc- 
iigned  for  the  entertainment  of  flrangers  and  poor 
pcrfons. 

ANACAMPTIC,  a  name  applied  by  the  ancjcuts  to 
that  part  of  optics  which  treats  of  reflexion,  being  the 
fame  with  what  is  now  called  Catoptrics- 

ANACARDIUM,  or  cashew-nut  tree  :  A  ge- 
nus of  the  monogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  decan- 
dria  clafsof  plants ;  and  in  the  natural  method  rank- 
ing under  the  12th  order,  Holoraate.  The  characters 
are:  The  calyx  is  divided  into  five  parts,  the  divifi- 
ons  ovate  and  deciduous:  The  coro//*/ confifts  of  five 
reflected  petals,  twice  the  length  of  the  calyx  :  The 
flaviuia  confillof  ten  capillary  filaments  Ihorter  than 
the  calyx,  one  of  them  caftrated  ;  the  antherae  are 
fmall  and  roundiOi :  Thcpijliiltim  has  a  roundilh  ger- 
men  :  the  flyliis  is  fubulatcd,  inflected,  and  the  length 
of  the  corolla  ;  the  fligma  oblique  :  There  is  no  peri- 
carfium  ;  the  rcccptaculum  is  very  large  and  flclhy  : 
The/frrfis  a  large  kidney- (hapcd  nut,  placed  above 
the  receptaculum. 

Of  this  only  one  fpecies  is  as  yet  known  to  the  bo- 
tanills,  viz.  the  occidentale.  It  grows  naturally  in 
the  Weft  Indies,  and  arrives  at  the  height  of  ao  feet 
in  thofc  places  of  which  it  is  a  native.  The  fruit  of 
this  tree  is  as  large  as  an  orange  ;  and  is  full  of  an 
acid  juice,  which  is  frequently  made  ufc  of  in  making 
punch.  To  the  aptx  of  this  fruit  grows  a  nut,  of  the 
fizc  and  fliape  of  a  hare's  kidney,  but  much  larger  at 
the  end  which  is  next  the  fruit  than  at  the  other. 
The  fliell  is  very  hard  ;  and  the  kernel,  which  is 
fwcet  and  pleafant,  is  covered  with  a  thin  film.  Be- 
tween this  and  the  fliell  is  lodged  a  thick,  blackifli, 
inflammable  liquor,  of  fuch a caullic  nature  in  thcficili 
nuts,  that  if  the  lips  chance  to  toucli  it,  bliftcrs  will 
immediately  follow.  The  kernels  are  eaten  raw,  or 
pickled.  The  cauftic  liquor  juA  mentioned  is  efteem- 
ed  an  excellent  cofmciic  with  the  Weft  India  young 
ladies,  but  they  muft  certainly  fuffcr  a  great  deal  of 
pain  in  its  application  ;  and,  fond  as  our  females  are 
of  a  beautiful  face,  it  is  highly  probable  they  would 
never  fubmit  to  be  flayed  alive  to  obtain  one.  When 
any  of  the  former  fancy  thcmfelvcs  too  much  tanned 
by  the  fcorching  rays  of  the  fun,  they  gently  fcrape 
off  file  thin  outfide  of  the  ftone,  and  then  rub  their 
faces  all  over  with  the  ftone.  Their  faces  immedi- 
ately fwcU  and  grow  black;  and  the  (kin  being  poi- 
foned  by  the  cauftic  oil  abovementioncd,  will,  in  the 
fpacc  of  five  or  fix  days,  come  entirely  oft'  in  large 
flakes,  fo  that  they  cannot  appear  in  public  in  Icfs 
than  a  fortnight ;  by  which  time  the  new  Ikin  looks 
as  fair  as  that  of  a  new-born  cjjild.  The  negroes  in 
Brazil  cure  thcnil'clves  eftettually  of  difordcrs  in  the 
ftomach  by  eatingof  the  yellow  fruit  of  this  tree  ;  the 
juice  of  which,  being  acid,  cuts  the  tough  humours 
which  obftructcd  the  free  circulation  of  the  bhiod, 
and  thus  removes  the  complaint.  This  cure,  howe- 
ver, is  not  voluntary  :  for  their  maftcrs,  the  Portu- 
guefe,  deny  them  any  other  fuftcnancc  ;  and  letting 
them  loofe  to  the  woods,  where  the  caflicw  nuts  grow 
in  great  abundance,  leave  it  in  their  option  to  periih 


by  famine  or  fuftain  thcmfclves  with  this  fruit.  The  Anlce[>^^,. 
milky  juice  of  this  tree  will  Itain  linen  of  a  good  black,      liofi* 
which  cannot  be  walhcd  out.  See  Plate  XVIII.  li 

Cutiure.  This  plant  is  eafily  raifcd  from  the  nuts,  AnacUCk. 
which  fliould  be  planted  each  in  a  feparatc  pot  filled 
w  ith  light  fandy  earth,  and  plunged  into  a  good  hot- 
bed of  tanners  i.ark  j  they  mull  alfo  be  kept  from  moi- 
fturc  till  the  plants  come  up,  othcrwifc  the  nuts  arc 
apt  to  rot.  If  the  nuts  arc  frcfli,  the  plants  will  come 
up  in  about  a  month. 

ANACEPHAL.tOSIS,  in  rhetoric,  the  fame  with 
recapitulation.     See  Recapitulation. 

ANACHARSIS,  a  famous  Scythian  philofopher, 
convcrCcd  with  Solon,  and  lived  an  aufterc  life.  Upon 
his  return  from  his  travels  through  Greece,  he  at- 
tempted to  change  the  ancient  cuftoms  of  Scythia,  and 
to  eftablilh  thofc  of  Greece;  which  proved  fatal  to 
him.  The  king  fliot  him  dead  in  the  wood  with  an 
arrow.  A  great  many  ftatucs  were  erected  to  him  af- 
ter his  death.  He  is  faid  to  have  invented  tinder,  the 
anchor,  and  the  potter's  wheel ;  but  the  latter  is  men- 
tioned by  Homer,  who  lived  long  before  him.  Ana- 
charfis  flourilhcd  in  the  time  of  Croefus. 

ANACHORET,  in  church  hiftory,  denots  a  her- 
mit, or  folitary  monk,  who  retires  from  the  fociety  of 
mankind  into  fome  defart,  with  a  view  to  avoid  the 
temptations  of  the  world,  and  to  be  moreatleifjre  for 
meditation  and  prayer.  Such  were  Paul,  Anthony, 
and  Hilarion,  the  firft  founders  of  monaflic  life  ia 
Egypt  and  PalcftiHC. 

Anachorets,  among  the  Greeks,  conilft  principally 
of  monks,  who  retire  to  caves  or  cells,  with  the  leave 
of  the  abbot,  and  an  allowance  from  the  monallery  ; 
or  who,  weary  of  the  fatigues  of  the  monaftery,  pur- 
chafe  a  fpot  of  ground,  to  whicli  tncy  rttrcat,  n^vcr 
appearing  again  in  the  monaftery,  unlcfs  on  folenm 
occafions. 

ANACHRONISNf,  in  matters  of  literature,  an  er- 
ror wiih  refpci^  to  chronology,  whereby  an  event  is 
placed  earlier  than  it  really  happened. — The  word  is 
compounded  of  «r«,  '<  higher,"  and  xt"®'i  "  time." 
Such  is  that  of  Virgil,  who  placed  l5ido  in  Africa  at 
the  time  of  /Eneas,  though  in  reality  flic  did  not  come 

there  till  500  years  after  the  taking  of  Troy An 

error  on  the  other  fide,  whereby  a  fa^^  is  placed  later 
and  lower  than  it  fliould  be,  is  called  zfarathronifm. 

ANACLASTIC  glasses,  a  kind  of  fonorous  phi- 
als or  glailes,  chiefly  made  in  Germany,  which  have 
the  property  of  being  flexible  ;  and  emitting  a  vehe- 
ment noife  by  the  human  breath. — They  arealfocall- 
ed  vixing giiijfii  by  the  GtrmvAi  (vcxier  glaftr ),a-a. 
account  of  the  fright  and  difturbancc  they  occafion  by 
their  rciilition. — The  anaclaftic  glalTesarca  Jowkind 
of  phials,  with  flat  bellies,  rcfcmbling  inverted  fun- 
nels, w  hofe  bottoms  are  very  thin,  fcarcc  forpafllng 
the  thicknefsof  an  onion  peel:  this  bottom  is  not  quite 
flat,  but  a  little  convex.  But  upon  applying  the  mouth 
totheorificc,3nd  gently  infpiring,  oras  it  were  fuck- 
ing out  the  air,  the  bottom  gives  way  with  a  prodgi- 
ous  crack,  and  of  convex  beronies  concave.  On  the' 
contrary,  upon  cxfpiringor  breathing  gently  into  the 
orifice  of  the  fame  glafs,  the  bottom  with  no  lefs  noifo 
Ixjunds  back  to  its  former  place,  and  become  gibbous 
as  before — The  anaclaftic  glallcs  firft  taken  notice  ot 

were 


A  N  yV 


[    656    ] 


ANA 


Ana;lsftic«  were  in  the  caflle  of  Goldbach  ;  where  one  of  tlic  aca- 

II         ilciiiills  Nattira  CiirioJ'oriitii,   having  fciii  and  m».<ic 

Anacrcon.  rxpci  inicius  on  them,   piibiilhcd  a  lucxc  cxprdsiy  on 

'       "       '  thiir  hiftory  and  phcnonici'.a.     They  arc  all  luaoc  of 

a  liiic  white  glufs.     It    is  to  be  obfcrvcd  ot  dufe, 

I.  That  if  the  doitom  be  concave  at  the  time  of  iulpi- 

raiion,  it  will  burll ;  and  the  like  will  happen  if  it  be 

convex  at  the  time  of  cxfpiraiion.    2.  A  Itrong  breath 

will  have  the  fame  etfccf  even  under  the  contrary  cir- 

cinnllanccs. 

ANACLASTICS,  that  part  of  optics  which  confi- 
dcrs  the  refraction  of  ligiit,  and  is  commonly  called 
Dioptrics.  Sec  Dioptrics. 

ANACLEThRlA,  in  antiquity,  a  folemn  feftival 
celebrated  by  the  ancients  when  their  kingsor  princes 
came  of  age,  and  allumed  the  reins  of  government. 
It  was  fo  called,  becaufe  proclamation  being  made  of 
this  event  to  the  people,  they  went  to  fahue  tiieir 
prince  during  the  anaclctcria,  and  to  congratulate 
him  upon  his  new  dignity. 

AN.'\CLET1CUM,   in   the  ancient  an  of  war,  a 
Articular  blaft  of  the  trumpet,  whereby  the  fearful 
and  flying  foldiers  were  rallied  and  recalled  to  the 
combat. 

ANACLINOPALE,  A»«x.ro4»«x«,  in  antiquity,  a 
kind  of  wreftling,  wheixin  the  champions  threw 
themfelves  voluntarily  on  the  ground,  and  continued 
the  combat  by  pinching,  biting,  fcratching,  and  other 
Dicihods  of  offence.  The  Anadinopale  was  contra- 
dillingiiilhcd  from  the  Orthofuilc,  wherein  the  cham- 
pions flood  ereft.  In  the  jinaciuibpale,  the  weaker 
combatants  fometimes  gained  the  viilory. 

ANACLINTERIA,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  pillows 
on  the  dining-bed,  whereon  the  guelfs  ufed  to  lean. 
The  ancient  triciiuiary  beds  had  four  pillows,  one  at 
the  head,  another  at  the  feet,  a  third  at  the  back, 
and  a  fourth  at  the  breafl.  That  on  which  the  head 
lay,  was  properly  called  by  the  Greeks  ovanx/Tiifjcv, 
or  «Taitx/tTfov;  by  the  Romans  y«/<:rttw,  fometimes 
f  lutein. 

ANACOLLEMA,  a  compofition  of  aftringent pow- 
ders, applied  by  the  ancients  to  the  head,  to  prevent 
dcfluiftions  on  the  eyes. 

ANAtONDO,  in  natural  hiftory,  is  a  name  given 
in  the  ille  of  Ceylon  10  a  very  large  and  terrible  rat- 
tlefnakc,  which  often  devours  the  unfortunate  travel- 
ler alive,  and  is  itfclf  accounted  excellent  and  deli- 
cious fare. 

ANACREON,  a  Greek  poet,  born  at  Teos,  a  city 
of  Ionia,  tlouriflicd  about  532  years  before  li.e  Chrif- 
tian  acra.  Polycrates,  tyrant  of  Stimos,  invited  him 
<ohis  court,  and  made  him  Iharc  with  him  in  his  bu- 
finefs  and  his  plcafurcs.  He  had  a  delicate  wit,  as 
may  be  judged  from  the  inexprefRblc  beauties  and 
graces  that  fiiine  in  his  works:  but  he  was  fond  of 
plcafure,  was  of  an  amorous  difpofition,  and  ad<ii<Sed 
10  drunkennefs  :  yet,  notwithftanding  his  debauche- 
ries, he  lived  to  the  age  of  85;  when,  we  are  told, 
he  waschoakcd  by  a  grape-ftone  which  fluckhi  his 
throat  as  he  was  regaling  on  fome  new  wine. 

There  is  but  a  fmall  part  of  Anacreon's  works 
that  remain  ;  for,  bcfides  his  odes  and  epigrair-s,  he 
compofcd  elegies,  hymns,  and  iambics.  His  poems 
which  arc  extant  were  refcued  from  oblivion  by  Hen- 


ry Stephens,  and  are  nniverfally  admired.  Tbeverfes  Am*e««« 
of  Auacreon  are  fweeter,  lays  Scaliger,  than  Indian        *'' 
fugar.  Mis  beauty  and  chicl  excellence,  fays  Madam        '| 
Dacier,  lay  in  imitating  nature,  and  in  following  rea-       "  ""*•. 
fon  i  fo  tiiat  he  prefcuied  to  the  mind  no  images  but 
what  were  noble  and  natural.     The  oAzs  of  Auacre- 
on fays  Rapin,  arc  flowers,  beauties,  and  perpetual 
graces  :  it  is  tamiliar  to  him  to  write  what  is  natural 
and  to  the  life,  he  having  an  air  fo  delicate,  fo  eafy, 
and  gracclul,  that  among  all  the  ancients  there  is  no- 
thing comparable  to  the  method  he  took,  nor  to  that 
kind  of  writing  he  followed.     He  flows  foft  and  ea- 
fy, every  where  ditfuling  the  joy  and  indolence  of  hh 
mind  through  his  vcrfe,  and  tuning  his  harp   to  the 
fniooth   and  plcafant  temper  of  his'foul.     But  nont 
has  given  a  jufler  charafter  of  his  writings  than  ilit 
God  of  Love,  as  taught  to  fpeak  by  Mr  Cowley  : 

All  thy  vcrfe  is  foftcr  far 
Than  the  downy  feathers  arc, 
Of  my  wings,  or  of  my  arrows. 
Of  my  mother's  doves  and  fparrows: 
Graceful,  cleanly,  fmooth,  or  round,   . 
All  with  Venus'  girdle  bound. 

ANACREONTIC  verse,  in  ancient  poetry,  a 
'kind  of  vcrlc  fo  called  from  its  being  much  ufed  by  the 
poet  Anacreon.  It  confills  of  three  feet  and  an  half, 
ufually  fpondces  and  iambufes,  and  fometimes  ana- 
pells :  Sucli  is  that  of  Horace, 

hydia,  die  per  omnes. 

ANACRISIS,  among  the  ancient  Greeks,  is  ufed 
■for  a  kind  of  trial  or  examination,  which  the  archons, 
or  chief  magiflratcs  of  Athens,  were  to  undergo  be- 
fore their  admilFion  into  that  office.  The  Anacrifit 
ftands  didiuguilhed  from  the  docimafia,  which  was  a 
fecond  examination,  in  the  forum.  The  anacryfis 
was  performed  in  the  fenate-houfe.  The  quellions 
here  propofed  to  them  were  concerning  their  family, 
kindred,  behaviour,  eftate,  &c.  Some  will  have  it 
that  all  magiftratcs  underwent  the  anacrifis. 

Anacrisis,  among  civilians,  an  inveftigation  of 
truth,  interrogation  of  witnefTes,  and  inquiry  made 
into  any  fact,  efpecially  by  torture. 

ANACROSIS,  in  antiquity,  denotes  a  part  of  th-o 
Pythian  fong,  wherein  the  combat  of  Apolk)  and  Py- 
thon-are defcribed The  anacrofis  was  the  firft  part, 

and  contained  the  preparation  to  the  fight. 

ANACYCLUS,  in  botany  :  a  genus  of  the  polyga- 
mia  fupcrfluaordcr,  belonging  to  the  fyngenefia  clafs 
of  plants  ;  and,  in  the  natural  method,  ranking  under 
the  49th  order,  Ccjupofitit-difcoides.  The  characters 
are  :  The  ealyx  is  hemifpheric  and  imbricated  :  The 
corolla  is  radicated  :  The  Jlamiia  conlift  of  fine  very 
fliort  capillary-filaments  ,  the  anthera  cyliudric  and  tu- 
bular :  The  pijiitliaii  has  an  oval  germen  :  a  filiform 
ftylus ;  a  bifid  (ligma  in  the  hermaphrodites,  twu 
(lender  reflected  ftigmata  in  the  females  :  There  is 
r\Q  pericarpiiitu;  but  ihc  calyx  unchanged  :  The  feeds 
are  folitary,  with  membranous  wings  ;  the  recefta- 
ciiluvi  is  chaffy. 

ANADAVADjEA,  in  ornithology,  a  barbaroui 
name  of  a  fpecies  of  alauda.     See  Al/uda. 

ANADEMA,  among  the  ancients,  denotes  an  or- 

«ament 


nn1./\  III 


^-i  ./Uy- 


ANA 


[     6 


Anadiplofu  nament  of  the  head,  wherewith  vidiors  at  the  facred 

D         games  had  their  temples  bound. 
Anagalr..       ANADIPLOSIi>,  in  rhetoric  and  poetry,  a  rcpeti- 
*      "       '  tion  of  the  la/l  word  of  a  line  or  claufc  of  a  fentencc, 
ia  the  beginning  of  the  next :  Thus, 

Pierides,  vos  hxcjacietis  maxima  Callo  : 
Callo  ctijut  amor,  &c. 
Et  matuttnis  accrcdiila  vocibus  inftat, 
Vociiui  iHJ\at,  {r  ajfiduas  jtiat  ore  querelas. 

ANADROMOUS,  among  ichthyologifts,  a  name 
given  to  fuch  fiflies  as  go  from  the  fca  lo  tlie  frefh  wa- 
ters at  dated  fcafons,  and  return  back  again  ;  fuch  as 
the  filmon,  &c.     Sec  Salmo. 

ANADUOMENE  Venus,  in  the  Grecian  mytho- 
logy,  anfwered  to  the  Sea- Venus  in  the  Roman,  and 
was  the  appellation  given  to  one  of  the  chief  deities  of 
the  fca.  The  moft  celebrated  piclurc  in  all  antiquity 
was  that  of  this  goddefs  by  Apelles ;  and  the  famous 
Venus  of  Medici  is  a  Sea- Venus. 

AN/EDEIA,  in  antiquity,  a  denomination  given  to 
a  filver  ftool  placed  in  the  Areopagus,  on  which  the 
defendant,  or  perfon  accufed,  was  feaicd  for  exami- 
nation. The  word  is  Greek,  A>««(fii«,  which  imports 
imprudence;  but  according  to  Junius's  corredion,  it 
Ihould  rather  be  A»a;Tj«,  q.  d.  innocence.  The  plain- 
tiff, or  accufer,  was  placed  on  an  oppolitc  ftool  called 
hybris,  or  injury ;  here  he  propofed  three  qucftions  to 
the  party  accufed,  to  which  poiitivc  anfwers  were  to 
be  given.  The  tirft,  Are  you  guilty  of  this  fact .'  The 
fecond,  How  did  you  commit  the  fad  ?  The  third. 
Who  were  your  accomplices  ? 

ANif^STHESIA,  fignifiesa  privation  of  the  fenfcs. 

ANAGALLIS,  pimpernel:  A  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  pcntandria  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and,  in  the  natural  method,  ranking  under  the 
20th  order,  Rotacia.  The  characters  are  :  The  calyx 
is  aquinqucpartitc  perianthiura,  which  is  perfiftcnt  : 
The  corolla  confifls  of  one  rotated  petal :  The  fiamiua 
confiftof  five  creel  filaments  Ihorter  than  the  corolla  ; 
the  anthers  are  I'lmple  :  The  pijlilluni  has  a  globular 
germcn  ;  the  ftylus  llightly  declinated,  the  ftigma 
headed  :  The  piricarpium  is  a  globular  capfule,  unilo- 
cular and  circumcifed  :  The /jv.^j  are  numerous  and 
angled  ;  the  receptaciilum  globular  and  very  large. 
Of  this  there  are  four 

Species,  r.  The  arvenfis,  or  common  pimpernel, 
with  a  red  flower.  2.  The  faemina,  with  abluc  Hower. 
3.  The  monelli,  or  narrow-leaved  pinij>ernel.  4.  The 
latifolia,  or  Spanith  pimpernel — The  hrft  fort  is  very 
common  in  corn-fields,  and  other  cultivated  places  in 
Britain.  The  fecond  is  fometimes  found  wild  in  the 
fields,  but  is  not  fo  common  as  the  firft.  The  third 
is  a  beautiful  fmall  perennial  plant,  and  produces  num- 
bers of  fine  blue  flowers.  The  fourth  is  a  native  of 
Spain,  and  likewife  produces  blue  flowers. 

The  plants  are  very  cafily  propaga(ed  by  feeds; 
and  if  fuffcred  to  remain  till  their  feeds  fcattcr,  they 
become  troublcfome  weeds. — The  arvenfis  is  not  un- 
frequcntly  taken  as  food  ;  it  makes  no  unplcafant  fa- 
lad,  and  in  fome  parts  of  Great  Britain  is  a  common 
pot-herb.  .All  the  fpecies  are  eat  by  cows  and  goats, 
but  refi-.fcd  by  Ihcep  ;  fmall  birds  arc  greatly  dcli:;ht- 
ed  with  the  feeds. — Great  medicinal  virtues  were  for- 

VOL.    I. 


37     ]  ANA 

raerly  expected  from  the  firft  two  fpecies;  but  they  Aoigai* 
arc  nowjufily  difrcgarded.  I 

ANAGNlA,  (anc.  gcog.),  a  town  of  Latium,  capi-  A'^P^-*"; 
tal  of  the  Hernici  ;  which  altera  faint  rcliftance,  fub- 
niitiiug  to  the  Romans,  was  admitted  to  the  freedom 
oftheciiy,  yet  without  the  right  of  futiragc,  (Livy). 
It  wis  afterwards  a  colony  of  Drufus  Csefar,  and  wall- 
ed round,  and  its  territory  afTigntd  to  the  veterans, 
(Frontinus.)  Here  Antony  married  Cleopatra,  and 
divorced  Otlavia.  Now  Aiiagni,  56  miles  to  the  call 
of  Rome.     E.  Long.  13.  4J.  Lat.  42.  48. 

ANAGNOSTA,  or  A.sagnostes,  in  antiquity,  a 
kindofliteraryfervani,  retained  in  the  families  of  pc:  - 
fons  of  diftindlon,  whofc  chief  bunnefs  was  to  read  to 
them  during  meals,  or  ac  any  other  time  when  they 
were  at  leifure.  Cornelius  Nepos  relates  of  Atticut, 
that  he  hadalwaysananagnoftesat  his  meals.  He  ne- 
ver fupped  without  reading  ;  fo  that  the  minds  of  bis 
guefts  were  no  lefs  agreeably  entertained  than  their 
appetites.  The  fame  cuftcm,  Eginhard  obferves,  was 
kept  up  by  Charlemagne,  who  at  table  had  the  hiflorics 
and  acts  of  ancient  kings  read  to  him.  This  cuftom 
feems  to  have  been  a  relic  of  that  of  the  ancient  Greeks, 
who  had  the  praifes  of  great  men  and  heroes  fung  to 
them  while  at  tabU.  The  ancient  monks  and  clergy 
kept  up  the  like  ufage,  as  we  are  informed  by  St  Au- 
guftin. 

ANAGOGICAL,fignifiesmyflerious,  tranfporting; 
and  is  ufed  to  exprcfs  whatever  elevates  the  mind,  not 
only  to  the  knowledge  of  divine  things,  but  of  divine 
things  in  the  next  life.  This  word  is  feldom  ufed, 
but  with  regard  to  the  different  fenfcs  of  Scripture. 
The  anagogical  fenfc  is,  when  the  facred  text  is  ex- 
plained with  a  regard  to  eternal  life,  the  point  which 
Chriflians  ihould  have  in  view:  for  example,  the  rell 
of  the  fabbath,  in  the  anagogical  fcnfe,  lignilies  the 
rcpofe  of  cverlafting  happinefs. 

ANAGOGY,  or  Anagoge,  among  ecclefiaftical 
writers,  the  elevation  of  the  mind  to  things  celeflial 

and  eternal It  is  particularly  ufed,  where  words,  w 

their  natural  and  primary  meaning,  denote  lomething 
fenfible,  but  have  a  further  view  to  fomcthiug  fpirituai 
or  invifiblc 

Anagogt,  in  a  more  particular  fenfe,  denotesthc 
application  of  the  types  aud  allegories  of  the  Old  Te- 
ftamcnt  tofubjeifts  of  the  New;  thus  called,  becaufc 
the  veil  being  here  drawn,  what  before  was  hidden,  is 
expofcd  to  open  fight. 

ANAGRAM  (from  the  Greek  ««  iar/Ki-ar./r,  and 
y;aiJt.iA!t  letter),  in  matters  of  literature,  a  tranfpofition 
of  the  letters  of  fome  name,  w  hereby  a  new  word  is 
formed,  either  to  the  advantage  or  difadvantage  of  the 
perfon  or  thing  to  which  the  name  belongs.  Thus, 
the  anagram  of  Galenus  is  angtlui;  that  of  Logic.-., 
caligo  ;  that  of  Alftedius,/?!//////^/  ;  that  of  Loraine  is 
alericn,  on  which  account  it  was  that  the  family  of  Lo- 
raiue  took  alcrions  for  their  armoury — Calvrn,  in  the 
title  of  his /«y?;fttf/o«J,  printed  at  Strafbiirg  in  1 5:9, 
calls  himfclf  Alcuinus,  which  is  the  anagram  of  Cal- 
vinu-;,  and  the  name  of  an  eminently  learned  perfon 
in  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  who  contributed  greatly 
to  the  reftoration  of  learnini;  in  that  age. 

Thofe  who  adhere  llriiidy  to  the  definition  of  an 

anagram,  take  no  other  librriy  than  that  of  omitting 

4  O  or 


ANA 


[     658    ] 


ANA 


Anagram- 
Di;itill 

I) 
Anagyrit. 


or  retaining  the  letter  h,  at  pleafure  j  whereas  others 
make  no  fcruple  to  ul'c  e  for  s.,  v  forw,  s  forz,  and 
c  for  K  ;   and  vice  vcrj'a. 

Bclidcs  anagrams  formed  as  above,  we  meet  with 
another  kind  in  ancient  writers,  made  by  dividing  a 
linglc  word  into  feveral ;  thus/n/  tinea  mus,  arc  for- 
med out  of  the  wox&fuflineavius. 

Anagrams  arc  fomctimes  alfo  made  out  of  feveral 
words  :  fuch  is  tliat  on  the  queftion  put  by  Pilate  to 
our  Saviour,  Qiiid  eft  vcritas?  whereof  we  have  this 
admirable  anagram,  viz.  Efl  vir  qui  adejl. 

The  Cabalifts  among  the  Jews  are  profefTed  ana- 
grammatifts  ;  the  third  part  of  their  art,  which  they 
call  th;t)iuru,  i.  e.  "  changing,"  being  nothing  but  ihc 
art  of  making  anagrams,  or  of  finding  hidden  and  my- 
Jlical  meanings  in  names  ;  which  they  do  by  chang- 
ing, tranfpofing,  and  differently  combining,  the  let- 
ters of  thofe  names. — Thus,  of  ru  the  letters  of  Noah's 
name,  they  make  p^rac^;  oi\wiitheMeffiah,{.\i^Y 
make  r^rsn^  he  /hall  rejoice. 

ANAGRAMMATIST,  a  maker  or  compofer  of 
anain-ans.  Thomas  Billon,  a  provincial,  was  a  ce- 
lebrated anagrammatift,  and  retained  by  Lewis  XIII. 
with  a  penfion  of  1200  livres,  in  quality  of  anagram- 
niatift  to  the  king. 

AN'AGROS,  in  commerce,  a  meafure  for  grain  ufed 
in  feme  cities  in  Spain,  particularly  at  Seville  ;  46  ana- 
gros  make  about  loi  quarters  of  London. 

ANAGYRIS,  STINKING  bean-trekoil  :  A  ge- 
rus  of  the  monogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  dccan- 
dria  clafs  of  plants  ;  and,  in  the  natural  method,  rank- 
ing under  the  32d-order,  Papilionaceir.  The  charac- 
ters are  :  The  calyx  is  a  bcll-lhaped  perjanthium  : 
Tht  corolla  is  papilionaceous  ;  the  vexilUim  cordated, 
flraight,  emarginated,  and  twice  as  long  as  the  calyx  ; 
the  alae  ovate  and  longer  than  the  vexillum  ;  the  ca- 
rina ftraight  and  very  long :  The  jiavtina  confill  of  10 
fiijments  ;  the  antherx  (imple  :  The /i;y?///;/w  hasan 
oblong  germen,  a  finiple  ftylus,  and  a  villous  fligma  : 
The  fericarpiuin  is  an  oblong  legumen  :  The/esds  arc 
fix  or  more,  and  kidney-fhaped. 

Of  this  genus  there  is  but  one  Ipecics,  the  fetida, 
•which  grows  naturally  in  the  fouthern  parts  of  Europe. 
It  is  a  flirub  which  ufually  rifes  to  the  height  of  eight 
«r  ten  feet,  and  produces  its  flowers  in  April  or  May. 
Thefe  areof  a  bright  yellow  colour,  growing  in  fpikes, 
fomewhat  like  tlie  labrunum. 

Culture.  This  plant  may  be  propagated  either  by 
feeds,  or  by  laying  down  ihe  tender  branches  in  the 
fpring  ;  but  tlic  tirit  method  is  preferable.  The  feeds 
fhonld  be  fown  towards  the  end  of  March  in  pots  filled 
with  light  earth,  and  plunged  in  a  gentle  hot-bed. 
The  plants  ufually  appear  in  a  month,  when  they 
Ihould  be  gradually  inured  to  the  open  air,  that  they 
may  be  hardened  before  winter.  In  the  autumn  and 
winter,  they  muft  be  fheltered  under  a  hot-bed 
frame  :  the  fpring  following,  ihey  mnft  be  tranf- 
planted,  each  into  a  feparate  fmall  pot,  placed  in  a 
fheltered  fituation,  and  again  removed  into  a  frame 
to  fhclter  them  during  ihe  following  winter.  The 
fecond  fpring  after  the  plants  come  up,  fome  of  them 
may  be  taken  out  of  the  pots,  and  planted  in  a  border 
near  a  fonth  wall,  where,  if  they  arc  protected  in 
winter,  they  may  remain. 


Anacyris  or  Anacyrus,  the  name  of  a  place      Anak 
in    Attica,  of  the   tribe   Erechthcis,  where  a  fetid         || 
plant,  called  Anagyris,  probably  the  fame  with  the  Analogy, 
foregoing,  grew  in  great  plenty,   (Diofcorides,  Pli-  ^       ^       ' 
ny,  Stephanus;)  and  the  more  it  was  handled,  the 
ftronger  it  fmelled :   hence  commovere  anagyrin  (or 
anagyruDi"),  is  to  bring  a  misfortune  on  one's  felf, 
(Ariftophanes.) 

ANAK,  the  father  of  the  Anakims,  was  the  fon 
of  Arba,  who  gave  his  name  to  Kirjaih-arba,  or  He- 
bron, Jodi.  xiv.  ij.  Anak  had  three  fons,  Shefliai, 
Ahiman,  and  Talmai,  (chap.  xv.  14.  and  Numb.  xiii. 
22.)  who,  as  well  as  their  father,  were  giants,  and 
who,  with  their  pofterity,  all  terrible  for  their 
fiercenefs  and  extraordinary  flature,  were  called  the 
Anakims ;  in  comparifon  of  whom  the  Hsbrews, 
who  were  fent  to  view  the  land  of  Canaan,  reported 
that  they  were  but  as  grafshoppcrs.  Numb.  xiii.  ult. 
Caleb,  afliflcd  by  the  tribe  of  Judah,  took  Kirjath- 
arba,  and  deltroyed  the  Anakims,  (Judges  i.  20.  and 
Jofli.  XV.  14.)  in  the  year  of  the  world  2559. 

ANALECTA,  or  Analectes,  in  antiquity,  a 
fervant  whofe  employment  it  was  to  gather  up  the 
oft"- falls  of  tables. 

Anai.ecta,  Aiialcfls,  in  a  literary  fenfe,  is  ufed 
to  denote  a  collcdlion  of  fmall  pieces  ;  as  clTays,  re- 
marks, &c. 

ANALEMMA,  in  geometry,  a  projeftion  of  the 
fphere  on  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  orthographical- 
ly  made  by  flraight  lines  and  ellipfes,  the  eye  being 
fuppofed  at  an  infinite  diffance,  and  in  the  caft,  or 
wefl,  points  of  the  horizon. 

Analemma,  denotes  likewife  an  inflrument  of 
brafs  or  wood,  upon  which  this  kind  of  projeftion  is 
drawn  with  an  horizon  and  curfor  fitted  to  it,  where- 
in the  foiriitial  colure,  and  all  circles  parallel  to  it, 
will  be  concentric  circles  ;  all  circles  oblique  to  the 
eye,  will  be  ellipfes  ;  and  all  circles  whofe  planes 
pal's  through  the  eye,  will  be  right  lines.  The  ufc 
of  tills  inllrument  is  to  fliow  the  common  agronomical 
problems  ;  which  it  will  do,  though  not  very  exait- 
ly,  unlefs  it  be  very  large. 

ANALEPSIS,  the  augmentation  or  putrition  of  an 
emaciated  body. 

ANALEPTICS,  reflorativc  or  nouriflting  medi- 
cines. 

ANALOGY,  in  philofophy,  a  certain  relation  and 
agreement  between  two  or  more  things,  which  in 
other  rcfpc6ls  are  entirely  different. 

There  is  likewife  an  analogy  between  beings  that 
have  fome  conformity  or  rcfeniblance  to  one  another  ; 
for  example,  between  animals  and  plants  j  but  the 
analogy  is  flill  f^ronger  between  two  different  fpecies 
of  certain  animals. 

Analogy  enters  much  into  all  our  reafouing,  and 
ferves  to  explain  and  illuflrate.  A  great  pan  of  oar 
philofophy,  indeed,  has  no  other  foundation  than  ana- 
logy. 

It  is  natural  for  mankind  to  judge  of  things  lefs 
known,  by  fome  limilitude,  real  or  ima<jiiiary,  between 
them  and  things  more  familiaror  better  known.  And 
where  the  things  compared  have  really  a  great  fimi- 
litude  in  their  nature,  when  there  is  reafon  to  think 
(hat  they  arc  fubjeft  to  the  fame  laws,  there  may  be 

a 


ANA 


[     6jj9    ] 


ANA 


XelJinllc  I 
JnlclUaual 
Foivtri,  Ef- 
fay  I.  ch. 
iv.  p.  SI, 


Aii»logy   *  confiderable  degree  of  probability  in  conclulions 

' ^ '  drawn  from  analogy.     Thus  wc  may  o'jfcrvc  a  very 

jjreat  fimiliuidc  between  tiiis  eartli  wliich  wc  inhabit, 
and  theotlier  planets,  Saturn,  Jupiter,  Mars,  Venus, 
and  Mercury.  They  all  revolve  round  the  fun,  as 
the  earth  does,  although  at  different  dillances,  and 
in  different  periods.  They  borrow  all  their  light 
from  the  fun,  as  the  earth  does.  Several  of  them 
arc  known  to  revolve  round  their  axis  like  the  earth, 
and,  by  that  means,  niufl  have  a  like  fucc«ffion  of 
day  and  night.  Sonic  of  them  have  moons,  that  ferve 
to  give  them  light  in  the  abfence  of  the  fun,  as  our 
moon  docs  to  us.  They  are  all,  in  their  motions, 
fubjcft  to  the  fame  law  of  gravitation,  as  the  earth 
is.  From  all  this  liinilitude,  it  is  not  unrcafonablc 
to  think,  that  thofe  planets  may,  like  our  earth,  be 
the  habitation  of  various  orders  of  living  creatures. 
■  There  is  fomc  probability  in  this  conclufion  from  ana- 

But  it  ought  to  be  obferved,  that,  as  this  kind  of 
reafoiiing  can  afford  only  probable  evidence  at  beft  ; 
fo,  unlefs  great  caution  be  ufed,  we  arc  apt  to  be  led 
into  error  by  it.  To  give  an  inftance  of  this  :  Ana- 
tomifts  in  ancient  ages,  feldom  dilTcded  human  bo- 
dies ;  but  very  often  the  bodies  of  thofe  quadrupeds 
whofe  internal  (Irufture  was  thought  to  approach 
nearefl  to  that  of  the  human  body.  Modern  anato- 
mifls  have  difcovcrcd  many  niilUkes  the  ancients 
were  led  into,  by  their  conceiving  a  greater  fnnili- 
tudc  between  the  ftruflure  of  men  and  of  fome  beafts 
than  there  is  in  reality. 

Perhaps  no  author  has  made  a  more  jufl  and  a  more 
happy  ufe  of  his  mode  of  rcafoning,  than  Bifliop  But- 
ler in  his  Analogy  of  Religion,  Natural  and  Reveal- 
ed, to  the  ConlUiution  and  Courfe  of  Nature.  In  that 
excellent  work,  the  author  does  not  ground  any  of 
the  truths  of  religion  upon  analogy,  as  their  proper 
evidence.  He  only  makes  ufe  of  analogy  to  anfwer 
obje6lions  againft  them.  When  objeflions  are  made 
againfl  the  truths  of  religion,  which  may  be  made 
with  equal  Arength  againft  what  we  know  to  be  true 
in  the  courfe  of  nature,  fuch  objedions  can  have  no 
weight. 

Analogical  reafoning,  therefore,  may  be  of  excel- 
lent ufe  in  anfwering  objeftions  againft  truths  which 
have  other  evidence.  It  may  likewife  give  a  greater 
or  a  lefs  degree  of  probability  in  cafes  where  we  can 
find  no  other  evidence.  But  all  arguments  drawn 
from  analogy  are  flill  the  weaker,  the  greater  difpari- 
ty  there  is  between  the  things  compared  ;  and  there- 
fore mud  be  weakeft  of  all  when  we  compare  body 
with  mind,  bccaufe  there  arc  no  two  things  in  nature 
more  unlike. 

There  is  no  fubjeifl  in  which  men  have  always  been 
fo  prone  to  form  their  notions  by  analogies  of  this  kind, 
as  in  what  relates  to  the  mind.  We  form  an  early  ac- 
quaintance with  material  things  by  means  of  our  fenfes, 
and  arc  bred  up  in  a  couflant  familiarity  with  them. 
Hence  we  are  apt  to  mcafure  all  things  by  them  ;  and 
to  afcribe  to  things  moil  remote  from  matter  the  qua- 
lities that  belong  to  material  things.  It  is  for  this  rea- 
fon  that  mankind  have,  in  all  ages,  been  fo  prone  to 
conceive  the  mind  iifelf  to  be  fome  fubtle  kind  of  mat- 
ter :  That  they  have  been  difpofcd  to  afcribe  huuiau 


figure,  and  human  organs,  not  only  to  angels,  but   AnaLgy; 
even  to  the  Deity.  " ■■' ' 

To  illultrate  more  fully  that  analogical  reafoning 
from  a  fuppofcd  fimilitude  of  mind  to  body,  which  ap- 
pears to  be  the  nioft  fruitful  fourceofcrror  with  regard 
to  the  operations  of  our  minds,  the  following  infuncc 
may  be  given.  When  a  man  is  urged  by  contrary 
motives,  thofe  on  one  hand  inciting  him  to  do  fomc 
aflion,  thofe  on  the  other  to  forbear  it ;  he  deliberates 
about  it,  and  at  lafl  rcfolves  to  do  it,  or  not  to  do  it. 
The  contrary  motives  arc  here  compared  to  the 
weights  in  the  oppolite  fcalcs  of  balance  ;  and  there 
is  not  perhaps  any  inAancc  that  can  be  named  of  a 
more  flrikinganalogy  between  body  and  mind.  Hcnco 
the  plirafcs  of  weighing  motives,  of  deliberating  upon 
aftions,  are  common  to  all  languages. 

From  this  analogy  fome  philofophers  draw  very  im- 
portant conclulions.  They  fay,  that  as  the  balance 
cannot  incline  to  one  fide  more  than  the  other,  when 
the  oppofite  weights  are  equal  ;  fo  a  roan  cannot  polli- 
bly  determine  himfclf  if  the  motives  on  both  hands  arb 
equal ;  and  as  the  balance  raufl  neccflarily  turn  to  that 
fide  which  has  moft  weight,  fothe  man  mufl  neceifa- 
rily  be  determined  to  that  hand  where  the  motive  is 
ftrongefl.  And  on  this  foundation  fome  of  the  fchool- 
men  maintained,  that  if  a  hungry  afs  were  placed  be- 
tween two  bundles  of  hay  equally  inviting,  the  beafl 
nuift  fland  ftill  and  flarve  to  death,  being  unable  to 
turn  to  either,  becaufe  there  are  cqualniotives  to  both. 
This  is  an  inftanccof  that  analogical  reafoning,  which, 
it  is  conceived,  ought  never  to  be  truflcd  ;  for  the  ana- 
logy between  a  balance  and  a  man  deliberating,  though 
one  of  the  flrongcA  tliat  can  be  found  between  matter 
and  mind,  is  too  weak  to  fupport  any  argument.  A 
piece  of  dead  inaflive  matter,  andanaclive  intelligent 
being,  arc  things  very  unlike  ;  and  becaufe  the  one 
would  remain  at  reft  in  a  certain  cafe,  it  does  not  fol- 
low that  the  other  would  be  inactive  in  a  cafe  fome- 
what  fimilar.  The  argument  is  no  better  than  this, 
that,  becaufe  a  dead  animal  moves  only  as  it  is  pulhed, 
and,  if  pufhed  with  equal  force  iu  contrary  diredions, 
muil  remain  at  reft;  therefore  the  fame  thing  mufl 
happen  to  a  living  animal ;  for  furely  the  fimilitude 
between  a  dead  animal  and  a  living,  is  as  great  as 
that  between  a  balance  and  a  man. 

The  derivation  of  the  word  Analogy  indicates,  as 
profelfor  Caftillon  of  Berlin*  obferves,  a  refemblancc  •  fjj^rUm 
difcernible  by  reafon.  This  is  confirmed  by  the  fenfc  Mnnin 
in  which  the  term  is  ufed  in  geometry,  where  it  fig-  fur  1786, 
nifies  an  equality  of  ratios. — In  explaining  this  fub- <"  *<''• ''"• 
jeft,  it  is  obferved,  there  may  be  a  refemblancc  be- 
tween fenfations  and  a  refemblancc  between  percep- 
tions :  the  former  is  called  phyficul  nfcnibtancc,  be- 
caufe it  ads  upon  the  phyfical  or  fciifitivc  faculty  ;  the 
latter  wi!r/2/rir/?w^/^/;c<r,  becaufe  it  affeds  the  moral  or 
rational  faculty  of  man. 

Every  refemblancc  maybe  reduced  toan  equality  in 
fenfations  orpcrceptions  ;  but  thisfuppofes  fome  equa- 
lity in  their  caufes  :  we  fay  ftmt  iquality,  becaufe  the 
dilpofition  of  the  organs,  or  of  the  foul,  mull  necclfa- 
rily  affeifl  the  fenfations  or  perceptions;  but  this  can 
jnriuenee  only  their  degree,  and  not  their  nature. 

The  charadcr  of  one  perfon  rcfemblcs  that  of  ano- 
ther only  whca  ibey  both  fpeak  audad  fo  as  to  excite 
4  O  a  equal 


ANA 


[     66 


Analogy,  equal  preccptious,  or,  to  fpcak  more  ftriftly,  the  lame 
AiialyGi.  perception  :  when  they  buth  diCplay  vivacity  or  in- 
■"  difference,  anger  or  nicekiicfs,  on  the  fame  occalions, 

and  both  excite  in  the  foul  of  the  obfcrver  identical 
perceptions,  or  rather  the  fame  perception  of  vivaci- 
ty or  indift'crence,  of  anger  or  meekncfs.  Thcfe 
identical  perceptions,  the  degree  of  which  will  de- 
pend much  on  the  difpolition  of  the  obfcrver's  mind, 
niufl  have  identical  caufcs,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
fame  caiifc;  whichis  the  vivacity  or  indiffercncc.thc  an- 
ger or  meekncfs,  dil'played  by  eachof  thefccharaders. 

Every  phylical  rcfcmblance  may  therefore  be  redu- 
ced to  one  or  more  equalities  ;  and  every  moral  rcfcm- 
blance to  one  or  more  identities.  Wherever  there  is 
moral  rcfcmblance  there  is  analogy.  Analogy  may 
therefore  be  reduced  to  identity,  and  always  fuppofes 
compurifon. 

Two  objects  arc  faid  to  have  an  analogy  to  each 
other,  or  arc  caWcA  analogous,  when  fonie  identity  is 
difcovercd  upon  comparing  them.  An  ai:atogtcal  con- 
clufion,  is  a  conclufion  deduced  from  fomc  identity. 

The  principles  of  analogy  are  a  comparifon  of  two 
objeds  ;  and  one  or  more  identities  refultiiig  from 
their  being  thus  compared.  The  charat'ters  of  ana- 
logy are — that  two  objifts  be  compared — that  there 
be  one  or  more  identities  between  tlicfe  objects — and 
that  this  is  (lifcerniblc  only  by  rcafon  or  intcllcft. 

rinfcal tfjhnl'iai.ce  IS  la  the  fenfes   what    analogy 

is  to  the  underttanding The  former,  when  perfect, 

becomes  equality  ;   but  the  latter  identity. 

Rcfcmblance  and  analogy  are  the  foundations  both 
of  probability  and  of  certainty.  When  we  are  not  fa- 
tistied  that  the  refemblancc  or  the  analogy  is  com- 
plete, we  (lop  at  probibility  ;  which  becomes  certain- 
ty when  we  are,  or  think  we  are,  aifured  that  the  re- 
femblancc or  the  analogy  is  perfcdl. 

In  reafoning  by  analogy,  we  Ihould  be  careful  not 
to  confound  it  with  rcfcmblance  ;  and  alfo  not  to  de- 
duce from  the  identity  or  identities,  on  which  the 
analogy  is  founded,  a  conclulion,  whicli  has  cither  no 
relation,  or  only  a  partial  relation,  to  thcfe  identities. 

The  principal  ufe  of  analogy  in  the  inveftigaiion  of 
phyficaland  moral  truth,  according  to  our  author,  may 
DC  reduced  to  the  four  following  :  i.  By  means  of  our 
fenfes  to  improve,  firft,  our  own  judgment,  and  after- 
wards that  of  others,  with  refpect  to  intclleflual  fub- 
jedls.  2.  To  deduce  a  general  from  a  particular  truth. 
Having  difcovercd  and  proved  the  truth  of  a  propo- 
sition with  refpct'l  to  any  particular  objcc'l,  exaiiiinc 
•whether  this  truth  flows  from  a  quality  peculiar  to 
this  fingleobjeft,  or  common  to  feveral  objct'ts.  In  the 
latter  cafe  all  tliefe  objcfls  may  be  comprehended  un- 
dcrone  general  idea,  founded  on  their  common  qua- 
jiiy.  Suliftitute  this  general  idea  inllead  of  the  parti- 
cular object,  and  the  propofition  will  become  general, 
•without  ceafnig  to  be  true  ;  becaufe  whatever  evident- 
ly and  fokly  rcfulis  from  the  identity,  on  which  ana- 
logy is  fiundcd,  nuifl  necelfarily  be  true  with  refpect 
to  all  thofc  objects  in  which  the  analogy  is  the  fame. 
3.  To  prove  the  truth  or  falfthoodofpropoiitions  whicIi 
cannot  be  otherv/ife  dcnionftratcd.  4.  To  difcover 
new  truths  in  both  natural  and  moral  philofophy. 

AxAi-OGY,  among  grammarians,  is  the  correfpon- 
dcncc  which  a  word  or  phrafe  bears  to  the  genius  and 
received  forms  of  any  language. 

ANALYSIS, in  a  general  fcnfc,  implies  the  refolu- 


o     ]  ANA 

tion  of  fomething  compounded,  into  its  original  and  Analyfii. 

conftituent  parts.     The  word  is  Greek,  and  derived  " *< 

from  mai^uu,  to  refolve. 

Analysis,  in  mailiematics,  is  properly  ihemeihod 
of  refolving  problems  by  means  of  algebraical  equa- 
tions ;  hence  we  often  lind  that  thcfe  two  words,  aiia- 
lyfu  mdalgilrra,  arc  ulcd  as  fynonymous. 

Analyiis,  under  its  prcfcnt  improvements,  mull  be 
allowed  the  Apex  or  height  ot  all  human  learning  :  it 
is  this  method  which  furnilhes  us  with  the  mod  pcr- 
feft  examples  of  the  art  of  reafoning  ;  givts  the  mind 
an  uncommon  readincfs  at  deducing  and  difcovering, 
from  a  few  data,  things  unknown;  and,  by  ufnig 
figns  for  ideas,  prefents  things  to  the  imagination, 
which  otherwifc  fecmed  out  of  its  fphere  :  by  this, 
geometrical  demonftrations  may  be  greatly  abridged, 
and  a  long  fcries  of  argumentations,  wherein  the 
mind  cannot  without  the  utuioit  cttort  and  attention 
difcover  the  connetlion  of  ideas,  arc  hereby  conver- 
ted into  fcnfible  iigns,  and  the  feveral  operations  re- 
quired therein  efredted  by  the  combination  of  thofe 
Iigns.  Bui,  what  is  more  extraoruinary,  by  means 
of  this  art,  a  number  of  truths  are  frequently  expreil- 
cd  by  a  linglc  line,  whicli,  in  tlie  common  way  of 
explaining  and  demonllrating  things,  would  fill  whole 
volumes.  Thus,  by  mere  contemplation  of  one  (in- 
gle line,  whole  fcienccs  may  be  tomctimes  learnt  in 
a  few  minutes  time,  which  otherwifc  could  fcarcc  be 
attained  in  many  years.  -| 

Analysis  is  divided,  with  regard  to  its  objecl,  in- 
to that  oi fi/iiti's  and  tnfihites. 

AtiAUSisoj  Fitittc  Quantities,  is  what  we  otherwifc 

call  fpccious  arithmetic  or  algebra.     Sec  Algebra. 

AsAUSi's  oj  Infinites,  called  alfo  the  New  Analyfts, 

is  particularly  ufed  for  the  method  of  tluxions,  or  the 

differential  calculus.     See  Fluxions. 

Analysis,  in  logic,  (ignilits  the  method  of  tracing 
things  backward  to  tlicir  fotirce,  and  of  refolving 
knowledge  into  its  original  principles.  This  is  alfo 
called  the  method  of  refolution  ;  and  Hands  oppofed  to 

the  fynthctic  method,  or  that  of  con/pofition The 

art  of  logical  analyfis  confirts  principally  in  combi- 
ning our  perceptions,  claffing  them  together  wiih  ad- 
drcfs,  and  contriving  proptr  cxprellions  for  convey- 
ing our  thoughts,  and  rcprcfcnting  their  feveral  di- 
vilions,  clailcs,  and  relations. 

Analysis,  in  rhetoric,  is  that  which  examines  the 
coniif-dions,  tropes,  figures,  and  the  like,  inquiring 
into  the  i>riipo(ition,  divilion,  pallions,  arguments,  and 
other  api);iratus  of  rhetoric. 

Scvt  ral  authors,  as  Krcigius  and  others,  have  given 
analyfes  of  Cicero's  Orations,  wherein  they  reduce 
them  to  their  grammatical  and  logical  principles  ; 
llrip  them  of  all  the  ornaments  and  additions  of  rheto- 
ric which  otherwife  difguifc  their  true  form,  and  con- 
ceal the  conneflion  between  one  part  and  another.  The 
dcfign  of  thefe  authors  is  to  have  thofe  admired  ha- 
rangues jull  fuch  as  the  judgment  difpofed  tlicm,  with- 
out the  help  of  imagination  ;  fo  that  here  we  may 
coolly  view  the  force  of  each  proof,  and  admire  the 
ufe  Cicero  made  of  rhetorical  ligurcs  to  conceal  the 
weak  part  of  a  caufe. 

A  collection  has  been  made  of  the  analyfes  formed 
by  the  moll  celebrated  authors  of  the  i6ih  century,  in 

3  vols,   folio. 

Analysis  is  alfo  ufed,  in  chcmiAry,  for  the  de- 
compounding 


iV.  N  A 


[     66i     ] 


ANA 


Analytic,  compounding  of  a  mixed  body,  or  the  reparation  of  the 

»— — V '  principles  and  conftitucnt  parts  of  a  compounded  fub- 

ilancc. 

To  analyze  bodies,  or  refolvc  them  into  their  compo- 
nent parts,  is  indeed  the  chief  objeitof  the  art  of  chc- 
miftry.  Chcmiftry  furnifhcs  fc  vcral  means  for  the  de- 
compodtion  of  bodies,  which  arc  all  founded  on  the 
differences  of  the  properties  belonging  to  the  ditfcrtnt 
principles  of  which  the  body  to  be  analyzed  is  compof- 
ed.  If,  for  example,  a  body  be  compofcd  of  fcveral 
principles,  fomc  of  which  have  a  great,  and  others  a 
moderate  degree  of  volatility,  and,  lafUy,  others  arc 
fixed,  its  mod  volatile  parts  may  be  at  firlt  fcparated  by 
a  gradual  heal  in  difllUing  vefl'els  ;  and  then  the  parts 
which  arc  next  in  volatility  will  pafs  over  in  dillilla- 
tion  ;  and  laftly,  thofe  pnrts  which  are  iixed,  and  ca- 
pable of  refifling  the  adion  of  tire,  will  remain  at 
the  bottom  of  the  vcflcl. 

Analysis  is  alio  ufed  for  a  kind  of  fyllabiis,  or  ta- 
ble of  the  principal  heads  or  articles  of  a  continued 
<!ifcourfe,difpofcd  in  their  nataral  order  and  dependen- 
cy. Analyfcs  are  more  fcicntifical  ihanalphabcticjl  in- 
dexes ;  but  they  are  lefs  ufed,  as  being  more  intri- 
cate. 

Analysis  is  likewife  ufed  for  a  brief,  but  metho- 
dical, ilhillratiim  of  the  princijiles  of  a  llicnce  ;  in 
in  which  fenfe  it  is  nearly  fynonymous  with  what  we 
otherwife  call  3.fynopjii. 

ANALYTIC,  or  Analytical,  foniething  that 
belongs  to,  or  partakes  of,  the  nature  of  anilylis. — 
Thus  we  fay,  an  analytical  demonftration,  analytical 
procefs,  analytical  table  or  fchcme,  analytical  method 
of  inveftigaiiou,  &c. 

The  analytic  method  ftands  oppofcd  to  the  fynthc- 
tic.  In  natural  philofophy ,  as  in  math,  niatics,  the  in- 
vefligation  of  ditficult  things  by  the  analytic  method 
eught  to  precede  the  method  of  compofuion.  This  a- 
nalyfis  confifts  in  making  experiments  and  obfervaii- 
ens,  and  in  drawing  general  concUUions  therefrom  by 
indnilion  ;  and  admitting  of  no  objections  againll  the 
conclufions,  but  fuch  as  are  drawn  from  experiments, 
and  other  certain  truths  :  and  though  the  reafoning 
from  experimcntsandobfcrvations  by  induction  be  no 
ilemonflration  of  general  conchilions,  yet  it  is  the  bell 
method  of  reafoning  which  the  nature  of  things  admits 
of  ;  and  may  be  ellecmed  fo  much  the  ftronger,  as  tlie 
indurtion  is  more  general ;  and,  if  no  exception  occur 
from  phenomena,  the  conclufion  may  be  pronounced 
general.  By  this  way  of  analylis,  we  may  proceed 
from  compounds  to  their  ingredients  ;  from  motions  to 
the  forces  producing  them  ;  and,  in  general,  from 
effefts  to  their  caufes,  and  from  particular  caufcs  to 
more  general  ones,  until  vvc  arrive  at  thofe  which  are 
the  mod  general.  This  is  the  analytic  method,  ac- 
cording to  the  illuflrious  Newton. 

The  fyntlictic  method  confifts  in  alTuming  thecan- 
fesdifcovered  and  received  as  principles:  and  by  them 
explaining  the  phenomena  proceeding  from  them, 
and  proving  the  ex|)lanations.     See  Synthests. 

ANALYTICS,  Airalyttai,  the  fciencc  and  ufc  of 
analylis.  The  great  advantage  of  the  modern  mathe- 
matics above  the  ancient  is  in  point  of  analytics. 

Pappus,  in  the  preface  to  his  feventh  book  of  Mathe- 
matical CoUcilions,  enumerates  the  authors  on  the  an- 
cient analytics ;  being  Euclid,  in  his  Data  and  Porif- 


tnata  ;  ApolioBius,  de  Sedtone  Rationii,  and  in  his  C«- 
>iia;  Arillaeus,  di  Loch  SoliJh  :  and  Eratoflhcnes,  de 
Mediis  I  roportioiialiius.  But  the  ancient  analytics 
were  very  different  from  the  modern. 

Tothe  modcrnanaly tics  principally  belong  algebra  ; 
an  hiilorical  account  of  which,  with  the  fcveral  au- 
thors thereon,  fee  under  the  article  Algebra. 

ANAMABOA,  a  populous  town  in  the  kingdom 
of  Kantin,  in  Guinea.  The  natives  are  generally  great 
cheats,  and  mud  be  carefully  looked  after  in  dealing 
with  them,  and  their  gold  well  examined,  for  it  is 
commonly  adulterated.  It  lies  under  the  cannon  ol 
an  Englilh  cadlc.  The  landing  is  pretty  difficult  on 
account  of  the  rocks  ;  and  therefore  thofe  that  conic 
here  to  trade  are  forced  to  go  alliore  in  canoes.  The 
earth  here  is  very  proper  to  make  bricks  ;  the  oyders, 
when  burnt,  afford  good  lime  ;  and  there  is  timber  in 
great  abundance  ;  fo  that  here  arc  all  the  materials  for 
building.  The  country  at  Anamaboa  is  full  of  hills, 
beginning  at  a  good  didancc  from  the  town,  and  af- 
fording a  very  pleafant  profped.  Indian  corn  and 
palm-wine  are  in  great  plenty.  They  have  a  green 
fruit  cdWcA  papal ,  as  big  as  a  fmall  melon,  and  which 
has  a  tade  like  cauliflower.  Anamaboa  is  much  fre- 
quented by  the  Englilh  fliips  and  others  for  corn  .<!nd 
Haves,  which  lad  are  fometimes  to  be  had  in  great 
numbers.  The  Englilh  fort  is  built  on  the  foundation 
of  a  large  old  houfe,  which  fubfided  entire  in  i6''y. 
It  is  a  large  edifice,  flanked  by  two  towers,  and  forti- 
fied towards  the  fea  with  two  badions  ;  the  whole  of 
brick  and  done  cemented  with  lime.  It  dandsupona 
rock,  at  the  didance  of  50  paces  from  the  fea.  it  is 
mounted  with  1 2  pieces  of  cannon  and  1 2  patererocb  ; 
and  defended  by  a  garrifon  of  12  whites  and  iS  blacks, 
under  the  command  of  the  chief  fador. 

The  natives  treat  the  garrifon  of  this  fort  with  great 
infolence,  infomuch  as  often  to  block  them  up,  and  fre- 
quently, if  they  diflike  the  governor,  fendhimoliin 
a  canoe  to  Cape  Coad  with  marks  of  the  utmod  con- 
tempt. Far  from  being  able  tooppofe  them,  the  Eng- 
lifh  are  glad  to  obtain  their  favour  with  prelcnts.  In 
I  701 ,  thev  declared  war  againd  the  Englilh  ,-  and  hav- 
ing alfemblcd  in  a  tumultuous  manner  before  the  fort, 
they  fet  fire  tothe  exterior  buildings,  and  went  on  with 
their  outrages,  till  they  were  difperfed  by  a  difchargc 
of  the  cannon  from  the  batteries.  The  night  following 
the  Englidi  took  their  revenge,  by  letting  tire  to  the 
town  of  Anamaboa;  and  thus  hodiliiies  continued 
for  20  days,  till  at  lad  the  natives  were  obliged  to 
fue  for  peace.  This  lort  was  abandoned  in  1 753  ;  but 
has  been  rcfiimed  by  the  Englifh,  who  have  continued 
in  it  ever  lincc. 

ANAMELECH,  an  idol  of  the  Scpharvaites,  who 
are  faid  in  Scripture  to  have  burned  their  children  in 
houourof  Adrammelcch  and  Anamclcoh. — The fe  idols 
probably  figniiied  the  fun  and  moon.  Some  of  the 
rabbins  rcprefeut  AnamcUch  under  the  figure  of  a 
mule,  others  under  that  of  a  quail  or  pheafant. 

.^NAMIM,  thefecondfonof  Mizraim  (Gcn.x.  i;.) 
Anamini,  if  we  may  credit  the  paraphrall  Jonathan 
the  fouof  Uzziel,  peopled  the  Marcotis  ;  or  the  I'cn- 
tapolis  of  Cyrene,  according  to  the  p  ;raphrall  ot  Jc- 
rufalcm.  Bochart  is  of  opinion  th  it  thcfe  .■\naTnii;is 
were  the  people  that  dwelt  in  the  parts  adjacent  tothe 
temple  of  Jupiter  Amnion,  and  in  the  Nafamonitis. 

Calmct 


Anamaboa 

il 
Anaaiim. 


ANA 


[     662    ] 


ANA 


Ammor- 
pSofis 

n 

Anarchy. 


Calmct  thinks  the  Amanians  and  Garmantes  to  be 
defcen>!cd  from  Anamini. 

ANAMORPHOSIS,  in  perfpeftive  drawings,  is  a 
dcfoniic  J  or  dillortcd  portrait  or  ligiirc,  generally  con- 
futed and  uninttUigiblc  to  the  common  unallillcdvicw  ; 
but  when  feen  at  a  certain  diltancc  and  height,  or 
as  rciietted  from  a  plain  or  curved  mirror,  will  appear 
regular  and  in  right  proportion.  Sec  Optics  (the 
IiiJex),  and  Perstective. 

ANANAS,  in  botany,  the  trivial  name  ofa  fpccies 
of  bromclia.     Sec  Bromelia. 

ANANCITIS,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  figured 
ftone,  otherwile  called _/)/;»<:*(/«,  celebrated  for  its 
magical  virtue  of  raifing  the  fliadows  of  the  infernal 
gods. 

ANANI.'\S,  a  Sadducee,  high-prieft  of  the  Je«'s, 
who  put  to  death  St  James  the  brother  of  our  Lord, 
and  was  dciiofed  by  Agrippa. 

ANAMSABTA,  or  Ananijapta,  a  magical 
word  frequently  found  infcribed  on  coins  and  other 
amulets,  fuppofed  to  have  a  virtue  of  preferving  the 
wearer  from  the  plague. 

ANAP^tST,  in  ancient  poetry,  afoot  confiftingof 
two  (hort  fyllables  and  one  long  :  Such  is  the  word 
fcopiilos.     It  is  juft  the  rcvcrfc  of  the  daftyl. 

ANAP.t;STlC  VERSES,  thofe  conlifting  wholly  or 
chiefly  of  anapeds. 

ANAPHE  (anc.  geog.),  an  idand  fpontaneoufly 
emerging  out  of  the  Cretan  fea,  near  Thera  (Pliny, 
Strabo)  ;  now  called  Nanfio.  Its  name  is  from  the 
fuddcn  appearance  of  the  new  moon  to  the  Argo- 
nauts in  a  Rorm  (Apollonius),  Aiiaphaus,  an  epithet 
of  Apollo,  who  was  worlliipped  there.  Anapha:\,  the 
people. 

ANAPHORA,  in  rhetoric,  the  repetition  of  the 
fame  word  or  worc's  in  the  beginning  of  a  fcntence  or 
vcrle :  Thus  Virgil, 

Panetiam  Arcadia  tiitcum  fi  jtidict  cert  it, 
Pan  el'tam  Arcadia  dieat  fi  jiidice  vifliim. 

Anaphora,  among  phyficians,  the  throwing  off 
purnlent  mattcrby  the  mouth. 

ANAPHRODISIA,  iignifies  impotence,  or  want 
ef  power  to  procreate.     See  Impotence. 

ANAPLASIS,  fignities  the  replacing  or  fetting  a 
fraftured  bone. 

ANAPLORETICS,  medicines  that  promote  the 
growth  or  granulation  of  the  fleAi  in  wounds,  ulcers, 
&c. 

ANARCHI,  Avafyti,  in  antiquity,  a  name  given 
by  the  Athenians  to  four  fupernumcrary  days  in  their 
year,  during  which  tliey  had  no  magiflrates.  The  At- 
tic year  was  divided  into  ten  parts,  according  to  the 
number  of  tribes,  to  whom  the  precedency  of  the  fe- 
nate  fell  by  turns.  Each  divifion  conlillcd  of  35  days  ; 
what  remained  after  the  expiration  of  thefe,  to  make 
the  lunar  year  complete,  which  according  to  their  com- 
putation conlifled  of  554  days,  were  employed  in  the 
creation  of  magiflrates,  and  called  gtntx'"  ff'  and 

ANARCHY,  the  want  of  government  in  a  nation, 
where  no  fuprerae  authority  is  lodged,  cither  in  the 
prince  or  other  rulers  ;  but  the  people  live  at  large, 
and  all  things  are  in  confufion.  The  word  is  derived 
from  the  Greek  privative  «,  and  ufx',  command  prin- 


cipality.    Anarchy  is  fuppofed  to  have  reigned  after  AnarrhieM 

the  deluge,  before  the  foundation  of  monarchies.  We  ' « ' 

flill  find  it  obtain  in  fcvcral  parts,  particularly  of  Afri- 
ca and  America. 

Anarchy  is  alfo  applied  toctrtain  troublefome and 
diiorderly  periods,  even  in  governments  otherwifc 
regular.  In  England,  the  period  between  the  death 
of  Cromwell  and  King  Charles's  rclloration  is  com- 
monly reprcfentcd  as  ^n  anarchy.  Every  month  pro- 
duced a  new  fcheme  or  form  of  government.  Enthu- 
fiafts  talked  of  nothing  but  annulling  the  laws,  abolilh- 
ing  all  writings,  records,  and  regiflers,  and  bringing 
all  men  to  the  primitive  level.  No  modern  nation  is 
more  fubjedt  to  anarchies  than  Poland  ;  where  every 
interval  between  the  death  of  one  king  and  theclefti- 
on  of  another  is  a  perfcdt  pidure  of  confufion,  info- 
much  that  it  is  a  proverb  among  that  people,  Poland 
is  governed  ty  conftijion.  The  Jewilh  hiftory  prefents 
numerous  inflances  of  anarchies  in  that  flate,  ufually 
denoted  by  this  phrafe,  that  in  thofe  days  there  ■U'as  nt 
king  in  Ijrael,  but  every  man  did  that  •which  was  right  in 
his  own  eyes  ;  which  ajuft  piiflure  of  an  «/;^ri/y . 

ANARRHICAS,  in  ichthyology,  a  genus  of  fiflies 
of  the  order  of  apoJcs.  There  is  but  one  fpecies  of 
this  genus,  viz.  the  anarrhicas  lupus,  orfca-wolf; 
which  fcems  to  be  confined  to  the  novthern  parts  of 
the  globe.  We  find  it  in  the  fcas  of  Greenland  ;  ia 
thofe  of  Iceland  and  Norway  ;  on  the  coafts  of  Scotland 
and  of  Yorklhire  ;  and  laftly,  in  that  part  of  the  Ger- 
man ocean  which  wa(hes  the  fhorcs  of  Holland,  the 
moft  fouthern  of  its  haunts  that  wc  can  with  any  cer- 
tainty mention. 

It  is  a  mofl  ravenous  and  fierce  fifh,  and,  when  ta- 
ken, faflens  on  any  thing  within  its  reach  ;  the  fifhcr- 
nien,  dreading  its  bite,  endeavour  as  foon  as  pofhblc 
to  beat  out  its  fore-teeth,  and  then  kill  it  by  flriking 
it  behind  the  head.  Schonevclde  relates,  that  its  bite 
is  fo  hard,  tliat  it  will  fieze  on  an  anchor,  and  leave 
the  marks  of  its  teeth  in  it  ;  and  the  Daniih  and  Ger- 
man names  oi  j\e;}:bidtr  and  Jleinheilfer,  exprefs  the 
fenfe  of  its  great  flrength,  as  if  it  was  capable  of 
crulhingcven  flones  with  it  jaws. 

It  feeds  almoft  entirely  on  cruflaceous  animals  ani 
fhell-fifli,  fuch  as  crabs, lobflers,  prawns,mufcles,  fcol- 
lops,  large  whelks,  &c.  thefe  it  grinds  to  pieces  with 
its  teeth,  and  fwallows  with  the  lelfcr  fliells.  It  does 
not  appear  they  are  difTolved  in  the  ftomach,  but  arc 
voided  with  the  fasces ;  for  which  purpofe  the  aperture 
of  the  anus  is  wider  than  in  other  filhof  thefamellze. 

It  is  full  of  roe  in  February,  March,  and  April,  and 
fpawns  in  May  and  June. 

This  tifli  has  fo  difagreeable  and  horrid  an  appear- 
ance that  nobody  at  Scarborough,  except  the  fifher- 
men,  will  eat  it,  and  they  prefer  it  to  holibut.  They 
always,  before  drefTing,  take  of  the  head  andfkin. 

The  fca-wolf  grows  to  a  large  fize  :  thofe  on  the 
Yorklhire  coaft  are  fometimes  found  of  the  length  of 
four  feet ;  according  to  Dr  Gronovius,  they  have  been 
taken  near  Shetland  feven  feet  long,  and  even  more. 

The  head  is  a  little  flatted  on  the  top  ;  the  nofe  blunt; 
the  noflrils  are  very  fniall  ;  the  eyes  fmall,  and  placed 
near  the  end  of  the  nofe. 

The  teeth  are  very  remarkable,  and  finely  adapted 
to  its  way  of  life.  The  fore-teeth  are  ftrong,  conical, 
diverging  a  little  from  each  other,  ftand  far  out  of  the 

jaws, 


ANA 


[     (^^i     ] 


ANA 


Aniropia,  jaws,  and  are  commonly  iix  above  and  the  fame  below, 
Anas,  thouglifometimes  they  are  only  five  ill  each  jaw:  thcfe 
*  *  '  are  fupported  within-iide  by  a  row  of  leilcr  teeth, 
which  makes  the  number  in  thcupper  jaw  lyor  i8,  in 
the  lower  ii  or  12.  The  (ides  ofthe  under  jaw  are 
convex  inwards,  which  greatly  adds  to  their  ftrength, 
and  at  the  fame  time  allows  room  for  the  large  mufcles 
with  which  the  head  of  this  filli  is  furnilhed.  The 
denies  molares,  or  grinding-tecth  of  the  under  jaw, 
are  higher  on  the  outer  than  the  inner  cJgcs,  which 
inclines  their  furfaces  inward  :  they  join  to  the  ca- 
nine teeth  in  that  jaw,  but  in  the  upper  are  feparatc 
from  them.  In  the  centre  are  two  rows  of  flat  ftrong 
teeth  fixed  on  an  oblong  bafib  upon  the  bones  of  the 
palate  and  nofe. 

The  teeth  of  the  anarrhicas  arc  often  found  fofTil  ; 
and  in  that  flate  called  bujonita,  or  toad-Jionei :  thefe 
were  formerly  much  cftecmed  for  their  imaginary 
virtues,  and  were  fet  in  gold,  and  worn  as  rings. 

The  two  bones  that  form  the  under  jaw  are  united 
before  by  a  loofe  cartilage  ;  which  mechanifm  admit- 
ting of  a  motion  from  fide  to  fide,  moftevidently  con- 
tributes to  the  dcfign  of  the  whole,  viz.  a  facility  of 
breaking,  grinding,  and  comminuting,  its  teftaceous 
and  crullaceous,  food.  At  the  entrance  of  the  gullet, 
above  and  below,  are  two  echinated  bones  :  thcl'c  are 
very  fmali,  being  the  lefs  necelfary,  as  the  food  is  in  a 
great  meafure  comminuted  in  the  mouth  by  aid  of  the 
grinders. 

The  body  is  long,  and  a  little comprefFed  fidcwife  ; 
the  Ikin  fmooth  and  flippery  :  it  wants  the  lateral  line. 
The  pciJloral  fins  conlilt  of  18  rays.  The  dorfal  fin 
«xtends  from  the  hind-part  of  the  hcadalmofl  to  the 
tail  ;  the  rays  in  the  frelh  fifh  are  not  vilible.  The  anal 
fin  extends  as  far  as  the  dorfal  fin.  The  tail  is  round 
at  its  end,  and  confifts  of  1 3  rays.  The  fides,  back, 
and  fins,  are  of  a  livid  lead  colour  ;  the  two  firft  mark- 
ed downwards  with  irregular  obfcure  dulky  lines:  tliefe 
in  differentfifh  have  different  appearances.  The  young 
areofagreeni(hcafl,rcfemblingthcfea-wreck,amongft 
which  they  rcfide  for  fome  time  after  their  birth. 

ANARROPIA,  among  phyficians,  a  tendency  o{ 
the  humours  to  the  head  or  fuperior  parts. 

ANAS  (anc.  geog.),  a  river  of  Spain,  rifing  in 
the  territory  of  Laminium,  of  the  Hither  Spain,  and 
naw  fpreading  into  lakes,  again  reftraining  its  waters, 
or,  burrowing  itfelf  entirely  in  the  earth,  is  plcafed 
often  to  reappear  ;  it  pours  into  the  Atlantic  (Pliny); 
iw\v  Cuadiana,  riling  in  ihc  fouth-eafl  of  Ncw-Caf- 
tile,  in  a  diftrid  commonly  called  Campo  de  Monticl, 
not  far  from  the  mountain  Confucgra,  from  the  lakes 
called  las  Lagtinas  de  Cuadiana,  and  then  it  is  called 
Rio  Roydera  ;  and,  after  a  courfe  of  fix  leagues,  bury- 
ing itltlf  in  the  eanh  for  a  league,  it  then  rifes  up 
again  from  three  lakes,  called  hs  Ojn  deCuadiana, 
near  the  village  Villa  Harta,  five  leagues  to  the  north 
of  Calatrava,  and  direds  its  courfe  weilward  througli 
New  Caflile,  by  Medelin,  Merida,  and  Badajox, 
where  it  begins  to  b-nd  its  courfe  foiuhwards,  be- 
tween Portugal  and  Andalufia,  falling  into  the  bay 
of  Cadiz  near  Ayamonte. 

Anas,  in  orinthology,  a  genus  of  birds  belonging 
to  the  order  of  anfcres.  The  beak  of  this  genus  is  a 
little  obtufc,  covered  with  an  epidermis  orlldn,  gib- 


bous at  the  bafe  and  broad  at  the  apex  :  the  tongue  is      An.* 
obtufe  and  ficlhy  ;  the  feet  are  webbed  and  fitted  for  *"    »      '' 
fwimming.     The  fpecies  are, 

I.  The  cygnus,y>ri//  ir  manruttus. 

«.  Thejerus,  with  a  femicylindrical  black  bill,  yel- 
low wax,  and  a  white  body,  ii  the  whiftliug  or  wild 
fwan  of  Engli.'h  authors,  and  is  lefs  than  the  tame  or 
mute  fpecies,  being  about  five  feet  in  length.  Thefe 
birds  inhabit  the  northern  world  as  high  as  Iceland, 
and  as  low  as  the  foft  climate  of  Greece  or  of  Lydia, 
the  modern  Anatolia,  in  Afia  Minor  :  it  even  defceudi 
as  low  as  Egypt.  They  fwarm,  during  fummer,  in 
the  great  lakes  and  marlhcs  of  the  Tartarian  and  Si- 
berian defarts  ;  and  refort  in  great  numbers  to  winter 
about  the  Cafpian  and  Euxine  feas.  Thofe  of  the 
eaftern  pans  of  Siberia  retire  beyond  Kamtfchatka, 
either  to  the  coafts  of  America,  or  to  the  illes  north 
of  Japan.  In  Siberia  they  fpread  far  north,  but  not  ' 
to  the  Arftic  circle.  They  arrive  in  Hudfon's  Bay 
about  the  end  of  May,  where  they  breed  in  great 
numbers  on  the  (hores,  in  the  illands,  and  in  the  inland 
lakes  ;  but  all  retire  to  the  fouthern  parts  of  North- 
America  in  autumn,  even  as  low  as  Carolina  and  Loui- 
liana.  In  Carolina  they  are  faid  to  be  of  two  forts  ; 
the  larger,  called  from  its  note  the  Trum[>ster,  arrive 
in  great  flocks  to  the  frefli  rivers  in  winter,  and  in  Fe- 
bruary retire  to  the  great  lakes  to  breed  :  tlie  lelfcr 
are  called  Hoopers,  and  frequent  moftly  the  fait  water. 
The  Indians  of  Louiliana  wear  the  ikins,  with  the 
down  attached  to  them,  fewed  together  by  way  of  co- 
vering; andof  the  larger  feathers  they  make  diadems 
for  their  chiefs,  as  well  as  weave  the  fmaller  on 
threads,  as  barbers  do  for  their  wigs,  with  which  they 
cover  garments,  which  arc  worn  only  by  women  of 
the  higheR  rank.  In  Auguft  thcfe  birds  lofe  their 
feathers,  and  are  not  able  to  fly  ;  when  the  natives 
of  Iceland  and  Kamtfchatka  hunt  them  with  dogs, 
which  cacch  them  by  the  neck,  and  eafily  fecure  their 
prey.  In  the  lad  place  they  are  alfo  killed  with  clubs. 
The  eggs  arc  accounted  good  food  ;  and  the  flefli,  ef- 
pecially  that  of  the  young,  is  much  efteemed  by  th« 
inhabitants.  The  afcs  of  the  feathers  are  manifeft 
to  every  one  j  and  the  Ikins  of  the  body  arc  worn  by 
the  inhabitants  ;  belides  which,  that  of  the  legs,  tak- 
en off  whole,  is  ufcd  for  purfes,  and  appears  not  un- 
like (hagreen.  W  ild  fwans,  Linnaeus  fays,  frequent- 
ly vifit  Sweden  after  a  thaw,  and  are  caught  with  ap- 
ples in  which  a  hook  is  concealed.  The  wild  fwan 
frequents  the  c«alls  of  Great  Britain,  in  hard  winters, 
in  large  flocks,  but  does  not  breed  there.  Martin  •  ac-  •  TSeftrSp*. 
quainis  us,  that  fwans  come  in  0&.  >ber  in  great  num-  '*'»'•  -fr^'i 
bcr  to  Lingey,  one  of  the  Wcilern  illes  ;  and  conti-  ?'• 
nuc  tiiere  tiU  March,  when  they  return  northward  to 
breed.  A  few  continue  in  Mainland,  one  of  the  Ork- 
neys, and  breed  in  the  little  illes  of  the  frefli-water 
lochs:  but  the  multitude  retires  at  the  approach  of 
fpring.  On  that  account,  fwans  are  there  the  coun- 
tryman's almanack:  on  ibeir  quieting  the  iilc,  they 
prcfage  good  weather;  on  their  arrival,  they  an- 
nounce bad.  Thefe,  as  well  as  moll  other  water- 
fowl, prefer,  for  the  purpofe  of  incubation,  thofe  places 
that  are  leaA  frequented  by  mankind  :  accordingly 
we  find  that  the  lakes  and  forclls  of  the  diflant  Lap- 
land arc  filled  daring  fummer  with  myriads  of  v.-ater- 

fowl; 


ANA 


r  664  ] 


ANA 


Asa*,     fowl ;  and  there  fwans,  gecfc,  the  duckttribe,goofaii- 
— ^ dcrs,  divers,  &c.  pals  thai  iVufon  ;  but  in  autumn  re- 
turn 10  other,  more  liofpitablc,  llwrcs. 

Tiiis  fpecies  has  fcvcral  dilUnctions  from  the  fpecics 
which  in  Britain  is  called  the  tame  fwaii.  In  KulFia 
this  Ipccics  more  tidy  claims  the  name,  it  licing  the 
kind  mod  commonly  tamed  in  that  empire.  The 
whiiUing  fwan  carries  its  neck  quite  erect,  the  other 
fwims  with  it  arched.  This  is  far  inferior  in  fize. 
This  has  twelve  ribs  on  a  fide,  the  mute  only  eleven. 
Bat  the  moft  remarkable  is  the  llrange  figure  of  the 
windpipe  ;  which  fails  into  the  chcii,  then  turns  back 
like  a  irumpcc,  and  afterwards  makes  a  fecond  bend  to 
join  the  lungs.  Thus  it  is  enabled  to  utter  a  loud  and 
Ihriil  note.  The  other  fwan,  on  the  contrary,  is  the 
mortlilent  of  birils:  it  can  do  notiiing  more  than  hit's, 
which  it  docs  on  receiving  any  provocation.  The 
vocal  kind  emits  its  loud  notes  only  when  flying  or 
calling.  Its  found  is,  -whooh,  whooh,  very  loud  and 
fhrill,  but  not  dilagreeable,  when  heard  far  above  one"s 
head  and  modulated  by  the  winds.  The  natives  of 
Iceland  compare  it  to  the  notes  of  a  violin.  In  facf, 
they  hear  it  (fays  Mr  PcnnantVat  the  end  of  their 
long  and  gloomy  winter  ;  when  the  reiurn  of  the 
fwans  aniwuncts  the  return  of  fummer;  every  note 
mull  be  therefore  melodious  which  prcfages  the  fpeedy 
thaw,  and  the  relcafefrom  their  ledimis  continement. 

It  is  from  this  fpecics  alone  that  the  ancients  have 
given  the  fable  of  the  fwan  being  endued  with  the 
powers  of  melody.  Embracing  the  Pythagorean  doc- 
trine, they  made  the  iiody  of  this  bird  the  manlion  of 
the  fouls  of  departed  poets  ;  and  after  that,  attributed 
to  the  birds  the  fame  faculty  of  harmony  which  their 
inmates  polfclfcd  in  a  pre-exillcnt  llatc.  The  vulgar, 
not  dillinguilhiug  between  fweetnefs  of  numbers  and 
melody  of  voice,  thought  that  real  which  was  only 
intended  tigurativcly.  The  mute  fwan,  Mr  Pennant 
obferves,  never  frequents  the  Padus,  nor  is  ever  ftcn 
on  the  Cayfter  in  Lydia  ;  each  of  them  Ilreams  cele- 
brated by  the  poets  for  the  great  refort  of  fwans. 

In  time,  a  fwan  became  a  common  trope  igr  a  bard. 
Horace  calls  V\ni\a.\-  Dire  a  tnu  Cygnu7n  j  and  in  one  ode 
even  fuppofcs  himfelf  changed  into  a  fwan.  Virgil 
I'peaks  of  his  poetical  brethren  in  the  fame  manner  : 

A'arc-,  tuum  nomen 

Cantantes  fublime  fcrent  ad  fidera  cygni.  Eclog.  ix. 
When  hefpeaksof  them  figuratively,  he  afcribes  to 
them  melody,  or  the  power  of  mufic  ;  but  when  he 
talks  of  them  as  birds,  he  lays  afide  fiftion,  and,  like 
a  true  naiuralift,  gives  them  their  real  note  : 

Dant  fonitumraftc/  per  flagna  loquacia  cygni. 

Mil.  Lib.  xi.  458. 

It  was  alfo  a  popular  opinion  among  the  ancients, 
that  the  fwan  foretold  iis  own  end.  To  explain  this, 
we  muft  confidtr  the  twofold  chara<fler  of  the  poet, 
vat^s  T^w^pbL-ta,  which  the  fable  of  the  tranfmigration 
continues  to  the  bird,  or  they  might  be  fuppofed  to 
derive  that  faculty  from  Apollo  their  patron  deity,  the 
god  of  prophecy  and  divination. 

As  to  their  being  fuppofed  to  fing  more  fwectly  at 
theapproach  of  death,  the  caufe  is  beautifully  explain- 
ed by  Plato,  who  attributes  that  unufual  melody  to 
the  fame  fort  of  ecftafy  that  good  men  are  fometimes 
faid  Co  enjoy  at  that  .•'wful  hour,  forefc'-ing  the  joys 
that  arc  preparing  for  them  on  putting  oft'mortality. 


^,  The  inniijuetus,  or  mate  fwan,  is  the  largcd  of 
the  Britilh  birds.  It  is  diftinguilhed  externally  from  *■ 
the  wild  iwan  ;  firfl,  by  its  lize,  being  much  larger  ; 
lecondly,  by  its  bill,  which  in  this  is  red,  and  the  tip 
and  fides  black,  and  the  (kin  between  the  eyes  and  bill 
is  of  the  fame  colour.  Over  the  bafe  of  the  upper  man- 
dible, projects  a  black  callous  knob  ;  the  whole  plu- 
mage, in  old  birds, is  white  ;  in  young  ones,  alh-colour- 
ed  till  the  fecond  year  :  the  legs  are  dulky  ;  but  Dr 
Plott  mentions  a  variety  found  on  the  Treat  near  Ru- 
gely,  with  red  legs. 

The  fwan  is  found  wild  in  RufTia  and  Siberia,  mod 
plentiful  in  the  lalt.  It  arrives  later  from  the  fouth, 
and  docs  not  fpread  fo  far  north.  Thofc  about  the 
foutlicrn  part  ol  the  Cafpian  Sea  arc  very  large,  and 
much  clleemed  for  the  ufe  of  ihe  table.  The  fwan  is 
held  in  high  veneration  by  the  Mahometans.  It  is  a 
very  flrong  bird,  and  fometimes  exceeding  fierce  :  has 
not  unfrequcntly  been  known  to  throw  down  and 
trample  under  feet  youths  of  fifteen  or  (ixteen  years 
of  age,  and  an  old  one  to  break  the  leg  of  a  man  with 
a  llroke  of  the  wings.  It  is  faid  to  be  very  long-lived, 
and  frequently  to  arrive  at  the  hundredth  year.  The 
young  are  not  perfed  in  plumage  till  the  fecond  year. 
The  fwan  lays  the  (irll  egg  in  February,  and  conti- 
nues laying  every  other  day  to  the  amount  of  fix,  fe- 
ven,  or  eight  eggs  ;  thele  it  places  on  a  bed  of  grafs 
near  the  water,  and  fits  fix  weeks.  It  feeds  on  both 
filli  and  herbage. 

No  bird,  perhaps,  makes  fo  inelegant  a  figure  out 
of  the  water,  or  has  the  command  of  fuch  beautiful 
attitudes  on  that  element,  as  the  fwan  :  almoll  every 
poet  has  taken  notice  of  it ;  but  iione  with  that  juft- 
nefs  of  defcription,  and  in  fo  piiilurefquc  a.  manner, 
as  Milton  : 

The  fwan,  with  arched  neck 

Between  her  white  wings  mantling,  proudly  rows 

Her  llate  with  oary  feet.  I'ar.Lofl,  B.  vii. 

In  former  times,  it  was  ferved  upat  everygreat  fcaft, 
when  the  elegance  of  the  table  was  meafured  by  the 
fize  and  quantity  of  the  good  cheer.  Cygnets  are  to 
this  day  fattened  at  Norwich  about  Chriflmas,  and  arc 
fold  for  a  guinea  a-piece. 

Swans  were  formerly  held  in  fuch  great  eflecm  in 
England,  that  by  an  act  of  Edward  IV.  c.  6.  "  no  one 
that  poil'efTed  a  freehold  of  Icfs  clear  yearly  value  than 
five  marks,  was  permitted  to  keep  any,  other  than  the 
Jon  ofonrfovereign  lorduhs  king."  And  by  the  eleventh 
of  Henry  VII.  e.  17.  the  punilhment  for  taking  their 
eggs  was  imprifoninent  for  a  year  and  a  day,  and  a 
fine  at  the  king's  will.  Though  at  prefent  they  arc 
not  fo  highly  valued  as  a  delicacy,  yet  great  numbers 
arc  preferved  for  their  beauty;  multitudes  are  to  be 
fcen  on  ihe  Thames  and  Trent,  but  no  where  greater 
numbers  than  the  falt-water  inlet  of  the  fea  nearAb- 
boifbury  in  Dorfetfliire. 

2.  The  cygnoides,  with  a  fcm icy lindrical  bill,  gib- 
bous wax,  and  tumid  eye-brows.  It  is  the  fwan-goofe 
of  Ray,  from  Guinea.  There  is  likewifc  a  variety  of 
this  fpecies,  of  alcfs  fize,  called  the  ^oo/tr  of  Mufcovy . 
They  are  found  wild  about  the  Lake  Baikal  in  the 
eaft  of  Siberia,  and  in  Kamtfchatka.  They  are  alfo 
kept  tame  in  mofl  parts  of  theRulIian  empire.  Thefe 
birds  likewifc  inhabit  China,  and  are  common  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.     This  is  no  doubt   the  fpecies 

mentioned 


ANA 


[     665     ] 


ANA 


Aon.      memionedhy  Ko\hen,  ciWcd  cro/i-gcc/e  ;  who  fays,  that 

^—•^—  the  failors  make  tobacco-pouches  and  jiurfcs  of  the 

membrane  which  hangs  beneath  the  throat,   as  it  is 

fufficiently  tough  for  Inch  jmrpofcs,  and  will  hold  two 

pounds  of  tobacco. 

They  are  (ufiicienily  common  in  Britain,  and  rea- 
dily mix  witli  the  common  goofe  ;  the  breeds  uniting 
as  freely,  and  continuing  to  produce  as  certainly,  as  if 
no  fuch  mixture  had  taken  place.  They  arc  much 
more  noify  than  the  common  tame  geefe,  taking  alarm 
at  the  leaft  noife  ;  and  even  without  diftiirbance  will 
emit  their  harlli  and  difagreeable  fcream  the  whole  day 
through.  They  walk  very  ere<Jt,  with  the  neck  much 
elevated  ;  and  as  they  bear  a  middle  line  between  that 
of  the  fwan  and  goofe,  they  have  not  improperly  been 
ailed  ^waii-geeji. 

■i.  The  tadorna,  orfhelldrake,hasa  flat  bill,  a  com- 
prclled  forehead,  a  grcenifli  black  head,  and  the  body 
is  variegated  with  white.  This  fpccies  is  found  as  far 
as  Iceland  to  the  north.  It  vilits  Sweden  and  the  Ork- 
neys in  the  winter,  and  returns  in  fpring.  It  is  found  in 
Alia  about  the  Cafpian  Sea,  and  all  the  fait  lakes  of 
the  Tartarian  and  Siberian  defarts,  as  well  as  inKamt- 
fchaika.  Late  voyagers,  if  right  in  the  fpecies,  have 
alfo  met  with  it  at  Falkland  llles  and  Van  Diemcn's 
Land.  It  breeds  in  deferted  rabbit  holes,  or  occupies 
them  in  the  abfencc  of  the  owners,  who,  rather  than 
make  an  attempt  at  dillodgiiig  the  intruders,  form 
others  ;  though,  in  defect  of  ready-made  quarters, 
thefc  birds  will  frequently  dig  toles  for  ihemfclves. 
They  lay  fifteen  or  lixteenroundilh  white  eggs.  Thcfe 
are  placed  at  the  farther  end  of  the  hole,  covered  with 
down  fupplied  from  the  breart  of  the  female,  who  tits 
about  50  days.  She  is  very  careful  of  her  young,  and 
will  often  carry  them  from  place  to  place  in  her  bill : 
"  This  we  arc  certain  of  (fays  Mr  Latham),  from  a 
young  one  having  been  dropt  at  the  foot  of  an  intelli- 
gent friend  unhurt,  by  the  mother  flying  over  his 
head."  When  a  perfon  attempts  to  take  their  young, 
the  old  birds  fliow  great  addrefs  in  diverting  his  at- 
tention from  the  brood  :  they  will  fly  along  the  ground 
as  if  wounded,  till  the  former  are  got  into  a  place  of 
fecurity,  and  then  return  and  collctl  them  together. 
From  this  inllindive  cunning,  Turner,  with  good  rca- 
fon,  imagines  them  to  be  the  chenaiopex  or  Jox-goofe, 
of  the  ancients.  The  natives  of  the  Orkneys  to  this 
day  call  them  il\c  fiy-goofi,  from  an  attribute  of  that 
quadruped. 

Tlie  young,  as  foon  as  hatched,  take  to  the  water, 
and  fwim  furprilingly  well ;  but  do  not  come  to  their 
full  plumage  till  the  fccond  year.  This  fpecies,  Mr 
Latham  informs  us, may  be  hatched  under  a  tame  duck, 
and  the  young  readily  brought  up  ;  but  are  apt,  after  a 
few  years,  to  attempt  the  maflery  over  the  rcll  of  the 
poultry.  In  a  flate  of  nature  their  food  fcenis  cliierty 
to  be  fmall  lifli,  marine  infcds,  and  lliclls  ;  herbage  has 
likewife  been  found  in  their  flomachs.  In  a  tame  flate 
will  cat  bread,  grain,  and  greens.  Their  great  beauty 
wouldtemptus  tocndcavouratdomellicatingthcrace  ; 
but  it  will  not  thrive  completely,  except  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  fait  water,  which  fomchow  feems  elfcn- 
tial  to  its  well-being.  The  flelli  likewife  is  rank  and 
unfavoury,  though  the  eggs  have  at  all  times  been 
thought  very  good. 

4.  The  fpedabilis,  has  a  comprcifcd  bill,  gibbous  at 
Vol.  I. 


the  bafe,  a  black  feathery  carina,  and  a  hoary  head. 
It  is  the  grey-headed  duck  of  Edwards,  and  the  king- 
duck  of  Pennant.  This  beautiful  fpecies  is  found  at 
Hudfon's  Bay,  at  Churchill  River,  and  (though  f^arce) 
at  York  Fort  ;  in  winter  it  is  met  with  as  far  fouth  as 
New- York.  It  is  pretty  frequent  in  the  north  of  Si- 
beria and  Kamtfcliatka  J  it  is  found  alfo  on  the  coad 
of  Norway,  and  has  been  killed  in  the  Orkneys.  It  is 
common  in  Greenland  ;  where  the  fiefli  is  accounted 
excellent,  and  the  crudcgibbous  part  of  the  billa  great 
delicacy.  It  produces  a  down  equally  valuable  as  the 
eider.  The  fkins  arc  fcwcd  together,  and  make  warm 
garments.  The  natives  kill  them  with  darts,  andufc 
the  following  method  to  fuccced  ; — A  number  of  men 
in  canoes  falling  in  wi;h  a  flock  while  fsviming,  on  a 
fudden  let  upa  fliouting,making  as  much  noife  astlicy 
can  ;  on  which,  the  birds  being  too  much  frightened 
to  fly  away,  dive  under  the  water  ;  but  as  the  place  at 
which  they  are  to  rife  again  is  known  by  the  bubbling 
of  the  water  above,  the  hunters  follow  them  up  as  clofc 
as  may  be  ;  and  after  adting  this  three  or  four  times 
over,  the  birds  become  fo  fatigued  as  to  be  eafily  kill- 
ed.— This  fpecies  builds  on  the  fides  of  ponds  and  ri- 
vers, making  its  nefl  of  flicks  and  mofs,  and  lining  it 
with  feathers  from  the  breafl.  It  lays  four  or  tivc 
whitifli  eggs,  as  large  as  thofe  of  the  goofe.  The 
young  fly  in  July.  '1  he  food  confiAs  chiefly  of  worms 
and  grafs. 

5.  The  fufca,  or  velvet  duck;  is  of  ablackifhcolour, 
has  a  white  fpot  behind  the  eyes,  and  a  white  line  on 
the  wings.  The  male  of  this  fpecies  is  diflinguiflied 
by  a  gibbohty  at  the  bafe  of  the  bill.  It  is  the  black 
duckofRay,  and  is  in  length  about  20  inches.  This 
fpecies  frequents  Hudfon's  Bay  in  fummer,  where  it 
breeds.  The  ncft  is  compofed  of  grafs  ;  in  which  it 
lays  from  four  to  fix  white  eggs,  and  hatches  in  July. 
It  feeds  on  grafs,  and  is  known  by  the  names  of  cwj 
Clip  ^ua  turn.  It  retires  fouth  in  winter  :  when  it  is 
frequently  feen  as  far  fouth  as  New- York.  Late 
navigators  met  with  it  at  Aoonalafhka.  It  is  now  and 
tlien  feen  on  the  coails  of  England,  but  is  not  com- 
mon. It  is  more  frequent  on  the  continent,  inhabit- 
ing Denmark  and  Rulfia.  In  fome  parts  of  Siberia  it 
is  very  common  ;  and  it  enters  the  lift  of  thofe  found 
at  Kanufchatka.  In  breeding-time,  it  goes  far  inland 
to  lay  the  eggs  ;  which  are  eight  or  ten  in  number, 
and  while.  After  the  fcafon  is  over,  the  males  arc 
laid  to  depart;  the  females  ftaying  behind  till  the  young 
arc  able  to  tiy,  when  the  two  lalt  go  likewife  off,  but 
to  what  part  is  not  certain.  It  is  in  great  plenty  at 
Ochotfka,  cfpccially  about  the  equinox.  Fifty  or 
more  of  the  natives  go  in  boats  and  furround  the  whole 
flock,  driving  them  into  the  flood  of  the  river  Ochot- 
fka ;  and,  as  foon  as  it  ebbs,  the  whole  conipany  fill 
on  them  at  once  with  clubs,  and  often  knock  fo  many 
of  them  on  the  head  that  each  man  has  20  or  30  for 
his  Iharc. 

6.  The  nigra,  or  fcoter,  is  totally  black,  and  has  a 
gibbofity  at  the  bale  of  the  bill ;  the  tail  refemblcs  a 
wedge  ;  the  female  is  brownilh.  It  is  the  lefler  black 
diver  of  Ray,  and  meafures  in  length  22  inches.  Thefc 
birds  arc  found  on  the  northern  coafls  of  Englanil  and 
thofe  of  Scotland  in  the  winter  feafon  ;  but  no  where 
fo  common  as  on  the  French  coafts,  where  they  arc 
feen  in  prodigious  numbers  from  November  to  March, 
4  P  cfpecially 


Am 


ANA 


[    666     ] 


ANA 


Ami.  erpecially  if  the  wind  be  to  the  north  or  north-weft. 
Their  chief  food  is  a  glalfy  bivalve  Ihell,  near  an  inch 
long,  called  by  the  Vrcnch  vnD/ieaux.  Thcfc  they  are 
perpetually  diving  after,  frequently  to  the  depth  of 
fome  fathoms  ;  and  an  iifiial  method  of  catcliing  them 
is  by  phcing  nets  under  the  water  in  fuch  places  as 
the  Ihclls  arc  moft  numerous  ;  by  which  means  30  or 
40  dozen  of  ihem  have  been  taken  in  one  tide.  The 
day  fecins  to  be  fpent  by  thel'e  birds  between  diving 
and  flying  to  fmalldillances  over  the  water,  v.hichit 
does  fo  low  as  frequently  to  diji  the  legs  therein.  It 
fwallows  the  food  whole,  and  loon  digells  ihcOiells, 
which  are  found  quite  crumbled  to  powder  among  the 
excrements.  It  has  been  kept  tame  for  fome  time, 
and  will  feed  on  foaked  bread.  The  ilcfli  talles  filhy 
to  an  extreme  ;  on  which  account  is  allowed  by  the 
Roman-Catholics  to  be  eaten  on  fall  days  and  in  lent  ; 
and  indeed  nuift  be  a  futiicient  mortification. — Thel'e 
birds  abound  in  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  contiuciit, 
Lapland,  Sweden,  Norway,  andRuflia  ;  and  are  found 
in  great  plenty  on  the  great  lakes  and  rivers  of  the 
north  and  eaft  of  Siberia,  as  well  as  on  the  fca  (hores. 
Jt  likcwife  inhabits  North-America  ;  being  met  with 
at  New-York  ;  and  in  all  probability  much  more  to 
the  north  on  tiiis  continent  and  thai  of  Alia,  O/beck 
having  met  with  them  in  30  and  34  degrees  fouth  la- 
titude, between  the  illand  of  Java  and  St  Paul,  in  the 
month  of  June. 

7.  The  MiCer,  feres  ft  tnatiftietns  ;  or  gray  lag,  and 
tame  goofe.  The^'rc-^'  lag  or  ivild gor.fc,  is  two  feet 
nine  inches  in  length,  and  five  feet  in  extent.  The 
bill  is  large  and  elevated  ;  of  a  Heih  colour,  tinged  with 
yellow  ;  the  head  and  neck  cinereous  ;  brcall  and  bel- 
ly whiiifli,  clouded  with  grey  or  adi  colour  ;  back, 
grey  ;  the  legs  of  a  Helh  colour.  This  fpccics  rcfides 
in  the  fens  the  whole  year  ;  breeds  there,  and  h.itches 
about  eight  or  nine  young,  which  are  often  taken,  ea- 
fily  tamed,  and  efleemed  moll  excellent  meat,  fupcrior 
to  the  domeftic  goofe.  Towards  winter  they  coUeft 
in  great  flocks,  but  in  all  feafons  live  and  feed  in  the 
fens.  On  the  continent  they  are  migratory,  changing 
place  in  large  flocks,  often  500  or  more  :  in  this  cafe, 
the  flock  is  triangular  in  fliSpe,  with  one  point  fore- 
moft  ;  and  as  the  goofe  which  is  firfl  is  tired  foonert, 
it  has  been  fcen  to  drop  behind,  and  another  to  take 
his  place.  In  very  fmall  flocks,  however,  they  are 
fomctimcs  fecn  to  follow  one  another  in  a  dired  line. 
Geefe  fceni  to  be  general  inhabitants  of  the  globe. 

The  nianfuetns,  is  the  grey  lag  in  a  llateof  dome- 
ftication,  and  from  which  it  varies  in  colour,  though 
much  lefs  fo  than  either  the  mallard  or  cock,  being 
ever  more  or  lefs  verging  to  grey  ;  though  in  all  cafes 
the  vvhitenefs  of 'he  vent,  and  upper  tail  covcrts,is  nia- 
nifcft.  It  is  frequently  found  quite  white,  cfpecially 
the  males  ;  and  doubts  have  arifen,  which  of  the  two 
colours  Ihould  have  the  preference  in  point  of  eating.- 
Tamc  geefe  are  kept  in  great  multitudes  in  the  fens  of 
Lincolnlhirc,  in  England  ;  a  fingle  perlbn  will  have 
1000  old  geefe,  each  of  which  will  rear  feven  ,-  fo  that 
towards  the  end  of  the  feafon  he  w  ill  become  poHclled 
of  8000.  During  the  breeding- feafon  thcfe  birds  are 
lodged  in  the  fame  houfcs  with  the  inhabitants,  and 
even  in  their  very  bed-chambers  :  in  every  aparimenr 
are  three  rowsofcoarfc  wicker  pens,  placed  one  above 
laothcr;  each  bird  has  its  feperate  lodge  divided  from 


the  other,  which  it  keeps  polTeflionof  during  the  time 
of  fitting.  A  pcrfon  c^WzA^gtz-^ard,  i.  c.  gooje-herd,  * 
attends  the  flock,  and  twice  a-d,ay  drives  the  w  hole  to 
water  ;  then  brings  them  back  to  ihcir  habitatious.help- 
ing  thofe  that  live  in  the  upper  llories  to  their  ncfts, 
w  ithout  ever  mifjilacing  a  linglc  bird.  The  geefe  arc 
plucked  Ave  times  in  the  year:  the  tirll  plucking  is  at 
Lady  day,  lor  feathers  and  quills  ;  the  fame  is  renew- 
ed, for  leathers  only,  four  times  niore  between  that 
and  Michaelmas.  The  old  geefe  fubmit  qnittly  to  the 
ojieration,  but  the  young  ones  are  very  noify  and  un- 
ruly. If  the  feafon  proves  cold,  numbers  ol  them  die 
by  this  barbarous  cullom.  Vaft  numbers  of  geefe  are 
driven  annu-illy  to  Londim,  to  fiipply  the  markets  ; 
among  them,  all  the  fuperannuated  geefe  and  ganders, 
which,  by  a  long  eourfe  of  plucking,  prove  uncom- 
monly tough  and  dry. 

The  goofe  in  general  breeds  only  once  in  a  year  ; 
but  will  frequently  have  two  hatches  in  a  feafon,  if 
well  kept.  The  time  of  littingis  about  3odays.  'I'hcy 
will  alfo  produce  eggs  futiicient  for  three  broods,  if 
they  are  taken  away  in  fuccclhon.  It  is  faid  to  be  ve» 
ry  long-lived,  as  we  have  authority  lor  tlieir  arriving 
at  no  lefs  than  ico  years. 

8.  'The  bcaii-goffe  is  twofect  feven  inches  in  length  ; 
in  extent  four  feet  eleven.  The  bill,  which  is  the  chief 
diltinciion  between  this  and  the  former,  is  fmall,  much 
comprelFcd  near  the  end,  whitilh,  and  fomcwhat  pale 
red  in  the  middlr,  and  black  at  the  bafe  and  nail :  the 
head  and  neck  are  cinereous  brown,  tinged  with  ferru-- 
ginous;  breafl  and  belly  dirty  white,  clouded  with  ci- 
nereous; the  back  of  a  pale  afli  colour  ;  feet  and  legs 
of  a  faffron  colour:  claws  black.  This  fpecies  arrives 
in  Lincolnlhirc  in  autumn  ;  and  is  called  the  bean-guofey 
fronnliclikenefsof  the  nail  of  the  bill  to  a  horfe-bcan. 
They  always  light  on  corn-fields,  and  feed  much  on  the 
green  wheat.  They  never  breed  in  the  fens  ;  but  all 
difappear  in  May.  They  retreat  to  the  fcqueftcred 
wilds  of  the  north  of  liurope  ;  in  their  migration  they 
fly  a  great  height,  cackling  as  they  go.  They  prcfcrvc 
a  great  regularity  in  their  motions  ;  (bmetimes  forming 
aflraiglitline;atiothers,airuming  the  Ihape  of  a  wedge, 
which  facilitates  their  progrefs,  for  they  cut  the  air 
readier  in  that  form  than  if  tlicy  flew  pell-mell, 

9.  The  crythropus,  or  laughing  goofe  of  Edwards, 
is  a  native  of  Europe  and  America.  The  length  of 
this  fpecies  is  about  two  feet  four,  the  extent  four  feet 
fix  ;  the  bill  is  elevated,  of  a  pale  yellow  colour,  with  a 
white  ring  at  the  bufc  ;  the  forehead  is  white  ;  the 
brcaft  and  belly  are  ofa  dirty  white,  marked  with  great 
fpotsof  black  ;  and  the  legs  yellow.  Thefc  vilit  the 
fens  and  other  parts  of  England  during  winter,  in  fmall 
flocks  ;  they  keep  always  in  raarfliy  places,  and  never 
frequent  the  corn-lands.  They  difappear  in  the  ear- 
lieft  fpring,  and  none  are  feen  after  the  middle  of 
March.  Linnaeus  makes  this  goofe  the  female  of  the 
beriiach ;  but  Mr  Pennant  thinks  his  opinion  not  well 
founded. 

The  ber>iacle  (erythropns  mas  Lin.)  is  two  feet  one 
inch  in  length,  the  breadth  four  feet  five  inches  :  the 
bill  is  black;  the  forehead  and  cheeks  are  white  ;  from 
the  bill  to  the  eyes,  there  is  a  black  line  ;  the  hind 
part  ofthe  head,  the  whole  neck,  and  upper  part  of  the 
breaft  and  back,  are  of  a  deep  black  ;  the  tail  is  black, 
the  legs  are  of  the  fame  colour,  and  fmall.   Thcfe  birds 

sppcas 


ANA 


[     667     ] 


ANA 


Anaj.  appear  in.  vail  flocksduriiig  v  inter,  on  the  north-wtft 
*"~^'  coalls  of  Grcat-Butaiii ;  they  are  very  lliy  and  wild  ; 
but  on  being  taken,  grow  in  a  few  days  as  familiar  as 
the  tame  geefe.  In  February  tJiry  retire  as  far  as  Lap- 
land, Greenland,  and  even  Spiizbergen,  to  bieed. 
They  live  to  a  great  age  :  the  Rev.  Dr  Buck  worth  of 
Spaltiing,  had  one  which  was  kept  in  the  family  above 
32  years,  l)ut  was  blind  during  the  two  laft  ;  what  its 
age  was  when  fird  taken,  was  unknown. 

Thefe  are  the  birds  itiat  about  200  years  ago  were 
believed  to  be  gencr  ited  out  of  wood,  or  rather  a  fpe- 
cies  of  IhcJl  that  is  often  found  flicking  to  the  bottoms 
of  lliips,  or  fragments  of  them  ;  and  were  called  tr,;e- 
'SteLefat.geifi  *•  Theie  were  alfo  thought  by  fome  writers  to 
have  htcnihc chenalopcces  of  Pliny  ;  they  fliould  have 
faid  chcnerotci,  for  thofe  were  the  birds  which  that  na- 
turalift  faid  were  found  in  Britain  :  but  as  hehasfcarcc 
left  us  any  defcription  of  them,  it  is  difficult  to  fay 
which  fpecies  he  intended.  Mr  Pennant  imagines  it 
to  be  the  Ibllowing;  which  is  far  inferior  in  fize  to  the 
wild-goofe,  and  very  delicate  food,  in  both  rcfpedts 
fuiting  his  defcription  of  the  cheneros. 

10.  Therace-horleor  loggerheadgoofe,isin  length 
32  inches,  and  weighs  from  20  to  30  pounds.  The 
bill  is  three  inches  long,  and  of  an  orange  colour  :  the 
irides  arc  orange,  furrounded  with  black,  and  then 
with  orange  :  the  head,  neck,  and  upper  parts  of  the 
body  are  of  a  deep  afh-colour  ;  the  outer  edge  of  the 
fecondaries  white,  forming  a  band  of  the  fame  on  the 
wing :  the  under  parts  of  the  body  dufky  down  the 
middle  ;  over  the  thighs  cinereous  blue  ;  vent  white  ; 
quills  and  tail  black  :  the  wings  are  very  Ihort,  not 
reaching  to  the  rump:  on  the  bend  of  the  wing  is  a 
yellow  knob,  half  an  inch  in  length  ;  the  legs  arc 
brownilli  orange,  the  webs  dulky,  and  the  claws  black. 
Thefe  inhabit  Falkland  lllands,  Staaten  Land, &c.  and 
were  molliy  feenin  pairs,  though  fometimes  they  were 
obfcrved  in  large  flocks.  From  the  (hortnefs  of  their 
wings  they  were  unable  to  fly  ;  but  they  made  confi- 
dcrable  ufe  of  them  when  in  the  water,  on  which  they 
feemed  as  it  were  to  run,  at  lead  they  fwam,  with  the 
afliftance  of  the  wings  ufed  as  oars,  at  an  incredible 
rate,  infomuch  that  it  was  a  moll  difficult  thing  to  Ihnot 
them  while  on  that  element :  to  catch  them,  the  fai- 
lors  ufed  to  fui  round  a  flock  with  boats,  and  drive  them 
on  ffiorc  ;  where,  unable  to  raife  themfelves  from  the 
ground,  they  ran  very  fail,  but  foon  growing  tired, 
and  fquatting  down  to  reft,  were  readily  overtaken, 
and  knocked  on  the  head.  Their  flcfli  was  fometimes 
eaten  by  the  failors,  in  defed  of  that  of  the  bullard 
goofe  ;  but  it  was  not  much  relilhed,  being  rank  and 
fiffiy,  and  thought  more  flt  for  the  hogs,  which  ate  it 
greedily,  and  fatted  well  upon  it,  boiled. 

11.  The  fnow-gonfe  is  in  length  two  feet  eight  inch- 
es, and  weighs  between  five  and  lix  pounds.  The  bill 
is  fomewiiat  fcrrated  at  the  edges  :  the  upper  mandible 
fcarlct,  the  lower  whitiffi  :  the  general  colour  of  the 
plumage  is  fnow  white, except  the  firft  ten  quills, which 
arc  black,  with  white  iliafts  :  the  legs  are  of  a  deep 
red.  The  young  arc  of  a  bhic  colour,  till  they  arc  a 
year  old.  Thefe  arc  very  numerous  at  Hudfon's-Bay, 
and  called  by  the  natives  IVjy-wav  and  lVa/>j  whr  whs. 
They  vilit  Severn  River  in  May,  and  ftay  a  fortnight ; 
but  go  farther  north  to  breed  :  they  return  to  Severn- 
Fort  the  begiuuing  of  September,  and  Ihy  to  the  mid- 


dle of  0(5lober,  when  they  depart  for  the  fuuth,  and 
are  obfcrved  to  be  attended  with  thtir  young,  in  flocks 
innumerable.    At  this  lime  many  thoufands  arc  killed 
by  the  inhabitants  ;  who  pluck  them,  and  take  out  the 
entrails,  and  putting  the  bodies  into  holes  dug  in  the 
ground  cover  them  with  earth,  which  freezing  above 
then),  keeps  them  pcrfccUy  fwcet  throughout  the  fe- 
vere  feafoii ;  during  which  there  is  no  more  to  do  than, 
occalionally  to  open  one  ot  ihofe  llorehoufcs,when  they 
find  them  Iweet  and  good.     They  feem  to  occupy  alfo 
the  weltern  (ide  of  America.  In  the  fummer  months, 
they  are  plenty  on  the  ardic  coaft  of  Siberia,  but  ne- 
ver migrate  beyond  longitude  130.  They  are  fuppofcd 
to  pafs  the  winter  in  more  moderate  climes,  as  the/ 
have  been  fcen  flying  at  a  great  height  over  Silefia  ; 
probably  on  their  pallage  to  fome  other  country,  as  it. 
does  not  appear  that  they  continue  there.  In  like  man- 
ner, thofe  of  America  pafs  the  winter  in  Carolina. 
Here  they  arrive  in  valt  flocks  ;  and  feed  on  the  roots 
of  fage  and  grafs,  which  they  tear  up  like  hogs.     Ic 
ufed  to  be  a  common  pradlicc  in  that  country  to  bum 
a  piece  of  a  marffi,  which   enticed  the  geefe  to  come 
there,  as  they  could  then  more  readily  get  at  the  roots, 
which  gave  the  fportfman  opportunity  of  killingasma- 
ny  as  he  pleafed.     This  fpecies  is  the  moA  numerous 
and  the  moft  ftupid  of  all  the  goofe  race.     They  feem 
to  want  the  inftinel  of  others,  by  their  arriving  at  the 
mouths  of  the  Ardic  Aliatic  rivers  before  the  feafon 
in  which  they  can  poffibly  fublllh    They  are  annually 
guilty  of  the  fame  millake,  and  annually  compelled  to 
make  a  new  migration  to  the  fouth  in  quell  of  food, 
where  they  pafs  their  time  till  the  northern  eftuaries 
are  freed  from  the  bonds  of  ice.     They  have  fo  little 
of  the  (hynefs  of  other  geefe,  that  they  arc  taken  in 
the  moll  ridiculous  manner  imaginable  about  Jakut, 
and  the  other  parts  of  Siberia,  which  they  frequent. 
The  inhabitants  tirft  place,  near  the  banks  of  the  ri- 
vers, a  great  net,  in  a  ilraight  line,  or  elfe  form  a  ho- 
vel of  [kins  fewcd  together.     This  done,  one  of  the 
company  dreflcs  hiinlelf  in  the  Ikins  of  a  white  rein- 
deer, advances  towards  the  flock  of  geefe,  and  thca 
turns  back  towards  the  net  or  the  hovel ;  and  his  com- 
panions go  behind  the  flock,  and  by  making  a  noifc 
drive  them  forward.     The  iiniple  birds  miltake  the 
man  in  white  for  their  leader,  and  follow  him  withiu 
reach  of  the  net,  which  is  fuddenly  pulled  down  anj 
captivates  the  whole.     When  he  choofes  to  conduiit 
them  to  the  hovel,  they  follow  in  the  fame  manner  ;  he 
creeps  in  at  a  hole  left  for  that  purpofe,  and  out  at  ano- 
ther on  the  ojipolite  fide,  which  he  clofes   up.     The 
geefe  follow  him  through  the  lirll  ;  and  as  foon  as  they 
are  got  in,  he  p-ilfts  round,  and  fccurcs  every  one. 

12.  The  great  goofe  is  of  a  very  large  lizc,  weigh- 
ing near  2J  or  30  Rullian  pounds.  The  bill  is  black  ; 
bafe  of  it  tawny:  body  duiky  ;  the  under  parts  arc 
white  ;  the  legs  fcarlct.  It  is  found  on  the  call  of  Si- 
beria, frem  the  river  Lena  to  Kamtfchatka;  and  is 
taken  in  great  numbers. 

1 3.  The  rulicolis,  or  rcd-brcafteJ goofe,  is  in  length 
21  inches;  weight  three  pounds  tr^y.  The  bill  is 
fmall  and  brown;  the  tail  black  ;  the  irides  are  yel- 
low brown  ;  round  the  eyes  fringed  wi  h  brown  ;  fore 
part  of  the  head  and  crown  bl  ick,  palUiiJ  backwards 
in  a  narrow  llripc  quite  to  ihc  back  ;  on  the  breaft  is 
a  narrow  baud  of  white  feathers  with  black  ends  form- 
al P  2  ing 


Aiun. 


ANA 


[     668     ] 


ANA 


An»».  ing  a  band  of  white  and  another  of  black  :  the  iiJes 
■  v  ■■'  arc  ftripcd  with  black  :  back  and  wings  black,  the  laft 
even  with  the  tail :  legs  black.  This  moll  elegant  of 
geefc  is  found  tobrccd  from  the  month  of  the  Ob,  along 
the  coafts  of  the  ley  fea,  to  that  of  the  Lena.  Its 
winter  quarters  arc  not  certainly  known.  Small  flocks 
arcobftrved  in  the  fpring  flying  from  the  Cafpian  fca 
along  the  Volga  northward  ;  and  arc  fcen  about  Zari- 
zyn,  between  the  (ixth  and  tenth  of  April.  They  reft 
a  little  time  on  the  banks  of  the  Sarpa,  but  foon  rc- 
fiime  their  arflic  coiirfe.  Their  winter  retreat  is  pro- 
bably in  Perfia.  They  are  highly  eftecmcd  for  the  ta- 
ble, being  quite  free  from  any  tilhy  tafte. 

14.  The  cafarca,  or  riiddy-goofe,  is  larger  than  a 
mallard,  and  fecms  even  larger  tjian  it  really  is,  from 
the  length  of  wing,  and  ftanding  high  on  its  legs.  The 
bill  is  black :  the  iritics  are  yellowifli  brown :  forehead, 
cheeks,  and  throat,  yellowilh:  fore  part  of  the  neck 
ferruginous,  encircled  with  a  collar  of  black,  inclining 
to  deep  rufous  on  the  throat :  the  breaft  and  fide  are 
pale  rufous  ;  the  belly  is  obfcurc  :  the  back  is  pale  ; 
the  lower  part  is  undulated,  hoary,  and  brown,  not  ve- 
ry diftinft ;  the  rump  and  tail  are  grcenilh  black ;  the 
legs  long  and  black.  This  fpecics  is  found  in  all  tlie 
fouthcrn  parts  of  RulTia  and  Siberia  in  plenty.  In  win- 
ter it  migrates  into  India,  and  returns  northward  in 
fpring.  It  makes  the  ncft  in  the  craggy  banks  of  the 
Wolga  and  other  rivers,  or  in  the  hollows  of  the  de- 
ferted  hillocks  of  marmots  ;  making  it  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  flulldrake,  and  is  faid  to  form  burrows  for 
itfclf  in  the  manner  of  that  bird.  It  has  been  known 
alfo  to  lay  in  a  hollow  tree,  lining  the  neft  with  its  own 
feathers.  It  is  monogamous:  the  male  and  female  fit 
in  turns.  The  eggs  arc  like  thofe  of  the  common 
duck.  When  the  young  come  forth,  the  mother  will 
often  carry  them  from  the  place  of  hatching  to  the  wa- 
ter with  her  bill.  They  have  been  attempted  to  be  do- 
mefiicated,  by  rearing  the  young  under  tame  ducks  ; 
but  without  fuccefs,  as  they  ever  are  wild,  effefling 
their  efcape  the  firil  opportunity:  or,  if  the  old  ones 
are  taken  and  confined,  they  lay  the  eggs  in  a  difperfed 
manner,  and  never  lit.  The  voice  is  not  unlike  the 
note  of  a  clarinet,  while  flying;  at  other  times  they 
cry  like  a  peacock,  efpccially  when  kept  tame  ;  and 
now  and  then  cluck  like  a  hen.  It  is  very  choice  of 
its  mate  ;  for  if  the  male  is  killed,  the  female  will  not 
leave  the  gunner  till  (he  has  been  two  or  three  times 
Jhot  at.     The  flcfh  is  thought  very  good  food. 

ly.  The  bernicla  is  of  a  brown  colour  ;  with  the 
head,  neck,  and  breaft,  black  ;  and  a  white  collar. 
Thefe  birds,  like  the  bernacles,  frequent  the  Britilh 
coafts  in  winter  ;  and  are  particularly  plenty,  at  times, 
on  thofe  of  Holland  and  Ireland,  where  they  are  taken 
in  nets  placed  acrofs  the  rivers.  In  fome  dry  feafons 
they  have  reforted  to  the  coafts  of  Picardy,  in  Fniuce, 
in  fuch  prodigious  flocks,  as  to  prove  a  peft  to  the  inha- 
bitants, efpccially  in  the  winter  of  the  year  i  740, 
when  thefe  birds  deftroyed  all  the  corn  near  the  fea- 
coaHs,  by  f^aring  it  np  by  the  roots.  A  general  war 
for  thisreafon  was  declared  againft  them,  and  carried 
on  in  earneft,  by  knocking  them  on  the  head  with 
clabs  ;  but  their  numbers  were  lo  prodigious,  that  this 
availed  but  little  :  nor  were  the  inhabitants  relieved 
from  this  fcourge  till  the  north  wind  which  had 
brought  them  ccafed  to  blow^,  when  tliey  took  leave. 


They  eafily  become  tame;  and,  being  fatted,  arc 
thought  to  be  a  delicate  food.  They  breed  pretty  far 
north,rcturningfouthwardin autumn.  Theyiiy  iathc 
Ihapc  of  a  wedge,  like  the  wild  geefe,  with  great  cla- 
mour. They  are  called  in  Shetland,  Horra gecje,  from 
being  found  in  that  found.  They  arc  common  alfo  in 
America :  breeding  in  the  illands,  and  along  the  coall, 
and  feed  about  high-water  mark.  Their  food  coniifls 
of  plants,  fuch  as  the  fmall  billort,  and  black-berried 
heath,  fea-worms,  berries,  and  the  like.  They  arc 
apt  to  have  a  fifliy  tafte,  but  are  in  general  thought 
good  food.  The  fame  fable  has  been  told  of  this  bird 
as  of  the  bernacle,  in  refpeft  to  its  being  bred  front 
trees.  Called  at  Hudfon's-Bay,  IVctlta  via)  pa  tue'jj. 
16.  The  canadenfis  is  brown;  its  head  and  neck  arc 
black,  and  the  throat  is  white.  It  meafures  three  and  an 
half  feet  in  length.  It  is  found  durisg  the  fummeriii 
Hudfon's-Bay,  and  pares  beyond  ;  alfo  in  Greenland  ; 
and,  in  the  fummer  months,  in  various  parts  of  North» 
America,  as  far  as  Carolina.  Numbers  breed  at  Hud- 
fon's-Bay, and  lay  fix  or  feven  eggs;  but  the  major 
part  retire  flill  farther  north.  Their  firft  appearance 
in  the  Bay  is  from  about  the  middle  of  April  to  about 
the  middleof  May,  when  the  inhabitants  wait  for  them 
with  impatience,  being  one  of  the  chief  articles  for 
food,  and  many  years  kill  3000  or  4000,  which  arc 
faltcd  and  barrelled.  Their  arrival  is  the  harbinger 
of  fpring,  and  the  month  is  named  by  the  Indians  the 
goofi-moon.  The  Britilh  feud  out  their  fervants,  as  well 
as  Indians,  to  Ihoot  thefe  birds  on  their  palFage.  It  is 
in  vain  to  purfuc  them  ;  they  therefore  form  arowof 
huts  made  of  boughs,  at  mufkct-lliot  diftancc  from  each 
other,  and  place  them  in  a  line  acrofs  the  vaft  marfhes 
of  the  country.  Each  hovcl,or,as  they  are  called, //am/, 
is  occupied  by  only  a  (ingle  ptrfon.  Thefe  attend  the 
flight  of  the  birds,  and  on  their  approach  mimic  their 
cackle  fo  well,  that  the  gccfe  will  anfwer,  and  wheel, 
and  come  nearer  the  ftaud.  The  fponfman  Iteeps  mo- 
tionlefs,  and  on  his  knees,  with  his  gun  cocked,  the 
whole  time ;  and  never  iircs  till  he  has  fccn  the  eyes 
of  the  geefc.  He  fires  as  they  arc  going  from  him, 
then  picks  up  another  gun  that  lies  by  him,  and  dif- 
charges  that.  The  geefc  which  he  has  killed  he  fcts 
upon  flicks  as  if  alive,  to  decoy  others  ;  he  alio  makes 
artificial  birds  for  the  fame  purpofe.  In  a  good  day 
(for  they  fly  in  very  uncertain  and  unequal  numbers) 
3  (ingle  Indian  will  kill  200.  Notwithflanding  every 
fpecics  of  goofc  has  a  dificrent  call,  yet  the  Indians  are 
admirablein  their  imitation  of  every  one.  In  thisfport, 
however,  they  mull  be  very  careful  to  fecrcte  thein- 
felves  ;  for  the  birds  arc  very  Ihy,  and  on  the  Icaft  mo- 
tion fly  ofFdircAly.  On  their  return  fouth,  which  is 
from  the  middle  of  Auguft  to  the  middle  of  Oclober, 
much  havoc  is  made  among  them  ;  but  thefe  arc  prc- 
ferved  frefli  for  winter  ftore,  but  putting  ihem,  fea- 
thers and  all,  into  a  large  hole  dug  in  the  ground,  and. 
covering  them  with  mould;  and  thefe,  during  the 
whole  time  of  the  froft's  lading,  are  found  pcrfe<5lly 
fweet  and  good.  The  Indians  at  Hudfon's  Bay  call 
ihcmjipiftifiijh.  This  fpecics  is  now  pre;  ty  common, 
in  a  tame  (late,  both  on  tiie  continent  and  in  Er;gl.ind  ; 
on  the  great  canal  of  Verfailles  hundreds  are  fcen  mix- 
ing with  the  fwans  with  the  greateft  cordiality  ;  and 
the  fame  at  Chantilly.  In  England,  likewife,  they 
are  thought  a  great  ornament  to  the  pieces  of  water 

ia 


Aaai. 


ANA 


r  669  J 


ANA 


Anas,  ill  many  gentlemcns  feats  where  they  arc  very  famili- 
w  ar,  and  breed  freely.  The  flefli  of  the  young  birds 
is  accounted  good  ;  and  the  feathers  equal  to  thofc  of 
other  gccfe,  in  fo  mucli  as  to  prove  an  article  of  com- 
merce much  ill  the  favour  of  thofe  places  where  they 
are  in  fufficient  numbers. 

17.  The  molliHima,  or  eider-duck,  is  double  the 
fizc  of  the  common  duck,  has  a  cylindrical  bill,  and  the 
wax  is  divided  behind,  and  wrinkled.     The  feathers 
which  are  very  loft  and  valuable,  fall  off  during  incu- 
bation.   The  male  is  white  above,  but  black  below  and 
behind:  the  female  is  grecnilh.  This  fpecics  is  found 
in  the  Weflern  1  lies  of  Scotland,  particularly  on  Oran- 
fa,  Barra,  Rona,  and  Heiiker,  and  on  the  Karn  Illcs  ; 
but  in  greater  numbers  in  Norway,  Iceland  and  Green- 
land ;  from  whence  a  vail  quantity  of  the  down,  known 
by  the  name  of  cidsr  or  eddcr,  which  thffc  birds  fur- 
nifh,  is  annually  exported.     Its  remarkably  light,  ela- 
ilic,  and  warm  qualities,  make  it  highly  eilccmcd  as  a 
ftufting  for  coverlets,  by  fuch  whom  age  or  infirmities 
render  unable  to  fupport  the  weight  of  common  blan- 
kets. This  down  is  produced  from  the  bread  of  the  birds 
in  the  breeding  fcafon.  It  lays  its  eggs  among  the  ftoncs 
or  plants  near  the  Ihore  ;  and  prepares  a  foft  bed  for 
them,  by  plucking  the  down  from  its  own  brtuft; :  the 
natives  watch  the  opportunity,  and  take  away  both  eggs 
and  neft  :  the  ducks  lays  again,  and  repeats  tlie  pluck- 
ing of  its  brcafl :  if  Ihe  is  robbed  after  ihat,  ihc  will 
ftill  lay  ;  but  the  drakes  muft  fupply  tlie  down,  as  her 
flock  is  now  exhaulled  :  but  if  iier  eggs  are  taken  a 
third  time,  fhe  wholly  defcrts  the  place.     See  Down. 
Thcfe  birds  are  not  numerous  on  the  illes  ;  and  it  is 
obferved  that  the  drakes  keep  on  thofc  niofl  remote 
from  the  fitting  places.     The  ducks  continue  on  their 
nells  till  you  come  almofl  dole  to  them  ;  and  when  they 
rife,  are  very  flow  liiers.  The  number  of  eggs  in  each 
nefl  are  from  three  to  five,  warmly  bedded  in  the 
down;  of  a  pale  olive  colour  ;  and  very  large,  glofly, 
and  fmooth.     They  nosv  and  then,  however,  lay  fo 
many  as  eight ;  for  Van  Troll  informs  us  that  no  lefs 
than  i6  have  been  found  in  one  nefl,  with  two  females, 
whoagrcereniarkably  well  together. — InAnurica.this 
bird  is  found  as  far  I'outh  as  New-York,  and  breeds  on 
tlie  defart  illes  of  New-England  ;  but  moll  common 
every  where  to  the  north.     Thty  are  faid  to  be  con- 
llaiu  to  the  fame  breeding  places,  and  that  a  pair  has 
been  obferved  to  occupy  the  fame  nefl  for  20  years  to- 
gether.    They  take  their  young  on  their  backs  iu- 
Jl.uuly  to  fea  ;  then  dive,  to  fhakc  thein  ofFand  teach 
them  to  fliift  for  themfelves.  It  is  faiJ,  that  the  males 
;i.re  five  ycarsold  before  they  come  to  their  full  colour  ; 
ihat  they  live  to  a  great  age,  and  will  at  length  grow 
quite  grey.    Their  food  is  lliells,  for  which  they  dive 
to  great  depths.    They  are  very  numerous  in  the  Ef- 
<]uimaux  lands,  where,  and  in  Greenland,  they  arc  cal- 
led tiiettck.    The  natives  kill  them  on  the  water  with 
darts,  flriking  them  the  moment  they  appear  after  di- 
ving i  and  know  the  place  from  thrir  being  preceded 
by  the  rifing  of  bubbles.    The  rtcfli  is  faid  to  be  much 
valued. 

18.  The  maula,  or  fcaup-duck,  is  lefs  than  the  com- 
mon duck.  The  bill  is  broad,  flat,  and  of  a  grcyilh 
uUie  colour;  the  head  and  neck  are  black,  gloll'ed  with 
green;  the  breafl  is  black  ;  the  back,  the  coverts  of 
the  wings, and  the  fcapulars,arc  liucly  marked  \\  itii  nu- 


merous narrow  tranfverfc  bars  of  black  and  grey ;  the 
legs  are  dufky.  Mr  Willoughby  acquaints  us,  that 
ihcfe  birds  take  their  name  from  feeding  on  fcaup,  or 
broken  Ihell-filh;  they  differ  infinitely  in  colours,  fo 
that  in  a  flock  of  40  or  jo  there  are  not  two  alike. 
19.  The  mufchata,  or  Mufcovy  duck  of  Ray,  has  a 

naked  papillous  face,  and  is  a  native  of  India. It  is 

bigger  than  the  wild  duck,  being  in  length  two  feet. 
This  fpecics  is  pretty  common  in  a  domellicatcd  ftate 
in  almoll  every  nation  ;  and  the  breed  ought  to  be  en- 
couraged, as  there  is  more  (lelh  on  it  than  on  the  com- 
mon duck,  and  of  a  very  high  flavour.  The  eggs 
are  rounder  than  thofe  of  a  duck,  and  in  young  birds 
frequently  incline  to  green.  They  lay  more  eggs,  and 
lit  oitener  than  other  ducks.  In  an  unconfined  flatc, 
they  make  the  nefl  on  the  flumps  of  old  trees,  and 
perch  during  the  heat  of  the  day  on  the  branches  of 
fuch  as  are  well  clothed  with  leaves.  When  kept  tame, 
they  are  fufhciently  docile  ;  and  the  male  will  not  un- 
frequently  alfociate  and  produce  a  mongrel  breed  with 
the  common  ducks.  The  nameof  Mufcovy  duck  was 
given  to  them  from  their  exhaling  a  mulky  odour, 
which  proceeds  from  the  gland  placed  on  the  rump  in 
common  with  other  birds. 

20.  Tlic  clypeata,  or  fhovelar  of  Ray,  has  the  end 
of  its  bill  broad,  rounded,  and  furnifhcd  with  afmall 
hook.  It  is  in  length  21  inches  ;  the  female  a  tritic 
fmaller.  Both  fexes  are  apt  to  vary  much  in  colour: 
the  male  like  wife  differs  from  the  female  inwardly,  ha- 
ving jurt  above  the  divarication  of  the  windpipe  where 
it  palfcs  into  the  lungs,  an  enlargement,  or,  as  it  is 
called  by  fome,  a  lubyriiitk. — This  bird  is  now  and 
then  met  with  in  England,  though  not  in  great  num- 
bers. It  is  faid  to  come  into  France  in  Kcbruary,  and 
fome  of  them  to  flay  during  the  fummcr  .  It  lays  10 
or  12  rufous-coloured  eggs,  placed  on  a  bed  of  rufhcs, 
in  the  fame  places  as  the  funimer-teal ,  and  departs  in 
September,  at  leaft  the  major  part  of  them,  for  it  is 
rare  that  one  is  fcen  in  winter.  The  chief  food  of  this 
bird  is  infeils,  for  which  it  is  continually  muddlino-  in 
the  waier  with  its  bill.  It  is  alfo  faid  dcxtcroufly  to 
catch  flics  which  pafs  in  its  way  over  the  water. 
Siirimps,  among  other  things,  have  been  found  in  its 
llomach  on  dilleclion.  This  fpecics  is  alfo  found  in 
moll  parts  of  Germany  ;  throughout  the  Rulfian  do- 
minions, as  far  as  Kamtfchatka  ;  and  in  North-Ame- 
rica, in  New-York  and  Carolina,  during  the  winter 
feafon.     It  is  accounted  pretty  good  food. 

1 1 .  The  flrepera,  or  gad-wall,  has  the  wings  varie- 
gated with  black,  white,  and  red.  It  inhabits  England 
in  the  winter  nioiuhs,  and  is  alio  found  at  the  lame 
fealbn  in  various  pans  of  Krance  and  Italy.  It  nii- 
gratcsas  far  as  Sweden,  as  fummcr  advances,  in  order 
to  breed  ;  and  found  throughout  Rulfia  and  Siberia, 
except  in  the  eaflern  partof  the  laft,  and  Kamtfchatka. 
Being  a  very  quick  diver,  it  is  difficult  to  be  fhot.  It 
feeds  morning  and  evening  only,  being  hid  among  the 
reeds  and  rufhes  during  the  day.  The  noife  it  makes 
is  not  unlike  that  of  a  mallard,  but  louder.  The  flelh 
is  good. 

22.  The  clangula,  or  golden  eye  of  Ray,  is  varie- 
gated with  black  and  white,  and  the  head  is  interfper- 
fed  with  blackilh  green  feathers  :  it  has  a  white  fpot 
near  the  mouth  ;  and  the  eyes  arc  of  a  Ihining  gold  co- 
lour.    It  is  not  uiilrequcut  on  the  f'ea-coafls  in  winter, 

and 


Aaai. 


ANA 


[     670     J 


ANA 


A  nis.  and  appears  in  fni-11  flocks ;  but  pafles  to  the  north  in 
— >'  fi'ring  in  order  to  breed.  It  inhabits  Sweden  and 
Norway  during  the  I'umnicr.  It  is  an  excellent  diver, 
and  t'cedson  fnuil  lliells.  It  is  nioftly  fcen  in  the  wa- 
ter, as  it  is  very  awkward  in  walking.  It  has  been 
sitemptcd  to  be  domcllicated,  but  fcenis  out  ot  its  cle- 
ment on  land.  Witli  ditliculty  it  can  be  brought  to 
cat  any  tiling  but  bread  ;  and  the  feet  loon  grow  in- 
jured, inlouiuch  as  at  lall  to  hinder  it  from  walking, 
riic  rtelh  is  much  cftecnicd,  and  tiie  birds  arc  often 
fccn  in  the  market  at  the  proper  leafon.  This  fpecies 
is  found  in  America  ;  in  winter  as  low  as  New- York  ; 
in  fummtr,  at  Hudfon's  bay,  where  it  frtiiuents  the 
frcfli-water  lakes,  and  makes  in  hollow  trees  a  round 
nclt  of  grafs  lined  w  ith  feathers  from  its  breaA  ;  lays 
from  feven  to  ten  white  eggs. 

23.  The  nicrfa,  or  Uraliiutk  of  Pallas,  is  fomewhat 
bigger  than  the  common  leal.  The  bill  is  large,  broad, 
very  tumid  above  the  nollrils,  and  bilid  in  the  adult 
bird,  the  end  marked  with  diverging  (Irix  ;  colour 
blue  :  the  head,  and  part  of  the  neck,  are  white  ;  on 
the  crown  is  a  large  patch  of  black  :  the  middle  of  the 
neck  is  black  :  the  fore-parts  of  the  body  are  a  ycllow- 
illi  brown,  undulated  with  black  :  the  back  is  clouded 
withacinerousand  pale  yellow,  powdered  with  brown  : 
the  wings  are  fmall  ;  the  tail  longilh,  wcdge-thjpcd, 
and  black  :  the  legs  are  brown,  on  the  fore-part  blnilh, 
and  placed  as  far  back  as  in  the  diver  genus.  This  fpe- 
cies is  not  unfrcquent  in  the  greater  lakes  of  the  Ural 
mountains,  and  the  rivers  Ob  and  Inifch.  It  is  not 
feen  on  the  ground,  for  from  the  lituation  of  its  legs  it 
is  unable  10  walk  ;  but  it  fwims  very  well  and  quick  : 
at  which  lime  the  tail  is  immcrfed  in  the  water  as  far 
as  the  rump,  ferving  by  way  of  rudder,  contrary  to 
the  common  method  of  a  duck's  fwimming.  Thenefl 
is  formed  of  reeds,  and  floats,  fomething  like  to  that 
of  the  grebe. 

24.  The  American  wigeon  (/^  canard jeitfen  of  Buf- 
fon),is  rather  bigger  than  the  European  wigeon.  The 
bill  is  of  a  lead  colour:  the  crown  and  forehead  of  ay  el- 
lowifli  white:  the  hind-part  of  the  neck  and  head  is 
black  and  white,  fpccklcd  ;  and  behind  the  eye  is  a 
black  mark,  changing  in  fome  lights  to  green  :  the  back 
and  fcapulars  areof  a  pale  rull-colour,  waved  with  tranf- 
verfe  black  lines  ;  in  the  middle  of  the  W"ing  coverts 
there  is  a  large  bed  of  white  :  the  quills  and  tail  arc 
deep  brown  :  the  legs  dulky.  It  inhabits  North-Ame- 
rica, from  Carolina  to  Hudfon's  Bay  ;  but  is  no  where 
a  common  bird.  It  is  called  at  New- York  \\\ePheafaiit 
Duck.  It  is  more  plenty  at  St  Domingo  and  Cayenne, 
where  it  is  called  i;//;^<ro';  or  ^;«^'co//.  At  Maninico 
great  flocks  of  them  often  take  fliort  flights  from  one 
rice  plantation  to  another,  where  they  make  much  ha- 
voc, particularly  during  the  rainy  feafon.  They  arefaid 
to  perch  on  trees.  They  feed  in  company  and  have  a 
centinel  on  the  watch  like  fome  other  birds.  They  arc 
feldom  feen  during  the  day,  lying  hid  in  places  fliadcd 
from  the  fun  :  but  io  foon  as  that  luminary  difappears, 
they  come  forth  from  their  hiding-places  to  feed  ;  and, 
during  this,  make  a  particular  kind  of  noife,  by  which 
the  fportfman  is  diredcd  in  his  fearch  after  them  :  at 
other  times  their  Hote  is  a  kind  of  foft  whiftle,  which 
is  often  imitated  in  order  to  decoy  them  within  reach 
of  the  gun.  They  fit  in  January  ;  and  in  March  the 
young  arc  fccn  running  about.     They  lay  many  eggs. 


Sometimes  thefe  arc  hatched  under  hens;  in  which 
ca(e  they  are,  while  young,  familiar,  though  when  ^ 
grown  up  exceedingly  quarrclfome  with  other  ducks  ; 
their  rielliisinollexcellent.efpeciallyfuchasare  brought 
up  tame.  They  appear  upon  the  coafl  of  Hudfon's  Bay 
in  May,  as  foon  as  the  thaws  come  on,  chiclly  in  pairs : 
they  lay  there  only  from  lix  to  eight  eggs  j  and  feedoa 
flies  and  worms  in  the  fwaiiips.  They  depart  in  flocks 
in  autumn.  They  arc  known  by  the  name  of  alhetkimo 
ajhcep. 

25.  The  acuta,  pin-tail,  or  fea  pheafant  ofRay,hasa 
long  acuiuiuatcd  tail,  black  below,  with  a  white  line  oil 
cacii  fide  of  the  back  part  of  the  head.  It  is  a  native  of 
Europe.  MrHartlib,  in  the  appendix  to  his  Lc^ay, tells 
us,  tjiat  hel'e  birds  are  found  in  great  abundance  ia 
Connaughi  in  Ireland,  in  the  month  of  Kebruary  only  ; 
and  that  they  are  much  efleemed  for  their  delicacy. 

26,  The  glaci.ilis,  or  long-tailed  duck,  is  inferior  in 
fi/.c  to  the  former.  The  bill  is  Ihort,  black  at  the  tip 
and  bafe,  orange-coloured  in  the  middle  ;  the  checks 
are  of  a  pale  biown  ;  the  hind  part  of  the  head,  and 
the  neck  boili  before  and  behind,  arc  white  ,  the  bread 
and  back  are  of  a  deep  chocolate  colour  ;  the  four  mid- 
dle feathers  of  ihc  tail  are  blat  k,  and  two  of  them 
near  four  in  hes  longer  than  the  others,  which  arc 
white  ;  the  legs  dufky.  Thefe  birds  breed  in  the  mofh 
northern  parts  of  the  world  ,  and  only  vilit  the  Britifli 
coafts  in  the  fevered  winters.  It  breeds  in  Hudfon's  Bay 
and  Greenland,  among  the  ilones  and  grafs,  making 
its  nefl,  like  the  eider,  with  the  down  of  its  own 
breafl,  which  is  equal  in  value  10  that  of  the  eider,  if 
it  could  be  got  in  equ.d  quantity  ;  but  the  fpecies  is 
fcarcer.  It  lays  five  eggs  ;  fwims  and  dives  admira- 
bly ;  and  feeds  on  Ihcll  lilh,  which  it  gets  in  very  deep 
water.  It  flics  irregularly,  fometimes  fliowing  its 
back,  fometimes  its  belly.  It  continues  in  Greenland 
the  whole  year,  in  unfrozen  places  ;  but  there  are  fea- 
fons  fo  very  fevere,  as  at  times  to  force  them  towards 
the  fouth.  Thofc  which  breed  between  Lapland  and 
the  polar  circle,  are  often  driven  into  Sweden  and 
the  neighbourhood  of  Petcrfburgh  :  tliofe  from  the 
coafl  of  the  Icy  fea,  aslowaslat.  55;  but  on  the  fet- 
ting  in  of  frort,  they  retire  dill  further  fouth,  unlefs 
where  fome  open  fpots  remain  in  the  rivers.  They  vi- 
fit  the  freflt-watcr  lakes  in  the  Orkneys,  in  Oflobcr, 
and  continue  there  till  April.  At  fun-fet  they  arc 
feen,  in  great  flocks,  returning  to  and  from  the  bays, 
where  they  frequently  pafs  the  night,  and  make  fucli 
a  noife  as  to  be  heard  fome  miles  in  frofly  weather. 

27.  The  fcrina,  pochard,  or  red-headed  wigeon  of 
Ray,  has  a  lead-coloured  bill :  the  head  and  neck  arc 
of  a  bright  gay  colour :  the  bread  and  part  of  the 
back  where  it  joins  the  neck  are  black  :  the  coverts  of 
the  wings,  the  fcapulars,  back,  and  iidcs  under  the 
wings,  are  of  a  pale  grey,  elegantly  marked  with  nar- 
row lines  of  black  :  the  tail  confifts  of  twelve  fliort  fea- 
thers of  a  deep  grey  colour  :  the  legs  arc  lead  colour- 
ed ;  and  the  irides  of  a  bright  yellow,  tinged  with  red. 
The  head  of  the  female  is  of  a  pale  reddilh  brown. 
In  England  thefe  birds  frequent  the  fens  in  the  win- 
ter feafon,  and  are  carried  to  the  London  markets 
fometimes  in  confiderable  numbers,  where  they  arc 
known  by  tlie  name  of  Dun  Birds,  and  are  edeemcd 
excellent  eating.  In  winter,  they  pafs  pretty  far 
to  the   fouth,  being   found  in  Egypt,  about  Cairo. 

They 


Abm. 


ANA 


[     <57i     ] 


ANA 


Anai.     They  come  into  France  the  end  of  Oflobcr  in  fniall 
^^'       '  flocks,  from  20  to  40  ;  and  arc  found  in  Carolina  in 
winter.     They  feed  on  fniall  rifli  and  ihtlls.     Their 
flight  is  rapid  and  flrong  ;  but  the  flocks  form  no  par- 
ticular fhapc  in  flying. 

28.  The  fjuerquedula,  gargancy,  or  firft  teal  of  Al- 
drovandus,  has  a  green  fpot  on  the  wings,  and  a  white 
line  above  the  eyes.  It  frequents  the  frelh  waters  of 
Europe.  In  many  places  it  is  called  \\\K.f:ivn'iir-teal. 

29.  The  crcca,  or  common  teal,  has  a  green  fpot 
on  the  wings,  and  .1  white  line  both  above  and  below 
the  eyes.  It  is  of  a  fniall  lize,  only  14  inches  in 
lengiji.  The  teal  is  frequent  in  the  London  markets 
along  with  the  wild  duck.  It  is  met  with  in  Dud- 
dingllon-loch,  a  frelh-water  lake,  within  a  mile  of  K- 
dinburgh.  In  France  it  flays  throughout  the  year, 
and  makes  a  iicU  in  April  among  the  ruflies,  on  the 
edges  of  ponds  ;  it  is  compofed  of  the  tenderefl  Aalks 
of  thcni,  with  the  addition  of  tlie  pith,  and  a  quantity 
of  feathers.  The  nefl  is  of  a  large  (ize,  and  placed 
in  the  water,  fo  as  to  rife  and  fall  with  it.  The  eggs 
are  tlie  lizeof  thofe  of  a  pigeon,  of  a  dirty  white,  mark- 
ed with  fmall  hazel  fpots.  It  is  faid  tofeedon  thegrafs 
and  weeds  which  grow  on  the  edges  of  the  ponds  which 
it  frequents,  as  well  as  the  feeds  of  the  rulhes ;  it  will 
alio  eat  fmall  filh.  The  flcfli  is  accounted  excellent. 
It  is  found  to  the  north  as  high  as  Iceland  ;  and  is 
mentioned  as  inhabiting  the  Cafpian  fea  to  the  fouth. 

30.  The  hillrionica,  or  dufky  fpotted  duck  of  Ed- 
wards, is  of  a  brown  colour,  variegated  with  white  and 
blue  ;  it  has  a  double  line  on  the  cars  and  temples  ; 
the  collar  is  white,  and  there  is  a  white  llreakoii  the 
neck.  It  inhabits  from  Car<ilina to  Greenland  :  inthc 
laft  it  frequents,  during  fummer,  the  rapid  rivers, 
and  the  moll  Ihady  parts  ;  neflling  on  the  banks,  a- 
niong  the  low  fhrubs.  It  fwimsand  dives  admirably. 
In  winter  it  feeksthe  open  lea,  flies  high  and  fwift- 
ly,  and  is  very  clamorous.  It  feeds  on  ihell-rilh,  fpawn, 
and  the  larv*  of  gnats.  Is  found  in  Iceland,  and  as 
low  as  Sondmor.  It  is  common  from  the  lake  Baikal 
to  Kamtfchatka  ;  and  breeds  there,  as  well  as  every 
where  elfe,  about  the  mofl:  rocky  and  rapid  torrents. 

31.  The  minuta,  or  little  white  and  brown  duck  of 
Edwards,  is  of  a  greyilh  colour,  with  white  ears,  and 
the  prime  feathcrsof  the  wings  blackilh.  This  and  the 
former,  according  to  Latham,  are  found  both  on  the 
Old  and  new  continents.  On  the  flrfl,  it  is  fecR  as  far 
fouth  as  the  lake  Baikal,  and  from  thence  to  Kamt- 
fchatka, particularly  up  the  river  Ochotlka  ;  alfo  in 
Iceland,  and  as  low  as  Sondmor.  In  America,  it  is 
found  from  Carolina  to  Newfoundland,  and  Hudfon's 
Bay  ;  alfo  in  Greenland,  where  it  frequents,  during 
fummer, bays  and  rivers, efpeeially  near  their  mouths, 
and  is  a  very  noify  fpecies.  It  is  fond  of  ihady  places, 
and  makes  its  lufl  on  the  fltorc  among  the  flirubs. 
Its  food  is  fmall  flicUs,  eggsof  filhes,  and  particularly 
the  larvx  of  gnats.  It  fwims  well,  even  in  the  moll 
rapid  flreams;  and  dives  to  admiration  :  it  likewifc 
flies  fwifi,  and  to  a  great  height  :  from  whicli  cir- 
cumflanccs,  it  is  not  ciily  taken.  Late  navigators 
met  with  it  at  Aoonala'llika.  It  is  pretty  frequent  in 
the  fmall  rivulets  of  Hudfon's  Hay,  about  90  miles  in- 
land ;  Icldom  in  large  rivers.  It  lays  loor  more  white 
eggs,  like  thofc  of  the  pigeon,  on  the  grafs  ;  and  the 
young  brood  fpcckled  in  a  very  pretty  maimer.  It 
migrates  fouth  iu  autumn. 


32.  The  bofchas,  common  wild-duck  of  Ray,  or 
mallard;  the  intermediate  tail-feathers  of  the  drake  arc 
turned  backward,  and  the  bill  is  flrait.  It  frequents 
the  lakes  of  different  countries,  and  feeds  upon  frogs 
and  feveral  forts  of  infcets — The  wild-ducks  pair  in 
the  fpring  :  build  their  ntlls  among  rufhcs  near  the 
water,  and  lay  from  10  to  16  eggs.  The  female  is  a 
very  artful  bird  ;  and  does  not  always  make  the  nefl 
clofc  to  the  water,  but  frequently  at  a  good  dillancc 
from  it  ;  in  which  cafe  the  duck  will  take  the  young 
in  its  beak  or  between  its  legs.  It  is  known  fometimes 
to  lay  the  eggs  in  a  high  tree,  in  adefcrted  magpie's 
or  crow's  nelt.  Atmoultiiiff-iime,  when  they  cannot 
fly,  they  are  caught  in  gra^c  numbers.  They  abound 
greatly  in  Lincolnlhire,  the  great  magazine  of  wild- 
fowl in  Great  Britain  ;  where  prodigious  numbers  arc 
taken  annually  in  the  Decoys.  Birds  with  flat  bills, 
that  find  their  food  by  groping,  have  three  pair  ot 
nerves  that  extend  to  the  end  of  their  bills  :  thefc 
nerves  are  remarkably  confpicuoiis  in  the  head  and  bill 
of  the  wild-duck,  and,  are  larger  than  thofeof  agoofc 
or  any  other  bird  yet  known  :  this  is  the  reafon  they 

grope  for  food  more  than  any  other  bird  whatever 

The  common  tame  fpecies  of  ducks  take  their  origin 
from  thefc,  and  may  be  traced  to  it  by  unerring  cha- 
rafters.  The  drakes,  howfoevcr  they  vary  in  colours, 
always  retain  the  curled  feathers  of  the  tail,  and  both 
fexes  the  form  of  the  bill,  of  the  wild  kind.  Nature 
fports  in  the  colours  of  all  domeflic  animals  ;  and  for 
a  wife  and  ufeful  end,  that  mankind  may  the  more 
readily  diftinguifh  and  claim  thcirrefpcdivc  property. 

In  France  this  fpecies  is  not  often  fcen,  except  in 
winter;  appearing  in  Oiflobcr,  and  going  north  in 
fpring.  They  are  caught  in  various  manners  ;  among 
the  rcfl,  in  decoys,  as  in  England  ;  the  chief  place  for 
which  is  Picardy,  where  prodigious  numbers  arc  ta- 
ken, particularly  on  the  river  Somme.  It  is  alfo  cuf- 
tomary  there  to  wait  for  the  flocks  palFingover  certain 
known  places,  and  tiie  fportfman,  having  a  wicker 
cage,  containing  a  quantity  of  tame  birds,  lets  out  one 
at  a  time,  at  a  convenient  feafon,  which  enticing  the 
palFcngers  within  gunlhot,  five  or  lix  are  often  killed 
at  once  by  an  expert  markfman.  They  arc  now  and 
then  taken  alio  by  a  hook  baited  with  a  bit  of  iheep's 
lights,  which  fwimming  on  the  water,  the  bird  fwal- 
lows  the  bait,  and  with  it  the  hook.  Various  other 
means  of  catching  dneksand  geefe  are  peculiar  to  cer- 
tain nations  ;  of  which  one  feems  worth  mentioning 
from  its  fingularity  :  The  perfon  wifliing  to  take  thefc, 
wades  into  the  water  up  to  the  chin,  and  having  his 
head  covered  with  an  empty  calabaih,  approaches  the 
place  where  the  ducks  are  ;  when  they,  not  regard- 
ing an  objeill  of  this  fort,  fuft'er  the  man  freely  to  mix 
with  the  flock  ;  after  which  he  has  only  to  pull  them 
by  the  legs  under  the  water,  one  after  anoiher,  till 
he  is  fatislicd  ;  returning  as  unfufpeded  by  the  re- 
mainder as  when  he  tint  came  among  them.  This 
method  is  frequently  put  into  praclice  on  the  river 
Ganges,  ufmg  the  earthen  velfcls  of  the  Gentoos  in- 
llead  of  thecalabalhes  :  thefc  yeifclsare  what  thcGcn- 
toos  boil  their  rice  in,  and  are  called  Kiitcharce  pots 
(they  likewife  make  a  dilh  for  the  tables  in  them, 
w-liich  goes  by  the  fame  name)  :  after  thefc  are  once 
ufcd  tliey  look  upon  them  as  denied,  and  in  courfc 
throw  them  into  the  river  as  ufclcfs  ;  and  the  duck- 
takers  find  them  convcaicut  for  their  purpofe,  as  the 

ducks. 


Am 


ANA 


L    672    ] 


ANA 


Anat.  ducks, from  conftaiitly  feeing  the  vcffcls  float  down  the 
* '  lUcani,  look  upon  thcni  as  objetls  of  lull  as  little  re- 
gard as  a  calabalh.  The  above,  or  funic  luch  nicihod, 
is  alfo  praetifcd  in  China  as  well  as  in  India.  1  he 
Chinefc,  however,  tlioiigh  they  make  great  ufe  of 
ducks,  do  not  prefer  the  wild  fort,  being  in  general 
extremely  fond  of  tame  ones  :  and  it  is  faid  that  the 
major  part  of  thefc  are  hatched  by  artificial  heat  ;  the 
eggs,  being  laid  in  boxes  of  fand,  arc  placed  on  a  brick 
hearth,  to  which  is  given  a  proper  heat  during  the 
time  required  for  hatching.  The  ducklings  arc  fed 
with  little  craw-fiflics  and  cr.'.bs,  boiled  and  cut  fniall, 
and  afterwards  mixed  with  boiled  riie  ;  and  in  about  a 
fortnight  Ihift  for  thcnifelves,  when  the  Chinefe pro- 
vide them  an  old  flepniother,  who  leads  (hem  where 
ihey  arc  to  find  provender  for  themfelves  ;  being  firll 
put  on  board  a  fampane  or  boat,  which  is  dellined  for 
their  habitation,  and  from  which  the  whole  flock,  oft- 
teii  to  the  amount  of  300  or  400,  go  out  to  feed,  and 
return  at  command.  This  method  is  uled  nine  months 
out  of  the  twelve  (for  in  the  colder  months,  it  does  not 
fucceed  ;  and  is  fo  far  from  a  novelty,  that  it  may  be 
every  where  fccn  ;  but  more  efpecially  about  the  time 
of  cutting  the  rice  and  gleaning  the  crop,  when  the 
mafters  of  the  duck  fampanes  row  up  and  down  the  ri- 
ver according  to  the  opportunity  of  procuring  food, 
which  is  found  in  plenty,  at  the  tide  of  ebb,  on  the 
rice  plantations,  as  they  are  overflowed  at  high  water. 
It  is  curious  to  fee  how  the  ducks  obey  their  mafter  ; 
for  fome  thoufunds,  belonging  to  ditierent  boats,  will 
feed  at  large  on  the  fame  fpot,  and  on  a  fignal  given 
will  follow  their  leader  to  their  rcfpcdive  famp-ines, 

OjhtcXj     y;\^\■^Q^^^  a  ftransrer  beiup;  found  amontrthem*.    This 


y»yage,  i. 


is  flill  more  exiraordinary,  if  wc  conlidcr  the  number 


I94.ii.255.  of  inhabited  fampanes  on  the  Tigris,  fiippnftdto  beno 
Icfs  than  40,000,  which  arc  moored  in  rows  clofe  to 
each  other,  with  a  narrow  pad'age  at  intervals  for  boats 
topafsupand  down  the  river.  TheTigris,atCanton, 
is  fomewhat  wider  than  the  Thames  at  London, and  the 
whole  river  is  there  covered  in  this  manner  for  the  ex- 
tent of  at  Icafl  a  mile.  Sec  Cook's  laft  toyagt',m.  443. 

53.  The  galcriculata,  or  Chinefe  teal  of  Edwards, 
has  a  hanging  creft  ;  and  on  the  hinder  part  of  the 
back,  on  both  lidcs,  there  is  a  crooked,  fiat,  elevated 
feather  ;  the  crefl  is  green  and  red  ;  and  the  back  is 
brown,  and  fpotled  with  blue  ;  the  ereft  feathers  on 
the  back  arc  red  and  blunt  ;  one  edge  of  the  inmofl 
wing-feather,  when  the  wings  arc  flint,  is  railed  over 
the  back,  and  is  red,  and  like  a  fickle  before.  This 
moft  lingular  and  elegant  fpecies  is  a  native  of  China 
and  Japan,  where  it  is  kept  by  the  inhabitants  for  the 
fake  of  its  beauty.  It  is  not  near  fo  common  in  China 
as  many  other  kinds,  or  perhaps  they  are  politically 
held  dear  to  the  European  purchal'crs  ;  they  are  fre- 
quently expofed  10  falc  at  Canton  in  cages,  and  the 
common  price  is  from  fix  10  ten  dollars  per  pair  :  they 
are  not  unfrequcntly  carried  to  England  alive  ;  but 
require  care,  as  they  ftem  more  tender  than  our  fpe- 
cies. Attempts  have  been  made  to  breed  them  in 
England,  but  without  faccefs,  though  they  are  familiar 
enough.  The  bird  is  known  in  Japan  by  the  name  of 
K'lmnodfui.  The  Englifli  in  China  give  it  the  name 
oimandarhi  d:ick. 

34.  The  fponfa,  or  fummer-duck  of  Catefliy,  is  a 
moft  elegant  fpecies.  It  has  a  depending  green  crcll, 
variegated  witli  blue  and  while ;  the  back  is  likewife 


variegated  with  blue  and  white ;  the  breaft  is  grey, and 
fpottcd  with  white  ;  and  the  throat  is  white.  It  in- 
habits ^iCxico,  and  fomcofthe  Weft-India  illcs,  mi- 
grating in  the  fumnier  feafun  as  far  north  as  40  de- 
grees, or  a  little  beyond.  It  appears  at  New-York  ear- 
ly in  the  fpriiig,  and  breeds  there  ;  making  its  ueit  in 
the  decayed  hollows  oftrccs,orfuchashavc  been  made 
by  woodpeckers,  and  often  between  the  forks  of  the 
branches  ,  and  when  the  young  arc  hatched,  the  mo- 
ther takes  them  on  her  back  to  the  water.  The  defli 
is  much  ellccmed.  This  is  the  fpecies,  the  neck  of 
which  the  natives  of  Louiliana  ufe  to  ornament  their 
pipes  or  calumets  of  peace  with  ;  and  at  the  laft- 
named  place  it  is  found  throughout  tlie  year. 

3J.  The  aborea,  or  black-billed  whiUling  duck  of 
Edwards,  is  of  a  reddifli  brown  colour,  with  a  fort  of 
crefton  the  head  ;  the  belly  is  fpottcd  wiih  black  and 
white.  It  isa  native  of  America.  Sloane  informs  us, 
that  this  duck  perches  on  trees  ;  that  it  is  about  20 
inches  long  from  the  end  of  the  bill  to  the  point  of 
the  tail  ;  and  that  it  makes  a  kind  of  whiftling  noifc, 
from  which  circumftance  it  has  received  its  name. 

36.  The  fuligiila,  or  tufted  duck  of  Ray,  has  a 
hanging  creft,  a  black  body,  and  the  wings  and  belly 
fpottcd  with  white.  This  fpecies  is  found  in  Europe 
as  far  as  Norway.  In  the  winter  months  it  is  not  un- 
frequent  in  England  ;  being  met  within  the  markets 
in  that  feafon,  and  is  much  efteemed.  It  is  common 
alfo  throughout  the  Ruffian  empire,  going  northward 
to  breed.  Is  frequent  in  Kanufchatka.  The  male  dif- 
appears  during  the  incubation  of  the  female. 

There  are  62  other  fpecies  enumerated  by  orintho- 
logifts  ;  the  whole  number  hitherto  dcfcribed  being 
98. 

ANASARCA,  a  fpecies  of  dropfy.  See  Medi- 
cine. 

ANASSUS,  or  An  ax  us  (anc.  geog.),  ariver  in  the 
territory  of  Venice,  (Pliny);  wow  the  i  iave,  which 
riling  from  the  mountains  of  Tyrol,  not  far  from  the 
borders  of  Carinthia,  runs  from  north  to  fouth,  thro' 
the  territories  of  Cadorina,  Belluno,  Feltre,  and,  af- 
ter running  from  weft  to  eaft,  through  Trevigi,  falls 
into  the  Adriatic,  13  miles  to  the  iouth-eaft  of  Ve- 
nice. 

ANASTASIS,  a  term  among  ancient  phyficians, 
for  a  riling  up  to  go  tollool.  It  alfo  lignities  the  paf- 
fage  of  any  humour,  when  expelled  from  one  part, 
and  obliged  to  remove  to  another. 

ANASTASIUS  I.  emperor  of  the  eaft,  fuccceded 
Zcno  in  theyear  491,  and  was  inaugurated  that  fame 
year  on  April  the  nth.  The  Manichcans  and  Arians 
were  greatly  in  hopes  of  being  fupported  by  the  new 
emperor;  the  fornur  becaufc  his  mother  was  their 
friend,  and  favoured  their  feet  ;  the  latter  becaufc 
the  emperor's  uncle  wab  of  theiropinion  :  butif  Ana- 
ftalius  did  not  perfccute  them  (as  we  do  not  find  he 
ever  did),  yet  it  does  not  appear  ihjt  he  fupported  ei- 
tlicrof  thefc  fee^s.  But  in  order  to  maintain  the  peace 
of  the  church,  upon  which  the  tranquility  of  the  Hate 
very  much  depended,  he  declared,  that  fuch  bilhops 
orothcr  clergymen  whofliould  diftiirb  the  public  tran- 
quility, by  maintaining  with  too  much  heat  cither  fide 
of  the  qucllion  for  or  againA  the  Council  of  Chalcedon, 
fliould  be  deprived  of  their  benefices.  Accordingly 
the  difputes  concerning  Eutychianifm  running  to  a 
very  great  height,  and  Euphemius  being  deeply  con- 
cerned 


ANA  [6 

A'laftafius.  eerncd  in  them,  the  emiicror  expelled  him  from  his  fee, 

' ^ '  and  chafe  Maccdoniiis  in  his  Itcad.  Tht  liaired  which 

theditfcrciu  parties  eiittfrtaincd  againll  one  another  oc- 
calioiicd  often  fuch  tiitnults  and  fcdiiions  at  Conftanii- 
noplc,  as  threatened  the  life  of  the  emperor  himfclf; 
who,  to  keep  tlic  people  in  awe,  onlcrcd  that  the  go- 
vernor of  the  city  (hould  be  prcfcii  at  all  church-af- 
fcmbliesand  p.ibiic  proceliions.    This  was  foniiich  the 
niorenecclkry,  bcca.ifc  thcfe  tumults  were  chiefly  oc- 
cadoncd  by  a  kind  of  doxology  or  fliort  hymn  which 
ufed  to  be  fung  at  divine  fervice.     This  doxology  con- 
iifled  only  of  the  following  words,  «>/•.(  o  0«ot,  *yii>t 
(;^c/foc,  «>-/o,-  a3-avaToe,  ihatis,  '*  Holy  God,  holy  the 
powerful,  holy  iheinnuortal ;"  forwhich  reafonit  was 
cMcd  Tfi(rxyi<,<,Tri/iigt//i,  "  three  times  holy  ;"  be- 
caufc  the  word  hojji  was  therein  three  times  repeated. 
The  orthodox  ufed  to  ling  that  hymn  without  any  ad- 
dition, or  by  adding  only  to  it,  a-yix  Tfi«c,  o.oitof  >i/nat, 
i.  e.  "  Holy  Trinity,  have  mercy  upon  us  :"  But  Pe- 
ter the  Fuller,  bilhop  of  Antioch,  pretended  to  add 
thefe  words  to  it,  viz.  o  tiufad-ut  /<  »/x«,  i.  e.  "  who 
haft  been  crucified  for  us  ;"  and  as  it  was  fuppofed  that 
the  firft  holy  related  to  the  Father,  the  ftcond  to  the 
Son,  the  third  to  the  Holy  Ghoft,  and  adding  thcfe 
words,  w.ho  kajl  ban  crucified  for  us,  fecmcd  to  infi- 
nuate  that  the  whole  confubllaniial  Trinity  had  fufter- 
ed  ;   for  which  reafon  the  orthodox  were  rcfolved  not 
to  admit  this  addition.     Anaftafius  dcfiring  to  have 
thofe  fatal  words  added  to  that  hymn  vvlicnever  i  t  fhould 
be  fung  at  Conllantinople,  this  occalioncd  a  terrible 
fcdition  in  the  city,  as  though  the  very  fundamentals 
of  Chriflianity  had  been  overthrown.  Maccdoniusand 
his  clergy  are  faid  to  have  raifcd  that  fedition,  which 
came  to  fuch  a  height  that  the  emperor  himfelf  was 
obliged  to  come,  without  his  crown  on  his  head,  and 
in  a  very  humble  manner,  to  the  Circus,  where  he  de- 
clared to  the  people  that  he  was  very  williing  to  quit 
the  imperial  throne  j  but  he  told  them  at  the  fame 
time,  that  they  could  not  all  enjoy  the  fovereign  power, 
which  docs  not  admit  of  a  panncrihip  ;  and  that  one 
perfon  ftill  muft  govern  them  if  he  refigned  the  crown. 
This  difcourfc  had  fuch  a  power  over  the  raging  mul- 
titude, that,  as  if  they  had  been  divinely  infpircd, 
they  immediately  requcfted  the  emperor  to  take  up  his 
crown,  promifing  that  they  would  be  quiet  and  obe- 
dient for  the  future.     Anaftafms  is  by  the  Popilh  wri- 
ters reprefenied  as  a  great  perfccutor  of  the  orthodox, 
becaufe  he  banilhed  and  deprived  Euphemius  and  Ma- 
ccdonius ;  but  they  (hould  prove  that  thefe  two  pre- 
lates had  been  unjuftly  banilhed,  which  is  a  very  hard 
tafk.     As  to  his  civil  government,  it  is  confelfcd  that 
at  the  beginning  of  his  reign  he  (lie  wed  himfelf  a  very 
good  prince  ;  he  eafed  the  people  of  a  very  heavy  tax 
called  Chryfargyrtim,  under  which  they  had  groaned 
for  a  long  time  ;  he  prohibited  the  fighting  with  wild 
lieafls  ;  he  raifcd  fcvcral  buildings  ;  he  avoided  being 
involved  in  dangerous  wars  as  much  as  lay  in  his  power. 
Aiiaftalius  reigned  27  years  three  months  and  tjiree 
days,  or,  according  to  F.  Pagi,  wanting  three  days  ; 
and  died  July  the  10th,  A.  C.  518,  in  the  88ih  year 
«)f  his  age. 

Anastasios,  furnamed  5/W/o/A<fMr/K/,  a  Roman 
abbot,  library-keeperof  the  Vatican,  and  one  of  the 
moft  learned  men  of  the  ninth  century,  alEAcd  in 
VoJ-  I. 


73     J  A  N  A 

i!i09  at  the  fo'.uth  general  council,  the  afts  and  ca- 
nons of  which  he  tranflitcd  from  the  Greek  into  La- 
tin. He  alfo  co3ipofcd  the  lives  of  Ctverjl  popes,  and 
other  works  ;  the  belt  edition  of  which  is  that  of  the 
Vatican. 

ANASTATICA,  the  rose  of  Jericho  :  A  genus 
of  the  filicalcfa  order,  beloi.ging  to  the  tciradyiiaiuia 
clafs  of  plants  j  and,  in  tin  natural  niethod,  ranking 
under  the  39th order,  SUiqu'.f^ .  The  charaders  are  : 
The  calyx  is  a  pcrianthium  confiding  of  four  Icavei, 
and  perfillent  :  The  Cjrclla  ccniifts  of  four  cruciform 
petals  :  The  ftamu:a  confUl  of  lix  fubulated  filaments 
the  length  of  the  calyx  ;  the  anthera  arc  roundilh  : 
Thepijfillum  has  afmall  bifidgermcn  ;  thcftylus  u\u- 
cronaccd  and  oblique  ;  tht  llignia  headed  :  The  peri- 
carpi:tvi\s  3  Ihort  bilocular  filicle,  retufe,  and  crowned 
on  on  the  margin  with  valvulae  twice  as  long  as  :hc 
partition  :  The  feeds  arc  folitary  and  roundilh — Of 
this  genus  there  arc  two 

Species.  1.  The  fyriaca,  a  native  of  Syria,  is  not 
cultivated  or  known  in  Britain.  2.  The  hierochun- 
tica  is  anative  of  the  fandy  parts  of  Paleftinc  and  the 
Red  Sea.  It  is  a  low  annual  plant,  dividing  into  many 
irregular  woody  branchesnear  the  root.  Ateach  joint 
is  placed  a  (ingle,  oblong,  hairy  leaf  ;  and  at  the  fame 
places  comeout  fmall  Jingle  rio\vcrs,ofa  whitiih  green 
colour,  compofcd  of  four  leaves  placed  in  the  form  of 
acrofs.  Thefe  are  fucceeded  by  (hort  wrinkled  pods, 
having  four  fmall  horns  ;  thefe  open  into  four  cells,  in 
each  of  which  is  lodged  a  (ingle  brown  feed — When 
the  feeds  of  this  plant  are  ripe,  the  branches  will  draw 
up  andcontraft  ;  fo  that  the  whole  plant  forms  a  kind 
of  ball  or  globular  body,  which  will  expand  on  laying 
it  a  fliort  time  in  warm  water.  This  property  it  retains 
for  many  years,  on  which  account  it  is  prefcrved  as  a 
curiofity  by  fome  people.  From  this  property  the 
monks  have  given  it  the  name  of  Rofa  Maria,  pre- 
tending that  the  flowers  open  on  the  night  in  which 
our  Saviour  was  born. 

Culture,  This  plant  is  propagated  by  feeds,  which 
fliould  be  fown  in  the  beginning  of  March,  in  a  mode- 
rate hot-bed  in  pots,  in  which  the  plants  are  deftgned 
to  remain.  When  they  come  up,  the  plants  diouldbc 
thinned,  leaving  them  about  fix  inches  afunder,  and 
obferving  to  keep  them  clear  of  weeds,  which  is  all 
the  care  they  require.  If  the  feafsn  proves  favourable 
they  will  flower  in  Augull  ;  but  unlefs  the  autumn 
proves  warm  and  dry,  they  will  notperfeft  their  feeds 
in  Britain. 

ANASTOMOSIS,  in  anatomy,  the  opening  of  the 
mouths  of  velTels,  in  order  to  difcharge  their  contain- 
ed fluids.  It  is  likewife  ufed  for  the  communication  of 
two  veffels  at  their  extremities  ;  as  the  inofculatioti 
of  a  vein  with  a  vein,  of  an  artery  with  an  artery,  or 
of  an  artery  with  a  vein. 

ANASTOMATICS,. medicines  fuppofed  to  have 
the  power  of  opening  the  mouths  of  the  velfcls,  and 
promoting  the  circulation  ;  fuch  as  dcobftrucnt,  ca- 
thartic, and  fudoritic  medicines. 

ANASTROPHE,  inrhetoricandgrammar,denotes 
the  invcrlion  of  the  natural  order  of  the  words  :  fuch 
\S,faxa  per  etfcopulos,  for  per  faxa  et  fcopulos. 

ANASUS,  or  Anisus  (anc.  geog.)  now  the  Ent, 

a  river  ef  Germany;  which,  riling  on  the  borders  of 

4  0.  the 


!\i,-.n-,.,, 

An;iliis. 


ANA 


f     674    ] 


ANA 


Askthema.  the  territory  of  Saltzburg,  then  feparating Upper  Sti- 

^— V '  ria  from  Upper  Auflria,  andwalliing  the  town  of  Ens, 

lalls,  at  the  diflance  of  a  mile  below  it,  into  tlic  Da- 
nube, in  a  coiirfc  from  fouth  to  north. 

ANATHEMA,  among  cccleltaflical  writers,  im- 
ports whatever  is  fet  apart,  feparated,  or  divided  ; 
but  is  mofl  ufually  meant  to  exprefs  the  cutting  off  a 
pcrlbn  from  the  privileges  of  Ibcicty  and  communion 
with  the  faithful. 

The  anathema  differs  from  excommunication  in  the 
circumllances  of  being  attended  with  curfes  and  exe- 
crations. It  was  praiitifed  in  the  primitive  church  a- 
gainll  notorious  offenders;  and  the  form  of  that  pro- 
nounced by  Synecius  againft  one  Andronicus,  is  as 
follows:  "  Let  no  church  of  God  be  open  to  Andro- 
nicus, but  let  every  fanduary  be  flnit  againft  him.  I 
adnionilh  both  private  men  and  magiftratcs,  to  receive 
him  neither  under  their  roof  nor  to  their  table  ;  and 
pricrts  more  efpccially, that  they  neither  converfc  with 
him  living,  nor  attend  his  funeral  when  dead." 

Sever.  1  councils  alfo  have  pronounced  anathemas  a- 
gainft  fuch  as  they  thought  corrupted  the  purity  of  the 
faith  ;  and  their  decilions  have  been  conceived  in  the 
following  form  :  Si  quisdixtrit,  ire.   auathivia  Jit. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  anathemas,  the  one  judici- 
ary, and  the  other  abjuratory.  The  former  can  only 
be  denounced  by  a  council,  a  pope,  or  a  bilhop  ;  the 
latter  makes  a  part  of  the  ceremony  of  abjuration,  the 
convert  being  obliged  to  anathematize  the  herefy  he 
abjures. 


Anathema,  in  heathen  antiquity,  was  an  offering  Aoatliotk 
or  prcfent  made  to  fomc  deity,  and  hung  up  in  the         II 
temple.    Whenever  a  perfon  left  off  his  employment,  '^"*"'*'*'  ^ 
it  was  ufual  to  dedicate  the  tools  to  the  patron-deity  of 
the  trade.     Perfons,  too,  who  had  efcapcd  from  im- 
minent danger,  as  Ihipwreck  and  the  like,  or  hud 
met  with  any  other  remarkable  inftanceof  good  for- 
tune, fcldom  failed  to  teftify  their  gratitude  by  fomc 
prcfent  of  this  kind. 

ANATHO  IH,  a  hamlet  of  Paleftine,  very  near 
Jerufalem  (Jofcphus),  about  three  miles  and  a  half  to 
the  north  ;  the  ruins  of  which  are  ftill  10  be  feen.  It 
was  the  birth-place  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  and  one 
of  the  Levitical  towns  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin. 

ANATIFERA  concha,  the  trivial  name  of  a  fpc- 
cics  of  the  lepas,  a  tellaceous  animal.     See  Lepas. 

ANATOCISM,  Anatocismus,  an  ufurious  con- 
traft,  wherein  the  interefts  arifing  from  the  principal 
fum  arc  added  to  the  principal  itlclf,  and  inicrell  cx- 
artcd  upon  the  whole.  The  word  is  originally  Greek, 
but  ufed  by  Cicero  in  Latin  ;  whence  it  has  dcfcended 
into  mo/l  other  languages.  It  comes  from  the  prcpo- 
lition  wa,  which  in  compofition  lignifies  r:i<etithn  or 
duplication,  and  touc,  ufury.  Anatocilm  is  what  wc 
properly  called  interejl  ufon  intircji,  or  comi'oiind  inle- 
rejl.  This  the  worll  kind  of  ufury,  and  has  been  fe- 
verely  condemned  by  the  Roman  law,  as  well  as  by 
the  common  laws  of  molt  other  countries.     See  In- 


terest. 
ANATOLIA. 


Sec  Natolia. 


N 


O       M       Y, 


nPHE  art  of  diffcifling,  or  artificially  feparating  and 
•*■  taking  to  pieces,  the  differentparts  of  the  human 
body,  in  order  to  an  cxad  difcovery  of  their  fituation, 
flructure,and  oeconomy. — The  word  isG reck, «v«Tiijuiii 
derived  from  ««T(jav«,  to  diffcd,  or  feparate  by  cutting. 

INTRODUCTION. 

5  I.  Hiflory  of  Anatomy , 

This  art  feems  tohavc  been  very  ancient ;  thongh 
for  a  long  time,  known  only  in  an  imperfed  manner. 
— The  firfl  men  who  lived  muft  have  foon  acquired 
fome  notions  of  the  ftrufture  of  their  own  bodies,  par- 
ticularly of  the  external  parts,  and  of  fome  even  of 
the  internal,  fach  as  bones,  joints,  and  fine  ws,  which 
are  expofed  to  the  examination  ofthefenfes  in  living 
bodies. 

This  rude  knowledge  muft  have  been  gradually  im- 
proved, by  the  accidents  to  which  the  body  is  expofed, 
by  the  neccflitics  of  life,  and  by  the  various  cuftoms, 
ceremonies,  and  fuperfiitions,  of  different  nations. 
Thus,  the  obfervance  of  bodies  killed  by  violence,  at- 
tention to  wounded  men,  and  to  many  difeafes,  the 
various  ways  of  putting  criminals  to  death,  the  fune- 
ral ceremonies,  and  a  variety  of  fuch  things,  muft  have 
fliown  men  every  day  more  and  more  of  themfelves  ; 
cfpecially  as  curiofity  and  felf-love  would  here  urge 
ihem  powerfully  to  obfcrvation  and  reflci^ion. ' 


The  brute-creation  having  fuch  an  affinity  to  man 
in  outward  form,  motions,  fenfcs,  and  ways  of  life  ; 
the  generaiio  1  of  the  fpecies,  and  the  etfcd  of  death 
upon  the  body,  being  obfcrvcd  to  be  fo  nearly  the 
fame  in  both  ;  the  conclufion  was  not  only  obvious,  but 
unavoidable,  that  their  bodies  were  formed  nearly  upon 
the  fame  model.  And  the  opportunities  of  examining 
the  bodies  of  brutes  were  fo  calily  procured,  indeed  fo 
neceffarily  occurred  in  the  common  bufinelsof  life,  that 
the  huntfman  in  making  ufc  of  hii  prey,  the  prieft  in 
facriticing,  the  augur  in  divination,  and,  above  all,  the 
butcher,  or  thofe  who  might  on  toft  uriofity  attend  upon 
his  operations,  muft  have  been  daily  adding  to  the  little 
ftock  of  anatomical  knowledge.  Accordingly  we  find, 
in  faift,  that  the  South-fea-illanilers,whohave  been  left 
to  their  own  obfcrvation  and  reafoi.ing,  without  the 
affiftance  of  letters,  have  yet  a  confidcrable  (hare  of 
rude  or  wild  anatomical  and  phyfiological  knowledge. 
Dr  Hunter  informs  us,  that  when  Omai  was  in  his 
niufeum  with  Mr  Banks,  though  he  could  not  explain 
himfelf  intelligibly, they  plainly  faw  tliat  he  knew  the 
principal  parts  of  the  body,  and  fimcthiujriikcwifc  of 
their  ufcs  ;  and  manifcfted  a  great  curiolity  or  defirc. 
of  having  the  fun(flionsof  the  internal  parts  of  the  bo- 
dy explained  to  him  ;  particularly  therelaiive  funclions 
of  the  twofexes,  which  with  him  feemed  tobethemoft 
interefting  object  of  the  human  mind. 

Wc  may  further  imagine,  that  the  philofophers  of 

the 


Hiftoiy. 


N 


clic  mod  early  ages,  that  is,  the  men  of  curiolity,  ob- 
fcrvation,  experience  and  rcfiedion,  could  not  over- 
look an  inftance  of  natural  organization,  which  was  fo 
intcrclling,  and  at  the  fame  time  fo  wonderful,  more 
cfpecialiy  fuch  of  ihcni  as  applied  to  the  fludy  and 
cure  of  diftafc^.  ^\'e  know  that  phyfic  was  a  branch 
of  philofupjiy  till  the  age  of  Hippocrates. 

Thus  the  art  mull  have  been  circumflanccd  in  its 
beginning.  We  fiiall  next  fee  from  the  teftimony  of 
hillorians  and  other  writers,  how  it  aitually  appeared 
as  an  art,  from  the  time  that  writing  was  introduced 
among  men  ;  how  it  was  improved  and  conveyed  down 
to  us  through  a  long  ferics  of  ages. 

Civilization,  and  improvements  of  every  kind, would 
naturally  begin  in  fertile  countries  and  healthful  cli- 
mates, where  there  would  be  Icifurc  for  refiedion,  and 
an  appetite  for  amufement.  Accordingly,  writing, 
and  many  other  ufefuland  ornamental  inventions  and 
arts,  appear  to  have  been  cultivated  in  the  eaftern  parts 
of  Alia  long  before  the  earlieft  times  that  are  treated 
of  by  the  Greek  or  other  European  writers  ;  and  that 
the  arts  and  learning  of  thofe  eaflern  people  were  in 
fubfequent  times  gradually  communicated  to  adjacent 
countries,  cfpecialiy  by  the  medium  of  traffic.  The 
culloms,  fuperftiiions,  and  climate  of  eaflern  coun- 
tries, however,  appear  to  havi;  been  as  unfavourable 
ta  pradical  anatomy,  as  they  were  inviting  to  the  flu- 
dy of  aftronomy,  geometry,  poetry,  and  all  the  fofter 
arts  of  peace. 

Animal  bodies  there,  run  fo  quickly  into  naufeous 
putrefaction,  that  the  early  inhabitants  mufl  have 
avoided  fuch  offcnlive  employments,  as  anatomical  in- 
quiries, like  their  poflerity  at  this  day.  And,  in  Tadl, 
it  docs  not  appear,  by  the  writings  of  the  Grecians, 
or  Jews,  or  Pho-nicians,  orof  other  eaflern  countries, 
thatanatomywasparticularly  cultivated  by  any  of  thofe 
eaflern  nations.  In  tracing  it  backwards  to  its  infan- 
cy, we  cannot  go  farther  into  aniiquity  than  the  times 
of  the  Grecian  philofophers.  As  an  art  in  the  (late 
of  fome  cultivation,  it  may  be  faid  to  have  been 
brought  forth  and  bred  up  among  them  as  a  branch  of 
natural  knowledge. 

The  jicra  of  philofophy,  as  it  was  called,  began 
with  Thales  the  Milcfian  being  declared  by  a  very 
general  confent  of  the  people,  the  moil  wife  of  ail 
the  Grecians,  480  years  before  Chrift.  The  philo- 
fophers of  his  fchool,  which  was  called  the  Ionian, 
cultivated  principally  natural  knowledge.  Socrates, 
the  fevcnth  in  fuccelFion  of  their  great  teachers,  in- 
troduced the  ftudy  of  morals,  and  was  thence  faid  to 
bring  down  philofophy  from  heaven,  to  make  men 
truly  wife  and  happy. 

In  the  writings  of  his  fcholar  and  fuccclTor  Plato, 
we  fee  that  the  philofophers  had  carefully  confidercd 
the  human  body,  both  in  its  organization  and  func- 
tions ;  and  though  they  had  not  arrived  at  the  know- 
ledge of  the  more  mi'iute  and  intricate  pans,  which 
required  the  fucceirive  labour  and  attention  of  many 
ages,  they  had  made  up  very  noble  and  comprehenfive 
ideas  of  the  fubjeil  in  general.  The  anatomical  de- 
fcripiionsof  Xenophonand  Platohave  had  t!ie  honour 
of  beina;  quoted  by  Longiniis  (j  xxxii.)  as  fpccimcns 
of  fuMiinc  writing  :  and  ihe  extract  from  Plato  is  Hilt 
more  remarkable  for  its  conuining  the  rudiments  of 
the  circulation  of  the  blood.  "The  heart  (fays  Plato) 


r      O      M      Y. 

is  the  centre  or  knot  of  the  blood  veflcls ;  the  fpriug 
or  foitntaia  of  the  blood  which  is  carried  impetuoully 
round  J  the  blood  is  ihc  (mbutum  or  food  of  the  Hcfli ; 
and,  for  the  purpofcof  nourilhment,  the  body  is  laid 
out  into  canals,  like  thofe  which  are  drawn  through 
gardens,  that  the  blood  may  be  conveyed,  as  from  a 
fountain,  to  every  part  of  the  pervious  body." 

Hippocrates  was  nearlycontcmporary  with  the  great 
philofophers  of  whom  we  have  been  fpeaking,  ab'iut 
400  years  before  the  Chrillian  aera.  He  is  faid  to 
have  feparated  the  profcflion  of  philofophy  and  phyfic, 
and  to  have  been  the  firll  who  applied  to  phyfic  alone 
as  the  bulinefs  of  his  life.  He  is  likewil'e  generally 
fuppofed  to  be  the  firll  wJio  wrote  uponanatomy.  Wc 
know  of  nothing  that  was  written  exprefsly  upon  the 
fubjed  before  ;  and  the  firfl  anatomical  dilfedion 
which  has  been  recorded,  was  made  by  his  friend  De- 
mocritusof  Abdera. 

If,  however,  we  read  the  works  of  Hippocrates  with 
impartiality,  and  apply  his  accounts  of  the  parts  to  what 
we  now  know  of  the  human  body,  we  mufl  allow  hi? 
deferiptions  to  be  imperfeft,  incorrect,  fometimes  ex- 
travagant, and  often  unintelligible,  that  of  the  bones 
only  excepted.  He  fecms  to  have  lludied  thefc  with 
more  fuccefs  than  the  other  parts,  and  tell  us  that  he 
had  an  opportunity  of  feeing  an  human  fkeleton. 

From  Hippocrates  to  Galen,  who  Hourilhed  toward* 
the  end  of  the  fecond  century,  in  the  decline  of  the 
Roman  empire,  that  is,  in  the  fpace  of  600  years,  ana- 
tomy was  greatly  improved  ;  the  philofophers  Hill  con- 
fidcriiig  it  as  a  moft  curious  and  interelling  branch  of 
natural  knowledge,  and  the  phyficians,  as  a  principal 
foundation  of  their  art.  Both  of  them,  in  that  inter- 
val of  time,  contributed  daily  to  the  common  ftock, 
by  more  accurate  and  extended  obfervations,  and  hj 
the  lights  of  improving  philofophy. 

As  thcfe  two  great  men  had  applied  very  particu- 
larly to  the  fludy  of  animal  bodies,  they  not  only 
made  great  improvements,  cfpecialiy  in  phyfiology, 
but  raifed  the  credit  of  natural  knoivledge,  and  fpreaj 
it  as  wide  as  Alexander's  empire. 

Fcwof.Ariftotle's  writings  were  made  public  in  his 
lifetime.  He  atfecled  to  fay  that  they  would  be  un- 
intelligible to  thofe  who  had  not  heard  them  explained 
at  his  lectures:  and,  except  the  ufe  which  Theophraf- 
tus  made  of  them,  they  were  loft  to  the  public  for 
above  130  years  after  the  death  of  Theophraftus  ;  and 
at  laft  came  out  defedive  from  bad  prcfervatioii,  and 
corrupted  by  men,  who,  without  proper  qualiKcati- 
ons,  prefumed  to  corred  and  fiipply  what  watloil. 

From  the  time  of  Theophraftus,  the  lludy  of  natu- 
ral knowledge  at  Athens  was  forever  on  the  decline  ; 
and  the  reputation  of  the  Lyceum  and  Academy  was 
almofl  confined  to  the  ftudies  which  are  fubfervient 
to  oratory  and  public  fpeaking. 

The  other  great  inllituiioii  for  Grecian  education, 
was  at  Alexandria  in  Egypt.  The  firll  Ptolemies,  bo-!i 
from  their  love  of  literature,  and  to  give  true  and  per- 
manent dignity  to  their  empire,  and  to  Alexander's 
favourite  city,  fct  up  a  grand  fchool  in  the  palace  itfclf, 
with  a  mufcum  and  library,  which,  we  may  fay,  has 
been  the  moll  famed  in  the  world.  Anatomy,  among 
other  fciences,  was  publicly  taught ;  and  the  two  dif- 
tinguilhed  anatomills  were  Eralillratus  the  pupil  and 
friend  of  Theophrallus,  and  Herophilas.  Their  vo- 
^  ^2  luminoui 


675 


676 


H       ATOM       Y. 


lamii'.oos  works  ai'c  <11  loA  ;  but  ilicy  lie  quoted  by 
Galen  ilnioft  in  every  f^ge.  rhcfcpiotclFors  were  pro- 
bably liie  firft  who  were  auchorized  to  diflcdl  human 
bodies ;  a  peculiarity  which  marks  ftrongly  the  philo- 
fopliitil  uiagr.ariiiiity  of  fhc  lirJt  Ptolemy,  and  (ixcs 
a  great  xn  in  the  hiHory  of  anatomy.  And  it  was, 
no  douUt,  from  this  panicular  advantage  which  the 
Alcxaniirians  had  above  all  others,  that  their  fchool 
not  only  gained,  but  for  many  centuries  preferved,  the 
firft  reputation  for  medical  ei'.ucation.  Ammianus  Mar- 
ccllinus,  who  lived  about  650  years  after  the  fchools 
were  let  up,  fays,  they  were  fo  famous  in  his  time, 
that  it  was  enough  to  Iccun;  credit  to  any  phylician,  if 
he  could  fay  he  had  fluditd  at  Alexandria. 

Hcrophilus  has  been  laid  to  have  anatomized  700 
bodies.  We  mud  allow  for  exaggeration.  Isay,  it 
was  faid,  that  both  he  and  Jiraliltratus  made  it  a  coni- 
mon  pradice  to  open  living  bodies,  that  they  might 
difcover  the  more  fecrct  fprings  of  life.  But  this,  no 
doubt,  was  only  a  vulgar  opinion,  riling  from  the  pre- 
judices of  mankind  ;  andaccoroingly,  without  any  good 
reafou,  fuch  tales  have  been  told  of  modern  anato- 
inifts,  and  have  been  believed  by  the  vulgar. 

Among  the  Romans,  though  it  is  probahle  they  had 
phyl'iciansand  furgeons  from  the  foundation  of  the  ci- 
ty, yet  we  have  no  account  of  any  ol  ihcfc  applying 
thenifelves  to  anatomy  for  a  very  long  time.  Archa- 
gathus  was  the  firft  Greek  phylician  eilablift-cd  in 
Rome,  and  he  was  baniflicd  the  city  on  account  of  the 
fcverity  of  his  operations — Alclcpiades,  who  flourilh- 
cd  in  Rome  loi  years  after  Archagathus,  in  the  time 
of  Fompey,  attained  fuch  a  high  repuiation  as  to  be 
ranked  in  the  lame  clafs  with  Ilijipocratcs.  He  fcem- 
ed  to  have  fomc  notion  of  the  air  in  relpiration  aifting 
by  its  weight ;  and  in  accounting  for  digeftion,  he  fup- 
pofed  the  food  to  be  no  farther  changed  than  by  a  com- 
minution into  extremely  fmall  parts,  which  being  dif- 
iributcd  to  the  feveral  parts  of  the  body,  isafTimilated 
tothenaiureof  each.  One  Csllius,  commonly  thought 
to  be  a  difciple  of  Afclepiades,  accounted  for  the  right 
fide  of  the  body  becoming  paralytic  on  hurting  the 
left  fide  of  the  brain,  in  the  fame  manner  as  has  been 
done  by  the  modems,  viz.  fron\  the  croffing  of  the 
nerves  from  the  right  to  the  left  (ide  of  the  brain. 

From  the  time  of  Afclepiades  to  the  fecond  century, 
pliyficians  fecm  to  have  been  greatly  encouraged  at 
Home  ;  and,  in  tlie  writings  of  Cclfus,  Rufus,  Pliny, 
Coclius,  Aurelianus,  and  Ar£ttcus,wc  find  feveral  ana- 
tomical obfervations,  but  molily  very  fuperficial  and 
inaccurate.  Towards  the  end  of  the  fecond  century 
lived  Claudius  Gallenus  Perganuis,  whofc  name  is  fo 
well  known  in  the  medical  world.  He  applied  himfelf 
particularly  to  tlie  ftudy  of  anatomy,  and  did  more  in 
that  way  than  all  that  went  before  him.  He  feems, 
however,  to  have  been  at  a  great  lols  for  human  fub- 
jec^s  to  operate  upon  ;  and  therefore  his  defcriptions  of 
the  parts  are  moflly  taken  from  brute  animals.  His 
works  contain  the  fullcft  hiftory  of  anatomifts,  and 
the  moft  complete  fyftcm  of  the  fcicncc,  to  be  met 
with  any  where  before  him,  or  for  feveral  centuries 
after;  fo  that  a  numberof  paflagcs  in  them  were  reck- 
oned abfoluttly  unintelligible  for  many  ages,  until  ex- 
plained by  the  difcoveries  of  fucceeding  anatomifts. 

About  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  Nimefius,  bi- 
(liep  of  Emifla,  wrote  a  treajife  on  the  nature  of  man. 


Hiftory, 


iu  which  it  is  faid  were  contained  two  celebrated  mo- 
dern difcoveries  ;  the  one,  the  ufcs  of  the  bile,  boafl- 
cd  of  by  Sylvius  de  la  Boe  ;  and  the  other,  the  circu- 
lation of  the  blood.  This  laft,  however,  is  proved  by 
Dr  Friend,  in  his  Hiftory  of  Phyfic,  p.  229.  to  be 
falfcly  afcribcd  to  this  author. 

The  Roman  empire  beginning  now  to  be  opprcffed 
by  the  barbarians,  and  funk  ingrofsfuperftitioii,  learn- 
ing of  all  kinds  decreafed  ;  and  when  the  empire  was 
totally  overwhelmed  by  ihofc  barbarous  nations,  every 
appearance  of  fcicncc  \\as  almoft  cxtinguill'.td  in  Jiu- 
rope.  The  only  remains  of  it  were  among  the  Ara- 
bians in  Spain  and  in  Afia. — The  Saracens  who  came 
into  Spain,  deli  roycd  at  Mrft  all  the  Greek  books  which 
theVandals  had  Ipared  :  but  though  their  government 
was  in  a  conllant  ftruggle  and  tlut'tuation  during  800 
years  before  thty  V ere  driven  out,  they  received  a 
tafte  lor  learning  from  their  countrymen  of  the  call; 
feveral  of  their  princes  encouraged  liberal  lUidies  ; 
public  fchools  were  let  up  at  Cordova,  Toledo,  and 
other  towns,  and  tranllations  of  the  Greeks  into  the 
Arabic,  were  univerlally  in  the  hands  of  their  teachers. 

Thus  was  the  learniiigol  the  Grecians  transferred 
to  the  Arabians.  But  thoiij;h  tluy  had  fo  good  a  foun- 
dation to  build  upon,  this  art  was  never  improved 
while  they  were  mallei;s  of  the  world  :  for  they  were 
fatisfied  with  commenting  upon  Galen  ;  and  fecm  to 
have  made  no  diliti5tions  of  human  bodies. 

AbdoUdiph,  who  was  himfelf  a  teacher  of  anatomy, 
a  man  eminent  in  his  time  (at  and  before  120;?)  for  his 
learning  and  curiofity  ;  a  great  traveller,  who  had  been 
bred  at  Bagdad,  and  had  fecn  many  of  the  great  cities 
and  principal  places  for  lludy  in  ilie  baraccn  empire  ; 
who  had  a  favourable  opniionof  original  obfcrvaiion, 
in  oppodtion  to  book  learning  ;  who  bololy  correcled 
fome  of  Galen's  errors,  and  was  perfuaded  that  many 
more  might  be  detedfed  ;  this  man,  we  fay,  never 
made  or  faw,  or  feemed  to  think  of  a  human  dilFec- 
tion.  He  difcovered  Galen's  errors  in  the  ofleology, 
by  going  to  burying-grounds,  with  his  fludents  and 
others,  where  he  examined  and  demonftrated  the 
bones  j  he  earneftly  recommended  that  method  of  ftu- 
dy,  in  preference  even  to  the  reading  of  Galtn,  and 
thought  that  many  farther  improvements  might  be 
made  ;  yet  he  feemed  not  to  have  an  idea  that  a  frefli 
fubjeft  might  be  dilTcdcd  with  that  view. 

Perhaps  the  Jewifli  tenets,  which  the  Mahometans 
adopted,  about  unclcanlincfs  and  pollution,  might  pre- 
vent their  handling  dead  bodies  ;  or  tlitir  oj-iuion  of 
wiiat  was  fuppofcd  to  pafs  between  an  angel  and  the 
dead  perfon,  might  make  them  think  difturbing  the 
dead  highly  facrilegious.  Such,  however,  as  Arabian 
learning  was,  for  many  ages  together  there  was  hard- 
ly any  other  in  all  the  weftcrn  countries  of  Europe.  It 
was  introduced  by  the  cftablilTiment  of  the  Saracens  in 
Spain  in  711,  and  kept  its  ground  till  the  reftoration 
of  learning  in  the  end  of  the  i{th  century.  The  ftate 
of  anatomy  in  Europe,  in  the  times  of  Arabian  influ- 
ence, may  be  fecn  by  readiuga  very  lliort  fyftcm  of  ana- 
tomy drawn  up  by  Mundinus,  in  the  year  1515.  It 
was  extracted  principally  from  what  the  Arabians  had 
preferved  of  Galen's  dodrine  ;  and,  rude  as  it  is,  in 
that  age,  it  wasjudged  to  be  fomaftcrly  a  performance, 
that  it  was  ordered  by  a  public  decree,  that  it  Ihouid 
be  read  in  all  the  fchools  of  Italy;  and  it  actually  con- 

linucd 


Hiftory.  ANA! 

tiaued  to  be  almod  the  only  book  which  wts  read  up- 
on the  fubjcit  for  above  200  years.  Cortefius  gives 
him  the  credit  of  bciiijj  the  great  rcllorcr  of  anatomy, 
and  the  tirlt  who  dilicctcd  human  bodies  among  the 
moderns. 

A  general  prejudice  a;^ainftdiirc(?tion,  however,  pre- 
vailed till  the  i-jth  century.  The  emperor  Charles  V. 
ordered  a  coiil'ultaiiou  to  be  held  by  the  divines  of  Sa- 
lamanca, in  order  to  determine  whether  or  not  it  was 
lawful  in  point  of  confciencc  to  diliect  a  dead  body. 
In  Mufcovy,  till  very  lately,  both  anatomy  and  the 
ufe  of  Ikcletons  were  torbidden,  the  hrft  as  inhuman, 
and  the  latter  as  fubfcrvient  to  witchcraft. 

In  the  l)ejrinuingof  the  15th  century,  learning  re- 
vided  confidcrably  in  Europe,  and  particularly  phyfic, 
by  means  of  copies  of  the  Greek  authors  brouy,ht  from 
thefack  of  Conllantinople;  after  which  ihc  number  of 
anatomills  and  anacomical  books  increafed  to  a  prodi- 
gious degree. — The  Europeans  becoming  thus  polFef- 
fedof  the  antient  Greek  fathers  of  medicine,  were  for 
along  time  fo  much  occupied  in  correcting  the  copies 
they  could  obtain,  ftudying  the  meaning,  and  com- 
nicniiug  upon  them,  that  they  attempted  nothing  of 
ihcir  own,  cfpecially  in  anatomy. 

And  hire  the  late  Dr  Hunter  introduces  into  the 
annals  of  this  art,  a  genius  of  the  hrll  rate,  Leonardo 
da  Vinci,  who  had  been  formerly  overlooked,  becaufe 
he  svas  of  another  profelCoa,  and  becaufe  he  publilhed 
nothing  upon  the  fubjeil.  He  is  confidered  by  the 
Dortor  as  by  far  the  bell  anatomiftanu  payliologill  of 
his  time  ;  and  was  certainly  the  tirll  man  we  know  of 
who  introduced  the  practice  of  making  anatomical 
drawings. 

Vaflare,  in  his  lives  of  the  painters,  fpcaksof  Leo- 
nardo thus,  after  telling  us  that  he  had  compofed  a 
book  of  the  anatomy  of  a  horfe,  for  his  own  Ihidy  : 
"  He  afterwards  applied  himfclf  with  more  diligence 
to  the  human  anatomy;  in  which  fludy  he  reciprocally 
received  and  communicated  aflillance  to  Marc.  Anto- 
nio della  Torre,  an  excellent  philofopher,  who  then 
read  leifturcsin  Favia,and  wrote  upon  thisfubjcijf;  and 
who  was  the  tirfl,  asl  have  heard,  who  began  to  illul- 
trate  medicine  from  the  doctrine  of  Galen,  and  to  give 
true  light  to  anatomy,  which  till  that  time  had  been 
involved  in  clouds  of  darkncfs  and  ignorance.  In  this 
he  availed  himfclf  exceedingly  of  thegenius  and  labour 
of  Leonardo,  who  made  a  book  of  iiiidies,  drawn  with 
red  chalk,  and  touched  with  a  pen, with  great  diligence, 
of  fuch  fubjecis  as  he  had  himfelf  diifcded  ;  where  he 
made  all  the  bones,  and  to  ihofe  he  joined,  in  their  or- 
der, all  the  nerves, and  covered  tliem  with  theniufcles. 
And  concerning  ihofc,  from  part  to  part,  he  wrote  re- 
marks in  letters  of  an  ugly  form,  wliich  are  written  by 
the  left  hand,  backwards,  and  not  to  be  underliood  but 
by  thofe  who  know  the  method  of  reading  them  ;  for 
they  are  not  to  be  read  without  alooking-glafs.  Of 
thtfc  pnpcrs  of  the  human  anatomy,  there  is  a  great 
part  in  the  poflellion  olM.  Francefcoda  Melzo,  a  Mi- 
lanefc  gentleman,  who,  in  the  time  of  Leonardo,  was  a 
moll  beautiful  boy,  and  much  beloved  by  him,  as  he  is 
now  a  beautiful  and  genteel  old  man,  who  reads  thofe 
writings,  and  carefully  preferves  them,  as  precious  re- 
li6ls.  together  with  the  portrait  of  Leonardo,  of  happy 
memory.  It  appears  impoinble  that  that  divine  fpirit 
ihould  rcafon  fo  well  upon  the  arteries,  andmulclcs, 


'     o     M     y. 

and  nerves,  and  veins;  and  with  fuch  diligeucc  of 
every  thing,  &c.  Uc." 

Thofe  very  iLiawings  and  the  writings  are  happily 
found  to  be  prefcrved  in  his  Britannic  Majcfly's  great 
collection  of  original  drawings,  where  the  Doctor  was 
permitted  to  examine  them  ;  and  his  feiitimeius  upon 
the  occalion  he  thus  exprelies  :  •'  I  cxpcdcd  to  fee  lit- 
tle more  than  fuch  defigns  in  anatomy,  as  might  be 
iifeful  to  a  painter  in  his  own  profeflion  ;  but  I  favv, 
and  indeed  with  afloniriiment,  that  Leonardo  had  been 
a  general  and  a  deep  Andeni.  When  1  conlider  what 
pains  he  has  taken  upon  every  part  of  the  body,  the 
fuperiority  of  his  univerfal  genius,  his  particular  ex- 
cellence ill  mechanics  and  hydraulics,  and  the  aiteiui- 
on  with  which  fuch  a  man  would  examine  and  fee  ob- 
jeifs  which  he  was  to  draw,  I  am  fully  perfuaded  that 
Leonardo  was  the  bcft  anatomill  at  tliat  time  in  the 
world.  We  mud  give  the  15th  century  the  credit  of 
Leonardo'^  anatomical  iludies,  as  he  was  Si  years  of 
age  at  the  clofe  of  that  century." 

In  the  beginning  of  the  1 6th  century,  Achillinus  and 
Benediftus,  but  particularly  Bcrengarius  and  Mada, 
followed  out  the  improvement  at  anatomy  in  Italy, 
where  they  taught  it,  and  publilhed  upon  the  fubjed. 
Thcfc  hrfl  improvers  made  fome  difcoveries  horn 
their  own  dilFeitions  ;  but  it  is  not  iurprifing  that  they 
Ihould  have  been  dilfident  of  themfclves,  and  have 
followed  Galen  alnioit  blindly,  when  his  authority 
had  been  fo  long  cflablilhed,  and  when  the  enihuli- 
afm  for  Greek  authors  was  riling  to  fuch  a  pitch. 

Soon  alter  this,  we  may  fay  about  the  year  i  J40, 
the  great  Vefalius  appeared.  He  was  ftiuiious,  labo- 
rious, and  ambitious.  Kroin  BrnlTcls,  the  place  of  his 
birth,  he  went  to  Louvain,  and  thence  to  Paris,  where 
anatomy  was  not  yet  making  aconliderablc  hgure,  and 
then  to  Louvain  to  teach  ;  from  which  place,  very  for- 
tunately for  his  reputation,  he  was  called  to  Italy, 
where  he  met  with  every  opportunity  that  fuch  a  ge- 
nius for  anatomy  could  dclire,  that  is,  books,  iubjetls, 
and  excellent  draughifmcn.  He  was  e<|ually  laborious 
in  reading  the  ancients,  and  in  diiieciing  bodies.  And 
in  making  the  comparifon,  he  could  not  but  fee,  that 
there  was  great  room  for  improvement,  and  th.ii  many 
of  Galen's  licfcripiions  were  erroneous.  When  he  was 
but  a  young  man,  he  publilhed  a  noble  fyllem  of  ana- 
tomy, ilhillrati'd  with  a  great  number  of  elegant  Ji- 
gures. — In  this  work  he  found  fo  many  occaiions  of 
coirecfting Galen,  tliat  his  contempoiftrics,  partial  to 
antiquity,  3ndjealousofliisrepiii3liuM,eoni;)laincd  (hat 
he  carried  his  turn  for  improvement  auvl  criticifiiis  to 
licentioufnefs.  The  fpirit  of  oppolitioii  and  cniulaiion 
was  prtfently  roufcd  ;  and  Sylvius  in  Kraiict,  Cohim- 
bus,  Fallopius,  and  Euftachius  in  Italy,  who  were  all 
in  high  anatomical  reputation  about  the  middle  of  (lii^ 
l6th  century,  endeavoured  to  defend  Galen  at  the  ex- 
pence  of  Vefalius.  In  their  difputes  iliey  made  their 
appeals  to  the  human  body  :  and  thus  in  a  ffw  years 
thcart  was  greatly  improved.  And  Vefalins  bcingde- 
tectcd  in  the  very  fault  which  he  condemned  in  Galen, 
10  wit,  dcfcribing  from  the  dilleCifions  of  brutes,  and 
not  of  the  iiuman  body,  it  expofed  fo  fully  that  blun- 
der of  ilie  older  anatomiAs,  that  in  fuccceding  times 
there  has  been  little  rcafon  for  fuch  compl.iini  —  Be- 
fides  the  alvive,  hr  publilhed  feveral  otbcr  anatomical 
treatjfes.  He  has  been  particularly  ferviceablc  by  im- 

poiiiig 


677 


678 


A       N       A       1 

pofing  names  on  the  mufclcs,  moft  of  which  arc  retain- 
ed to  this  day.  Formerly  they  were  diftinguilhcd  by 
numbers,  which  were  diti'crcnily  ajijilicd  by  alinoll 
every  author. 

In  1 56 1,  Gabriel  Fallopius,  profefTor  of  anatomy 
at  Padua,  publillied  a  ircatifc  of  anatomy  under  the 
tnXc  oiOhfirvatio'iis /inatotitic^t.  This  was  dcligncd  as 
a  fupplcmcnt  to  Vclalius  ;  many  of  whofe  dcfcripiions 
he  correiils,  though  he  always  makes  mention  of  him 
in  an  honourable  manner.  Kallopius  made  many  great 
difcoverics,  and  his  book  is  well  worth  the  pcrufal  of 
every  anaiomift. 

In  156;,  bartholomaeus  Enftachius  publiflicdhisO- 
ptifciila  j4iiatoviicazi  Venicc.which  have  ever  fince  been 
juilly  admired  for  the  exact  ncfs  of  the  defcriptions,  and 
the  difcoverics  contained  in  them.  He  publiflied  after- 
wards fomc  other  pieces,  in  which  there  is  little  of  ana- 
tomy ;  but  never  publiflied  the  great  work  he  had  pro- 
mifed,  which  was  to  be  adorned  with  copperplates 
reprefenting  all  the  parts  of  the  human  body.  Thcfe 
plates,  after  lying  buried  in  an  old  cabinet  for  upwards 
of  I  JO  years,  were  at  lall  difcovercd  and  publilhed  in 
the  year  171 4,  by  Lancifi  the  pope's  phyfici»n  ;  who 
added  a  fliort  explicatory  text,  becaufc  Eullachius's 
own  writing  could  not  be  found. 

From  this  time  the  lludy  of  anatomy  gradually  dif- 
fufcd  itfclf  over  Europe  ;  infomuch  that  for  the  lafl 
hundred  years  it  has  been  daily  improving  by  the  la- 
bour  of  a  number  ofprofelled  anatomiils  almoll  in 
every  country  of  Europe. 

Wc  may  form  a  judgment  about  the  ftateof  anatomy 
even  in  Italy,  in  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century, 
from  the  information  cfCortcfius.Hc  had  been  profeflor 
of  anatomy  at  Bologna,  and  was  then  profelTor  of  medi- 
cine at  Maifana  ;  where,  though  he  had  a  great  dclire 
to  improve  himfclf  in  the  art,  and  to  finifli  a  treatife 
which  he  had  begun  on  praftical  anatomy,  in  24  years 
he  could  twice  only  procure  an  opportunity  of  diire(5l- 
ing  a  human  body,  and  then  it  was  with  difficulties 
and  iu  hurry  ;  whereas  he  had  cxpeJled  to  have  done 
fo,  he  fays,  once  every  ysar,  according  to  the  cujlomin 
th:  famous  academics  of  Italy. 

In  the  very  end  of  the  i6th  century,  the  great  Har- 
vey, as  was  the  cuftom  of  the  times,  went  to  Italy  to 
fludy  medicine  ;  for  Italy  was  flill  the  favourite  featof 
the  arts  :  And  in  tlic  very  beginning  of  the  1 7th  cen- 
tury, foon  after  Harvey's  return  to  England,  hisma- 
fter  in  anatomy,  Fabricius  ab  Aquapendcnte,  publilh- 
ed an  account  of  the  valves  in  the  veins,  which  he  had 
difcovcred  many  years  before,  and  no  doubt  taught  in 
his  Icflures  when  Harvey  attended  him. 

This dilcoveryevidenilyaffeiflcd  the eftablifhed  doc- 
trine of  all  ages,  that  the  veins  carried  the  blood  from 
the  liver  to  all  parts  of  the  body  for  nourifliment.  It 
fct  Harvey  to  work  upon  the  ufe  of  the  heart  and  vaf- 
cular  fyflcms  in  animals  ;  and  in  the  courfe  of  fome 
years  he  was  fo  happy  as  to  difcovcr,  and  to  prove  be- 
yond all  poflibility  of  doubt,  the  circu/ation  of  the  bUod. 
He  taught  his  new  dodrine  in  his  lectures  about  the 
year  i6i6,  and  printed  it  in  1628. 

It  was  by  far  the  moft  important  Hep  that  had  been 
made  in  the  knowledge  of  animal  bodies  in  any  age. 
It  not  only  relleded  ufeful  lights  upon  what  had  been 
already  found  out  in  anatomy,  but  alfo  pointed  out  the 
means  of  further  iuvefligation.     And  accordingly  wc 


'      O      M      Y.  Hiftory. 

fee,  that  from  Harvey  to  the  prcfent  time,  anatomy 
has  been  fo  much  improved,  that  we  may  rcafonably 
qucllion  if  the  ancients  have  been  further  outdone  by 
the  moderns  in  any  other  branch  of  know  ledge.  From 
one  day  to  another  there  has  been  a  conliaiii  fuccellion 
of  difcoverics,  relating  either  to  the  Ihucturc  or  func- 
tions of  oar  body  iand  new  anatomical  proctlles,  both 
of  invelligationanddemonftration,  havebcen  dailyin- 
vented.  Many  parts  of  the  body,  which  sserc  not 
knownin  Harvey's  time,  have  (ince  then  been  brought 
to  ligiit :  and  of  thole  which  were  known,  the  inter- 
nal compolition  and  funClions  remained  unexplained  ; 
and  indeed  nuifl  have  remained  unexplicable  without 
the  knowledge  of  the  circulation. 

Harvey's  do^rine  at  tii  ft  met  with  confidcrablc  op- 
polilion  :  but  in  the  fpacc  of  about  20  years  it  was  fo 
generally  and  lb  warmly  embraced,  that  it  was  imagi- 
ned every  thing  in  phylic  would  be  explained.  But 
time  and  experience  have  taught  us,  that  we  Hill  arc, 
and  probably  muftlong  continue  to  be,  very  ignorant; 
and  that  in  the  fludy  of  the  human  body,  and  of  its 
difeafes,  there  will  always  be  an  cxtenlivc  field  for  the 
exercife  of  fagacity. 

After  the  difcovery  and  knowledge  of  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood,  the  next  qucllion  would  naturally 
have  been  about  the  paflage  and  route  of  the  nutritious 
part  of  the  food  or  chyle  from  the  bowels  to  the  blood- 
vclfels  :  And,  by  good  fortune,  in  a  few  years  after 
Harvey  had  made  his  difcovery,  Afcllius,  an  Italian 
phyiician  found  out  the  ladcals,  or  vclfels  which  car- 
ry the  chyle  from  the  intcllines  ;  and  printed  his  ac- 
count of  them,  with  coloured  prints,  in  the  year  1627, 
the  very  year  before  Harvey's  book  came  out. 

For  a  number  of  years  after  thefc  two  publications, 
the  anatomiils  in  all  parts  of  Europe  were  daily  open- 
ing livingdogs,  either  to  fee  the  laifleals  or  to  obfervc 
the  phenomena  of  the  circulation.  In  making  an  ex- 
periment of  tfcis  kind,  Pecquet  in  France  was  fortu- 
nate enough  to  difcovcr  the  thoracic  duft,  or  common 
trunk  of  all  the  lafleals,  which  conveys  the  chyle  into 
the  fubclavian  vein.  He  printed  his  difcovery  in  the 
year  1651.  And  now  the  laClcals  having  been  traced 
from  the  inteflines  to  the  thoracic  dud,  and  that  dudt 
having  been  traced  to  its  termination  in  a  blood-veflcl, 
the  palFagc  of  the  chyle  was  completely  made  out. 

The  fame  pradicc  of  opening  living  animals  furnifli- 
edoccalionsofdifcovcring  the  lymphatic  vellels.  Tliis 
good  fortune  fell  to  the  lot  of  Rudbec  firft,  a  young 
Swcdifhanatomifl;  and  then  to  Thomas  Bartholine,  a 
Danilh  anatomift,  who  was  the  firll  who  appeared  in 
print  upon  the  lymphatics.  His  book  came  out  in  the 
year  1653,  that  is  two  years  after  that  of  Pecquet. 
And  then  it  was  very  evidc.ir  that  they  had  been  feen 
before  by  Dr  Higmore  and  others,  who  had  miftaken 
them  for  lai5leals.  But  none  of  the  anatomiflscf  thofe 
times  could  make  out  the  origin  of  the  lymphatics,  and 
none  of  the  phyfiologills  could  give  a  fatisfaiftory  ac- 
count of  their  ufe. 

The  circulation  of  the  blood  and  the  paflage  of  the 
chyle  having  been  fatisfaftorily  traced  out  in  full-grown 
animals,  the  anatomifls  were  naturally  led  next  to  con- 
fidcr  how  thcfe  animal  procelfts  were  carried  on  in  the 
ciiild  while  in  the  womb  of  the  mother.  Accordingly 
the  male  and  female  organs,  the  appearances  and  con- 
tents of  the  pregnant  uterus,  the  incubated  egg,  and 

every 


Hiflory. 


N 


every  phenomenon  which  could  illuftrate  generation, 
became  the  favourite  fubjed,  for  about  30  years,  with 
the  principal  anatomills  of  Europe. 

Thus  it  would  appear  to  have  been  in  theory  :  but 
Dr  Hunter  believes,  that  in  fadt,  as  Harvey's  maAcr 
Fabricius  laid  the  foundation  for  thcdifcovery  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  by  teaching  him  the  valves  of 
the  veins,  and  thereby  inviting  him  to  confider  that 
fubject;  fo  Fabricius  by  his  ledlures,  and  by  his  ele- 
gant work  Dcjormatofxlu,  at  deformation!  ovi  et  puiti, 
probably  made  that  likewife  a  favourite  fubjcdl  with 
Dr  Harvey.  But  whether  he  took  up  the  fubjed  of 
generation  in  confequencc  of  his  difcovery  of  the  cir- 
culation, or  was  led  to  it  by  his  honoured  mailer  Fa- 
bricius, hcfpcntagreatdealof  histime  in  the  inquiry ; 
and  publiihed  his  obfervations  in  a  book  De generati- 
ong  animalium,  in  the  year  1651,  that  is  lix  years  be- 
fore his  death. 

In  a  few  years  after  this,  Swammerdam,  Van  Horn, 
Stcno,  and  Dc  Graaf,  excited  great  attention  to  the 
fubjccl  of  generation,  by  their  fuppofcd  difcovery  that 
the  females  of  viviparous  animals  have  ovaria,  that  is, 
cluHcrs  of  eggs  in  their  loins,  like  oviparous  animals  ; 
which,  when  impregnated  by  the  male,  are  conveyed 
into  the  uterus  :  fo  that  a  child  is  produced  from  an 
egg  as  well  as  a  chick  ;  with  this  difference,  that  one 
is  hatched  within,  and  the  other  without,  the  body  of 
the  mother. 

Malpighi,  a  great  Italian  genius,  fome  time  after, 
made  confiderablc  advances  upon  the  fubject  oi  gene- 
ration. He  had  the  good  fortune  to  be  the  firft  wlio 
ufed  magnifying glalfes  with  addrefs  in  tracing  the  firfl 
appearances  in  the  formation  of  animals.  He  likewife 
made  many  otberobfervations  and  improvements  in  the 
mlniitta  of  anatomy  by  his  microfcopical  labours,  and 
by  cultivating  comparative  anatomy. 

This  diitingiiilhed  anatomill  gave  the firftpublic  fpc- 
cimen  of  his  abilities,  by  printing  a  difltrtation  on  the 
lungs  anno  1661  ;  a  period  fo  remarkable  for  the  Hudy 
of  nature,  that  it  would  be  injuflicc  to  pafs  it  without 
particular  notice. 

At  the  fame  time  flouri(hed  Laurentius  Bellinus  at 
Florence,  and  was  the  firft  who  introduced  mathemati- 
cal reafoning  in  phyfic.  In  1662,  Simon  Pauli  pub- 
Lfhcd  .!  treatife  De  aihandis  o/fibus.  He  had  long  been 
admired  for  the  white  (keletons  he  prepared  ;  and  at 
laft  difcovercd  his  method,  which  was  by  expofing  the 
bones  all  winter  to  the  weather. 

Johannes  Swammerdam  of  Amfterdamalfopnbliflied 
fome  anatomical  trejtifcs  ;  but  was  moft  remarkable 
for  hisknowledgc  ofprcferviiigthe  parts  of  bodies  en- 
tire tor  many  ytirs,  by  injecting  their  vclTels.  He  al- 
fopablilhcd  a  treatife  on  refpirition  ;  wherein  he  men- 
tioned his  having  figures  of  all  the  parts  of  the  body  as 
bi^asthe  life, cut  in  copper,  which  he  dcfigtied  to  pub- 
lifli,  w  ith  a  complete  fyllem  of  anatomy.  Thefe,  how- 
ever, were  never  made  public  by  Swammerdam;  but 
in  1 68 3,  Gothrofridus  Bidloo,  pro/elTor  of  anatomy  at 
Leyden,  publiflied  a  work  entitled  ^nati/tnia  corporis 
hutnani,  where  all  the  parts  were  delineated  in  very 
large  plates  almoA  as  cig  as  the  life.  Mr  Cowpcr,  an 
Englilhfurgeon,bought  ^00  copies  of  thefe  figures;  and 
in  11^93,  puLli  red  them  with  an  Englilh  text,  quite 
ditfcrcnt  from  Bidloo's  Latin  one  ;  to  which  were  ad- 
4cd  letters  in  Bidloo's  figures,  and  fome  few  figures 

2 


'      O      M      Y. 

of  Mr  Cowper's  own.  To  this  work  Cowper's  name 
was  prefixed,  without  the  leall  mention  of  Bidloo,  ex- 
cept on  purpofe  to  confute  him.  Bidloo  immediately 
publiflied  a  very  ill-natured  pamphlet,  called  Culiilmut 
CoTupsrus  citatui  coram  tribunali ;  appealing  to  the 
Royal  Society,  how  far  Cowper  ought  to  be  punilhcd  as 
a  plagiary  of  the  worft;  kind,  and  endeavouring  to  prove 
him  an  ignorant  deceitful  fellow.  Cowper  anfwcred 
him  in  his  own  ftyle,  in  a  pamphlet  called  his  Vinduia  • 
endeavouring  to  prove,  either  that  Bidloo  did  not  un- 
dcrAand  his  own  tables,  or  that  they  were  none  of  his. 
It  was  even  alleged  that  thofe  were  ihe  tables  proniif- 
ed  by  Swammerdam,  and  which  Bidloo  had  gotfiora 
his  widow.  This,  however,  appears  to  have  been  only 
an  invidious  furmife,  there  being  unqueftionable  evi- 
dence that  they  were  really  the  performance  of  Bidloo. 

Soon  after,  Ifbrandus  Diembroeck,  profefTor  of  ana- 
tomy at  Utrecht,  began  to  appear  as  an  author.  His 
work  contained  very  little  original ;  but  he  was  at  great 
pains  to  colleft  from  others  whatever  was  valuable  in 
theirwritings,  and  hisfyftem  was  the  common  ftandard 
among  anatomical  lUidenis  for  many  years. 

About  the  fame  time,  Antonius  Liewenhoeck  of 
Delft,  improved  conliderably  on  Malpighi's  ufe  of  mi- 
crofcopes.  Thefe  two  authors  took  up  anatomy  where 
others  had  droptit;  and,  by  this  new  art,  they  brought 
a  number  of  amazing  things  to  light.  They  dilcover- 
ed  the  red  globules  of  the  blood  ;  they  were  enabled 
to  fee  the  adual  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  tranf- 
parent  pans  of  living  a.nimals,  and  could  mcafure  the 
velocity  of  its  motion  ;  they  difcovered  that  the  arte- 
ries and  veins  had  no  intermediate  cells  or  fpungy  fub- 
ftance,  as  Harvey  and  all  the  preceding  anatomifla, 
had  fuppofed,  but  con.municated  one  with  the  other 
by  a  continuation  of  the  fame  tube. 

Liewenhoeck  was  in  great  fame  likewife  for  his  dif- 
covery of  the  animalcnla  in  the  femen.  Indeed  there 
was  fcarcely  a  part  of  the  body,  folid  or  fluid,  which 
efcaped  his  examination  ;  and  he  almoll  every  where 
found,  that  what  appeared  to  the  naked  eye  to  be  rude 
undigefled  matter,  was  in  reality  a  beautiful  and  re- 
gular compound. 

Alter  this  period,  Nuck  added  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  abforbcnt  fyllem  already  mentioned,  by  his  injec- 
tions of  the  lymphatic  glands  ;  Ruyfch,by  hiidelcrip- 
tion  of  the  valves  of  the  lymphatic  vclTels  ;  and  Dr 
Meckel,  by  his  accurate  account  of  the  whole  fyilcm, 
and  by  tracing  thofe  velTels  in  many  parts  where  they 
had  not  before  been  defcribed. 

Befides  thefe  authors,  Drs  Hunter  and  Monro  luvc 
called  the  attention  of  the  public  to  this  part  of  anato- 
my, in  their  controvcrfy  concerning  the  difcovery  of 
the  office  of  the  lymphatics. 

When  the  lymphatic  vellc'.s  wcrefirAlcen  and  trac- 
ed into  the  thoracic  dud,  it  was  natural  for  anatomills 
to  fufped,  that  as  the  ladeals  abforbcd  from  the  cavi- 
ty of  the  intellines,  the  lymphatics,  which  are  limilar 
in  figure  ond  (Irudure,  might  pofTibly  do  the  fame  of- 
fice with  refped  tu  other  parts  of  the  body  :  and  ac- 
cordingly, Dr  GlilPjn,  who  wrote  in  1654,  fuppofes 
thefe  velFcls  arofc  fiom  cavities,  and  that  their  ufe  was 
to  abforb  ;  and  Frederic  Hctiman  has  very  explicitly 
laid  down  the  di -anic  of  the  lymphatic  velfels  being  a 
fyllem  of  ablbrbents.  But  anatomills  in  general  have 
been  of  a  contrary  opinion ;  for,from  experiments,  par- 
lie  olarly 


679 


56o 


ANA! 

;icUi5'."ly  fucli  as  were  niiJc  by  iiijeiSiotrs,  they  have 
been  pcrluaJcd  tlui  the  lympiiaiic  veUelsdid  not  arilc 
from  cavities, and  did  not  ablorb,  but  were  increly  con- 
tinuations from  finall  arteries.  The  doctrine,  there- 
fore,  that  the  lymphatics,  like  the  ladcals,  were  ab- 
ibrbcnts,  as  hati  been  fuggcllcd  by  Glillbii  and  by  Hotf- 
nian,  has  been  revived  by  Dr  Hunter  and  Dr  Monro, 
•who  have  controverted  the  ex^'eriments  of  their  prc- 
decelFors  in  anatomy,  and  have  endeavoured  to  prove 
that  the  lymphatic  vclli-ls  arc  not  coutiuued  from  ar- 
teries, but  arc  abforbeats. 

To  this  doilrine,  however,  fcveral  objeftions  have 
been  Ilaried,  particularly  byliallcr(tlcm.  Phyf.  I.  24. 
§  2,  3.);  and  it  has  been  found,  that  before  the  doc- 
trine of  the  lymphatics  being  a  fyftem  of  abforbents 
can  be  cllabliihcd,  it  mull  firll  be  detcnuincd  whether 
ihis  fyftem  is  to  be  found  in  other  animals  befides  man 
and  quadrupeds.  Mr  lievvfon  claims  the  merit  of  ha- 
ving proved  the  affirmative  uf  this  queftion,  by  difco- 
vering  the  lymphatic  fyftem  in  birds,  filh,  and  amphi- 
bious animals.  Sec  P^i/.  Tranf.  vol.  Iviii.  and  lxi,\ — 
And  latterly,  Mr  Cruiklhank  has  traced  the  ramifica- 
tions of  that  fyftem  in  almoft  every  part  of  the  body  ; 
atid  from  his  dilfeCtions,  figures  have  been  made  and 
lately  publi(hed  to  the  world.  To  Mr  Sheldon  alfo  we 
arc  much  indebted  for  his  illuftration  of  this  fyftem, 
■which  promifcs  to  give  great  fatisfadlion,  but  of  which 
only  a  part  has  yet  been  publilhed. 

The  gravid  uterus  isa  fubjedllikewifc  which  has  re- 
ceived conliderable  improvements,  particularly  relat- 
ing to  one  very  important  difcovery  ;  viz.  that  the 
internal  membrane  of  the  uterus,  which  Dr  Hunter 
has  named  dccdua,  conllitutcs  the  exterior  part  of  the 
fccundines  oraf  tcr-birth,  and  feparates  from  the  reft  of 
the  uterus  every  time  that  a  woman  cither  bears  a  child 
or  fuifcrs  a  mifcarriage.  This  difcovery  includes  ano- 
ther, to  wit,  that  the  placenta  is  partly  made  up  of 
an  excrefcence  or  efllorcfcencc  from  the  uterus  itfelf. 

Thefe  difcoveries  are  of  the  utmoft  confequence, 
both  in  the  phyfiological  queftion  about  the  conuettion 
between  the  motherandchild,  and  likewifein explain- 
ing the  phenomena  of  births  and  abortions,  as  well 
«s  in  regulating  obftctrical  pradice. 

The  anatomills  of  this  century  have  improved  ana- 
tomy, and  have  made  the  ftudy  of  it  much  more  cafy, 
by  giving  us  morecorrc<5l  as  well  as  more  numerous  fi- 
gures. It  is  amazing  to  think  of  what  has  been  done  in 
that  time.  We  have  had  four  large  folio  books  of  fi- 
gures of  the  bones,  viz.  Chefelden's,  Albinus's,  Sue's 
and  Trcw's.  Of  the  mufcles,  we  have  had  two  large 
folios  i  one  from  Cowper,  which  is  elegant ;  and  one 
from  Albinus,  which,  from  the  accuracy  and  labour  of 
ihe  Work,  we  may  fuppofe  will  never  be  outdone.  Of 
the  blood-vcflels  we  have  a  large  folio  from  Dr  Haller. 
We  have  had  one  upon  the  nerves  from  Dr.  Meckel, 
and  another  by  Dr  Monro  junior.  We  have  had  Al- 
binus's, Roederer's,  Jenty's,  and  Hunter's  works 
upon  the  pregnant  uterus;  Wciibrechi  and  Leber  on 
the  joints  and  I'relh  bones  ;  Socmerring  on  the  brain  ; 
Zin  on  the  eye ;  Cotunnius,  Mckel  junior,  &c.  on 
the  ear;  Walterus  on  the  nerves  of  the  thorax  and 
abdomen  ;  Dr  Monro  on  the  biirfas  mucofae,  &c. 

It  would  be  endlefs  to  mention  the  anatomical  figures 
thaihavebeenpubliHiedin  this  century  ,of  particular  and 


O      M      Y,  Hiftory, 

fmallcr  parts  of  the  body,  by  Morgagni,  Ruyfeh,  Val- 
filvj,  Sauttoriia,  Htilicr,  V'atcr,  Cant,  Zimmerman, 
Walterus,  and  others. 

Thofe  elegant  plates  of  the  brain,  however,  juft 
publilhed  by  M.  Vicq.  d'Azyr,  mull  not  pals  without 
notice,  cfpccially  as  they  form  part  of  an  univerfal  fyf- 
tem of  anatomy  and  phyiiology,both  human  and  com- 
parative, propolcd  to  be  executed  in  the  lame  fplendid 
llylc.  Upon  the  brain  aionc  19  folio  plates  arc  em- 
ployed ;  of  which  fevcral  are  coloured.  I'lie  figures 
arc  Ucliueatcd  wiihaccuracy  andclcarncfs  ;  but  the  co- 
louring is  rather  beautiful  than  correct.  Such  parts  of 
this  work  as  may  be  publilhed,  cannot  fail  to  be  equal- 
ly acceptable  to  the  anatumift  and  the  philofopher ;  but 
the  entire  dclign  is  apparently  too  cxtenlive  to  be  ac- 
complimcd  within  the pcriodofalinglc  life.  In  Great 
Britain,  alfo,  a  very  great  anatomical  work  is  carrying 
on  by  Andrew  Bell,  t' .  S.  A.  S.  engraver  to  his  Roy- 
al Highncfs  the  Prince  of  Wales,  with  the  appro- 
bation of  Dr  Monro,  and  under  the  infpcition  of  his 
very  ingenious  alhlUut  My  Kyfe.  It  is  to  compofc  a 
complete  ill-iftratioa,  both  general  and  particular,  of 
the  Human  body,  by  a  fclection  from  the  beft  plates 
of  all  tnc  greaieit  anatomills,  as  well  foreign  as 
Butilh,  exliiuitmg  the  lateft  difcoveries  in  the 
fcieace,  and  accojiipauicd  with  copious  explanations. 
The  whole  number  of  plates  mentioned  in  the  Pro- 
fpeclus  is  240,  of  which  i  J2  are  already  done  ;  all  in 
royal  folio. 

To  the  foreign  treatifes  already  mentioned  may  be 
added  thofe  recently  puulilhedby  Sabbaticr  and  Plenck 
on  anatomy  in  general.  In  Great  Britain,  the  writ- 
ings of  Kcil,  Douglas,  Chefelden,  the  tirfl  Monro, 
Winilow,  &c.  are  too  wellknown  to  need  defcription. 
The  lall  of  thefe  ufed  to  be  recommended  as  a  ftandard 
for  the  ftudents  of  anatomy  :  but  it  has  of  late  given 
place  to  a  more  accurate  and  comprehenlive  fyftem, 
in  three  volumes,  publilhed  by  Mr  Elliot  of  Edin- 
burgh, upon  a  plan  approved  of  by  Dr  Monro,  and 
executed  by  Mr  r'yfc.  DrSimmonsof  London  has  al- 
fo obliged  the  world  with  an  excellent  fyftem  of  ana- 
tomy ;  and  another  work,  under  the  title  of  "  Ele- 
ments of  Anatomy  and  the  Animal  Oeconomy  :  in 
which  the  lubjeds  are  treated  with  uncommon  elegance 
and  perlpicuity. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  laft  century,  anatomy  made 
two  great  Heps,  by  theinvention  of  injections,  and  the 
methodof  making  what  wecommonly  aW /repartition  j. 
Thefe  two  modern  arts  have  really  been  of  infinite  ufe 
to  anatomy  ;  and  befides  have  introduced  an  elegance 
into  our  adminiftrations,  which  in  former  times  could 
not  have  been  fuppofed  to  be  pofTible.  They  arofe  in 
Holland  under  Swammerdani  and  Ruyfeh,  and  after- 
wards in  England  under  Cowper,  St  Andre,  and 
others,  where  they  have  been  greatly  improved. 

The  anatomills  of  former  ages  had  no  other  know- 
ledge of  the  blood-velTcls,  than  what  they  were  able 
to  coUeft  from  laborious  diircclions,  and  from  examin- 
ing thefmaller  branches  of  them,  uponfome  lucky  oc- 
cafion.when  they  were  found  more  than  commonly  load- 
ed with  red  blood.  But  filling  the  vafcular  fyftem  with 
a  bright  coloured  wax,  enables  us  to  trace  the  large 
ve (Pels  with  great  eafe,  renders  the  fmaller  much  more 
confpicuous,  and  makes  thoufands  of  the  very  minute 

ones 


Introd.  A       N       A       1 

oncsvilible,  which  from  their  delicacy,  and  thctraiif- 
y>:.ccncy  ot'  their  natural  contents,  arc  othcrwife  im- 
perceptible. 

The  modern  art  of  corroding  the  fltfhy  parts  with 
a  mendruiim,  and  of  leaving  the  moulded  wax  entire, 
is  fo  exceedingly  ufcful,  and  at  the  fame  time  fo  orna- 
mental, that  it  does  great  honour  to  the  ingenious  in? 
ventor  Dr.  NichoUs. 

Tlie  wax-work  art  of  the  moderns  might  dcferve 
notice  in  any  hilluryot  anatomy,  if  the  mailers  in  that 
way  had  not  been  focarelcfs  in  their  imitation.  Many 
of  the  wax-tigurcs  are  fo  tawdry  with  a  (liow  of  unna- 
tural colours,  and  In  very  incorreft  in  the  circuniftances 
of  figure,  fituation,  and  the  like,  that  though  they 
llrike  a  vulgar  eye  with  admiration,  they  mull  appear 
ridiculous  to  an  anatomift.  But  thofc  ligurcs  which 
arc  call  in  wax,  plafter  or  lead,  from  the  real  fubjctt, 
and  which  of  late  years  have  been  frequently  made, 
are,  of  courfe,  very  correct  in  all  the  principal  parts, 
and  may  be  conlidered  as  no  infignilicant  acquifition 
to  modern  anatomy.  The  proper,  or  principal  ufe 
of  this  art  is,  to  prefer  ve  a  very  perfett  likenefs  of 
fuch  fiibjcds  as  we  but  fcldom  can  meet  with,  or  can- 
not well  prefcrve  in  a  natural  ftate  ;  afubjed  in  preg- 
nancy for  example. 

The  modern  improved  methods  of  prcferving animal 
bodies,  or  parts  of  ihem,  has  been  of  the  greatefl  fer- 
vicc  to  anatomy  ;  efpecially  in  faving  the  time  and  la- 
bour of  the  anatomiil  in  the  nicer  dilTedlions  of  the 
fmall  parts  of  the  body.  For  now,  whatever  he  has 
prepared  with  care,  he  can  preferve  ;  and  theobjcft  is 
ready  to  be  fecn  at  any  time.  And  in  the  fame  man- 
ner he  can  preferve  anatomical  cuviolities, or  rarities  of 
every  kind  ;  fuch  as,  parts  that  are  uncommonly  form- 
ed ;  parts  that  are  difeafed  ;  the  parts  of  the  pregnant 
uterus  and  its  contents.  Large  coUedions  of  fuch  cu- 
riofities,  which  modern  anatomills  arc  Ariving  almoft 
every  where  to  procure,  are  of  infinite  fervice  to  the 
art,  efpecially  in  the  hands  of  teachers.     They  give 


O       M       Y. 

riofity  of  people  of  tafte,  as  a  brancli  of  phiiofophy  ; 
fmcc,  if  it  is  plealing  to  be  acquainted  with  the  rtructiirc 
of  the  body,  it  is  certainly  more  fo  todifcovcr  all  the 
fprings  which  give  life  and  motion  to  the  machine, 
and  to  obfervc  the  admirable  mcchanifm  by  which  fo 
many  different  fuuAionsarc  executed. 

Aftronomy  and  anatomy,  as  Dr  Hunter,  after  Fon- 
tcnelle,  obfervcs,are  the  lUidies  which  prefent  us  with 
the  moll  llriking  view  of  the  two  greatclt  attributes  of 
the  Supreme  Being.  The  (irll  of  thcfe  fills  the  mind 
with  the  idea  of  his  immcnlity,  in  the  largencfs,  dif- 
tances,  and  number  of  the  heavenly  bixlits  ;  the  lall^ 
alloniflics  with  his  intelligence  and  art  in  the  variety 
and  delicacy  of  animal  mcchanifm. 

The  human  body  has  been  commonly  enough  known 
by  the  name  of  7iikroc(/iijus,  or  the  little  world  ;  as  if 
it  did  not  ditler  fo  much  from  the  univerfal  fyllcm  of 
nature  in  the  fymmetry  and  number  of  its  parts  as  in 
their  lizc. 

Galen's  excellent  treatife  De  ufu  partiunt,  was  com- 
pofed  as  a  profe  hymn  to  the  Creator  ;  and  abounds 
with  as  irrefiftiblc  proofs  of  a  fuprcme  Caufc  and  go- 
verning Providence,  as  we  find  in  modern  phyfico- 
thcology.  And  Cicero  dwells  more  on  the  Itrutlure 
and  osconomy  of  animals  than  on  all  the  produclions 
of  nature  belides,whcn  he  wants  to  prove  the  exillence 
of  the  gods  from  the  order  and  beauty  of  the  univerfc. 
He  there  takes  a  furvey  of  the  body  of  man  in  a  moft 
elegant  fynopfis  of  anatomy,  and  concludes  thus: 
"  (.hiibus  rebus  cxpofitus,  fatis  docuiife  videor,  homi- 
nis  natura,  quanta  omncs  antcirct  animantes.  Ex  quo 
debet  intelligi,  ncc  figuram  lituuique  membrorura,  ncc 
ingciiii  mentifque  vimtalcmetnci  potuiifc  fortuna." 

The  fatisfadion  of  mind  which  arifes  from  the  lludy 
of  anatomy,  and  the  influence  which  it  mud  naturally 
have  upon  our  minds  as  philofophtrs,  cannot  be  better 
conveyed  than  by  the  following  palfage  from  the  fame 
author :  "  Qiise  contuens  animus,  accepit  ab  his  cog- 
nitionem  deorem,  ex  qua  oritur  pietas:  cui  conjunda 


68i 


fludcnts  clear  ideas  about  many  things  which  it  is  very    jullitia  ell,  rcliqu.tque  virtutes:  ex  quibus  vita  beata 


clfential  to  know,  and  yet  which  it  is  impolTible  that 
a  teacher  fltould  be  able  to  fhow  otherwile,  were  he 
ever  fo  well  fupplied  with  frefli  fubjcds. 

\  2.  View  of  the  Siibjed  in  General,  and  Plan  of 
thefolloiuing  Treatife. 

The  etymology  of  the  word  (Jwa/oMy,  as  above  gi- 
ven, implies  fimply  Jilfeilion  ;  but  by  this  term  fomc- 
thing  more  is  ufually  underflood. 

It  is  every  day  made  ufe  of  to  cxprefs  a  knowledge 
of  the  human  body  ;  and  a  perfon  who  is  faid  to  un- 
derlland  anatomy,  is  fuppofed  to  be  convcrfant  with 
the  flrudure  and  arrangement  of  the  different  folid 
parts  of  the  body. 

It  is  commonly  divided  into  Anatomy,  properly  fo 
called  ;  and  Comparative  Anatomy  :  thcfirllofthefeis 
confined  folely  to  the  hi;man  body  ;  the  lattcrincludes 
all  animals,  fo  far  as  a  knowledge  of  their  Ilrudurc 
may  tend  to  perfcd  our  ideas  of  the  human  body.  Sec 
Comparative  Anatomy. 

The  term  anatomy  mayalfo  have  another  and  more 
extenfive  lignification  :  it  may  be  employed  to  cxprefs 
not  only  a  knowledge  of  the  flrudure  and  difpolition  of 
the  parts,  butlikewife  of  their  oeconomy  and  ufe. Con- 
lidered in  thislight,  it  will  feldom  fail  to  excite  the  cu- 

VOL.I. 


exdllit,  paretlimilcs  dcorum,  nulla  alia  re  niliimmor- 
talitatc,  qux  nihil  ad  bene  vivendum  pcrtinct,  ccdens 
ctrleJlibus." 

It  would  be  endlefs  to  quote  the  animated  palTages 
of  this  fort  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  phyncians, 
philofophers,  and  theologills,  who  have  conlidered  the 
llruftureand  fundions  of  animals  with  a  view  towards 
the  Creator.  It  is  a  view  which  mull  llrike  one  with 
a  moll  awful  convidion.  Who  can  know  and  conlider 
the  thoufand  evident  proofs  of  the  aftonilliing  art  of 
the  Creator,  in  forming  and  fuilainingan  animal  body 
fuch  as  ours,  without  feeling  the  inollpleafant  enthu- 
iiafm  ?  Can  we  ferioully  rcHed  upon  tliis  awful  fub- 
jcd,  without  being  almoft  loll  in  adoration  ?  without 
longing  for  another  life  after  this, in  which  we  may  be 
gratified  with  the  highefl  enjoyment,  which  onr  facul- 
ties and  nature  fccm  capable  o{,  the  feeing  and  com- 
]»rchending  the  whole  plan  of  the  Creator,  in  forming 
the  univerfe  and  in  dircding  all  its  operations  ? 

But  the  more  immediate  purpofcs  of  anatomy  con- 
cern thofe  who  are  to  be  the  guardians  of  health,  as 
this  ftudy  is  ncccifary  to  lay  a  foundation  for  all  the 
branches  of  medicine.  The  more  we  know  of  our 
fabric,  the  more  rcalbn  we  have  to  believe,  that  if  our 
fcnfcs  were  more  acute,  and  our  judgment  more  enlar- 
4  R  gcd. 


68a  ANA' 

gcd,  we  (hoiild  be  able  to  trace  many  fprings  of  life 
which  arc  now  hidden  fromus  :  by  tiicfamc  fagacity 
we  iliould  difcovcr  ihc  true  caufcs  and  nature  of  dil- 
tafcs  ;  and  thereby  be  enabled  to  rellorc  the  health 
of  many,  v.'ho  arc  now,  from  our  more  contined  know- 
ledge, faid  to  labour  under  incurable  diforders.  By 
fucn  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  occonomy  ot 
our  bodies,  we  fliould  difcover  even  the  feeds  of  dil- 
cafes,  and  dcflroy  them  before  they  had  taken  root  in 
the  conllitution. 

That  anatomy  is  the  very  bafisof  furgcry  every  body 
allows.  It  is  dill'cdion  alone  that  can  teach  us,  where 
we  may  cut  the  livingbody  with  freedom  and  difpatch; 
and  where  wc  may  venture  with  great  circumlpeclion 
and  delicacy  ;  and  where  wc  mult  not,  upon  any  ac- 
count, attempt  it.  This  informs  the/;t'dt/,  gives  dex- 
terity to  the  />ti/id,  and  familiarizes  the  /icurt  with  a 
fort  of  necelfary  inhumanity,  the  ufe  of  cutting-in- 
flrumcnts  upon  our  fellow-crcaturcs. 

Belides  the  knowledge  of  our  body,  through  all  the 
variety  of  in  flriUiure  and  operations  in  3.  found  Aate, 
it  is  by  anatomy  only  that  wc  can  arrive  at  the  know- 
ledge of  the  true  nature  of  molt  of  the  difcafes  which 
afflia  humanity.  The  fymptoms  of  many  diforders 
areoften  equivocal ;  and  difeafestliemfclvesarc  ihcncc 
frequently  miltaken,  even  by  fcufiblc,  experienced, 
and  attei.tive  phylicians.  But  by  anatouiical  examin- 
ation after  death,  we  can  with  certainty  find  out  the 
miftake,  and  learn  to  avoid  it  in  any  I'lmilar  cafe. 

This  ufe  of  anatomy  has  been  fo  generally  adopted 
by  the  moderns,  that  the  cafes  already  publiihed  are 
almoft  innumerable  :  Mangctus,  Morgagni, indeed  ma- 
ny of  the  bell  modern  writings  in  phylic,  are  full  of 
them.  And  if  we  look  among  the  phylicians  of  the 
bed  charadler,  and  obfcrve  thofe  who  have  the  art  it- 
fclf,  rather  than  the  craft  of  the  profclfion  at  heart ; 
we  Ihall  find  them  conllantly  taking  pains  to  procure 
leave  to  examine  the  bodies  of  their  patients  after  death. 

After  havingconfidcrcd  the  rife  and  progrcfs  of  ana- 
tomy ;  the  various  difcoveries  that  have  been  made  in 
it,  from  time  to  time  ;  the  great  number  of  diligent 
obfervers  who  have  applied  themfelves  to  this  art; 
and  the  importance  of  the  llndy,  not  only  for  the  pre- 
vention and  cure  of  difcafes,  but  in  furnilhing  the 
liveliefl  proofs  of  divine  wifdom  ;  the  following  quef- 
tions  fccm  naturally  to  arife  :  For  what  purpofe  is  there 
fuch  a  variety  of  parts  in  thehumanbody  ?  Whyfuch 
a  complication  of  nice  and  tender  machinery  .'  Why 
was  there  not  rather  a  more  fimplc,  Icfs  delicate,  and 
lefs  expenfive  frame  (a)  ? 

In  order  to  acquire  a  faiisfaflory  general  ideaofthis 
fubject,  and  find  a  folution  of  all  fuch  quellions,  let 
lis,  in  our  imaginations,  make  a  man  :  in  other  words 
letusfuppofe  that  the  ot/«(/,  or  immaterial  part,  is  to  be 
placed  in  a  corporeal  fabric,  in  order  to  hold  a  corre- 
fpondencewith  other  material  beings  by  the  interven- 
tion of  the  body  ;  and  thenconfuler,  a  priori,  what  will 
be  wanted  for  her  accommodation.  In  thisinquiry,  we 
iliall  plainly  fee  the  neceflity  or  advantage,  and  there- 
fore the  final  caufe,  of  moft  of  the  parts  which  wc  ac- 


r       O       M       Y.  Introd. 

tually  find  in  the  human  body.  And  if  we  confidcr 
that,  in  orderto  anfwer  fome  of  the  recjuiiitcs,  human 
wit  and  invcniion  would  be  very  iiifullicicnt :  wc  need 
not  be  furpril'ed  if  we  meet  with  fome  parts  of  the  bo- 
dy whole  ufe  we  cannot  yet  perceive,  and  wich  fome 
operationsand  functions  which  wcc.innot  explain.  Wc 
can  fee  that  the  whole  bears  the  molt  linking  charac- 
ters of  excelling  wifdom  and  ingenuity  :  but  ihe  im- 
perfect fcnfes  and  capacity  of  ?/ian  cannot  pretend  to 
reachevery  partof  amachiue,  whichnothiiig  Itfs  than 
the  intelligence  and  power  of  the  Suprmit  Being  could 
contrive  and  execute. 

Firft,  then,  the  mind,  the  thinking,  immaterial  a- 
gent,  nuift  be  [rovided  with  a  place  of  immediate  rc- 
iidcnce, which  ihall  have  all  the  lequilitcsfor  thcunioifc 
of  fpirit  and  body;  accordingly  die  is  provided  with 
the  brain,  where  Ihe  dwells  as  governor  and  fuperin- 
tendant  of  the  whole  fabric. 

In  the  next  place,  as  flic  is  to  hold  a  corrcfpondcncc 
with  all  the  material  beings  around  her,  flic  niuft  be 
fupplied  with  organs  tilted  to  receive  the  different 
kinds  of  imprcflions  which  they  will  make.  In  faift, 
therefore,  wc  fee  that  Ihe  is  provided  with  the  organs 
of  fenfe,  as  wccall  them:  the  eye  is  aJ.Tptcd  tolipii;  ; 
the  ear  to  found  ;  the  nofe  tofmtU  ;  thcmouihtotalte; 
and  the  Ikin  to  touch. 

Further:  She  mufl  be  furnifiied  with  org-ps  of 
communicalion  between herlclf  in  the  brain  and  thofc 
organs  of  fenfe,  to  give  her  information  of  all  the  im- 
preliions  that  arc  made  upon  them  :  and  flic  mull  have 
organs  between  hcrfelf  in  the  brain  and  every  other 
part  of  the  body,  fitted  to  convey  her  commands  and  in- 
fluence over  the  whole.  For  thefc  purpofes  the  nerves 
are  adually  given.  They  are  chords,  which  rife  from 
the  brain,  the  immediate  relidence  of  ihe  mind,  and 
difperfe  themfelves  in  branchcsthroughall  parts  of  the 
body.  They  convey  all  the  different  kinds  of  fenfa- 
tions  to  the  mind,  in  the  brain  ;  and  likcwife  carry 
out  from  thence  all  her  commands  or  influence  to  the 
other  parts  of  the  body.  They  are  iniended  to  be  oc- 
calional  monitors  againft  all  fuch  imprelTions  as  might 
endanger  the  well-being  of  the  whole,  or  of  any  par- 
ticular part  ;  which  vindicates  the  Creator  of  all 
things,  in  having  aftually  fubjetted  us  to  thofe  many 
difagrceablc  and  painful  fenfations  which  wc  arc  ex- 
pofed  to  from  a  thoufand  accidents  in  life. 

Moreover,  the  mind,  in  this  corporeal  fyflem,  muft 
be  endued  with  the  power  of  moving  from  place  to 
place,  that  llic  may  have  intercourfe  with  a  variety  of 
objefts  ;  that  fhc  may  fly  from  fuch  as  are  difagrceablc, 
dangerous  or  hurtful,  and  purfue  fuch  as  arc  pleafant 
or  ufeful  to  her.  And  accordingly  Ihe  is  funiilhed 
with  limbs,  and  with  mufclcsand  tendons,  theinftru- 
ments  of  motion,  which  are  found  in  every  part  of  the 
fabric  where  motion  is  necelfary. 

But  to  fupport,  t»  give  firmncfs  and  fliapc  to  the 
fabric  ;  to  keep  thefofter  parts  in  their  proper  places; 
to  give  fixed  points  for,  and  the  proper  direction  to 
its  motions,  as  well  as  to  protetl  fome  of  the  more 
important  and  tender  organs  from  external  injuries  ; 

there 


(a)  The  following  beauiifulreprefenuiion  is  taken  from  ihclate  Dr  Hunter's  Introduilary  Ledure  in  An* 
tiny. 


Introd. 


N 


T      O      M      Y. 


there  mufl  be  fome  firm  prop-work  interwoven  thro' 
the  whole.  And,  in  fad,  for  fuch  purpofes  the  bones 
arc  given. 

The  prop- work  muft  not  be  made  into  one  rigid  fa- 
bric, for  that  would  prevent  motion.  Therefore  there 
arc  a  number  of  bones. 

Thcfe  pieces  mull  all  be  firmly  bound  together,  to 
prevent  their  Jillocation.  And  tliis  end  is  perfectly 
well  anfwertd  by  (he  ligaments. 

The  extremities  of  thefe  bony  pieces,  where  they 
move  and  rub  upon  one  another,  muft  have  fmooth 
and  llippery  furtaces  for  eal'y  motion.  This  is  nioft 
happily  provided  far,  by  the  cartilages  and  mucus  of 
the  joints. 

The  iRterftices  of  all  thofc  parts  mud  be  filled  up 
with  fome  foft  and  dudtile  matter,  which  Ihall  keep 
them  in  their  places,  unite  them,  and  at  the  fame  time 
allow  them  to  move  a  little  upon  one  another.  And 
thcfe  purpofes  are  anfwered  by  the  cellular  membrane 
or  adipofc  fubftance. 

There  muft  be  an  outward  covering  over  the  whole 
apparatus,  both  to  give  it  compaftnefs  and  to  defend  it 
from  a  thoufand  injuries  :  which,  in  faft,  are  the  ve- 
ry purpofes  of  the  fkin  and  other  integuments. 

Laftly,  the  mind  being  formed  for  fociety  and  in- 
tercourle  with  bcingsof  her  own  kind,  flie  mull  be  en- 
dued with  powersot  expreflingandconimunicating  her 
thoughts  by  fonic  fcnfible  marks  or  figns  ;  which  Ihall 
be  both  eafyto  heri'clf,  andadmitof  great  variety  ;  and 
accordingly  (lie  is  provided  with  the  organs  and  faculty 
of  fpeech,  by  which  fiie  can  throw  out  ligns  with  ama- 
zing facility,  and  vary  them  without  end. 

Thus  we  have  built  up  an  animal  body  which  would 
fcem  to  be  pretty  complete  ;  but  as  it  is  the  nature  of 
matter  to  be  altered  and  worked  upon  by  matter  j  fo 
in  a  very  little  time  fuch  a  living  creature  muft  be  dc- 
flroyed,  it  there  is  no  provilion  for  repairing  the  inju- 
ries which  Ihe  muft  commit  upon  hcrfclf,  and  thofe 
which  llie  muft  be  cxpofed  to  from  without.  There- 
fore a  treafure  of  blood  is  actually  provided  in  the  heart 
and  vafcular  fyftem,  full  of  nutritious  and  healing  par- 
ticles, fluid  enough  to  penetrate  into  the  niinuttft  parts 
of  tlic  animal ;  impelled  by  the  heart,  and  conveyed 
by  the  arteries,  it  wafhes  every  part,  builds  up  what 
was  broken  down,  and  fweeps  away  the  old  and  ufelefs 
materials.  Hence  we  fee  the  neceflity  or  advantage  of 
the  heart  and  arterial  fyftem. 

What  more  there  was  of  this  blood  than  enough  to 
repair  the  prefcnt  damages  of  the  machine,  muft  not  be 
loft,  but  lliould  be  returned  again  to  the  heart ;  and  for 
this  purpofe  the  venous  fyftem  is  actually  provided. 
Thefe  requilitcs  in  the  animal  explain,  a  prion,  the 
circulation  of  the  blood. 

The  old  materials  which  were  become  ufelefs,  and 
arc  fwcpt  off  by  the  current  of  blood,  muft  be  fcpara- 
ted  and  thrown  out  of  the  fyftem.  Therefore  glands, 
the  organs  of  Secretion,  are  given  for  ftraining  what- 
ever is  redundant,  vapid,  or  noxious,  from  the  mafs 
oflilood  ;  and  when  ftrained,  they  are  thrown  out  by 
eroundorics,  called  organs  or  Excretion. 

But  now,  as  the  machine  muft  be  conftantly  wear- 
ing, the  reparation  muft  be  carried  on  without  intcr- 
niiirion,  and  the  ftr^iners  muft  always  be  employed. 
Therefore  there  is  actually  a  perpetual  circulation  of 
the  blood,  and  the  fecrctions  are  always  going  on. 


Even  all  this  provifion,  however,  would  not  bj  fuffi- 
cicnt ;  for  that  ftorc  of  blood  would  foon  be  confumed, 
and  the  fabric  would  break  down,  if  there  were  not  a 
proviiion  made  for  frelh  fupplies.  Thefe  we  obferve, 
in  fact,  are  profulcly  fcattcred  round  her  in  the  ani- 
mal and  vegetablekiugdoms  ;and  Iheiifurniihedwith 
hunds,  the  fitteft  inftrurocnts  that  could  have  been  con- 
trived, for  gathering  them,  and  for  preparing  them 
in  a  variety  of  ways  for  the  mouth. 

But  thefe  fupplies,  which  wccall  food,  muft  be  con- 
fidcrably  changed  ;  they  muft  be  converted  into  blood. 
Therefore  Ihe  is  provided  with  teeth  for  cuttiug  and 
bruifing  the  food,  and  with  a  ftomach  for  melting  it 
down  :  In  (hort,  with  all  the  organs  fubl'ervient  to  di- 
geftion. — The  finer  parts  of  the  aliments  only  can  be 
ufcful  in  the  conftitution:  thefe  muft  be  uken  up  and 
conveyed  into  the  blood,  and  the  dregs  muft  be  thrown 
off.  With  this  view  the  inteftinal  canal  is  adually  gi- 
ven. It  feparatcs  the  nutritious  part,  which  we  call 
chyle,  to  be  conveyed  into  the  blood  by  the  fyftem  of 
abforbent  veflcls  ;  and  the  fxccs  pafs  downwards,  to 
be  condufted  out  of  the  body. 

Now  we  have  got  our  animal  not  only  furniftied  with 
what  is  wanted  for  its  immediate  exiftence,  but  alfo 
with  the  powers  of  protracting  that  exiftence  to  an  in- 
finite length  of  time.  But  its  duration,  we  may  pre- 
fume,  muft  neceilarily  be  limited  :  for  as  it  is  nouriih- 
ed,  grows,  and  is  raifcd  up  to  its  full  ftrength  and  ut- 
molt  perfection  ;  fo  it  muft,  in  time,  in  common  with 
all  material  beings,  begin  to  decay,  and  then  hurry  on 
to  final  ruin.  Hence  we  fee  the  necefilty  of  a  fchcmc 
for  renovation.  Accordingly  wife  Providence,  to  per- 
petuate, as  well  as  prefcrve  his  work,  befides  giving  a 
ftrong  appetite  for  life  and  fclf-prefervation,  has  made 
animals  male  and  female,  and  given  them  fuch  organs 
and  pallions  as  will  fecure  the  propagation  of  the  fpc- 
cics  to  the  end  of  time. 

Thus  we  fee,  that  by  the  very  imperfcd  furvejr 
which  human  reafon  is  able  to  take  of  this  fubjeCl, 
the  animal  man  muft  neceilarily  be  complex  in  his 
corporeal  fyftem,  and  in  its  operations. 

He  muft  have  one  greatand  general  fyftem,  the  vaf- 
cular, branching  through  the  whole  for  circulation  : 
Another,  the  nervous,  with  its  appendages  the  organs 
of  feiife,  for  every  kind  of  feeling  :  And  a  third,  for 
the  union  and  connection  of  all  thofe  parts. 

Belides  thefe  primary  and  general  fyftems,  he  re- 
quires others  which  may  be  more  local  or  confined  : 
One  for  ftrcnglh,  fuppori,  and  protection  ;  the  bony 
compages  :  Anuther  for  the  rcquiiite  motions  of  the 
pans  among  thenifclves,  as  well  as  from  moving  from 
place  to  place  ;  the  mufcular  part  of  the  body  :  An- 
other to  prepare  nouriftinuni  for  the  daily  recruit  of 
the  body  i  the  digeftivc  organs  :  And  one  for  propa- 
gating the  fpecics  ;  the  organs  of  generjtion. 

And  in  taking  this  general  furvey  of  what  would 
appear,  a  priori,  to  be  neceifary  for  adapting  an  animal 
to  the  lituationsoflife,  we  obferve, with  great  fatisfac- 
tion,  that  man  is  accordingly  made  of  fuch  fyftems, 
and  for  fuch  purpofes.  He  has  ihcm  all  ;  and  he  has 
nothing  more,  except  the  iTgans  cf  refpiration.  Brea- 
thing it  feemed  ditficult  to  account  for  a  priori  :  we 
only  knew  it  to  be  in  faCt  cll'ciuially  jiecclfary  to 
life.  Notwithftaudingthis,  whf n  w  c  f^iwall  the  other 
parts  of  the  body,  and  their  functions,  fo  well  ac- 
4  R  3  counted 


683 


684 


N 


T      O      M       Y. 


Introd. 


coLinteil  for,  aiul  fo  w  il'tly  adapted  to  their  Teveral  pur- 
pofes,  liurc  could  Lc  no  doubt  that  rcl'piratiou  was  fo 
likcwift :  And  accordingly,  the  difcovcrics  of  Dr 
Pricfllcy  have  lately  thrown  light  upon  this  fundion 
alfo,  as  will  be  (liown  in  its  proper  place. 

Of  all  the  different  fyllcnisin  tlie  liunian  body,  the 
life  and  nccelTity  arc  not  more  apparent,  than  the  wif- 
doni  and  contrivance  whicli  lias  been  exerted  in  putting 
lhen^allinto  the  moft  compact  and  conveiiicntform  :  in 
difpofing  them  fo,  that  they  lluU  mutually  receive,  and 
give  helps  to  one  another  ;  and  that  all,  or  many  of  the 
parts,  Ihall  not  only  anfwer  their  principal  end  or  pur- 
pole,  but  operate  fuccefsfully  and  ufefully  ina  variety 
of  fccondary  ways. 

If  we  confider  the  whole  animal  machine  in  this 
light,  and  compare  it  with  any  machine  in  which  hu- 
man art  has  exerted  its  utmolt ;  fuppofe  the  bell  con- 
flrufted  ihip  that  ever  was  built,  we  Ihall  be  convinced 
beyond  the  pollibility  of  doubt,  that  there  are  intelli- 
gence and  power  far  furpafling  what  humanity  can 
boall  of. 

One  fuperiority  in  the  natural  machine  is  peculiarly 
Uriking. — In  machines  of  human  contrivance  or  art, 
ihereis  no  internal  power,  no  principle  in  the  machine 
itfclf,  by  which  it  can  alter  and  accommodate  itfclf  to 
any  injury  which  it  may  futier,  or  make  up  any  injury 
which  admits  of  repair.  But  in  the  natural  machine, 
the  animal  body,  this  is  mofl  wonderfully  provided  for 
by  internal  powers  in  the  machine  itlclf ;  many  of 
which  are  not  more  certain  and  obvious  in  their  ef- 
Icds,  than  ihey  arc  above  all  human  compreheniionas 
to  the  manner  and  means  of  their  operation.  Thus,  a 
wound  heals  up  of  itfclf ;  a  broken  bone  is  n\ade  firm 
again  by  a  callus  ;  a  dead  part  is  fcparateJ  and  thrown 
off;  noxious  juices  arc  driven  out  by  fome  of  the 
emunclories  ;  a  redundancy  is  removed  by  fome  fpon- 
taneous  bleeding;  a  bleeding  naturally  Hops  of  itfclf ; 
and  a  great  lofs  of  blood,  from  any  caufe,  is  in  fome 
meafure  eompenfated,  by  a  contraL'ling  power  in  the 
vafcular  fyflem,  which  accommodates  the  capacity  of 
the  veli'els  to  the  quantity  contained.  The  ftoinach 
gives  information  when  the  fupplics  have  been  expend- 
ed ;  reprefents,  with  great  exadnefs,  thcquantity  and 
the  quality  of  what  is  wanted  in  the  prefent  Hate  of 
the  machine  ;  and  in  proportion  as  flie  meets  with  ne- 
gleft,  riles  in  her  demand,  urges  her  petition  in  a  loud- 
er tone,  and  witli  more  forcible  arguments.  For  its 
protedion,  an  animal  body  refifts  heat  and  cold  in  a 
very  wonderful  manner,  and  preferves  an  equal  tem- 
pecature  in  a  burning  and  in  a  freezing  atmofphere. 

A  farther  excellence  or  fuperiority  in  the  natural 
machine,  if  pollible,  Hill  more  aftonilhing,  more  be- 
yond all  human  comprehcnfion,  than  what  we  have 
been  fpeakiug  of,  is  the  following.  Befidcs  thofe  in- 
ternal powers  of  felf-prcfervation  in  each  individual, 
when  two  of  them  co-operate,  or  ad  in  concert,  they 
are  endued  with  powers  of  making  other  animals  or 
machines  like  themi'"elves,  which  again  are  pollelTed 
of  the  fame  powers  of  producing  others,  and  fo  of 
anultiplying  the  fpecies  without  end. 

Thefe  are  powers  which  mock  all  human  invention 
or  imitation.  They  are  charadcrifligs  of  the  divine 
Archited. 

Having  premifcd  this  general  account  oftheXubjed, 


we  Ihall  next  confider  the  method  to  be  obfcrvcd  in 
treating  it. 

The  fludy  of  the  human  body,  as  already  noticed, 
is  commonly  divided  into  two  parts.  The  lirll,  which 
is  called  Anatomy,  relates  to  the  matter  and  llruiturc 
of  its  parts;  the  fccoud,  P/njlo/ot;^  iui  Aniinat  aco- 
iioviy,  relates  to  the  principles  and  laws  of  its  inter- 
nal operations  and  fundions. 

As  the  body  is  a  compound  of  folidsand  fluids,  AnU' 
totiiy  is  divided  into, 

1.  The  Anatomy  of  the  foliJs,  and 

2.  The  Anatomy  of  tlic  fluids. 

I.  The  Solids,  by  which  we  mean  all  parts  of  our 
body  which  are  not  fluid,  are  generally  divided  into 
two  clalTes,  viz. 

1 .  The  hard  folids  or  bones.  This  part  of  anatomy 
is  called  Ojie»logy ;  which  liguifies  the  dodrine  of  the 
bones. 

2.  The  fofter  folids  ;  which  part  is  called  Sarcohgy, 
viz.  the  dodrine  of  tieni. 

This  divifion  of  the  folids,  we  may  obferve,  has  pro- 
bably taken  its  origin  from  the  vulgar  obfervation, 
that  the  body  is  made  of  bone  audflcfli.  And  as  there 
arc  many  different  kinds  of  what  are  called  foft  or 
rielhy  parts,  Sarcology  is  fubdivided  into, 

(i.)  Angilotogy,  or  the  dodrine  of  velFels ;  by 
which  is  commonly  underllood  blooi-vejfch  : 

{lA   AiicHology,  of  glands: 

(;!.)   Neurology,  of  nerves  : 

(4.)   Myology,  ofmufcles:  and, 

(5.)  S/'/iiwt/v/o/ci^,^,  of  the  vifccra  or  bowels.  There 
is,  belides,  that  part  wliich  treats  of  the  organs  of 
fcnfe  and  of  the  integuments. 

This  divifion  of  the  folids  lias  been  here  mentioned, 
rather  for  the  fake  of  explaining  fomany  words,  which 
arc  conflantly  ufed  by  anatomilts,  than  for  its  import- 
ance or  accuracy.  For  befidcs  many  other  objections 
that  might  be  urged,  there  are  in  the  body  three  fpe- 
cies of  folids,  viz.  griftle  or  cart'lagc,  hair,  and  nails  ; 
which  are  of  an  intermediate  nature  between  bone  and 
tlcfli;  and  tlierefore  cannot  fo  properly  be  brought  into 
the  ofleology  or  the  farcology.  The  cartilages  were 
clafTcd  with  the  bones  ;  becaufe  thcgrcaicft  numberof 
them  arc  appendages  to  bones:  and  for  ihe  like  rea- 
fon  the  hair  and  the  nails  were  clafTcd  with  the  inte- 
guments. 

II.  The  KiuiDs  of  the  human  body  may  be  divided 
into  three  kinds,  which  Dr  Hunter  calls  the  crude,  the 
general  or  perfei},  and  ihe  local  or  fecreted  fluid. 

1.  By  the  crude  fluid  is  meant  the  chyle,  and  what- 
ever is  abforbcd  at  the  furfaces  of  llie  body  ;  in  other 
words,  what  is  recently  taken  into  the  body,  and  is  not 
yet  mixed  with  or  converted  into  blood. 

2.  The  general  or  l>erfL{l  fimd  is  the  blood  itfelf; 
to  wit,  what  is  contained  in  the  heart,  arteries,  and 
veins,  and  is  going  on  in  the  round  of  tlic  circulation. 

3.  The  local  or  fecretcd,  are  thofe  fluids  peculiar  to 
particular  parts  of  the  body,  which  are  Ihaincd  off  from 
the  blood,  and  yet  arc  \  cry  different  in  their  properties 
from  the  blood.  They  are  commonly  c:^\\cA  fecrcttons; 
and  fome  arc  ufeful,  others  excrenientiiious. 

In  treatingof  the  Phyfiology,\x.  is  very  difficult  to  fay 
wliat  plan  fhould  be  followed;  forcvcry  method  wliich 
has  been  yctpropofed,  is  attended  with  manifefl  in- 
convenience. 


Introd. 


A       N      A       1 

convenience.  The  powers  and  operations  of  the  ma- 
chine have  fach  a  depciidcHcc  upon  one  another,  fuch 
connexions  and  reciprocal  influence,  that  they  cannot 
well  be  undcrftood  or  explained  fcparatcly.  In  this 
fcnfcour  body  may  be  compared  to  a  circular  chain  of 
powers,  in  which  nothing  is  firft  or  lail,  nothing  foli- 
tary  or  independent;  fo  that  wherever  we  begin,  we 
find  that  there  is  fomething  preceding  which  we  ought 
to  have  known.  If  we  begin  with  the  brain  and  the 
nerves,  for  example,  we  ihall  find  that  thefc  cannot 


'      O      M      Y. 

exifl,  even  in  idea,  without  the  heart :  if  we  fet  cut 
with  the  heart  and  vafcular  fyftem,  we  fliallprcfcnily 
be  fcnfible,  that  the  brain  and  nerves  mull  be  fuppcf- 
ed  :  or,  fliould  we  take  up  the  mouth,  and  follow  the 
courfcof  the  aliment,  we  Ihould  fee  that  the  very  tirft 
organ  which  prefcnted  iiftlf,  fuppofed  the  cxiflence 
of  both  the  heart  and  brain :  Wherefore  we  Ihall  in- 
corporate the  Phyliology  wiih  the  Anatomy,  by  at- 
tempting to  explain  the  functions  after  we  Lave  de- 
monftrated  the  orqians. 


685 


Part  I.     OSTEOLOGY. 


WE  begin  with  the  bones,  which  may  be  confider- 
cd  as  the  great  fapport  of  the  body,  tending  to 
give  it  fliape  and  firmncfs — But  before  we  enter  into 
the  detail  of  each  particular  bone,  it  will  be  neceffary 
to  defcribe  their  compofition  and  conncttions,  and  to 
explain  the  nature  of  the  different  parts  which  have 
an  immediate  relation  to  them  ;  as  the  cartilages,  liga- 
ments, periofleum,  marrow,  and  fynovial  glands. 

Sect.  I.  Of  the  Bouet  in  general,  with  ihiir  jlppeu' 
dagesy  &c. 

Dfthe    m-      The  bones  areof  afirmand  hard  (b)  fubftance,  of 

3oCtion  of"  ^  white  colour,  and  pcrfciftly  infcnlible.     They  are 

:hc  bones,    the  niofl  compact  and  folid  parts  of  the  body,  and 

fcrve  for  the  attachment  and  fupport  of  all  the  other 

parts. 

Three  different  fubftances  are  ufually  dKlinguiflied 
in  them  ;  their  exterior  or  bony  part,  properly  fo  call- 
ed ;  their  fpongy  cells  ;  and  their  reticular  fubftance. 
Thefirft  of  thcfe  is  formedof  many  laminae  or  plates, 
compofing  a  firm  hard  fubftance — The  fpongy  or  cel- 
lular part  is  fo  called  on  account  of  its  refemblance  to 
a  fponge,  from  the  little  cells  which  compofe  it.  This 
fubftance  forms  almofl  the  whole  of  the  extremities 
of  cylindrical  bones.  The  reticular  part  is  conipofed 
of  fibres,  which  crofs  each  other  in  different  directi- 
ons. This  net-work  forms  the  internal  furface  of 
thofe  bones  which  have  cavities. 

The  flat  bones,  as  thofe  of  the  head,  are  compofed 
only  of  the  laminae  and  the  cellular  fubftance.  This 
laft  is  ufjally  found  in  the  middle  of  the  bone  dividing 
it  into  two  plates,  and  is  there  called  dipidi. 

Gagliardi,  who  pretended  to  have  difcovered  an  in- 
finite number  of  claviculi  (c),orbonyproceires,  which 
he  dcfcribesastravcrrmg  the  laminae  to  unite  them  to- 
gether, has  endeavoured  to  fupport  this  pretended  dif- 
covery  by  the  analogy  of  bones  to  the  bark  of  trees, 
in  which  certain  woody  nails  have  been  remarked; 
but  this  opinion  feems  to  be  altogether  fanciful. 

Some  writers  have  fuppofed,  that  the  bones  arc 
formed  by  layers  of  the  perioftcum,  which  gradually 
ollify,  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  timber  is  formed  in 
trees  by  the  hardening  of  the  white  fubllaiicc  that  is 
found  between  the  inner  bark  and  the  wood.   M.  Dh- 


hamel,  who  has  adopted  this  opinion,  fed  different 
animals  with  ma  Meraiid  their  ordinary  food  alternate- 
ly during  a  certain  time;  and  he  aflerts,  that  in  dif- 
fecUng  their  bones,  he  conftantly  obfervcd  diftind  lay- 
ers of  red  and  white,  which  correfponded  with  the 
length  of  time  they  had  lived  on  madder  or  their 
ufual  aliment.  But  it  has  lince  been  proved  by  Det- 
leff,  that  M.  Duhamel's  experiments  were  inaccurate, 
and  that  neither  the  periofteum  nor  the  cartilages  arc 
tinged  by  the  ufe  •f  the  madder,  which  is  known  to 
affect  the  bones  only. 

We  ufually  confider  in  a  bone,  its  body  and  its  ex- 
tremities. The  ancients  gave  the  name  of  diaph}  lis  to 
the  body  or  middle  part,  and  divided  the  cxtreniitits 
into  apophyfis  and  epiphyfis.  An  apophylis,  or  jto 
cefs,  as  it  is  more  commonly  called,  is  an  eminence 
continued  from  thcbodyoftheboucwhcrcas an  epiphy- 
fis is  at  firft  a  fort  of  an  apcndage  to  the  bone,  by  mtaus 
of  an  intermediate  cartilage.  Many  epipliyfes,  which 
appear  as  diftincl  bones  in  the  foetus,  afterwards  l)c- 
come  apophyfes  ;  for  they  are  at  length  fo  completely 
united  to  the  body  of  the  bone  as  not  to  be  diftinguiih- 
able  from  it  in  the  adult  ftate.  It  is  not  unufual,  how- 
ever, at  the  age  of  18  and  even  20  years,  to  find  the 
extremities  of  bones  ftill  in  the  ftate  of  epiphyfis. 

The  names  given  to  the  procelTes  of  bones  arc  ex- 
preffive  of  their  fliape,  fize,  or  ufe  ;  thus  if  a  proccfs 
is  large  and  of  a  fpherical  form,  it  is  called  caput, 
or  head i  if  the  head  is  flatted,  it  is  termed  condyle. 
Some  procelTes,  from  their  refemblance  to  a  ftiletto, 
a  breart,  or  the  beak  of  a  crow,  are  called /?>//o<y,  niaf- 
toid,  or  coracciid :  others  are  [iy\td  ridges  or /pines. 
The  twopreceflcs  of  the  os  femoris derive  theirnamc 
oi  trochanters  from  their  \\(c. 

A  bone  has  its  cavities  as  well  as  procelTes.  Thcfc 
cavities  either  extend  quite  through  its  fubftance,  or 
appear  only  as  depreflions.  The  former  are  called  yo- 
ratnina  or  holes,  and  thefe  foramina  are  fometimes  term- 
ed canals  or  conduits,  according  to  their  form  and  ex- 
tent. Of  the  dcpredions,  fome  are  ufcful  in  articula- 
tion. Thcfe  are  called  cotyloid  when  they  arc  deep, 
as  is  the  cafe  with  the  os  innominatum,  where  it  re- 
ceives the  head  ot  the  os  femoris ;  or^/r/;6/"(/ when  they 
are  fuperficial,  as  in  the  fcapula,  where  it  receive*  the 
OS  humeri.     Of  the  dcprcllions  that  arc  not  dcfigned 

for 


^b)  Mr  Schcelc  has  lately  difcovered  that  bones  contain  the  phofphoric  acid  united  with  calcareous  eartli ; 
and  that  to  this  combination  they  owe  their  firmncfs. 

(c)  In  his  Anat.  Ojfium  nov.  invent,  illuflr^t.  he  dcfcribcs  four  kinds  of  thefe  claviculi  or  nails,  viz.  tjj« 
perpendicular,  oblique,  headed,  and  crooked 


686 


N 


O      M 


Part  I. 


Oncology,   for  aniculatioli,  thofe  which  have  fniall  ai>crtures  are 

^ ^ '  called  fmtifes  ;  others  tliac  are  large,  and  not  equally 

fiirrounded  by  high  brims,  arc  AyXdj olfa ;  fuch  as  are 

long  and  narrow,yK/ro'm/;  or  if  broad  and  fiipcrticial 

without  brinot,  fiririojitiei.    Some  arc  called  digital  hh- 

frejjloiis,  from  their  rcfemblai;ce  to  the  traces  of  a  fin- 

j         ger  on  loft  bodies. 

CoRnefli-       We  (hall  abridge  this  article,  which  is  excecding- 

on  of  the    ly  diftufc  in  the  generality  of  anatomical  books,  and 

boact.         ^vjii  endeavour  to  defcribe  it  with  all  the  clcarnefs  it 

will  allow. 

The  bones  coin  poling  the  fkcleionare  foconftrui5led, 
that  the  end  of  every  bone  is  perfeftly  adapted  to  the 
extremity  of  that  with  whicli  itisconnetled,  and  this 
co-.iiic(flion  forms  wliat  is  called  their  articulation. 

Arliculuion  is  divided  into<//;7rMr(iy7/,/»«a/Ar<!///,  and 
atnphifiithrofis,  or  moveable,  immoveable,  and  mixed 
articulation.  Each  of  the  two  firll  has  its  fubdivilions. 
Thus  theDM/M/-o//j,ornioveablc  articulation,  includes 
1 .  The  cnarthrolis,  as  it  is  called,  when  a  large  head 
is  admitted  into  a  deep  cavity,  as  in  the  articulation 
of  the  OS  fcmoris  with  theos  innoniinatum.  l.  Arthro- 
dia,  when  a  round  head  is  articulated  with  a  (uperli- 
cial  cavity,  as  in  the  cafe  of  the  os  humeri  and  fcapu- 
la.  5.  Ginglimns,  or  hinge-like  articulation,  as  in  the 
connection  of  tlie  thigh  bone  with  the  tibia.  The 
cnarthroiii  and  arthrodia  allow  of  motion  to  all  iides  ; 
the  ginglimus  only  of  flexion  and  cxtenfion. 

The  fynarthrofis,  or  immoveable  articulation,  in- 
cludes, 1.  The  future,  when  the  two  bones  are  in- 
dented into  each  other,  as  is  the  cafe  with  the  parie- 
tal bones.  2.  Gomphofis,  when  one  bone  is  fixed  in- 
to another,  in  the  manner  ihc  teeth  are  placed  in 
their  fockets. 

The  term  avifhiarthrofs  is  applied  to  thofe  articula- 
tions which  partake  both  of  the  fynarthrofisand  diar- 
throljs,  as  is  the  cafe  with  the  bones  of  the  vertebrse, 
uhich  are  capable  of  motion  in  a  certain  degree,  al- 
though they  are  firmly  connected  together  by  inter- 
mediate cartilages. 

What  is  called  fyrnphyfs  is  the  union  of  two  [bones 
into  one  ;  as  in  the  lower  jaw,  for  inftance,  which  in 
the  foetus  confifls  of  two  dilli.. ft  banes,  but  becomes 
one  in  a  more  advanced  age,  by  tjie  ollification  of  the 
uniting  cartilage. 

When  bones  are  thus  joined  by  the  means  of  carti- 
lages, the  union  is  dyXci  fynchondrofs  ;  when  by  li- 
gaments, ^nfr/rcy//. 
Of  the  Car-  Cartilages  arc  white,  folid,  fmooth,  and  elallic  fub- 
tilagcs.  fl.>Ticcs,  between  the  hardnefs  of  bones  and  ligaments, 
and  feemingly  of  a  fibrous  texture.  We  are  not  able 
to  trace  any  velfels  into  their  fubflance  by  injciflion, 
nor  are  they  ever  found  tinged  in  animals  that  have 
been  fed  with  madder. 

They  may  be  diftinguifhed  into,  ift,  Thofe  whicli 
are  connected  with  the  bones  ;  and,  adly, Thofe  which 
belong  to  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  firft  fervc  ei- 
ther to  cover  the  ends  and  cavities  of  bones  intended 
for  motion,  as  in  the  articulations,  where  by  their 
fnioothnefs  they  facilitate  motions,  which  the  bones 
alone  could  not  execute  with  fo  much  freedom ;  or 
they  fcrve  to  unite  bones  together,  as  in  the  fmphy- 
fis  pubis,  or  to  lengthen  them,  as  in  the  ribs. 

Many  of  them  offifying  as  we  advance  in  life,  their 
number  is  lefs  in  the  adult  than  in  the  foetus,  and  of 


conrfe  there  are  fewer  bones  in  the  old  than  in  the  Oftcology. 
young  fubjed.  ^~ — ^— ' 

Of  the  fecond  clafsof  cartilages,  or  thofe  belonging 
to  the  foft  parts,  we  have  inllances  in  the  larynx, 
where  we  find  them  ul'eful  in  the  formation  of  the 
voice,  and  for  the  attachment  of  mufcles.  . 

The  periofleum  is  a  tine  membrane  of  a  compafl  eel-  of  the  Pe. 
lular  texture,  reflected  from  one  joint  to  another,  and  riuftcum. 
fcrving  as  a  common  covering  to  the  bones.  It  has 
fanguiferous  and  lymphatic  vcllels,  and  is  fupplicd  with 
nerves  from  the  neighbouring  parts.  It  adheres  very 
firmly  to  their  furlace,  and  by  its  fmoothnefs  facilitates 
the  motion  of  mufcles.  It  likewil'c  fupports  the  vellels 
that  go  to  be  diftributed  througli  the  fubftance  of  the 
bones,  and  may  fcrve  to  flrtngthen  the  articulations. 
At  the  extremities  of  bones,  where  it  is  found  cover- 
ing a  cartilage,  it  has  by  fomc  been  improperly  conli- 
dered  as  a  diltindl  membrane,  and  mmcd  piTic/rcnJri- 
um.  This,  in  its  ufe  and  ftructure,  rciembles  the 
periofleum.  Where  it  covers  the  bones  of  the  Ikull, 
it  has  gotten  the  name  oi piricraniutn. 

The  periofleum  is  not  a  produftion  of  the  dura  ma- 
ter, as  the  ancients,  and  after  them  Havers,  imagin- 
ed ;  nor  are  the  bones  formed  by  the  offification  of  this 
membrane,  at  leaft  when  it  is  in  a  found  ftate,  as  fomc 
late  writers  have  fuppofcd. 

The  periofleum  is  deficient  in  the  teeth  above  the 
fockets,  and  in  thofe  parts  of  bones  to  which  liga- 
ments or  tendons  are  attached.  . 

The  marrow  is  a  fat  oily  fubflance,  filling  the  cavi-  of  the 
ties  of  bones.  In  the  great  cavities  of  long  bones  it  Marrow, 
is  of  a  much  firmer  conlillencc  than  in  the  cells  of 
their  fpongy  part.  In  the  former  it  inclines  fonie- 
whal  to  a  yellowifh  tinge,  and  is  of  the  conlifttncc  of 
fat ;  in  the  latter  it  is  more  fluid,  and  of  a  red  colour. 
This  difference  in  colour  and  coniiflence  is  owing  to 
accidental  caufes  :  both  kinds  are  of  the  fame  nature, 
and  may  both  be  defcribed  under  the  common  name  of 
marrow,  though  fome  writers  give  the  name  only  to 
the  fat-like  fubflance,  and  call  the  other  the  medulla- 
ry juice. 

The  marrow  is  contained  in  a  very  fine  and  tranfpa- 
rent  membrane,  which  is  fupplied  with  a  great  num- 
ber of  blood  vcllels,  chiefly  from  the  pcrioAcum.  This 
niembrana  medullaris  adheres  to  the  inner  furface  of 
the  bones,  and  furnilhes  an  infinite  number  of  minute 
bags  or  veficles  for  ineloling  the  marrow,  which  is 
likewife  fupportcd  in  the  cavities  of  the  bones  by  the 
long  filaments  of  their  reticular  fabflance. 

Befides  the  veiTels  from  the  periofleum,  the  mem- 
brana  medullaris  is  furniihed  with  others,  which  in  the 
long  bones  may  be  fcen  palling  in  near  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  bone,  and  fending  off  numerous  branches 
that  ramify  through  all  the  veficles  of  this  membrane. 

The  bones,  and  the  cells  containing  the  marrow, 
are  likewife  furniflied  with  lymphatics.  By  their 
means  the  marrow,  like  the  fat,  may  be  taken  up  in 
a  greater  quantity  than  it  is  fecreted  ;  and  hence  it  is 
that  fo  little  is  found  in  the  bones  of  thofe  who  die 
of  lingering  difeafes. 

It  is  flill  a  matter  of  controverfy,  Whether  the  mar- 
row is  fenfibleor  not  ?  We  are  certainly  not  able  to 
trace  any  nerves  to  it ;  and  from  this  circumflance, 
and  its  analogy  to  fat,  Haller  has  ventured  to  conlider 
it  as  infenfible.  On  the  other  hand,  Duvcrncy  affertsj 

that 


Part  I. 


N 


O      M       Y. 


Ciftcology.  that  an  injury  done  to  this  fubftancc  inaliving  animal 
'''  *  was  attended  with  great  pain.  In  this  difputc  phyli- 
ologifts  do  not  fecm  to  have  fufficiently  dii'criminated 
between  the  marrow  itl'elf  and  the  mcmbranons  ceils 
in  which  it  is  contained.  The  former,  like  the  fat, 
being  nothing  more  than  a  fecrcted,  and  of  coiirfc  an 
inorganizcd,  matter,  may  with  propriety  be  ranked  a- 
inong  the  inftnfible  parts,  as  much  as  inl'piiratcd  mu- 
cus or  any  other  fecrcted  matter  in  the  body  ;  where- 
as the  mcnibrana  medullaris  being  vafcular,  though  it 
poflcU'es  but  an  obfcure  degree  of  feeling  in  a  found 
itate,  is  not  perfeftly  infenlible. 

The  marrow  was  formerly  fuppofcd  to  be  intended 
for  the  nourilhmcnt  and  renewal  of  the  bones  j   but 
this  dodlrine  is  now  pretty  generally  and  defervedly 
exploded.     It  feenis  probable  that  the  marrow  is  to 
the  bones  what  fat  is  to  the  foft  parts.     They  both 
ferve  for  fome  important  purpofes  in  the  animal  oeco- 
iiomy  ;  but  their  particular    ufe  has  never  yet  been 
clearly  afccrtaincd.  The  marrow,  from  the  tranfuda- 
tion  of  the  oil  through  the  bones  of  a  Ikelcton,  is  fup- 
pofcd to  diminifh  their  brittlenefs  ;  and  Havers,  who 
has  written  profeil'edly  on  the  bones,  defcribes  the  ca- 
nals by  which  the  marrow  is  conveyed  through  every 
part  of  their  fnbflance,  and  divides  them  into  longi- 
tudinal and  tranfverfe  ones.     He  fpeaks  of  the  hrll 
as  extending  through  the  whole  length  of  the  bone  ; 
and  of  the  latter,   as  the  palfage  by  which  the  longi- 
tudinal ones  communicate  with  each  other.  The  limi- 
larity  of  thefc  to  the  large  cancelli  in  burnt  bones,  and 
the  tranfudation  of  the  oil  through  the  bones  of  the 
Jkcleton,  feems   to  prove  that  fome  fuch  palFages  do 
adually  exift. 

The  fynovial  glands  are  fmall  bodies  (d),  fuppofcd 
to  be  of  a  glandular  ftructure,  and  exceedingly  vafcu- 
lar, fecreting  a  fluid  of  a  clear  mucilaginous  nature, 
%vhich  ierves  to  lubricate  the  joints.  They  are  placed 
in  fmall  cavities  in  the  articulations,  fo  as  to  be  ca- 
pable of  being  gently  coniprcircd  by  the  motion  of 
the  joint,  which  exprelfes  their  juice  in  proportion  to 
the  degrceof  frielion.    When  the  fynovia  is  wanting, 
or  is  of  too  thick  a  confillence,  the  joint  becomes  fliff 
and  incapable  of  flexion  or  extcnfion.     This  is  what 
•J         is  termed  anchvlofss. 
Ofthellgj.      Ligaments  arc  white,  gliftening,  inelallic   bands, 
mcnts.        ofacompafl  fubftance,  more  or  lefs  broad  or  thick, 
and  fervingto  conncft  the  bones  together.   They  are 
diftinguiflied  by  different  names  adapted  to  their  diffe- 
rent forms  and  ufes.     Thofe  of  the  joints  are  called 
either  round  or  burfal.  The  round  ligaments  are  white, 
iendinous,and  inelaftic.  They  are  ftrongandflexible, 
and  are  found  only  in  the  joint  of  the  knee,  and  in 
the  articulation  of  the  os  femoris  with  the  os  innomi- 
natum.     The  burfal,  or  capfular  ligaments,  furround 
the  whole  joint  like  a  purfe,  and  are  to  be  found  in 
the  articulations  which  allow  motion  every  way,  as 
J         in  the  articulation  of  the  arm  with  the  fcapula. 
Of  the  Of  thofe  facs  called  Burf^  mucofx,  a  few  were 

BMrfs  mu-  known  to  former  anatomifts,  but  by  nsuch  the  greater 
cofx,  number  have  been  fince  I'ifcovercd  by  Dr  Monro  (  e  ), 

who  obferves,  that  ihey  arc  to  be  met  with  in  the  ex- 


687 


tremities  of  the  body  only ;  that  many  of  them  are  Ofltology. 

placed  entirely  on  the  inner  liJcs  of  the  tendons,   be-   ^^ « ' 

twecn  thefc  and  the  bones.  Many  others  cover  not 
only  the  inner,  but  the  outer  iidc:>  of  the  tendons,  or 
arcinterpofed  between  the  tendons  and  external  pan^, 
as  well  as  between  thofe  and  the  bones. 

Some  are  fituated  between  the  tendons  and  external 
pans  only  or  chiefly,  fome  between  contiguous  ten- 
dons, or  between  the  lenc'ons  or  the  ligamtiiti  and  the 
joints.  A  few  fuch  facs  are  obfcrvcd  where  the  procci- 
fes  of  bones  play  upon  the  ligaments,  or  where  one  bone 
plays  upon  another.  Where  two  or  more  tendons  are 
contiguous,  and  afterwards  feparate  from  each  other, 
we  generally  find  a  common  burfa  divided  into  branch- 
es, with  which  it  communicates  ;  and  a  few  burfse  of 

contiguous  tendons  communicate  with  each  other. 

Some,  in  healthy  children  communicate  with  the  ca- 
vities of  the  joints  ;  and  in  many  old  people  he  hi<s 
feen  fuch  communications  formed  by  ufe  or  worn  by 
fricUon,  independent  of  difcafc. 

Their  proper  membrane  is  thin  and  tranfparent,  but 
very  denfe,  and  capable  of  confining  air  or  any  other 
fliud.  It  is  joined  to  the  neighbouring  parts  by  the 
common  cellular  fubftance.  Between  the  burfaand  the 
hard  fubHance  of  bone,  a  thin  layer  of  cartilage  or  of 
tough  membrane  is  very  generally  interpofed.  To  the 
cellular  fubftance  on  the  outlidc  of  the  burfa,  the  adi- 
pofc  fubftance  is  conneded  ;  except  where  the  burfa 
covers  a  tendon,  cartilage,  or  bone,  much  expofcd  to 
preihire  or  fridion. 

In  feveral  places  a  mafs  of  fat,  covered  with  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  membrane  of  the  burfa,  projc.;ls  into 
its  cavity.     The  edges  of  this  are  divided  into  fringes. 
The  inner  iide  of  the  membrane  is  fuiooth,  anJ  is 
extremely  llippery  from  the  liquor  fecrcted  in  it.  - 

Theftruetureofiheburfxbearsaftrongrefemblance  Their 
to  the  capfular  ligamentsof  the  joints,     i.  The  inner  1"i>3"re 
layer  of  the  ligament,  like  that  of  the  burfa:,  is  thin  ""''P*''':'' 
and  denfe.  2.  It  is  connected  to  the  external  ligaments  *?'!' '''" 
by  the  common  cellular  fubftance.  3.  Between  itand  the  f„|„'ii~r" 
bones,  layers  of  cartilage,  or  the  articular  cartilages,  ments  of 
arcinterpofed.    4.  At  the  tides  of  the  joints,  where  it  ii  the  joiiu*. 
not  fubjeded  to  violent  prefl'urc  and  friction,  the  adi- 
pofe  fubftance  isconneded  with  thecetlular  membrajic. 
5.  Within  the  cavities  of  the  joints  we  obferve  maifes 
of  fat  projeding, covered  with  limilarblood-veirels,and 
with  limilar  fimbriae  hanging  from  their  edges.    6.  In 
the  knee  the  upper  part  of  fuch  a  mafs  of  fat  forms 
what  has  been  called  the  7nucilag\nous  gland  of  the  inint , 
and  the  under  part  projeds  into  the  burfa  behind  the 
ligament  which  ties  the  patella  to  the  tibia.     7.  The 
liquor  which  lubricates  the  burfx  has  the  fame  colour, 
confiftence,  and  properties  as  that  of  the  joints,  and 
both  are  affcded  in  the  fame  manner  by  heat,  mineral 
acids,  and  ardent  fpirits.  8.  In  fome  places  the  burfae 
conftantly  communicate  with  the  cavities  of  the  joints, 
in  others  they  generally  do  fo  ;  from  which  we  isay 
infer  a  famcnefs  of  ftrudure. 

When  we  examine  the  fimbria:  common  to  the  fatty- 
bodies  of  the  joints  and  burfjt,  and  which  have  been 
fuppofcd  to  be  the  duds  of  glands  lodged  within  the 

niaiFes 


(d)  It  is  now  much  doubted,  however,  whether  the  appearances  iu  the  joints,  which  arc  ufually  called 
glanJi,  arc  any  thii.g  more  than  alfemblages  of  fat. 

(e)  \ictDiftriftiQn  of  the  Burfa  Mucf^t,  &c. 


6BS 

Oileolngy. 


to 
OfthcSkc- 
Ictna. 


II 

Of  the  Of 
•ccipitls. 


A       N       A       ^ 

niail'csof  fat,  wc  arc  not  able  to  Jifcovcr  any  glan^lu- 
lar  appearance  within  tliem.  And  alihongh  \re  ob- 
fcivc  many  vcllcls  difpcrlcd  upon  the  membranes  of 
the  fatty  bodies  and  fimbrix  ;  and  that  wc  cannot  doubt 
that  thefc  finibrixconlill  of  duds  which  contain  a  hi- 
bricaiing  licjuor,  and  can  even  prcfs  fuch  a  liquor  from 
tlicni  J  yet  their  cavities  and  orifices  are  fo  minute, 
that  thty  are  not  dtfcovcrable  even  by  the  alliftancc  o+' 
iiiagnifying-glall'cs.  Thtfc  fimbria;  appear,  therefore, 
to  be  duds  like  thofe  of  the  urethra,  which  prepare  a 
mucilaginuus  rujuor  without  the  aliillanccof  any  knot- 
ty or  glandular  organ. 

Upon  the  whole,  the  fynovia  feems  to  be  furniflicd 
by  iiiviliblc  cxhalent  arteries  by  the  duds  of  the  fim- 
brire,  and  by  oil  exuding  from  the  adipofc  follicles  by 
pallagcs  not  yet  difcovcred. 

The  word  Ikclcion,  which  by  its  etymology  implies 
finiply  a  dry  preparation,  is  ufually  applied  to  an  :if- 
fcmblage  of  all  the  bones  of  an  animal  united  toge- 
ther in  their  natural  order.  It  is  faid  to  be  a  natural 
fkelcton,  when  the  bones  arc  conncfted  together  by 
theirown  proper  ligaments  ;  and  an  artificialone.when 
they  are  joined  by  any  other  fubftancc,  as  wire,  &c. 

The  (keleton  is  generally  divided  into  the  head, 
trunk  and  extremities.  The  firfl  divilion  includes, 
the  hones  of  the  cranium  ami  face.  The  bones  of  the 
trunk  are  the  fpine,  ribs,  fternum,  and  bones  of  the 
pelvis. 

The  upper  extremity  on  each  fide  confills  of  the 
two  bones  of  the  flioulder,  viz.  the  fcapula  and  cla- 
vicle ;  the  bone  of  the  arm,  or  OS  humeri  ;  the  bones 
of  the  fore-arm,  and  thofe  of  the  hand. 

The  lower  extremity  on  each  fide  of  the'trunk  con- 
fifls  of  the  thigh-bone  and  the  bones  of  the  leg  and 
foot. 

Sect.  II.     Of  the  Bonis  of  the  Head. 

The  head  is  of  a  roundilli  figure,  and  fomewhat 
oval  (f).  Jts  greatcft  diameter  is  from  the  forehead 
to  the  occiput ;  its  upper  part  is  called  vertex,  or 
crown  of  the  head  ;  its  anterior  or  fore-part  the  face  ; 
and  the  upper  part  of  this /;;/<;//'«/,  or  forehead;  its 
iides  the  temples  ;  its  pofterior,  or  hind-part,  the  oc- 
ciput; and  its  inferior  part  the  bafu. 

Tlie  bones  of  the  head  may  be  divided  into  thofe 
of  the  cranium  and  face. 

§   I.  Bones  of  the  Cranium  and  Face. 

There  are  eight  bones  of  the  cranium,  viz.  the 
coronal  bone,  or  os  frontis ;  the  two  parietal  bones, 
or  olla  bregiiiatis  ;  the  os  occipitis  ;  the  two  temporal 
bones  ;  the  fphcnoid  bone  ;  and  the  os  ethmoides,  or 
cribriforme. 

Of  thefe,  only  the  os  occipitis  and  offa  bregmatis 
arc  confidered  as  proper  to  the  cranium  ;  the  reft  being 
common  both  to  the  cranium  and  face. 


O       M 


Part  I. 


Thefe  bones  arc  all  harder  at  their  furface  than  in  Ofteology. 

their  middle  ;  and  on  this  account  they  are  divided  ^~ — ■^ ' 

into  two  tables,  and  a  middle  fpongy  fubllance  called 
diploe.  ,j 

In  this,  as  in  all  the  other  bones,  we  fliall  confider  of  the  Os 
its  figure,  llruclure,  procefTcs,  dcprcfiions,  and  cavi-  Frontis. 
tics  ;   and  ihe  manner  in  which  it  is  articulated  with 
the  other  bones. 

The  OS  frontis  has  Ibmc  refcmblance  in  fhape  to  the 
fliell  of  the  cockle.  Externally  it  is  convex,  its  con- 
cave fide  being  turned  towards  the  brain.  This  bone 
in  the  places  where  it  is  united  to  the  temporal  bones, 
is  very  thin,  and  has  there  nodiplije.  It  is  likcwife 
exceedingly  thin  in  that  part  of  the  oibit  of  the  eye 
which  is  ncarefl  to  the  i\ofe.  Hence  it  is,  that  a 
wound  in  the  eye,  by  a  fword  or  any  other  pointed 
inflrument.isfomctimesprodudiveofimmcdiatedeat.'i. 
In  thefe  cafes,  the  fword  palling  through  the  weak 
part  of  tlie  bone,  penetrates  the  brain,  and  divides  the 
nerves  at  their  origin  ;  or  perhaps  opens  fome  blood- 
veifel,  the  confequences  of  which  arc  foon  fatal. 

We  obfervc  on  the  exterior  furface  of  this  bone  five 
apophyfcs  or  procelics,  which  are  cafily  to  be  dilUn- 
guilhed.  One  of  thefc  is  phced  at  the  bottom  and 
narrowcll  part  of  the  bone,  and  is  called  the  nafal 
procefs,  from  its  fupporting  the  upper  end  of  the 
bones  of  the  nofc.  The  four  others  are  called  angu- 
lar or  orbitar  proceflcs.  They  alFifl  to  form  the  orbits, 
which  are  the  cavities  on  which  the  eyes  are  placed. 
In  each  of  thefe  orbits  there  are  two  proceflcs,  one  at 
the  interior  or  great  angle,  and  the  other  at  the  exte- 
rior or  little  angle  of  the  orbit.  They  are  called  the 
angular  procelFcs.  Between  thefe  a  ridge  is  extended 
in  form  of  an  arch,  and  on  this  the  eye-brows  arc 
placed.  It  is  called  the  orbitar  or  fupcrciliary  ridge, 
and  in  fome  mcafure  covers  and  defends  the  globe  of 
the  eye.  There  is  a  hole  in  this  for  the  pailage  of  the 
frontal  vclTels  and  nerves.  This  arch  is  interrupted 
near  the  nofc  by  a  fmall  pit,  in  which  the  tendon  of 
the  mufculus  obliquus  major  of  the  eye  is  fixed.  From 
the  under  part  of  each  fupcrciliary  ridge  a  thin  plate 
runs  a  conliderable  way  backwards,  and  has  the  name 
of  orbitar ;  the  external  and  fore-part  of  this  plate 
forms  a  finuolity  for  lodging  the  lacrymal  gland.  Be- 
tween the  orbitar  plates  there  is  a  large  difcontinuatioii 
of  the  bone,  which  is  filled  up  by  the  cribriform  part 
of  the  os  ethmoides. 

On  examining  the  inner  furface  of  this  bone  at  it^ 
under  and  middle  part,  we  obferve  an  elevation  in  form 
of  a  ridge,  which  has  been  called  ihe  fpi'ious  procefs ; 
it  afccnds  for  fome  way,  dividing  the  bone  into  two 
confidcrable  folfae,  in  which  the  anterior  lobes  of  the 
brain  arc  placed.  To  a  narrow  furrow  in  this  ridge 
is  attached  the  extremity  of  the  falx,  as  the  membrane 
is  called,  which  divides  the  brain  in  tot  wo  hemifpheres. 
The  furrow  becominggradually  wider,  is  continued  to 
the  upper  and  back  part  of  the  bone.     It  has  the  falx 

3  fixed 


(>■)  The  bones  of  the  foetus  being  perfedly  diflind,  and  themufclesin  young  perfonsnot  afting  much,  the 
lliape  of  the  head  has  been  fuppofed  to  depend  much  on  the  management  of  children  when  very  young.  Vc- 
falius,  who  has  remarked  the  difference  in  people  of  different  nations,  obferves,  for  inftance,  that  the  head  of  a 
Turk  is  conical,  from  ihe  e.Tly  ale  of  the  turban  ;  whilft  that  of  an  Englilhman  is  flattened  by  the  chin-flay. 
Some  of  the  hteff  phyt'iologifts  fnppofc,  with  good  reafon,  that  this  difference  is  chiefly  owing  to  certain  na- 
lural  caiifes  with  which  we  are  as  yet  unacquainted. 


Part  I. 


ANA 


O      M       Y. 


6So 


13 

Of  the 

pirietul 
booei> 


ideology,  fixed  to  it,  and  part  of  the  loagitudinal  finus  lodged  in 

V '  it.     BcliJcs  the  two  follas,  there  arc  many  deprcliions, 

which  appear  like  digital  imprcllions, and  owe  their  for- 
mation [o  the  prominent  circumvoUuions  of  the  brain. 
In  the  fuetus,  the  forehead  is  conipofcdof  two  dif- 
tinit  bones  ;  fo  that  in  them  thcfagittal  future  reaches 
from  the  os  occipiiis  to  the  nofc.  This  bone  is  almofl 
every  where  compofed  of  two  tables  and  a  diploe. 
Thefe  two  tables  fcparating  from  each  other  under  the 
eyes,  form  two  cavities,  one  on  each  fide  of  the  face, 
called  the  frontal  llnufcs.  Thefe  finufcs  arc  lined 
with  a  foft  membrane,  called  vtembrana  pituitaria.  In 
thefe  finufes  a  mucus  is  fecreted,  which  is  conftantly 
palling  through  two  fmall  holes  into  the  nollrils,  which 
it  ferves  to  nioiflen. 

The  OS  frontis  is  joined  by  future  to  many  of  the 
bones  of  the  head,  viz.  to  the  parietal,  maxillary,  and 
temporal  bones  ;  to  the  os  ethmoides  ;  os  fphcnoidcs  ; 
OS  unguis  ;  and  olfa  nafi.  The  future  which  connefts 
it  with  the  parietal  bones  is  called  the  coronal  future. 
The  parietal  bones  are  two  in  number  ;  they  are  ve- 
ry thin,  and  evcH  tranfparent  in  fome  places.  The 
particular  figure  of  each  of  thefe  bones  is  that  of  an 
irregular  fquarc,  bordered  with  indentations  through 
its  whole  circumference,  except  at  its  lower  part.  It 
will  be  eafily  conceived,  that  thefe  bones  which  com- 
pofe  the  fuperior  and  lateral  parts  of  the  cranium,  and 
cover  the  greatcft  part  of  the  brain,  form  a  kind  of 
vault.  On  their  inner  furface  we  obfcrve  the  marks 
of  the  veflTcls  of  the  dura  mater  ;  and  at  their  upper 
edge  the  groove  for  the  fuperior  longitudinal  iinus. 

The  oUa  parietalia  are  joined  to  each  other  by  the 
fagittal  future  ;  to  the  osfphenoidcs  and  olTa  temporum 
by  the  fquamoiis  future  ;  tothcosoccipitisby  thelamb- 
<loidal  future  ( o ),  fo  called  from  its  rcfemblancc  to  the 
Greek  letter  lambda  ;  and  to  the  os  frontis  by  the  co- 
ronal future. 

In  the  foeiui,  the  parietal  bones  are  fcparated  from 
the  middle  of  the  divided  os  frontis  by  a  portion  of  the 
cranium  then  unoinfied. 

The  occipital  bone  forms  the  poflerior  and  inferior 
cipitalbone  parts  of  the  IkuU ;  it  approaches  nearly  to  the  Ihape  of 
a  lozenge,  and  is  indented  throughout  three  parts  of 
its  circumference. 

Thereisaconliderablc  hole  in  the  inferior  portion 
of  this  bone,  called  the  Joramen  viagnum,  through 
which  the  medulla  oblongata  pall'es  into  the  fpinc. — 
The  nervi  accefforii,  and  vertebral  arteries,  likcwife 
pafs  through  it.  Behind  the  condyles  arc  two  holes 
for  the  paflagc  of  cervical  veins  into  the  lateral  finu- 
fes ;  and  above  them  are  two  others  for  the  pallagc  of 
the  eighth  pair  and  accelTory  nerves  out  of  the  head. 
At  the  fides,  and  a  little  on  the  anterior  part  of  the 
foramen  magnum,  are  two  procelfes,  called  the  con- 
dyles, one  on  each  lidc  ;  they  are  of  an  oval  figure,  and 
are  covered  with  cartilage. 

The  external  furface  of  this  bone  has  a  large  tranf- 
verfc  arched  ridge,  under  which  the  bone  is  very  irre- 
gular, where  it  aftbrds  attachment  to  fcveral  mufclfs. 
On  examining  its  inner  furface,  wc  may  obfcrve  two 
ridges  in  form  of  a  crufs  ;  one  afcending  from  near  the 
foramen  magnum  to  the  top  of  the  bone  j  the  upper 
Vol.  I. 


14 

Of  the  oc- 


end  of  this  in  which  the  falx  is  fixed,  is  hollow,  for  Ofteolo^ry. 

lodging  the  fuperior  longitudinal  fmus,  and  the  under  "' ' 

end  has  the  third  procels  of  the  dura  mater  fixed  to  it. 
The  other  ridge,  which  runs  horizontally,  is  likewifc 
hollow  for  containing  the  lateral  finufcs.  Four  folia 
are  formed  by  the  crofs,  two  above  and  two  below.  In 
the  former  arc  placed  the  pofleriur  lobes  of  the  brain, 
and  in  the  latter  the  lobes  of  the  cerebellum. 

At  the  bafis  of  the  cranium,  wc  obferve  the  cunei- 
form procefs  (which  is  the  name  given  to  the  great 
apophyfis  at  the  fore  part  of  this  bone)  ;  it  ferves  for 
the  reception  of  the  medulla  oblongata. 

The  os  occipitis  is  of  greater  llrcnth  and  thicknefs 
than  cither  of  the  other  bones  of  the  iiead,  though  ir- 
regularly fo  ;  at  its  inferior  part,  where  it  is  thinitcA, 
it  is  covered  by  a  great  number  of  mufcles. 

This  bone,  from  its  fituation,  being  more  liable  ta 
be  injured  by  falls,  than  any  other  bone  of  the  head, 
nature  has  wifely  given  it  the  greatefl  ftrcngth  at  its 
upper  part,  where  it  is  moll  expofed  to  danger. 

It  is  joined  to  the  parietal  bones  by  (he  lambdoidal 
future,  and  to  the  olTa  temporum,  by  the  additamen- 
tum  of  the  temporal  future.  It  is  likewife  connettcd 
to  the  os  fphenoides  by  the  cuneiform  procefs.  It  is 
by  means  of  the  os  occipitis  that  the  head  is  united  to 
the  trunk,  the  two  condyles  of  this  bone  being  con- 
nefted  to  the  fuperior  oblique  procelfes  of  the  firft  ver- 
tebra of  the  neck.  li 

There  arc  two  temporal  bones,  one  on  each  fide. —  OfthetciUf 
We  maydillinguilh  in  them  two  parts  ;  one  of  which  P""' 
is  called  x\\tfquamous  ox  fcaly  part,  and  the  other  pan  '""'*•' 
petrofa  from  its  hardnefs.     This  lad  is  Ihapcd  like  a 
pyramid. 

Each  of  thefe  divifions  affords  proceffes  and  cavities? 
externally  there  are  three  procelfes ;  one  anterior, 
called  the  zygomatic  procefs  ;  one  poftcrior,  called  the 
majhid 01 7namillary  procifs,  from  its  rcfemblancc  to  a 
nipple;  and  one  inferior,  called  ihc  jlyhifiproccfi,  bc- 
caufe  it  is  Ihaped  like  a  ftiletto,  or  dagger. 

The  cavities  are,  i.  The  meatus  auditorius  cxtcr- 
iius.  2.  A  large  folfa  which  ferves  for  the  articulation 
of  the  lower  jaw;  it  is  before  the  meatus  auditorius, 
and  immediately  under  the  zygomatic  procefs.  3.  The 
ftylo-maftoid  hole,  fo  called  from  its  fituation  between 
the  ftyloid  and  maftoid  procelfes  ;  it  is  likcwife  ftyled 
the  ai]uaedu6l  of  Fallopius,  and  affords  a  palfage  to  the 
poriio  dura  of  the  auditory,  orfeventjj  pair  of  nerves. 
4.  Below,  and  on  the  fore-part  of  the  lalf  foramen,  wc 
obferve  part  of  the  jugular  folTa,  in  which  the  begin- 
ning of  the  internal  jugular  vein  is  lodged.  Anterior 
and  fuperior  to  this  folia  is  the  orifice  of  a  foramen, 
through  which  palfes  the  carotid  artery.  This  foramen 
runs  firft  upwards  and  then  forwards,  forming  a  kind 
of  elbow,  and  terminates  at  the  end  of  the  os  pctro- 
fum. — At  this  part  of  each  temporal  bone,  wc  may  ob- 
fcrve the  openingof  the  f^uflachian  tube,  a  canal  whii  h 
palfes  from  the  car  to  the  back  part  of  the  nofc. 

In  examining  the  internal  furface  of  ihcfe  bones,  wc 
may  remark  the  triangular  figure  of  tlieir  petrous  pnrt 
which  fcparaies  two  foll'^  ;  one  fuperior  and  anterior, 
the  other  inferior  and  pollcrior:  the  latter  of  t'.ul'e 
compofcs  part  of  the  folfa,  in  which  the  cercbelliini  i^ 
4  S  placed  ;■ 


(g)  The  lambdoidal  future  is  fometimcs  very  irregular,  being  compofed  of  many  fmall  futures,  whi:h  furro  . 
fo  many  little  bones  called  C'lfa  tr;^u:tra,  though  perhaps  improperly,  as  they  arc  not  always  iriang'Jar, 


6go 


A       N 


O      M       Y. 


Part  I. 


i6 
Of  the  OS 
fphcaoidcs 


oncology,  placed  ;  and  the  former,  a  portion  of  the  leafl  folFa  for 

' ^ the  bads  of  the  brain.     On  the  podcrior  fide  of  the 

parspctrofa,  wcobfcrvc  the  meatus  auditoruoiiitcrnus, 
into  which  enters  the  double  nerveof  the  fcvenih  pair. 
On  the  under  lide  of  this  proccfs,  part  of  a  hole  ap- 
pears, which  is  common  to  tlic  temporal  and  occipital 
bones  ;  through  it  the  lateral  fmus,  the  eighth  p.iir, 
and  acccllbry  nerves,  pafs  out  of  the  head. 

The  pars  petrofa  contains  fcveral  little  bones  called 
the  bones  of  the  car  ;  which,  as  they  do  not  enter  into 
the  formation  of  the  cranium,  Ihall  be  defcribcd  when 
we  are  treating  of  ihe  organs  of  hearing. 

The  olfa  temporum  arc  joined  to  the  offa  malaruni, 
by  the  zygomatic  futures  ;  to  the  parietal  bones,  by  the 
fquamous  futures ;  to  the  os  occipitis,  by  the  lambdoi- 
dal  future  ;  and  to  the  fphenoid  bone,  by  the  future  of 
that  name. 

This  bone,  from  its  fituation  araidfl  the  other  bones 
of  the  head,  has  been  fomctimes  called  curitifortue.  It 
is  of  a  very  irregular  figure,  and  has  been  compared  to 
a  bat  with  its  wings  extended. 

It  is  commonly  divided  into  its  middle  pan  or  body, 
and  its  fides  or  wings. 

The  forepart  of  the  body  has  a  fpinc  or  ridge, which 
makes  part  of  the  feptuni  narium.  The  upper  part  of 
each  wing  forms  a  Iharc  of  the  temple.  The  fore  part 
of  tliis  belongs  to  the  orbit;  while  the  under  and 
bacJc  part,  termed  Jphior/s  frocefi,  is  lodged  in  the  bafe 
of  the  ikull  at  the  point  of  tlie  pars  petrofa.  But  two 
uf  the  moll  remarkable  procell'es  are  the  pterygoid  or 
aliform,  one  on  each  fide  of  the  bodyjof  the  bone,  and  at 
110  great  dillancc  from  it.  Each  of  thefcproccifes  is  di- 
vided into  two  wings.and  of  th  cfc  the  exterior  one  is  the 
wideft.  The  other  terminates  in  a  hook-like  proccfs. 

The  internal  furface  of  this  bone  affords  three  foflae. 
Two  of  thefe  are  formed  by  the  wings  of  the  bone, 
and  make  part  of  the  lelfer  folFas  of  the  bafis  of  the 
cranium.  The  third,  which  is  fmallcr,  is  on  the  top 
of  the  body  of  the  bone  ;  and  is  called  ce//a  turcica, 
from  its  refemblance  to  a  Turkifli  faddle.  This  foifa, 
in  which  the  pituitary  gland  is  placed,  has  poUeriorly 
and  anteriorly  procelles  called  the  cttnoid proci^es. 

There  are  twelve  holes  in  this  bone,  viz.  fix  on  each 
fide.  The  firfl  is  the  palTage  of  the  optic  nerve  and 
ocular  artery  ;  the  fecond,  or  large  (lit  tranfmits  the 
third,  fourth,  fixih,  and  firfl  part  of  the  fifth  pair  of 
nerves  with  the  ocular  vein  ;  the  third  hole  gives  paf- 
fage  to  the  fecond  branch  of  the  fifth  pair  ;  and  the 
fourth  hole  to  the  third  branch  of  the  fifth  pair  of 
nerves.  The  fifth  hole  is  the  pafTage  of  the  artery  of 
the  dura  mater.  The  iixth  hole  is  fituated  above  the 
pterygoid  proccfs  of  the  fphenoid  bone;  through  itare- 
jfcded  branch  ofthefecoud  part  ofthe  fifth  pairpaifes. 

Within  the  fubflance  of  the  os  fphenoides  there  are 
two  finufcs  feparated  by  a  bony  plate.  They  are  lined 
with  the  pituitary  membrane  ;  and  like  the  frontal  fi- 
nufcs, feparate  a  mucus  which  palfcs  into  tlie  nollrils. 

The  OS  fphcBoidcs  is  joined  to  all  the  bones  of  the 
cranium  ;  and  likcwife  to  the  oll'a  maxillaria,  offa  ma- 
larum,  olla  palati,  and  vomer. 

This  bone  makes  part  ofthe  bafis  of  the  fkull,  af- 
fifls  in  forming  the  orbits,  and  affords  attachment  to 
feveral  mufcles. 

The  os  ethmoides  is  fituated  at  the  fore  part  of  the 
fcafis  of  the  cranium,  and  is  of  a  very  irregular  figure. 


Fromthegreatnumberofholcswith  which  it  is  pierced,  oftfology; 
it  is  fomeiimes  called  os  cribrijarvic  or  fievc-likc  bone.  '       ^-^       ' 

It  confills  of  a  middle  part  and  two  fides.  The  mid-  oftheoi 
die  part  is  formed  of  a  thin  bony  plate,  in  which  are  ethmodiet 
an  infinite  number  of  holes  that  afford  a  paifage  tofila-  or  cribri- 
mentsof  the  olfadory  nerve.   From  the  middle  of  this  forme, 
plate,  both  on  theoutlidc  and  from  within,  thereriles 
up  a  proccfs,  which  may  be  ealily  diflinguifhed.  The 
inner  one  is  called  crijla galti,  from  its  fuppofcd  refem- 
blance to  a  cock's  comb.     To  this  proccfs  the  falx  of 
the  dura  mater  is  attached.      The  exterior  proccfs, 
which  has  the  fame  common  bafis  as  the  crifia  galli,  is 
a  fine  lamella  which  is  united  to  the  vomer  ;   and  di- 
vides the  cavity  of  the  noftrils,  though  unequally,  it 
being  generally  a  little  inclining  to  one  fide. 

The  lateral  parts  of  this  boncare  compofedof  a  cel- 
lular fubflance  ;  and  thefe  cells  are  fo  very  intricate, 
that  their  figure  or  number  cannot  be  defcribcd.  Ma- 
ny writers  have  on  this  account  called  this  part  of  the 
bone  the  labyrinth.  Thefe  cells  are  externally  covered 
with  a  very  thin  bony  lamella.  This  part  of  the  bone 
is  called  the  oi  planum,  and  forms  part  of  the  oribt. 

The  dilTereni  cells  of  this  bone,  which  are  nume- 
rous, and  which  are  every  where  lined  with  the  pitui- 
tary membrane,  evidently  fcrve  to  enlarge  the  cavity 
of  the  nofe,  in  which  the  organ  of  fmelling  refides. 

This  bone  is  joined  to  the  os  fphenoides,  os  frontis, 
offa  maxillaria,  olfa  palati,  oifa  naii,  offa  unguis,  and  vo- 
mer. 

The  ancients,  who  confidcred  the  brain  as  the  feat 
of  all  the  humours,imagined  that  this  vifcusdifcharged 
its  redundant  nioiflure  through  the  holes  ofthe  ethmoid 
bone.  And  the  vulgar  Hill  think,  that  abfceffes  of 
the  brain  difchargethemfelves  through  the  mouth  and 
cars,  and  that  fnuffis  Jiable  to  get  into  the  head  ;  but 
neither  fnufFnor  the  matter  of  an  abfcefs  are  more  ca- 
pable of  palling  through  the  cribriform  bone,  than  the 
ferofity  which  they  fuppofcd  was  difcharged  through 
it  in  a  common  cold.  All  the  holes  of  the  ethmoid  bone 
are  filled  up  with  the  branches  of  the  olfactory  nerve. 
Its  innei;  part  is  likewife  covered  with  the  dura  ma- 
ter.anditscellsare  every  where  lined  with  the  pituitary 
membrane  ;  fo  that  neither  matter  nor  any  other  fluid 
can  pofTibly  pais  through  this  bone  either  externally 
or  internally.  Matterisindeed  fomctimes  difcharged 
through  the  noflrils  :  but  the  feat  of  the  difeafc  is  in 
the  finufcs  of  the  nofe,  and  not  in  the  brain  ;  and  im- 
poflhumatians  are  obfcrvcd  to  take  place  in  the  ear, 
which  fuppurateand  difchargethemfelves  externally. 

Before  we  leave  the  bones  ofthe  head,  we  with  to 
make  fome  general  obferv.-'tions  on  its  ftruiJlure  and  fi- 
gure.— As  the  cranium  might  have  been  compofed  of 
a  lingle  bone,  the  articulation  of  its  feveral  bones  be- 
ing abfolutely  without  motion,  it  may  be  afked  per- 
haps, Why  fuch  a  multiplicity  of  bones,  and  fo  great 
number  of  futures  ?    Many  advantages  may  polfibly  « 

arife  from  this  plurality  of  bones  and  futures,  which 
may  not  jret  have  been  obferved.  Wc  are  able,  how- 
ever, to  point  out  many  ufeful  ends,  which  could  only 
be  accompliihed  by  this  peculiarity  of  flrudlure — In 
this,  as  in  all  the  other  works  of  nature,  the  great 
wifdom  of  the  Creator  is  evinced,  and  cannot  fail  ta 
excite  our  admiration  and  gratitude. 

The  cranium,  by  being  divided  into  feveral  bones, 
grows  much  fafter  andwith  greater  facility,  than  if  it 

was 


Part  I.  ANA' 

Oftcologjr.  was  compofedof  one  piece  only.  In  the  fcrtus,  the 
"  ^  '  bones,as  we  have  before obferved,  are  perfectly  dirtinft 
from  each  other.  The  oilification  begins  in  the  middle 
of  each  bone,  and  proceeds  gradually  to  the  circumfe- 
rence. Hence  the  oililication,  and  of  courfe  the  in- 
crcafc  of  the  head,  is  carried  on  from  an  infinite  num- 
ber of  points  at  the  fame  time,  and  the  bones  confc- 
qiiently  approach  each  other  in  the  fame  proportion. 
To  illuftratc  thisdodrine  more  clearly,  if  it  can  want 
ftirther  illullration,  fuppofe  it  necelFary  for  the  parietal 
bones  which  compofe  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  to 
extend  their  offification,  and  form  the  fore  part  of  the 
headlikewifc.  Is  it  not  evident,  that  this  procefs  would 
be  much  more  tedious  than  it  is  now,  when  the  os 
frontis  and  the  parietal  bones  are  both  growing  at  the 
fame  time  ?  Hence  it  happens,  that  the  heads  of  young 
people,  in  which  the  bones  begin  to  touch  each  other, 
increafc  (lowly  ;  and  that  the  proportionate  increafe 
of  the  volume  of  the  head  is  greater  in  three  months 
in  the  foetus,  than  it  is  perhaps  in  twenty-four  months 
at  the  age  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  years. 

The  futures,  cxclii/ive  of  their  advantages  in  fu- 
fpcnding  the  procelles  of  the  dura  niatcr,  are  evident- 
ly of  great  utility  in  preventing  the  too  great  extent 

of  fractures  of  the  (kull Suppofc,  for  inllance,  that 

by  a  fall  or  blow,  one  of  the  bones  of  the  cranium  be- 
comes fraflured.  The  fifllire,  which  in  a  head  compo- 
fed  of  only  one  bone,  would  be  liable  to  extend  itfclf 
through  the  whole  of  it,  is  checked,  and  fometimes 
perhaps  flopped  by  the  firll  future  it  meets,  and  the 
cfFcds  of  the  injury  are  confined  to  the  bone  on  which 
the  blow  was  received.  Ruyfch  indeed,  and  fome 
others,  will  not  allow  the  futures  to  be  of  any  fuch 
ufe  ;  but  cafes  have  been  met  with  where  they  feemed 
to  have  had  this  effect,  and  in  young  fubjefls  their  uti- 
lity in  this  refpe(5l  mufl  be  ftill  more  obvious. 

The  fpherical  fliape  of  the  head  feems  likewifc  to 
render  it  more  capable  of  refifting  external  violence 
than  any  other  fliape  would  do.  In  a  vault,  the  parts 
mutually  fupport  and  ftrengthen  each  oihcr,  and  this 
happens  in  the  cranium. 

§   2.     Proper  Bones  of  the  Fact. 

THEface,  which  coniiflsof  a  great  number  of  bones, 
is  commonly  divided  into  the  upper  and  lower  jaws. 
The  upper  jaw  coniifts  of  thirteen  bones,  exclufive  of 
the  teeth.  Of  thefe,  Iix  are  placed  on  each  lidc  of 
the  maxilla  fupcrior,  and  one  in  the  middle. 

The  bones,  which  are  in  pairs,  are  the  offa  mala- 

rum,  olfa  maxillaria,  oUa  nafi,  ofla  unguis,  olla  palati, 

and  oifa  fpongiofa  inferiora.     The  fingle  bone  is  the 

,-        vomer. 

Of  the  olTa  ,.  Thefc  are  the  prominent  fquare  bones  which  are 

nialarum,     placed  under  the  eyes,  forming  part  of  the  orbits  and 

the  upper  parts  of  the  checks.     Earh  of  them  affords 

three  furfaccs ;  one  exterior  and  a  little  convex  ;  a  fe- 

cond  fupcrior  and  concave,  forming  the  inferior  part 

and  fides  of  the  orbit ;  and  a  third  pofterior,  irregular, 

and  hollowed  for  the  lodgement  of  the  lower  part  of 

the  temporal  mufcle. 

The  angles  of  each  bone  form  four  procelFes,  two 
of  which  may  be  called  orhitar  proce[fes  ;  of  thefe  the 
upper  one  is  joined  by  future  to  the  os  frontis,  and 
that  below  to  the  maxillary  bone.  The  third  is  con- 
nciSled  with  the  oafphenoije*  by  means  of  the  tranf- 


r      O      M      Y.  691 

vcrfc  future  ;  and  the  fourth  is  joined  to  the  zygoma-  0!Ico!o;jt. 

tic  procefs  of  the  temporal  bone,  with  which  it  forms  ' ^ — ' 

the  zygoma.  j„ 

Thefe  bones,  wliicli  are  of  a  very  irregular  figure.  Of  the  offi 
are  fo  called  becaufc  they  form  the  mod  conliderable  maxilbrii 
portion  of  the  upper  jaw.     They  are  two  in  number,  ''"per'or"' 
and  generally  remain  dillinft  through  life. 

Of  the  many  procclTcs  which  are  to  be  fecn  on  thefe 
bones,  and  which  arc  connected  w  ith  the  bones  of  the 
face  and  fkull,  we  iliall  defcribe  only  the  moft  remark- 
able. 

One  of  thefc  proceffes  is  at  the  upper  and  fore  part 
of  ihe  bone,  making  part  of  the  fide  of  the  nofe,  and 
called  the  nafai procefs.  Another  forms  a  kind  of  cir- 
cular fwecp  at  liic  inferior  part  of  the  bone,  in  which 
are  the  alveoli  or  focktts  for  the  teeth  :  this  is  called 
the  alveolar  procefs.  A  third  procefs  is  united  to  the 
OS  malas  on  each  ilde.  Between  this  and  the  nafal 
procefs  there  is  a  thin  plate,  which  forms  a  Ihare  of 
the  orbit,  and  lies  over  a  paflagc  for  the  fupcrior  max- 
illary velfcls  and  nerves The  alveolar  procefs  has 

poftcriorly  a  conliderable  tuberofity  on  its  internal 
furface,  called  the  maxillary  tuberofity. 

Behind  the  alveolar  procefs  we  obferve  two  hori- 
zontal lamella;,  which  uniting  together,  form  part  of 
the  roof  of  the  mouth,  and  divide  it  from  the  nofe. 
The  hollownefs  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth  is  owing  to 
this  partition's  being  feaied  fomew  hat  higher  than  the 
alveolar  procefs — At  the  fore  part  of  the  horizontal 
lamellae  there  is  a  hole  callcd/ortfw?«i/;<r//;"faTO,throng!i 
which  fmall  blood-velfels  and  nerves  go  between  the 
mouth  and  nofe. 

In  viewing  thefe  bones  internally,  we  obferve  a  foffa 
in  the  inferior  portion  of  the  nafal  procefs,  which, 
with  the  OS  unguis  and  os  fpongiofum  inferius,  forms 
a  palTage  for  the  lachrymal  duft. 

Where  thefe  two  bones  are  united  to  each  other, 
they  projeft  fomewhat  upwards  and  forwards,  leaving 
between  them  a  furrow,  into  which  the  lower  portion 
of  the  fcptum  nail  is  admitted. 

Each  of  thefe  bones  being  hollow,  a  confiderable 
finus  is  formed  under  its  orbitar  part.  This  cavity, 
which  is  ufually  named  after  Highmore,  though  it 
was  dcfcribed  by  Fallopius  and  others  before  his  time,  » 

is  lined  with  the  pituitary  membrane.  It  is  intended 
for  the  fame  purpofes  as  the  other  finufesof  the  nofe, 
and  opens  into  the  noflrils. 

The  oiTa  maxillaria  are  conneded  wi[h  the  greater 
part  of  the  bones  of  the  face  and  cranium,  and  aflifl  in 
forming  not  only  the  cheeks,  but  likewife  the  palate, 
nofe,  and  orbits.  j, 

The  olfa  nafi  form  two  irregular  fquares.  They  arc  Of  t>!c  offa 
thicker  and  narrower  above  than  below.  Externally  '"'"'• 
they  arc  fomewhat  convex,  and  internally  lligluly 
concave.  Thefe  bones  conftitutc  the  upper  part  of  tiic 
nofe.  At  their  fore  part  they  are  united  toeach  other, 
above  to  the  os  frontis,  by  their  fides  to  the  olfa  max- 
illaria fupcriora,  pofleriorly  and  interiorly  to  the  fep- 
tum  nariiim,  and  below  to  the  cartilages  that  compofe 
the  reft  of  the  noftrils.  ,, 

Thefe  little  tranfparent  bones  owe  rlieir  name  to  of  the  off* 
their  fuppofcd  refemblance  to  a  finger-nail.  Sometimes  uiiguh. 
they  are  called  offa  lachrytnalia,  from  their  concurring 
with  the  nafal  procefs  of  each  maxillary  boneinform- 
ind  a  lodgement  for  the  lachrymal  fac  and  duft. 

4  S  2  The 


692 


N 


O 


M       Y. 


Part  I. 


■O&toh-gj,       The  oiTa  unguis  are  of  an  irregular  figure.     Their 

*~~^' ■  cxieriKil  furfacc  conlins  of  two  liiiouth  parts,  dividtJ 

by  a  middle  ridge.  One  of  thcfc  parts,  which  is  coii- 
cayc  and  luartlt  to  ihc  iiofc,  I'ervcs  to  fupport  the  la- 
ciiryuial  fac  and  part  of  the  lachrymal  diift.  The 
other,  whicli  is  Hat,  forms  afuiall  part  of  the  orbit. 

£ach  of  thcfc  bones  is connecled  with  thcosfrontis, 
es  ethnioidcs,  and  os  maxillare  ftipcrius. 
Of  the  ofTa      Thtfc  bones,  which  arc  fituaicd  at  the  back  part  of 


paUti 


»4 

Of  the  vo- 


the  roof  of  the  mouth,  between  the  os  fplienoidcs  and 
the  olla  maxillaria  fiipcricra,  arc  of  a  very  irregular 
ftiape,  and  fcrvc  t .  form  the  nafal  and  maxillary  folfa, 
and  a  fniall  portion  of  ihc  orbit.  Where  they  arc  uni- 
ted to  each  other,  they  rife  tip  into  a  fpiae  on  their 
internal  furface.  This  fpinc  appears  to  be  a  continua- 
tion of  that  of  the  fuperior  maxillary  bones,  and  helps 
to  form  the  fcptum  narium. 

Thefc  bones  are  joined  to  the  oiia  maxillaria  fupc- 
riora,  os  ethmoidcs,  os  fphenoides,  and  vomer. 

Tills  bone  derives  its  name  from  its  refeniblance  to 
a.  plonghlhare.  It  is  a  long  and  liat  bone,  foniewliat 
thicker  at  its  back  than  at  its  fore  part.  At  its  upper 
part  wc  obfcrve  a  furrow  extending  through  its  whole 
lengtli.  The  pofberior  and  laigeft  part  of  thi;  furrow 
receives  a  procefs  of  the  fphcnoid  bone.  From  this 
the  furrow  advances  forwards,  and  becoming  narrow- 
er and  fliallower,  receives  fonic  part  of  the  nafal  la- 
mella ethmoidea  ;  the  reft  fcrvcs  to  fupport  the  mid- 
dle cartilage  of  the  nofe. 

The  inferior  portion  of  this  bone  is  placed  on  the 
nafal  fpine  of  the  maxillary  and  palate  bones,  which 
we  mentioned  in  our  dcfcription  of  the  oila  palaii. 

The  vomer  is  united  to  the  os  fphenoides,  os  etli- 
moides,  olfa  maxillaria  fuperiora,  and  olTa  palati.  It 
forms  part  of  the  feptum  narium,  by  dividing  the  bsck 
part  of  the  nofe  into  two  noflrils. 

The  parts  which  are  ufually  defcribcd  by  this  name, 
do  not  feciu  to  defcrve  to  be  diftinguilhed  as  dillinct 
bones,  except  in  young  fubjeds.  They  confilt  of  a 
fpoiigy  lamella  in  each  noflril,  whicli  is  united  to  the 
fpongy  lamina  of  the  ethmoid  bone,  of  wkich  they  arc 
by  fome  conlidered  as  a  part. 

Each  of  thefc  lamellae  is  longcll  from  behind  for- 
wards ;  with  its  convex  furface  turned  towards  the 
feptum  narium,  and  its  concave  part  towards  the  max- 
illary bone,  covering  the  opening  of  the  lachrymal 
dud,  into  the  nofe. 

Thefc  bones  are  covered  with  the  pituitary  mem- 
brane ;  and,  befides  their  conneiJlion  with  the  ethmoid 
bone,  arc  joined  to  the  ofla  maxillaria  fuperiora,  olfa 
palati,  and  olfa  unguis. 

The  maxilla  inferior,  or  lower  jaw,  which  in  its 
msxiUa  in- '^^P^  rcfembles  a  horfe-llioe,  confills  of  two  diftinct 
feiior.         bones  in  the  foetus  ;  but  thefe  unite  together  foon  af- 
ter birth,  fo  as  to  form  only  onebone.  Theupperedgc 
of  this  bone,  like  theos  maxillare  fupcrius,  has  an  al- 
veolar proceis,  furniflicd  wilhfockets  for  the  teeth. 

On  each  fide  the  pnfterior  part  of  the  bone  rifes  al- 
moft  perpendicularly  into  two  procelles.  Tlie  highcft 
of  ihtfe,  calhd  the  coronoid  procefs,  is  pointed  and 
thin,  and  ferves  for  iheinfcrtion  of  the  temporal  nuif- 
cle.  The  other,  or  condyloid  procefs,  as  it  is  calkJ, 
is  fhorter  and  thicker,  and  ends  in  an  oblong  rounded 
head,  which  is  received  into  a  folfa  of  the  temporal 
hone,  and  is  formed  for  a  moveable  articulation  witli 


Of  tha  ofTa 

fpongiol'a 

hJttioTi. 


i6 

dfthe 


the  cranium.  This  joint  is  furnifhed  with  a  moveable  Ofteolojy. 

cartilage.     At  the  bottom  of  each  coronoid  procefs,  ^— ~ 

on  its  inner  part,  we  obfcrve  a  foramen  extending  un- 
der the  roots  of  all  the  teeth,  and  terminating  at  the 
outer  furfate  of  the  bone  near  the  chin,  tach  of 
thefe  canals  tranfmiis  an  artery,  vein,  and  nerve, 
from  which  branches  arc  fcnt  ott  to  the  teeth. 

The  lower  jaw  is  capable  of  a  great  variety  of  mo- 
tion. Ly  lliding  the  condyles  from  the  cavity  towards 
the  eminences  on  each  tide,  we  bring  it  horizontally 
forwards,  as  in  biting  ;  or  we  may  bring  the  condyles 
only  forward,  and  tilt  the  rell  of  the  jaw  backward, 
as  in  opening  the  mouih.  We  art  likewife  able  to 
l!i,;c  the  condyles  alternately  backwards  and  forwards 
from  the  cavity  to  the  eminence,  and  vUe  verfa,  as  in 
grinding  the  teeth.  The  cartilages,  by  adaptingthem- 
felves  to  the  ditttrent  inequalities  in  thefe  fcveral  mo- 
tions of  the  jaw,  ferve  to  fecure  the  articulation,  and 
to  prevent  any  injuries  trom  friction. 

The  alveolar  procelTes  are  compcfcd  of  an  outer  and 
inner  bony  plate,  united  together  by  thin  partitions, 
whiirh  at  the  fore  part  of  the  jaw  diridc  the  procelfei 
into  as  many  fuckets  as  there  are  teeth.  But  at  the 
back  part  of  the  jaw,  where  the  teeth  have  more  iha« 
one  root,  wc  find  a  diflind  cell  for  each  root.  In 
both  jaws  thefe  procelles  begin  to  be  formed  with  the 
teeth  ;  they  likewife  accompany  them  in  thcirgrowth, 
and  gradually  difappear  when  the  teeth  are  removed. 

\   3.     Of  the  Teeth. 

17 

The  teeth  areb'  iiesot  a  particular  flrnflure,  form-  Of  the 
ed  for  the  purpofes  of  mallication  and  the  articulation  teeth< 
of  the  voice.     It  will  be  ncctffary  to  confider  their 
compolition  and   figure,  their  number  and  arrange- 
ment, and  the  time  and  order  in  which  they  appear. 

In  each  tooth  wc  may  dillinguilh  a  body,  a  neck, 
and  a  root  or  fangs. 

The  body  of  the  tooth  is  that  part  which  appears 
above  the  gums.  The  root  is  fixed  into  the  focket, 
and  the  neck  is  the  middle  part  between  the  two. 

The  teeth  are  compofed  of  two  fubftances,  viz.  ena- 
mel and  bone.     The  enamel,  or  the  vitreous  or  corti- 
cal part  of  the  tooth,  is  a  white  and  very  hard  and 
comp.icl  fubltance  peculiar  to  the  teeth,  and  appears 
fibrous  or  llriated  when  broken.     This  fubllance  is 
thickeft  on  the  grinding  furface,  and  becoming  gradu- 
ally thinner,  terminates  inftnfibly  at  the  neck  of  the 
tooch.     Ruyfch  *  affirmed,  that   he    could   trace  the  •  Ttt/tur 
arteries  into  the  hardefl  part  of  the  teeth  ;    Licwen-  10.  no.  17. 
hoeck  \  fufpetied  the  fibres  of  the  enamtl   to  be  fo  t '*'■'•'"'• 
manyvelfels;  and  Monro  f  fays,   he  has  frequently  ^'•''"■-  ""- 
injeded  the  vcirds  of  the  teeih  in  chibiren,  fo  as  to*^"^""''    '^" 
make   the  infidc  of  the  cortex  appear  ptrfcdly  red.  *  ^„at.  ,f 
But  is  certain,  that  it  is  not  tinged  by  a  madder  diet,  <i,  Humcn 
and  that  no  injection  will  ever  reach  it,  fo  that  it  has  Bcna. 
no  appearance  ot  being  vaftular  \.  §  Hunur 

The  bony  part,  which  com pofcs  the  inner  fubftance  on /i<  T«/4. 
of  the  body,  neck,  and  root  of  the  tonih,  rcfembles 
other  bones  in  its  (Iructure,  but  it  is  much  harder  than 
the  moft  compaft  part  of  bones  in  general.  As  a 
tooth  when  once  formed  receives  no  tinge  from  a  mad- 
der diet,  and  as  the  minutefl  injcdlions  do  not  pene- 
trate into  its  fi:bflancc,  this  part  of  a  tooth  has,  like 
the  enamel,  been  fuppofcd  not  to  be  vafcular.  But 
when  we  confider  that  the  fangsof  a  tooth  are  invefted 

hy 


Part  I.  ANA' 

Ofttolo^.  by  a  periofteum,  and  that  the  fwellings  of  ihcfc  fangs 

"^ ^ '  are  analogous  to  the  fwcliings  of  other  bones,  we  may 

reafonably  conclude,  that  there  is  a  limilariiy  of  ftriic- 
ture  ;  and  that  this  bo-iy  part  has  a  cirrulation  through 
its  fiibftancc,  although  (roiii  its  bardncfs  we  arc  un- 
able to  denionftratc  lis  vcllicls. 

In  each  tooth  we  find  an  inner  cavity,  into  which 
enter  an  artery,  vein,  anii  nerve.  This  cavity  begins 
by  a  finall  opening,  and  becoming  Lrger,  teruiinates 
in  the  body  of  the  tooth.  In  advanced  life  this  hole 
fomeiimes  clofcs,  and  the  tooth  is  of  courfe  rendered 
infenlible. 

The  perioftenm  furrounds  the  teeth  from  their 
fangs  to  a  little  beyond  their  bony  fockets,  where  we 
find  it  adhering  to  the  gums.  This  membrane,  while 
it  inclofes  the  teeth,  iervcs  at  the  fame  time  to  line 
the  fockets,  fo  that  it  may  be  confidered  as  common 
to  both. 

The  teeth  are  likewifc  fecured  in  their  fockets  by 
means  of  the  gums  ;  a  red,  vafcuhr,  firm,  and  elaftic 
fubftance,  that  pofleflcs  but  little  fenlibility.  In  the 
gums  of  infants  we  find  a  hard  ridge  extending  thro' 
their  whole  length,  bat  no  fuch  ridge  is  tobcfecnin 
old  people  w^ho  have  loft  thtir  teeih. 

The  number  of  the  teeth  in  both  jaws  at  full  matu- 
rity, ufually  varies  from  twi  nty-cight  to  thirty-two. 
They  arccomm  nly  JividcJ  into  three  dalles,  viz.  in- 
ciforcs,  canini,  and  grinders  .-^r  mo'arcs  (  h  ) .  The  in- 
ciforcs  arc  ihc  four  teeth  in  the  fore  part  of  each  jaw. 
They  have  each  of  ihcmiwo  furfaccs  ;  oneanteriorand 
convex,  the  other  pofterior  and  (lighily  concave,  both 
of  which  terminate  in  a  (liarp  edge.  They  are  called 
tnclfor(s  from  their  ufc  in  dividing  the  food.  1  hey 
are  ufnalty  broader  and  thicker  iiithe  upper  than  in  the 
under  jaw  ;  and,  by  being  placed  fomewhat  oblique- 
ly, generally  fall  over  ihe  latter. 

1  hecani'iidci  ive  thtir  name  from  their  refemblance 
to  a  dog's  tufks,  being  the  longefl  of  all  the  teeth. 
We  find  one  on  each  (idc  of  the  inciforcs,  fo  that  there 
are  two  .  anini  in  each  jaw.  Their  fang  refembles  that 
of  the  incifores,  but  is  much  larger  ;  and  in  their  (hape 
they  appear  like  an  incifor  wiili  its  edge  Worn  off,  fo 
as  to  terminate  in  a  narrow  point. 

Thefetecih  not  being  calculated  for  cutting  and  di- 
viding the  food  like  the  incifores,  or  for  grinding  it 
like  the  molares,  feem  to  be  intended  for  laying  hold 
of  fnbllances  (i). 

The  molares  or  grinders,  of  which  there  are  ten  in 
each  jaw,  are  fo  called,  beca  .fc  from  their  (hape  and 
fize  ihey  are  fitted  for  grinding  the  food.  Kach  of 
the  incifores  and  canini  is  furniihed  only  with  one 
fang  ;  but  in  the  mohrcs  of  the  under  jaw  we  con- 
flantly  find  two  fangs,  an  1  in  thofc  of  the  upper  jaw 
three  fangs  Thelc  fan^s  arc  fonictinies  feparatcd 
into  two  points,  an!  ea^h  of  ihefe  points  has  fomc- 
times  been  defcribed  as  a  diflinot  fan£. 


O       M 


693 


The  two  firflof  the  molares,  or  loofc  ntartft  toihe  oacolopy. 
canine  teeth  on  each  tide,  differ  from  the  other  three,  ^  ' 
and  are  with  great  propriety  named  bicufpidct  by  Mr 
Hunter.  They  have  fometiraes  only  one  roor,  and 
feem  to  be  of  a  middle  nature  between  the  incifores 
and  the  larger  molares.  The  two  next  arc  much  lar- 
ger. The  fifth  or  lafl  grinder  on  each  lidc  is  fmaller 
and  fhorter  than  the  reft ;  and  from  its  not  cutting  the 
gum  till  after  the  age  of  twenty,  and  fometimesHot  till 
much  later  in  life,  is  called  iiiiis/a^ieiiti.t. 

There  is  in  the  llrufture  and  arrangement  of  all 
thefe  teeth  an  art  which  cannot  be  fnfiiciently  admired. 
To  underftand  it  properly,  it  will  be  necclfary  to  con- 
fidcr  the  under  jaw  as  a  kind  of  lever,  with  its  fixed 
points  at  its  articulations  with  the  temporal  bones  : — ic 
will  be  right  to  obferve,  too,  that  its  powers  arife  from 
its  different  mufcles,  but  in  elevation  chiefly  from  the 
temporalis  and  maflccer  ;  and  that  tiie  aliment  confti- 
tutes  the  objeft  of  rtfiftance.  It  will  appear,  then, 
that  the  molares,  by  being  placed  neareft  the  centre  of 
modoii,  are  calculated  to  prefs  with  a  much  greater 
force  than  the  other  teeth,  independent  of  their  grind- 
ing powers  which  they  pofTefs  by  means  of  the  ptery- 
goid mufcles  ;  and  that  it  is  for  this  rcafon  we  put  be- 
tween them  any  hard  body  we  willi  to  break. 

The  canini  and  inciforesare  placed  farther  from  this 
point,  and  of  courfe  cannot  exert  fo  much  force  ;  but 
they  are  made  for  cutting  and  tearing  the  food,  and 
this  form  feems  to  make  amends  for  their  deficiency 
in  ftrength. 

There  are  examples  of  children  who  have  come  into 
the  world  with  two,  three,  and  even  four  teeth  ;  buc 
thefe  examples  are  very  rare  ;  and  it  is  feldom  before 
the  fcventh,  eighth,  or  ninth  month  after  birth,  that 
the  incifores,  which  are  the  firft  formed,  begin  to  pafs 
through  the  gum.  The  fymptoms  of  dentition,  how- 
ever, in  conlequence  of  irritation  from  the  teeth,  fre- 
quently take  place  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  month ,\- 

boLit  the  twentieth  or  twenty-fourth  month,  the  canini 
and  two  molares  make  their  appearance. 

The  dangerous  fymptoms  that  fomeiinies  accompany; 
dentition,  are, owing  to  the  prelTure  of  the  teeth  on 
the  gum,  which  they  irritate  fo  as  to  e.xcitc  pain  and 
indamniation.  This  irritation  feenis  ro  occalion  a  gra- 
dual wafling  of  the  gum  at  the  part,  till  at  length  the 
tooth  makes  its  .appearance. 

The  fymptoms  are  moreor  lefs  aUrniing,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  re:ii!unce  wiiich  the  gum  affords  to  the 
teeth,  and  according  co  the  number  of  tecih  which 
may  chance  to  feck  a  paliagc  at  the  fane  time.  \N'erc 
they  all  to  appear  at  once,  children  would  fjll  viflinis 
to  the  pain  and  exceilive  irritation  ;  but  Nature  has  fo 
very  wifely  difpofid  them,  that  they  ufuiUy  appear 
one  af;er  the  other,  with  Ibme  diltanec  of  time  be- 
tween each.  The  firft  inciforthr.t  appears  is  genera.ly 
in  the  Iswer  jaw,  and  is  followed  by  one  iii  the  up- 
per 


(h)  Mr  Hunter  has  thought  proper  to  vary  this  divilion.  He  retains  the  old  name  of  inc-forej  to  the  four 
fore  teeth,  but  he  diftinguiihes  the  canine  teeth  by  the  name  of  the  i/tfiUnti.  The  two  tccih  which  are  next 
to  thefe,  and  which  have  been  nliiilly  ranked  with  the  molares,  he  cilh  the  biciiffiJ:i ;  and  he  ^ivcs  the  name 
of  gini.^i^rj  only  to  the  three  IjII  teeth  on  each  lidc. 

(1)  Mr  Hunter  remarks  ot  ihife  iceih,  that  we  may  trace  in  ihf  ra  a  fimilarity  in  (hape,  fituation,  and  ufe, 
from  the  nioft  imperfectly  carnivorous  animal,  which  we  believe  to  be  the  hnman  fpccics,  to  the  lioa,  which  is 
tke  iuoit  pcrlcclly  carnivorous. 


694  ANA! 

Oftcology.   perjnw.     Someiiines  the  canini,  but  more  cominoiily 

'"     ^ '  one  of  the  luolarcs,  begins  to  pafs  through  ihc  gum 

Crll. 

Tliefc  30  teeth,  viz.  eight  inciforcs,  four  canini, 
and  eight  molares,  arc  called  t^inpomry  or  tmtk  teeth, 
bccaufc  ilicy  arc  all  (hed  between  the  age  of  fcven 
and  1 4,  and  arc  fucccedeJ  by  what  arc  called  the  pcr- 
Maiicnt  or  adult  teeth.  The  latter  arc  of  a  firmer  tex- 
ture, and  have  larger  fangs. 

Thcfe  adult  teeth  being  placed  in  a  diftinft  fet  of 
alveoli,  the  upper  fockcts  gradually  difappear,  as  the 
under  ones  increafein  fize,  till  at  length  the  tempora- 
ry, or  upper  teeth,  having  no  longer  any  fupport, 
confcijuciuly  fall  out. 

To  thcfe  20  teeth,  which  fucceed  the  temporary 
ones,  1 2  others  arc  afterwards  added,  viz.  three  ino- 
larcs  on  each  fide  in  both  jaws  :  and  in  order  to  make 
room  for  this  addition,  we  find  that  the  jaws  gradually 
lengthen  in  proportion  to  the  growth  of  the  teeth  ;  fo 
that  with  20  teeth,  they  feem  to  be  as  completely  filled 
as  they  are  afterwards  with  32.  This  is  the  rcafou 
why  the  face  is  rounder  and  flatter  in  children  than  in 
adults. 

With  regard  to  the  formation  of  the  teeth,  we  may 
obferve,  that  in  a  foetus  of  four  months,  the  alveolar 
procefs  appears  only  as  a  fliallow  longitudinal  groove, 
divided  by  minute  ridges  intoa  number  of  intermediate 
deprefhons  ;  in  each  of  which  we  find  a  fmall  pulpy 
fubflance,  furrounded  by  a  vafcular  membrane.  This 
pulp  gradually  ofTifies,  and  its  lower  part  is  lengthened 
out  to  form  the  fang.  When  the  bony  part  of  the 
tooth  is  formed,  its  iurface  begins  to  be  incrufled  with 
the  enamel.  How  the  latter  is  formed  and  dcpolited, 
we  are  not  yet  able  to  determine. 

The  rudiments  of  fome  of  the  adult  teeth  begin  to 
be  formed  at  a  very  early  period,  for  the  pulp  of  one  of 
the  inciforcs  may  generally  be  perceived  in  a  foetus  of 
eight  months,  and  the  oflification  begins  in  it  foon  af- 
ter birth.  The  firfl  bicufpis  begins  to  olTify  about  the 
fifth  or  fixth,  and  the  fecond  about  the  feventh  year. 
The  firfl  adult  grinder  cuts  the  gum  about  the  12th, 
the  fecond  about  the  iSth,  and  the  third,  or  dens  fa- 
fieiitite,  ufually  between  the  20th  and  30th  year. 

The  teeth,  like  other  bones,  are  liable  to  be  afFedled 
by  difcafc.  Their  removal  is  likewife  the  natural 
confequence  of  eld  age;  for  as  wc  advance  in  life, 
the  alveoli  fill  up,  and  the  teeth,  efpecially  the  inci- 
forcs, fall  out.  When  this  happens,  the  chin  pro- 
jefts  forward,  and  the  face  is  much  ihortened. 

§   4.  Of  the  Os  Hyoides.   (k.) 

jg_  The  OS  hyoides,  which  is  placed  at  the  root  of  the 

tongue,  was  fo  called  by  the  ancients  on  account  of  its 
fuppofcd  refcmblance  to  the  Greek  letter  i/. 

It  will  be  necefTary  to  diftinguifli  in  it,  its  body, 
horns,  and  appendices. 

The  body,  which  is  the  middle  and  broadcfl  part  of 
the  bone,  is  fo  placed  that  it  may  be  eaiily  felt  at  the 
fore  part  of  the  throat.     Atucriorly  it  is  irregularly 

/ 


O       M       Y.  Parti. 

convex,  and  its  inner  furfacc  is  unequally  concave.  Its  Ofteology. 

cornua,  or  hums,  which  are  flat  and  a  little  bent,  be-  ' •^—~' 

ing  much  longer  than  the  body  part,  may  be  defcribcd 
as  forming  the  fides  of  the  u.  The  appendices,  or  lit- 
tle horns,  as  they  are  called  by  M.  Winllow,  andfomc 
other  writers,  are  two  procelfes  which  rife  up  from 
the  articulations  of  the  cornua  with  the  body,  and  arc 
ufually  connedlcd  with  the  flyloid  procefsoa  each  fide 
by  means  of  a  ligament. 

The  ufes  of  this  bone  are  to  fupport  the  tongue,  and 
af!'ord  attachment  to  a  great  number  of  mufcles  ;  fome 
of  which  perform  the  motions  of  the  tongue,  while 
others  ad  on  the  larynx  and  fauces. 

Sect.  III.  Of  the  BtnesoJ  the  Trunk. 

The  trunk  of  the  fkelctonconfifts  of  the  fpine,  the        ty, 
thorax,  and  the  pelvis. 

§  I.  Of  the  Spine. 

The  fpine  is  compofed  of  a  great  number  of  bones  j». 
called  vertebra,  forming  a  long  bony  column,  in  figure 
not  much  unlike  the  lettery.  This  column,  which  ex- 
tends from  the  head  to  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  may 
be  faid  to  conlift  of  two  irregular  and  unequal  pyramids, 
united  to  each  other  in  that  part  of  the  loins  where  the 
lafl  lumbar  vertebrajoins  the  os  facrum. 

The  vertebra:  of  the  upper  and  longefl  pyramid  arc 
called  true  vertebra,  in  contradiflinftion  to  thofc  of  the 
lowermoft  pyramid,  which,  from  theirbeing  immove- 
able in  the  adult,  are  Hyltilfalfe  vertebra.  It  is  upen 
the  bones  of  the  fpine  that  the  body  turns  ;  and  it  is  to 
this  circumflance  they  owe  their  name,  which  is  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  verb  vertere,  to  turn. 

The  true  vertebras  are  divided  into  three  clafTci 
of  cervical,  dorfal,  and  lumbar  vertebras. — The  falfc 
vertebrae  confifl  of  the  os  facrum  and  os  coccygis. 

In  each  vertebra,  as  in  other  bones,  it  will  be  necef- 
fary  to  remark  the  body  of  the  bone,  its  proccfTes,  and 
cavities. 

The  body,  which  is  convex  before,  and  concave  be- 
hind, where  it  alhfis  in  forming  the  cavity  of  the 
fpine,  may  be  compared  to  part  of  a  cylinder  cut  off 
tranfverfcly. 

Each  vertebra  affords  feven  proccfTes.  The  firfl  is 
at  the  back  part  of  the  vertebra,  and  from  its  fhape  and 
direftion  is  named  the  fpinoni  procefs.  On  each  fide  of 
this  are  two  others,  which,  from  their  fituation  with 
refpeft  to  the  fpine,  are  called //aw/l'fr/^/irocf^v.  The 
four  01  hers  are  fly  led  oW/ffwf  or  ar//a//dr/)rocc^!rj.  They 
are  much  fmallcr  than  the  fpinous  or  tranfverfc  ones. 
Two  of  them  are  placed  on  the  upper,  and  two  on  the 
lower  partof  each  vertebra,  rifing  from  near  the  bafis 
ofeachtranfverfeprocefs.  They  have  gotten  the  name 
o{  oblique  proccffes,  from  their  fituation  with  refpecf  to 
the  procelfes  with  which  they  are  articulated;  and  they 
arc  fomctimesflylcd  aiticular  precedes,  from  the  man- 
iicrin  which  they  are  ariiculated  with  eachother  ;  the 
two  fupcriorproceflcsof  one  vertebra  beingariiculated 

with 


(k  )  This  bone  is  very  feldom  preferved  with  the  fkeleton,  and  cannot  be  included  among  the  bones  oi  the 
head,  or  any  other  divilion  of  the  fkeleton.  Thomas  Bartholin  has  perhaps  very  properly  defcribcd  it  among 
parts  contained  in  the  mouth  ;  but  the  generality  of  anatomical  writers  have  jilaccd  it,  as  it  is  here,  after 
the  bones  of  the  face. 


A       N       A       "J 

with  the  two  inferior  proceflcs  of  the  vertebra  above 

' '^—^  it.     Each  of  thcfe  procclfcs  is  covered  with  cartilage 

at  its  articulation,  and  their  articulations  with  each 
other  are  by  a  fj)ccics  of  ginglimus. 

In  each  vertebra,  between  its  body  and  its  procefles, 
we  find  a  hole  large  enough  to  admit  a  finger.  Thefe 
holes  or  foramina,  correfpond  with  each  otlicr  through 
all  the  vertebrae,  and  form  the  long  bony  channel  in 
which  the  fpinal  marrow  is  placed.  We  may  likewife 
obferve  four  notches  in  each  vertebra.  Two  of  thcfe 
notches  arc  at  the  upper,  and  two  at  the  lower  part  of 
the  bone,  between  the  oblique  procefTcsand  the  body 
of  the  vertebra.  Each  of  thefe  notches  meeting  with 
a  fimilar  opening  in  the  vertebra  above  or  below  it, 
forms  a  foramen  for  the  paflagc  of  blood-vellcls,  and 
of.the  nerves  out  of  the  fpine. 

The  bones  of  the  fpine  are  united  together  by  means 
of  a  fubflance,  which  in  young  fubjetts  appears  to  be 
of  a  ligamentous,  but  in  adults  more  of  a  cartilaginous 
nature.  This  intervertebral  fubflance,  which  forms 
a  kind  of  partition  between  the  fevcral  vertebras,  is 
thicker  and  more  flexible  between  the  lumber  verte- 
brae than  in  the  other  parts  of  thefpine,  the  moft  con- 
fiderable  motions  of  the  trunk  being  performed  on  tliofe 
vcrtebrse.  This  fubflance  being  very  elaftic,  the  ex- 
tenfion  and  flexion  of  the  body,  and  its  motion  back- 
wards and  forwards,  to  either  /ide,  areperformed  with 
great  facility.  This  elafticity  fceftis  to  be  the  reafon 
why  people  who  liave  been  long  Handing,  or  have 
carried  a  confiderable  weight,  are  found  to  be  Ihorter 
than  when  they  have  been  long  in  bed.  In  the  two 
firfl  inftances  the  intervertebral  cartilages  (as  they  are 
ufually  called)  are  evidently  more  expofed  tocompref- 
fion  than  when  weareinbed  in  an  horizontal  polture. 

In  advanced  life  thcfe  cartilages  become  fhrivelled, 
and  of  courfe  lofc  much  of  their  elafticity.  This  may 
ferve  to  account  for  the  decreafe  in  flature  and  the 
ftooping  forward  which  are  ufually  to  be  obfcrvcd  in 
old  people. 

Befides  the  connecflion  of  the  feveral  vertebrae  by 
means  of  this  intervertebral  fubftance,  there  are  like- 
wife  many  ftrong  ligaments,  both  external  and  in- 
ternal, which  imite  the  bones  of  the  fpine  to  each 
other.  Their  union  is  alfo  ftrengthened  by  a  variety 
of  flrong  mufcles  that  cover  and  furround  the  fpine. 

The  bonesof  the  fpine  are  found  todiminilhin  den- 
fity,  and  to  be  lefs  firm  in  their  texture  in  proportion 
as  they  increafe  in  bulk  ;  fo  that  the  lowcrmoft  verte- 
bra, though  the  largeft,  are  not  fo  heavy  in  proportion 
as  the  upper  ones.  By  this  means  the  lize  of  thefe 
bones  is  increafed  without  adding  to  their  weight  :  a 
circumflancc  of  no  little  importance  in  a  part  like  the 
fpine,  which,  befides  flexibility  and  fupplencfs,  feems 
to  require  lightnefs  as  one  of  its  efTential  properties. 

In  very  young  children,  each  vertebra  conlifts  of 
three  bony  pieces  united  by  cartilages  which  aftcr- 
wards  oflify. 
Vcrtebrx  There  are  fe  ven  vertebrae  of  the  neck — they  are  of  a 
•fthr  nttk,  firmer  texture  than  the  other  bones  of  the  fpine.  Their 
tranfvcrfc  procelfcs  are  forked  for  the  lodgement  of 
mufcles,  and  at  the  bottom  of  each  we  obferve  a  fora- 
men, through  which  pafs  the  cervical  artery  and  vein. 
The  firfl  and  fccoud  of  thcfe  vertebras  muft  bcdcfcri- 
bed  more  particularly.  The  firll approaches  almodto 
an  oval  lliape — Oa  its  fuperior  forfacc  it  has  two  cavi- 

4 


\    O       M       Y.  6gs 

ties  which  admit  the  condyles  of  the  occipital  bone  odtbUry ■ 

with  which  it  is  articulated.  This  vertebra,  which  is ^ 

called  at/at  from  its  fupporting  the  head,  cannot  well 
be  dcfcribed  as  having  cither  body  or  fpinous  proccfs, 
being  a  kind  of  bony  ring.  Anteriorly,  where  it  is  ar- 
ticulated to  the  odontoid  procefs  of  the  fecond  verte- 
bra, it  is  very  thin.  On  its  upper  furface  it  has  two 
cavities  which  admit  the  condyles  of  the  occipital  bone. 
By  this  connexion  the  head  is  allowed  to  move  for- 
wards and  backwards,  but  has  very  little  motion  in  any 
other  diredion. 

The  fecond  vertebra  has  gotten  the  namtof  dmtata, 
from  its  having,  at  its  upper  and  interior  part,  a  pro- 
cefs called  ihcoilontoidoT tooth-lik: pmcefs,  which  is  ar- 
ticulated with  the  atlas,  to  which  this  fecond  vertebra 
may  be  faid  to  ferve  as  an  axis.  This  odontoid  procefs 
is  of  a  cylindrical  Ihape,  fonicwhat  flattened,  however, 
anteriorly  and  pofteriorly.  At  its  fore-part  where  it  is 
received  by  the  atlas,  we  may  obferve  a  finooth,  con- 
vex, articulating  furface.  It  is  by  means  of  this  arti- 
culation that  the  head  performs  its  rotatory  motion, 
the  atlas  in  that  cafe  moving  upon  this  odontoid  pro- 
eels  as  upon  a  pivot.  But  when  this  motion  is  in  any 
confiderable  degree,  or,  in  other  words,  when  the  head 
moves  much  either  to  the  right  or  left,  all  the  cervical 
vertebrae  fcem  to  afTift,  otherwife  the  fpinal  marrow 
would  be  in  danger  of  being  divided  tranfverfcly  by  the 
firfl  vertebra. 

The  fpinous  procefs  of  each  of  the  cervical  vertebrse  vertcbn 
is  (horter,  and  their  articular  procelTes  more  oblique,  ofthebark^ 
than  in  the  other  bones  of  the  fpine. 

Thefe  1 2  vertebras  are  of  a  middle  fize  between  thofc 
of  the  neck  and  loins.  At  their  fijes  we  may  obferve 
two  depreffions,  one  at  the  upper  and  the  other  at  the 
lower  part  of  the  body  of  each  vertebrae  ;  which  unitino- 
with  fimilar  depreffions  in  the  vcrtebr.t  above  and  be-  * 

low,  form  articulating  furfaces,  covered  with  cartila- 
ges, for  receiving  the  heads  of  the  ribs  ;  and  at  the 
forepart  of  their  tranfverfe  procefs  (excepting  the 
two  laft)  we  find  an  articulating  furface  for  receiving 
the  tuberofity  of  the  ribs. 

Thefe  five  vertebras  differonly  from  thofeof  the  back  ^  b*r 
in  their  being  larger,  and  in  having  their  fpinous  pro-  v«ubr». 
ceiTes  at  a  greater  diftance  from  each  other.  The  moll 
confiderable  motions  of  the  truk  are  made  on  thcfe 
vertebrx  ;  and  thcfe  motions  could  not  be  performed 
with  fo  much  eafe,  were  the  procelTes  placed  nearer  to 
each  other. 

The  OS  facruta,  which  is  compofcd  of  five  or  fix        ^* 
pieces  in  young  fubje«5ls,  becomes  one  bone  in  more  ^*  f«™™» 
advanced  age. 

It  is  nearly  of  a  triangular  figure,  its  inferior  portion 
being  bent  a  little  forwards.  Its  fuperior  part  has  two 
oblique  procefles  which  are  articulated  with  the  lull  of 
the  lumbar  vertebra;  ;  and  it  has  likewife  commonly 
three  fmall  fpinous  procclfcs,  which  gradually  become 
ihorter,  fo  that  the  lowcrmoft  is  not  fo  long  as  the  fe- 
cond, nor  the  fecond  as  the  upperinoft.  Its  tranfvcrfc 
proccircsare  formed  intooneoblong  procefs,  which  be- 
comes gradually  fmaller  as  it  defccnds.  Its  coucave  or 
anterior  fide  is  ufually  fmooth,  but  its  pofterior  convex 
fide  has  many  prominences  (the  moft  remarkable  of 
which  are  the  fpinous  procelles  juft  now  mentioned), 
which  arc  filled  up  and  covered  with  the  mufcular  and 
tendinous  parts  behind. 

This 


696 


A       N 


T       O      M       Y. 


35 

O5  coccyx, 


QUeology.  This  boiic  has  five  pair  of  holes,  wliich  afford  a  paf- 
'  ^'  '  (age  to  blood- veirds,  an  J 1  ikcwifc  to  the  nerves  that  are 
derived  from  the  fpinal  ii\arrow,  which  is  contituicd 
even  here,  being  lodged  in  a  triangular  cavity,  that  bc- 
co:nes  rmalicr  as  it  dcfceuds,  asid  at  length  terminates 
obliquely  at  the  lower  part  of  tiiis  bone.  Htlow  the 
third  di\ifiou  of  the  os  facruni,  this  canal  is  not  com- 
pletely bony  as  in  the  rcliof  the  fpine,  being  fccured 
at  its  back  part  only  by  a  very  ftroug  membrane,  fo 
that  a  wound  at  that  part  mull  be  extremely  dange- 
rous. 

The  OS  facrum  is  united  laterally  to  the  ofla  inno- 
minata  or  hip-bones,  and  below  to  the  coccyx. 

The  coccyx,  which,  like  the  os  facrum,  is  in  young 
people  made  up  of  three  or  four  diftinct  parts,  ufually 
becomes  one  bone  in  the  adult  ftate. 

It  ferves  to  fupport  the  inteftinum  redlum  ;  and,  by 
its  being  capable  of  fome  degree  of  motion  at  its  arti- 
culation with  the  facrum,  and  being  like  that  bone 
bent  forwards,  we  are  enabled  to  fit  with  eafe. 

This  bone  is  nearly  of  a  triangular  Hiape,  being 
broadeft  at  its  upper  part,  and  from  thence  growing 
narrower  to  its  apex,  where  it  is  not  bigger  than  the 
little  finger. 

It  has  got  its  name  from  its  fuppofed  refemblance  to 
a  cuckow's  beak.  It  differs  greatly  from  the  verte- 
brae, being  commonly  without  any  procelTes,  and  ha- 
ving no  cavity  for  the  fpinal  marrow,  or  foramina  for 
xhe  tranfmiffion  of  nerves. 

The  fpine,  of  which  we  have  now  finiQied  the  ana- 
tomical defcription,  is  deftined  for  many  great  and  im- 
portant ufes.  The  medulla  fpinalis  is  lodged  in  its 
bony  canal  fecure  from  external  injury.  It  ferves  as  a 
defence  to  the  abdominal  and  thoracic  vifcera,  and  at 
the  fame  time  fupports  the  head,  and  gives  a  general 
tirmncfs  to  the  whole  trunk. 

We  have  before  compared  it  to  the  letter/,  and  its 
tlifferent  turns  will  be  found  to  render  it  not  very  unlike 
the  figure  of  that  letter.  In  the  neck  we  fee  it  projecting 
fomewhat  forward  to  fupport  the  head,  which  without 
thisaffiflance  would  require  a  greater  number  ofniuf- 
cles. — Lower  down,  in  the  thorax,  we  find  it  taking  a 
<urved  direction  backwards,  and  of  courfe  increaiing 
the  cavity  of  the  cheft.  After  this,  in  the  loins,  it 
again  projects  forwards  in  a  direction  with  the  centre 
of  gravity,  by  which  means  we  are  ealily  enabled  to 
keep  the  body  in  an  erec't  pofture,  for  otherwife  we 
iliould  be  liable  to  fall  forward.  Towards  its  inferior 
extremity,  however,  it  again  recedes  backward,  and 
rhus  aflifis  in  forming  the  pelvis,  the  name  given  to 
the  cavity  in  which  the  urinary  bladder,  intellinum 
redlum,  and  other  vifcera  are  placed. 

If  this  bony  column  had  been  formed  only  of  one 
piece,  it  would  have  been  much  more  eafily  fractured 
than  it  is  now  :  and  by  confining  the  trunk  to  a  lliff 
fituation,  a  variety  of  motions  would  have  been  altoge- 
ther prevented,  which  are  now  performed  with  eafe  by 
the  great  number  of  bones  of  which  it  is  compofed. 

It  is  firm,  and  yet  to  this  firmnefs  there  is  added  a 
perfetl  flexibility.  If  it  be  required  to  carry  a  load 
upon  the  head,  the  neck  becomes  ftiff  with  the  afiill- 
ance  of  its  mufcles,  and  accommodates  itfelf  to  the 
load,  as  if  it  was  compofed  only  of  one  bone — In 
stooping  likcwii'e,  or  in  turning  to  either  fide,  the  fpine 

3 


Part  I. 

turns  itfelf  in  every  dircaion,  as  if  all  its  bones  were  Ofteology. 
fcparatcd  from  each  other.  — -v  — 

In  a  part  of  the  body,  like  the  fpine,  that  is  made 
up  of  fo  great  a  number  of  bones,  and  intended  for 
fuch  a  variety  of  motion,  there  mull  be  a  greater  dan- 
ger of  dillocation  than  fradlurc  ;  but  we  fhall  find,  that 
this  is  very  wifely  guarded  againll  in  every  diredioii 
by  the  procelfes  belonging  to  each  vetrcbra,  aud  by 
the  ligaments,  cartilages,  &c.  by  which  thtfe  bones 
are  conncdcd  with  each  other. 

§  2.    Of  tht  Bcriei  ofthi  Thorax.  *' 

The  thorax,  or  chefl,  is  compofed  of  many  bones, 
viz.  the  (Icrnum  which  is  placed  at  its  anterior  part, 
twelve  ribs  on  each  fide  which  makeup  itslateral  parts 
and  the  dorfal  vertebrae  which  conflitute  its  poilerior 
part.  Thefelafl  have  been  already  defcribed.  37 

The  AeniHra  is  the  lung  bone  which  extends  itfelf  Of  the  (kjr- 
from  the  upper  to  the  lower  part  of  the  brcafl  anteri-  •"""• 
orly,  and  to  which  the  ribs  and  the  clavicles  are  arti- 
culated. 

In  children  it  is  compofed  of  feveral  bones  united  by 
cartilages  j  but  as  we  advance  in  life,  moft  of  theft 
cartilages  olTify,  and  the  fternum  in  the  adult  Hate  is 
found  CO  conlifl  only  of  three  pieces,  and  foraetimes 
becomes  one  bone,  his  however  generally  defcribed 
as  being  compofed  of  three  pans — one  fuperior,  which 
is  broad,  thick,  and  ihort  ;  and  one  in  the  middle, 
which  is  thinner,  narrower,  and  longer  than  the 
other. 

It  terminates  at  its  lower  part  by  a  third  piece,  which 
is  called  the  xyphoid,  or  fiucrd-tike  cartilage,  from  its 
fuppofed  refemblance  to  the  blade  of  a  fword,  and  be- 
caufe  in  young  fubj eels  it  is  commonly  in  a  cartilagi- 
nous Hate. 

We  have  already  obfervcd,  that  this  bone  is  articu- 
lated with  the  clavicle  on  each  fide.  It  is  likewifejoin- 
ed  to  the  fourteen  true  ribs,  viz.  feven  on  its  right 


and  feven  on  its  left  fide. 


3« 


The  ribs  arc  bones  ihapcd  like  a  bow,  forming  the  Of  thcribt. 
fides  of  the  chefl.  There  arc  twelve  on  each  fide. 
They  are  diftinguidied  into  true  and  falfe  ribs  :  The 
feven  upper  ribs  svhich  are  articulated  to  the  llcrnum 
arc  called  trm  ribs,  and  the  five  lower  ones  that  arc 
not  immediately  attached  to  that  bone  are  ciWcd  J,iifc 
ribs. 

On  the  inferior  and  interior  furface  of  each  rib,  we 
obferve  a  f'lnuolity  for  the- lodgement  of  an  artery,  vein, 
and  nerve. 

The  ribs  are  not  bony  through  their  whole  length, 
their  anterior  part  being  cartilaginous.  They  are  ar- 
ticulated with  the  vcrtel;rae  and  flernum.  tvcry  rib 
(or  at  leaft  the  greater  numberof  them)  has  atitspofl- 
rior  part  two  procefTes  ;  one  at  its  extremity  called  the 
head  of  the  rib,  by  means  of  which  it  is  articulated 
with  the  body  of  two  vertebrx  ;  and  another,callcd  its 
tuberofity,by  which  it  is  articulated  with  thctranfverfe 
procefs  of  the  lowcflof  thcfe  iwovcrtcbrx.  Thefirfl 
rib  is  not  articulated  by  its  extremity  to  two  vcrtcbrse, 
being  fimply  attached  to  the  upper  part  of  the  firfl  ver- 
tebra of  the  back.  The  feven  fuperior  or  true  ribs  are 
articulated  anteriorly  with  t'lc  flernum  by  their  carti- 
lages ;  but  the  falfe  ribs  are  fupporied  in  a  different 
manner — the  eighth,  which  is  the  liril  of  thcfe  ribs, 

.being 


Part  I. 

Ofteology. 


V- 


40 
O]  ilium. 


ANA' 

being  attached  by  its  cartilage  to  the  fcvcnth  ;  ilie 
ninth  to  the  eighth,  &c. 

Thp  two  lowcrmoflribs  differ  likewife  from  all  the 
rell  ill  the  following  particulars :  They  are  articulated 
only  with  the  body  ot'  the  vertebra,  and  not  with  a 
tranfvcrl'c  procefs  ;  and  anteriorly,  their  cartilage  is 
loofc,  not  being  attached  to  tlie  cartilages  of  the  otiier 
ribs  ;  and  this  I'cems  to  be,  bccaufc  the  moll  conlider- 
ablc  motions  of  the  trunk  are  not  performed  on  the 
lumbar  vertebras  alone,  but  likewilc  on  the  two  lall 
vertebrae  of  the  back;  fo  that  if  thcfe  two  ribs  had 
been  confined  at  the  tore  part  like  the  other  ribs,  and 
had  been  likcwifc  articulated  with  the  bodies  of  two 
vertebra;,  and  with  the  tranfverfe  procclFcs,  the  moti- 
on of  the  two  lall  vertebrae,  and  confequcutly  of  the 
■^holc  trunk,  would  have  been  impeded. 

The  ribs  help  to  form  the  cavity  of  the  thorax; 
they  afford  aiiachmcnt  to  different  mufcles  ;  they  are 
ufcful  in  rcfpiratioii;  and  they  fcrve  as  a  fccurity  to 
the  heart  and  lungs. 

^   3.     Of  the  Bonis  of  thi  Pelvis. 

The  pelvis  is  compofed  of  the  os  facrum,  os  coccy- 
^is,  and  two  ofla  innominata.  The  two  lirft  of  thefe 
bones  were  included  in  the  account  of  the  fpine,  to 
l^■hich  they  more  properly  belong. 

In  children,  each  os  innominatura  is  compofed  of 
three  dillind  bones  ;  but  as  we  advance  in  life  the  in- 
termediate cartilages  gradually  offify,  and  the  marks 
of  the  original  feparation  difappear,  fo  that  they  be- 
come one  irregular  bone  ;  lUU  however  continuing  10 
retain  the  names  of  ilium,  ifchium,  and  pubis,  by  which 
their  divifions  were  originally  dillinguilhed,  and  to  be 
defcribed  as  three  different  bones  by  the  generality  of 
anatomifls.  The  os  ilium  forms  the  upper  and  mod 
confiderable  part  of  the  bone,  the  os  ifchium  its  lower 
and  pofterior  portion,  and  the  os  pubis  its  fore  part. 

The  OS  ilium  or  haunch  bone,  is  articulated  poAeri- 
orly  to  the  os  facrum  by  a  firm  cartilaginous  fubflance, 
•nd  is  united  to  the  os  pubis  before  and  to  the  os  ifchi- 
um below.  Its  (uperior  portion  is  thin,  and  termi- 
nates in  a  ridge  called  the  crifta  or  fpine  of  the  ilium, 
and  more  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  the 
haunch.  This  crifta  rifes  up- like  an  arch;  being 
turned  fome what  outwards,  fo  as  to  refemble  the  wings 
of  a  phaeton. 

Externally  this  bone  isunequally  prominent  and  hol- 
lowed for  the  lodgement  of  mufcles;  internally  we  find 
it  fmooth  and  concave.  At  its  lower  part  there  is  a 
conliderablc  ridge  on  its  inner  furface.  TLis  ridge 
extends  from  the  os  facrum,  and  corrcfponds  with  a 
fimilar  prominence  both  on  that  bone  and  the  ifchi- 
um ;  forms  with  the  inner  part  of  the  olfa  pubis  what 
in  midwifery  is  termed  the  brim  of  the  pelvis. 

Thccrifta,  or  fpine,  which  at  iirll  is  an  epiphyfis, 
has  two  conlidcrsblc  tubcrofnies  ;  one  auttriorly,  and 
the  other  pollcriorly,  which  is  the  largcll  of  the  two  : 
Thcfe,  from  their  projecting  more  than  tiie  pans  of 
the  bones  below  them,  have  gotten  the  name  of  fpinal 
proceflts.  From  the  anterior  fpinous  procefs,  the  far- 
torius  and  tenfor  vaginjc  fenioris  mufcles  have  their 
origin;  and  below  the  porttrior  procefs  we  obfervc  a 
conlidcrable  niche  in  the  bone,  which,  in  the  recent 
fubjct?t,is  formed  into  a  large  foramen,  by  means  of  a 
flrong  ligament  that  is  llrttched  oyer  its  lower  part 
Vol..  I. 


O      M      Y. 


697 


from  the  OS  facrum  10  the  fliarp-poinied  proccGofibe  Ortcdogy. 
ifchium.     This  hole  atfords  a  palfige  to  the  great  l:i-  '       ^r—-' 
atic  nerve,  and  to  the  pofterior  crural  veiTcli  under 
the  pyriform  mufcle,  part  of  which  iikeuife  palTcs  out 
here.  4r 

The  OS  ifchiHm,  or  hip-bone,  which  is  of  a  very  ir-  OiiTchiuni. 
regular  figure,  conftitutes  the  lower  htcrsl  parts  of  the 
pelvis,  and  is  commonly  divided  into  its  body,  tubero- 
iity,  and  ramus.  The  body  forms  the  lower  and  moft 
confiderable  portion  of  the  acetabulum,  aud  fenJs  a 
fliarp-pointed  procefs  backwards,  called  the  fpine  of 
the  ifchium.  To  this  procefs  the  ligament  adheres, 
which  vvasjuftnowfpokenof, asformi  igaforaraealor 

the  palTagc  of  the  fciatic  nerve The  tuberofity  which 

is  the  lowed  part  of  the  trunk,  and  fupports  us  when 
we  fit,  is  large  and  irregular,  aft'ording  origin  to  feve- 
ral  mufcles.  From  this  tuberoiity  we  find  the  bone 
becoming  thinner  and  narrower.  This  part,  which  has 
the  name  of  ramus  or  branch,  palTes  forwards  and  up- 
wards, and  concurs  with  the  ramus  of  the  os  pubis,  to 
form  a  large  hole  called  ihz  foramen  magnum  if  chit,  or 
thynideuvi,  as  it  is  fometimes  named,  from  its  refem- 
blance  to  a  door  orfliield.  This  hole,  which  in  the 
recent  fubjcct  is  clcfed  by  a  flrong  membrane  called 
the  obturator  ligament,  affords  through  its  whole  cir- 
cumference attachment  to  mufcles.  At  its  upper  part 
where  we  obfcrve  a  niche  in  the  bone,  it  gives  pallagc 
to  the  obturator  velfcls  and  nerves,  wliich  go  to  the 
inner  part  of  the  thigh.  Nature  feeras  every  where  to 
avoid  an  unnecelTary  weigh tofbone,  and  this  foramen, 
no  doubt,  ferves  to  lighten  the  bones  of  the  pelvis.  4* 

The  OS  pubis  or  fhare-bone,  which  with  its  fellow  Os  i>ubi». 
forms  the  fore-part  of  the  pelvis,  is  the  fniallefl  divi- 
fion  of  the  os  innominatum.     It  is  united  to  its  fellow 
by  means  of  a  ftrong  cartilage,  which  forms  what  is 
called  the  fymphyfis  pubis. 

In  each  os  pubis  we  may  diflinguifh  the  body  of 
the  bone,  its  angle,  and  ramus.  The  body  or  outer 
part  is  united  to  the  os  ilium.  The  aiigie  ceracs  for- 
ward to  form  the  fymphyfis,  and  the  ramus  is  a  thin 
procefs  which  unites  with  the  ramus  of  the  ifchium, 
to  form  the  foramen  thyroideum. 

The  three  bones  we  have  defcribed  as  compofing 
each  OS  innominatuui,  all  aflill  in  forming  the  acetabu- 
lum, in  which  the  head  of  the  os  femoris  is  received. 

This  cavity  is  every  where  lined  with  a  fmooth  car- 
tilage, excepting  at  its  inner  part,  where  we  may  ob- 
ferve  a  little  foifa,  in  which  are  lodged  the  mucilagi- 
nous glands  of  the  joint.  We  may  likcwife  notice 
the  pit  or  depreflion  made  by  the  nmud  ligament,  as 
it  is  improperly  called,  which,  by  adhering  to  this 
cavity  and  to  the  head  of  the  thigh-bouc,  helps  to  fc- 
cure  the  latter  in  the  fockct. 

Thcfe  bones,  which  are  united  to  each  other  and 
to  the  fpine  by  many  very  ftrong  ligaments,  ferves  to 
fupport  the  trunk,  and  to  conntcl  it  with  the  lower 
extremities  ;  and  at  the  fame  tiuie  to  form  the  pelvis 
or  baton,  in  which  are  lodged  the  inteflines  and  uri- 
nary bladder,  and  in  women  the  uterus  ;  fo  that  the 
ftudy  of  this  part  of  oileology  is  of  the  utmoft  import- 
ance to  midwifery. 

It  is  worthy  of  obfervation,  that  in  women  the  os 
facrum  is  ufually  fhorter,  broader,  and  more  hollowed, 
the  oila  ilia  more  expanded,  aud  the  inferior  opening 
of  the  pelvis  larger  than  in  men. 

4  T  Sect. 


43- 


44- 


AS' 

46 

Of  the  cU^ 
vicula. 


47 

Of  the  fca 
}iula. 


ANA 

Sect.  IV.  Cf  the  Extremities. 

These  partsof  thcfkcletonconlillof  the  upper  ex- 
iremity  ^iiii  the  lower. 

5  I.  Of  the  Upper  Extremity. 

This  coiifills  of  the  fliouldcr,  the  arm,  anil  the 
hand. 

I.  Of  the  Shoulder. 

The  fhoulder  confills  of  two  bones,  the  clavicula 
and  the  I'capuli. 

The  former, which  is  fo  named  from  its  rcfemblance 
to  (he  key  in  ufc  amongft  the  aucienis,  is  a  little  cur- 
ved at  both  its  extreniiiies  like  an  italic/".  It  islike- 
w'lie  ciWiiCi  jrigr/lum,  or  collar-bone,  from  its  fituation. 
It  is  about  the  fize  of  the  little  linger,  but  longer,  and 
being  of  a  very  fpongy  fubftance  is  very  liable  to  be 
Iraftured.  In  this,  as  in  other  long  bones,  we  may 
dillinguifli  a  body  and  two  extremities.  The  body  is 
rather  flattened  than  rounded.  The  anteiior  extre- 
mity is  formed  into  a  (lightly  convex  head,  which  is 
nearly  of  a  triangular  Ihapc.  Tlie  inferior  furfacc  of 
the  head  is  articulated  with  the  Ikrnum.  The  polle- 
rior  extremity,  which  is  flatter  and  broader  than  the 
other,  is  conue^Hed  10  a  procefs  of  the  fcapula,  called 
acromioiu  Both  thcfc  articulations  are  fccurcd  by  li- 
gaments, and  in  that  with  the  fternum  we  meet  with 
a  moveable  cartilage,  to  prevent  any  injury  from  fric- 
tion. 

The  clavicle  ferves  to  regulate  the  motions  of  the 
fcapula,  by  preventing  it  from  being  brought  too  nmch 
forwards,  or  carried  too  far  backwards.  It  attbrds  ori- 
gin to  fcveral  mafcles,  and  helps  to  cover  and  protect 
the  fubclavian  vclfels,  which  derive  their  name  from 
their  fuuation  under  this  bone. 

The  fcajHila,  or  Ihoulder-bladc,  which  is  nearly  of 
a  triangular  ihape,  is  fixed  to  the  pofterior  part  o(  the 
true  ribs,  fomewhat  in  the  manner  of  a  buckler.  It 
is  of  a  very  unequal  thickuefs,  and  like  all  other  broad, 
flat  bones,  is  fomewhat  cellular.  Exteriorly  it  is  con- 
vex, and  interiorly  concave,  to  accommodate  itfclf  to 
the  convexity  of  the  rii)s.  We  obferve  in  this  bone 
three  une<i'iaUides,  which  are  thicker  and  llronger  than 
the  body  of  the  bone,  and  arc  tlierefore  termed  its 
cojut.  The  largeft  of  the  three,  called  alfo  the  bafis, 
is  turned  towards  the  vertcbrs.  Another,  whicli  is 
Icfs  than  the  former,  is  below  this;  and  the  third, 
which  is  the  Ic.ift  of  the  three,  is  at  the  upper  part  of 
the  bone.  Externally  the  bone  is  elevated  into  a  con- 
fiderablc  fpine,  which  rifing  fmall  at  the  bafis  of  the 
fcapula,  becomes  gradually  higher  and  broader,  and 
divides  the  outer  furfacc  of  the  bone  into  two  foilas. 
The  fuperior  of  thefe,  which  is  the  fmalleft,  ferves  to 
lodge  the  fupra  fpinatus  mufclc  ;  and  the  inferior  fof- 
fa,  which  is  much  larger  than  the  other,  gives  origin 
to  the  infra  fpinatus.  This  fpine  terminates  in  a  broad 
and  flat  proccfs  at  the  top  of  the  Ihoulder,  called  the 
frocejfiis  acroviion,  to  which  the  clavicle  is  articulated. 
This  proccfs  is  hollowed  at  its  lower  part  to  allow  a 
paJage  to  the  fupra  and  infra  fpinati  mufcles.  Tlie 
fcapula  has  likewife  another  confulcrable  proccfs  at  its 
»ipper  part,  which,  from  its  refemblance  to  the  beak 
•f  a  bird,  is  called  the  corasoid proccfs .     From  ihe  on- 


4«. 


49* 


r       O       M       Y.  Part  /. 

ter  fide  oftliJs  coracoid  procefs,  a  flrong  ligament  paf-  Oftealogyi 

fcs  to  the  proceffus  acromion,  which  prevents  a  luxa-  ^ v^— ' 

lion  of  the  OS  humeri  upwards.  A  third  procifs  be- 
gins by  a  narrow  neck,  and  ends  in  a  cavity  called 
g/iiioid,  for  the  connection  of  tlie  os  humeri. 

The  fcapula  is  articuLitcd  with  the  clavicle  and  03 
humeri,  to  which  la(t  it  ferves  as  a  fulcrum  ;  and  by 
varying  its  polition  it  affords  a  greater  fcope  to  the 
bones  of  the  arm  in  their  dilFercnt  motions.  It  like- 
wife  gives  origin  to  fcveral  mufclcs,  and  polleriorljr 
ferves  as  a  defence  to  the  trunk. 

2.  Bones  of  the  Arm. 

The  arm  is  commonly  divided  into  two  parts,  which 
are  articulated  to  each  other  at  the  elbow.  The  up- 
per part  retains  the  n»me  of  arm,  properly  fo  called, 
and  the  lower  part  is  ufually  called  the  fore-arm. 

The  arm  is  compofcd  of  a  fmgle  bone  called  os  l.it- 
Meri.  This  bone,  which  is  alniofl  of  a  cylindrical 
fliapc,  may  be  divided  inio  its  body  and  its  extremi- 
ties. 

The  upper  extremity  begins  by  a  large,  round 
fmooth  head,  which  is  admitted  into  the  glenoid  ca- 
vity of  the  fcapula.  Oa  the  upper  and  fore  part  01  the 
bone  there  is  J  groove  for  lodging  the  long  head  of  the 
biceps  mufde  of  the  arm  ;  and  on  each  tide  of  the 
groove,  at  the  upper  end  of  the  bone,  there  is  a  tu- 
bercle to  which  the  fpinata  mufclcs  areixcd. 

The  lower  extremity  has  feveral  procefles  and  cavi- 
ties. The  principal  proccll'csare  its  two  condyles,  one 
exteriorand  the  other  interior,  and  of  thefe  the  lull  is 
the  largeft.  Between  thefe  two  we  obferve  two  Lite- 
ral proiuberanees,  which,  together  with  a  middle  ca- 
vity, form  as  it  were  a  kind  of  pully  upon  which  the 
motions  of  the  fore-arm  are  chieliy  performed.  At 
each  fide  of  the  condyles,  as  well  exteriorly  as  interi- 
orly, there  is  another  eminence  which  gives  origin  to 
feveral  mufclcs  of  the  hand  and  fingers.     Poltcriorly  ) 

and  fuperiorly,  fpeaking  with  refpett  to  the  condyles, 
wc  obferve  a  deep  folia  which  receives  a  conliderable 
procefs  of  the  ulna;  and  anieriorly  and  oppoliie  to 
this  foifa,  we  obferve  another,  which  is  muchlefs  and 
receives  another  proccfs  of  the  fame  bone. 

The  boiiy  of  the  bone  has  at  its  upper  and  anterior 
part  a  furrow  which  begins  from  behind  the  head  of 
the  bone,  and  ferves  to  lodge  the  tendon  of  a  mulcle. 
The  body  of  the  os  humeri  is  hollow  through  its  wjiole 
length,  and,  like  all  other  long  bones,  has  its  marrow. 

This  bone  is  articulated  at  its  upper  part  to  the  fca- 
pula. This  articulation,  which  allows  motion  every 
way,  is  furrounded  by  a  capfular  ligament  ;  that  is 
fonietimes  torn  in  luxation,  and  becomes  an  obllaele  to 
the  eafy  reduction  of  the  bone.  Its  lower  extremity 
is  articulated  with  the  bones  of  the  fore-arm. 

The  fore-arm  is  compofcd  of  two  bones,  the  ulna  ofthcJb**- 
and  radius.  arm. 

The  ulna  or  elbow-bone  is  much  lefs  than  the  os       51 
humeri,  and  becomes  gradually  fmaller  as  it  defcends  Of  the  ul- 
to   the  wrilt.     At  its  upper  part  it  has  two  procelFcs,  "^• 
and  two  cavities.     Of  the  two  procelfes,  the  largeft, 
which  is  lituated  poltcriorly,  and  called  the  olecranon, 
is  admitted  into  the  poilerior  folfa  of  the  os  humeri. 
The  other  procefs  is  placed  anteriorly,  and  is  called 
the  coroiioid frocefs.     In  bending  the  arm  it  enters  in- 
to the  afltcrior  folTa  of  the  os  humeri.     This  proccfs 

beiflg 


5» 
Of  the  ra- 
dius. 


Parti.  ANA' 

Ofttology  being  much  fnwller  than  the  other,  permits  the  fore- 

' " una  CO  bend  iuwaros  ;  w  hcrcis  the  olecranon,  which 

ii  ihspctl  tike  a  hook,  reaches  the  bouoin  of  iis  t'oH'a 
in  the  OS  humeri  as  fooii  as  the  arm  becomes  llrai;rht, 
aud  will  not  permit  the  fore-arm  to  be  beut  backwards. 
The  lii^amciitj  likcvvifc  oppofc  this  moiio:i. 

iSeiween  the  twoproccucswc  havcdcfcribed,  there 
is  a  coiilidcrable  cavity  called  the  fygmoid  cavity,  di- 
ridcd  into  twofoUx  by  a  fmall  eminence,  which  palTes 
from  one  procefs  to  the  other  ;  it  is  by  means  of  this 
cavity  and  the  two  procclTes,  thst  the  ulna  is  articu- 
lated with  the  OS  humeri  by  jjinglinms. 

At  the  bottom  of  tiie  coronoid  jjroccfs  interiorly, 
there  is  a  fmall  fygmoid  cavity,  which  fcrves  for  the 
•rticiilktion  of  the  ulna  with  the  radius. 

The  body  of  the  ulna  is  of  a  triangular  fliape  :  Its 
lower  extremity  terminates  by  a  fmallhead  and  a  little 
llyloid  procefs.  The  ulna  is  articulated  above  to  the 
OS  humeri — both  above  and  below  to  the  radius,  and 
t9  the  wrift  atitslowcr  extremity.  All  thefe  articula- 
tions are  fecured  by  means  of  ligaments.  The  chief 
ufc  of  this  bone  fecms  to  be  to  fupport  and  regulate  the 
motions  of  the  radius. 

The  radius,  which  is  fo  named  from  its  fuppofed  re- 
fcmblance  to  die  fpokc  of  a  wheel,  is  placed  at  the  in- 
fidc  of  the  fore-arm.  It  is  fomewiiai  larger  than  the 
ulna,  but  not  quite  fo  long  as  that  bone.  Its  upper 
part  is  cylindrical,  hollowed  fuperiorly  to  receive  the 
outer  condyle  of  tlie  os  humeri.  Laterally  it  is  ad- 
mitted into  the  little  fygmoid  cavity  of  the  ulna,  and 
tTie  cylindrical  part  of  the  bone  turns  in  this  cavity  in 
the  motions  of  pronation  and  fupiiiation  (l).  This 
bone  followsthe  ulna  in  flcxionanJ  cxtcniion,  and  may 
likewifc  be  moved  round  its  axis  in  any  direction.  The 
lower  extremity  of  the  radius  is  much  larger  and 
ftronger  than  its  upper  part  ;  the  ulna,  on  the  contra- 
ry, is  Imaller  and  weaker  below  than  alwve ;  fo  that 
they  fervc  to  fupply  each  others  deticieiicics  in  both 
thofe  parts. 

On  the  external  fide  of  this  bone,  we  obfcrvc  a  fmall 
cavity  which  is  defined  to  receive  the  lower  part  of  the 
ulna  ;  and  its  lower  extremity  is  formed  into  a  large 
cavity,  by  means  of  which  it  is  articulated  with  tiie 
bones  of  the  wrill,  and  on  this  account  it  is  fomeiinics 
called  maiiubrium  vtamts.  It  fupports  the  two  tirll 
bones  of  the  wrift  on  the  lide  of  the  thumb,  whereas 
the  ulna  is  articulated  with  that  bone  of  the  wrilt 
which  corrcfponds  with  the  little  finger. 

Through  the  wholelength  both  of  this  bone  and  the 
ulna,  a  ridge  is  obferved,  which  affords  attachment  to 
aiiinteroireous  ligament.  This  ligament  fills  up  the 
fpace  between  the  two  bones. 

3.  Bones  of  the  Hand. 

The  carpus  or  wrift  confifts  of  eight  fmall  bones  of 
an  irregular  ihape,  and  difpofed  in  two  uncipial  rows. 
Thofe  of  the  upper  row  are  articulated  wiih  the  bones 
of  the  fore-arm,  and  thofe  of  the  lower  one  with  the 
metacarpus. 

The  ancient anatomifts  defcribcdthcfe  bones  nume- 
rically ;  Ly  ferus  feems  to  have  been  the  hrfl  who  gave 


O      M       Y. 


699 


53- 

54 
or  tlic  car- 
pus. 


to  each  of  them  a  particular  name.     The  names   he  Ofteology. 

adopted  are  founded  on  the  figure  of  the  bones,  and  arc  — ^ ' 

now  pretty  generally  received,  except  the  firll,which 
inflcad  of  x'.TKXoi/rfit  (the  name  given  to  it  by  Ly  ferus, 
on  account  of  its  finu^, that  admits  apariof  the  os  mag- 
num), has  by  later  writers  been  named  Scaphoidis  or 
Naviciilare.  This,  which  is  the  outennoftof  the  upper 
row  (conlidcriug  the  thumb  as  the  outer  fide  of  the 
hand),  is  articulated  with  the  radius  ;  on  its  inner  lidc 
it  is  connected  with  theoslunarc,  and  below  to  the  tra- 
pezium and  trapczoides.  Next  to  this  is  a  fmallcr  bone 
called  the  os  luuure  :  becanfe  its  outer  fide,  which  is 
coiuiec\cii  with  the  fcaphoides,  is  Ihaped  like  a  cref- 
cent.  This  is  likcwife  articulated  with  the  radius.  On 
itsinner  fide  it  joins  the  os  cuneiformc,aad  anteriorly, 
the  OS  magnum  and  os  unciformc. 

The  OS  cuneiform,  which  is  the  third  bone  in  th« 
upper  row,  is  compared  to  a  wedge,  from  its  being 
broader  above,  at  the  back  of  the  hand,  than  it  is  be- 
low. Polleriorly  it  is  articulated  with  the  ulna,  and 
anteriorly  with  the  os  unciformc. 

Thefe  three  bones  form  an  oblong  articulating  fur- 
face,  covered  by  cartilage,  by  which  the  hand  is  con- 
nected with  the  fore-arra. 

The  OS  pififorme,  or  pea-like  bone,  which  is  fmallcr 
than  ih«  three  jull  now  defcribed,  though  generally 
claifed  with  the  MSlSesof  the  upper  row,  does  not  pro- 
perly belling  lofllllcr  fcries,  being  placed  on  the  un- 
der i'urface  of  the  os  cuuciforme,  fo  as  to  project  into 
the  palm  of  the  hand.  The  four  bones  of  the  fecund 
row  corrcfpond  with  the  bones  of  the  thumb  and  lin- 
gers ;  the  lirft,  fccond,  and  fourth,  are  from  their 
lliapes  named  traptzium,  trapizoid:s,  and  nucifoniiei 
the  third,  from  its  being  the  largcft  bone  of  the  car- 
pus, is  ftyled  os  magnum. 

All  thefe  bones  are  convex  towards  the  back,  and 
nightly  concave  towards  the  palm  of  the  hand  ;  their 
articulating  furfaces  are  covered  w  ith  cartilages,  and 
fecured  by  many  llroug  ligaments,  particularly  by  two 
ligamentous cxpanlions,  called  the  external  and  inter- 
nal annular  ligaments  of  the  wrift.  The  former  ex- 
tends in  an  oblique  direclion  from  the  os  pififorme  to 
the  ftyloid  procefs  of  the  radius,  and  is  an  inch  and  an 
half  in  breadth  ;  the  latter  or  in;erual  annular  liga- 
ment is  ftretched  from  the  os  pififorme  and  os  unci- 
formc, to  the  OS  fcaphoides  and  trapezium.  Thefe  an- 
nular ligaments  likewifc  ferve  to  bind  down  the  ten- 
dons of  the  wrill  and  fingers.  .. 

The  matacarpus  confifts  of  four  bones,  which  fup-  of  the  mt- 
port  the  fingers  ;  externally  they  arc  a  little  convex,  tacarput. 
and  internally  fomewhat  concave,  where  they  form 
the  palm  of  the  hand.     They  arehollow,  and  of  a  cy- 
lindrical ihape. 

At  each  extremity  they  are  alitile  hollowed  fiir  their 
articulation;  fupcriorly  with  the  bones  of  the  carpus, 
and  infcriorly  wiih  the  rirft  phalanx  of  the  fingers, 
in  the  fame  manner  as  the  feveral  phalanges  of  the 
fingers  are  articulated  with  each  other.  , 

Tlic  five  fingers  of  each  hand  are  compofed  of  hfteen  of  t!ie  fia« 
bones,  difpofed  in  three  ranks  rilled  phalanges  :  The  gcrs, 
bones  of  the  lirft  phalanx,  which  arc  articulated  with 
4  T  2  the 


(i.)  The  nioiiiins  of  proniti.in  and  fupiiiatiou  may  be  cufily  dclcriiicd.  If  the  palm  of  the  iianJ,  for  inftaiice, 
is  placed  in  the  fiirfacc  of  a  tabic,  the  hand  may  be  (aid  to  be  in  a  ftate  of  prontiion  ;  but  if  the  back  part  of 
tke  hand  is  turned  towards  the  table,  the  hand  will  be  clicn  iua  Aatc  of  fupination. 


yoo 

Ofttology. 


57. 


Of  the  o» 


A      N       A       -■ 

the  meiacarpns,  are  the  largeft,  and  thofe  of  the  laft 
phalanx  the  fmallcft.  All  thefe  bones  are  larger  at 
their  extremities  than  in  their  middle  part. 

Weobfervc  at  the  extremities  of  the  bones  of  the 
carpus,  metacarpus,  and  lingers,  fevcral  incciualiiics 
that  ferve  for  their  aniculation  with  edch  other;  and 
thefe  articulations  are  ftrengthened  by  means  of  the 
ligaments  which  furround  them. 

It  will  be  eafily  underflood  that  this  multiplicity  of 
bones  in  the  hand  (for  there  are  27  in  each  hand)  is 
elFential  to  the  different  motions  we  wifli  to  perform. 
If  each  finger  was  compofcd  only  of  one  bone  iaftead 
of  three,  it  would  be  inipoflible  for  us  to  grafp  any 
thing. 

§  2.  C/Mf  Lower  Extremities. 

Each  lower  extremity  is  divided  into  four  parts, 
tiz.  the  OS  fcmoris,  or  thigh  bone  :  the  rotula,  or 
knee-pan  ;  the  leg  ;  and  the  foot. 

I.  Of  the  Thigh. 

The  thigh  is  compofed  only  of  this  bone,  which  is 
the  largeft  and  ftrongcfl  we  have.  It  will  be  necellary 
to  diftinguifli  its  body  and  extremities  :  Its  body ,  which 
is  of  a  cylindrical  (hape,  is  convex  before  and  con- 
cave behind,  where  it  fcrves  tolodgefeveralmufcles. 
Throughout  two-thirds  of  its  kngtK  wc  obfcrve  a 
ridge  called  /hiea  afpera,  which  originates  from  tlie 
trochanters,  and  after  running  for  fome  way  down- 
wards, divides  into  two  branches,  that  terminate  in 
the  tuberofities  at  the  lower  extremity  of  the  bone. 

At  its  upper  extremity  we  muft  defcribe  the  neck 
and  (mooth  head  of  ihe  bone,  and  likewife  twoconfi- 
derable  procelfcs:  Tlichcad,  which  forms  the  greater 
portion  of  a  fphcre  unequally  divided,  is  turned  in- 
wards, and  received  into  the  great  cotyloid  cavity  of 
the  OS  innominatum.  At  this  part  of  the  bone  tliere  is 
a  little  foifa  to  be  obfcrved,  to  which  the  round  liga- 
ment is  atiachcd, and  which  we  have  already  dcfcribed 
as  tending  to  fccure  the  head  of  this  bone  in  the  great 
acetabulum.  The  neck  is  almoft  horizontal,  confidercd 
withrefpeft  to  its  fituation  with  the  body  of  the  bone. 
Of  the  two  proccfTes,  the  external  one,  which  is  the 
laigefl,iscal!ed  trochanter  major;  and  the  other, which 
is  placed  on  the  iufide  of  the  bone,  trochanter  minor. 
They  both  afford  attachment  to  mufcles.  The  articu- 
lation of  the  OS  fcmoris  with  the  trunk  is  flrengthened 
by  means  of  a  capfular  ligament,  which  adheres  eve- 
ry where  round  the  edge  of  the  great  cotyloid  cavity  of 
the  OS  innominatum, and  furrounds  the  headofthe  bone. 

The  OS  femoris  moves  upon  the  trunk  in  every  di- 
reftion. 

At  thelosver  extremity  of  the  bone  are  twoprocef- 
fcs  called  the  condyles,  and  an  intermediate  fmooth 
cavity,  by  means  of  which  it  is  articulated  with  the 
leg  by  giuglimus. 

All  round  the  under  end  of  the  bone  there  is  an  ir- 
regular furface  where  the  capfular  ligament  of  the  joint 
has  iisorigin,  and  where blood-vcffels  go  intothe  fub- 
llance  of  the  bone. 

Between  the  condyles  there  is  a  cavity  pofteriorly, 
in  which  the  Llood- vtlfcls  and  nerves  are  placed,  fc- 
cure from  liie  comprclfion  towhich  they  would  other- 
wife  be  expofcdin  the  ai5lion  of  benJingthe  leg,  and 
xrhich  would  not  fail  to  be  hurtful. 


'       O       M       Y.  Parti. 

At  the  fide  of  each  condyle  externally,  there  is  a  Oftcology. 

tubcrolity,  from  whence  the  lateral  ligaments  origi-  ^ ^ '■ 

nate,  which  are  extended  down  the  tibia. 

A  ligament  likewife  arifcs  from  each  condyle  pofte- 
riorly. One  of  thefe  liganienis  palTes  from  the  right 
to  the  left,  and  the  otiier  from  the  left  to  the  right, 
fo  that  they  interfeii  each  other,  and  for  that  rcafon 
are  called  the  crofs  Ugainenti. 

The  lateral  ligaments  prevent  the  motion  of  the  leg 
upon  the  thigh  to  the  right  or  left ;  and  the  crofs  liga- 
ments, which  are  alfo  attached  to  the  tibia,  prevent 
the  latter  from  being  brought  forwards. 

In  new-born  children  all  the  procell'es  of  this  bone 
arc  cartilaginous. 

2.  The  Rotula,  or  Knee-pan. 

The  rotula,  patella,  or  knee-pan,  as  it  is  differently  Of  the  ro- 
called,  is  a  flat  bone  about  fouror  five  inches  in  circum-  'u'^* 
ference,  and  is  placed  at  the  fore-part  of  the  joint  of 
the  kitce.  In  its  fliape  it  is  fomewhat  like  the  common 
figure  of  the  heart,  with  its  point  downwards. 

It  is  thinner  at  its  edge  than  in  its  middle  part  ;  at 
its  fore-part  it  is  fmooth  and  fomewhat  convex  ;  its 
pofterior  furface,  which  is  more  unequal,  affords  an 
elevation  in  the  middle  which  is  admitted  betweenthe 
two  condyles  of  the  os  femoris. 

This  bone  is  retained  in  its  proper  fituation  by  a  ftrong 
ligament  which  every  where  furrounds  it, and  adheres 
both  to  the  tibia  and  os  femoris  ;  it  is  likewife  firmly 
conneded  with  the  tibia  by  means  of  a  ftrong  tendi- 
nous ligament  of  an  inch  in  breadth,  and  upwards  of 
two  inches  in  length,  which  adheres  to  the  lower  part 
of  the  patella,  and  to  the  tuberofity  at  the  upper  end 
of  the  tibia.  On  account  of  this  connexion,  it  is  very 
properly  confidered  as  an  appendage  to  the  tibia, 
which  it  follows  in  all  its  motions, fo  as  to  be  to  it  what 
the  olecranon  is  to  the  ulna.  There  is  this  difference, 
however,  thatthe  olecranonisa  fixed  procefs;  where- 
as the  patellais  moveable, beingcapable  of  Hiding  from 
above  downw-ards  and  from  below  upwards.  This  mo- 
bility is  elfcntial  to  the  rotatory  motion  of  the  leg. 

In  very  young  children  this  bone  is  entirely  carti- 
laginous. 

The  principal  ufe  of  the  patella  feems  to  be  to  de- 
fend the  articulation  of  theknce  from  external  injury; 
itlikewife  tends  toincrcafe  the  powerof  the  exienfor 
mufcles  of  the  leg,  by  removing  their  direction  farther 
from  the  centre  of  motion  in  the  manner  of  a  pulley. 


3.  Of  the  Leg. 


60, 


The  leg  is  compofed  of  two  bones  :  Of  thefe  the  in- 
ner one,  which  is  the  largeft,  is  called  tibia  ;  the  other 
is  much  fmaller,  and  named  fibula.  gj 

The  tibia,  which  is  fo  called  from  its  refemblance  to  of  the  \ih\x 
the  mufical  pipe  of  the  ajicients,has  three  furfaccs,and 
is  not  very  unlike  a  triangular  prifm.  Its  pofterior  fur- 
face  is  the  broadcft  ;  anteriorly  it  has  a  confidcrabic 
ridge  called  the  fhin,  between  which  and  the  (kin  there 
are  nomufcles.  .At  the  uppcrexircmity  of  ihisbone  are 
twofurfaces,  a  little  concave,  and  fepara ted  from  each 
other  by  an  intermediate  elevation.  The  two  little  ca- 
vities receive  the  condyles  of  the  "S  femori?,  and  the 
eminence  between  thcni  is  admitted  into  the  cavity 
which  we  fpokeofas  bcingbetwecnthc  two  condyles; 
ib  that  this  articulation  affords  a  fpecimcn  of  the  com- 

flctc 


Part  I. 

Oftcology. 


61 
Of  the  fi. 
bula. 


63. 

64 

Of  the  tar- 

fU9. 

Of  the  a- 
ilragalus. 


66 
Of  the  OS 
calcis. 


('7 
Of  (he  05 
uuvicularc 


ANA! 

pletc  gingliimis.  Under  the  external  edge  of  the  up- 
per end  of  this  bone  is  a  circular  flat  furface,  which 
receives  the  head  of  the  fibula. 

At  the  lower  and  inner  portion  of  the  tibia,  we  ob- 
ferve  a  conliderable  procefs  called  malleolus  intinius. 
The  bans  of  the  bone  terminates  in  a  large  tranfvcrfe 
cavity,  by  which  it  is  articulated  with  the  uppermoft 
bone  of  the  foot.  It  has  likcwil'c  another  cavity  at  its 
lower  end  and  outer  lide,  which  is  fomewhat  oblong, 
and  receives  the  lower  end  of  the  fibula. 

The  tibia  is  hollow  through  its  whole  length. 

The  fibula  is  a  fniall  long  bone  fituated  on  the  out- 
fideof  the  tibia.  Its  fupcrior  extremity  does  not  reach 
quite  fo  high  as  the  upper  part  of  the  tibia,  but  its 
lower  end  defcends  fomewhat  lower.  Both  above  and 
below,  it  is  articulated  with  the  tibia  by  means  of  the 
lateral  cavities  we  noticed  in  our  defcripiion  of  that 
bone. 

Its  lower  extremity  isflretchedout  into  a  coronoid 
procefs,  which  is  flattened  at  its  infidc,  and  its  convex 
externally,  forming  what  is  called  the  malleolus  exter- 
ntis,  or  outer  ancle.  This  is  rather  lower  than  the 
malleolus  internus  of  the  tibia. 

The  body  of  this  bone,  which  is  irregularly  triangu- 
lar, is  a  Utile  hollow  at  its  internal  furface,  which  is 
turned  towards  the  tibia,  and  it  affords  like  that  bone, 
through  its  whole  length,  attachment  to  a  ligament, 
which  from  its  fiiuationis  called  the  interofleous  liga- 
ment, 

4.     Of  the  Foot. 

Thefootconfiftsof  the  tarfus,  metatarfus,  and  toes. 

The  tarfus  is  compofed  of  feven  bones,  viz.  the  a- 
ftragalus,  03  calcis, os  naviculare,os  cuboides,  and  three 
others  called  cuneiform  bones. 

The  aflragalus  is  a  large  bone  with  which  both  the 
tibia  and  fibula  are  articulated.  It  is  the  uppermoft 
bone  of  the  foot ;  it  hasfcveral  furfaccs  to  be  confider- 
ed  ;  its  upper,  and  fomewhat  pofterior  part,  which  is 
fmooth  and  convex,  is  admitted  into  the  cavity  of  the 
tibia.  Its  lateral  parts  areconnefted  with  the  malleoli 
of  the  two  bones  of  the  leg  ;  below,  it  is  articulated 
with  the  OS  calcis,  and  its  anterior  furface  is  received 
by  the  os  naviculare.  All  ihefe  articulations  are  fecu- 
red  by  means  of  ligaments. 

The  OS  calcis, or  calcaneum, which  is  of  a  very  irre- 
gular figure,  is  the  largcft  bone  of  the  foot.  Behind, 
it  is  formed  inio  a  conliderable  tubcrofi'y  called  the 
heel  ;  without  this  tubcrolity,  which  fuppons  us  in  an 
ereft  pofture,  and  whcfi  we  walk,  vvc  fhould  be  liable 
to  fall  backwards. 

Oil  the  internal  furface  of  this  bone,  we  obfervc  a 
confuierablc  llnuolity,  which  atiords  a  paffagc  to  the 
tendon  of  a  niufclc  :  and  to  the  poUerior  partofihc 
os  calcis, a  llrong  tendinous  cord  called  x\\ctcHdo  acHllis 
(m)  is  attached,  which  is  formed  by  the  tcndonsof  fe- 
vcral  muclcs  united  together.  The  articulation  of  this 
with  the  other  bones  is  fecurtd  by  means  of  ligaments. 

Theos  navicularc,orfcaphoides,(  for  ihel'c  two  terms 
have  the  fame  fignitication),is  ii^  called  on  account  of 
its  rcfemblance  to  a  little  bark.  At  its  poftcrior  part, 
>vhich  isconcave,itreccivcsthcaIlragslus ;  anteriorly 


O      M      Y. 


701 


it  is  articulated  with  the  cuneiform  bones,  and  late-  Ofteology. 
rally  it  is  connected  with  the  os  cuboides.  vc — ' 

The  OS  cuboides  forms  an  irregular  cube.    Pofteri-  of  the  ot 
orlj  it  is  articulated  with  the  os  calcis  ;  anteriorly  it  cuboides. 
fuppons  the  two  laft  bones  of  the  metatarfus,  and  la- 
terally ii  joins  the  third  cuneiform  bone  and  the  os  na- 
viculare. 69 

Each  of  the  olTa  cuneiformia,  which  are  three  in  Of  the  oCa 
number,  refcrablcsa  wedge,  and  from  this  limiliiude  """^'f"- 
thcir  name  is  derived.     They  are  placed  next  to  the  ""'*" 
metatarfus  by  the  (ides  of  each  other,  and  are  ufually 
diflinguilhed  into  os  cuiieittr?nc  externum,   medium  or 
minimum,  and  internum  or  maximuvi.     The  fuperior 
furface  of  thefe  bones,  from  their  wedge-like  (hapc,  is 
broader  than  that  which  is  below,  where  ihey  help  to 
form  the  fole  of  the  foot  ;   pofteriorly  they  are  united 
to  the  OS  naviculare,  and  anteriorly  they  fupport  the 
three  liri^  metatarfal  bones. 

When  thefe  feven  bones  compofing  the  tarfus  are 
viewed  together  in  the  Ikcleton,  they  appear  convex 
above,  where  they  help  to  form  the  upper  part  of  the 
foot ;  and  concave  underneath,  where  they  form  the 
hollow  of  the  foot,  in  which  the  vefl'cls,  tendons,  and 
nerves  of  the  foot  are  placed  fecure  from  prefTure. 

They  are  united  to  each  other  by  very  llrong  liga- 
ments, and  their  articulation  with  the  foot  isfecured 
by  a  capfular  and  two  lateral  ligaments  ;  each  of  the 
latter  is  covered  by  an  annular  ligament  of  conliderable 
breadth  and  thicknefs,  which  fcrvcs  to  bind  down  the 
tendons  of  the  foot,  and  at  the  fame  time  to  flrength- 
en  the  articulation. 

The  OS  cuneiforme  externum  is  joined  laterally  ta 
the  os  cuboides. 

Thefe  bones  complete  our  account  of  the  tarfus. 
Though  what  we  have  faid  of  this  part  of  the  ofteolo- 
gy has  been  very  llmple  and  concife,  yet  many  rea- 
ders may  not  clearly  underfland  it :  but  if  they  will 
bepleafcd  to  view  thefe  bones  in  their  proper  fituati- 
on  in  the  fkeleton,  all  that  we  hare  faid  of  them  will 
be  ealily  underftood. 

The  metatarfus  is  made  up  of  five  bones,  whereas  cf  themf- 
the  metacarpus  conliftsouly  of  four.  The  caufe  of  tatarfus. 
this  difference  is,  that  in  the  hand  the  Lift  bone  of  the 
thumb  is  not  included  among  the  metacarpal  bones  ; 
whereas  in  the  toot  the  great  toe  has  only  two  bones. 
The  firfl  of  thefe  bnnes  fupports  the  great  toe  ind  is 
much  larger  than  the  reil,  which  nearly  refemblc 
each  other  in  fize. 

Tliefe  bones  are  articulated  by  one  extremity  with 
the  cuneiform  bones  and  the  os  cuboides,  and  by  their 
other  end  with  the  toes.  ^i 

Each  of  the  toes,  like  the  fingers,  confifls  ofthree  Of  the  toe». 
bones,  except  tlie  great  toe,  which  is  formed  of  two 
bones.  Thofe  of  the  other  four  are  diflinguilhed  into 
three  phalanges.  Although  the  toes  are  more  con- 
fined in  their  motion  than  the  fingers,  yet  tlicy  appesr 
to  be  pcrfcdly  fitted  for  the  purpofcsthey  are  delign- 
ed  for.  In  walking,  the  toes  brin;r  the  centre  of;;ra- 
viiy  perpendicular  to  the  advanced  foot ;  and  as  the 
folcs  of  the  tect  arc  naturally  concave,  we  can  at  plci- 
furc  incrcalc  this  concavity,  and  form  a  kind  of  vault, 
wliichadjullsiil'clf  to  the  different  ineviiuliiies  I  hat  oc- 
cur 


(ji)  This  icudoa  isfomctimes  ruptured  by  junijMr.g,  dancing,  or  other  violent  ciTorts. 


yi. 


A      N       A      T 

ciir  to  lis  in  walking  ;  and  which,  without  this  mode 
ol'  arraugcmciit  would  incommode  lis  CKCcedingly, 
efpccially  when  burc-lootcd. 

§4.  Of  theOjfa  Sesahoix>£A. 

BssinEs  the  boneswchavcalrcadydifcribcd, there 
SIX  ievcral  I'mall  ones  that  are  met  with  only  in  the 
adult  Ikclcton,  and  in  perl'ons  who  arc  advanced  in. 
life  ;  which,  rrom  their  fuppofcd  general  relcinblancc 
to  the  feeds  of  the  fefamutn,  arc  called  ojjafi/ai/ioidca. 
They  are  commonly  to  be  fccn  at  the  firft  joint  of  the 
great  toe,  and  foinctimcs  at  the  joints  of  the  tluiinb  ; 
duy  arc  likewife  now  and  then  to  fee  found  at  the 
lower  extremity  of  ilie  fibula,  upon  the  condyles  of 
lie  thigli-bonc,  under  the  os  cuboiJcs  of  the  tarfiis, 


O       M       Y.  Partr. 

and  in  other  parts  of  the  body.  Their  fizc  and  num-  Ofteolugy. 
ber  fecni  cohflantly  to  be  iiicrcafed  by  age  and  hard 
labour  ;  and  as  they  are  generally  found  iii  fitiiations 
where  tendons  and  ligaments  are  moil  cxpol'cd  to  the 
adion  of  inufrlcs,  th<y  are  now  generally  confidercd 
as  oHilicd  portions  of  lii;:!mcnts  or  tendons. 

The  upper  furfacc  of  thefe  bones  is  ufually  convex, 
and  adherent  to  the  tendon  that  covers  it  ;  the  lidc 
which  is  next  to  the  joint  is  fmooth  and  Hat.  Though 
their  farmation  is  accidentil,  yei  they  fcem  to  be  of 
fomc  life,  by  raifingthc  tendons  farther  from  the  cen- 
tre of  motion,  and  confequcntly  increaliiig  the  power 
of  the  anilclcs.  In  the  great  loe  and  thumb  they  arc 
likwifc  ufeful,  by  forming  a  groove  for  the  fiexor 
tendons. 


EXPLANATION  of  the  PLATES  of  OSTEOLOGY. 


Plate  XIX. 

Fig.  I.     A  Front-view  of  the  Male  Skeleton. 
A,  The  OS  frontis.     B,  The  os  parietalc.    C,  The 
coronal  future.    D,  The  fquamous  part  of  the  tempo- 
ral bones.  K,  The  fquamous  future.  V,  The  zygoma. 
G,  The  malloid  proccfs.    H,  The  temporal  procefs  of 
the  fphenoid  bone.  I,  The  orbit.  K,  Theosmals.  L, 
The  OS  maxillarc  fuperiiis.    M,  Its  nalil  procefs.  N, 
The  oll'a  nafi.    O,  The  os  unguis.    1',  the  maxilla  in- 
ferior. Q^,  The  teeth,  which  are  fixteen  in  number  in 
each  jaw.  R,  The  fevcn  cervical  vertebra;,  with  their 
iiiterraediatc cartilages.  S,  Their  tranfvcrfeproceires. 
TjThctwelvedorfiil  vert ebrcB,  with  their  intermedi- 
ate cartilages.     U,  The  five  lumbar  vertebra;.     V, 
Their  tranfverfe  proeelfes.  W,  The  upper  part  of  the 
OS  facrum.     X,  Its  lateral  parts.     The  holes  I'ccn  on 
its  fore  part  are  the  pallages  of  the  undcrmofl  fpinal 
nerves  and  fmall  vcfTcls.     Oppofitc  to  the  holes,  the 
marks  of  the  original  divifions  of  tlie  bone  are  feen. 
Y ,  The  OS  ilium.     Z,  Its  creft  or  fpine.     a.  The  an- 
terior fpinons  proeelfes.     b.  The  brim  of  the  pelvis. 
c,  The  ifchiatic  niche,     d,  The  os  ifchiuni.     e.  Its 
tnbcrolhy.  f,  Itsfpinous  procefs.  g,  lis  crus.  h,  The 
foramen  ihyioideum.    i,  The  os  pubis,    k,  The  fym- 
phyfis  pubis.  1,  The  crus  pubis,   m,  The  acetabulum. 
II,  The  feventhor  lall  true  rib.  o.  The  twclflhor  lafl 
talfe  rib.  y.  The  upper  end  of  the  flernum.   q.  The 
middle  piece,     r.  The  under  end,  or  cartilage  enfi- 
formis.    s.  The  clavicle,    t.  The  internal  furface  of 
the  fcapula.     u.  Its  acromion,     v.  Its  coracoid  pro- 
cefs.   w,  Its  cervix,    x.  The  glenoid  cavity,  y,  The 
OS  humeri,     z.  Its  head,  which  is  conneftcd  to  the 
glenoid  cavity,     i,  Its  external  tubercle.     2,  Us  in- 
ternal tubercle.     ;,  The  groove  for  lodging  the  long 
head  of  the  biceps  mufcle  of  the  arm.     4,  The  inter- 
nal condyle.     J,  The  external  condyle.     Between  4 
and  J,  tlie  trochlea.     6,  The  radius.     7,  Its  head. 
8,  Its  tubercle.     9,  The  ulna.     lo,  Its  coronoid  pro- 
cefs.    II,  T2,  13,  14,  15,  16,  17,  18,  The  carpus  ; 
compofed  of  os  navicularc,  os  lunare,  os  cuneiforme, 
OS  pififormejOS  trapezium,  os  trapczoides,  os  magnum, 
osunciforme.     19,  The  five  bones  of  the  metacarpus. 
20,  The  two  bones  of  the  thumb.     21,  The  three 
bones  of  each  of  the  fingers.     22,  The   os  femoris. 
23,  Its  head.     24,   Its  cervix.     2J,  The  trochanter 
major.     26,  The  trochanter  minor.     37,  The  inter- 


nal condyle.  28,  Tl;c  external  condyle.  29,  The 
rotula.  ;o,  The  tibia.  51,  Its  head.  52,  Its  tu- 
bercle. 33,  Its  fpine.  ;".(,  The  malleolus  intcrnus. 
35-,  The  fibula.  36,  Its  head.  37,  The  malleolus 
cxternus.  The  tarfus  is  compofed  of,  38,  The  allraga- 
lus  ;  39,  The  OS  calcls ;  40,  The  os  navicularc  ; 
41,  Thrccoilacuneiformia.and  tlicoscuboidcs,  which 
is  not  fccn  in  this  fi,":i!re.  42,  The  five  bones  of  the 
meiai.'rfus.  43,  The  two  bones  of  the  great  toe. 
44,  The  three  bones  of  each  of  the  fmall  toes. 

Fig.  2.  A  Front-view  of  the  Skull. 
A,  The  OS  frontis.  B,  the  lateral  part  of  the  os 
frontis,  which  gives  origin  to  part  ot  the  temporal 
niurdc.  C,  The  fupcrciliary  ridge.  D,  The  fupcr- 
ciliary  hole  through  which  the  frontal  vellclsand  ner- 
ves pais.  KE,  The  orbitar  procelles.  F,  The  middle 
of  the  traniVcrfc  future,  G,  The  up^ier  part  of  the  or- 
bit. H,  I'hc  foramen  opticum.  1,  The  foramen 
lacerum.  K,  Tiie inferior  orbitar  fifiiire.  L,  Thcos 
unguis.  M,  The  oiVa  nali.  N,  The  os  maxillarc  fu- 
perius.  O,  Its  naful  procefs.  P,  The  external  orbi- 
tar hole  through  which  the  f«pcrior  maxillary  velftls 
and  nerves  pals.  i)_,  The  osmala;.  K,  A  pallage  for 
fmall  vcllels  into,  or  out  of,  the  orbit.  S,  The  under 
jiart  of  the  left  noftril.  T,  The  feptum  narium. 
U,  The  OS  fpongiofuin  fuperius.  V,  The  os  fpongio- 
fnm  infcrius.  W,  The  edge  of  the  alveoli,  or  fpongy 
fockcts,  for  tlie  teeth.  X,  the  maxilla  inferior.  Y,  The 
paffagefor  the  inferior  maxillary  vclfcls  and  nerves. 

Fig.  3.  A  Side-view  of  the  Skull. 
A,  The  OS  frontis.  B,  The  coronal  future.  C,  The 
OS  parietalc.  1),  An  arched  ridge  which  gives  origin 
to  the  temporal  niufclc.  E,  The  fquamous  future. 
F,  The  fquamous  part  of  the  temporal  bone  :  anJ 
fartlier  forw-trds,  the  temporal  procefs  of  the  fphenoid 
bone.  G,  The  zygomatic  procefs  of  the  temporal 
bone.  H,  The  zygomatic  future.  I,  The  mafloid 
procefs  of  the  temporal  bone.  L,  The  meatus  audi- 
torius  externus.  L,  The  orbitar  plate  of  the  frontal 
bone,  under  which  is  feen  the  tranverfe  future. 
M,  The  pars  plana  of  the  ethmoid  bone.  N,  The  o» 
unguis.  O,  Therightosnafi.  P,  The  fuperior  max- 
illary bone.  Q_,  Its  nafal  procefs.  R,  The  two  den- 
ies incifores.  S,  The  dens  caninus.  T,  The  two 
fmall  molares.  U,  The  three  large  molares.  V,  Th« 
osmalae.  W,  The  lower  jaw.  X,  Its  angle.  Y,  The, 

coroiioid 


/ 


Pl.M.    \1V 


.^^-'^. 


, /.V,'  ,   f^^!/a^' 


Parti.  A       N       A       T 

Ofteologf.  coronoid  procefs.  Z,  The  condyloid  procefs,  by  wliich 
*— ^< the  jaw  is  articulated  with  the  temporal  bone. 

Vic.  4.  The  pollcrior  and  right  fule  of  the  Skull. 
A,  The  OS  frontis.  B  B,  The  oiTa  parietalia.  C, 
The  fagittal  future.  D,  the  parietal  hole,  through 
■which  a  fmall  vein  runs  to  the  fuperior  longitudinal 
finus.  E,  The  lambdoid  future,  f  F,  Olfa  triquctra. 
G,  The  OS  occipitis.  H,  The  fquamous  part  of  the 
temporal  bone.  I,  The  tnalloid  procefs.  K,  The 
zygoma.  L,  The  os  malse.  M,  The  temporal  part 
of  the  fphcnoid  bone.  N,  The  fuperior  maxillary 
bone  and  tceih. 

fic.  5.  The  external  Surface  of  the  Os  Frontis. 

A,  The  convex  part.  B,  Part  of  the  temporal 
foffa.  C,  The  external  angular  procefs.  D,  The 
internal  angular  procefs.  E,  Tlie  nafal  procefs.  F, 
The  fuperciiiary  arch.  G,  The  fuperciliary  hole. 
H,  The  orbitar  plate. 

Fig.  6.  The  Internal  Surface  of  the  Os  Frontis. 

A  A,  The  ferratcd  edge  which  affifts  to  form  the 
coronal  future.  B,  The  external  angular  procefs. 
C,  The  internal  angular  procefs.  D,  The  nafal  pro- 
cefs. E,  The  orbitar  plate.  F,  The  cells  which  cor- 
refpond  with  thofe  of  the  ethmoid  bone.  G,  The  paf- 
fage  from  the  frontal  liiius.  H,  The  opening  which 
receives  the  cribriform  plate  of  the  ethmoid  bone. 
I,  The  cavity  which  lodges  the  fore  part  of  tlie  brain. 
K,  The  fpine  to  which  the  falx  is  fixed.  L,  The 
groove  which  lodges  the  fuperior  longiiuJinal  linus. 

Plate    XX. 

Fic.  I.  A  back  view  of  the  Skeleton. 
A  A,  The  oda  parietalia.  B,  The  fagittal  future. 
C,  The  lambdoid  future.  D,  The  occipital  bone. 
E,  The  fquamous  future.  F,  The  maftoid  procefs  of 
the  temporal  bone.  G,  The  os  malx.  H,  The  pa- 
late plates  of  the  fupcrier  maxillary  bones.  I,  The 
maxilla  inferior.  K,  The  teeth  of  both  jaws.  L,  The 
fcvcn  cervical  vertebrae.  M,  Thtir  fpinous  procclfcs. 
N,  Their  tranfverfc  and  ob'.ique  procefles.  O,  The 
laftofthe  twelve  dorfal  vertebrae.  P,  The  fifth  or  lad 
lumbar  vertebra.  Q_,  The  tranl'verfc  proccffes.  R,Thc 
oblique  proccffes.  S,  The  fpinous  proceifes.  T,  The 
upper  part  of  the  os  facruni.  U,  The  pofterior  holes 
■which  tranfmit  fmall  blood-vefTclsand  nerves.  V.The 
under  part  of  the  os  facrum  which  is  covered  by  a 
membrane.  W,  The  oscoccygis.  X,  The  os  ilium. 
Y,  Its  fpineor  crcfl.  Z,  The  ifchiatic  niche,  a.  The 
osifcliium.  b,  Its  tubcrofity.  c,  Itsfpine.  d.  The 
OS  pubis,  e,  The  foramen  hydroidcum.  f,  The  fc- 
venth  or  lufl  true  rib.  g,  The  twelfth  or  laft  falfe  rib. 
h,  The  clavicle,  i,  The  fcapula.  k,  Its  fpine.  1,  Its 
acromion,  m,  Its  cervix,  n.  Its  fuperior  cofla.  o,  Its 
podcrior  colla.  p,  Its  inferior  coda,  q,  The  os  hu- 
meri, r,  The  radius,  s,  Iheiilna.  t,  Its  olecranon, 
u,  All  the  bones  of  the  carpus,  excepting  the  os  pili- 
forme,  which  is  fcen  in  Plate  XIX.  fig.  i.  v,  The 
five  bones  of  ihc  niatacurpus.  w.  The  two  bones  of 
the  thumb,  x,  The  three  bones  of  each  of  the  fin- 
gers, y.  The  tw'o  fcfamoid  bones  at  the  root  of  the 
left  thumb,  z,  The  os  femoris.  i,  The  trochanter 
major.  2,  The  trochanter  minor.  3,  Tlie  linea  af- 
pcra.      4,    The  iatcrual  condyle.     5,  The  external 


O      M      Y.  703 

condyle.     6  6,  The  limilunar  cartilages.     7,  The  li- ofteologTr. 
bia.    8,  The  malleolus  intcruus.    9,  The  fibula.    10,  ^~*'^'~~^ 
The  malleolus  externus.    11,  The  tarfus.    12,  The 
metatarfus.     1 3,  The  toes. 

Fig.  3.  The  External  Surface  of  the  Left  Os  Fa- 

RIETALE. 

A,  The  convex  fmooth  furfacc.  B,  The  parietal 
hole.  C,  An  arch  iHade  by  the  beginning  of  the  tciH- 
poral  mufclc. 

Fig.  3.  The  internal  furfacc  of  the  fame  bone. 

A,  Its  fuperior  edge,  which,  joined  with  the  other, 
forms  the  fagittal  future.  B,  The  anterior  edge,  which 
afilfts  in  the  formation  of  the  coronal  future.  C,  The 
inferior  edge  for  the  fquamous  future.  D,  The  pofte- 
rior edge  for  the  lambdeid  future.  E,  A  depreflioa 
made  by  the  lateral  fiaus.  F  F,  The  prints  of  the  ar- 
teries of  the  dura  mater. 

Fig.  4.  The  External  Surface  of  the  Left  Os  Te:<- 

PORUM. 

A,  The  fquamoas  part.  B,  The  mafloid  procefs. 
C  The  zygomatic  procefs.  D,  The  llyloid  procefs. 
E,  The  petrofal  procefs.  F,  The  meatus  auditorius 
externus.  G,  The  glenoid  cavity  forthe  articulatioa 
of  the  lower  jaw.  H,  The  foramen  ftylo-maftoidcum 
for  the  portio  dura  of  the  fcvcnih  pair  of  nerves. 
I,  Paffages  for  blood-velfels  into  the  bone.  K,  The 
foramen  maftoidcum  through  which  a  vein  goes  to  the 
lateral  finus. 

Fig.  s-  The  Intertialfurface  of  the  Left  Os  Tr.M- 
r  o  K  u  .M  . 

A,  The  fquamous  part ;  the  upper  edge  of  which 
afTills  in  forming  the  fquamous  future.  B,  The  ma- 
ftoid  procefs.  C,  The  llyloid  procefs.  D,  The  pars 
petrofi.  E,  The  entry  of  the  fcvcnth  pair,  or  audi- 
tory nerve.  F,  The  folfa,  which  lodges  a  part  of  the 
lateral  linus.     G,  The  foramen  maftoidcum. 

Fig. 6. The  External  Surface  of  the  Osseous  Circle, 
which  terminates  the  mc.itus  auditorius  externus. 
A,    The   anterior  part.     B,  A  fmall  part  of  the 
groove  in  which  the  niembrana  tympani  is  fixed. 
N.  B.  This,  with  the  fubfequent  bones  of  the  ear, 
are  here  delineated  as  lar*:  as  the  life. 

F'iG.  7.  The  Internal  Surface ofthe  Osseous  CiRC LI. 
A,  The  anterior  part.     B,  The  groove  in  which 
the  membrana  tympani  is  fixed. 

Fig.  8.  The  Situation  and  Conneclion  of  the  Small 
Bones  of  the  Ear. 
A,   The  malleus.     B,  The  incus.     C,  The  os  or- 
bicularc.     D,  The  ftapes. 

Fig.  9.  The  Malleus,  with  its  Head,  Handle,  and 
Small  Procefles. 

Fig.  10.  The  Incus,  with  its  Body,  Superiar  and 
Inferior  Branches. 

Fio    ii.The  Os  OBRict;LARB. 

Fig.  12.  The  States,  with  its  Head,  Bafe,  andtwo 
Crura. 

Fig.  I?.  An  Internal  View  of  the  Labyrinth  of 
the  Ear. 
A,  The  hollow  part  ef  the  cochlea,  which  forns  a 

iiur* 


704 


N 


O      M      Y. 


Oftcology.  fliarc  of  tlie  meatus  audiioriusintcrnus.  B,ThevcAi- 
' ^— '  biihiin.     C  C  C,  Tlic  feinicircular  canals. 

Fig.  14.  An  External  View  of  the  Labyrinth. 

A,  the  feniicirciilir  caiiils.  13,  The  fcneftraovalis 
which  leads  intothc  vcftibiiUim.  C,  The  fcncftra  ro- 
iiiudu  which  opens  intothc  cochlea. D,  The  iliffcrent 
turns  of  tlie  cochKa. 

Fig.  15.  Tlie  Internal  SurfaccofthcOsSp  HE  NO  IDES. 
A  A,  The  temporal  proccll'cs.  B  B,  The  pterygoid 
procelfes.  C  C,  The  fpinous  proccdes.  D  D,  1  he 
anterior  clinoid  proccllcs.  E.  The  pollerior  clinoid 
proccfs.  F,  The  anterior  proccfs  which  joins  the  eth- 
moid bone.  G,  the  fclli  tuicica  for  lodging  the 
j^landuli  piiniiaria.  11,  The  foramen  opticiini. 
K,  The  foramen  laccrum.  L,  The  foramen  rotun- 
d'lm.  M,  The  foramen  ovale.  N,  The  foramen 
fpinalc. 

Fig.  16.  The  External  SurfaccofthcOsSpHENo ides. 
A  A,  The  temporal  procelfes.  BB,  The  ptery- 
goid proccllcs.  C  C,  The  fpinous  procelfes.  D,  The 
procelfus  azygos.  E,  The  fmall  triangular  procelfes 
which  grow  from  the  body  of  the  bone.  FF,  The 
orifices  of  the  fphcnoidal  fuiufes.  G,  The  foramen 
lacerum.  H,  The  foramen  rotiindura.  I,  The  fora- 
men ovale.     K,  The  foramen  pterygoideura. 

Fig.  17.  Tlie  External  V'iewof  the  Os  Ethmoides. 
A,  The  nafal  lamella.  B  B,  The  grooves  between 
ihcnafal  lamella  andolfafpongiofa  fiiperiora.  CC,The 
olla  fponginfa  fuperiora.  D  D,  The  fphenoidal  cor- 
nua.     Sec  Fig.  16.  E. 

Fic.  18.  The  Internal  View  of  the  Os  Ethmoides. 
A,  ThccrilUgalli.  B,  Thccribriform  plate,  with 
the  different  palTages  of  the  olfartory  nerves.  C  C, 
Some  of  the  ethmoidal  cells.  D,  The  right  os  planum. 
£  E,  The  fphenoidal  corntia. 

Fig.  19.  The  right  Sthenoidal  Cornu. 

Fio.  20.  The  left  Sphenoidal  Cornu. 

Fig.  21.  The  External  Surface  of  the  Os  Occipitis. 

A,  The  upper  p  i*t  of  the  bone.  B,  The  fuperior 
arched  ridge.  C,  The  infcriorarchcd  ridge.  Under 
the  arches  are  prints  made  by  the  inufcles  of  the  neck. 
DD,  The  two  condyloid  procefles  which  articulate  the 
head  with  the  fpine.  E,  The  cuneiform  proccfs. 
F,  The  foramen  magnum  through  which  the  fpinal 
marrow  palfcs.  GG,  The  pollerior  condyloid  fora- 
mina which  tranfmit  veins  into  the  lateral  ilnufcs. 
HH,  The  foramina  lingualia  for  the  palfage  of  the 
nine  pair  of  nerves. 

Fig.  22.  The  internal  Surface  of  the  Os  Occipitis. 
A  A,  The  two  fides  which  affift  to  form  the  lamb- 
doid  future.  B,  The  point  of  the  cuneiform  procefs, 
where  it  joins  the  fphcnoid  bone.  C  C,  The  prints 
made  by  the  pollerior  lobes  of  the  brain.  DD,  Prints 
made  by  the  lobes  of  the  cerebellum.  E,  The  cruci- 
form ridge  for  the  attachment  of  the  procefles  of  the 
dura  mater.  F,  The  courfe  of  the  fuperior  longitudi- 
nal finufcs.  GG,  The  courfe  of  the  two  lateral  li- 
nufes.  H,  The  foramen  magnum.  1 1,  The  po.lerior 
condyloid  foramina. 

I 


Plate    XXI. 


Part  T. 

Oftcolo^y. 


Fig,  I.  A  Side-view  of  the  Skeleton. 
A  A,  The  olfa  parictalia.  B,  the  fagittal  future, 
C,  The  OS  occipitis.  D  D,  The  lainbdoid  future. 
E,  The  fquamous  part  of  the  temporal  bone.  F,  The 
maltoi  j  procefs.  G,  The  meatus  auditorius  cxtcrnus, 
H,  The  OS  frontis.  I,  Tlie  os  malas.  K,  The  os  niax- 
illare  fupcrius.  L,  The  maxilla  inferior.  M,  The 
teeth  of  both  jaws.  N,  The  feventh,  or  laft  cervical 
vertebra.  O,  The  fpinous  proccllcs.  P,  Their  tranf- 
vcrfe  and  oblique  proccdes.  Q_,  The  twelfth  or  lall 
dorfal  vertebra.  K,  The  fifth,  or  la(l  lumbar  vertebra. 
S.  Tlie  fpinous  proceifcs.  T,  Openings  between  the 
vertebra;  for  the  pail'age  of  the  fpinal  nerves.  U ,  The 
under  end  of  the  os  facrum.  V,  The  os  coccygis. 
W,  The  OS  ilium.  X,  The  anterior  fpinous  procelfes. 
Y,  The  pollerior  fpinous  procelfes.  Z,  The  ifchiatic 
niche,  a,  The  right  os  ilium,  b,  The  olfa  pubis. 
c,  The  tubcrofity  of  the  left  os  ifchium.  d,  The  fca- 
pula.  c,  Its  fpine.  f,  The  os  humeri,  g,  The  ra- 
dius, h.  The  ulna,  i.  The  carpus,  k.  The  nieta- 
carpdl  bone  of  the  thumb.  1,  The  metacarpal  bones 
of  the  fingers,  in,  The  two  bones  of  the  thumb, 
n.  The  three  boues  of  each  of  the  fingers,  o,  The  os 
femoris.  p.  Its  head,  q,  The  trochanter  major,  r,  The 
external  condyle,  s,  The  rotula.  t,  Tlie  tibia,  u,  The 
fibula.  V,  The  malleolus  externus.  w,  The  aflraga- 
lus.  X,  The  OS  calcis.  y,  The  os  navicularc,  z,  The 
three  olfa  cunciformia.  i.  The  os  cuboidcs.  2,  The 
five  mctatarfal  bones.  3,  The  two  boius  of  the  great 
toe.     4,  The  three  bones  of  each  of  the  fmall  toes. 

Fig.  2.  A  Vicwof  the  Internal  Surface  of  the  Bafe  of 
the  Skull. 
AAA,  The  two  tables  of  the  fkull  with  thediploc. 
B  B,  The  orbitar  plates  of  the  frontal  bone.  C,Thc 
crilla  galli,  with  cribriform-plate  of  the  ethmoidal 
bones  on  each  fide  of  it,  through  which  the  firfl  pair 
of  nerves  pafs.  D,  The  cuneiform  procefs  of  the  oc- 
cipital bone.  E,  The  cruciform  ridge.  F,  The  fo- 
ramen magnum  for  the  paffage  of  the  fpinal  marrow. 
G,  The  zygoma,  made  by  the  joining  of  the  zygo- 
matic procelfes  of  the  os  temporum  and  os  malae. 
H,  The  pars  fqnamofa  of  the  os  temporum.  I,  The 
pars  mammillaris.  K,  The  pars  petrofa.  L,  The 
temporal  procefs  of  the  fphenoid  bone.  MM,  The 
anterior  clinoid  proceffes.  N,  The  pollerior  clinoid 
proccfs.  O,  The  fella  turcica.  P,  The  foramen  op- 
ticum,  for  the  palfage  of  the  optic  nerve  and  ocular 
artery  of  the  left  fide.  Q_,  The  foramen  lacerum,  for 
the  third,  fourth,  fixth,  and  firll  of  the  fifth  pair  of 
nerves  and  ocular  vein.  R,  The  foramen  rotundum, 
for  the  fecond  of  the  fifth  pair.  S,  The  foramen 
ovale,  for  the  third  of  the  fifth  pair.  T,  The  foramen 
fpinalc,  for  the  principal  artery  of  the  dura  mater. 
U,  The  entry  of  the  auditory  nerve.  V,  Thepaffagt 
for  the  lateral  finus.  W,  The  paffage  of  the  eighth 
pair  of  nerves.     X,  The  paffage  of  the  ninth  pair. 

Fig.  3.  A  View  of  the  External  Surface  of  the  Bafc 
of  the  Skull. 
A,  The  two  dcntcs  incifores  of  the  right  fide.  B, 
The  dens  caninus.  C,  The  two  fmall  molares.  D,The 
three  large  molires.  E,  The  foramen  incifivum,  vvhich 
gives  paffage  to  fmall  blood-vefrels  and  nerves.  F,  The 

palate- 


r\ 


X. 


Anatomy 


'     -4/7  T 


\f// 


,  v..  K^  ,  'm^  .'/v^:^' 


It    '^ 


.yiQ.iB 


W       1*|1      C)       »     7       lO      U      6        >     4     »  «     1     l•^       11      n 


/  ^y/.;- 


Parti.  ANA! 

Olleologjr.  palate-plates  of  the  oHa  maxillaria  and  palati,  joined 

" ^ '  by  the  longitudinal  and  tranfvcrfe  palate  futures.    G, 

The  foramen  palatimim  poflerius,  for  the  palatine  vef- 
felsand  nerves.  H,  The  os  maxillare  fupcrius  of  the 
right  fide.  I,  The  os  mala:.  K,  The  zygomatic  pro- 
cefs  of  the  temporal  bone.  L,  The  pofterior  extremi- 
ty of  the  olfa  fpongiofa.  M,  The  pofterior  extremity 
of  the  vomer,  which  forms  the  back-partof  the  fcptura 
nafi.  N,  The  pterygoid  procefs  of  the  right  fide  of  the 
fphcnoid  bone.  OO,  The  formina  ovalia.  PP,  The 
foramina  fpinalia.  Q^,  The  paflTagesof  the  internal 
carotid  arteries.  R,  A  hole  between  the  point  of  each 
pars  petrofa  and  cuneiform  procefs  of  the  occipital 
bone,  which  is  filled  up  with  a  ligamentous  fubftancc 
in  the  recent  fubjedt.  S,  The  palfage  of  the  left  late- 
ral finus.  T,  The  poflerior  condyloid  foramen  of  the 
leftiide.  U,  The  foramen  mafloideum.  V,  The  fora- 
men magnum.  \V,The  inferior  orbitar  fiflure.  X,The 
glenoid  cavity,  for  the  articulation  of  the  lower  jaw. 
Y,  The  fquamous  part  of  the  temporal  bone.  Z,  The 
maftoid  procefs,  at  the  inner  fide  of  which  is  a  folia 
for  the  poflerior  belly  of  the  digaftric  mufclc  a.  The 
ftyloid  procefs.  b,  The  meatus  auditoriusexternus.  c. 
The  left  condyle  of  the  occipital  bone,  d.  The  per- 
pendicular occipital  fpine.  e  c.  The  inferior  horizon- 
tal ridge  of  the  occipital  bone,  f  f.  The  fuperior  hori- 
zontal ridge,  which  is  oppofite  to  the  crucial  ridge 
where  the  longitudinal  finus  divides  to  form  the  late- 
ral finufes.  ggg.  The  lambdoid  future,  h,  The  left 
fquamous  future,  i.  The  parietal  bone. 

Fig.  4.  The  anterior  furfaceof  the  Ossa  Nasi. 

A,  The  upper  part,  which  joins  the  os  frontis.  B, 
The  under  end,  which  joins  the  cartilage  of  the  nofc. 
C,  The  inner  edge,  where  they  join  each  other. 

Fig.  j.  The  poflerior  furfaceof  the  Ossa  Nasi. 

AA,  Their  cavity,  which  forms  part  of  the  arch  of 
the  nofc.  B  B,  Their  ridge  or  fpine,  which  projefis 
a  little  to  be  fixed  to  the  fore-part  of  the  feptuin  na- 

rium. 

Fig.  6.  The  external  furface  of  the  Os  Maxillake 
SuPERius  of  the  left  fide. 
A,  The  nafal  procefs.  B,  The  orbitar  plate.  C, 
The  unequal  furface  which  joinstheosmal.B.  D,  The 
external  orbitar  hole.  E,  The  opening  into  the  noflril. 
F,  The  palate-plate.  G,  The  maxillary  tuberofity. 
H,  part  of  the  os  palati.  I,  The  two  dentes  incifores. 
K,  The  dens  caninus.  L,  The  two  fmall  dentes  mo- 
larcs.  M,  The  three  large  dentes  molares. 

FiG.  7.  The  internal  furface  of  the  Os  Maxillare 
SupERius  and  Os  Pai-ati. 
A,  The  nafal  procefs.  BB,  Eminences  for  the  con- 
nexion of  the  OS  fpongiofura  inferius.  D,  The  under 
end  of  the  lachrymal  groove.  E,The  antrum  maxillare. 
F,  The  nafal  fpine,  between  which  and  B  is  the  cavity 
of  the  noflril.  G,  The  palate-plate.  H,  The  orbitar 
part  of  ihc  os  palati.  I,  The  nalal  plate.  K,  The 
future  which  unites  the  maxillary  and  palate  hones. 
L,  The  pterygoid  procefs  of  the  palate  bone. 

Fig.  8.  The  external  furfaceof  ibe  right  Os  Unguis. 
A,  The  orbitar  part.     B,  The  lachrymal  part.    C, 
The  ridge  between  them. 
Vol.  I. 


O         M         Y. 


703 


Fig.  9.  ThcinternalfurfaceoftherightOs  Unguis.  Ofteoiopy. 
This  lidc  of  the  bone  has  a  furrow  oppofite  to  the         •    — 
external  ridge  ;  all  behind  this  is  irregular,  where  it 
covers  part  of  the  ethmoidal  cells. 

Fig.  10.  The  external  furface  of  the  left  Os  Mai«. 
A,  The  fuperior  orbitar  procefs.  B,  The  inferior 
orbitar  procefs.  C,  The  malar  procefs.  D,  The  zy- 
gematic  procefs.  E,  The  orbitar  plate.  F,  A  paf- 
fagc  for  finall  vcfTels  into  or  out  of  the  orbit. 

Fig.  II.  The  internal  furface  of  the  left  Os  Mai«. 
A,  The  fuperior  orbitar  procefs.  B,  The  inferior 
orbitar  procefs.  C,  The  malar  procefs.  D,  The  zy- 
gomatic procefs.  E,  The  internal  orbitar  plate  or  pro- 
cefs. 

Fig.  12.  The  external  furfaceof  the  right  Os  Spon- 
giosum ISFERIUS. 
A,  The  anterior  part.  B,  The  hook-like  procefs 
for  covering  part  of  the  antrum  maxillare.  C,  A 
fmall  procefs  which  covers  part  of  the  under  end  of 
the  lachrymal  groove.  D,  The  inferior  edge  turned  a 
little  outwards. 

Fig.  1 3.  The  internal  furface  of  the  OsSpoNCOsinM 
Inferius. 
A,  The  anterior  extremity.    B,  The  upper   edge 
which  joins  the  fuperior  maxillary  and  palate  bones. 

Fig.  14.  The  poflerior  and  external  furface  of  th« 
right  Os  Palati. 
A,  The  orbitar  procefs.  B,  The  nafal  lamella.    C, 
The  pterygoid  procefs.    D,  The  palate  procefs. 

Fig.  I  j.  The  interior  and  external  furface  of  the  right 
Os  Palati. 
A,  The  orbitar  procefs.  B,  An  opening  through 
which  the  lateral  nafal  veffels  and  nerves  pafs.  C, 
The  nafal  lamella.  D,  The  pterygoid  procefs.  E,  The 
poflerior  edge  of  the  palate  procefs  for  the  connexion 
of  the  velum  palati.  F,  The  inner  edge  by  vihich  the 
two  olTa  palati  are  connetled. 

Fig.  16.  The  right  fide  of  the  Vomer. 
A,  The  upper  edge  which  joins  the  nafallamella  of 
the  ethmoid  bone  and  the  middle  cartilai;e  of  the  nofe. 
Ji,  The  inferior  edge,  which  is  connected  to  the  fupe- 
rior maxillary  and  palate  bones.  C,  The  fuperior  and 
poflerior  part  wliich  receives  the  procclTus  azygos  of 
the  fphenoid  bone. 

Fig.  17.  The  Maxilla  Inferior. 
A,  The  chin.  B,  The  bafe  and  left  fide.  C,  The 
angle.  D,  The  coronoid  procefs.  E,  The  condyloid 
procefs.  F,  The  beginning  of  the  inferior  maxillary 
canal  of  the  right  fide,  for  the  entry  of  the  nerve  and 
blood-velTels.  G,  The  termination  of  the  left  canal. 
H,  The  two  dentes  incifores.  I,  The  dens  caninus. 
K,  The  two  fmall  molares.  L,  The  three  large  nio- 
jares. 

Fig.  18.  The  different  clafFes  of  the  Teeth. 

I,   2,    A  fore  and  back  view  of  the  two  anterior 

dentes  incifores  of  the  lower  jaw.    5,  4,  Similar  teeth 

of  the  upper  jaw.  5,  6,  A  fore  and  back  \iew  of  the 

dentes  canini.     7,  8,  The  anterior  dentes  molares. 


9,  10,  II,  The  poflerior  dentes  molares. 
4U 


'2,  Ij, 


14. 


706 


Oftcolojry.  T  J,  i6,  Unulual  appearances  in  the  Ihapc  and  fize  of 

^~~>' '  the  teeth. 

Fic.  19.  The  external  furface  of  the  Os  Hvo IDES. 

A,  Tlic  body.     13  B,  The  cornui.     C  C,  The  ap- 
pendices. 

Plate  XXII. 

Fig.  I.  A  PoAerior  View  of  the  Sternum  and  Cla- 
vicles, with  the  ligament  conuediuj;   the  clavi- 
cles to  each  other. 
a.  The  pofterior  furface  of  the  flernuin.    bb,  The 

broken  ends  of  the  clavicles,    c  c  c  c.  The  tubercles 

near  the  extremity  of  each  clavicle,  d.  The  ligament 

conncding  the  clavicles. 

Fig.  2.  A  Fore-view  of  the  Left  Scapula,  and  of 
a  halfof  the  Clavicle,  with  their  Ligaments, 
a,  The  fpinc  of  the  fcspula.  b.  The  acromion, 
c.  The  inferior  angle,  d,  Inferior  colU.  e,  Cervix. 
f,  Glenoid  cavity,  covered  with  cartilage  for  the  arm- 
tionc.  gg,  The  capfiilar  ligament  of  the  joint,  h, 
Coracoid  procefs.  i,  The  broken  end  of  the  clavicle, 
k,  Itscxtremity  joined  to  the  acromion.  1,  A  liga- 
ment coming  out  lingle  from  the  acromion  to  the  co- 
racoid procefs.  m,  A  ligament  coming  out  fingle  from 
the  acrominon,  and  dividing  intotwo,  wliich  are  lixed 
to  the  coracoid  procefs. 

Fig.  3.  The  Joint  of  the  elbow  of  the  Left  Akm, 
with  the  Ligaments. 
a,  The  os  humeri,  b,  Itsinternal  condyle.  cc,The 
two  prominent  parts  of  its  trochlea  appearing  through 
the  capfular  ligament,  d,  The  ulna,  c.  The  radius, 
f.  The  part  of  the  ligament  including  the  head  of  the 
radius. 

Fig.  4.  The  Bones  of  the  Right-Hand,  with  the 
Palm  in  view. 
a.  The  radius,  b,  The  ulna,  c.  The  fcaphoid  bone 
of  the  carpus,  d.  The  os  lunare.  e.  The  os  cunei- 
forme.  f.  The  os  pififorme.  g,  Trapezium,  h,  Tra- 
pezoides.  i,  Capitaium.  k.  Unciforme.  1,  The  four 
metacarpal  bones  of  the  fingers,  m,  The  firft  phalanx, 
n,  The  fecond  phalanx,  o.  The  third  phalanx,  p.  The 
metacarpal  bone  of  the  tliumb.  q.  The  lirll  joint. 
r.  The  fecond  joint. 

Fig.  5.  The  Pofterior  Viewof  the  Bonesof  the  Left 
Hand. 
The  explication  of  Fig.  4.  fervesfor  tliisfigure  ;  the 
fame  letters  pointing  out  the  fame  Tjones,  though  in  a 
different  view. 

Fig.  6.  Tlie Upper  Extremity  of  thcTiBi  a, with  the 
Semilunar  Cartilages  of  the  Joint  of  the  Knee,  and 
fome  Ligaments. 

a.  The  ftrong  ligament  which  conne(fts  the  rotula  to 
the  tubercle  of  the  tibia,  b  b,  The  parts  of  the  extre- 
mity of  the  tibi.i,  covered  with  cartilage, which  appear 
within  the  fcmilunar  cartilages,  c  c,  The  femiliinar 
cartilages,  d.  The  two  parts  of  what  is  called  the 
crofs  ligament. 

Fig  7.  The  Pofterior  Viewof  the  Joint  of  the  Right 
Knee. 
a,   The   os  femoris  cut.     b,  Its  internal  condyle. 
c,  Its  external  condyle,    d,  The  back-part  of  the  tibia. 


ANATOMY.  Part  I. 

e.  The  fuperior  extremity  of  the  fibula,    f.  The  edge  Oftcology. 

of  tiic  internal  fcmilunar  cartilage,     g.  An  oblique  li-  * » ' 

gamcnt.    h,   A  larger  perpendicular  ligament,     i,  A 
ligament  conncding  the  femur  and  tibula. 

Fig.  8.  The  Anterior  Viewof  the  Jointof  the  Right 
Knee. 
b.  The  internal  condyle,  c.  Its  external  condyle. 
d.  The  part  of  the  os  femoris,  on  which  the  patella 
moves,  e,  A  perpendicular  ligament,  f  f.  The  two 
parts  of  the  crucial  ligaments,  g  g.  The  edges  of  the 
two  moveable  fcmilunar  cartilages,  h,  The  tibia. 
i,  The  flrong  ligament  of  the  patella,  k.  The  back  part 
of  it  where  the  fat  has  been  dilFcded  away,     1,  The 


The  internal  one.     n.  The 


external  deprellion. 
cut  tibia. 

Fig.  9.  A  View  of  the  inferior  part  of  the  Bones  of 
the  Right  Foot. 
a.  The  great  knob  of  the  os  calcis.  b,  A  promi- 
nence on  itsoutfide.  c.  The  hollow  for  the  tendons, 
nerves,  and  blood-vefTcls.  d.  The  anterior  extremity 
of  the  OS  calcis.  e.  Part  of  the  aftragalus.  f.  Its 
head  covered  with  cartilage,  g.  The  internal  promi- 
nence of  the  OS  naviculare.  h.  The  os  cuboides. 
i,  The  OS  cunciforme  internum  ;  k, — Medium  ;  1, — 
Externum,  m.  The  metatarfal  bones  of  the  four  lef- 
fer  toes,  n,  The  firfl — o.  The  fecond — p.  The  third 
phalanx  of  the  four  Icfl'er  toes,  q.  The  metatarfal 
bones  of  the  great  toe.  r.  Its  lirll — s,  Its  fecond 
joint. 

Fig.  10.  The  Inferior  Surface  of  the  two  large  Sesa- 
moid Bones,  at  the  firAjoint  of  the  Great  Toe. 

Fig.  1 1.  The  Superior  View  of  the  Bones  of  theRicHT 
Foot. 
a,  b,  as  in  Fig.  9.  c.  The  fuperior  head  of  the  allra- 
galus.     d,  ire.  as  in  Fig.  9. 

Fig.  12.  The  Viewof  the  Sole  of  the  Foot,  with 
its  Ligaments, 
a.  The  great  knob  of  the  OS  calcis.  b.  The  hollow 
for  the  tendons,  nerves,  and  blood-veiFels.  c.  The 
flieaths  of  the  flexorcs  pollicis  and  digitorum  longi 
opened,  d.  The  ftrong  cariilaginousligament  fupport- 
ing  the  head  of  the  aftragalus.  e,  h.  Two  ligaments 
which  unite  into  one,  and  are  fixed  to  the  metatarfal 
bone  of  the  great  toe.  f,  A  ligament  from  the  knob 
of  the  OS  calcis  to  the  metatarfal  bone  of  the  little  toe. 
g,  A  ftrong  triangular  ligament,  which  fupports  the 
bones  of  the  tarfus.  i,  The  ligaments  of  the  joints  of 
the  five  metatarfal  bones. 

Fig  .  13.  a,  The  head  of  the  thigh  bone  of  a  child, 
b.  The  Ilgamentum  rotundum  connedingit  to  the  ace- 
tabulum, c.  The  capfular  ligament  of  the  joint  with 
its  arteries  injefted.  d.  The  numerous  veffels  of  the 
mucilaginous  gland  injefted. 

Fig.  14.  The  Back-view  of  the  Cartilages  of  the 
Larvnx,  with  the  Os  Hyoides. 
a.  The  pofterior  part  of  the  bafe  of  the  os  hyoides. 
bb.  Its  cornua.     c,  The  appendix  of  the  right  fide. 

d,  A  ligament  fent  out  from  the  appendix  of  the  left 
fide,  to  the  flyloid  procefs   of   the  temporal  bone. 

e,  The  union  of  the  bafe  with  theleft  cornu.  f  f,  The 
pofterior  lidcs  of  (g)  the  Uiyroid  cartilage,     h  h.  Its 

fuperior 


Anatomy: 


PlateXJ^ll 


.  fftt  .■¥XUJ' 


Part  11.  ANA 

Ofteology.  Aiperior  cornua.  i  i.  Its  inferior  cornua.   k.  The  cri- 
^" — " '  coid  cartilage.    1 1,  The  arytenoid  cartilages,  in,  The 

entry  into  the  lungs,  mmcd g/ottij.  n,  The  epiglottis. 

00,  The  fuperior  cartilages  of  the  trachea,     p,  Its  li- 

ganicQtous  back-part. 


T      O      M      Y. 

Fig.  I  j.  The  Superior  Concave  Airface  of  the  Sesa- 
moid Bones  at  the  firft  joint  of  the  Great  Toe, 
with  their  Ligaments. 
a.  Three  fcfanioid  bones,  b.  The  ligamentous  fub- 

ftancc  in  which  they  arc  formed. 


Part  II.     Of  the  SOFT  PARTS  in  General; 

Op  the  common  INTEGUMENTS,  with  their  App£ndages  ; 

And  of  the  MUSCLES. 


ANATOMICAL  writers  ufaally  proceed  toade- 
fcription  of  the  mufcles  after  having  finiflied  the 
ofteology  ;  but  we  (liall  deviate  a  little  from  the  com- 
mon method,  with  a  view  to  defcribe  every  thing 
clearly  and  diftindly,  and  to  avoid  a  tautology  which 
would  otherwife  be  unavoidable.  All  the  parts  of  the  bo- 
dy are  fo  intimately  connected  with  each  other,  that  it 
fccms  impoflible  to  convey  a  jufl  idea  of  any  one  of 
them,  without  being  in  fome  meafure  obliged  to  fay 
fomething  of  others  ;  and  on  this  account  we  wifli  to 
mention  in  this  place  the  names  and  fituation  of  the 
principal  vifceraofthe  body,  that  when  mention  is  here- 
after made  ofany  one  ofthem  in  the  courfe  of  the  work, 
the  reader  may  at  leall  know  where  they  are  placed. 
After  this  little  digrelIIon,the  common  integuments, 
and  after  them  the  mufcles  will  be  defcribed  ;  we  then 
propofe  to  enter  into  an  examination  of  the  fevcral  vif- 
cera  and  their  different  funftions.  In  defcribing  the 
brain,  occafion  will  be  taken  tofpeak  of  the  nerves  and 
animal  fpirits.  The  circulation  of  the  blood  will  fol- 
low the  anatomy  of  the  heart,  and  the  fecrctions  and 
other  matter  will  be  introduced  in  their  proper  places. 
The  body  is  divided  into  three  great  cavities.  Of 
thefe  the  uppermoft  is  formed  by  the  bones  of  the  cra- 
nium, and  inclofes  the  brain  and  cerebellum. 

Thefecond  is  compofed  of  the  vertebrae  of  ihe  back, 
the  (lernum,  and  true  ribs,  with  the  additional  alii  (lance 
of  mufcles,  membranes,  and  common  integumen  ts,  and 
is  called  the  thorax — It  contains  the  heart  and  lungs. 

The  third,  and  inferior  cavity,  is  the  abdomen.  It 
is  feparatcd  from  the  thorax  by  meansof  the  diaphragm, 
End  is  formed  by  the  lumbar  vcrtcbrx,  the  os  facrum, 
the  offa  innominata,  and  the  falfc  ribs,  to  which  we 
may  add  the  pcritonium,  and  a  variety  of  mufcles. 
This  cavity  inclofes  the  flomach,  intcflines,  omentum 
or  cawl,  liver,  pancreas,  fplcen,  kidneys,  urinary 
bladder,  and  parts  of  generation. 

Under  the  divifion  of  common  integuments  are  ufu- 
ally  included  the  epidermis,  or  fcarf-  (kin,  the  reticu- 
lum mucofum  of  Malpighi,  the  cutis,  or  true  Jkin,  and 
the  mcmbrana  adipofa — The  hair  and  nails,  as  well  as 
the  febaceous  glands  may  bcconfidcrcd  as  appendages 
to  the  (kin. 

Sect.  I.    Of th Skis. 

§  I.   OJ  t/;e  ScAKF-fllht. 

The  epidermis,  cuiicula,  or  fcarf-lkin,  is  a  fine, 
tranlparent,  and  infen(ible  pellicle,  dcftitutc  of  nerves 
and  blooJ-vtirds,  which  inverts  the  body,  and  every 


where  covers  the  true  Ikin.    This  fcarf-Ikln,  which 
feems  to  be  very  fimple,  appears,  when  examined  with 
a  microfcope,  to  be  compofed  of  feveral  laminse  or  fcalej 
which  are  incrcafcd  by  prelTure.as  we  mayobfcrve  in  the 
hands  and  feet, where  it  is  frequently  much  thickened, 
and  becomes  perfeftly  callous.     It  feems  to  adhere  to 
the  cutis  by  a  number  of  very  minute  filaments,  but 
may  ealily  be  feparated  from  it  by  heat,  or  by  macera- 
tion in  water.  Some  anatomical  writers  have  fuppofed 
that  it  is  formed  by  a  moiflure  exhaled  from  the  whole 
furface  of  the  body,  which  gradually  hardens  when  it 
comes  into  contad  with  the  air.They  were  perhaps  in- 
duced to  adopt  this  opinion,by  obfcrving  the  fpecdy  re- 
generation of  this  part  of  the  body  when  it  has  been  by 
any  means  dcftroyed,  it  appearing  to  be  renewed  on  all 
parts  of  the  furface  at  the  fame  time  ;  whereas  other 
parts  which  have  been  injured,  are  found  to  dired  their 
growth  from  their  circumference  only  towards  their 
centre.  But  a  demonftrative  proof  that  the  epidermis 
is  not  a  fluid  hardened  by  means  of  the  external  air,  it 
that  the  foetus  in  utcro  is  found  to  have  this  covering. 
Lieuwenhoeck  fuppofed  its  formation  to  be  owing  to 
the  expanfion  of  the  extremities  of  the  excretory  vef- 
fels  which  are  found  every  where  upon  the  furface  of 
the  true  (kin.     Ruyfch  attributed  its  origin   to  the 
nervous  papillx  of  the  fkin  ;  and  Hcifter  thinks  it 
probable,  that  it  may  be  owing  both  to  the  papilla:  and 
the  excretory  veifcls.     The  celebrated  Morgagni,  on 
the  other  hand,  contends*,  that  it  is  nothing  more  '  /ij^,„r„ 
than  the  furface  of  the  cutis,  hardened  and  rendered  An^t.  ii. 
infcnfible  by  the  liquor  amnii  in  utero,  and  by  the  A^iim^J- 
preffure  of  the  air.     This  is  a  fubjeJl,  however,  on  '■"••  *• 
which  we  can  advance  nothing  with  certainty. 

The  cuticle  is  pierced  with  an  infinite  number  of 
pores  or  Utile  holes,  which  afford  a  palTage  to  the  hair^, 
hveat,  and  infenfible  perfpiration,  and  likcwife  to 
warm  Water,  mercury,  and  whatever  elfe  is  capable  of 
being  taken  in  by  the  abforbents  of  the  ftdn.  The  lines 
which  we  obfcrve  on  the  epidrrmis  belong  to  the  true 
fkin.  The  cuticle  adjufls  iifclf  to  them,  but  does  not 
form  them. 

§  2.  OJ  the  Rett  Mucofum. 

Between  the  epidermis  and  cutis  we n^eet  with  an  -^^H^^^ 
appearance  to  which  Malpighi.  who  firfl  defcribed  col^n"! 
it,  gave  the  name  of  r:tt  muctfum,  fuppcling  it  to  be 
ofamembranousftruflure,  and  pierced  with  an  infinite 
number  of  pores  ;  but  the  fad  is,  that  it  feems  to  be 
nothing  more  than  a  mucous  fubftance  which  may  be 
dilfolved  by  macerating  in  water,  while  :h*  cuticle 
and  cutis  prcfcrvc  their  texture. 

4  U  a  11«« 


&c. 


76 

Cutis. 


708  ANA! 

Of  the  In-      The  colour  of  the  body  is  found  to  depend  on  the 
tcgumcnta,  colour  of  this  rcte  mucofum  !  for  in  negroes  it  is  ob- 
fcrvcd  to  be  pcrfeflly  black,  whilft  the  true  fkin  is  of 
the  ordinary  colour. 

The  blifters  which  raifc  the  (kin  when  burnt  or 
fcalded,  have  been  fuppofed  by  fomc  to  be  owing  to  a 
rarefadion  of  this  mucus  ;  but  they  are  more  proba- 
bly occafioned  by  an  increafed  action  of  the  veflcls  of 
the  part,  togctlier  with  an  afflux  and  cfFufion  of  the 
thinner  parts  of  the  blood. 

§  3.  Of  the  CvTis,  or  True  Skin. 

The  cutis  is  compofcd  of  fibres  clofcly  compacted 
together,  as  wc  may  obfcrvc  in  leather,  which  is  tiic 
prepared  fkinof  animals.  Thcfc  fibrcsformathick  uct- 
vvork.which  every  where  admits  the  filament  sof  nerves, 
and  an  infinite  number  of  blood- veflcls  and  lymphatics. 

The  cutis,  when  the  epidermis  is  taken  ctf,  is  found 
to  have,  throughout  its  whole  furface,  innumerable 
papills,  which  appear  like  very  minute  granulations, 
and  fccm  to  be  calculated  to  receive  the  impreirions  of 
the  touch,  being  the  moft  eafily  obfcrved  where  the 
fcnfc  of  felling  is  the  moll  delicate,  as  in  the  p.ilms  of 
the  hands  and  on  the  fingers. 

Thefe  papillas  are  fuppofed  by  many  antomical  wri- 
ters tobe  continuationsof  the  pulpy  fubflanceof  nerves, 
whofe  coats  have  terminated  in  the  cellular  texture 
of  the  fkin.  The  great  fciilibility  of  thefe  papilla;  evi- 
dently proves  them  to  be  exceedingly  ncrvtus  ;  but 
furely  the  nervous  fibrilki:  of  the  fkinareof  themfelvcs 
fcarcely  equal  to  the  formation  of  thcfc  papilla;,  and  if 
feems  to  be  more  probable  that  they  are  formed  like 
the  reft  of  the  cutis. 

Thefe  papilla;  being  defcribcd,  the  ufes  of  the  epi- 
dermis and  the  reticulum  mucofum  will  be  more  ealily 
underllood  ;  the  latter  ferving  to  keep  tliem  conflant- 
ly  nioift,  while  the  former  protcdts  them  from  the  ex- 
ternal air,  and  modifies  their  too  great  fenfibility. 

5  4.  0//*<;  Glands  of  tht  Skin. 

In  different  pans  of  the  body  we  meet,  within  the 
fubftance  of  the  ikin,  with  certain  glands  or  follicles, 
which  difcharge  a  fat  and  oily  humour  that  fcrvcs  to 
lubricate  and  foftcn  the  Ikin.  When  the  fluid  they  fe- 
crctc  lias  acquired  a  certain  degree  of  thicknefs,  it  ap- 
proaches to  the  colour  and  confiflence  of  fuet  ;  and 
from  this  appearance  they  have  derived  their  name  of 
ftbaccous glands.  Tliey  are  found  in  the  greateft  num- 
ber in  the  nofe,  car,  nipple,  axilla,  groin,  fcrotum, 
vagina,  and  prepuce. 

Befides  thefe  fcbaceous  glands,  we  read,  in  anatomi- 
cal books,  of  others  that  are  defcribed  as  fmall  fpheri- 
cal  bodies  placed  in  all  parts  of  the  (kin,  in  much  great- 
er abundance  than  thofejuft  now  mentioned,  and  nam- 
ed miliary,  from  tluir  fuppofed  refemblance  to  millet- 
feed.  Steno,  who  firft  defcribed  thefe  glands,  and  Mal- 


O       M       Y. 


Part  II. 


77 

The  fc- 
baceous 
(lands. 


pighi,  Ruyfch,  Verheyen,  Winflow,  and  others,  who 
have  adopted  hisopinionson  this  fubiei;t,fpcak  of  them 
as  having  excretory  duds,  that  open  on  the  furface  of 
the  ciuicle,  and  dillil  the  fwcat  and  matter  of  infciifi- 
ble  pcrfpiration  ;  and  yet,  notwithftanding  the  pofitive 
manner  in  which  thcfc  pretended  glands  have  been 
fpokcn  of,  we  are  now  fafficicntly  convinced  that 
their  exiftence  is  altogether  imaginary. 

5.  Ofthi  Insensible  Perfpiraton  and  Sv/ZAi. 

The  matter  of  infenfible  pcrfpiration,  or  in  other 
words,  the  fubtilc  vapour  that  is  continually  exhaling 
from  the  furface  of  the  body,  is  not  fecrctcd  by  any 
particular  glands,  but  feems  to  be  derived  wholly  from 
the  extremities  of  the  minute  arteries  that  are  every 
where  difperfed  through  the  (kin.  Thefe  exhaling 
velfcls  are  eafily  demonftrated  in  the  dead  fubjed,  hy 
throwing  water  into  the  ar;eries;  for  then  fmall  drops 
exude  from  all  parts  of  the  (kin,  and  raife  up  the  cu- 
ticle, the  pores  of  which  are  clofed  by  death  ;  and  in 
the  living  fubjecl,  a  looking-gtafs  placed  againft  the 
fkin,  is  loon  obfcured  by  the  vapour.  Bidloo  fancied 
he  had  difcovcred  ducts  leading  from  the  cutis  to  the 
cuticle,  and  tranfraitiing  this  fiuid  ;  bat  in  this  he  was 
miftaken. 

When  the  pcrfpiration  is  by  any  means  increafed, 
and  fevcral  drops  that  were  infcniible  when  fcparatc, 
are  united  together  and  condcnfeJ  by  the  extern.il  air, 
they  form  upon  the  fkin  fmall,  but  vifible,  drops  called 
fuiat  (.v).  This  particularly  happens  after  much  ex- 
ercifc,  ot  whatever  occafions  an  increafed  determina- 
tion of  fluids  to  the  furface  of  the  body  ;  a  greater  quan- 
tity of  pcrfpirablc  matter  being  in  fuch  cafes  carried 
through  the  pali'agcs  that  are  deftincd  to  convey  it  off. 

It  has  been  difputcd,  indeed,  whether  the  infcniible 
perfj  iratiun  and  fweat  are  to  be  conlidered  as  one  and 
the  famcexcretion.differing  only  in  degree  jorw-hether 
they  are  two  diftindl  excretions  derived  from  different 
fourccs.  In  fupport  of  the  latter  opinion,  it  has  been 
alleged,  that  the  infcniible  pcrfpiration  is  agreeable  to 
nature,  and  efTcntial  to  health,  whereas  fwcat  may  be 
conlldtred  as  a  fpecies  of  difcafe.  But  this  argument 
proves  nothing  ;  and  it  feems  probable,  that  both  the 
infenfible  vapour  and  the  fweat  are  exhaled  in  a  (imi- 
lar  manner,  thougli  they  differ  in  quantity,  and  proba- 
bly in  their  qualities  ;  the  former  being  more  Hmpid, 
and  fecmingly  lefs  impregnated  with  falts  than  the  lat- 
ter ,  at  any  rate  we  may  conlider  the  (kin  as  an  emunc- 
tory  through  which  theredundantwater.and  fometimes 
the  other  more  Inline  parts  of  the  blood,  arc  carried  off. 
But  the  infenfible  pcrfpiration  is  not  confined  to  the 
fkin  only — a  grcut  part  of  what  we  are  conftantly 
throwing  ort  in  this  way  is  from  the  lungs.  The  quan- 
tity of  fluid  exhaled  from  the  human  body  by  this  in- 
f(?nfible  pcrfpiration  is  very  con  liderable.S3nftorius(o) 
an  Italian  phyfician,  whoindefatigably  palled  a  great 

many 


78 
Infenfible 
pcrfpira- 
tion. 


79 
Whether 
thcfc  are 
one  and  the 
fame  ordif> 
ferent  ex- 
crctiooi. 


80 
Their  ufes. 


(n)  Licuwenhoek  afferts  that  one  drop  of  fweat  is  formed  by  the  conflux  of  fifteen  drops  of  pcrfpirablc 
vapour. 

(o)  The  infenfible  pcrfpiration  is  fometimes  di(lingui(hed  by  the  name  of  this  phyfician,  who  was  born  in 
the  territories  of  Venice,  and  was  afterwards  a  profelTor  in  the  univerfity  of  Padua.  After  ellimating  the  ali- 
ment he  took  in,  and  the  fenfiblefecretionsand  difcharges,  he  was  enabled  to  afcertain  with  great  accuracy  the 
'\rightor  quantity  of  infcniible  pcrfpiration  by  means  of  a  (latical  chair  which  lie  contrived  for  this  purpoCe ; 

and 


Part  II. 


N 


O       M       Y. 


&c. 


Of  the  lo-many  years  in  a  fcriesofflatical  experiments,  demon* 
teguments,  flratcd  long  ago  what  has  been  confirmed  by  later  ob- 
_  fcrvations,  that  the  quantity  of  vapour  exhaled  from 
'  the  (kin  and  from  the  furfacc  of  the  lungs,  amounts 
nearly  to  y-8ths  of  the  aliment  we  take  in.  So  that  if 
in  the  warm  climate  of  Italy  a  perfon  cats  and  drinks 
the  quantity  of  eight  pounds  in  the  courfe  of  a  day, 
five  pounds  of  it  will  pafs  off  by  infenliblc  perfpira- 
tion,  while  three  pounds  only  will  be  evacuated  by 
Aool,  urine,  faliva,  &c.  But  in  countries  where  tlie  de- 
gree of  cold  is  greater  than  in  Ituly,  the  quantity  of 
perfpired  matter  is  Icfs  ;  in  fomc  of  che  more  no:  ihern 
climates,  it  being  found  not  to  equal  the  difch^rge  by 
urine.  It  is  likewife  obfcrved  to  vary  according  to 
the  feafon  of  the  year,  and  according  lo  tiie  conftitu- 
lion,  age,  fex,  difcofcs,  diet,  cxercife,  pallions,  &c. 
of  dilfcrent  people. 

From  whai  has  been  faid  on  this  fubjeft,  it  will  be 
cafily  coac'Jved,  that  ibis  evacuation  caunoi  be  either 
much  incrcaled  or  diniinilhed  in  quantity  without  af- 
feding  the  health. 

The  ptrfpirablc  matter  and  the  fweat  are  in  fome 
mcafurc  analogous  to  the  urine,  as  appears  frm  their 
lafte  and  faliac  nature  (p).  And  it  is  worthy  of  ob- 
fervation,  that  when  either  of  the  fccreiions  is  in- 
crcafcd  in  quantity,  the  other  is  diminill:cd  ;  io  that 
they  who  perfpirc  the  Icaft,  ufually  pafs  the  grcatefl 
quantity  oi  urine,  and  vice  verfa. 

\  6.  Of  the  Nails. 

The  nails  are  of  a  compact  texture,  hard  and  tran- 
fparentlih;  horn.  Their  origin  is  ftill  a  fubjcd  of  dif- 
pute.  f»lil;M^hi  fippofcd  them  to  be  formed  by  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  papillae  of  the  rtdn  :  Ludwig,  on  the 
oilier  haw  !,  maintained,  that  they  were  compofed  of 
the  extremities  of  blood-vclFcls  and  nerves;  both 
thefe  opinions  arc  now  delervedly  rtjefted. 

They  fcem  to  poflcfs  many  properties  in  common 
with  the  cuticle ;  like  it  they  are  neither  vafcular  nor 
fenfible,  and  when  the  cuticle  is  fcparaied  from  the 
true  Ikin  by  maceration  or  other  means,  the  nails  come 
away  with   it. 

They  api'car  to  be  compofed  of  different  layers,  of 
unequal  li^c,  applied  one  over  the  other.  Each  layer 
fcems  to  be  formed  of  lungitudinal  fibres. 

In  each  nail  we  may  diftinguilh  three  parts,  viz. 
the  root,  the  body  or  middle,  .-ind  the  extremity.  The 
root  is  a  foft,  thin,  and  white  fubftance,  terminatingin 
the  form  of  a  crelcent  ;  the  Cj-idcrmis  adheres  very 


709 


Arongly  to  this  part ;  the  body  of  the  nail  is  broader.  Of  the  in- 
redder,  and  thicker,  and  the  extremity  is  of  fUU  great-  legumcntj, 
er  firmnefs.  *'■ 

The  nails  incrcafc  from  their  roots,  and  not  from         ^ 
their  upper  extremity. 

Their  principal  ufe  is  to  cover  and  defend  the  ends 
of  the  fingers  and  toes  from  external  injury. 

§   7-  Of  the  Hair. 

The  hairs,  which  from  their  being  generally  known  The  hair, 
do  not  fcem  to  require  any  definition,  arife  from  di- 
Aincl  capfulcs  or  bulbs  feated  in  the  cellular  membrane 
under  the  ikin  (q.).  Some  of  thefe  bulbs  inclofe  feve- 
ral  hairs.  They  may  be  obfcrved  at  the  roots  of  the 
hairs  which  form  the  beard  or  whifkers  of  a  cat. 

The  hairs,  like  the  nails,  grow  only  from  below  by 
a  regular  propulfion  from  their  root,  where  they  re- 
ceive their  nourifhment.  Their  bulbs,  when  viewed 
with  a  microfcope,  are  found  to  be  of  various  fliapes. 
In  the  headandfcrotum  they  arc  roundilh  ;  in  the  eye- 
brows they  are  oval ;  and  in  other  parts  of  the  body 
they  are  nearly  of  a  cylindrical  fiiape.  Each  bulb  feenis 
to  conliA  of  two  membranes,  between  which  there  is  a 
certain  quantity  of  moillure.  Within  the  bulb  the 
hair  feparatesinto  three  or  four  fibrillas;  the  bodies  of 
the  hairs,  which  are  the  parts  without  the  (kin,  vary  i:i 
foftnefsand  colour  according  to  the  dilference  of  cli- 
mate, age,  or  temperament  of  body  (r). 

Their  general  ufe  in  the  body  docs  not  fcem  to  be 
abfolutely  determined  ;  but  hairs  on  particular  parts, 
as  on  the  eye-brows  and  eye-lids,  are  deflined  for  par- 
ticular ufcs,  which  will  be  mentioned  when  thofe 
parts  are  defcribcd. 


§  Of  the  Cellvlar  Membra.n'e  <»'.'</ Fat. 


83 


The  cellular  membrane  is  found  to  invert  the  mofl  Cdluur 
minute  tibrts  wc  are  able  to  trace  ;  fo  that  by  modern  membrane, 
phyliologills,  it  is  very  properly  coniiiiered  as  theuni- 
vcrfal  conncfting  medium  of  every  part  of  the  body. 

It  is  compofed  of  an  infinite  number  of  \iiinjte  cells 
united  together,  and  conmiunicating  with  each  other. 
The  two  dilcafcs  peculiar  to  this  membrane  arc  proofs 
of  fachacoinmnnication  ;  lor  in  the  eviphyfetnu  all  its 
cells  are  filled  with  air,  and  in  the  anafarca  tliey  arc 
univerfally  diftended  with  water.  Befides  thefe  proofs 
of  communication  from  difcafe,  a  familiar  indance  of 
it  may  be  obfcrved  among  butchers,  who  ufually  punc- 
ture this  membrane,  and  by  inflating  it  with  air  add 
to  the  good  appearance  of  their  meat. 

The 


»nd  from  his  experiments,  which  were  conducted  with  great  indullry  and  patience,  he  was  led  to  detcrmiue 
what  kinds  of  folid  or  liquid  aliment  iucrcafed  or  diminilhcd  it.  From  thefe  experiments  he  I'ormed  a  fyflcm, 
which  hepublifliedat  Venicein  161 4,  in  the  form  of  aphorifms,  under  the  title  of  "  Ars  dc  Medicina  Statica." 

(p)  Minute  chryltals  have  been  obfcrved  to  liioot  upon  ihc  cloaths  of  men  who  work  in  glafs-houfcs.  Hal- 
lir  Elem.   F hf 

(q_)  Malpighi,and  after  him  the  celebrated  Ruyfch,  fuppofed  the  hairs  to  be  continuations  of  nerves,  being 
of  opinion  that  they  originated  from  the  papilla;  of  the  fVdn,  which  they  cunlidtred  as  nervous;  and  as  a  corro- 
borating proof  of  what  they  advanced,  they  argued  the  pain  wc  feel  in  plucking  them  out ;  but  later  aiiaio- 
mifts  fcem  to  have  rejected  this  doctrine,  and  confidcr  the  hairs  as  particular  bodies,  not  arihng  from  the  pa- 
pillx  for  in  the  parts  where  the  papillae  abound  moft  there  are  no  hairs),  but  from  bulbs  or  eapfules,  which 
are  peculiar  to  them. 

(r)  The  hairs  likewife  differ  from  each  other,  and  may  not  improperly  be  divided  into  twoclalTes;  one 
of  which  may  include  the  hair  of  the  head,  chin,  pubes,  and  axillae  ;  and  the  otiier,  the  fofter  hairs,  which 
are  to  be  obferved  almofl  every  where  on  the  furfice  of  the  body. 


Fjt. 


710  A      N      A      T 

Of  th«  In.  The  cells  of  tliis  membrane  feive  as  rcfervoirs  to  the 
trgumcmt,  £,i)y  pji-t  of  the  blood  or  Fat,  which  fcems  to  be  depo- 
.    •  fue  J  ill  them,  cither  by  traiil'iidation  through  the  coats 

84  of  the  arteries,  that  ramify  through  thcfc  cells,  or  by 
particular  vclfels,  coiuinucj  from  the  end  of  arteries. 
Thcfc  cells  are  not  of  a  gl.indular  ftruilure,  as  Malpi- 
ghi  and  others  after  him  have  fuppofed.  The  fat  is 
abforbcd  and  carried  back  into  thefyflem  by  the  lym- 
phatics. The  great  wade  of  it  in  many  difeafes,  par- 
ticularly in  the  confumption,  is  a  fufficient  proof  that 
hich  an  abforpiion  takes  place. 

The  fulncfsand  lizcof  the  body  are  in  a  great  mea- 
fure  proportioned  to  ihc  quantity  of  fat  contained  in 
the  cells  of  this  membrane. 

In  the  living  body  it  fcems  to  be  a  fluid  oil,  which 
concretes  after  death.  In  graminivorous  animals,  it  is 
found  to  be  of  a  firmer  conliRcnce  than  in  man. 

The  fat  is  not  confined  to  the  ikin  alone,  being  met 
v/iih  every  where  in  the  intcrllices  of  mufcles,  in  the 
omentum,  about  the  kidneys,  at  the  bafisof  the  heart, 
in  the  orbits,  &c. 

The  chief  ufes  of  the  fat  feems  to  be  to  afFord  inoi- 
fture  to  all  the  parts  with  which  it  is  connedled  ;  to 
facilitate  the  aftion  of  the  mufcles  j  and  to  add  to  the 
beauty  of  the  body,  by  making  it  every  where  fmooth 
and  equal. 

•5«  Sect.  II.  6///;^  Muscles. 

Th  e  mufcles  are  the  organsof  motion.  The  pans 
that  are  ufually  included  under  this  name  confift  of  di- 
i.\\n&.  portions  of  fledi,  fufccptible  of  contradion  and 
relaxation;  the  motions  of  which,  in  a  natural  and 
healthy  ftate,  are  fubjed  to  the  will,  and  for  this  rea- 
fon  they  arc  called  voluntary  mufcles.  But  befides 
thefc,  there  are  other  parts  of  the  body  thatowe  their 
power  of  contraftion  to  their  mufcular  fibres  ;  thus  the 
heart  is  of  a  mufcular  texture,  forming  what  is  called 
a  hollow  raufcle  ;  and  the  urinary  bladder,  flomach, 
inteflines,  &c.  are  enabled  to  aft  upon  their  contents, 
merely  becaufe  ihey  are  provided  with  mufcular  fibres. 
Thcfe  are  called  involuntary  mufcles,  becaufe  their 
motions  are  not  dependent  on  the  will.  The  mufcles 
of  refpiration,  being  in  fome  meafure  influenced  by 
the  will,  are  faid  to  have  a  mixed  motion, 

The  names  by  which  the  voluntary  mufcles  are  di- 
ftingulflicd,  are  founded  on  their  fize,  figure,  fituation, 
ufc,  or  the  arrangement  of  their  fibres,  or  their  origin 
and  infcrtion.  Butbcfideslliefcparticulardiftinflions, 
there  arc  certain  general  ones  that  requu'e  to  be  noti- 
fied. Thus,  if  the  fibres  of  amufcle  are  placed  paral- 
lel to  each  otlier  in  a  flraight  direftion,  they  form 
wliat  is  ftyled  a  rfBilinear  mnfele  ;  if  the  fibres  crofs 
and  interfeft  each  other,  they  eonflitutc  a  com/^ounil 
mufclc;  a  radiated  one,  if  the  fibres  are  difpofed  in 
the  manner  of  rays;  or  a.  pcmiifonii  mufcle,  if,  like 
the  plume  of  a  pen,  they  are  placed  obliquely  with 
rcfpeft  to  the  tendon. 

Mufcles  that  aft  in  oppofition  to  each  other,  arc 
called  aiitagonifla: ;  thus  every  extenfor  or  mufcle  has 
a  flexor  for  its  antagonift,  and  vie;  verfa.  Mufcles  that 
concur  in  the  fame  aftion  are  flyled  corigineres. 

The  mufcles  being  attached  to  the  bones,  the  latter 
may  be  conhdered  as  levers  that  are  moved  in  differ- 
ent dircClious  by  the  contraftiou  of  ihofe  organs. 


O      M      Y.  Part  \X, 

The  end  of  a  mufclc  wliich  adheres  to  the  moft  fix-  Of  ihc  in- 
ed  part  is  ufually  called  the  origin,  and  thatwhich  ad-  tegumenti, 
heres  to  the  more  moveable  part,  the  infertion,  of  the  f"' 
mufclc. 

In  every  mufcle  we  may  diftingnilh  two  kinds  of 
fibres  ;  the  one  foft,  of  a  red  colour,  fenfible,  and  irri- 
table, called /cy^v  fibres  ;  the  other  o,  a  firmer  tex- 
ture, of  a  white  glidening  colour,  infenlible,  without 
irritability  or  the  power  of  contrafting,  and  named  ten- 
dinous fibres.  They  are  occafionally  intermixed  ;  but 
the  flefhy  fibres  generally  prevail  in  the  belly  or  mid- 
dle part  of  a  mufcle,  and  the  tendinous  ones  in  the 
extremities.  If  thefe  tendinous  fibres  are  formed  in- 
to a  round  llender  chord,  they  form  what  is  called  the 
tendon  of  the  mufclc  ;  on  the  other  hand,  if  they  arc 
fpread  into  a  broad  flat  furface,  the  extremity  of  the 
mufcle  is  flyled  aponeurofu. 

Theiendonsof  many  mufcles,  efpecially  when  they 
are  long  and  expofed  to  preflure  or  friftion  in  the 
grooves  formed  for  them  in  the  bones,  are  furrounded 
by  a  tendinous  flieath  ovjtfcia,  in  which  we  fometimes 
find  a  fmall  mucous  fac  or  bur  fa  mucofa,  which  obviates 
any  inconvenience  from  friftion.  Sometimes  we  find 
whole  mufcles,  and  evenfeveral  mufcles,  covered  by  a 
fafcia  of  the  fame  kind,  that  affords  origin  to  many  of 
their  fibres,  dipping  down  between  them,  adhering  to 
the  ridges  of  bones,  and  thus  preventing  them  from 
fwelling  too  much  when  in  aftion.  The  mofl;  remark- 
able inflance  of  fuch  a  covering  is  xhe.  fafcia  lata  of  the 
thigh. 

Each  mufcle  is  inclofed  by  a  thin  covering  of  cellu- 
lar membrane,  which  has  been  fometimes  improperly 
confidered  as  peculiar  to  the  mufcles,  and  defcribed 
under  the  name  oi propria  mcmbrana  mufculofa.  This 
cellular  covering  dips  down  into  the  fubftance  of  the 
mufcle,  connefting  and  furrounding  the  moft  minute 
fibres  we  are  able  todemonftrate,  and  .affording  a  fup- 
port  to  their  velicls  and  nerves. 

Lieuwenhoeck  fancied  hehaddifcovcred,by  means 
of  his  microfcope,  the  ultimate  divifion  of  a  mufcle, 
and  that  he  could  point  out  the  fimple  fibre,  which  ap- 
peared to  him  to  be  an  hundred  times  lefs  than  a  hair ; 
but  he  was  afterwards  convinced  how  much  he  was 
miftaken  on  this  fubjeft,  and  candidly  acknowledged, 
that  what  he  had  taken  for  a  fimple  fibre  was  in  faft 
a  bundle  of  fibres. 

It  is  eafy  to  obferve  feveral  of  thefe  fafculi  or  bun- 
dles in  a  piece  of  beef,  in  which,  from  the  coarfenefs 
of  its  texture,  they  are  very  evident. 

The  red  colour  which  fo  particularly  diftinguifhes 
the  mufcular  or  flcfliy  parts  of  animals,  is  owing  to  an 
infinite  number  of  blood-veflcls  that  are  difperftj 
through  their  fubftance.  When  we  macerate  the  fi- 
bres of  a  mufcle  in  water,  it  becomes  of  a  white  co- 
lour like  all  other  parts  of  the  body  divefted  of  their 
blood.  The  b'.ood-vciTcls  are  accompanied  by  nerves, 
and  they  are  both  diftributcd  in  fuch  abundance  to 
thefe  parts,  that  in  endeavouring  to  trace  the  courfc 
of  the  blood-velfcls  in  a  mufcle,  it  would  appear  to  be 
formed  altogether  by  their  ramifications  ;  and  in  an  at- 
tempt to  follow  the  branchesof  its  nerves,  they  would 
be  found  to  be  equal  in  proportion. 

If  a  mufclc  is  jiricked  or  irritated,  it  immediately 
contrafts.     This  is  called  its  irritable  principle  ;  and 

this 


Part  II. 


A      N 


O      M      Y. 


Of  the     this  irritability  is  to  be  confidered  as  the  charaftcriftic 

Mufcles,  of  mufcular  fibres,  and  may  fcrvc  to  prove  their  cxift- 

^      *'       '  encc  ill  pans  that  are  too  niiiiiitc  to  be  examined  by  the 

eye.     This  power,  whicli  difpoles  the  niufclts  to  con- 

86        traftvvhcn  (limulated,  independent  of  the  will,  isfiip- 

Of  the  vis    pofed  to  be  inherent  in  them  ;   and  is  therefore  named 

infita.  yjj  i/ijiia.    This  property  is  not  to  be  confonndcd  with 

cladicity,  which  the  membranes  and  other  parts  of  the 

body  polltfsina  greater  or  lefs  degree  in  common  with 

thcmufcles;  nor  with  fen  fibiliiy,  for  the  lieart,  though 

the  mofl  irritable,  feenis  to  be  the  Icafl  fenfible  of  any 

of  the  mufcular  parts  of  the  body. 

Afteramufeular  fibre  has  contraded,  ii  foon  returns 
to  a  ftate  of  relaxation,  till  it  is  excited  afrelh,  and 
then  it  contrafts  and  relaxes  again.  We  may  likewifc 
produce  fuch  a  contradion,  by  irritating  the  nerve 
leading  to  a  nuifcle,  although  the  nerve  iifclf  is  not 
affcacd. 

This  principle  is  found  to  be  greater  in  fmall  than  in 
large,  and  in  young  than  in  old,  animals. 

In  tlie  voluntary  mufcles  thcfc  eff'cds  of  contradion 
and  relaxation  of  the  flcfliy  fibres  are  produced  in  obe- 
dience to  the  will,  by  what  may  be  called  the  vh  ner- 
vo/a,  a  property  that  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
vii  iiijita.  As  the  cxiflence  of  a  vis  infita  diflerent  front 
a  vis  nervca,  was  the  dodlrine  taught  by  Doftor  Hal- 
ler  in  his  Etem.  Phyf.  but  is  at  prefent  called  in  que- 
flion  by  feveral,  particularly  Dr  Monro,  we  think 
it  nccelfary  to  give  a  few  objedions,  as  ftated  in  his 
Obfcrvations  on  the  Nervous  Syflcm  : 

"  The  chief  experiment  (fays  the  Dodor),  which 
fecms  to  have  led  Dr  Hallcr  to  this  opinion,  is  the  well- 
known  one,  that  the  heart  and  other  mufcles,  after  be- 
ing detached  from  the  brain,  continue  to  aft  fponia- 
neoully,  or  by  Aimuli  may  be  roufed  into  aftion  for  a 
conliderable  length  of  time  ;  and  when  it  cannot  be  al- 
ledged,  fays  Dr  Haller,  that  the  nervous  fluid  is  by 
the  mind,  or  otherwife,  impelled  into  the  mufcle. 

"  That  in  this  inflance,  we  cannot  comprehend  by 
what  power  the  nervous  fluid  or  energy  can  be  put  in 
motion,  mufl  perhaps  be  granted  :  But  has  Dr  Haller 
given  a  better  explanation  of  the  manner  in  which  his 
iuppofed  vis  infita  becomes  aftive  ? 

"  If  it  be  as  difHcult  to  point  out  the  caufe  of  the 
aftion  of  the  vis  infita  as  that  of  the  aftion  of  the  vis 
nervea,  the  admillion  of  that  new  power,  inllead  of 
Tclicving,  would  add  to  our  perplexity. 

"  We  Ihould  then  have  admitted,  that  two  caafes  of 
a  different  nature  were  capable  of  producing  exaftly 
the  fame  effccf ;  which  is  not  in  general  agreeable  to 
the  laws  of  nature. 

"  Wefhould  find  otherconfeqncncesarifefrom  fuch 
an  hypoihefis,  wliich  tend  to  weaken  the  credibility  of 
it.  For  inflance,  if  in  a  found  animal  the  vis  nervea 
alone  produces  the  contraftion  of  the  mufcles,  we  will 
alk  what  purpofc  the  visinlita  fcrvcs  I  If  both  operate, 
are  we  to  fuppofe  that  the  vis  nervea,  impelled  by  the 
mind  or  living  principle,  gives  the  order,  wliich  the 
vis  infita  executes,  and  that  the  nerves  are  the  intcr- 
nuntii ;  and^fo  admit  two  wife  agents  employed  in 
every  the  nioft  limple  aftion  ?  But  inftead  of  ("pecula- 
ting farther,  let  us  learn  the  ctfeft  of  experiments,  and 
endeavour  from  thcfe  to  draw  plain  conclufions. 


711 


"  1.  When  I  poured  a  folution  of  opiam  in  water  Of  the 
under  the  Ikin  of  the  leg  of  a  frog,  the  mnfclei,  to  the  Mufcles. 
furfaceof  which  it  was  applied,  were  very  foon  depri-  '  ' 

ved  of  the  power  of  contraftion.  In  like  manner, 
when  I  poured  this  folution  into  the  cavity  of  the 
heart,  by  opening  the  vena  cava,  the  heart  was  aj- 
moft  inflantly  deprived  of  its  power  of  motion,  whe- 
ther the  experiment  was  performed  on  it  fixed  in  its 
place,  or  cut  out  of  the  body. 

"  2.  I  opened  the  thorax  of  a  living  frog;  and  then 
tied  or  cut  its  aorta,  fo  as  to  put  a  /lop  to  the  circulati- 
on of  its  blood. 

"  I  then  opened  the  vena  cava,  and  poured  the  folu- 
tion of  opium  into  the  heart ;  and  found,  not  only  that 
this  organ  was  inflaiuly  deprived  of  its  powers  of  ac- 
tion, but  that  in  a  few  luiniites  the  mofl  dillant  muf- 
cles of  (he  limbs  were  extremely  weakened.  Vet  this 
weaknefs  was  not  owing  to  the  want  of  circulation, 
for  the  frog  could  jump  about  for  more  than  an  hour 
after  the  heart  was  cut  out. 

'*  In  the  firfl  of  thefe  two  experiments,  weobferv- 
ed  the  fuppofcd  vis  infita  deflroycd  by  the  opium  ;  in 
the  lattar,  the  vis  nervea  ;  for  it  is  evident  that  the 
limbs  were  affcftcd  by  the  fympathy  of  the  brain, 
and  of  the  nervous  fyftem  in  general,  svith  the  nerves 
of  the  heart. 

"  3.  When  the  nerve  of  any  mufcle  is  firft  divid- 
ed by  a  tranfverfe  feftion,  and  then  burnt  with  a 
hot  iron,  or  punftured  with  a  needle,  the  mufcle  in 
which  it  terminates  contrafts  violently,  exaftly  in  the 
fame  manner  as  when  tlic  irritation  is  applied  to  the 
fibres  of  the  mufcle.  But  when  the  hot  iron,  or 
needle,  is  confined  to  the  nerve,  Dr  Haller  himfelf 
niufl  have  admitted,  that  tlie  vis  nervea,  and  not  the 
vis  infita,  was  excited.  But  here  I  would  afk  two  que- 
flions. 

•'  Firft,  Whether  we  donot  as  well  underAand  how 
this  vis  nervea  is  excited  when  irration  is  applied  to 
tlie  mufcle  as  when  it  is  applied  to  the  trunk  of  the 
nerve,  the  impelling  power  of  the  mind  fecniing  to  be 
equally  wanting  in  both  cafes  ? 

"  Secondly,  If  it  appears  that  irritation  applied  to 
the  trunk  of  a  nerve  excites  the  vis  nervea,  w  hy  fliould 
we  doubt  that  it  can  equally  well  excite  it  when  ap- 
plied to  the  fmall  and  very  f'cniiSle  branches  and  i«r- 
minations  of  the  nerve  in  the  ninfcle  ? 

"  As,  therefore,  it  appears  that  the  fuppofcd  vis 
inlita  is  deflroycd  or  excited  by  tlie  f:me  means  as  the 
vis  nervea  ;  nay,  that  when,  by  the  application  of  o- 
pium  10  the  heart  of  a  fro;;,  after  the  aorta  is  cut  and 
the  circulation  interruitcd,  we  have  deflroycd  thevjs 
infita,  the  vis  nervca  is  fo  much  extinguilhed,  that  the 
animal  cannot  aft  wiili  the  dillant  mufcles  of  the 
limb  ;  and  that  thefe  afterwards  grow  very  torpid,  or 
lofe  much  of  their  fuppofcd  vis  infita  ;  it  feems  clearly 
to  follow,  that  there  is  no  jufl  ground  for  fuppofmg 
that  any  other  principle  produces  the  contraftion  of  a 
mufcle." 

The  vis  iicrvcfii,  or  oper.ition  of  the  mind,  if  wc 
may  fo  call  it,  by  whicli  a  mufcle  is  brought  into  con- 
traftion, is  not  inherent  ill  tlie  mufcle  like  the  vis  tit- 
Jita ;  neither  is  it  perpetual,  like  tliis  latter  property. 
After  long  continued  or  violent  cxcrcife,  for  example, 

the 


712 

Of  the  In- 

■rguincnti 


A      N      A      1 

the  vohiutary  mufclcs  become  ^lainful,  and  at  length 
incapable  of  further  aftloii  ;  whereas  the  heart  and  o- 
thcr  InvoliHuary  niufdcs,ihc  moiions  of  which  depend 
folely  on  the  vu  infita,  continue  through  life  in  a  con- 
AantAate  of  adion, without  any  incouvenicuceorwaflc 
of  this  inherent  principle. 

Tlic  adion  of  the  vis  iicrvofaon  the  voluntary  muf- 
des,  conftitutes  what  is  called  viufcular  motion  ;  a  fub- 
jcft  that  has  given  rife  to  a  variety  of  hypothefis,  ma- 
ny of  them  ingenious,  but  none  of  them  fatisfaftory. 

Borelli  and  fome  others  have  undertaken  to  explain 
thccaufc  of  contraiflion,  by  fuppol'ing  that  every  muf- 
cular  fibre  forms  as  it  were  a  chain  of  very  minute 
bladders,  while  the  nerves  which  are  diftributcd 
through  the  siufclcs,  bring  with  them  a  fupply  of  ani- 
mal fpirits,  which  at  oar  will  fill  tiiefc  bladders,  and  by 
increafing  their  diameter  in  width,  fliorten  them,  and 
of  conrfe  the  whole  fibre. 

Borelli  fappofes  thefe  bladders  to  be  of  a  rhomboi- 
dal  fhape  ;  Bernouilli  on  the  other  hand  contends  that 
they  are  oval.  Our  countryman,  Cowpcr,  fancied  he 
had  filled  them  with  mercury  ;  the  caufc  of  this  mif- 
take  was  probably  owingtothc  mercury's  infinuating 
itfelf  into  fome  of  tlie  lymphatic  veflcls.  The  late  in- 
genious Mr  Elliot  undertook  to  account  for  the  phe- 
nomena of  mufcular  motion  on  principles  very  diffe- 
rent from  thofejufl  now  mentioned.  He  fuppofed  that 
a  dephlogiHicated  ftatc  of  the  blood  is  requifite  for 


O      M       Y. 


Part  II. 


mufcular  aflion,  and  that  a  communication  of  phlogi-  Of  the  In- 
fton  to  the  blood  is  a  neccflary  crlcct  of  fuch  aQion.       tegumenti, 

Wc  know  that  the  mufcular  fibre  is  fliorlcned,  and  . '• 
that  the  mufcic  itfelf  (wells  when  in  a£tion  ;  but  how 
tliefc  phenomena  arc  produced,  we  arc  unable  to  de- 
termine. We  likewife  know  that  the  nerves  are  elfcn- 
lial  to  mufcular  motion  ;  for  upon  dividing  or  making 
a  ligature  round  the  nerve  leading  to  a  mufcic,  the  lat- 
ter becomes  incapable  of  motion.  A  ligature  made  on 
the  artery  of  a  nuifcle  produces  a  fimilar  eftcd  ;  a  proof 
this,  that  a  regular  fupply  of  blood  is  alio  equally  ne- 
ccflary to  mufcular  motion.  The  caufe  of  palfy  is 
ufually  not  to  be  fought  for  in  the  mufcic  afleded,  but 
in  the  nerve  leading  to  that  mufcie,  or  in  that  part  of 
the  brain  or  fpinal  marrow  from  which  the  nerve  de- 
rives its  origin. 

Oj  the  particular  Mtifdes. 

As  the  enumeration  and  difcription  of  ihe  particlar 
mufcles  mull  bcdry  and  unentertaining  to  the  genera- 
lity of  readers,  yet  cannot  be  altogether  omitcd  in  a 
work  of  this  nature,  it  appeared  eligible  to  throw  this 
part  of  the  fubjefl  into  the  form  of  a  table  ;  in  whi^h 
the  name,  origin,  infertion,  and  principal  ufe  of  each 
niufcle,  will  be  found  dcfcribed  in  few  words,  and  oc- 
cafionally  its  etymology  when  it  is  of  Greek  derivation 
or  difficult  to  be  underilood. 


A  TABLE  of  the  MUSCLES  arranged  according  to  their  Situation. 

[N.  U.  This  table  does  rot  include  all  the  mufcles  of  the  body ;  thofe  belonging  to  the  eyes,  internal  ear,  intcflinum  reflum, 
and  the  male  and  female  organs  of  generation,  being  dcfcribed  in  other  parts  of   the  work.      'I  he  reader  wi.I  be  plcafcd  to 
obferve  likewife,  that  although  all  the  mufcles  (a  few  only  excepted)  are  in  pairs,  mcntioa  is  here  made  only  »i  the  mufclo 
•f  one  Gde.] 


Muscles  fituated  Name. 

under  the  integu- 
ments of  the  cra- 
nium      -        -        -  I.  Occipito  frontalis. 


2.  Corrugator  fuper- 
cilii. 


Ori, 


tgm. 


Infertion 


Vfe. 


From  the  tranfverfe  Into  the  (km  of  the  To  pull  the  fkiii   of 


ridge  of  the  os  oc- 
cipitis. 


From  above  the  join- 
ing of  the  OS  fron- 
tis,  OS  nafi,  and  os 
maxillarc. 


eye-brows.  the     head     back- 

wards, and  to  r.iifc 
the  eye-brows  and 
ikin  of  the   fore- 
bead. 
Into    the  inner  part  To    draw  the    eye- 
of    the     occipito-      brows  towards  each 
frontalis.  othes,  and  to  wrin- 

kle the  forehead. 


of  the 
eye-lids        -  I.  Orbicularis  palpe- 

brarum. 


2.  Levator  palpebrae 
fuperioris. 


-of  the 


From  around  the  edge  Into   the  nafal   pro-  To  fliut  the  eye. 

of  the  orbit.  ces    of     the      os 

raaxillare. 
From  the  bottom  of  Into  the  cartilage  of  To  open  the  eye. 

the  orbit,  near  the       the  upper  eye-lid. 

optic  foramen. 


external  ear     -      I.  Altolens  auri- 

culam. 


From  the  tendon  of  Into  the  upper  part  To  raife  the  ear. 
the  occipito  fron-      of  the  car. 
talis    near   the   os 
temporis. 
3.  Anterior  auricula:.  From  near  the  back  Into  an  eminence  be- To   raife   this    emi- 
partof  the  zygoma,      hind  the  helix.  nencc,  and  topull 

it  forwards. 

3.  Re- 


Part  II. 

or  the 
Mufclei. 


A      N 

Name. 
3.Rctrahcntcs($)aU' 
riculx. 


O      M      Y. 


7'3 


Muscles  of  the  car- 
tilages of  the  car     I.  Tragicus. 


t.  Anci-tragicas. 


3.  Tranfverfus-auri- 
culas. 


4.  Helicis  major. 

5.  Helicis  minor. 


-ofthenofe,  i.  Compreffor  (t) 
naris. 


of  the 
mouih  and  lips^       i.  Levator  labii  fupe- 
rioris,  alsquenafi. 


a.Levator  anguli  oris. 


5.  Zygomaticus  ma- 
jor. 


4.  Zygomaticus  mi- 
nor. 

5.  Buccinator. 


6.  Dcprcflbr  labii  fu- 
perioris,  alseque 
nafi. 


Origin.  Infertion.  Vfc.  Of  ihe 

From  the  outer  and  Into  the  convex  pan  To  ftrctch  the  con-    Mi.fdci. 
back  part   of    the      of  the  concha.  cha,  and   pull  the  ^"     '"       ' 

root  of  the  madoid  car  backwards, 

procefs. 


From  the  outer  and 
middle  part  of  the 
concha,  near  the 
tragus. 

From  the  root  of  the 
inner  part  of  the 
helix. 

From  the  upper  part 
of  the  concha. 


From  the  upper,  ante- 
rior, and  acute  part 
of  the  helix. 

From  the  lower  and 
fore  partof  the  he- 
lix. 

From  the  outer  part 
of  the  root  of  the 
ala  naii. 


From  the  outer  part 

of  the  orbitar  pro- 
cefs of  the  OS  niax- 
illare,  and  from  the 
nafal  procefs  of 
that  bone,  where 
itjoinstheosfron- 
tis. 

From  the  os  maxil- 
larc  fuperius,  be- 
tween the  orbitar 
foramen  and  the 
firll  dens  molares. 

From  the  os  malse 
near  the  zygoma- 
tic future. 


Into  the  upper  part  To  deprefs  the  con- 

of  the  tragus.  cha,  and  pull  the 

point  of  the  tragus 

a  little  outwards. 

Into  the  upper  part  To  dilate  the  mouth 

of  the  auti-tragus.      of  the  concha. 


Into  the  inner  part 
of  the  helix. 


Into  the  cartilage  of 
the  helix,  a  little 
above  the  tragus. 

Into  the  helix,  near 
the  filfure  in  its 
cartilage. 

Into  the  nafal  pro- 
cefs of  the  OS  max- 
illare,  and  anterior 
extremity  of  the  OS 
nali. 


To  ftretch  the  conclii 
and  fcapha,  and 
likewifc  to  pull  the 
parts  it  is  conneifl- 
ed  with  towards 
each  other. 

To  deprefs  the  upper 
part  of  the  helix. 

To  contraJl  the  fif- 
fure. 

Toftraighten  the  nof- 
trils,  and  likewifc 
to  corrugate  the 
Ikinof  thcnofe. 


Into  the  upperlip  and  To  draw  theupper  lip 
ala  of  the  nofc.  and  fkin  ofthenofe 

upwards  and  out- 
wards. 


Into  the  orbicularis  To  raife  the  corner  of 
oris  at  the  angle  of      the  mouth, 
the  mouth. 


Immediately  above 
the  origin  of  the 
zyg.  major. 

From  the  alveoli  of 
the  dentcs  molares 
in  the  npper  and 
lower  jaws. 

From  the  os  maxill. 
fupcr.  immediately 
above  the  gums  of 
thedentesinciforcs. 


Into  the  angle  of  the  To  raife  the  angle  of 
mouth.  the    mouth,     and 

make   the     check 
prominent,    as   in 
laughing. 
Into  the  angle  of  the  To  raife  the  angle  of 
mouth.  the  mouth  oblique- 

ly outwards. 
Into  the  angle  of  the  Tocontraclthcmouth 
mouth.  and  draw  the  angle 

of  it  outwards  and 
backwards. 
Into  the  root  of  the  To  Jraw  the  ala  naii 
ala  nali  and  upper      andupperlipdown- 
lip.  wards. 


Vol.  I. 


4  X 


7.  Depreflbr 


(s)  Thcfe  are  three  fmall  (lender  mufclcs.     The  inferior  one  is  fometimcs  wanting. 
(t)  Thenofe  is  afteded  by  tibresof  the  occipi to  frontalis,  andby  fcvcralmufclcs  of  thcfacc  ;  but  this  pair, 
the  comprcllbrcs,  is  the  only  «uc  that  is  proper  to  it. 


A      N 

A      T      0 

Name. 

0  rip  ill. 

^.    Depreflbr   auguli  At   the    lide   of  the 

oris. 

chin  from  thelow- 
ercdgeof  the  max- 
illa inferior. 

8.  Depreflbr  labii  in- 

From  the  lower  and 

ferioris. 

anterior  part  of 
the  maxilla  infe- 
rior. 

9.  Levator  labii  infc- 

From  near  the  gums 

rloris. 

of  the  inciforcsand 
caninus  of  the  max- 
illa inferior. 

10.    Orbicularis    O" 

ris  (u). 

MusciEs  of  the  low- 

er jaw. 

I.  Temporalis. 

From  part  of  the  os 

M       Y.  Part  11. 

lufert'ion.  Up.  Of  the 

Into  the  angle  of  the  To  draw  the  corner    Mufdes. 
mouth.  ofthe  mouth  down-  *      *      ' 

wards. 


Into  the  under  lip. 


To  draw  the  under 
lip  downwards  and 
fomewhatoutwards 


fitnatcd  at 
thcforepart  of  the 
neck. 


brcgnwtis  and  os 
frontis  ;  fquamous 
part  of  the  os  tem- 
poris  ;  back  part  of 
the  OS  malsB,  and 
tJic  temporal  pro- 
cess of  the  os  fphe- 
noidcs  ( v) 
3.  MalFcter  (w).  From  the  malar  pro- 
cefsof  the  OS  max- 
illare,  and  the  low- 
er edges  of  the  os 
mala:,  and  of  the 
zygomatic  procefs 
of  the  OS  temporis. 

3,  Pterygoideus    in-  From  the  inner  furface 
ternus.  ofthe  outerwing  of 

the  pterygoid  pro- 
cefs of  the  OS  fphe- 
noides,  and  from 
the  procefs  of  the 
OS  palati  that  helps 
lo  form  the  ptery- 
goid foffa 

4.  Pterygoideus  ex-  From  the  external  ala 
ternus.  of    the    pterygoid 

proccfs,a  fmall  part 
of  the  adjacent  os 
maxillare,  and  a 
ridge  in  the  tem- 
poral procefs  ofthe 
OS  fphenoides. 


Into  the  under  lip  and  To  raife  the   under 
Ikiii  of  the  chill.  lip  and  fldii  of  the 

chin. 

To  fhut  the  mouth  by 
conflringingihelips. 

Intothccoronoidpro-  Jq  ^love  the  lower 
cefs  of  the  lower      ja^y  upwards, 
jaw. 


Into  the  bafis  of  the  To  raife  and  Hkewifc 


coronoid  procefs, 
and  that  part  of  the 
jaw  which  fupports 
that  and  the  con- 
dyloid procefs. 


to  move  the  jaw  a 
little  forwards  and 
backwards. 


Into  the  lower  jaw  on  To  raife  the  lowerjaw 
its  inner  fide  and  and  draw  it  a  little 
near  its  angle.  to  one  fide. 


Into  the  fore  part  of  To  move  thejawfor- 
thc  condyloid  pro-       wards  and  to  the 


cefs  of  the  lower 
jaw,  and  like  wife 
of  the  capfular  li- 
gament. 


oppofite  fide  (x)  ; 
andat  the  fame  time 
topreventthe  liga- 
ment of  the  joint 
from  being  pinch- 
ed. 


i.Latiili]Buscolli(Y). 


From     the     cellular 
membrane  covering 


Into  the  fide  of  the  To  draw  the  cheeks 
chiu    and   integu-      and  fkin  of  the  face 


(u)  This  mufclc  is,  in  a  great  mcafure,  if  not  wholly,  formed  by  the  buccinator,  zygomatici,  depreflbres, 
and  other  mufcles  that  move  the  lips.     Its  fibres  furround  the  month  like  a  ring. 

(v)  Some  of  its  fibres  likcwife  have  their  origin  from  a  ftrong  fafcia  that  covers  the  mufcle  and  adheres  to 
the  bone  round  the  whole  circumference  of  its  origin.  When  wc  remove  this  covering,  we  find  the  mufclc  of 
a  feniicircubr  Ihape  with  its  radiated  fibres,  converging  and  forming  a  flrong  middle  tendon. 

(w)  So  called  from  its  ufe  in  chewing,  its  derivation  being  from /i«j/<rao/x«i,  vianduco,  "toeat." 

(x )  This  happens  when  the  mufcle  adls  fingly.     When  both  3&,  the  jaw  is  brought  horizontally  forwards. 

(y)  This  broad  and  thin  mufcular  txpanlion,  which  is  fituated  immediately  under  the  common  integuments, 
is  by  Window  named  mufcicius  cutaneus.  Galen  gave  it  the  name  of  arxaT^s-^a  ixuaiti  (Platyfjna-myoidis )  i  the 
etymology  of  which  is  from  «r?.«i7t7«tt,  dilatatit,  and  ui/t,  mufculus,  zad  nim,  Jtrvia. 


Partn. 

of  the 

Mufclet. 


A      N 


a.Maftoideus  (z). 


ATOMY. 

Origin,  Jnfirtion. 

the  pcdoral,  del-    meats  of  chc  check, 
toid,  and  trapezius 
luulcles. 


From  the  upper  part  Into  the  maftoid  pro- 
of the  Aernum,and      ccfs,    and   as  far 
from  the  uppcrand      back  as  the  lamb- 
fore  part    of  the      doidai  future. 
clavicle. 


MtJSCtBs  firaattd 
between  the  trunk 
andthcoshyoides. 


i.Omo-hjroidcus{A)  From  the  upper cofla 
of  the  fcapula  near 
itsniche;fronipart 
of  a  ligament  chat 
extends  acrofs  this 
niche,  and  forae- 
timcs  by  a  few  fi- 
bres, from  the  co- 
racoid  procefs. 

From  the  cartilage  of 
the  firftrib,the  in- 
ner and  upper  pare 
of  the  llernum,and 
a  fmall  part  of  the 
clavicle. 

From  part  of  the  bi- 
fis  and  horn  of  the 
OS  hyoides. 


Into  the  bafis  of  the 
OS  hjoidcs. 


downwards  ;  ind 
when  the  mouth  is 
lhut,todraw  all  that 
part  of  the  (kin  to 
which  icisconned- 
ed  below  the  lower 
jaw  upwards. 
To  move  the  head  to 
one  fide,  or  when 
both  mufclesad,  ta 
bend  it  forwards. 


To  draw  the  os  hyoi» 
des  in  an  oblique  di- 
redion  downwards. 


B.  Stcrno-hyoideus. 


3.  Hyo-thyroideus. 


4.  Sterno-thyroidcus  From  between  the 
cartilages  of  the  i  ft 
and  2d  ribs  at  the 
upper  and  inner 
partofihefternum. 

J.  Crico-thyroidcus.  From  the  anterior 
partandlideof  the 
cricoid  cartilage. 


Into  the  bafis  of  the 
OS  byoidcs. 


Into  a  rough  oblique 
line  at  the  tide  of 
the  thyroid  carti- 
lage. 

Immediately  under 
the  hyo-thyroideus. 


Into  the  lower  part 
and  inferior  horn 
of  fhe  thyroid  car- 
tilage. 


i^ituaied  be- 


tween the  OS  hyoi- 

desand  lowerjaw,  i.  Diagrafticus  (b) 


From  a  fofia  at  the  Into  the  lower  and 
root  of  the  raaftoid      anterior  panof  the 
procefs,   and  like-      chin, 
wife  from    the  os 
hyoides. 
2.Stylo>hyoidcus(c)  From  the  bafis  of  the  Into  the  fide  and  fore 
ftyloid  procefs.  part  of  the  os  hy- 

eides  near  its  bafc. 
4X2 


To  draw  theos  hyoi' 
des  downwards. 


To  raifc  the  thyroid 
cartilage, or  deprefs 
the  OS  hyoides. 

To  pull  the  thyroid 
cartilage  down- 
wards. 


To  pull  the  cricoid 
cartilage  upwards 
and  backwards,  or 
the  thyroid  for- 
wards and  down« 
wards. 


To  draw  the  |lower 
jaw  downwards. 


To  draw  the  os  hy- 
oides obliquely  up- 
wards. 

5.  jMylo. 


Of 

Mu 


7»i 

the 
fcJei. 


(z)  This,  on  account  of  its  two  origins,  is  by  Albinus  deforibcd  as  two  diftinft  mufdcs,  wliich  he  names 
flerno-tuaftoideus  and  cl:ido-mafloid(us. 

(a)  This  mufcle  does  not  always  arife  from  the  coracoid  procefs,  it  Items  to  have  been  improperly  named 
Mrfl<:o-*>(i;</fj  by  Douglas  and  Albiuus.  Window  calls  it  tmo./-joid(ui,  on  account  of  its  general  origin  from 
the  fcapula.  •  .  , 

(b)  From  /.c  and  v«j-.p  {hivenler),  bccaufc  it  has  two  fleOiy  bellies  with  a  middle  tendon.  This  tenuon 
paffes  through  the  ftylo-hyoideus. 

(c)  III  Ibmc  fiibjefts  we  meet  withanother  mufcle,  which  from  its  haviffg  nearly  the  fame  origin,  inlertion, 
anduic  as  this,  has  been  nasacil  fij /o-kjoidfus  alttr. 


'i6 


Of  the 

Mufclet. 


A      N      A      T      O 

N^me.  Origin. 

3.  Mylo-hyoideus(D)  From  the   iiifidc    of 

the  lower  jaw,  be- 
tween thclaftdeus 
molaris  and  the 
chin. 

4.  (E)Gemo-hyoidc-  Fromtheinfidcofthe 
us.  chin. 

5.  Genio-glofliis.         Fromtheinfidcofthe 

chin. 

6.  Hyo-gloffus  (f)       From  the  horn,bafis, 

and  appendix  of  the 
OS  hyoides. 

7.  Lingualis.  Laterally    from    the 

root  of  the  tongue. 


M      Y. 


Part  II. 


8.  Stylo-gloflus. 


9.  Stylo-pharyiigae- 
us. 


10.  Circumflexus- 
pakti. 


II.  Levator  palati. 


Muscles  fituated  a- 
bout  the  fauces,       i  Palato-pharyn- 
gaeus. 


From  the  flyloid  pro- 
cefs,and  fometimes 
alfo  from  a  liga- 
nieat  that  extends 
from  thence  to  the 
angle  of  the  lower 
jaw. 

From  the  bafis  of  the 
ftyloid  procefs. 


From  near  the  bony 
part  of  the  Eufta- 
chian  tube,  and 
from  the  fpinous 
procefs  of  the  os 
fphenoides. 

From  the  membra- 
nous part  of  the 
Euftachian  tube, 
and  the  extremity 
oftheospetrofum. 

From  the  lower  and 
anterior  part  of  the 
cartilaginous  extre- 
mity of  the  Eufta- 
chian tube  (h);  the 
tendinous  expan- 
fion  of  the  circum- 
flexus  palati ;  and 
the  velum  pendu- 
lum palati  near  the 
bafis  and  black  part 
of  the  uvula. 


I  life  rt ion. 

Ufc. 

Of  the 

Into  the  bafis  of  the  To  move  theoshyoi-    Mufdes. 

OS  hyoides. 

des  to  cither  tide,          " 

forwards 

or    up- 

wards. 

Into  the  bafc  of  the 

To  move  the 

os  hy- 

OS  hyoides. 

oides  forwards  or 

upwards. 

Into  the  tongue  and  To  move  the 

tonguc 

bafis  of  the  os  hy- 

in various 

direc- 

oides. 

tions. 

Into  the  tongue  late- 

To draw  the 

tongue 

rally. 

downwards 
wards. 

and  in- 

Into  the  extremity  of 

To  fliorten  tl 

lie  ton- 

the  tongue. 

gue  and  d 
backwards. 

raw  it 

Into  the  fide  of  the 

To  move  the 

tongue 

tongue    from    the 

backwards 

and  to 

root  to  near  its  tip. 

one  fide. 

Into  the  fide  of  the 
pharynx  and  pofte- 
rior  part  of  the  thy- 
roid cartilage. 

Into  the  femilunar 
edge  of  the  os  palati 
and  the  velum  pen- 
dulum palati  (g). 


To  raife  the  thyroid 
cartilage  and  pha- 
rynx, and  likewife 
to  dilate  the  latter. 

To  dilate  and  draw 
the  velum  oblicjuely 
downwards. 


Into  the  velum  pen- 
dulum palati. 


Into  the  upper  and 
pofterior  part  of  the 
thyroid  cartilage. 


To  pull  the  velum 
backwards. 


To  raife  the  pharynx 
and  thyroid  carti- 
lage, or  to  pull  the 
velum  and  uvula 
backwards  and 
downwards. 


a.  Conftridor 


(d)  So  named  from  its  arifing  near  the  dentes  molarf  s  (iuOvf),  and  its  being  inferted  into  the  os  hyoides. 

(e)  From  ynun,  me/ituvi,  the  "  chin." 

!f)  From  x»f«c,  cornu,  and  >x»i5-5-«,  lingua,  "  the  tongue." 
g)  This  mufcle  in  its  courfe  forms  a  round  tendon,  which,  after  pafllng  over  a  kind  of  hook  formed  by  the 
inner  plate  of  the  pterygoid  procefs  of  the  fphenoid  bone,  expands  into  a  tendinous  membrane. 

(h)  The  few  fibres  that  arife  from  the  Euftachian  tube  are  defcribcd  as  a  diftind  mufcle  by  Albinus,  un- 
vlcr  the  name  of  Salpingo  ^haryngem.    They  fervc  to  dilate  the  mouth  of  ilie  labc. 


'art  II. 

of  the 
Mufclc). 


N 


O       M 


l^ame.  Origin.  hiftrtion.  Ufe. 

Conflriaor  iftlimi  From  near  the  bafis  Into  the  velum  pen-  To  raifc  the  tongne 


faucium. 


3.  Azygos  iivul«. 


of  tiie  tongue  late- 
rally. 


and  draw  the  ve- 
lum towards  it  (i). 


dulum  palati,  near 

the  balls  and  fore 

part  of  the  uvula. 

From  the  end  of  the  Into  the  extremity  of  Tolhorten  the  uvula, 

future  that  unites      the  uvula.  and  bring   it   for- 

the  oITa  palati.  wards  and  upwards. 


Muscles  at  the  back 
part  of  the  pharynx  i.Con(lri<ftorpharyn. 
gis  fupcrior. 


2.Conflric^orpharyn- 
gis  medius  (l). 


-about  the 


glottis 


3,Conftrj£l;orpharyn. 
gis  inferior  (m). 

I.  Crico-arytaenoide- 
us  lateralis. 

3.  Crico-arytxnoide- 
us  poflicus. 

3.  Arytaenoideus  ob- 
liquis. 

4.  Arytaenoideus 
tranfverfus. 

5.  Thyrco-arytaenoi- 
deus. 


6.  Arytaeno-cpiglot- 
tideus. 

7.  Thyreo-epiglotti- 
deus. 


From  the  cuneiform 
proccfs  of  the  oc- 
cipital bone  ;  the 
pterygoid  procefs 
of  the  OS  fphcnoi- 
dcs,  and  from  each 
jaw  near  the  lafl 
dens  molares  (k). 

From  the  horn  and 
appendix  of  the  os 
hyoides,  and  from 
the  ligament  that 
unites  it  with  the 
thyroid  cartilage. 

From  the  cricoid  and 
thyroid  cartilages. 

From  the  fide  of  the 
cricoid  cartilage. 

From  the  cricoid  car- 
tilage pofleriorly. 

From  the  bafis  of  one 
of  the  arytaenoid 
cartilages. 

From  one  of  the  ary- 
taenoid  cartilages 
laterally. 

From  the  pofterior 
and  under  part  of 
the  thyroid  carti- 
lage. 

From  the  upper  part 
of  the  arytaenoid 
cartilage  laterally. 

From  the  thyroid  car- 
tilage. 


Into  the    middle  of  To  move  the  pharynx 
the  pharynx.  upwards  and   for- 

wards, and  to  com- 
prefsitsupperpart. 


Into    the    middle  of  To  draw  the  os  hyfti- 
theprocclTuscunei.      dcs    and    pharynx 


upwards,    and    to 
comprefs  the  latter. 


formis  of  the  occi- 
pital bone,  about 
its  middle  and  be- 
fore the  great  fo- 
ramen. 
Into  the  middle  of  To  comprefs  part  of 
the  pharynx.  the  pharynx. 

Into  the  bafis  of  the  To  open  the  glottis, 
arytasnoid      carti- 
lage laterally. 

Into  the  bafis  of  the  To  open  the  glottis, 
arytaenoid      carti- 
lage pofleriorly. 

Nearthe  extremityof 
the  other  arytx- 
noid  cartilage. 

Into  theotheraryta:- 
noid  cartilage  late- 
rally. 

Into  the  arytxnoiJ 
cartilage. 


To  draw  the  parts  it 
is  connected  with 
towards  each  other. 

To  fliut  the  glottis. 


.  To  draw  the  arytae- 
noid cartilage  for- 
wards. 


Into  the  fide  of  the  To  move  the  epiglot- 
epiglottis.  tis  outwards. 

Into  the  fide  of  the  To  pull  the  epiglot- 
epiglottis.  tis  obliquely  down- 

wards (n). 

Mufcles 


(i)  This  mufcle,  and  the  palato-pharyngaeus,  likewife  fervc  to  clofe  th«  paflage  into  the  fauces,  and  to 
carry  the  food  into  the  pharynx. 

( K )  The  three  orders  of  fibres  here  mentioned,  with  a  few  others  derived  from  the  tongue,  have  given  occa- 
fion  to  Douglas  to  defcribc  them  as  four  diftinift  mufcles,  under  the  names  oi cephalo-fharyngteui,  myU-fhar^n- 
gxui,  ptery-pharyiigxtis ,  diwA  gloffo-pharyngaus. 

(l)  Douglas  makes  two  mufcles  of  this,  the  hyo-pharytigitui  ^xnifyndefmo-pharyiigirus. 

(m)  The  crico-pharyngacus  and  thyro-pharingseus  of  Douglas. 

(k)  When  either  this  or  the  preceding  mufclc  ads  with  its  fellow,  the  epiglottis  is  drawn  dtreflly  dowa- 
warde  upon  the  glottis. 


of  the     Muscles  at  the  fore 
Mufdcs.        part  of  the  neck, 
*      ^      '      clofc  to  the  vcrtc- 
brx     -     -     -     - 


N 


Name. 
I.  Redlus  capitis  in- 
tcruus  major. 


.  Reftas  capitis  in- 
ternus  minor. 


.  Redlus  capitis  la- 
teralis. 


4.  Longus  colli. 


— at  the  fore 
of  the  abdo- 


part 
men !■ 


Obliquusextcrnus. 


Origin. 

From  the  anterior  ex- 
tremitics  of  the 
tranfvcrfc  proceflcs 
of  the  five  lower- 
mod  cervical  ver- 
tebra:. 

From  the  anterior 
and  upper  part  of 
the  firfl  cervical 
vertebras. 

From  the  anterior 
and  upper  part  of 
the  tranfverfe  pro- 
cefs  of  the  firft  cer- 
vical vertebra. 

Within  the  thorax, 
laterally  from  the 
bodies  of  the  three 
uppermofl  dorfal 
vertebras; from  the 
bafis  and  fore  part 
of  the  tranfvcrfc 
proceflesofthefirll 
and  fecond  dorfal 
vertebrae,  and  of 
thelaft  cervical  ver- 
tebra ;  and,  laftly, 
from  the  anterior 
extremities  of  the 
tranfverfe  proceflcs 
ofthe6th,5tb,4th, 
and  3d  cervical 
vertebrse. 

From  the  lower  edges 
of  the  eight  infe- 
rior ribs, near  their 
cartilages. 


M      Y. 


Inftrtion. 
Into  the  fore  part  of 
the  cuneiform  pro- 
cefs  of  the  os  occi- 
pitis. 


Near  the  bafis  of  the 
condyloid  proccfs 
of  the  OS  occipitis. 

Into  the  OS  occipi- 
tis, oppofite  to  the 
flylo-maftoid  fora- 
men. 

Into  the  fecond  cer- 
vical vertebra  an- 
teriorly. 


Part  ir. 


Of  the 

Mufcle*. 


Ufc. 
To  bend   the  head 
forwards. 


To  afiifl;  the  laft  dc- 
fcribed  mufde. 


To  move  the  head  ta 
one  fide. 


To  pull  the  neck  ta 
one  fide  (o). 


Into  the  linea  alba 
(  r),ofra  pubis  (q_), 
and  fpinc  of  the 
ilium  (it). 


2.  Obliquus  intcrnus.  From  the  fpinouspro-  Into  the  cartilages  of 
cefs  of  the  three  all  the  falfe  ribs, 
lowcrmofl  lumbar      linea  alba  (s),  and 


To  comprefs  and  fup- 
portthevifccra, af- 
iifl in  evacuating 
the  fasccsand  urine, 
draw  down  the  ribs, 
and  bend  the  trunk 
forwards,  or  ob- 
liquely to  one  fide. 

To  aflift  the  obliquus 
externus. 


(o)  When  both  mufcles  aiJl,  the  neck  is  drawn  dircftly  forwards. 

(r)  The  linea  alba  is  that  tendinous  cxpanfion  which  reaches  from  the  cartilage  enfiformis  to  the  os  pubis. 
It  is  formed  by  the  interlacement  of  the  tendinous  fibres  of  the  oblique  and  tranfverfe  jnulcics,  and  011  tiis  ac- 
count fome  anatomifls  have  confidered  thefe  as  three  digaftric  mufcles. 

(q.)  A  little  above  the  pubis  the  tendinous  librcs  of  this  mufcle  feparate  from  each  other,  fo  as  to  form  an 
opening  called  the  ring  of  the  obliquus  externus,  and  commonly,  though  improperly,  the  ring  of  the  abdomi- 
nal mufcles,  there  being  no  fuch  aperture  either  in  the  tranfverfalis  or  obliquus  externus.  This  ring  in  the  male 
lubjcil  artbrdsa  palfage  to  the  fpermatic  velTels,  and  in  the  female  to  the  round  ligament  of  the  uterus. 

(r)  Kroin  the  anterior  and  upper  fpinous  procefs  of  the  ilium,  this  mufcle  is  ftretchcd  tendinous  to  the  os 
pubis,  and  thus  forms  what  is  called  by  fome  Fallopiui's,  and  by  others  Poupart's  UgavKtit.  The  blood-vef- 
fcls  pafs  under  it  to  the  thigh. 

(s)  The  tendon  formed  by  the  upper  part  of  this  mufcle  in  its  way  to  the  linea  alba  is  divided  into  two  lay- 
ers.    The  pollcrior  layer  runs  under,  and  the  anterior  one  over,  the  reiflus  mufcle. 


Part  II. 

Of  the 
Mufcles. 


N      A 


O       M 


Name.  Origin. 

vertebra:,  the  back 
part  of  the  os  fa- 
crum,  the  fpinc  of 
the  ilium,  and  back 
part  of  Fallopius's 
ligament  (t). 

3.  Tranfverfalis.         From  the  cartilages 

of  thefevcn  inferi- 
or ribs  ;  the  tranf- 
verfc  procefles  of 
the  lali  dorfal,  and 
I  four  upper  lumbar 

vertebrae  ;  the  in- 
ner part  of  Fallo- 
pius'sligamentand 
the  fpinc  of  the  i- 
lium. 

4.  ReAus  abdominis.  From  the  upper  edge 

of  the  pubis  and 
the  fymphyfis  pu- 
bis. 


Infcrlion. 
fore    part   of 
pubis. 


the 


U/c. 


Into  the  linea  alba 
and  canilago  cnli- 
formis. 


Tacomprefs  the  ab- 
dominal vifccra. 


J,  Pyramidalis  (v). 


Muscles  at  the  fore 
part  of  the  thorax-  i.  Pcfloralis  Major. 


2.  Subclavius. 


From  theanterior  and 
upper  part  of  the 
pubis. 


From  the  cartilagi- 
nous ends  of  the 
5th  and  6th  ribs ; 
the  fternum,  and 
anterior  part  of  the 
clavicle. 

From  the  cartilage  of 
the  firft  rib. 


Into  the  cartilages  of 
the  5th,  6th,  and 
7ih  ribs,  and  the 
edge  of  the  cani- 
lago enriformis(u). 

Into  the  linea  alba 
and  inner  edge  of 
the  rectus,  com- 
monly about  two 
inches  above  the 
pubis. 

Into  the  upper  and 
inner  part  of  the 
OS  humeri  (w). 


Into  the  under  fur- 
face  of  the  cla- 
vicle. 


Tocomprefsthc  fore 
part  of  the  abdo- 
men, and  (o  bend 
the  trunk  forwards. 

To  aflift  the  lower 
portion  of  the  rect- 
us. 


To  draw  the  arm  for- 
wards or  oblicjuc- 
ly  forwards. 


To  move  the  clavicle 
forwardsanddown- 
wards  and  to  ailill  ill 
railing  the  fint  rib. 


5.  Pedoralis    minor  From  the  upper  edges  Into  the  coracoid  pro-  To  move  the  fcapuU 

(x).  of  the  3d  4th  and      cefs    of    the    fca-      forwardsand  down- 

5th  ribs.  pula.  wards  or  to  elevate 

the  ribs. 
4.  Serratns  Ma^us.  From  the  eight  fupe-  Into  the  bafisof  the  To  bring  the  fcapiila 
rior  ribs.  fcapula.  forwards. 


WlSCLES 


(t)  From  this  part  it  detaches  fome  fibres  which  extend  downwards  upon  the  fpermatic  chord,  and  from 
what  is  defcribed  as  the  cremafter  mufclc. 

(u)  The  fibres  of  the  redlus  are  generally  divided  by  three  tendinous  interfeAions.  The  two  upper  thirds 
of  this  nuifcle  palling  between  the  tendinous  layers  of  the  obliquus  intern  us,  arc  inclofed  as  it  were  in  a  Iheath  -, 
but  at  its  lower  part  we  find  it  immediately  contiguous  to  the  peritonxum,  the  inferior  portion  of  leudon  of 
the  tranfverlalis  paffingover  the  redus,  and  adhering  to  the  anterior  layer  of  the  obliquus  internus. 

(v)  This  mufclc  is  fometimes  wanting. 

(w)  The  fibres  of  this  m«fclepafs  towards  the  axilla  in  a  folding  manner,  and  with  thofe  of  the  latifiim  us 
dorfi  from  the  armpit. 

( X )  This  and  fome  other  mufcles  derive  their  name  oijerratus,  from  their  arifing  from  a  uumbcr  of  tendinous 
«r  flefhy  digitations,  refcmbling  the  teeth  of  a  faw  {ferra). 


720 

Of  the 

Mufilcf. 


Mirsci.ES  that  coti- 
cur  in  forming  the 
thorax, 


A 

Name. 


N 


T 

Origin. 


M      Y. 

Jnfertitii, 


Part  ir. 


Ufi. 


1.  Diaphragma  (v). 

2.  Lcvaiorcs    cofla-  From  the  iranfverfc  Into  the  upper  fide  of  To  move  the  ribs  up- 
rum,  preccllcsof  thclall      each  rib,  near  its    wards  and  outwards. 

cervical    and    the       tubcrofity. 
elevtn  upper  dor- 
fal  vcricbrae. 
3.Intercoftalesextcr-  From  the  lower  edge  Into  the  fuperioredgs  To  elevate  the  ribs, 
ni.  of  each  upper  rib.        of  each  lower  rib. 


at  the  back 

part   ot  the   neck 
and  trunk.     -     - 


4.    Intercoftales    in- 
terni  (a). 

5.Stcrno-cofhlcs(B).  Fronuhecartilagoen- 
fiformis,and  lower 
and  middle  part  of 
the  flcrnum. 


Into  the  cartilages  of 
the  2d,  ■3,A,  4th, 
5ih,  and  6th  ribs. 


To  deprcfs  the  carti- 
lages of  the  ribs. 


I.  Trapezius  (c),  or  From  the  middle  of  Into     the     pofterior  To  move  the  fcapula. 
cucullaris.  the    os     occipitis,       half  of  the  clavicle, 

part  of  the  acro- 
mion, and  the  fpine 
of  the  fcapula. 


a.  Rhomboideus  (e). 


3.  LatUIimus  dorfl. 


the  OS  occipitis, 
and  the  fpinouspro- 
cefles  of  the  two 
inferior  cervical, 
and  of  all  the  dor- 
fal, vertebrx  (d). 

From  thefpinouspro- 
cclfes  of  the  three 
lowcrmoflcervical, 
and  of  all  the  dor- 
fal  vertebrae. 

From  part  of  the 
fpine  of  the  os  i- 
lium,  the  fpinous 
proceflcs  of  the  os 
facrum  and  lumbar 
vertebra:  ,and  of  fix 
or  eight  of  the  dor- 
^  fal 


Into  the  bafisof  the 
fcapula. 


Into  the  OS  humeri, 
at  thcinnercdgc  of 
the  groove  for  lod- 
ging the  long  head 
of  the  bicepsmufcle. 


To  move  the  fcapula. 
upwards  and  back- 
wards. 


To  draw  the  os  hu- 
meri downwards 
and  backwards,and 
to  roll  it  upon  its 
axis. 


( Y )  For  a  defcription  of  the  diaphragm,  fee  Part  IV.  Seft.IV. 

(a)  The  origin,  infertion,  andufeofthc  internal  intercollals,  are  fimilar  to  thofe  of  the  external.  The 
reader,  however,  will  be  pleafed  to  obfcrve,  that  the  intercoftales  externi  occupy  the  fpaces  between  the  ribs 
only  from  their  fpine  to  their  cartilages  ;  from  thence  to  the  ftcrnuni,  there  being  only  a  thin  membrane,  which 
is  fpread  over  the  intercoftalcs  interni ;  and  that  the  latter,  on  the  contrary,  extend  only  from  the  fternum  to 
the  angles  of  each  rib. 

The  fibres  of  the  external  mufcles  run  obliquely  forwards  ;  thofcof  the  internal  obliquely  backwards.  This 
difference  in  the  dircdion  of  their  fibres  induced  Galen  to  fuppofc  that  they  were  intended  for  different  ufes; 
that  the  external  iiiiercoflals,  forinflance,  ferve  toelcvate,  and  the  internal  ones  to  deprefs  the  ribs.  Fallopius 
fecmsto  have  been  the  tirft  who  ventured  todifpiitc  the  truth  of  this  dodtrines,  which  has  llnce  been  revived  by 
Boyle,  and  more  lately  ftill  by  Hamberger,  whofe  theoretical  arguments  on  this  fubjedl  have  been  clearly  refu- 
ted by  the  experiments  of  Haller. 

(b)  Thefc  confifl  of  four,  and  fometimes  five  diftinft  mufcles  on  each  fide.  Vefalius,  and  after  him  Dou- 
glas and  Albinus,confider  them  as  forming  a  fingle  mufcle,  wliich,  on  account  of  its  Ihape,  they  name /r/<7«^«- 
iaris.  Verheyen,  Winllow,  and  Haller,  more  properly  defcribe  them  as  fo  many  feparatc  mufcles,  which,  on 
account  of  their  origin  and  infertion  ihey  name  Jlerfic-cofta/ei. 

(c)  So  named  by  Riolanus,  from  Tf.T.^u,  on  account  of  its  quadrilateral  ihape.  Columbus  and  others  gave  it 
the  name  o(  ciicultarei,  from  its  refemblance  to  a  monk's  hood. 

(d)  The  tendinous  fibres  of  this  mufcle,  united  with  thofe  of  its  fellow  in  the  nape  of  the  neck,  from  what  is 
called  the  liga}>i:ntum  cclli. 

(e)  This  mufcleconfifts  of  two  diftincl  portions,  which  arc  dcfcribed  as  feparatc  mufcles  by  Albinus,  under 
the  nzxaaoi rho}/iboideus minor  and  rhomboideut  t/mjir. 


Vol.  I. 


A      W 


4.  Serracus  inferior 
poflicus. 


;.  Levator  fcapulx. 


k.  Scrratus  fuperior 
poAicus. 


y.  Splenius  (r). 


8.  Complcxus  (g). 


^       T       O 

Origin. 
fal  vertebrae  ;  alfo 
from  the  four  infe- 
rior falfc  ribs  near 
tJieir  cartilages. 

From  thcfpinouspro- 
celfcs  of  the  two 
lowcrmoft  dorfal, 
and  of  three  of  the 
lumbar  vertebras. 

h'rom  the  tranfverfe 
procclTes  of  the  four 
uppermoft  verte- 
bra: colli. 

From  the  lower  part 
of  the  ligamentum 
colli,  the  fpinous 
procefs  of  the  low- 
ermoft  cervical  ver- 
tebra, and  of  the 
two  fuperior  dorfal 
vertebrae. 

From  the  fpinous  pro- 
ceffes  of  the  four 
or  five  uppermoft 
vertebrae  of  the 
back,  and  of  the 
lowermoft  cervical 
vertebra. 

From  the  tranfverfe 
proceflcsof  the  four 
or  five  uppermoft 
dorfal,  and  of  the 
fix  lowerraoft  cer- 
vical vertebrae. 


M      Y. 

Inferiitn. 


Vf.. 


Into  the  lower  edges  To  draw  the  ribs  oui- 
ofthe  three  or  four       wards,  downwards, 
lowerraoftribsnear       and  backwards, 
their  cartilages. 

Into  the  upper  angle  To  move  the  fcapul* 
of  thefcapula.  forwards,  and  up- 

wards. 

Into  the  2d,  ;d,  and  To  expand  the  tho- 
4th  ribs.  rax. 


Into  the  tranfverfe  To  move  the  head 
proceffes  of  the  two  backwards, 
rirft  cervical  verte- 
bras, the  upper  and 
back  part  of  the 
mafloid  procefs.and 
a  ridge  on  the  os 
occipitis. 

Into  the  OS  occipitis.    To  draw  cha    head 
backwards. 


9,  Trachelo-malloi- 
dcus  (h). 


ro.  Re(5lus  capitis  po- 
flicus major. 

1 1 .  Rectus  capitis  po- 
fticus  minor. 

1 2.  Ohliquus  fuperior 
capitis. 

13.  Obliquus  inferior 
capitis. 


From  the  tranfverfe 
procefles  of  the  firft 
dorfal  vcrtebra^nd 
four  or  five  of  the 
lowermofl,  cervi- 
cal vertebras. 

From  the  fpinous  pro- 
cefs of  the  fecnnd 
cervical  vertebra. 

From  the  firft  verte- 
bra of  the  neck. 

From  the  tranfverfe 
procefs  of  the  firft 
cervical  vertebra. 

From  the  fpinous  pro- 
cefs of  the  fccond 
cervical  vertebra. 


Into  the  mafloid  pro- 
cefs. 


To  draw  the 
backwards. 


head 


Into  the  OS  occipitis.  To  extend  the  head 
and  draw  it  back- 
wards. 

Into  the  OS  occipitis.  To  alfift  the  rcdui 
major. 

Into  the  OS  occipitis.  To  draw  the  head 
backwards. 

Into    the    tranfverfe  To  draw  the  face  to- 
proccfs  of  the  firft      wards  the  flioulder, 


cervical  vertebra. 


4  Y 


andtomovethefirll 
vertebra  upon  the 
fecond. 

14.  Sa- 


(f)  According  to  fomc  writers,  this  mufcle  has  gotten  its  name  frop'  its  relcmblaace  to  the  fplcea  ;  other* 
derive  it  (torn  fpleiiiuvi /pliiit. 

(c)  So  named  on  account  of  its  complicated  ftru.5lurc. 

(h)  So  named  from  its  origin  from  the  neck  {^-tfmi^»\%i()  and  its  inferiion  into  th*  mafloid  procefs. 


ANATOMY.  Partir. 

Name.  Origin.  Infertioii.  U/e.  Of  the 

14.  Sacro-lumbalis      From  the  back  part  Into  the  lower  edge  To    draw    the    ribs    Mufclc», 
(ij  of  the  OS  facrum,      of  each  rib.  downwards,  move*      -/— '. 

fpiiie  of  the  ilium,  the  body  upon  its 

fpinous     proccffes  axis,  alfift  in  ercft- 

and  roots   of    the  ing  the  trunk,  and 

'  tranfverfeprocclTes  turiuhencckback- 

of  the  vcrtebrx  of  wards,    or  to  one 

the  loins.  fide. 

15.  Longifliinus  dor-  The  fame  as  that  of  Into   the    tranfverfe  To  ftrctch  the  verte- 
fi  (k).                           thcfacro-lumbalis.  procclfesofthcdor-      brx  of  the   back, 

fal  vertebras.  and  keep  the  trunk 

ercit. 
i6.  Spinalis  dorfi.       From  the  fpinons pro-  Into  the  fpinous  pro-  To  extend  the  vcrtc- 
ceflies  of  th«  upper-       celFes  of  the  nine      br«. 
mod    lumbar   and      fupcriordorfal  ver- 
lowermoft     dorfal       tebra: 
vertebrae. 
l7.Semi-fpinalisdor-  From  the  tranfverfe  Into  the  fpinous  pro-  To  extend  the  fpin« 
ti.  proceiresofthe7th,       ceiTts   of  the   four       obliquely        back- 

8th,  9th,  and  icth       uppcrmofl    dorfal,       wards, 
vertcbrx    of    the       and  lowcrraoll   of 
back.  the  cervical  verte- 

brse. 

18.  Multifidus    Spi-  From  the  os  facrum,  Into  the  fpinous  pro-  To  extend  the  back 
uae  (l).  ilium,  oblique  and      ceflcs  of  the  lum-      and  draw  it  back- 

tranfverfeproceires  bar,  dorfal,  and  fix      wards,    or  to  one 

of  the  lumbar  ver-  of  the  cervical  vcr-      fide, 

tebrse,    tranfverfe  tcbrje. 
procelfcs  of  the  dor- 
fal, and  four  of  the 
cervical  vertebras. 

19.  Semifpinaliscol-  From  the  tranfverfe  Into  the  fpinons  pro-  To  flretch  the  neck 
li.                                  proceffesoftliefive  ceilcs  of   the    2d,       obliquely       back- 
er   fix    uppermolt  3d,  4th,  jth,  and      wards. 

dorfal  vertebrae.  6th   cervical  ver- 

tebras, 
ao.  Scalenus  (m).       From  the  tranfverfe  Into  the   upper   and  To   move   the   neck 
proceflesofthelive       outer  part   of  the      forwards,  or  to  one 
inferior      cervical     firft  and  fccond  ribs-      fide, 
vcrtebrse. 

21.  Inter- 

(l)  Several  thin  fafculi  of  flefliy  fibres  arife  from  the  lower  ribs,  and  terminate  in  the  inner  fide  of  this 
mufcle.  Steno  names  tlicm  muftuli  adfacro  luvibalem  accejforii.  The  facro-himbalis  likewifc  fends  off  a  flelliy 
Hip  from  its  upper  part,  which  by  Douglas  and  Albinusis  defcribed  as  a  diftinft  mufcle,  under  the  name  cer- 
vicatii  dcfcendens.     Morgagni  has  very  properly  confidered  it  as  a  part  of  the  facro-himbalis. 

(k)  At  the  upper  part  oTthis  mufcle  a  bread  thin  layer  of  flefliy  fibres  is  found  crolfing,  and  intimately  ad- 
hering to  it  This  portion,  which  is  defcribed  by  Albinus,  under  the  name  of  tranfvcrfalis  cervicii,  may  ve- 
ry properly  be  conlidered  as  an  appendage  to  the  longilTimus  dorfi.  It  arifes  from  tlie  tranfverfe  procellcs  of 
the  five  or  fix  fuperior  dorfal  vertcbrse,  and  is  infertcd  into  the  tranfverfe  proceifes  of  the  fix  inferior  cervi- 
cal vertebra;.  Sy  means  of  this  apppendage  the  longilhmus  dorfi  may  fcrve  to  move  the  neck  to  one  iide,  or 
obliquely  backwards. 

(l)  Anatomifls  in  general  have  unneccfTarily  multiplied  the  mufcles  of  the  fpinc.  Albinus  has, the  merit  of 
having  introduced  greater  fimplicity  into  this  part  of  myology.  Under  the  name  o( multifiJui  fpiii<r ,  he  has 
very  properly  included  thofc  portions  of  mufcular  flelh  intermixed  with  tendinous  fibres,  fituaied  clofe  to  the 
back  part  of  the  fpine,  and  which  are  defcribed  by  Douglas  under  the  name  oi  tranfverfales  colli,  dorfi,  & 
lumboriim. 

(m  )  The  ancients  gave  it  this  name  from  its  refemblance  to  an  irregular  triangle  (^^zaxnmt).  It  confifls  of 
three  flediy  portions.  The  anterior  one  affords  a  pallage  to  the  axillary  artery,  and  between  this  and  the  mid- 
dle portion  we  find  the  nerves  going  to  the  upper  extremities.  The  middle  is  in  part  covered  by  the  poAerior 
foriion,  which  is  the  longcll  and  thinnefl  of  the  three 


F^t  ir. 

Of  the 

Mufdet. 


A      N 

Namt. 
3[l.Intcr-Q)in3lis(K). 


o    M     y. 


83.  Inter-traafTcrf*- 
ics  (o). 

MtrscLES  within  the 
cavity  of  the  abdo- 
men,  on  the  ante- 
rior and  lateral 
pans  of  die  fpinc,  i.  pfoas  parras  (p). 


Origin. 

From  the  upper  part 
of  each  of  the  fpi- 
noiis  proceffcs  of 
the  fix  inferior  cer- 
vical vertcbrse. 

From  the  upper  part 
ofeachofthetranf- 
verlc  proccfles  of 
the  vertebrx. 


7«J 

Inftrtion.  Vfi,  of.h. 

Into  the  underpart  of  To  draw  the  fpinous  Mufck». 

eachof  the  fpinous      proccfles    towards" ' ' 

procelTesofthevcr-      each  other, 
tcbras  above. 

Into  the  nnder  part  of  To  draw  the  tranf- 
each  of  the  tranf-      vcrfc  proccfTes  to- 
verfe  proceflcs  of      wards  each  other 
the  vcrtcbraeabovc. 


A.  Pfoas  magnus. 


3.  Iliacus  internus. 


4.  Quadratus  ltunbo< 
rum  (q,). 


From  the  fides  and 
tranfvcrfc  proceil'es 
of  the  uppermofl 
lumbar  vertebra, 
and  fometimes  of 
the  lowcrmoft  dor- 
fal  vertebra. 

From  the  bodies  and 
iranfvcrfe  procefles 
of  the  laft  dorfal, 
and  all  the  lumbar 
vcrtcbrx. 

From  the  inner  lip, 
hollow  part,  and 
edge  of  the  os 
ilium. 

From  the  pollcrior 
part  of  the  fpine 
of  the  ilium. 


Into  the  brim  of  the 
pelvis,  at  thcjunc- 
tion  of  the  os  pubis 
with  the  ilium. 


Into  the  OS  fcmoris,  a 
little  below  the  tro- 
chanter minor. 


To  bend  iheloins  for- 
wards. 


To  bend    the  thigk 
forwards. 


In  common  with  the 
pfoas  magnus. 


y.  Coccygaeus. 


From  the  poAerior 
and  inner  edge  of 
the  fpine  of  the 
ifchium. 


■  ■  on  the  fcapu- 
la  and  upper  part 
•f  the  OS  humeri, 


Into  the  tranfrerfe 
proceiTesof  the  four 
Uppermofl  lumbar 
Vertebrr,  the  Infe- 
rior edge  of  the  laft 
rib,  and  tlic  tide  of 
the  lowcrmoll  dor- 
fal vertebra. 

Into  the  lower  part 
of  the  OS  facrum, 
and  alraoft  tiie 
Whole  length  of  the 
OS  coccygis  late- 
rally. 


To   affift    the    pfoa« 
magnus. 


To  fupport  the  fpine, 
or  to  draw  it  to  on* 
fide. 


To  draw  die  os  coc- 
cygis forwards  ani 
inwards  (r) 


Deltoides  (s). 


8.  Supra-fpinatus. 


From    the    clavicle,  Into  the  anterior  and  To  raife  the  trim 

procell'us  acromion,       middle  part  of  the 

and   fpine  of    the      os  humeri. 

fcapula. 
From  the  bafis,  fpine,  Into  a  large  tuberofi-  To  raife  the  arm; 

and  upper  cofta  of      ty  at  the  head  of 

the  fcapula.  the  os  humeri. 

4  Y  2  ?.  Infra- 


f  n)  In  the  generality  of  anatomical  books  we  find  thefe  mufclcs  divided  into  iiittr-fpinalis  ceroids,  dorfit 
and  liimberum,  but  wc  do  not  find  any  fuch  mufclcs  cither  in  the  loins  or  back. 

(o)  Thefe  miifcles  are  to  be  found  only  in  the  neck  and  loins ;  what  have  been  dcfcribed,  as  the  inttr- 
tranfvcrfalis  dorfi  being  rather  fmall  tendoi»s  than  mufcles. 

(p)  This  and  the  following  pair  of  mufclcs  derive  their  name  of />/*/7»  from  4e<,  lumhui,  on  accoiuit  of  their 
fituation  at  the  anterior  part  of  the  loins. 

(q_)  So  called  from  its  Ihape,  which  is  that  of  an  irregtilar  fquare. 

(  r)  Some  of  the  fibres  of  this  mufclc  are  united  with  thofe  of  the  levator  sni,  fo  that  ir  aflifls  in  clofin^  t^e 
lower  part  of  the  pelvis. 

(s)  So  named  from  its  fuppofcd  rcfcmblance  to  the  Greek  j^revcrfeJ. 


ANA 


o     M     y. 


Name. 
%,  Infra-fpinatus. 

4.  Teres  minor  (t) 

5.  Teres  major. 


6.  Subfcapularis. 


7.  Coraco-brachia- 
lis  (u) 

Muscles  on  tlie  os 
humeri,       -      -     i.  Biceps flexorcubi- 
ti. 


a.Brachialis  internus 


3.  Triceps  extenfor 
ciU>iti. 


on  the  fore- 


I.  Supinator  longus. 


2.  Extenfor  carpi  ra- 
dialis  longus. 


3.  Extenfor  capri  ra 
dialis  brevis. 


4.  Extenfor    digito- 
rum  communis. 


Origin. 
From    the   bafe  and 

fpiiic  ot  the  I'capu- 

la. 
From  the  inferior  co- 

flaof  the  fcapwk. 
From     the    inferior 

angle,  and  inferior 

colla  of  the  fcapu- 

la. 

From  the  bafis,  fupc- 
riorand  inferior  co- 
ftaof  thcfcapula. 

From  the  coracoid 
procefs  of  the  fca- 
pula. 

By  two  heads,  one 
from  the  coracoid 
procefs,  and  thco- 
ther,  or  long  head, 
from  the  upper  and 
outer  edge  of  the 
glenoid  cavity  of 
the  fcapula. 

From  the  OS  humeri, 
below,  and  at  each 
lide  of  the  tendon 
of  the  deltoides. 

By  three  heads  :  the 
firfljfroni  the  infe- 
rior colla  of  the 
fcapula;  thefecond 
from  the  upper  and 
outer  pan  of  the  os 
humeri ;  and  the 
third,  from  the 
back  part  of  that 
bone. 

From  the  outer  ridge 
and  anterior  furface 
of  the  OS  humeri,  a 
little  above  its  out- 
er condyle. 

Immediately  below 
the  origin  of  the 
fupinator  longus. 

From  the  outer  anJ 
lower  part  of  the 
outer  condyle  of 
the  OS  humeri,  and 
the  upper  part  of 
the  radius. 

From  the  outer  con- 
dyle of  the  OS  hu- 
meri. 


Infertion. 
Into  the  upper  and 

middle  part  of  the 

lubcrolity. 
Into  the  lower  part  of 

the  tuberofity. 
Into  the  ridge  at  the 

inner  fide   of  the 

groove  formed  for 

the    long  head  of 

the  biceps. 
Into  the  upper  part  of 

a   fmall  tuberofity 

at  the  head  of  the 

OS  humeri. 
Into  the  middle  and 

inner  fide  of  thcos 

humeri. 


Vfc. 
To  roll  the  OS  humeri 
outwards. 

To  afliftthe infra  fpi- 
natus. 

To  afllft  in  the  rota- 
tory motion  of  the 
arm. 


To  roll  the  arm  in- 
wards. 


To  roll  the  arm  for- 
wards and  upwards. 


Partir. 

Of  the 
Mufclei. 


Into  the  tuberofity  at  To    bend  the  fore-' 
the   upper  end  of  arm. 
the  radius. 


Intoa  fmall  tuberofity  To  affift  in  bending 
at  the  (ore  part  of      the  fore-arm. 
the  coronoid  pro- 
cefs of  the  ulua. 

Into   the  upper  and  To  extend  the  fort- 
outer  part   of  the       arm. 
olecranon. 


Into  the  radius  near 
its  flyloid  procefs. 


Into  the  upper  part 
of  the  metacarpal 
bone  of  the  fore- 
finger. 

Into  the  upper  part 
of  the  metacarpal 
bone  of  the  midd.c 
linger. 


To  afllfl  in  turning 
the  palm  of  the 
hand  upwards. 


To  extend  the  wrifl. 


To  affill  the  extenfor 
longus. 


Into  the  back  part  of  To  extend  the  fingers 

all  the  bones  of  the 
fore  finger. 

5.  Extenfor 


(t)  This  and  the  following  pair  are  called  teres,  from  their  being  of  a  long  and  round  Ihape. 
(u)  This  mufcle  aflords  a  paflage  to  the  mufculo-cutancous  nerve. 


ANATOMY. 

^f*|"  Natiii.  Origin.  Iiifcrtion.  t%. 

Mufdci.  j_    Extcnfor  niinimi  From  the  outer  con-  Into  the  bones  of  the  To  extend  the  little 

digiti,  ilyle  of  the  os  hu-       little  finger.  finger, 

mcri. 

6.  Extcnfor  carpi  ul-  From  the  outer  con-  Into  the  metacarpal  To  alfifl  in  cxtendir.c 
naris.  dylc  of  the  os  hu-       bone  of  the  little      the  wrift.  " 

nieri.  finger. 

7.  Anconasiis  (v).      From  the  outer  con-  Into  the  outer  edge  To  extend  the  fore- 

dyle  of  the  os  hu-      of  the  ulna.  arm. 
meri. 

8.  Flexor  carpi  ulna-  From  the  inner  con-  Into  tlie  os  pififurmc.  To  aflift  in  bendine 
ris.                              dylc  of  the  OS  hu-  the  hand. 

mcri,  and  interior 
edge  of  the  olecra- 
non (w). 

9.  Palmaris  longus.    From  the  inner  con-  Into  the  internal  an-  To  bend  the  hand. 

dylc  of  the  OS  hu-      nular  ligament, and 
mcri.  aponcurofis  palma- 

ris (x). 

10.  Flexor  carpi  ra-  From  the  inner  con-  Into  the  metacarpal  To  bend  the  hand, 
dialis.  dylc  of  the  os  hu-       bone   of  the   fore 

meri.  finger. 

11.  Pronator    radii  From  the  outer  con-  Into  the  anterior  and  To  roll  the  hand  in- 
teres.  dylc  of  the  os  hu-      convex  edge  of  the      wards. 

meri,  and  coronoid      radius      near      its 
proccfsof  theulna.       middle. 

12.  Flexor   fublimis  From  the  inner  con-  Into  the  fecoiid  bone  To  bend  the  fecond 
perforatus  (y).  dylc  of  the  os  hu-      of  eath  finger.  joint  of  the  fingers. 

meri,  inner  edge  of 
the  coronoid  pro- 
cefs  of  th;  ulna, 
and  upper  and  an- 
terior part  of  the 
radius. 

13.  Supinator    radii  From  the  outer  con-  Into  the  anterior,  in-  To   roll    the    radius 
brevis.  dylc  of  the  os  hu-       ner,  and  upper  part      outwards. 

mcri,  and  poflcrior      of  the  radius, 
furfacc   and  outer 
edge  of  tj'ic-  ulna. 

14.  Abdudlor  poUi-  From  the  middle  and  By  two  tendons  into  To  /Iretch   the  firft 
cis  longus.  back   par;   of  the       the  os  trapezium,       bone  of  the  thumb 

ulna,    intuofTeous      and   firft   bone  of      outwards. 

ligament,  and  ra-       the  thumb. 

dius. 

15.  Extcnfor  minor  From  the  back  part  Into  the  convex  part  To  extend  the  fecond 
pollicis.  oftheulna,  andin-      of  the  fecond  bone      bone  of  the  thumb 

tcroifcous ligament      of  the  thumb.  obiiqueJyouiwarJs. 
and  radius. 

16.  Extcnfor  major  From  the  back  of  the  Into   the    third  and  Toftretch  the  thui'.b 
pollitis.                         ulna  and  intcroffc-      lafl    bone    of  the      obliquely        b.'.tk- 

ous  ligament.  thumb.  wards. 

17-  Indicator.  From  the  middle  of  Into   the  metacarpal  To  extend  the  fore- 

the  ulna.  bone  of  the   fotc-       finger, 

finger. 

18  Flexcr 


(\)  So  called  from  afitMt,  cubitus. 

(  w)   Between  the  two  origins  of  this  mr.fcle  we  find  the  ulnor-ncrve  going  to  the  fore-arm. 

(x)  The  aponeurolis  palmaris  is  a  tendinous  membrane  that  extends  over  the  palm  of  the  hand.  Some  ana- 
tomids  have  fuppofcd  it  to  be  a  produi5>ion  of  the  tendon  of  this  nuifcle,  but  without  fufScicnt  grounds  ;  for 
in  imne  fubjefls  wc  find  the  palmaris  longus  inft  rtcd  wholly  into  the  annular  ligament,  fo  as  to  be  pcrfedl^t 
dilliiicl  frum  this  aponcurofis  ;  and  it  now  and  then  happens,  that  no  palmaris  longus  is  to  be  found,  whereas 
this  cxpanlion  is  never  deficient. 

(y)  This  mufclc  is  named  firforatus,  on  account  of  the  four  tendons  in  which  it  terminates,  beinj  pcrfo. 
Iratcd  by  thofe  of  another  mufclc,  the  perforans. 


725 


A      N      A      T      O      M      Yrf  P«tIL 


tilt  Namt.  Origin.  InfcrlioTt.  U/e.  Of  the 

Mufclet.  i8.  Flexor  profundus  From  the  upper  and  Into  the  fore  part  of  To  bend  the  laft  joint   Mufdci. 

— "      '  perforans.  fore    part    of  t4ie      the    laft   bone    of      of  the  fingers.         "      • 

ulna,  and  interof-      each  of  the  fingers, 
fcous  ligament. 
19.     Flexor     longus  From  the  upper  and  Into  the  laft  joint  of  To  bend  the  laft  joint 
pollicis.  fore    part   of  the      the  thumb.  of  the  thumb, 

radius, 
io.     Pronator    radii  From  the  inner  and  Into  the  radius,  op-  To  rollthe  radius  in- 
quadratus.  lower  part  of  the      pofitc  to  its  origin.       \vards,andofcourf« 

ulna.  to  afiill  in  the  pro- 

nation of  the  hand. 
MuscLESomhchandi  l.  Lumbrlcales  (z).  From  the  tendons  of  Into  the  tendons  of  Tobendthe  firft,an(l 

the  perforans.  the  extenfor  digi-      to  extend  the  two 

torum  communis.        laft  joints  of   the 
fingers  (a). 
c.    Abdu<Jtor    brevis  From  the  fore  part  Into  the  outer  fide  of  To  move  the  thumW 
pollicis.  of  the  internal  an-      the  2d  bone  of  the      from  the  fingers, 

nular  ligament,  os      thumb,    near    its 
fcaphoidcs,  andone       root, 
of  the   tendons  of 
the   abdudtor  lon- 
gus pollicis. 

3.  Opponcns  pollicis.  From  the  inner  and  Into  the  firft  bone  of  To  move  the  thumb 

anterior  part  of  the      the  thumb.  inwards.andtotura 

internal  annular  li-  it  upon  its  axis, 

gament,  and  from 
the  OS  fcaphoides. 

4.  Flexor  brevis  pol-  From  the  os  trapezoi-  Into  tlie  oflTa  fefamoi-  To  bend  the  fecond 
licis.  des,  internal  annu-      dea     and     fecond      joint  of  the  thumb. 

lar    ligament,    os      bone  of  the  thumb. 

magnum,    and    os 

unciforme. 

5.  Abduftor  pollicis.  From  the  metacarpal  Into  the  bafis  of  the  To  move  the  thumb 

bone  of  the  middle      fecond  bone  of  tlie      towards  the  fingers 
finger.  thumb. 

6.  Abdu(flor  indices.  From  the  inner  fide  Into  the  firft  bone  of  To  move  the  fore  fin- 

of  the  firft  bone  of      the  fore  finger  po-      ger    towards    th» 
the    thumb,     and      ftcriorly.  thumb, 

from  the  os  trape- 
zium. 

7.  Palmaris  brevis.     From  the  internal  an-  Into  the  os  pififorme.  To  contra(5l  the  palm 

nular  ligament, and       and  the  fkin  cover-       of  the  hand, 
aponeurofis  palma-       ing    the    abdudor 
ris.  minimi  digiti. 

t.   Abductor  minimi  From  the  internalan-  Into  the  fide  of  the  To   draw   the   little 
digiti.  nular  ligament  and       firft    bone   of  the       fingerfromthcreft' 

OS  piliforme.  little  finger. 

9.  Flexor  parvus  mi-  From  tlie  os  uncifor-  Into  the  firft  bone  of  To  bend  the  little  fin- 
nimi  digiti.  meandintcrnalan-       the  little  finger.  ger. 

nular  ligament. 

10.  Abduftor  meta-  From  the  os  uncifor-  Into  tlie  metacarpal  To  move  that  bona 
carpi  minimi  digiti.       meandintcrnalan-       bone  of  the  little      towards  the  reft. 

nular  ligament.  finger. 

ti.  Intcrofleiintcrni.  Situated  between  the  Into  the  roots  of  the  To  extend  the  fingers 
metacarpal  buncs.        fingers.  and  move  them  to- 

wards   the   thumb 

12.  InteroiTei 


(7.)  So  named  from  their  being  (haped  fomewhat  like  the  lumbricus  or  earth-worm. 

(a)  Fallopius  was  the  firft  who  remarked  the  two  oppofitc  ufes  of  this  mufcle.     Their  extending  power 
is  owing  to  their  connection  with  the  extenfor  communis. 

(b)  The  third  interofleus  internus  (for  there  are  four  of  the  extcrni  and  three  of  the  interni)  differs  front 
iLe  reft  iu  drawing  the  middle  finger  from  the  thumb* 


Part  II.  ANATOMY.  727 

Of  the  Name.  Origi,,.  Tnfirmn.  V/e.  w^'l"" 

Mufdcj.  is.IntcrolTcicxtcrni.  Situated  between  tke  Into  the  roots  of  the  To  extend   the  fin-    ^'"^""-^ 

•^^ x~^  matacarpal    bones      lingers.  gers ;  but  the  firft 

on  the  back  of  lh«  draws  the  middle 

Jjaiid.  finger  inwards,  the 

fccond  draws  itout- 
wards,andthe  third 
draws  the  ring  fin- 
ger ill  wards. 
Muscles  at  the  back 
pare  of  the  pelvis, 
and  upper  part  of 

thethigh,     -     -     i.  Gluteus  (c)  max-  From  thefpineof  the  Into  the  upper  part  To  extend  the  thigh 
inius.  illiuni,pofteriorfa-      of  the  linea  afpcra      and   draw  it  out- 

cro  ifchiatic  liga-       of  theos  femoris.         wards, 
ments,  os  facrHm, 
and  OS  coccygis. 
3,  Glutjeus  medius.  From  the  fpinc  and  Into  the   outer   and  To  draw  the   thigh 
fuperior  furfacc  of      back   part   of  the      outwards  and  a  lit- 
thc  ilium.  great  trochanierof      tie  backwards,  and 

the  OS  femoris.  when  it  is  bended, 

to  roll  it. 

3.  Gliitseus  minimus.  From  the  outer  fur-  Into  the  upper  and  To  affift  the  former. 

face  of  the   ilium      anterior  part  of  the 
•  and  the  border  of      great  trochanter, 
its  great  niche. 

4.  Pyriformis  (d).      From    the    anterior  Into  a  cavity  at  the  ToroU  the  thigh  out - 

part  of  the  os  fa-      rootofthe  trochaii-       wards. 
•  cram.  ter  major. 

5.  Gemini  (e).  By  two  portions,  one  Into  the  fame  cavity  To  roll  the  thigh  out- 

from  the  outer  fur-       as  the  pyriformis.  wards.and  likewife 

face   of  the    fpine  to  confine  the  ten- 

of    the    ifchium  ;  don  of  the  obtiira- 

the  other  from  the  tor  internus,  when 

tubcrofity    of   the  the  latter  is  in  ac- 

ifchium  and  pofte-  tion. 
rior  facro-ifchiatic 
ligament. 

6. Obturator  intemus.  From    the     faperior  Into  the  fame  cavity  To  roll  the  thigh  out- 
half  of  the  inner      with  the  former.  wards, 
border  of  the  fo- 
ramen thyroideum. 

7.  Qiiadratus  (f)  fe-  From   the  ruberofity  Into  a  ridge  between  To  move  the  thigh 

moris.                           of  the  ifchium.             the  trochanter  ma-  outwards. 

jor  and  trochanter 

,      ...  minor. 

■  ■--  ■  on  the  thigh 

(°)'      -     -     -       I.  Biceps  flexor  cru-  By  two  heads;  one  into   the  upper  and  To  bend  the  le^r. 
ris.  from  the  tuberolity      back  part  of  the  fi-  " 

of  the  ifchium,  bula  (h). 


(c)  From  -j-xsitoc,  7'.atci  (d)  So  named  from  its  pear- like  (hape. 

(e)  The  two  portions  of  this  mufcles  having  been  defcribed  as  two  diftind  mufcles  by  fome  anatomifts, 
have  occafioned  it  to  be  aamtd  gemi/ii.  The  tendon  of  the  obturator  internus  runs  between  thefe  two  por- 
tions 

(k)  This  mufcle  is  not  of  the  fquare  (hape  its  name  would  feem  to  indicate. 

(g)  The  mufcles  of  the  leg  and  thigh  are  covered  by  a  broad  tendinous  membrane  called  fa/cia  fata,  that 
furrounds  them  in  the  manner  of  a  flicath.  It  is  feiitoff  from  the  tendonsof  the  glutei  and  other  mufcles,  and 
dipping  down  between  the  mufcles  it  covers,  whereas  to  the  linca  afpera,  and  fpreading  over  the  joint  of  the 
knee,  gradually  dilappcars  on  the  leg.     It  is  thickcfl:  on  the  infide  of  the  thigh. 

(h)  The  tendon  of  this  mufcle  forms  the  eut.'r  ham-^ri>:g 


728 


•of  th« 
Mufclfa. 


A      N 

Namt, 


t.  Scmi-tcndiaofus. 


3,  Semi-mcmbrano- 
fus  (I). 

4.  Tcnforvaginxfc- 
moris. 


5.  Sartorias. 


4.  Rcaas. 


O      M      Y. 


Origin. 
the  other  from  the 
linea  afpera  near 
thcinfertionof  the 
gluiaeus  m.iximus. 
From  the  tubcrofity 
of  the  ifchium. 

From  the   tuberofity 
of  the  ifchium. 

From  the  fupcriorand 
anterior  fpinouspro- 
ccfs  of  the  ilium. 


JnftrtioH. 


¥fc. 


Part  If. 

Oftha 

Mufclei; 


7.  Gracilis. 
8.Va(luscxternus(L) 

9.  Vaftus  internus. 


10.  CruratQS  (m). 


II.  Pcfliiialis. 


From  the  fuperior 
and  anterior fpinoiis 
proccfs  of  the  ili- 
um. 

By  two  tendons  ;  one 
from  the  anterior 
and  inferior  fpi- 
nous  procefsof  the 
ilium  ;  the  other 
from  the  pofterlor 
edge  of  the  coty- 
loid cavity. 

From  the  fore-part 
of  the  ifchium  an.l 
pubis. 

From  the  anteriorand 
lower  p-irt  of  the 
great  trochanter, 
and  the  outer  edge 
of  the  linea  af- 
pcra. 

From  the  inner  edge 
of  the  linea  afpcra, 
begiuningbetwecn 
the  forc-partof  the 
OS  fcmoris  and  the 
root  of  the  lefTer 
trochanter. 

From  the  outer  and 
anterior  part  of 
the  lefTer  trochan- 
ter. 

From  the  anterior 
edge  of  the  os  pu- 
bis, or  pcdinis,  as 
Jtisfometiracscall- 
cd. 


Into   the  upper  and  Tobend  and  draw  tht 

inner  part  of  the      leg  inwards. 

tibia. 
Into  the  upper   and  To  bend  the  leg. 

back  part    of   the 

head  of  the  tibia. 
Into  the  inner  hde  of  Toflrctch  the  fafcias 

the     fafcia     lata, 

which  covers  the 

outlidc      of      the 

thigh. 
Into  the  upper  and  in-  To  bend  the  Iegin« 

ncr  part  of  the  ti-       wards  (k). 

bia. 

Into  the  upper  and  To  extend  the  leg. 
fore-par  of  the  pa- 
tella. 


Into  the  upper  and  To  bend  the  leg. 

inner  pare  of  the 

tibia. 
To    the    upper  and  To  extend  the  leg. 

outer  part  of  the 

patella. 


Into   the  upper  and  To  extend  the  leg. 
inner  part  of  the 
patella. 


Into  the  upperpart  of  To  extend  the  leg. 
the  patella. 


Into  the  upper  and  To  draw  the  thigh 
fore  part  of  the  li-  inwards,  upwards, 
ncaafpera.  and  to  roll  it  a  little 

outwards. 

12.  Abdudlor 


(i)  So  named  on  account  of  its  origin,  which  is  by  a  broad  fiat  tendon  three  inches  long. 

(  k)  Spigclius  was  the  firfl  whogavc  this  the  name  oifartoriui,  or  the  taylor's  raufdc,  from  iisufe  in  crofling 
the  legs. 

(t)  The  yaflus  externus,  vaflus  internus,  .tnd  crurajus,  are  fo intimately  connefled  with  each  other,  that 
fome  anatomills  have  been  induced  toconfider  them  as  a  triceps,  or  finglc  niufclc  with  three  heads. 

_(m1  Under  the  crurasus  we  fometimes  meet  with  two  fmall  mufclcs,  to  winch  Albinus  has  given  the  name 
oi  fttb-crurai.  They  terminate  on  each  lidc  of  the  patella,  and  prevent  the  capfular  ligament  from  being 
pinched.  When  they  arc  warning,  which  is  very  often  the  cafe,  fome  of  the  fibres  oi  the  crurasus  are 
found  adhering  to  the  capfula. 


Part  II.  A       N 

Of  the  Name. 

Mufcles.  12.   Abdnftor  longiis 

'''—•J—'  fcmoris  (n). 

13.  Abdudor  brcvis 
I'emoris. 

14.  Abdudlor    mag- 
nus  fcmoris. 


I  J.  Obturator  cxter- 
nus. 


MusctEs  on  the  kg,  i.Gaftrocnemius(o) 
extcrnus. 


T      O      M      Y. 


729 


2.  Gaftrocnemius  (p) 
interims. 


3.  Plantaris  (q,) 


4.  Poplitcus  (r) 


5.  Flexor  longus  digi- 
torum  pedis  (s) 


6.  Flexor  longus  pol- 
licis  pedis. 


Origin. 

From  the  upper  .ind 
fore  part  of  the  os 
pubis. 

From  the  fore  part  of 
the  ramus  of  the  os 
pubis. 

From  the  lower  and 
fore  part  of  tho  ra- 
mus ot  the  OS  pu- 
bis. 

F'rom  part  of  the  ob- 
turator ligament, 
and  the  inner  half 
of  the  circumfe- 
rence of  the  fora- 
men thyroideum. 

By  two  heads ;  one 
from  the  inner  con- 
dyle,theotherfrom 
the  outer  condyle 
of  the  OS  fcmoris. 

By  two  heads  ;  one 
from  the  back  part 
of  the  head  of  the 
fibula,  the  other 
from  the  upper  and 
back  part  of  the 
tibia. 

From  the  upper  and 
polleriorpartofthe 
outer  condyle  of 
the  OS  fcmoris. 

From  the  outer  con- 
dyle of  the   thigh. 

From  the  upper  and 
inner  part  of  the 
tibia. 


Jnfertion. 

Near    the     middle' 
and  back  part  of 
the  linca  afpera. 

Into  the  inner  and 
upper  part  of  the 
linea  afpera. 

Into  the  whole 
length  of  the  li- 
nca afpera. 


UA. 


To  draw  the  thigh 
inwards,  upwards, 
and  to  roll  it  a  little 
outwards. 


Into   the  OS  femoris  To  move  the  thigh- 
near    the  root    of      outwards  in  an  ob- 


thc  great  trochan- 
ter. 


From  the  back  part, 
and  a  little  below 
the  head  of  the  fi- 
bula. 


lique  direction, and 
likcwife    to    bend 
and    draw    it    in- 
wards. 
By  a  great  round  ten-  To  extend  the  foot 
don,    common    to 
this  and  the  follow- 
ing mufcle. 

By   a   large    tendon  To  extend  the  foot. 

{lYittendo  achillis) 

common  to  this  and 

the  former  mufcle, 

into  the  lower  and 

back  part  of  the  os 

calcis. 
Into  the  infideof  the  To  aflill  in  extending 

back  part  of  the  os      the  foot. 

calcis. 

Into  the  upper  and  To  aflift  in  bending 
inner  part  of  the  the  leg  and  rolling 
tibia.  it  inwards. 

By  four  tendons,  To  bend  the  lall  joint 
which, after  paffing  of  the  toe, 
tlirough  the  perfo- 
rations in  thofe  of 
the  flexor  digito- 
rumbrevis,  are  in- 
fcrted  into  the  lall 
bone  of  all  the  toes 
except  the  great 
toe. 

Into  the  laft  bone  of  To  bend  the  great 
the  great  toe.  toe. 


Of  the 

Mufclc«. 


Vol.  I. 


4  Z 


7.  Tibiali 


(n)  This  and  the  two  following  mufcles  have  been  ufually,  but  improperly,  confidered  as  forming  afingU 
mufcle  with  three  heads,  and  on  that  account  named  tricepsjet/toris, 

to)  Ta^fmin/xix,  /nra,  "  the  calf  of  the  leg." 

(p)  Tills  mufcle  is  by  fome  anatomifts  named /o/f«i,  on  account  of  its  being  iliaped  like  the  folc-filh. 

(q_)  This  mufcle  has  gotten  the  name  o( plantaris,  from  its  being  fuppofed  to  furnilli  the  aponeurofis  that 
covers  the  foleof  the  foot;  but  it  docs  not  in  the  Icaft  contribute  to  the  formation  of  that  tendinous  cx- 
panfion. 

f  r)  So  called  on  account  of  its  fituation  at  the  ham  (poplcs). 

(s)  This  mufcle,  about  the  middle  of  the  foot,  unites  with  a  flelhy  mals^  which,  from  its  having  lirft  been 
defcribed  by  Sylvius,  is  ufualy  called  majfa  car/ua  Jacob i  Sylvii. 


73° 

Of  the 

Mulclfs, 


A      N 

Name. 
7.  Tibialis  pofticus. 


O      M      Y. 


Part  II. 


8.  Peroiuus  lon;rus. 


9.  Peroncuibrevis. 


10.  Extenfor  lougus 
digitorum  pedis. 


II.  Pcroaeus  cenius. 


ftl.  Tibialis  anticus. 


13.  Extenfor  proprius 
pollicis  pedis. 

MusctESonthcfoot,  i.Extenrorbrevis di- 
gitorum'pedis. 


Origin. 

From  the  back  part 
and  outer  edge  of 
the  tibia,  and  like- 
wife  from  the  in- 
tcroffeous  ligament 
and  adjacent  part 
of  the  tibula. 

From  the  outer  fide 
of  the  head  of  the 
tibia>  and  alfo  from 
theupper, anterior, 
and  outer  part  of 
ihi  perotie  or  fibu- 
la, to  which  it  ad- 
heres for  a  confi- 
derable  way  down. 

From  the  outer  and 
fore-part  of  the  fi- 
bula. 

From  the  upper,  out- 
er, and  fore  part 
of  the  tibia,  inter- 
ofleous  ligament, 
and  inner  edge  of 
the  fibula. 

From  the  fore-part 
of  the  lower  half 
of  the  fibula,  and 
from  the  interof- 
feous  ligament. 

From  the  upper  and 
fore  part  of  the  ti- 
bia. 

From  the  upper  and 
fore  part  of  the  ti- 
bia. 

From  the  upper  and 
anterior  part  ©f  the 
OS  calcis. 


Jnfertion. 


Into    the    inner  and  To  move  the  foot  in- 
upper  part  of  the      wards. 
OS  naviculare   and 
fide  of  the  os  cu- 
nciforme  medium. 


Into    the    metatarfal  Toinove  thefootout- 
bone  of  the  great      wards, 
toe. 


Of  the 
Mufclci. 


Into   the   metatarfal  Tg  aflift  the  lafl  dc- 

bonc  of  the   little      fcribed  mufclc. 

toe. 
By  four  tendons  into  To  extend  the  toes. 

thefirfljointof  the 

iinalkr  toes. 


Into   the    metatarfal  To  bend  the  foot, 
bone  of  the  little 

toe. 


1.  Flexor  brevis  digi- 
torum pedis. 


From  the  lower  part 
of  the  06  calcis. 


3.  Abduftor  pollicis 
pedis. 

4.  AbduAor  minimi 
djgiti. 


Into    the    OS    cunci-  To  bend  the  foot. 
forme  internum. 

Into  the  convex  fur-  To  extend  the  great 
face  of  the  bones  of      toe. 
the  great  toe. 
By  four  tendons ;  one  To  extend  the  toes, 
of  which  joins  the 
tendon  of  the  ex- 
ternus  longus  polli- 
cis, and  the  other 
three  the  tendons 
of  the  extenfor  di- 
gitorum longus. 
By     four     tendons.  To  bend  the  fecond 
which,    after    af- joint  of  the  toes, 
fording    a   paffage 
tothofcof  the  flex- 
or longus,  are  in- 

ferted  into  the  fe-  . 

cond    phalanx    of 
each  of  the  Ihiall 
toes. 
From  the  inner  and  Into  the  firfl  joint  of  To  move  the   great 

lower  part  of  the      the  great  toe.  toe  from  the  other 

OS  calcis.  toes. 

Fromthcouter  tuber-  Into  the    outer   fide  To  draw  the  little  toe 

cle  of  the  os  calcis,      of  the  firft  joint  of     outwards. 

the  root  of  the  me-      the  little  toe. 

tatarfal  bone  of  the 

little  toe,  and  alfo 

from  the  aponeuro- 

fisplantaxis.  5-  Lumbricale* 


Part  II. 

of  the 
MufclM. 


A      N 

Name. 
5.  Lumbricalisf  edis. 


6.  Flexor  brevis  pol- 
licis  pedis. 


7.  Adduftor    pollicis 
pedis. 


8.  Tranfvcrfalei  pe- 
dis. 


9.  Flejftr  breivii  mi- 
nimi digici  pedis. 

10.  InterofTei    pedis 
interni  (t). 

exter- 

ni(u). 


O      M 


Origin. 
From  the  tendons  of 
the   flexor  longus 
digitorura  pedis. 

From  the  inferior  and 
anterior  part  of  the 
OS  calcis,  and  alfo 
from  the   inferior 
part  of  the  os  cu- 
nciformecxtenuim 
From  near  the  roots 
of  the   metatarfal 
bones  of    the  3d, 
3d,  and  4th  toes. 
From  the  outer  and 
under  part  of  the 
anterior  end  of  the 
metatarfal  bone  of 
the  little  toe. 
From  the  bafis  of  the 
metatarfal  bone  of 
the  little  toe- 
Situated  between  the 
metatarfal  bones. 


Infirtioii.  Vfe. 

Into    the    tendinous  To  draw  the  loes  in- 

expanlion    at    the      wards. 

upper  part  of  the 

toes. 
By  two  tendons  into  To  bend  the  firfl  joint 

tlie    firft  joint   of      of  the  great  toe* 

the  great  toe. 


Into  ttie  outer  OS  fe-  To  draw  the  great  toe 
famoidcum,  or  firft  nearer  to  the  reft, 
joint  of  the  great  and  alfo  to  bend  it. 
toe. 

Into  the  inner  os  fe-  To  contradt  the  fuut. 
famoideum,and  an- 
terior  end  oi   the 
metatarfal  bone  of 
the  great  toe. 

Into  the  firfl  joint  ef  To  bend  the  little  t«c, 
the  little  toe. 


of  ihe 

MufJo*. 


EXPLANATION  ok  PLATES  XXIII.  ako  XXIV. 


Plate  XXIII. 

Fig.  I.  ThcMuscLEsimmediately  undcrthecom- 
nion  teguments  on  the  anterior  part  of  the  body  are 
reprefcntedon  the  right  lidc  ;  and  on  the  left  fide  the 
Muscles  are  feen  which  come  in  view  when  the  ex- 
terior ones  arc  taken  away. 

A,  The  frontal  mufclc.  B,  The  tendinous  aponeu- 
rofis  which  joins  it  to  the  occipital ;  hciicc  both  named 
occipiio-J'rontalis.  C,  Attolens  aurcm.  D,  The  ear. 
E,  Anterior  auris.  F  K,  Orbicularis  palpebrarum. 
G,  Levator  labii  fuperioris  aliequc  nafi.  H,  Levator 
liiguli  oris.  I,  Zygomaticus  minor.  K,  Zygomaticus 
major.  L,  Malictcr.  M,  Orbicularis  oris.  N,  De- 
prclfor  labii  iufcrioris.  O,  Dcpreflbr  anguli  oris. 
P,  buccinator.  Q^Q_,  Platyfma  myoidcs.  R  R,  Ster- 
no-clcido-maltoidajus.  S,  Part  of  the  trapezius.  T, 
Part  of  the  fcaleni. 

Superior  Extremitv U,  Deltoidcs.  V,  Pefto- 

ralis  major.  W,  Part  of  the  latilliniufi  dorfi.  X  X,  Bi- 
ceps flexor  cubiti.  Y  Y,  Part  of  the  brachialis  extcr- 
nus.  Z  Z,  The  beginning  of  the  tendinous  aponeu- 
rofis  (from  thcbiceps),  which  is  fpread  over  the  niuf- 
cles  of  the  fore-arm.  a  a.  Its  flrong  tendon  inferled 
into  the  tubercle  of  the  radius,  b  b,  Part  of  the  bra- 
chialis intcrnus.  c,  Pronator  radii  teres,  d,  Flexor 
carpi  radialis.  e,  Part  «f  the  flexor  carpi  ulnaris. 
f,  Palmaris  longus.  g,  Aponeuroiis  palmaris.  3.  Pal- 
iiaris  brevis.  i,  Liganiciitum  carpi  annulare.  2  2,  Ab- 
duclor    minimi    digiti.     h.   Supinator    radii  longus. 


i.  The  tendons  of  the  thumb,  k,  Addudor  poUiciiL 
1,  Flexor  pollicis  Iwngus.  m  m,  The  tendons  of  th* 
flexor  lublimis  perforatus,  profundus  perforans,  and 
lurabricalcs. — The  flieaths  are  entire  in  the  right 
hand, — in  the  left  cut  open  to  ihow  ihc  tendons  of  the 
flexor  profundus  perforating  the  fiblimis. 

Muscles  not  referred  to — iiithclelt  fuperior extre- 
mity.— n,  Peftoralis  ttiinor,  feu  fcrratus  amicus  minor. 
o,  The  t\so  heads  of  (x  x)  the  biceps,  p,  Coraco 
brachialis.  q  q,  The  long  head  of  the  triceps  exteufor 
cubiti.  r  r,  Teres  major,  f  f,  Subfcapularis.  1 1,  Ex- 
tenfores  radiales.  u,  Spinator  brevis.  v,  The  cut 
extremity  of  the  pronator  teres,  w.  Flexor  fubli- 
mis  perforatus.  x.  Part  of  the  flexor  profundus, 
y,  Flexor  pollicis  longus.  z.  Part  of  the  flexor  polli- 
cis brevis.  4.  Abduiifor  minimi  digiti.  5.  Tlie  four 
lumbricales. 

Trunk. — 6,  Serrated  extremities  of  the  ferratos 
anticus  major.  7  7,  Obliquus  e.xtcrnus  abdominis. 
8  8,  The  linea  alba.  9,  The  umbilicus.  10.  Pyra- 
midalis.  11  11,  The  fpcrmatic  cord.  On  the  left 
lide  it  is  covered  by  the  cremaller.  12  12,  RcJlus 
abdominis.  13,  Obliquus  internus.  1414,  Sec.  In- 
tercoftal  mnfcles. 

Inkf.rior  Extre.mities. — a  a.  The  gracilis.  l>6, 
Parts  of  the  triceps,  cc,  Pei51ialis.  </</,  Pfoas  mag- 
nus.  <•  e,  lliacus  iniernus.  /,  Part  of  the  glutccus 
medius.  g,  Part  of  the  glutxus  minimus,  /r,  Cut 
extremity  of  the  rciitus  cruris.  /  /,  \'aftut  extcrnus. 
;♦,  Tendon  of  the  rcclus  cruris.  / /,  \'aflus  iniernus. 
4  Z  2  *  Sartorius 


(r)  The  interolfei  interni  are  three  in  number;  their  ufe  is  to  draw  the  fmallertoes  towards  the  great  toe. 
(u)  The  interoifei  exttrni  are  four  in  number  ;  the  firft  fervesio  move  the  fore-toe  towards  the  great  tec  : 
the  reft  moves  the  toes  outwards.     All  the  intcroffci  affift  in  extending  the  toes. 


73* 

of  the 

Mufcles, 


N       A       T      O       M 


*  Sartorius  miifclc.  •*  Flcfliy  origin  of  the  tenfor 
va^^iiias  fjKmoiisurinembraiU'Uis.  Its  tciidiiioiis  apo- 
iiturofiscovrrsf/^  the  valhis  cxtcrnusoiuheright  lidc. 
mm,  Pittlla.  «  «,  Ligaiiiciu  or  tendon  from  it  to  ilic 
tibia.  0,  Reftus  cruris,  f,  Cruraeus.  q  q.  The 
libia.  r  r.  Part  of  the  Gemellus  orgallrocncniius  cx- 
teriius.  ///,  Part  of  the  folcus  or  gadrocneniius 
intcrnus.  /,  Tibialis  anticus.  //,  Tibialis  poUicus. 
V  V,  Pero!ia;i  mufcles.  w  iv,  Extenfor  longus  digi- 
loruin  pedis,  x  x,  Extenfor  longus  poUicis  pedis. 
y,  Abduilor  pollicis  pedis. 

i"ic.2.  TheMiscLES,  Gr.ANDs,  &c.  of  the  Left  Side 
of  the  face  and  neck,  after  the  common  Teguments 
and  Platyfma  myoides  have  been  taken  offT 
a,  The  frontal  mufcle.    b,  Temporalis  and  tempo- 
ral artery,     c.  Orbicularis  palpebrarum,     d,  Levator 
labii  fupcrioris  aldso^'.ii  na/i.     e,   Levator  anguli  oris, 
f,  Zygomaticus.    g,  dcprellbr  labii  infcrioris.  h,  Dc- 
prelfur  anguli    oris,     i,    Buccinator,      k,    Maflcter. 
11,  Parotid-gland,    m.  Its  duift.    n,    Sterno-clcido- 
maftoidieus.     o,  Part   of  ihe  trapezius,     p,  Sterno- 
hyoidaeus.  q,  Stcrno-thyroidseus.  r,  Omo-hyoidasus. 

f,  Levator  fcapulae.  t  t,  Scakni.  ii,  Part  of  the  fplc- 
nius. 

Fic.  3,  The  Muscles  of  the  Face  and  Neck  in  view 
after  the  exterior  ones  arc  taken  away, 
a  a,  Corrugator  fuperr ilii.  b.  Temporalis,  c,  Ten- 
don of  the  levator  palpebrae  fupcrioris.  d,  Tendon 
cftheorbicularis  palpebrarum,  e,  Mali'eter.  f.  Buc- 
cinator, g.  Levator  anguli  oris,  h,  Dcprelfor  labii 
fupcrioris  alaeijuc  nafi.  i.  Orbicularis  oris,  k,  Depref- 
for  anguli  oris.  1,  Mufcles  of  the  os  hyoides.  m,  Stcr- 
no-cleido-mailoidseus. 

Fig.  4.  Some  of  the  MrscLES  of  the  Os  Hyoides 

and  Submaxillary  Gland. 

a.  Part  of  the  malVeter  nuifcle.     b,  Poflerior  head 

•f  the  digaftric.     c.  Its  anterior  head,     d  d,  Sterno- 

hyoidscus.     e.  Omo-hyoidxus.     f,    Stylo-hyoidseus. 

g.  Submaxillary  gland  in  fitu. 

Fig.  j.  The  Submaxillary  Gland  and  Duft. 
a,  Mufculusmylo-hyoidxus.  b,  Hyo-glolTus.  c,Sub- 
■laxillary  gland  extra  litu.     d,  Its  duct. 

PtATE    XXIV. 

Fig.  I. The  Muscles  immediately  under  the  com- 
mon tegumenis  on  the  poflerior  part  of  the  body,  are 
reprcfentcd  in  the  right  fide  ;  and  on  the  left  fide  the 
Muscles  are  feen  which  come  in  view  when  the  ex- 
terior ones  are  taken  away. 

Head A  A,    Occipito-frontalis.     B,    Attollens 

aurem.  C,  Part  of  the  orbicularis  palpebrarum. 
D,  MafTcter.     E,  Pterygoidaeus  internus. 

Trunk Right  fide.  F  F  F,  Trapezius  feu  cucul- 

laris.  GGGG,  Latilhmus  dorfi.  H,  Part  of  the 
obliquus  externus  abdominis. 

Trunk.— Left  fide.  I,  Splcnius.  K,  Part  of  the 
complexus.  L,  Levator  fcapulx.  M,  Rhomboides. 
N  N,  Seratus  poflicus  inferior.  O,  Part  of  the  lon- 
giflimus  dorfi.  P,  Partof  the  facro-lumbalis.  Q^  Part 
ef  the  fcmi-fpinalls  dorfi.    R,  Part  of  the  fcrratus  an- 


ticus major.  S,  Part  of  the  obliquus  internus  abdo- 
minis. 

SurFRioR  Extremity Right  fide. T,Dtltoides 

U,  Triceps  extenfor  cubiti.  V,  Supinator  longus. 
W  W,  Extcnfores  carpi  radialis  longior  and  brcvior. 
X  X,  Extenfor  carpi  ulnaris.  Y  Y,  Extenfor  digito- 
rum  communis.  Z,  Abdudor  indicis.  123,  Extcn- 
fores pollicis. 

Superior  Extremity. — Left  fide,  a,  Supra  fpi- 
naius.  b,  Infra-fpinatus.  c.  Teres  minor,  d.  Te- 
res major,  c,  Triceps  extenfor  cubiti.  i(,  Extcn- 
fores carpi  radiales.  g,  Supinator  brevis.  h,  Indica- 
ter.  12?,  Extcnfores  pollicis.  i,  Abdu(5lor  minimi 
digiti.     k,  InterolTei. 

Inkekicr  Extremity. — Right  fide.  1,  Gluteus 
maxinuis.  m.  Part  of  the  Glutseus  niedius.  n,  Ten- 
for vagina;  fcmoris.  o.  Gracilis,  p  p.  Abductor  fc- 
moris  magnus.  q.  Part  of  the  vaftus  intcrnus.  r,  Se- 
mimembranofus.  s,  Semitendinofus.  t,  Long  head 
of  the  biceps  flexor  cruris,  u  u,  Gaflrocnemius  ex- 
ternus feu  gemellus.  V,  Tendo  Achillis.  w,  Soleus 
feu  gaflrocnemius  internus,  xx,  Peronasus  longus  and 
brevis.  y.  Tendons  of  the  flexor  longus  digitorum 
pedis  ; — and  under  them  *  flexor  brevis  digitorum  pe- 
dis,    z,  Abduftor  minimi  digiti  pedis. 

InkeriorExtremity. — Left  fide,  vi,  n,  0,  pfi,  q, 
r,  s,  t,  V,  w  w,  X  X,  y,  z,  Point  the  fame  pans  as  in 
the  right  fide,  a,  Pyriformis.  b  b,  Gemini,  oc,  Obtu- 
rator internus.  d,  (^uadratus  femoris.  e,  Coccygxus. 
y.  The  Ihort  head  of  the  biceps  flexor  cruris.  ^^,Plan- 
taris.     /',  Poplitijeus.  /,  Flexor  longus  pollicis  pedis. 

FiG.  2.  The  Palm  of  the  Left  Hand  after  the  com- 
monTeguments  are  removed,  to  Ihow  the  Muscles 
of  the  Fingers. 

a.  Tendon  of  the  flexor  carpi  radialis.  b.  Tendon 
of  the  flexor  carpi  ulnaris.  c,  Tendons  of  the  flexor 
fublimis  perforatus,  profundus  perforans  and  lunibri- 
calcs.  d,  Abdu(5tor  policis.  e  c.  Flexor  policis  lon- 
gus. f.  Flexor  policis  brevis.  g,  Palmaris  brevis. 
h,  Abduflor  minimi  digiti.  i,  Ligamcntum  carpian- 
nulare.  k,  A  probe  put  under  the  tendons  of  the  flexor 
digitorum  fublimis  ;  which  are  performed  by  1,  the 
flexor  digitorum  profundus,  m  m  m  m,  Lumbricales. 
n,  Abduclor  pollicis. 

Fig.  3.  a  fore-view  of  the  foot  and  Tendons  of  the 
Flexores  Digitorum. 
a,  Cut  extremity  of  the  tendo  Achillis.  b,  Upper 
part  of  the  aflragalus.  c,  Os  calcis.  d.  Tendon  of 
the  tibialis  amicus,  e.  Tendon  of  the  extenfor  polli- 
cis longus.  f,  Tendon  of  the  peronasus  brevis.  g. 
Tendons  of  the  flexor  digitorum  longus,  with  the  no- 
nus  Vcfalii.  h  b.  The  whole  of  the  flexor  digitorum 
brevis. 

Fig.  4.  Muscles  of  the  Anus, 
a  a.  An  out  line  of  the  buttocks,  and  upper  part  of 
the  thighs,  b,  The  telles  contained  in  the  fcrotum. 
c  c,  Sphinfter  ani.  d,  Anus,  e,  Levator  ani.  ff, 
Ereftor  penis,  g  g.  Accelerator  urinas.  h.  Corpus 
cavernofum  urethx. 

Fig.  5.  Muscles  of  the  Penis, 
a  a,  b,  d,  e  e,  f  f,  h,  point  the  fame  as  in  fig.  4. 
c,  Sphinftcr  ani.     g  g,  Tranfverfalis  penis. 
'  PART 


Part  II. 

Of  tbc 

Mufclci. 


Anatomy. 


Pl-c.fr   Wll 


x.-.^:-  .>c^_-.-*jO- 


r/ufO   ^^ 


Anatomy  / 

^  'it 


PlatcWW 


v..  /Xrf    .  '«,^  .  /^Ai/iv- 


Part  in. 


N 


O      M      Y. 


733 

Ol  till- 
Al>(iumi:n. 


Part  III.    Of  the  A  B  D  O  M  E  N     or     LOWER     BELLY. 


88- 


»9. 


THE  abdomen,  or  lower  belly,  extends  from  the 
lower  extremity  of  the  fternum,  or  tlic  hollow, 
iifiially  called  the  pit  of  the  floiiiach,  and  more  pro- 
perly fcrobicuhii  cordii,  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
trunk. 

It  is  di/linguiflicd  into  three  divilions  called  regions  ; 
of  thcfc  the  tipper  one,  which  is  called  the  ipigajiric 
region,  begins  immediattly  under  thcflcrnuin,  and  ex- 
tends to  within  two  fingers  breadth  of  the  navcl/vherc 
the  middle  or  untbilical  region  begins,  and  reaches  to 
the  fame  diftance  below  the  navel.  The  third,  which 
is  called  the  hypogajiric,  includes  the  reft  of  the  abdo- 
men, as  far  as  the  os  pubis. 

Each  of  thefe  regions  is  fubdivided  into  three  others; 
two  of  which  coinpofe  the  fides,  and  the  oihcr  the 
middle  part  of  eacli  region. 

The  middle  part  of  the  upper  region  is  called  epi- 
gajlriiofi,  and  its  two  fides  hji'Ockondria.  The  middle 
part  of  the  next  region  is  the  umbilical  region,  proper- 
ly fo  called,  and  its  two  (ides  are  the  flanks,  or  iliac 
regions.  Laflly,  the  middle  part  of  the  lower  region 
retains  the  name  of  hypogaftrium,  and  its  I'ldcs  are 
called  iiiguina  or  groins.  The  back  part  of  the  abdo- 
men bears  the  name  uf  lumbar  region. 

Tiicfe  are  the  divifions  of  the  lower  belly,  which 
are  neceflfary  to  be  held  in  remembrance,  as  they  fre- 
quently occur  in  fiirgical  and  anatomical  writing.  Wc 
will  now  proceed  to  examine  the  contents  of  the  abdo- 
men ;  and  after  having  pointed  out  the  names  and  ar- 
rangement of  the  fevcral  vifcera  contained  in  it,  de- 
fcribe  each  of  them  feparatcly. 

After  having  removed  the  ikin,  adipofe  membrane, 
and  abdominal  mufcles,we  difcover  the  pcritonseum  or 
membrane  tliat  envelopes  all  the  vifcera  of  the  lower 
belly.  This  being  Ojicned,  the  tirll  part  thatprefents 
jtfelf  is  the  omentum  or  cawl,  floating  on  the  furfacc 
of  the  inteftines,  which  are  likewifc  fecn  every  where 
loofc  and  nioill,  and  making  a  j^rcat  number  of  cir- 
cumvolutions through  the  whole  cavity  of  the  abdo- 


covcring  from  the  fime  membrane,  which  fceras  to  l)e 
a  part  of  the  cellular  membrane  we  have  already  de- 
fcribcd. 

The  pcritona:um,  by  its  productions  and  reduplica- 
tions, envelopes  tlic  grciteft  part  of  the  abdominal 
vifcera.  It  is  foft,  and  capable  of  confiderablcexten- 
fion  ;  and  is  kept  fmooth  and  moift  by  a  vapour, 
which  is  conflantly  exhaling  from  its  inner  furfacc, 
and  is  returned  again  into  the  circulation  by  the  ab- 
forbents. 

This  moifture  not  only  contributes  to  the  foftncfs 
of  the  pci-itonaeuni,  but  prevents  the  attrition,  anJ 
other  ill  cffeds  which  would  otherwife  probably  be 
occalioned,  by  the  motion  of  the  vifcera  apon  each 
other. 

When  this  fluid  is  fupplieJ  in  too  great  a  quantity, 
or  the  abforbents  become  incapable  of  carrying  it  off, 
it  accumulates,  and  conflitulcs  an  afcitcs  or  dropfy  of 
the  belly  J  and  when  by  any  means  the  exhalation  is 
difcontiuued,  the  peritonasum  thickens,  becomes  dif- 
cafed,  and  the  vifcera  arc  fomctimes  iouudadhering  to 
each  other. 

Theperitonxum  is  not  a  very  vafcular  membrane. 
In  a  found  ftate  it  fcems  to  be  endued  wiih  little  or  no 
feeling,  and  the  nerves  that  pafs  through  it  appear  to 
belong  to  the  abdominal  mufcles. 

Sect.  II.     Of  thi  Omentum 

The  omentum,  epiploon,  orcawl,  is  a  double  mem- 
brane, produced  from  the  periionxum.  It  is  inter- 
larded with  fat,  and  adheres  to  the  ftomach,  fplecn, 
duodenum,  and  colon  ;  from  thence  hanging  down 
loofe  and  floatingon  the  furfacc  of  the  intellines.  Its 
fize  is  different  in  ditferent  fubjccls.  In  fomc  it  dc- 
fcends  as  low  as  the  pelvis,  and  it  is  commonly  longer 
at  the  left  fide  than  the  right. 

This  part,  the  fituation  of  which  we  have  jufl  now 
defcribcd,  was  the  only  one  known  to  the  ancients  un- 


nien.  The  ftomach  is  placed  in  the  cpigaltrium,  and     dcr  the  name  oiepipUun  -,  but  atnrcfcnt  we  diftineuilh 


under  the  ftomach  is  the  pancreas.  The  liver  tills  the 
right  hypochondriuin,  and  the  fplecn  is  (ituated  in  the 
left.  They  kidneys  are  fcen  about  the  midille  of  the 
lumbar  region,  and  the  urinary  bladder  and  parts  of 
generation  are  feaicd  in  the  lower  divifion  of  the 
belly. 

Sect.  I.     Of  the  Peritonaru.7.: 

The  peritonxum  is  a  ftrong  fimple  membrane,  by 
which  all  the  vifcera  of  thea'odomen  are  furrounded, 
and  in  fome  mcafure  fupportcd.  Many  anatomical 
■writers,  particularly  Window,  havedefcribcd  itas be- 
ing compofcd  of  two  diftinof  membranous  laminx  ; 
but  their  defcription  fccms  to  be  erroneous.  What 
perhaps  appeared  to  be  a  fecond  lamina,  being  found 
to  be  (imply  a  cellular  coat,  which  fends  oti' produc- 
tions to  the  blood-veifcls  palfing  out  of  the  abdominal 

cavity,   ^hc  .aorta  and  vena  cava  likewife  derive  a    through  which  the  whole  pouch  may  ealily  be  dirtend 

cd 


three  omenta,  viz.  o>nentum  magnum  colicogajhiaint, 
ovientuvi  parvutn  hepatict gjjlricum,  and  omentum  co- 
licum.  They  all  agree  in  being  formed  of  two  very 
delicate  laminae,  fcparated  by  a  thin  layer  of  cellular 
membrane. 

The  omentum  magnum  colico  gnftricum,  of  which 
wc  have  already  fpoken,  derives  its  arteries  from  the 
fplenic  and  hepatic.  Its  veins  terminate  in  the  vena 
ports.  Its  nerves,  which  are  very  few,  come  front 
the  fplenic  and  hepatic  plexus. 

Theomcntumparvum  hcpatico  gaftricum,  abounds 
lefswith  fat  than  the  great  epiploon.  It  begins  at  the 
upper  part  of  the  duodenum,  extends  along  the  leiTcr 
curvature  of  the  ftomach  as  far  as  the  oefophagus,  and 
terminates  about  the  neck  of  the  gall-bladder,  and  be- 
hind the  left  ligament  of  the  liver,  fo  ihat  it  covers 
the  Icdcr  lobe  ;  near  the  beginning  of  which  wc  may 
obferve  a  finall  opening,  firft  defcribed  by  Window, 


90. 


734 


ANA       r      O       M 


Part  II Ir 


Of  the     eJ  with  air  (.x).     The  veffclsof  the  onicniumiiarTum 
Abdomen-  arc  derived  chiefly  from  the  coronaryAomachicartcrics 

' •^^^  and  veins. 

The  amentum  colicuni  begins  at  thcforcpartof  tlie 
ccpcum  and  right  fide  of  the  colon.  It  appears  as  a 
hollow  conical  appervdage  to  thefc  inteflincs,  and  ufu- 
ally  terminates  at  the  back  of  the  omentum  maguuiu. 
It  iccms  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  membranous  coat 
of  the  coecum  and  colon,  allUniing  a  couical  (hapc 
when  diftcnded  with  air. 

The  ufes  of  the  omentum  are  not  yet  faiitfaftorily 
determined.  Perhaps  by  its  foftnefs  and  loofcnefs  it 
may  ferve  to  prevent  thole  sdheiions  of  the  abdominal 
vifcera,  which  have  been  found  to  take  place  when  the 
fat  of  the  omentum  has  been  niuclj  walled.  Some  au- 
thors have  fuppofed,  that  it  alTifts  in  the  preparation 
of  bile  ;  but  this  idea  is  founded  merely  on  conjedure. 

Sect.  III.     Of  the  Stomach. 


91 


The  ftomach  is  a  membranous  and  mufcular  bag, 
in  rtiape  not  unlike  a  bagpipe,  lying  acrofs  the  upper 
part  of  the  abdomen,  and  inclining  rather  more  to  the 
left  than  the  right  fide. 

It  has  two  orifices,  one  of  which  rcCeircs  the  end 
of  the  oefophagus,  and  is  called  the  cardia,  and  fome- 
tinies  the  left  and  iii>per  orifice  of  the  ftomach  ;  though 
its  lituation  is  not  much  higher  than  the  other,  which 
is  Ily  led  the  right  and  inferior  orifice,  and  more  com- 
monly the  pylorus  ;  both  thefc  openings  are  more  ele- 
vated than  the  body  of  the  llomach. 

The  aliment  palFes  down  the  oefophagus  into  the 
floinach  tlirough  the  carJia,  and  after  having  under- 
gone the  nccell'ary  digeftion,  pallesout  at  the  pylorus 
where  the  intellinal  canal  commences, 

The  ftomach  is  compofcd  of  four  tunics  or  coats, 
which  arc  fo  iniiniately  connefted  together  that  it  re- 
quires no  little  dexterity  in  the  anatomift  to  dcmon- 
Itraic  them.  The  exterior  one  is  membranous,  being 
derived  from  the  peritonccum The  fecondisa  muf- 
cular tunic,  compofcd  of  flefliy  fibres  whicli  arc  in  the 
greatcfl  number  about  the  two  orifices — The  third  is 
called  the  nervous  coat,  and  within  this  is  the  villous 
or  vclvci-like  coat  which  compofcs  the  infidcof  the 
flomach. 

The  two  Ull  coats  being  mmc  exten five  than  the 
iwofirft,  form  the  folds,  which  are  obfcrved  every 
where  ia  the  cavity  of  this  vifcus,  and  more  particu- 
larly about  the  pylorus  ;  where  they  feem  to  impede 
the  too  hafly  exclulion  of  the  aliment,  making  aeon- 
fldcrable  plait,  called  valvuta  pylori. 

The  inner  coat  is  conftantly  nioiftened  by  a  mucus, 
which  approaches  to  the  nature  of  the  faliva,  and  is 
called  the  gaflric  juice  ;  this  liquor  has  been  fuppofed 
to  be  fecrcied  by  certain  minute  glands  (v)  feated  in 
the  acrvous  tunic,  whofe  excretory  duds  open  on  the 
furfacc  of  the  villous  coat. 
3 


I'hc  arteries  of  the  ftomach  called  the  gaftric  arte-     Of  the 
rica  arc  principally  derived  from  the  cocliac ;  fome  Abdomen, 
of  its  veins  pafb  to  the  fplenic,  and  others  to  the  ve- 
na  portx  j  and  its  nerves  arc  chiefly  from  the  eighth 
pair  or  par  vagum. 

The  account  given  of  the  tunics  of  the  ftomach  may 
be  applied  to  the  whole  alimentary  canal  j  for  both 
the  crfTphagus  and  inteflines  are,  like  this  vifcus, 
compofed  of  four  coats. 

Before  we  defcribc  the  courfc  of  the  aliment  and 
the  ul'cs  of  the  llomach,  it  will  be  nccelTary  to  fpcak 
of  other  parts  which  adifl  in  the  procefs  of  digellioa. 

Sect.  TV.     Of  the  Oefophagus. 


Tub  cefophagus  or  gullet  is  a  membranous  and 
mufcular  canal,  extending  from  the  bottom  of  the 
mouth  to  the  upper  orifice  of  the  ftomach. — Its  upper 
part  where  the  aliment  is  received  is  fliaped  fomewhat 
like  a  funnel,  and  is  called  the  fharptx. 

From  hence  it  runs  down  dofe  to  the  bodies  of  the 
vcrtebrce  a";  far  as  the  diaphragm,  in  which  there  is 
an  opening  through  which  it  palFes,  and  then  termi- 
nates in  the  llomach  about  the  eleventh  or  twelfth 
vertebra  of  the  back. 

The  a?fophagus  isplentifully  fupplied  with  arteries 
from  the  external  carotid,  bronchial,  and  fupcrior  in- 
tcrcollal  arteries  ;  its  veins  empty  themfelves  into 
the  vena  azygos,  internal  jugular,  and  mammary 
veins,  Sec. 

Its  nerves  arc  derived  chiefly  from  the  eighth  pair. 

Welikewife  meet  with  a  mucus  in  the  oefophagus, 
which  every  where  lubricates  its  inner  furface,  and 
tends  to  aflift  in  deglutition. — This  mucus  fcems  to  be 
fecreted  by  very  minute  glands,like  the  macus  in  other 
parts  of  the  alimentary  canal. 

Sect.  V.   Of  the  Intefiiues. 

The  inteflines  form  a  canal,  which  is  ufually  fix 
times  longer  than  the  body  to  which  it  belongs.  This 
canal  extends  from  the  pylorus,  or  inferior  orifice  of 
the  llomach,  to  the  anus. 

It  will  be  eafily  underllood,  that  a  part  of  fuch  great 
length  nnifl  ncccllarily  make  many  circumvolutions, 
to  be  confined  with  fo  many  other  vifcera  within  the 
cavity  of  the  lower  belly. 

Although  the  inteflincs  are  in  faft,  as  wc  hate  ob- 
fcrved, only  one  long  and  extenlive  canal,  yet  dilTcr- 
ent  parts  have  been  dillinguiAicd  by  different  names. 

The  inteflines  are  firft  diflinguiflied  into  two  parts, 
one  of  which  begins  at  the  llomach,  and  is  called  ihe 
thin,  or  ftnallDitejIinei,  from  the  fmall  fizcof  the  canal 
when  compared  with  the  other  part,  which  is  called 
the  large  iritejlines,  and  includes  the  lower  portion  of 
the  canal  down  to  the  anus. 

Each  of  thefe  parts  has  its  fubdivifions. — The  fmall 

in- 


»» 


S-l 


(x)  This  membranous  bag,  though  exceedingly  thin  and  tranfparent, 
ry,  thr 


is  found  capable  of  lupportingmercu- 
irown  into  it  by  the  fame  channel, 
(v)  Heifler,  fpeaking  of  thefe  glands,  very  properly  fays,  "  in  porcis  facile,  in  homine  raro  obfervaniur  ;" 
for  although  many  anatomical  writers  have  dcfcribed  their  appearance  and  figure,  yet  they  do  not  feem  to  have 
been  hitherto  fatisfaclorily  demonflrated  in  the  human  ftomach  ;  and  the  gaftric  juice  is  now  morfl^en orally 
believed  to  be  derived  tVoui  the  exhalaiic  arteries  of  the  llomach. 


Part  III.  A      N       A       T 

Of  the  inteftincs  being  diftinguiihcil  iiuo  duoifenum,  jcju- 
^bdomen.  num,  and  ilium,  and  the  larger  portion  into  coecura, 
~~^ '  colon,  and  rcfluni. 

The  fmall  intcftiiics  fill  the  middle  and  fore  parts  of 
the  btlly,  while  the  large  intcflincs  fill  the  (ides  and 
both  the  upper  and  the  lower  parts  of  the  cavity. 

The  duodenum,  which  is  the  firft  of  the  fniall  in- 
teftines,  is  fo  called,  bccaufe  it  is  about  12  inches  long. 
It  begins  at  the  pylorus  and  terminates  in  the  jejunum, 
which  isa  part  of  the  canal  obfcrvcd  to  be  ufually  more 
empty  than  the  other  intcAines. — This  appearance 
gives  it  its  name,  and  likcwife  ferves  to  point  out  where 
i:  begins. 

The  next  divifion  is  the  ilicvm,  which  of  itfelf  ex- 
ceeds the  united  length  of  the  duodenum  and  jejunum, 
and  has  received  its  name  from  its  numerous  circumvo- 
lutions. The  large  circumvolution  of  the  iliiun  co- 
vers thefirfl  of  the  large  intellinescallcdthec^caw(x), 
which  fcems  properly  to  belong  to  the  colon,  being  a 
kind  of  pouch  of  about  four  fingers  in  width,  and  near- 
ly of  the  fame  length,  having  exteriorly  a  little  ap- 
pendix, called  afpindix  caci. 

The  caecum  is  placed  in  the  cavity  of  the  os  ilium 
on  the  right  fide,  and  terminates  in  the  colon,  which 
is  the  largefl  of  all  the  inteflines. 

This  iuteftine  afccnds  by  the  right  kidney  to  which 
itisattachcd,  palFes  under  the  hollow  part  of  the  liver, 
and  the  bottom  of  the  flomach,  tothefpleen,  to  which 
it  is  likcwife  fecured,  as  it  is  alfo  to  the  left  kidney  ; 
and  from  thence  pafles  down  towards  the  os  facruin, 
where,  from  its  ftraight  courfc,  the  canal  begins  to 
take  the  name  of  re{lum. 

There  are  three  ligamentous  bands  extending  thro' 
«hc  whole  length  of  the  colon,  which,  by  being  Hiorrcr 
than  its  two  inner  coats,  fervc  to  increafc  the  plaits  on 
the  inner  furfacc  of  this  gut. 

The  anus  which  terminates  the  intcflinum  rciflum, 
is  furnilhed  with  three  mufcles  ;  one  ot  ihcfc  is  com- 
pofcd  of  circular  fibrcs,and  from  its  ufc  in  fljutiing  the 
palTage  of  the  anus  is  aWc^  fp hinder  ani. 

Thi  oihcr  two  are  the  livatorn  aul,  fo  called,  bc- 
caufe they  elevate  the  anus  after  dcjeifliun.  When 
thefc  by  palfy,  or  any  other  difeafc,  lofe  the  power  of 
contrading,  the  anus  prolapfcs  ;  and  when  the  fphinc- 
ler  is  affctled  by  fimilar  caiifes,  the  fje'ces  are  voided 
involuntarily. 

It  has  been  already  obfcrved,  that  the  inteAinal  ca- 
nal is  conipofed  of  four  tunics ;  but  it  remains  to  be  re- 
marked, that  here,  as  in  the  f.oinach,  the  two  inner  tu- 
nicsbeing  more  extcnfivethaji  the  other  two,  from  the 
plaits  which  arc  10  be  fecn  in  the  inner  fiirface  of  the 
inteHines,  ued  arc  calkd  vaJvitlt  conn'i-.i.tis. 


O      M       Y.  731 

Someaathorshavc  contidcred  tlicf*  plaits  as 'tending     Of  the 
to  retard  the  motion  of  the  fxces,  in  order  to  atford  AWomcu. 
more  time  for  the  reparation  of  the  chyle  ;  but  there 
are  others  who  attribute  to  them  a  ditferent  ufe  :  they 
contend,  that  thcfe  valves,  by  being  naturally  inclined 
downwards,  cannot  impede  the  defcent  of  the  faiccs, 
but  that  they  arc  intended  to  prevent  their  return  up- 
wards. 

They  are  probably  dedined  for  both  thefc  ufes  ;  for 
although  thele  folds  incline  to  their  lower  fide,  yet  the 
inequalities  they  occafion  in  the  canal  are  fufficient  to 
retard,  in  fome  meafure,  the  progreflive  motion  of  the 
faeces,  and  to  afford  a  greater  furface  for  the  abforp- 
lion  of  chyle,  and  their  natural  pofition  fcems  to  op- 
pofe  itfelf  to  the  return  of  the  aliment. 

Befides  thcfe  valvule  connivent:s,  there  is  one  more- 
conliderable  than  the  reft,  called  the  valve  of  the  colon  ; 
which  is  found  at  that  part  of  the  canal  where  the  in- 
teftinum  ilium  is  joined  to  the  colon.  This  valve  per- 
mits the  alimentary  pulp  to  pals  downwards,  but  ferves 
to  prevent  its  return  upwards  ;  and  it  is  by  this  valve, 
that  glyfters  are  prevented  from  pafling  into  the  fraall 
intcftines  (v). 

Of  the  little  vermiform  appendix  of  the  coecum,  it 
will  be  fufficient  to  fay,  that  its  ufes  have  never  yet 
been  afccrtained.  In  birds  we  meet  with  two  of  thefc 
appendices. 

The  intcftines  are  lubricated  by  a  conftant  fupply  of 
mucus,  which  is  probably  fccreted  by  very  minute  fol- 
licles (z).  Thismucuspromotcsihcdefccntoftheali- 
mentary  pulp,  and  in  foinc  meafure  defends  the  inner 
furface  of  the  intcftines  from  the  irritation  to  which  it 
would,  perhaps,  othcrwife  be  continually  cxpofcd  from 
the  aliment;  and  which,  when  in  a  certain  degree, 
excites  a  painful  diforder  called  olic,  a  name  given  to 
the  difeafe,  becaufc  its  luoft  ufual  feat  is  in  theintefti- 
num  colon. 

The  intcftines  are  likcwife  frequently  diftendcd  * 
with  air,  and  this  diftcntion  fometimes  occaftons  pain, 
and  conftitutcs  the  Hatulcnt  colic. 

The  arteries  of  the  intcftines  arc  continuations  of 
the  mcfenteric  arteries,  which  are  derived  in  two  con- 

fiderable  branches  from  the  aorta The  reduadanti 

blood  is  carried  back  into  the  vena  portarum. 

In  the  rectum  the  veins  are  called  h.-morrhoiital,  and 
are  there  diftinguilhtd  into  internal  and  external :  the 
firft  are  brandies  o(  the  inferior  mcfenteric  vcjn,  but 
the  latter  pals  into  other  veins.  Some  times  thcfe  veins 
are  diftendcd  with  blood  fronn  b.'lrucl'ons,  from  weak- 
nefs  of  their  coats,  or  from  other  caufes,  and  u  bit  wc 
call  the  hjemorrhoids  takes  place.  In  this  difcjfc  they, 
are  fometimes  ruptured  ;  and  the  difcharge  of  blood 

which 


(x)  AnatoBiifts  have  differed  with  rcfpecl  to  this  divifion  of  the  intcftines The  method  here  followed  is 

now  generally  adopted  ;  but  there  are  authors  \i  Ito  allow  the  name  oicitcuin  only  to  the  little  appendix,  which 
Las  likcwife  been  called  the  lunuijlru.  appendix,  from  its  rcfemblance  to  a  worm  in  fizc  and  length. 

(v)  This  is  not  invari;biy  the  cafe,  for  the  conicntsof  a  glyftcr  have  been  found  not  only  to  reach  the  fmall 
inteftincs,  but  to  be  voided  at  th«  mouth.     Such  inftances,  however,  arc  net  couiinon. 

(z)  Some  writers  have  diliinuuilhcd  thefc  glands  into  miliary,  lenticular,  &c Brunncrand  Pcycr  were  the 

firft  anatoniills  who  defcribcd  the  glands  of  the  intcftines,  and  their  defcriptions  were  cbietly  taken  from  ani- 
mals, thele  glandular  appearances  not  Iceming  tuli.ivc  been  hitherto  faiisfaClorily  pointed  oiit  in  liie  hum.infiib- 
jct^ — It  is  now  pretty  generally  believed,  that  the  mucus  which  every  where  lubricates  the  alimentary  canal, 
is  exhaled  from  the  minute  ends  of  arteries  ;  and  that  thcfe  extremities  firft  open  into  a  hollow  vclicle,  fr^Mn 
^fhencc  *c  dcpofitcd  juice  of  fcvcral  branches  flows  out  through  one  common  orifice. 


736  ANA 

Of  Hie      whicli  conrcqiieiitly  follows,  has  probably  occafioncJ 
Abdomen,  [hcni  to  he  called  iKeViorrhoiiial veins. 
"       ^'       '      Tit  nerves  of  tlic  inteftincs  are  derived  from  the 
eighth  pair. 

Sect.  VI.  Of  the  Mrf cilery. 

94,  The  name  of  the   viefeiitcry   implies  its  fituation 

aniidlt  the  intcltincs.  It  is  in  fact  a  part  of  the  pcriio- 
nxiim,  beinj5  a  reduplication  (a)  of  that  membrane 
from  each  lidc  of  the  lumbar  vencbrx,  to  w  hich  it  is 
firmly  attached,  fo  that  it  is  formed  of  two  laminas, 
connected  to  each  other  liy  cellular  membrane. 

The  inteftincs,  in  their  different  circnmvoUitions, 
form  a  great  number  of  arches,  and  the  mefcntery  ac- 
companies liiem  thronj;h  all  thcfe  tnrns  ;  but  by  being 
airaclied  only  to  the  hollow  part  of  each  arch,  it  is 
found  to  have  only  a  third  of  the  extent  of  the  intef- 
tincs. 

That  part  of  this  membrane  which  accompanies  the 
fmall  inteftines  is  the  nufentery,  properly  focallcd  ;  bat 
ihofc  parts  of  it  which  are  attached  to  the  colon  and 
rectum  are  didinguillicd  by  the  namcsof  w^5-co/o«and 
viefo-reBuvi. 

There  arc  many  conglobate  glands  difperfed  thro' 
this  double  membrane,  through  which  the  laclealsand 
lymphatics  pafs  in  their  way  to  the  thoracic  dudt.  The 
blood-velielsof  the  mefcntery  were  defcribed  in  fpcak- 
ingof  the  inteftincs. 

This  membrane,  by  its  attachment  to  the  vertebrae, 
ferves  to  keep  the  inteftincs  in  their  natural  fituation. 
The  idea  ufually  formed  of  the  colic  called  mijcrere,  is 
perfectly  erroneous;  it  beiHg  inipoiiible  that  the  in- 
teftincs can  be  twifted,  as  many  fuppofe  they  arc,  in 
that  difeafe,  their  attachment  to  the  mefcntery  effec- 
tually preventing  fuch  an  accident — but  a  difarrange- 
nientfometimes  takes  place  in  the  in tcftinal  canal  itfelf, 
which  is  prodnrtive  of  difagreeablc  and  fomctimes  fatal 
confequenccs. — This  is  by  an  introfufceptionof  thein- 
teftine,  an  idea  of  which  may  be  eafily  formed,  by 
taking  the  finger  of  a  glove,  and  involving  one  part  of 
it  wifhin  the  other. 

Ifinrianimation  takes  place,  the  ftrictiirein  this  cafe 
is  increafed,  and  tlicperiftaltic  motionof  the  inteftines 
( by  which  is  meant  the  progrellive  motion  of  the  faeces 
downwards)  is  inverted,  and  what  is  called  the  ii'tac 
falfioii  takes  place.  The  fame  clfcifts  may  be  occaftoned 
by  a  defcentofthc  inteftinc,  or  of  the  omentum  cither 
with  it  or  by  itfelf,  and  thus  conftituting  what  is  called 
an  hernia  or  rupture;  a  term  by  which  in  general  is 
meant  the  falling  down  or  protrullon  of  any  part  of  the 
inteftinc  or  omentum,  which  ought  naturally  to  be 
co.ntained  within  the  cavity  of  the  belly. 

2 


TOM 


Part 


To  convey  an  idea  of  the  manner  in  wliitli  fuch  a  Of  1 
dcfcenttakes  place,  it  will  be  rieccifary  toobfcrve,  that  AMo 
the  lower  edge  of  the  icndon  of  the  mufculus  obliquus  """^ 
externusjisltrctchedfrom  the  fore-part  of  the  os  ilium 
or  haunch  bone  of  the  03  pubis,  and  coiift.itiues  w  hat  is 
called  Poiipart'j  or  Fal:oj)iiii'i  ligav.eiit,  forming  aif 
oj)cning,  through  which  jiafs  the  great  crural  artery 
and  vein.  Near  the  os  pubis  the  fame  tendinous  fibres 
are  fcparated  from  each  other,  and  form  an  openingon 
each  fide,  called  the  abJoinhtal  ring,  through  which 
the  fpcrmatic  vcflels  pafs  in  men,  and  the  ligamenta 
uteri  in  women,  in  confequence  of  violent  effbrts,  or 
perhaps  of  natural  canfcs,  the  inteftincs  arefound  fomc- 
times to  pafs  through  thcfe  openings  j  but  the  pcrito- 
na;um  \\hich  inclofcs  then;  when  in  their  natural  ca- 
vity, ftill  continues  to  furround  them  even  in  their 
defcent.  This  membrane  does  not  become  torn  or 
lacerated  by  the  violence,  as  might  be  eafily  imagin- 
ed i  but  its  dilatability  enables  it  to  pafs  out  with  the 
vifcus,  which  it  inclofcs  as  it  were  in  a  bag,  and  thus 
forms  what  is  called  the  herniul Jac. 

If  the  hernia  be  under  Poupart's  ligament,  it  is  call- 
eAfei/ioral ;  if  in  the  groin,  inguinal  (b)  ;  &ni/cro- 
tal,  if  in  the  fcrotum.  Different  names  arc  likcwife 
given  to  the  hernia  as  the  contents  of  the  fac  differ, 
whether  of  omentum  only  or  inteftinc,  or  both  : — but 
thefe  definitions  more  properly  belong  to  the  province 
of  furgcry. 

Sect.  VII.  Of  the  Pancreas. 


The  pancreas  is  a  conglomerate  gland  placed  be- 
hind the  bottom  of  the  ftomach,  towards  the  firft  ver- 
tebra of  the  loins  ;  fhaped  like  a  dog's  tongue,  with 
its  point  ftretched  out  towards  the  fplcen,  and  its  other 
end  extending  towards  the  duodenum.  It  is  about 
eight  fingers  breadth  in  length,  two  or  three  in  width, 
and  one  in  thicknefs. 

This  vifcus,  which  is  of  a  yellowifh  colour,  fome- 
what  inclined  to  red,  is  covered  with  a  membrane 
which  it  derives  from  the  pcritonainiH.  Its  arteries, 
which  arc  rather  numerous  than  large,  arc  derived 
chiefly  from  the  fplenic  and  hepatic,  and  its  veins  pafs 
into  the  veins  of  the  fame  name. — Its  nerves  are  de- 
rived from  the  intcrcoftal. 

The  many  little  glandsof  which  it  hasbeenobfcrved 
the  pancreas  is  compofcd,  all  f'erve  to  fccrete  a  liquor 
called  the  pancreatic  juice,  w  hich  in  its  colour,  conlifl- 
encc,  and  other  properties,  does  not  feem  to  differ  from 
the  faliva.  Each  of  thcfe  glands  fends  out  a  little  ex- 
cretory dufl,  which,  uniting  with  others,  help  to  form 
larger  dufls  ;  and  all  thefe  at  lafl  terminate  in  one 
common  excretory  duel  (firft  difcovered  by  Virifungus 

ia 


(.■\)  He  who  only  reads  of  the  reduplication  of  membranes,  will  perhaps  not  cafily  under/land  how  the  peri- 
tonseiim  and  pleura  arc  refle(ftcd  over  the  vifcera  in  their  feveral  cavities  ;  for  one  of  thefe  ferves  the  fame  pnr- 
pofes  in  the  thorax  that  the  other  does  in  the  abdomen.  This  difpolilion,  for  the  difcovery  of  which  we  arc 
indebted  to  modern  anatomifts,  conftitutes  a  curious  part  of  anatomical  knowledge  :  but  the  fludent,  unaided 
by  experience,  and  afliftcd  only  by  what  the  limits  of  this  work  would  permit  us  to  fay  on  the  occafion,  would- 
probably  imbibe  only  confufcd  ideas  of  the  matter  ;  and  it  will  perfcdtly  anfwer  the  prefent  purpofe,  if  he  con- 
fiders  the  mefcntery  as  a  membrane  attached  by  one  of  its  fides  to  the  lumbar  vertebras,  and  by  the  other  to 
the  inteftines. 

(u)  The  hernia  congenita  will  be  confidercdwith  the  male  organs  of  generation,  with  which  it  isintiraately 
councdedt 


95. 


in. 


N 


Of  the  in  1642),  wbichrunstliroagh  the  middle  of  the  gland, 
^b<^oracn•  and  isnowufually  csXlcA  duilus  pancreaticutVirtfungi. 
'~~^''~~'  This  canal  opens  inco  the  inteAinum  duodenum, fomc- 
dmcs  by  the  fame  orifice  with  the  biliary  du£t,  and 
fometimes  by  a  diftindl  opening.  The  liquor  it  dif- 
charges  being  of  a  mild  and  infipid  nature,  fcrves  to 
dilute  the  alimentary  pulp,  and  to  incorporate  it  more 
ealily  with  the  bile. 

Sect.  VIIl.     Of  the  Liver. 

'"•  The  liver  is  a  vifcusof  confiderable  fize,   and  of  a 

rcddifli  colour;  convexfuperiorly  and  anteriorly  where 
it  is  placed  under  the  ribs  and  diaphragm,  and  ot  an 
unequal  furface  pofteriorly.  It  is  chieriy  fituated  ia 
the  right  hypochondrium,  and  under  the  falfc  ribs  ; 
buiitlikewifecxtcndsintothecpigaftric  region, where 
it  borders  upon  the  (lomach.  It  is  covered  by  a  pro- 
dudion  of  the  peritonaeum,  which  fervcs  to  attach  it 
by  three  of  its  reduplications  to  the  falfc  ribs.  Thcfe 
reduplications  itccaMidligaments,  though  very  differ- 
ent ill  their  texture  from  what  are  called  by  the  fame 
name  in  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  umbilical  cord, 
too,  which  in  the  foetus  is  previous,  gradually  becomes 
a  limple  ligament  after  birth  ;  and,  by  palling  to  the 
liver,  ferves  likesvife  to  feciire  it  in  its  fiiuation. 

At  the  pofterior  partof  this  organ  where  the  umbi- 
lical yelfels  enter,  it  is  found  divided  into  two  lobes. 
Of  thefe,  the  largeft  is  placed  in  the  right  hypochon- 
drium ;  the  other,  which  covers  partof  the  llomaeh, 
is  called  the  little  lobi.  All  the  vellels  which  go  to 
the  liver  pafs  in  at  the  filTure  we  have  mentioned  ;  and 
the  production  of  the  peritonaeum,  which  invells  the 
liver,  was  dcfcribed  by  Glilfon,  an  Englifli  anatomiil, 
as  accompanying  them  in  their  palfage,  and  furround- 
ing  them  like  a  glove  ;  hence  this  production  has  been 
commonly  known  by  the  name  of  capfula  ofClilfou  : 
but  it  appears  to  be  chiefly  a  continuation  of  the  cellu- 
lar membrane  which  covers  the  vena  porta  ventralis. 
The  liver  was  conlidcred  by  the  ancients  as  an  organ 
dcftined  to  prepare  and  perfeifl  the  blood  ;  but  later 
difcoveries  have  proved,  that  thisopinion  was  wrong, 
and  that  the  liver  is  a  glandular  fubftance  formed  for 
the  fecretion  of  the  bile. 

The  blood  is  conveyed  to  the  liver  by  the  hepatic 
artery  and  the  vena  porta.  This  is  contrary  to  the 
mode  of  circulation  in  other  parts,  where  veins  only 
ferve  to  carry  oft  the  redundant  blood  :  but  in  this  vif- 
cus  the  hepatic  artery,  which  is  derived  from  the  cae- 
liac,  is  principally  deftined  for  its  nourishment ;  and 
the  vena  porta,  which  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
veins  from  moil  of  the  abdominal  vifcera,furnilhes  the 
blood  from  which  the  bile  is  chiefly  to  be  feparated  ; 
fo  that  thcfe  two  feries  of  velfels  ferve  very  diflin(5t 
purpofcs.  The  vena  porta,  as  it  is  ramified  through  the 
liver,  performs  the  ofhce  both  of  a  vein  and  an  artery ; 
for  like  the  former  it  returns  the  blood  from  the  ex- 
tremities of  arteries,  while  as  the  latter  it  prepares  it 
for  fecretion. 

The  nerves  of  the  liverarebranches  of  the  interco- 
llalaiidpar  vagum.    The  bile,  after  being  feparated 
Voi.  I. 


T       O       M       Y. 

from  the  mafs  of  blood,  in  a  manner  ot  which  mention 


737 

Of  the 

Will  be  made  in  another  place,  is  conveyed  out  of  this  AbJomcn. 

organ  by  very  minute  excretory  dufts,  called  foribi-  ' • — ^ 

liarii ;  thefe  uniting  together  like  the  excretory  duds 
in  the  pancreas,  gradually  form  larger  ones,  which  at 
length  terminate  in  a  confiderable  canal  called  dudui 
hepaticus. 

Sect.  IX.    Of  the  Call-Bladder. 

The  gall-bladder  is  a  little  membranous  bag.fhaped       V' 
like  a  pcjr,  and  attached  to  the  poAerior  and  aUiofl 
inferior  part  of  the  great  lobe  of  the  liver. 

It  has  two  tunics  ;  of  which  the  exterior  one  isa  pro- 
dudtion  of  the  peritonaeum.  The  interior,  or^villous 
coat,  is  fupplied  with  a  mucus  that  defends  it  from  the 
acrimony  of  the  bile.  Thefe  two  coverings  are  inti- 
mately conneaed  by  means  of  cellular  membrane, 
which  from  its  firm  gliflening  appearance  has  gene- 
rally been  fpoken  of  as  a  mufcular  tunic. 

Thegall-bladderis  fupplied  with  blood-vefTclsfroin 
the  hepatic  arteries.  Thefe  branches  are  called  the 
cyjlic  art:riei,  and  the  cyflic  veins  carry  back  the 
blood. 

Its  nerves  are  derived  from  the  fame  origin  as  thofc 
of  the  liver. 

The  neck  of  the  gall-bladder  is  continued  in  the 
form  of  a  canal  called  dudus  cyjikus,  which  foon  unites 
with  the  dudus  hepaticus  we  defcribed  as  the  excrc- 
tory  duct  of  the  liver  ;  and  forming  one  common  canal, 
takes  the  name  of  dufliu  coledochus  communis,  through 
which  both  the  cyAicand  hepatic  bile  are  difcharged 
into  the  duodenum.  This  canal  opens  into  the  intc- 
flinein  an  oblique  direclion,  firA  pafTing  through  the 
exterior  tunic,  and  then  piercing  the  other  coats  after 
running  between  each  of  them  a  very  little  way.  This 
(Economy  ferves  two  ufefuj  purprfes; — to  promote  the 
difcharge  of  bile  and  to  prevent  its  return.  -g 

The  bile  may  be  defined  to  be  a  natural  liquid  foap,  of  Uic  bile- 
fomewhat  unctuous  and  biiicr,  and  of  a  yellowilh  co- 
lour, which  ealily  mixes  with  water,  oil,  and  vinous 
Ipirits,  and  is  capable  of  dilfolving  refinous  fubAances. 
From  fome  late  experiments  made  by  M.  Cadet*,  it  •  Mem',  d, 
appears  to  be  formed  of  an  animal  oil,  combined  with  VA<^d'jez 
the  alkaline  bafe  of  fea-falt,    a  fait  of  the  nature  of  *''«'■•'• 
milk,  and  1  calcareous  earth  which  is  flightly  ferru.  '7*'* 
giaous. 

Its  definition  feemsfufficiently  to  point  out  theufos 
for  which  it  is  intended  (c).  It  blends  the  alimenta- 
ry mafs,  by  dividing  and  attenuating  it  ;  correds  the 
too  great  difpolition  to  acefcency,  which  the  aliment 
acquires  in  the  Aomacli  ;  and,  finally,  by  its  acrimo- 
ny, tends  to  excite  the  periAaliic  motion  of  the  in- 
teAines. 

After  what  has  been  faid,  it  will  be  conceived  that 
there  are  two  forts  of  bile  ;  one  of  which  is  derived 
immediately  from  the  liver  through  the  hepatic  dua, 
and  the  other  from  the  gall-bladder.  Thefe  two  biles, 
however,  do  not  clTentially  ditler  from  each  other. 
The  hepatic  bile  indeed  ismilder,and  more  liquid  than 
the  cyAic,  which  is  conAantly  thicker  aud  yellosver  ; 
S  A  and 


(c)  The  ancients,  who  were  not  acquainted  with  the  real  ufc  of  thclivei ,  confidercd  t]ic  bile  as  an  cxcrc- 
meutitious  and  ufclefs  Auid. 


738  A       N      A       T 

Of  ihe     and  by  being  I)itterer,  feems  to  polTefs greater  aftivi- 

Abdoiren.  ly  than  the  other. 

^*~~^'  '  Kvcry  body  knows  ihc  fourcc  of  the  hcpaiic  bile, 
liiat  it  is  fttrcltd  from  ihc  niafs  of  blood  by  the  liver; 
but  the  ori;;in  of  the  cy  (He  bile  lias  occafioiird  no  little 
controvci  fy  amongll  anatoniical  writers.  There  are 
foMie  whocoiitciid,  that  it  is  feparatedin  the  fiibllaucc 
of  the  liver,  from  whence  it  palics  intothc  gall-bladder 
through  particular  vefl'els.  In  deer,  and  in  fome  other 
quadrupeds,  as  well  as  in  fcvcral  birds  and  lidies, there 
is  an  evident  comminiicaiion,  by  means  of  particular 
vcifels,  between  the  liver  and  the  gall-bladder.  Kian- 
chi,  WiHdow,  and  others,  have  alfertcd  the  exigence 
of  fuch  velFcls  in  the  human  fubjeft,  and  named  them 
h;faticyj\ii:  diiCli  ;  but  it  is  certain  that  no  fuch  dut^s 
exill In  obllru(5lions  of  the  cyftic  duft,  the  gall- 
bladder has  been  found  flirivelled  and  empty  :  fo  that 
we  may  confider  the  gall-bladder  as  a  refervoir  of  he- 
patic bile  ;  and  that  it  is  an  ellablilhed  facl,  that  the 
whole  of  the  bile  contained  in  the  gall-bladder  is  de- 
lived  from  the  liver  ;  thatitpaflcs  from  the  hepatic  to 
the  cyftic  dudl,  and  from  that  to  th<;  gall-bladder. 
The  ditFerence  in  the  colour,  confidence,  and  taflcof 
the  bile,  is  merely  theconfeqtience  of  ftagnation  and 
•bforption.  When  the  llomach  is  diftcnded  with  ali- 
ment, this  refervoir  undergoes  a  certain  degree  of 
^  compreffion,  and  the  bile  paifes  out  int»  the  intcllinal 
canal;  and  in  the  efforts  to  vomit,  the  gallbladder 
feems  to  be  conftantly  affcfted,  and  at  fuch  times  dif- 
charges  itfelf  of  its  contents. 

Sometimes  the  bile  concretes  in  the  gall  bladder,  fo 
as  to  form  what  are  czWcd  gall  Poucs  (d).  When 
thefe  concretions  pafs  into  the  cyflic  duft,  they  fome- 
limesoccafion  exquifite  pain,  by  diftending  the  canal 
in  their  way  to  the  duodenum  ;  and  by  lodging  in  the 
du(5lus  choledochus  communis,  and  obltruding  the 
courfe  of  the  bile,  this  fluid  will  be  abforbcd,  and  by 
being  carried  back  into  the  circulation  occafion  a  tem- 
porary jaundice. 

Sect.  X.     Of  the  Spleen. 

99.  Th  e  fpleen  is  a  foft  and  fpongy  vifcus,  of  a  bluilh^ 

colour,  and  about  five  or  fix  fingers  breadth  in  length, 
and  threein  width,  fituatedintheleft  hypochondrium, 
between  the  ftomach  and  the  falfe  ribs.  That  fide  of 
it  which  isplacedon  the  lide  of  the  ribs  is  convex  ;  and 
the  other,  which  is  turned  toward  the  ftomach..  is 
concave. 

The  fplenic  artery,  which  is  a  branch  from  the  cse.- 
liac,  fupplies  this  vifcus  with  blood,  and  a  vein  of  the 
fame  name  carries  it  back  into  the  vena  porta. 

Its  nerves  are  derived  from  a  particular  plexus  called 
iht  fplenic,  which  is  formed  by  branches  of  the  inter- 
coftal  nerve,  and  by  the  eighth  pair,  or  par  vagum. 

The  ancients,  who  fuppofcd  two  forts  of  bile,  confi- 
dered  the  fpleen  as  the  receptacle  of  what  they  called 


O       M       Y. 


Part  IirJ 


<j/rfli///j.  Havers,  who  wrote  profeircdlyonilie  bones,,,   Ofthe 
determined  iisufc  to  be  that  of  ftcrcting  the  fynovia  ;  Abdomen,! 

and  the  laic  Mr  Hew  fun  imagined,  that  it  concurred  * w— ^ 

with  the  thymus  and  lymphatic  glands  of  the  body  in  • 

forming  the  red  globules  of  the  blood.    All  thcfc  opi-  j 

nioiis  fccm  to  be  cfnuiUy  fanciful.     The  want  of  aii  , 

excretory  duct  has  occalioned  the  real  ufe  of  this  vilcus  \ 

to  be  IHU  doubtful.      Perhaps   the    blood    undergoes  I 

foMic  change  in  ir,  which  ni:'.)  allift  in  the  preparation  i 

of  the  bile.     This  is  the  opinion  of  the  generality  of 
modern  pliydologifls  ;  and  the  great  quantity  of  blood  i 

with  which  it  is  fupplied,  together  with  thecourfcof  I 

its  veins  into  the  vena  porta:,  feem  to  render  this  no- 
tion probable. 

Sect.  XI.     Of  theClanduU  Renalei,   Kidney t,  and 
Ureters. 

The  glandulx  renalcs,  which  were  by  the  ancients       if- 
fuppofed  to  fecrcte  the  atra  bills,  and  by  them  named 
cnffula;  atrabilarcs,  are  two  riat  bodies  ol  an  irregular 
figure,  one  on  each  fide  between  the  kidney  anJ  the 
aorta. 

In  the  fcrtus  they  arc  as  large  as  the  kidneys  :  but 
they  do  not  increafe  afterwards  in  proportion  to  thofe 
parts  ;  and  in  adults  and  old  people  they  are  generally 
found  Ihrivellcd,  and  much  walled.  They  have  their 
arteries  and  veins.  Their  arteries  ufually  arife  from 
the  fplenic  or  the  emulgent,  and  fomciimes  from  the 
aorta  ;  and  their  veins  go  to  the  neighbouring  veins, 
or  to  the  vena  cava.  Their  nerves  are  branches  of 
the  iiuercoftal. 

The  ufe  of  thcfe  parts  is  not  yet  pcrfe(5lly  known. 
In  the  i'atus  the  fccrction  of  urine  muft  be  in  a  very 
fmall  quantity,  and  a  part  of  the  blood  may  perhaps 
then  pafs  through  thcfe  channels,  which  in  the  adult 
is  carried  to  the  kidneys  to  fupply  the  matter  of  urine. 

The  kidneys  are  two  in  number,  fituaied  one  on  the  loi 
right  and  the  other  on  the  left  fide  in  the  lumbar  re-  Kidney*, 
gion,  between  the  lall  falfe  rib  and  the  os  ilium,  by 
the  fides  of  the  vertebrx.  P^ach  kidney  in  its  figure 
rcfembles  a  fort  of  bean,  which  from  its  (hape  is  called 
kidniy-beati.  The  concave  part  of  each  kidney  is 
turned  towards  the  aorta  and  vena  cava  afcendens. 
They  arefurronnded  by  a  good  deal  of  fat,  and  receive 
acoatfrom  theperitonajuni;  and  when  (his  is  removed, 
a  very  fine  membrane  is  found  inverting  their  fubftance 
and  the  vcflcls  which  ramify  through  them. 

Each  kidney  has  a  conliderable  artery  and  vein, 
which  are  called  the  emulgent.  The  artery  is  a  brancii 
from  the  aorta,  and  the  vein  palfesinto  the  vena  cava. 
Their  nerves,  which  every  where  accompany  the 
blood-vefl'els,  arife  from  a  conliderable  plexus,  which 
is  derived  from  the  intercollal. 

In  each  kidney,  which  in  the  adult  is  of  a  pretty 
firm  texture,  there  are  three  fubftances  to  be  diftin- 
guilhed  (e).    The  o«ter  part  is  glandular  or  conical, 

beyond 


(d)  Thefe  concretions  fometimes  remain  in  the  gall-bladder  without  caufing  any  uneafinefs.  Dr  Hcberden 
relates,  that  a  gall-llone  weighing  two  drams  was  found  in  the  gall-blJdder  of  the  late  Lord  Bath,  though  he 
had  never  complained  of  the  jaundice,  nor  of  any  diforder  which  he  could  attribute  to  that  caufe.  Med. 
Tranf.  Vol.  ii. 

(e)  The  kidneys  in  the  foetus  arc  diAinftly  lobulated  ;  but  iu  the  adult  they  become  perfc(!lly  firm,  fmooth. 
and  regular. 


Part  111.  ANA 

Of  the     beyond  this  is  the  vafcahr  or  tubular  fubftance,  and 
Abdomtn.   the  inner  part  is  papillary  or  membranous. 

>< It  is  in  the  cortical  part  of  the  kidney  that  the  fe- 

cretion  is  carried  on  ;  the  urine  being  here  received 
from  the  minute  extremities  of  the  capillary  arteries, 
is  conveyed  out  of  this  cortical  fubftancc  by  an  infinite 
number  of  very  fmail  cylindrical  canals  or  excretory 
vclTcls,  which  conftitute  the  tubular  part.  Thtfc 
tubes,  as  they  approach  the  inner  fubflance  of  the  kid- 
neys, gradually  unite  together  ;  and  thus  forming  lar- 
ger canals,  at  length  terminate  in  ten  or  twelve  little 
protuberancescalled/'tf/>///<«-,  the  orifices  of  which  may 
be  fecn  without  the  alUftance  of  glalfes.  Thefe  pa- 
pillae open  into  a  fmall  cavity  or  rcfervoir  called  the 
pelvis  of  thi  kidiiiy,  and  formed  by  a  diftinft  membra- 
nous bag  which  embraces  the  papillae.  From  this  pel- 
vis the  urine  is  conveyed  through  a  membranous  canal 
which  palFcsout  from  the  hollow  fide  of  the  kidney,  a 
,oj  little  below  the  blood  vclFels,  and  is  called  ureter. 
Ureters,  The  ureters  are  each  about  as  large  as  a  common 

writing-pen.  They  arc  fomewhat  curved  in  their 
courfefrom  thc"kidneys,  like  the  letter/",  and  at  length 
terminate  in  the  pollerior  and  almoft  inferior  part  of 
the  bladder,  at  fome  dillance  from  each  other.  They 
pafs  into  the  bladder  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  duftus 
choledochus  communis  pafTes  into  the  inteftinum  duo- 
denum, not  by  a  direft  paflage,  but  by  an  oblique 
courfc  between  the  two  coats  ;  fo  that  the  difchargc 
of  urine  into  the  bladder  is  promoted,  whilft  its  return 
is  prevented.  Nor  does  this  mode  of  flrufture  prevent 
the  pafTagc  of  fluids  only  from  the  bladder  into  the 
ureters,  but  likewife  air : — for  air  thrown  into  the 
bladder  inflates  it,  and  it  continues  to  be  diflcnded  if 
a  ligature  is  pafTed  round  its  neck ;  which  fecms  to 
prove  fufficiently  that  it  cannot  pafs  into  the  ureters. 

S  E  C  T .  X 1 1     Of  the  Urinary  Bladder. 

103.  The  urinary  bladder  is  a  membranous  and  mufcular 

bag  of  an  oblong  roundiih  fliapc,  liiuated  in  the  pelvis, 
between  the  os  pubis  and  intellinum  reftiim  in  men, 
and  between  ihe  os  pubis  and  uterus  in  women.  Its 
upper  .ind  widefl  part  is  ufually  called  the  bottom,  its 
narrow  part  the  neck  ofihe  bladder  ;  the  former  only 
is  covered  by  the  peritonaeum. 

The  bladder  is  formed  of  three  coats,  connected  to- 
gether by  means  of  cellular  membrane.  The  exter- 
nal or  peritonosal,  is  only  a  partial  one,  covering  the 
upper  and  back  part  of  the  bladder.  The  middle,  or 
mufcular  coat,  is  compofed  of  irritable,  andofcourfe 
mufcular  fibres,  which  arc  mofl  collcfled  arounj  the 
neck  of  the  bladder,  but  not  fo  as  to  form  a  diflin.ft 
mufcle,  or  fphinfter,  as  the  generality  of  anatomifts 
have  iiiihcrto  fuppofed. 

The  inner  coat,  though  mnch  fmoother,  has  been 
faid  to  rcfemblc  the  villous  tunic  of  the  inteftines,  and 
like  that  is  provided  with  a  mucus  which  defends  it 
againd  the  acrimony  of  the  urine. 

It  will  be  ealily  conceived  from  what  has  been  faid, 
that  the  kidneys  are  two  glandular  bodies,  thro' which 
a  faline  and  cxcrementitious  fluid  called  urine  is  con- 
lUntly  filtering  from  the  mafs  of  blood. 

while  only  a  fniall  quantity  of  urine  is  collefted  in 
ilie  bladder,  it  excites  no  kind  of  uneafincfs  ;  but  when 
a  greater  quantity  is  accumulated,  fo  that  the  bladder 


TO       M       Y.  73,^ 

is  diftendcd  in  a  certain  degree,  it  excites  inns  a  cer-     Of  the 
tain  fcnfation,  which  brings  on  as  it  were  a  voluntary  Abdomen. 

contradtionof  the  bladder  to  promote  its  difchargc ' """^ 

But  this  contraction  is  not  effcaed  by  the  mufcular 
fibresof  the  bladder  alone:  for  all  theabdominalmufcles 
contradl  inobedicncc  toour  will, and  prefs  downwards 
all  the  vifcera  of  the  lower  belly;  and  thefe  powers 
being  united,  at  length  overcome  the  reliftance  of  the 
fibres  furrounding  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  which  di- 
lates and  affords  a  paflagc  to  the  urine  through  the 
urethra. 

The  frequency  of  this  evacuation  depends  on  the 
quantity  of  urine  fecretcd  ;  on  the  degree  of  acrimony 
it  poflclfes;  on  the  fize  of  the  bladder,  and  on  its  de- 
gree of  fenfibility. 

The  urine  varies  much  in  its  colour  and  contents, 
Thefe  varieties  depend,  on  age,  fex,  climate,  diet,  and 
other  circumftances.  In  infants  it  is  generally  a  clear 
\yatery  fluid,  without  fmcil  or  tafle.  As  we  advance  in 
life,  it  acquires  more  colour  and  fmell,  and  becomes 
more  impregnated  with  falts.  In  old  people  it  becomes 
ftill  more  acrid  and  fetid. 

In  a  healthy  Aate  it  is  nearly  of  a  ftraw  colour. 

After  being  kept  for  fome  time,  it  depofites  a  tarta- 
rous  matter,  which  is  found  to  be  compofed  chiefly  of 
earth  and  fall,  and  foon  incrufts  the  fides  of  the  veiFel 
in  which  it  is  contained.  While  this  feparation  is  ta- 
king place,  appearances  like  minute  fibres  or  threads 
of  a  whitifli  colour  may  be  feen  in  the  middle  of  the 
urine,  and  an  oily  fcum  obferved  floating  on  its  furface. 
So  that  the  moll  common  appearances  of  the  urine 
are  fufficicnt  to  afcertain  that  it  is  a  watery  fub- 
Aance,  impregnated  with  earthy,  faline,  and  oily  par- 
ticles. 

The  urine  is  not  always  voided  of  the  fame  colour 
and  confillencc  ;  for  thefe  are  found  to  depend  on  the 
proportion  of  its  watery  part  10  that  of  its  other  con- 
llituent  principles. — Its  colour  and  degree  of  fluidity 
feem  to  depend  on  the  quantity  of  faline  and  inflam- 
mable particles  contained  in  it:  fo  that  an  increa- 
fed  proportion  of  thofe  parts  will  conrtanily  give  the 
urine  a  higher  colour,  and  add  to  the  quantity  of  Ic- 
diment. 

The  variety  in  the  appearance  of  the  urine,  depends 
on  the  nature  and  quantity  of  folid  and  fluid  aliment 
we  take  in  ;  and  it  is  likewife  occalioned  by  the  diffe- 
rent ftate  of  the  urinary  vefTcls,  by  which  we  mean  the 
channels  through  which  it  is  feparated  from  the  blood, 
and  conveyed  through  the  pelvis  into  the  ureters.  The 
caufcs  of  calculous  concretions  in  the  urinary  palfagcs, 
are  to  be  looked  for  in  the  natural  conftitution  of  the 
body,  mode  of  life,  &c. 

It  having  been  obferved,  that  after  drinking  any 
light  wine  or  Spa  water,  it  very  foon  paded  olf  by 
urine,  it  has  been  fuppofed  by  fome,  that  the  urine  is 
not  altogetherconveyed  to  the  bladder  by  the  ordinary 
courfe  of  circulation, butthat  there  mull  certainly  c.\- 
ift  fome  other  fliortcr  means  of  communication,  per- 
haps by  certain  velfels  between  the  ftomach  and  the 
bladder,  or  by  a  rctrogmde  motion  in  the  lymphatics. 
But  it  is  certain,  that  if  we  open  the  belly  of  a  dog, 
prefs  out  the  urine  from  the  bladder,  pafs  a  ligature 
round  the  emulgent  arteries,  and  then  few  up  the  ab- 
domen, and  give  him  even  the  mofl  diuretic  liquor  to 
drink,  the  ftomach  andother  channels  will  be  diftend- 
;  A  2  ed 


105 . 


A       N      A       T 

ed  with  it,  but  not  a  drop  of  urine  will  be  found  to 
have  pafl'id  into  the  blajiiti" ;  or  the  fanit  thing  hap- 
pens when  a  ligature  is  ilirown  rouiul  the  two  ureters. 
This  experiment  then  feenis  to  be  a  lutlicicnt  proof, 
that  all  the  urine  we  evacuate,  is  conveyed  to  the  kid- 
neys through  the  cinulgent  arteries,  in  the  manner  wc 

havedefcribcd It  is  true,  that  wine  and  other  liquors 

promote  a  fpccdy  evacuation  of  urine  :  but  the  dif- 
charge  ftems  to  be  merely  the  ctfed  of  the  llimulus 
they  occalion  ;  by  which  the  bladder  and  urinary  p?rts 
arc  folicited  to  a  more  copious  difchargc  of  the  urine, 
which  was  before  in  the  body,  and  not  immediately 
of  that  which  was  lafl  drank  ;  and  this  incrcafcd  dif- 
charge,  if  the  fupply  is  kept  up,  will  continue:  nor 
will  this  appear  wonderful,  if  wc  confider  the  great 
capacity  of  the  vcU'els  that  go  to  the  kidneys  ;  the  con- 
ftant  fupply  of  frelh  blood  that  is  elFcntial  to  health  j 
and  the  rapidity  with  which  it  is  incelfantly  circula- 
ted through  the  heart  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 

Sect.  XIII,    OJ  Digeflion. 

We  are  now  proceeding  to  (^(.^kof  digeflion,  which 
feems  to  be  introduced  in  this  place  with  propriety, 
after  a  defcription  of  the  abdominal  vifcera,  the  greater 
part  of  which  contribute  to  this  funflion.  By  dige- 
fiioti  is  to  be  underflood,  the  changes  the  aliment  un- 
dergoes for  the  formation  of  chyle: — thefc  changes 
are  effeftcd  in  the  mouth,  ftomach,  and  fmall  in- 
teftines. 

The  mouth,  of  which  every  body  has  a  general 
knowledge,  is  the  cavity  between  the  two  jaws,formcd 
anteriorly  and  laterally  by  the  lips,  teeth,  and  cheeks, 
and  terminating  pofteriorly  in  the  throat. 

The  lips  and  cheeks  are  made  up  of  fat  and  mufcles, 
covered  by  the  cuticle,  which  is  continued  over  the 
whole  inner  furface  of  the  mouth,  like  a  fine  and  deli- 
cate membrane. — Belide  this  membrane,  the  infide  of 
the  mouth  is  furnifhed  w  ith  a  fpougy  and  very  vafcular 
fubflance  called  the  giiius,  by  means  of  which  the 
teeth  are  fecurcd  in  their  fockets.  A  fimilar  fubftance 
covers  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  and  forms  what  is  called 
the  velum  pendulum  palati,  which  is  fixed  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  arch  formed  by  the  ofFa  maxillaria  and 
olTa  palati,  and  terminates  in  a  foft,  fmall,  and  coni- 
cal body,  named  uvula;  which  appears,  as  it  were, 
fufpended  from  the  middle  of  the  arch  over  the  balls 
of  the  tongue. 

The  velum  pendulum  palati  performs  the  office  of  a 
valve  between  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  and  the  pha- 
rynx, being  moved  by  Icveral  mufcles  (r). 

The  tongue  is  compofed  of  feveral  mufcles  (  g  )  which 
enable  it  to  perform  a  variety  of  motions  for  the  arti- 
culation of  the  voice  ;  for  the  purpofesof  maflication; 
and  for  conveying  the  aliment  into  the  pharynx.  Its 
upper  part  is  covered  with  papilla,  which  conftitutc 
the  organ  of  taftc,  and  are  eafily  to  be  diAinguilhed  ; 
it  is  covered  by  the  fame  membrane  that  lines  the  in- 


O      M       Y.  Part  III. 

I 

fide  of  the  mouth,  and  which  makes  at  its  inferior    of  the 
part  towards  its  bafis  a  reduplication  callcdy;-.(/;//w.      Abdomen.    ; 
Pollcriorly,  under  the  velum  palati,  and  at  the  balls  "■— v— -^  i 
of  the  tongue,  is  the  pharyx  :   which  ib  the  beginning  j 

of  the  oefophagus,  llretchedout  every  way,  foas  tore-  1 

femble  the  top  ol  a  funnel,  through  which  the  alimeni  I 

pallcs  into  the  ftomach. 

The  mouth  has  a  communication  with  the  noftrils  at 
its  pollerior  and  upper  part  ;  with  the  ears,  b>  the  Eu-  ] 

llachian  tubes  ;  with  the  lungs,  by  means  of  the  la- 
rynx ;  and  with  the  ftomach,  by  means  of  the  ocfo-  i 
phagus.  : 
The  pharynx  is  conftantly  moiflened  by  a  fluid,  fe-  I 
cretedby  twocouliderablc  glands  called  the  ton fli,  one  ! 
on  each  tide  of  the  velum  palati.  Thefe  glands,  from  i 
tiuir  fuppolcd  rcfcmblance  to  almonds,  have  likewile 
been  called  amygdalus. 

The  mouth  is  moiftened  by  a  confiderablc  quantitjr  ; 

offaliva.  This  fluid  is  derived  from  the/ars/jr/^/awi/j;  ; 

a  name  which  by  its  etymology  points  out  their  litua- 
tion  to  be  near  the  ears.    They  are  two  in  number,  one 
on  each  lide  under  the  osmalje  :  and  they  areof  the  con- 
glomerate kind  ;  being  formed  of  many  fmallerglands,  '. 
each  of  which  fends  out  a  very  fmall  excretory  duft,                   \ 
which  unites  w  ith  the  reft,  to  form  one  common  chan-  ( 
nel,  that  runs  over  the  cheek,  and  piercing  the  bucci- 
nator mufcle,  opens  into  the  mouth  on  each  fide,  by                   J 
an  orifice  into  w  liich  a  brilUe  may  be  ealily  introduced.                   ] 
— belides  thefe,  themaxillary  glands, which  are  placed                   j 
near  the  inner  furface  of  the  angle  of  the  lower  javy                  1 
on  each  fide  ;   the  fublingual  glands,  which  are  litua- 
ted  at  the  root  of  the  tongue  i   the   glands  of  the  pa-  ; 
late,   which  aie  fi .lied  in  the  vcluui  palati  ;   and  tholo                  ' 
of  the  checks,  lips,  &c.  together  with  many  othei  Icls                  ; 
confiderablc  ones, — pour  the  faliva  into  the  mouth, 
through  their  feveral  excretory  duds. 

The  faliva,  like  all  the  other  humours  of  the  body,  ' 

is  found  to  be  different  in  diflirrent  people  :  but  in  ge- 
neral, it  is  a  limpid  and  inlipid  fluid,  without  fniell  in 
healthy  fubjec^s  ;   and  ihefe  properties  would  feem  to  , 

prove  that  it  contains  very  few  faline  or  inflammable 
particles.  I 

The  ufts  of  the  faliva  feem  to  be  to  moiflcn  and 
lubricate  the  mouth,  and  to  alTift  in  reducing  the  ali-  i 

ment  into  a  foft  pulp  before  it  is  conveyed  into  the  fto-  j 

mach.  ie6       ' 

The  variety  of  funflions  which  are  conftantly  per-  of  hunger 
formed  by  the  living  body,  mull  necelTarily  occalion  a  and  thirtt.  i 
continual  wafte  and  diflipation  of  its  feveral  parts.     A  | 

great  quantity  is  every  day  tlirown  ofl^by  the  infcn-  • 

fible  pcrfpiration  and  other  difcharges  ;  and  were  not 
thefe  lolfes  conftantly  recruited  by  a  frefli  fupply  of  I 

chyle,  the  body  would  foon  effect  its  own  diilbluiion. 
But  nature  has  very  wifely  favoured  us  with  organs  fit-  1 

ted  to  produce  fuch  a  fupply :  and  has  at  the  fame  time  ! 

endued  us  with  the  fenfations  of  hunger  and  thirft,  that  i 

our  attention  may  not  be  diverted  from  the  necelTarjt  ' 

bufincfs  of  nutrition.     Thefcnfationof  hunger  is  uni- 

verfally 


(f)  Thefe  are  the  circumflexus  palati,  levator  palati  mollis,  palato-pharyngxasconftridor  ifthmi  fauciuia. 
and  azygos  uvulae.     See  page  714. 

(g)  Thefe  are,  the  gcnio-glolTus,  hyo-gloffus,  lingualis,  and  ftylo-gloflus.     Sec  page  714. 


Part  III.  ANA' 

Of  the  verfally  known  ;  bat  it  would  perhaps  be  difficult  to 
Abdomen,  defcribe  it  perfectly  in  words.  It  may,  however,  be 
'  *  '  defined  to  be  a  certain  uneafy  fenfation  in  the  ftomach, 
which  induces  us  to  wilh  for  folid  food  ;  and  which 
liktwife  fcrvcs  to  point  out  the  proper  quantity,  and 
time  for  taking  it.  In  defcribing  the  flomach,  men- 
tion was  made  of  the  gaflric  juice,  as  every  where  lu- 
bricating its  inner  coat.  This  humour  mixes  itfelf 
with  the  aliment  i:i  the  ftomach,  and  helps  to  prepare 
it  for  its  paifage  into  the  inteftincs  ;  but  when  the  Ho- 
mach  is  pcrleftly  empty,  this  fame  fluid  irritates  the 
coats  uf  the  ftomach  itfelf,  and  produces  the  fenfation 
of  hunger. 

A  certain  proportion  of  liquid  aliment  is  required 
to  affift  in  the  progrefs  of  digcftion,  and  to  afford  that 
moifture  to  the  body,  of  which  there  is  fuch  a  conftant 

diflipation Thirll  induces  us  to  take  this  neceflary 

fupplyof  drink  ;  and  the  feat  of  this  fenfation  is  in  the 
tongue,  fauces,  and  oefophagus,  which  from  their 
great  fenlibiiity  arc  required  to  be  kept  moift  :  for 
though  the  fauces  are  naturally  inoiftcned  by  the  mu- 
cus and  falival  juices  ;  yet  the  blood,  when  deprived  of 
its  watery  part  or  rendered  acrimonious  by  any  natural 
caufcs,  iievcrfails  particularly  toaffecl  thcfe  pans,  and 
the  whole  alimentary  canal,  and  to  occafion  thirft. — 
This  is  the  common  effedt  of  fevers  and  of  hard  labour, 
by  both  which  too  much  of  the  watery  part  of  the  blood 
is  diffipated. 
Ofmaftica-  ^'  ^^^  been  obferved,  that  the  aliment  undergoes 
tion  und  fome  preparation  in  the  mouth  before  it  palTes  into  the 
deglutition,  ftomach  ;  and  this  preparation  is  the  effci\  of  maftica- 
tion.  In  treating  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  men- 
tion was  made  of  the  number  and  arrangement  of  the 
teeth.  The  upper  jaw  was  defcribcd  as  being  immove- 
able ;  but  the  lower  jaw  was  fpoken  of  as  being  ca- 
pable of  elevation  and  deprtllicn,  and  of  a  grinding 
motion.  The  aliment,  when  tirft  carried  into  the 
mouth,  (_s  prelFcd  between  the  teeth  of  the  two  jaws 
by  a  very  ftrong  and  frequent  motion  of  the  lower 
law;  and  the  tongue  and  the  cheeks  aiufting  in  this 
procefs,  continue  to  replace  the  food  between  the 
teeth  till  it  is  perfectly  divided,  and  reduced  to  the 
confiftence  of  piilp.  The  inciforcs  and  canini  divide 
it  firft  into  fmalicr  pieces,  but  it  is  between  the  fur- 
faces  of  the  dcntes  molares  by  the  grinding  motion  of 
the  jaw  that  the  maftication  is  completed. 

During  this  procefs,  the  falival  glands  being  gently 
comprelTed  by  the  contraiJtion  of  the  mufclcs  that 
move  the  lower  jaw,  pour  out  their  laliva  :  this  helps 
to  divide  and  break  down  the  food,  which  at  length 
becomes  a  kitul  of  pulp,  and  is  then  carried  over  the 
bafis  of  the  tongue  into  the  fauces.  Buttoelfetl  this 
palTage  into  the  oefophagus, it  is  neccfTary  that  the  othcr 
^  openings  which  were  mentioned  as  having  a  commu- 
nication with  the  mouth  as  well  as  the  pharynx,  (houlj 
be  clofed ;  that  none  of  the  aliment,  whether  folid  or 
liquid,  may  pafs  into  them,  whilft  the  pharynx  alone  is 
dilated  to  receive  it : — And  fuch  a  difpoliti'in  aA'ially 
takes  place  in  a  manner  we  will  e lulcavour  to  Jelcribe. 
The  trachea  arteria,  or  windpipe,  through  which 
the  air  is  conveyed  to  the  lungs,  is  placed  before  the 
oefophagus — in  the  act  of  fwallowing  ;  therefore,  if 
{.ht  larynx  (for  lb  the  upi^cr  part  of  the  trachea  is  call- 
ed) is  not  clofed,  the  aliment  will  pafs  into  it  in  its 
way  to  the  oefophagus.     But  this  is  prevented  by.  a  . 


O       M 


741 


fmall  and  very  elaftic  cartilage,  called  ifigUttis,  which     Of  the 
is  attached  only  to  the  fore-part  of  the  larynx  ;  fo  that  Abdocien. 

the  food  in  itspalTage  to  the  oefophagus  preifes  down  ' '""' 

thiscartilagc,  which  then  covers  the  gloitis  or  opening 
of  the  larynx  ;  and  at  the  fame  time  the  velum  palati 
being  capable  of  fome  degree  of  motion,  is  drawn 
backwards  by  its  mufcles,  and  clofes  the  openings  in- 

tothenofeand  the  Euftachian  tubes This,  however, 

is  not  all.  The  larynx,  which  being  compofed  of  car- 
tilaginous rings,  cannot  fail  in  its  ordinary  ftatc  to 
comprcfsthe  membranous  canal  of  the  oefophagus,  is 
in  the  a(ft  of  deglutiiion  carried  forwards  and  upwards 
by  mufcles  deftined  for  that  purpofe  ;  and  confequent- 
ly  drawing  the  fore-part  of  the  pharynx  with  it,  that 
opening  is  fully  dilated.  When  the  aliment  has  reach- 
ed the  pharyx,  its  defcent  is  promoted  by  its  own 
proper  weight,  and  by  the  mufcular  fibres  of  the  oefo- 
phagus, which  continue  to  contrad  from  above  down- 
wards,until  the  aliment  has  reached  the  ftomach.  That 
thefe fibres  have  noinconfijerablelhare  in  deglutition, 
any  perfon  may  experience,  by  fwallowing  with  bis 
head  downwards,  when  the  defcent  of  the  aliment  can- 
not polRbly  be  etfcclcd  by  its  weight. 

It  isnecelhry  that  the  noftrils  and  the  lungs  (hould 
communicate  with  the  mouth, for  the  purpofesoffpcech 
and  refpiration  :  but  if  the  moft  minute  part  of  our 
food  happens  to  be  introduced  into  the  trachea,  it  ne- 
ver fails  to  produce  a  violent  cough,  and  fometimes  the 
moft  alarming  fymptoms.  This  is  liable  to  happen 
when  we  laugh  or  fpeak  in  the  ait  of  deglutition  ; 
the  food  is  then  faid  to  have  palTed  the  wrong  way. 
And  indeed  this  is  not  improperly  exprelied  :  for 
death  would  foon  follow,  if  the  quantity  of  aliment 
introduced  into  the  trachea  fliould  be  fulficient  to  ob- 
ftrud  the  refpiration  only  during  a  very  ihorttime  ;  or 
if  llie  irritating  particles  of  food  fhould  not  foon  be 
thrown  up  again  by  means  of  a  cough,  which  in  thefe 
cafes  very  fcafonably  incrcafes  in  proportion  to  the  de- 
gree of  irritation. 

If  the  velum  palati  did  not  clofe  the  palTage  to  the 
noftrils,deglutition  would  be  performed  with  difficulty, 
and  perhaps  not  at  all  ;  for  the  aliment  would  return 
through  thenofe,  as  is  fometimes  the  cafe  in  drinking-. 
Children,  from  a  deficiency  in  this  velum  palati,  have 
been  feen  to  die  a  few  hours  after  birth  ;  and  they  who 
from  difeafc  or  any  other  caufes  have  not  this  pan  per- 
fect, fwallow  with  difficulty. 

The  aliment,  after  having  been  fufficiently  divided 
by  the  action  of  the  teeth,  and  attenuated  by  the  fali- 
va,  is  received  into  the  ftomach,  where  it  is  deftinct'  ■ 
to  undergo  a  more  conliderable  change. 

The  properties  of  the  aliment  not  being  muchalter- 
edat  its  firft  entrance  into  the  ftomach,  and  before  it 
is  thoroughly  blended  with  the  gaftricjuice,  is  capable 
of  irritating  the  inner  coat  of  the  ftomach  toa  certain 
degree,  and  occafions  a  contraction  of  its  two  orifices 
— In  this  membranous  bag,  furrounded  by  the  abdo- 
minal vifcera,  and  <l'iih  a  certain  degree  of  natural 
heat,  the  aliment  undergoes  a  conftant  agitation  by 
means  of  the  abdominal  mufcles  and  of  the  diaphragm, 
and  likewile  by  a  certain  contraction  or  expan/ionof 
the  mufcular  fibres  of  the  ftomach  itfelf.  By  this  mo- 
tion, every  part  of  the  food  is  expofed  to  the  action  of 
the  gaftric  juice.which  gradually  divides  and  attenuates 
it,  and  prepares  it  for  its  palLtge  into  the  inteftincs. - 

Soma 


742  ANA! 

Of  the  Some  obfervations  lately  publilhcd  by  Mr  liiin- 
Abaonicii.  tcr  in  the  Phitolbphical  Tranfaifbions,  tend  to  throw 
"  conlidcrabklightonthepriiiciplcsofdigeflioii.  There 

are  few  dead  bodies  in  which  the  llomach,  at  its  great 
end,  is  not  found  to  be  in  fome  degree  digefted  (h). 
Animals,  or  parts  of  animals,  pollelFed  of  the  living 
principle,  when  taken  into  the  ftomach,  are  not  in  the 
leafl  atfcrted  by  the  aAion  of  that  vifcus  ;  but  the  mo- 
ment they  lofc  the  living  principle,  they  become  fub- 
jed  to  its  digcAivc  powers.  This  feems  to  be  the  cafe 
with  the  ftomach,  which  is  enabled  torefiftthe  aClion 
of  itsjiiices  in  the  living  body  :  but  when  deprived  of 
the  living  principle,  it  is  then  no  longer  able  to  rclift 
the  powers  of  that  menflruum,  which  it  bad  itfclf  for- 
med for  the  digcftion  of  its  contents  ;  the  procefs  of 
digcftion  appearing  to  be  continued  afterdcath.  This 
is  confirmed  by  what  happens  in  the  ftomachsof  filhes: 
They  frequently  fwallow,  without  maflication,  filh 
which  are  larger  than  the  digefling  parts  of  their  fto- 
mach  can  contain  ;  and  in  fuch  cafes,  that  part  which 
is  taken  intothcftomach  is  more  or  Icfsdiflblvcd,  while 
that  part  which  remains  in  the  oefophagus  is  perfeftly 
found  ;  and  here,  as  well  as  in  the  human  body,  the 
digelling  part  of  the  ftoraach  is  often  reduced  to  the 
fame  ftate  as  the  digcflcd  part  of  the  food.  Thcfc  ap- 
pearences  tend  to  prove,  that  digeflion  is  not  cfFcded 
by  a  mechanical  power,  by  contraftions  of  the  Ao- 
mach,  or  by  heat ;  liut  by  a  fluid  fecretcd  in  the  coats 
of  the  ftomach,  which  is  poured  into  its  cavity,  and 
there  animalizes  the  food,  or  affimilates  it  to  the  na- 
ture of  blood. 


•  HlJI.  d, 

i*  Academic 
royal  dit 


From  fome  late  experiments  by  M.  Sage,*  it  ap- 


aicoi.  15. 


pearSjihat  inflammable  air  has  the  property  of  deftroy- 
ing  and  dilTblving  the  animal  texture  :  And  as  we  fwal- 
S«Vn«/  \:fc.  \Q^y  with  the  fubftances  which  fervc  us  for  food  a  great 
pour  1784.  quantify  of  atmofphcrical  air,  M.  Sage  thinks  it  pof- 
iiblc,  thatdephlogiilicated,  which  is  its  principle,  may 
be  converted  in  the  llomach  into  inflammable  air,  or 
jnay  modify  into  inflanunablc  air  a  portion  of  the  oily 
fubflance  which  is  the  principle  of  aliments.  In 
this  cafe,  would  not  the  inflammable  air  (he  alks), 
by  diflblving  our  feod,  facilitate  its  coverfion  into 
chyle  ? 

Be  this  as  it  may, the  food, after  having  remained  one, 
two,  or  three  hours  in  the  ftomach,  is  converted  intoa 
greyifh  pulp,  which  is ufualiy  called  t^^w//^,  awordof 
Greckciyniology.fignify  ing  j.v;f^,and  fomefew  milkyor 
chylous  panicles  begin  to  appear — But  the  term  of  its 
refidencc  in  this  bag  is  proportioned  to  the  nature  of  the 
aliment,  and  to  the  ftate  of  the  ftomach  and  its  juices. 
The  thinner  and  more  perfetflly  digefted  parts  of  the 
food  pafs  by  a  little  at  a  time  into  the  duodenum, 
through  the  pylorus,  the  fibres  of  which  relax  to  af- 
ford ita  palTage  ;  and  the  grolTer  and  lefs  digefted  par- 


O       M       Y.  Part  III. 

tides  remain  in  the  ftomach,  till  they  acquire  a  fuffi-     of  the 
cient  fluidity  to  pafsinio  tlie  inteftiiics,  where  the  na-  Abdomen, 

ture  of  the  cn/wftj  is  perfetlly  changed.     Thebileand  ' "'""' 

pancreatic  juice  which  flow  into  the  duodenum,  and 
I  he  mucus,  wh^ch  is  every  where  diftillcd  from  the  fur- 
face  of  the  inteftincs,  mix  themfclves  with  the  alimen- 
tary pulp,which  they  ftill  farther  attenuate  anddiflolve, 
and  into  which  they  feem  to  infufe  new  properties. 

Two  matters  very  different  from  each  other  in  their 
nature  and  deftination,  are  the  refult  of  this  combina- 
tion.— One  of  thefe,  which  is  compofed  of  the  liquid 
parts  of  the  aliment,  and  of  fome  of  its  more  folid  par- 
ticles, extremely  divided  and  mixed  with  thcjuices  we 
have  defcribed,  conftitutes  a  very  mild,  fweet,  and 
whitilh  fluid,  refembling  milk,  and  diftinguiihed  by  the 
name  of  chyls.  This  fluid  is  abforbed  by  the  ladeal 
veius,  which  convey  it  into  the  circulation,  where,  by 
being  alfimilated  into  the  nature  of  blood,  it  affords  that 
fupply  of  nutrition,  which  the  continual  wafte  of  the 
body  is  found  to  require. — The  other,  is  the  remains 
of  the  alimentary  mafs  deprived  of  all  its  nutritious 
particles, and  containing  only  fuch  parts  as  were  rejec- 
ted by  the  ablbrbing  mouths  of  the  ladeals.  This 
groflTer  part,  called  the  faces ,  pafTes  on  through  the 
courfe  of  the  inteflines,  to  be  voided  at  the  anus,  as 
will  be  explained  hereafter;  for  this  procefs  in  the  ce- 
conomy  cannot  be  well  undcrftood  till  the  motion  of 
refpiration  has  been  explained.  But  the  ftruiture  of 
the  inteftines  is  a  fubjeft  which  may  be  properly  de- 
fcribed in  this  place,  and  deferves  to  be  attended  to. 

It  has  been  already  obfcrved,  that  the  inteftinal  ca- 
nal is  five  or  fix  times  as  long  as  the  body,  and  that  it 
forms  many  circumvolutions  in  the  cavity  of  the  abdo- 
men, which  it  traverfes  from  the  right  to  the  left,  and 
again  from  the  left  to  the  right ;  in  one  place  defcend- 
ing,  and  in  another  extending  itfelf  upwards.  It  was 
noticed  likewife,  that  the  inner  coat  of  the  inteftines, 
by  being  more  capacious  than  their  exterior  tunics, 
formed  a  muhitucle  of  pkits  placed  at  a  certain  dif- 
tancc  from  each  other,  and  called  vatvuttt  connivfntti. 
Now  this  difpofition  will  be  found  to  afford  a  farther 
proof  of  that  divine  wifdom,  which  the  anatomift  and 
phyfiologift  cannot  fail  to  difcover  in  all  their  purfuits. 
— Vox  if  the  inteftinal  canal  was  much  Ihorter  than  it 
naturally  is;  if  infteadot  the  prefent  circumvolutions 
it  pafled  in  a  direct  courfe  from  the  ftomach  ;  and  if 
its  inner  furface  was  fmooth  and  deflitute  of  valves  ; 
thealiment  would  confequently  pafs  with  great  rapidity 
to  the  anus,  and  fuflicient  time  would  be  wanting  to 
afTimilate  the  chyle,  and  for  the  neceffary  abforption 
of  it  into  the  ladeals  :  fo  that  the  body  would  be  de- 
prived of  the  fupply  of  nutrition,  which  isfo  effential 
to  life  and  health  ;  but  the  length  and  circumvolutions 
of  the  inteftines,  the  inequality  of  their  internal  fur- 
face, 


(h)  The  Abbe  Spallanzani,  who  has  lately  written  upon  digeflion,  finds,  from  a  variety  of  experiments, 
made  upon  quadrupeds,  birds,  and  filhes,  that  digcftion  goes  on  for  fome  time  after  death,  though  far  lefs  con- 
fiderable  than  in  living  animals;  but  heat  is  neceifary  in  many  animals,  or  at  leaft  promotes  it  in  a  much  great- 
er degree.  He  found  alfo,  that  when  the  ftomach  was  cut  out  of  the  body,  it  had  fomewhat  of  the  power  of 
digcftion,  though  this  was  trifling  wheo  compared  with  that  which  took  place  when  the  ftomach  was  left  in  the 
body.  In  not  one  of  the  animals  was  the  great  curvature  of  ihe  ftomach  diflblved,  or  much  eroded  after  death. 
There  was  often  a  little  erofion,  efpecially  in  different  fifhes  ;  in  which,  when  he  had  cleared  the  ftomach  of 
its  contents,  the  inierual  coat  was  wanting.     la  other  animals  there  was  ooly  a  flight  excoriation ;  and  the  in- 

ju^r 


Part  III. 

Of  the 
Abdomen. 


■cS. 


ANA 

face,  and  the  conrfe  of  the  aliment  through  them,  all 
concur  to  perfect  the  reparation  of  the  chyle  from  the 
faeces,  and  to  afford  the  neceflary  nouriihment  to  the 
body. 


SECr.    XIV.    Of  th:  Courfi  oj   the  Chyle,  and  cj 
the  Lymphatic  Syjlem. 


Ah  infiiiite  number  cf  very  minute  velTels,  called  the 
laCltalveins,  arife  like  net-work  from  the  inner  furface 
of  the  inteflines,(but  principally  from  ihejej/oiuM  and 
ilium),  which  are  delUned  to  imbibe  the  nutritious 
fluid  or  chyle.  Thefc  veflels,  wliich  were  difcovercd 
,  by  Afellius  ill  1624  (i),  pafs  obliquely  through  the 
coats  of  the  intcftine,  and  running  along  the  mefente- 
ry,  unite  as  tliey  advance,  and  furm  larger  branches, 
all  ot  which  pals  through  the  mcfcnteric  or  conglobate 
glands,  which  are  very  numerrus  in  the  human  fubjeft. 
As  they  run  between  the  intcftines  and  thefe  glands, 
ihey  arc  ftyled  fc-«<r  ladea  primii  ginerij  :  but  after 
leaving  thefe  glands,  they  are  found  to  be  Icfs  nume- 
rous, and  being  increafed  in  fize,  are  then  called  ven.e 
laEiex  fecHtidi gemris,  which  go  to  dcpolite  their  con- 
tents in  the  thoracic  dud,  through  which  the  chyle  is 
conveyed  into  the  blood. 

This  thoracic  duCt  begins  about  the  lower  part  of  the 
firA  vertebra  lumborun),  from  whence  it  palfes  up  by 
the  fide  of  the  aorta,  between  that  and  the  vena  azy- 
gcs,  clofe  to  the  vertebrae,  being  covered  by  the  pleura. 
Sometimes  it  is  found  divided  into  two  branches  ;  but 
they  ufually  unite  again  into  one  canal,  which  opens 
into  the  left  fubclavian  vein,  after  having  run  a  little 
way  in  an  oblique  courfc  between  its  coats.  The  fub- 
clavian vein  communicates  with  the  vena  cava,  which 
paHes  to  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart. 

The  lower  part  of  this  dud  being  ufually  larger  than 

any  other  part  of  it,  Xw^  been  mmcAreceptaculum  chy- 

li,  or  Pecguet's  receptacle,  in  honour  of  the  anatomift 

who  firft  difcovered  it  in  1651.     In  fome  quadrapeds, 

•  ITnr/ii>'tin  turtle  and  in  fi(h,  this  enlargement  •  is  more  conli- 

£xf.  Jnj.    derable  in  proportion  to  the  lize  of  the  duel,  than  it 

Part  11. 


T       O       M       Y.  743 

ufually  is  in  the  human  fubject,  where  it  is  not  com-     Of  the 
nionly  found  large  enough  to  merit  the  name  of  rir-  Abdomen.^ 
ctptaculuTu.  ^~~^ 

Opportanitiesofobferving  the  laSealsin  the  human 
fubjeddo  not  often  occur  ;  but  they  may  be  eafily  de- 
monltrated  in  a  dog  or  any  other  quadruped  that  is 
killed  two  or  three  hours  after  feeding  upon  milk, 
for  then  they  appear  filled  with  white  chyle. 

But  thefe  laBeali  which  we  have  defcribed,  as  paf- 
fing  from  the  inteftines  through  the  mefcntery  to  the 
thoracic  dai\,  compofe  only  a  part  of  a  fy  ftem  of  vef- 
fels  which  perform  the  office  of  a'jforption,  and  which 
conllitute,  with  their  common  trunk  the  thoracic  duiS, 
and  the  conglobate  glands  that  arc  difpcrfed  through 
the  body,  what  may  be  flyled  the  lymphatic fyjievi.  So 
that  >shat  is  faid  of  the  ftru(5ture  of  one  of  thefe  feries 
of  veffels  may  very  properly  be  applied  to  that  of  the 


other. 


109 


The  lymphatic  veini  (k)  are  minute  pellucid  tubes.  Lymphatic 
which,  like  the  lafteals,  direcl  their  courfe  towards  TclTeli. 
the  centre  of  the  body,  where  they  pour  a  colourlefs 
fluid  into  the  thoracic  duel.  The  lymphatics  from 
all  the  lower  parts  of  the  body  gradually  unite  as  they 
approach  this  duft,  into  which  they  enter  by  three  or 
four  very  large  trunks,  that  feem  to  form  the  lower 
ejctremity  of  this  canal,  or  receptaculum  chyli,  which 
may  be  confidered  as  the  great  trunk  of  the  lymphatic 
fyftem.  The  laflcals  open  into  it  near  the  fame  place  ; 
and  the  lymphatics,  from  a  large  (hare  of  the  upper 
parts  of  the  body,  pour  their  lymph  into  different  parts 
of  this  duiS  as  it  runs  upwards,  to  terminate  in  the 
left  fubclavian  vein.  The  lymphatics  from  the  right 
fide  of  the  neck,  thorax,  and  right  arm,  &c.  terminate 
in  the  right  fubclavian  vein. 

As  the  lymphatics  commonly  lie  clofe  to  the  large 
blood-velfels,  a  ligature  palled  round  the  crural  artery 
in  a  living  animal,  by  including  the  lymphatics,  will 
occafion  a  diilenlion  of  thefe  vclfels  below  the  ligature,  - 
fo  as  to  demonftrate  them  with  eafe  ;  and  a  ligature 
paflcd  round  the  thoracic  duel,  inftantly  after  killing 
an  animal,  will,  by  Hopping  the  courfe  of  its  contents 

into. 


jury  in  all  of  them  was  at  the  inferior  part,  or  great  curvature.  The  coats  of  the  ftomach  fuffer  lefs  after  death  1 
than  flclli,  or  part  of  the  floraach  of  limilar  animals  put  into  it:  The  author  aUignsasareafon  for  this,  that  thefe  ■ 
bodies  are  invetled  on  all  tides  by  the  gaftric  Jluid,  whereas  it  only  aiSs  on  the  internal  furface  of  the  llomach. 

(i )  We  are  informed  by  Galen,  that  the  laclcals  had  been  feen  in  kids  by  trafiflratus,  who  conlidered  them 
as  arteries  carrying  a  milky  fluid  :  but  from  the  remote  time  in  which  he  lived,  they  do  not  feem  to  have  been 
noticed  till  they  were  difcovercd  in  a  li.ing  dog  by  Afellius,  who  denominated  them  IjBcjIs,  and  conlidered. 
them  as  fcrving  to  convey  the  chyle  from  the  intellines  to  the  liver  ;  for  before  the  difcovcry  of  the  thoracic 
duel,  the  ufe  of  the  liver  was  univerfally  fuppofed  to  be  that  of  converting  the  chyle  into  blood.  But  the  dif- 
covcry of  the  thoracic  duA  by  Pecquet,  not  long  after,  correded  this  error.  Pecquet  very  candidly  confelfes, . 
that  this  difcovcry  accidentally  arofc  from  his  obferving  a  white  tluid,  mixed  with  the  blood,  ilowingout  of  the 
vena  cava,  after  he  had  cut  offthe  heart  of  a  living  dog  ;  which  he  fufpefled  to  be  chyle,  and  afterwards  traced 
to  its  fource  from  the  thoracic  dud  :  This  duft  had  been  feen  near  an  hundred  years  before  in  a  horfe  by. 
Euflachius,  who  fpeaks  of  it  as  a  vein  oi  a  particular  ftrudture,  but  without  knowing  any  thing  of  iis  termi- 
nation or  ufe. 

(k)  The  arteries  in  their  courfc  through  the  body  becoming  gradually  too  minute  to  admit  the  red  globules 
of  the  blood,  have  then  been  flyled  f  J/ ///.(r^  or  lymphatic  artetics.     The  velTcls  which  are  here  defcribed  as 
conrtituting  the  lymphatic  fyllem,  were  at  firil  fuppofed  to  be  continued  from  thofc  arteries,  and  to  convey 
back  the  lymph,  either  into  the  red  veins  or  the  thoracic  dud  ;  the  office  o(  abforption  having  been  attributed  ' 
10  i\\c  red  veins.     But  We  know  that  the  lymphatic  veins  are  not  continuations  of  the /)w/Aj//f  "/■/^r/*'/,  but- 
that  they  conftitute  the  abfurbrnt  fyflem.     There  are  ftill,  however,  fome  very  rcfpedable  names  among  the 
anatomifls  of  the  prefent  age,  who  contend,  that  the  red  veins  ad  likewife  as  abforbents : — but  it  feems  to  have, 
been  clearly  proved,  that  the  red  veins  do  abforb  no  where  but  in  the  cavernous  cells  of  the  penis,  thc.crcc-- 
tion  of  which  is  occafioncd  by  a  diQcnhon  of  thofc  cells  with  arterial  blood. 


O       M       Y. 


Part  III. 


«w,  29". 


into  (lie  iubclavian  vein,  dillciid  not  only  the  lafteals, 
■  but  alfo  the  lyiii|)Iiatics  in  the  abdomen  and  lower  ex- 
tremities, witli  their  natural  fluids  (l). 

The  coais  of  thefc  vcirds  are  tix>  thin  to  be  fcpara- 
ted  from  each  other  ;  but  the  mercury  ihey  are  capable 
of  fullaining,  proves  them  to  be  very  (Irong  ;  and  their 
great  power  of  contraciioii,  aft tir  undergoing  conlider- 
able  didcniion,  together  with  the  irritability  with 
•  Sur  U  which  Baron  Haller  found  them  to  be  endued,*  fecms 
mrvtKHitdaxo  rcndcr  it  probable,  that,  like  the  blood- velFels, 
fang.  tx.     (ijjy  iiavg  a  mufcular  coat. 

The  lymphatics  are  nourillied  after  the  fame  man- 
ner as  all  the  other  parts  of  the  body.  For  C7cn  the 
niofl  minute  of  thefe  vclTels  are  probably  fupplied  with 
iHll  more  minute  arteries  and  veins.  This  feems  to 
be  proved  by  the  intlammation  of  which  they  are  fuf- 
ceptible;  and  the  painful  fwellings  wliich  Ibmetimes 
take  place  in  lymphatic  vellels,  prove  that  they  have 
nerves  as  well  as  blood-vetfcls.     • 

Both  the  lafteals,  lymphatics,  and  thoracic  dud, 
arc  furnilhed  with  valves,  which  arc  much  more  com- 
mon in  thefe  velfels  than  in  the  red  veins.  Thefc 
valves  are  ufually  in  pairs,  and  ferve  to  promote  the 
courfe  of  the  chyle  and  lymph  towards  the  thoracic 
dud,  and  to  prevent  its  return.  Mention  has  been 
ntadc  of  the  glands,  through  which  the  ladleals  pafs 
in  their  courlc  through  the  mefcntery  ;  and  it  is  to  be 
obfcrved,  that  the  lymphatics  pafs  through  fimilar 
glands  in  their  way  to  the  thoracic  duft.  Thefe  glands 
are  all  of  a  conglobate  kind,  but  the  changes  which 
the  chyle  and  lymph  undergo  in  their  palTage  through 
them,  have  not  yet  been  afccrtained. 

The  lymphatic  Vijfi/s  begin  from  furfaces  and  cavities 
in  all  parts  of  the  body  as  ahforbents.  This  is  a  fadl 
now  univerfally  allowed  ;  but  how  the  fluids  they  ab- 
forb  are  poured  into  thofe  cavities,  is  a  fubjeft  of  con- 
troverfy.  The  contents  of  the  abdomen,  for  inflance, 
were  defcribed  as  being  conftantly  moidened  by  a  very 
thin  watery  fluid.  The  fame  thing  takes  place  in  the 
pericardium,  pleura,  and  all  the  other  cavities  of  the 
body,  and  this  watery  fluid  is  the  lyinph.  But  whe- 
therit  is  exhaled  into  thofecavities  through  the  minute 
ends  of  arteries,  or  tranfuded  through  their  coats,  are 
•the  points  in  difpnte.  We  cannot  here  be  permitted 
to  relate  the  many  ingenious  arguments  that  kavc  been 
advanced  in  favour  of  each  of  thefe  opinions  ;  nor  is  it 
perhaps  of  confequcnce  to  our  prefent  purpofe  to  enter 
into  the  difpute.  It  will  be  fufficient  if  the  reader  can 
form  an  idea  of  what  the  lymph  is,  and  of  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  abforbed. 

The  lymph,  from  its  tranfparency  and  want  of  co- 
lour, would  feem  to  be  nothing  but  water  ;  and  hence 
3 


the  firft  difcoverers  of  thefe  vellels  ftilcd  them  du(\us     Of  the 
aquoji  :  bat  experiments  ])rovc,  that  the  lymph  of  an  Abdomen. 

healthy  animal  coagulates  by  being  expofed  to  the  air,  ' "      ' 

or  a  certain  degree  of  heat,  and  likewifc  by  being  fuf- 
fcred  to  rell ;  Teeming  to  agree  iti  this  property  with 
that  part  of  the  blood  called  the  coaqtdabic  lymph. — 
This  property  of  the  lymph  leads  to  aeterminc  its  ufe, 
in  moillcning  and  lubricating  the  fe  veral  cavities  of  the 
body  in  %\  hich  it  is  found  ;  and  fur  which,  by  its  ge- 
litinousprinciplc,  it  fccnis  to  bcmuch  better  calculated 
than  a  pure  and  watery  fluid  would  be,  for  fuch  it  has 
been  fuppofcd  to  be  by  fome  anatomills. 

The  moutlis  of  the  lymphatics  and  ladeah,  by  afting 
aj  capillary  tubes,  feem  to  abfoib  the  lymph  and  chyle 
fomewhat  in  the  fame  manner  as  a  capillary  tube  of 
glafs,  when  put  into  a  bafon  of  water,  is  enabled  to 
attract  the  water  into  it  to  a  certain  height ;  but  it  is 
I'robable  that  they  likewifc  poffefs  a  living  power, 
which  alUlls  in  performing  this  office.  In  the  human 
body  the  lymph,  or  the  chyle,  is  probably  conveyed  up- 
on tliis  principle  as  far  as  the  firA  pair  of  valves, 
which  feem  to  be  placed  not  far  from  the  orifice  of  the 
abforbing  velTel,  whether  lymphatic  or  IjHeal ;  and  the 
fluid  will  then  be  propelled  forwards,  by  a  continuation 
of  the  abforptioii  at  the  orifice.  But  this  docs  not 
feem  to  be  the  only  inducement  toitsprogrefs  towards 
the  thoracic  dud  ;  thefe  vellels  have  probably  a  muf- 
cular coat,  which  may  ferve  to  prefs  the  fluid  forwards 
from  one  pair  of  valves  to  another  ;  and  as  the  large 
lymphatic  veflels  and  the  thoracic  duct  are  placed  clofe 
to  the  large  arteries,  which  have  a  conliderable  pnlfa- 
tion,  it  is  reafonablc  to  fuppofc,  that  they  derive  fome 
advantages  from  this  lituation. 

Sect.  XV.     Of  the  Centrat'ive  Organs  -,   of  Con- 
aption,  &c. 

§  I.   The  Mate  Organs. 

The  male  organs  of  generation  have  been  ufually  no, 
divided  into  the  parts  which  ferve  to  prepare  the  fc- 
men  from  the  blood,  and  thofe  which  are  dirtcndcd  to 
convey  it  into  the  svomb.  But  it  feems  to  be  more 
proper  to  diftinguilh  them  into  the  preparing,  the  con- 
taiiiing,  and  the  expelling  pins,  which  are  the  diifer- 
ent  offices  of  the  tejies,  the  zejicr/l.r/eminales,  and  the 
penis ;  and  this  is  the  order  in  which  we  propofe  to 
defcribe  them. 

The  tefles  arc  two  glandular  bodies,  ferving  to  fe- 
crete  the  femen  from  the  blood.  They  are  originally 
formed  and  lodged  within  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen  ; 
and  it  is  not  till  aftei  the  child  is  born,  or  very  near 
that  time,  that  they  begin  to  pafs  into  the  groin,  and 
from  thence  into  the  fcrotum  (m).  By  this  difpofition 

they 


(l)  In  thedeadbody  they  may  beeafily  demonftrated  by  opening  the  artery  ramifying  through  any  vifcus, 
as  in  the  fpleen,  for  inftance,  and  then  throwing  in  air;  by  which  the  lymphatics  will  be  diftended.  One  of 
them  may  then  be  punftured,  and  mercury  introduced  into  it  through  a  blow-pipe. 

(m)  It  fometimes  happens  in  diifcding ruptures,  that  the  inteftine  is  found  in  the  fame  fac,  and  in  contad 
wit!)  the  teftis.  This  appearance  was  at  flrfl  attributed  to  a  fuppofcd  laceration  of  the  peritonaeum  ;  but  later 
obfervations,  by  pointing  out  the  fituationof  the  teftidcs  in  the  foetus,  have  led  to  prove,  that  the  teflis,  as  it 
defcends  into  the  fcrotum,  carries  with  it  a  portion  or  elongation  of  the  peritonaiura,  which  becomes  its  tunica 
vaginalis,  or  a  kind  of  fac,  in  which  the  teflicle  is  lodged,  as  will  be  explained  in  the  courfe  of  this  fection. 
The  communication  between  this  fac  and  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  is  ufually  foon  cut  off;  but  in  fome  fub- 

jeds 


Part  III. 


N 


Of  the  they  are  very  wifely  protcftcd  from  the  injuries  to 
Abdomen,  which  they  Would  l)c  liable  to  be  expofed,  from  the  dif- 
■'"     "        fcrent  politioiis  of  the  child  at  the  time  of  parturition. 

The  tefticles  in  this  due  are  loofely  attached  to  the 
pfoas  raufcles,  by  means  of  the  peritonaeum  by  which 
they  are  covered  ;  and  they  are  at  this  time  of  life 
conneifled  in  a  very  particular  manner  to  the  parietcs 
of  the  abdomen,  and  likewife  to  the  fcrotum,  by  means 
of  a  fubftance  which  Mr  Hunter  calls  the  tigaT/unt  or 
gubeniaculum  teflis,  becaufc  it  connefls  the  telHs  with 
the  fcrotum,  and  diretls  its  courfe  in  its  defcent.  This 
gubernaculum  is  of  a  pyramidal  form,  with  its  bulbous 
head  fixed  to  the  lower  end  of  the  teftis  and  epididy- 
mis, and  lofes  its  lower  and  (lender  extremity  in  the 
cellular  membrane  of  the  fcrotum.  It  is  difficult  to 
afcertain  what  the  ftruclure  and  compofition  of  this 
gubernaculum  is,  but  it  is  certainly  vafcular  and  fi- 
brous ;  and,  from  certain  circumftances,  it  would  feem 
to  be  in  part  compofed  of  the  cremafler  mufcle,  run- 
ning upwards  to  join  the  lower  end  of  the  teftis. 

We  are  not  to  fuppofe  that  the  tcllicle,  when  de- 
fcended  into  the  fcrotum,  is  to  be  feen  loofe  as  a  piece 
uf  gut  or  omentum  would  be  in  a  common  hernial  fac. 
We  have  already  obferved,  that  during  its  relidence  in 
the  cavity  of  the  abdomen  it  is  attached  to  the  perito- 
neum, which  defcends  with  it;  fo  that  when  the  fac 
is  completed  in  the  fcrotum,  the  tefticle  is  at  firft  at- 
tached only  to  the  poflerior  part  of  it,  while  the  fore 
part  of  it  lies  loofe,  and  for  forac  time  affords  a  com- 
munication with  the  abdomen.  The  fpermatic  chord, 
which  is  made  up  of  the  fpermatic  artery  and  vein, 
and  of  the  vas  deferens  or  excretory  dufl  of  the  teftis, 
is  clofely  attached  behind  to  the  pofterior  part  of  tliis 
elongation  of  the  peritoneum.  But  the  fore  part  of 
the  peritoneal  fac,  which  is  at  firft  loofe  and  not  at- 
tached to  the  tefticlc,  clofes  after  a  certain  time,  and 
becomes  united  to  the  pofterior  part,  and  thus  perfeftly 
furrounds  the  tefticle  as  it  were  in  a  purfe. 

The  tefticles  of  the  foetus  differ  only  in  their  fizc 
and  fituation  from  thofe  of  the  adult.  In  their  pafTagc 
from  theabdomenthey  defcend  through  the  abdominal 
rings  into  the  fcrotum,  where  they  are  fupported  and 
defended  by  various  integuments. 

What  the  immediate  caufe  of  this  defcent  is,  has 
not  yet  been  fatisfaftorily  determined.  It  has  been 
afcribed  to  the  etfeft  of  refpiration,  but  the  tefticles 
have  fometimes  been  found  in  the  fcrotum  before  the 
child  has  breathed  ;  and  it  does  not  feem  to  beoccafi- 
oned  by  the  action  of  the  cremafter  mufcle,  becaufe 
the  fame  cffeft  would  be  liable  to  happen  to  the  hedge- 
hog, and  fomcotherqnadrupeds,whofetefticlesremain 
in  the  abdomen  during  life. 
Vol.  I. 


r       O       M      Y.  745 

The  fcrotum,  which  is  the  external  or  common  co-      Of  the 
veringof  both  tefticles,  is  a  kind  of  fac  formed  by  the  Abdomen, 
common  integuments,  and  externally  divided  into  two 
equal  parts  by  a  prominent  line  called  raphe. 

In  the  inner  part  of  the  fcrotum  we  meet  with  a  cel- 
lular coat  called  </ar/5/  (n),  which  by  its  duplicature 
divides  the  fcrotum  into  two  equal  parts,  and  forms 
what  is  aWzA  feptumfcroti,  which  correfponds  with 
the  raphe.  The  collapfion  which  is  fo  often  obferved 
to  take  place  in  the  fcrotum  of  the  healthy  fubjed, 
when  excited  by  cold  or  by  the  ftimulus  of  venery, 
feems  to  be  very  properly  attributed  to  the  contractile 
motion  of  the  Ikin,  and  not  to  any  mufcular  fibres,  as 
is  the  cafe  in  dogs  and  fome  other  quadrupeds. ' 

The  fcrotum,  then,  by  means  of  its  feptum,  is 
found  to  make  two  diftind  bags,  in  which  the  tefti- 
cles, inveftcd  by  their  proper  tunics,  are  fccurely 
lodged  and  feparated  from  each  other.  Thefe  coats 
arc  the  cremafter,  the  tunica  vaginalis,  and  the  tunica 
albuginea.  The  firft  of  thefe  is  compofed  of  mufcular 
fibres,  and  is  to  be  confidered  only  as  a  partial  cover- 
ing of  the  teftis  ;  for  it  furrounds  only  the  fpermatic 
chord,  and  terminates  upon  the  upper  and  external 
parts  of  the  tunica  vaginalis  teftis,  ferving  to  draw  up 
and  fufpend  the  tefticle  (o).  The  tunica  vaginalis  te- 
ftis has  already  been  defcribed  as  being  a  thin  produc- 
tion of  the  peritoneum,  loofely  adhering  every  where 
to  the  tefticle,  which  i:  includes  as  it  were  in  a  bag. 
The  tunica  albuginea  is  a  firm,  white,  and  very  com- 
pad  membraneof  a  gliftening  appearance,  which  im- 
mediately invefts  the  body  of  the  teftis  and  the  cpidi- 
dymus ;  ferving  in  fomc  meafare  to  conned  them  to 
each  other,  but  without  extending  itfelf  at  all  to  the 
fpermatic  chord.  This  tunica  albuginea  ftrvcs  to  con- 
fine the  growth  of  the  teftis  and  epididymus  within 
certain  limits,  and  by  giving  them  a  due  degree  of 
firmncfs,  enables  them  to  perform  their  proper  func- 
tions. 

Having  removed  this  laft  tunic,  we  difcover  the  fub- 
ftance  of  the  tefticle  itfelf,  which  appears  to  be  made 
up  of  an  infinite  number  of  very  elaftic  filaments, 
which  may  be  beft  diftinguilhed  after  macerating  the 
tefticle  in  water.  Each  tefticlc  is  made  up  of  the  fper- 
matic artery  and  vein,  and  the  excretory  velTclsor  tu- 
bull  feminiferi.  There  are  likewife  a  great  number  of 
abforbent  velfcls,  and  fome  branches  of  nerves  to  be 
met  with  in  the  tefticles. 

The  fpermatic  arteries  arifc  one  on  each  fide  from 
the  aorta,  generally  about  an  inch  below  the  cmul- 
gents.  The  right  fpermatic  vein  commonly  palfes  into 
the  vena  cava ;  but  the  left  fpermatic  vein  uluallyr 
empties  itfelf  into  the  eraulgent  on  that  fide  ;  and  it  is 
5  B  fuppofed 


jcds  it  continues  open  during  life;  and  when  an  hernia  or  defcent  of  the  inttftine  takes  place  infuch  a  fubjcd' 
it  does  not  pufli  down  a  portion  of  the  peritoneum  before  it,  as  it  muft  otherwife  neccffarily  do,  but  palles  at 
once  through  this  opening,  and  comes  in  contad  with  the  naked  tefticle,  conftituting  that  particular  fpecies 
of  rupture  called  hernia  congenita. 

(n)  The  dartos  has  ufually  been  confidered  as  a  mufcle,  and  is  defcribed  as  fuch  both  by  Douglas  and 
Window.  But  there  being  no  part  of  the  fcrotum  of  the  human  fubjcd  which  can  be  faid  to  confift  of  mufcular 
fibres,  Albinusand  Hallcr  have  very  properly  omitted  to  defcribe  the  dartos  as  a  mufcle,  and  confider  it  merely 
as  a  cellular  coat. 

(o)  The  cremafter  mufcle  is  compofed  of  a  few  fibres  from  the  obliquus  internns  abdominis,  which  uniting 
with  a  few  from  the  tranfverfalis,  defcend  upon  the  fpermatic  chord,  and  arc  infculibly  loft  upon  the  tunica 
vaginalit  of  the  tefticlc.     It  fcrvcs  to  fufpend  and  draw  up  the  tefticle. 


746  ANA 

Of  the  pofcd  to  take  this  courfc  into  the  eniulgcnt,  that  it 
Abdomen.  ji,3y  avoid  paffing  over  the  aorta,  which  it  would  be 
'  obliged  to  do  in  its  way  to  the  vena  cava. 

The  blood  is  circulated  very  llowly  through  the 
fpcrmatic  artery,  which  makes  an  infinite  niiiiibcr  of 
circumvolutions  in  the  fubflance  of  the  tcflicle,  where 
it  dcpofites  the  femen,  which  pallcs  through  the  tubu- 
li  fcminilcri.  Thefe  tubuli  feminifcri  arc  fcea  running 
in  Iliort  waves  from  the  tunica  albuginea  to  the  axis  of 
the  telHclc  ;  and  are  divided  intodiflinft  portions  by 
certain  thin  membranous  productions,which  originate 
from  the  tunica  albuginea.  They  at  length  unite,  and 
by  an  infinite  number  of  convolutions  form  a  fort  of 
appendix  tothetcflis  called  epidiJjm'is  (r),  which  is 
a  vafcular  body  of  an  oblong  fliape,  lituate  upon  the 
fuperior  part  of  each  tefticle.  Thele  tubuli  of  the 
epididymis  at  length  form  an  excretory  duiit  called  vas 
dc-fireiu,  which  al'cciuis  towards  the  abdominal  rings, 
with  the  other  parts  that  make  up  the  fpcrm.itic  chord, 
and  then  a  fcparaiion  takes  place  ;  ihe  nerves  and 
blood  velTels  palFing  on  to  their  feveral  terminations, 
and  the  vas  deferens  going  to  depolit  its  fcmen  in  the 
Teficulasfeminalcs,  which  are  two  foft  bodies  of  a  white 
and  convoluted  appearance  externally,  (Ituated  ob- 
liijucly  between  the  rectum  and  tlie  lower  part  of  tlie 
bladder,  and  uniting  together  at  the  lower  extremity.. 
From  thefe  refervoirs  (q.),  which  are  plen-ifuliy  fup- 
plied  with  blood-velFcls  and  nerves,  the  fcmen  is  occa- 
iionally  difcharged  through  two  Iliort  pafl'ages,  which 
open  into  the  urethra  clofe  to  a  little  eminence  called 
^eruviOKtaniDH, 

Near  this  eminence  we  meet  with  the  prollate. 


T       O       M       Y. 


Part  HI. 


which  is  fituated  at  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  and  is     Of  the 
dcfcrihed  as  being  of  ;i  glandular  ftruiiturc.      It  is  Abdomen, 
fliapcii  Ibmcwhat  like  a  heart  with  its  fmall  end  fore-  '       "      ' 
moll,  and  invelh  the  origin  of  the  urethra.  IntcrnaJly 
it  appears  to  be  of  a  firm  fubflance,  and  compofed  of 
f'cvtral  follicles,  ftcrciiug  a  whitilli  vifcid  fiuitl,  that  is 
difcharged  by  ten  or  twelve  excretory  ducts  into  the 
urethra,  on  each  fide  of  the  openings  of  the  vclicalaE 
fcminalcs  at  the  fame  time,  and  from  the  fame  caufes 
that  tlic  fcmen  is  expelled.     As  this  latter  fluid  is 
found  to  be  exceedingly  limpid  in  the  veliculas  fcmi- 
nalcs of  the  dead  fubjecl,  it  probably  owes  its  white- 
ncfs  and  vifcidity  to  this  liquor  of  the  proftaie. 

The  penis,  which  is  to  be  confidcred  as  the  vehicle 
or  aili  ve  organ  of  procreation,  is  compofed  of  two  co- 
lumns, the  corpora  cavernofa,  and  corpus  fpongiofum. 
The  corpora  cavcrnola,  which  conlhtute  the  grcatefl 
part  of  the  penis,  may  be  defcribcd  as  two  cylindrical 
ligamentous  tubes,  each  of  which  is  compofed  of  an 
infinite  number  of  minute  cells  of  a  fpongy  texture, 
which  communicate  with  each  other.  Thefe  two  bo- 
dies are  of  a  very  pliant  texture,  and  capable  of  conli- 
derablc  diflention  ;  and  being  united  laterally  to  each 
other,  occafion  by  this  union  a  fpace  aboye  and  ano- 
ther below.  The  uppcrmofl  of  thefe  fpaccs  is  filled 
by  the  blood  veffcls,  and  the  lower  one, which  is  larger 
than  the  other,  by  the  urethra  and  its  corpus  fpongio- 
fum. Thefe  two  cavernous  bodies  are  at  tirft  ordy  fe- 
parated  by  a  partition  of  tendinous  fibres,  which  allow 
them  to  communicate  with  each  other ;  but  they  after- 
wards devaricate  from  each  other  like  the  branches  of 
the  letter  Y,  and  diminifhing  gradually  in  fize,  are  at- 
tached. 


(p)  The  tcflicles  were  named  didymi  by  the  ancients,  and  the  name  of  this  part  was  given  to  it  on  account 
•fits  lituation  upon  the  tcllicle. 

((^)  That  the  bags  called  vcfiaiLt  fcmliiales  are  refervoirs  of  femen,  is  a  circumflance  which  has  been  by 
anatouiifls  univerfally  believed.  Mr  J.  Kunter,  however,  from  feveral  circumflances,  has  been  induced  to 
think  this  opinion  erroneous. 

He  has  examined  thefe  veliculas  in  people  who  have  died  fuddenly,  and  he  found  their  contents  to  be  difFc- 
Tcnt  in  their  properties  from  the  femen.  In  thofe  who  had  loll  one  of  the  telliclcs,  or  the  ufeof  one  of  them, 
by  difcdfe,  both  the  veftculas  were  full,  and  their  contents  limilar.  And  in  a  lufus  7:atur,t,  where  there  was 
no  communication  between  the  vafa  deferentia  and  veliculse,  nor  between  the  veficulae  and  penis,  the  fame 
ihing  took  place. 

From  thefe  obfervations,  he  thinks  we  have  a  prefumptive  proof,  That  the  femen  can  be  abforbed  in  the 
body  of  the  teflicle  and  in  the  epididymis,  and  tliat  the  veficulse  fecrete  a  mucus  which  they  are  capable  of 
abforbing  when  it  cannot  be  made  ufe  of:  That  the  I'emen  is  not  retained  in  refervoirs  after  it  is  fecreted, 
and  kept  there  till  it  is  ufed  ;  but  that  it  is  fecreted  at  the  time,  in  confequcnce  of  certain  aficitions  of  the 
jnind  flinuilating  the  teflicles  to  this  aiflion. 

He  corroborates  his  obfervations  by  the  appearance  on  dilfeftion  in  other  animals  ;  and  here  he  finds.  That 
the  (hape  and  contents  of  the  veficul*  vary  much  in  different  animals,  while  the  femen  in  mofl  of  them  he  has 
examined  is  nearly  the  fame  :  That  the  vafa  deferentia  in  many  animals  do  not  communicate  with  the  veliculae: 
That  the  contents  of  the  veficulas  of  caflrated  and  perfedl  animals  are  (imilar,  and  nearly  equal  in  quantity, 
■  in  no  way  refembling  the  fcmen  as  emitted  from  the  animal  in  coitu,  or  w  hat  is  found  in  the  vas  deferens 
after  death.  He  obfcrves  like  wife,  that  the  bulb  of  the  urethraofperfed  males  is  conliderably  larger  than  In 
caflrated  animals. 

From  the  whole,  he  thinks  the  following  inferences  may  be  fairly  drawn  :  That  the  bags  called  veficulte 
fimiiialcs  are  not  feminal  refervoirs,  but  glands  fecreting  a  peculiar  mucus ;  and  that  the  bulb  of  the  urethra 
is  properly  fpraking  the  receptacle  of  the  fcmen,  in  which  it  is  accumulated  previous  to  ejciftion. 

13ut  although  he  has  endeavoured  to  prove  that  the  veliculx  do  not  contain  the  femen,  he  has  not  beea 
able  to  afcertain  their  particular  ufc.  He  thinks,  however,  we  may  be  allowed  upon  the  whole  to  conclude, 
that  ihcyare,  together  with  other  parts,  fubfervient  to  the  purpofes  of  generation. 

Altliough  the  author  has  treated  tliis  fubjecl  very  al.ly,  and  made  nuny  ingenious  obfervations,  fome  things 
may  be  objected  to  what  he  had  advanced ;  of  which  the  following  arc  a  few :  That  thofe  animals  who  have 

\vhicii 


Part  III. 


A 


of  the     tacheJ,  oneoii  each  fide,  by  means  of  the  ligamcntum 
AMomen.  fiifpcnforium  penis  to  the  ramus  ifchii,  and  to  the  in- 

^— — V '  ferior  portion  of  the  os  pubis. 

The  corpus  fpongiofuni  penis,  or  corpus  fpongiofum 
urcthrx,  as  it  is  ftylcd  by  fomc  authors,  begins  as  fuon 
as  the  urethra  has  palled  the  proftaie,  with  a  thick 
origin  almoft  like  a  heart,  firft  under  the  urethra,  and 
afterwards  above  it,  becoming  gradually  thinner,  and 
furrounding  the  whole  canal  of  the  urethra,  till  it  ter- 
minates in  a  confidcrable  expanlion,  and  coniHtutcs 
what  is  calUd  ihtglaiu  penii,  which  is  exceedingly 
vafcular,  and  covered  with  papillx  like  the  tongue. 
The  cuticle  which  lines  the  inner  farface  of  the  ure- 
thra, is  continued  over  the  glans  i:i  the  fame  manner 
ss  it  is  fpread  over  the  lips. 

The  penis  is  invcAed  by  the  common  integuments, 
but  the  cutis  is  refiedled  back  every  where  from  the 
glans  as  it  is  in  the  eye-lids  ;  fo  that  it  covers  this  part, 
when  the  penis  is  in  a  relaxed  ftatc,  as  it  were  with  a 
hood,  and  from  this  ufe  is  called /rf/^cc 

The  prepuce  is  tied  down  to  the  under  part  of  the 
glans  by  a  fmall  ligament  czWcdfrxnum,  which  is  in 
fad  only  a  continuation  of  the  cuticle  and  cutis. 
There  are  many  fimple  febaccous  follicles  called  ^/^«- 
dulic  odcnfirx,  placed  round  the  bafis  of  the  glans  ; 
and  the  fluid  they  fecretc  ferves  to  prefcrve  the  exqui- 
fite  fenfibility  of  this  part  of  the  penis,  and  toprcvent 
the  ill  effeds  of  attrition  from  the  prepuce. 

The  urethra  may  be  defined  to  be  a  membranous 
cannl,  palTing  from  the  bladder  tkrough  the  whole  ex- 
tent of  the  penis.  Several  very  fmall  openings,  called 
/«c«?/-F,  communicate  with  this  canal,  through  which 
a  mucus  is  difcharged  into  it ;  and  bclidcs  thefe,  there 
arc  two  glands,  firll  defcribcd  by  Cowper,  as  fccrcting 
a  fluid  for  lubricating  the  urethra,  and  called  Coiapir's 
^  jj,     .  ^glands  (r)  ;  and  Littrc*  fpeaks  of  a  gland  fituated 
Jtt/Utd."  "'*''  ^^^  proftate,  as  bting  deftincd  for  the  fame  ufe. 
Royalt  det        The  urethra  being  continued  from  the  neck  of  the 
Stitncti,       bladder,  is  to  be  confidercd  as  making  part  of  the  uri- 
170C.  nary  pafTage  ;  and  it  likewife  affords  a  conveyance  to 

the  femen,  which  we  haveobfervedis  occafionally  dif- 
charged into  it  from  the  veficulas  feminales.  The  di- 
redion  of  this  canal  being  fir/l  under  and  then  before 
the  pubis,  occafions  a  winding  in  its  courfe  from  the 
bladder  to  the  penis  not  unlike  the  turns  of  the  let- 
ler5. 

The  penis  has  three  pair  of  mufcles,  the  eredores, 
acceleratorcs,and  tranfverfales.  They  pulli  the  blood 
from  the  crura  to  the  fore  part  of  the  corpora  cavcr- 
nofa.     The  lirfl  originate  from  the  tubcrolity  of  the 


'      O      M      Y.  747 

ifchium,    and  terminate  in  the  corpora   cavcrnofa.     Of  the 
The  accelcratores  arifc  from  the  fphindcr,  and  by  Abdomca. 
their  infcnion  ferve  to  comprcfs  the  bulbous  patt  of  ——y—^ 
the  urethra  ;  and  the  tranfverfales  are  dellined  to  af- 
ford a  palTage  to  the  femen,  by  dilating  the  canal  of 
the  urethra. 

The  arteries  of  the  penis  arc  chiefly  derived  front 
the  internal  iliacs.  Some  of  them  are  fuppofed  to  ter- 
minate by  pabulous  orifices  within  the  corpora  cavcr- 
nofa and  corpus  fpongiofum  ;  and  others  terminate  ia 
veins,  which  at  lafl  make  up  the  vena  magna  dorfi  pe- 
nis, and  other  fmallcr  veins,  which  are  in  general  di- 
ilributed  in  like  order  with  the  arteries. 

Its  nerves  are  large  and  numerous.  They  arife  from 
the  great  fciatic  nerve,  and  accompany  the  arteries  in 
their  courfe  through  the  penis. 

We  have  now  defcribcd  the  anatomy  of  this  organ  ; 
and  there  only  remains  to  be  explained,  how  it  is  ena- 
bled to  attain  that  degree  of  firmnefs  and  diflcnfioa 
which  is  effential  to  the  great  work  of  generation. 

The  greateft  part  of  the  penis  has  been  fpoken  of 
as  being  of  a  fpongy  and  cellular  texture,  plentifully 
fuppliedwith  blood-velfels  and  nerves,  and  as  having 
mufcles  to  move  it  in  different  dircdions.  Now,  the 
blood  is  conftantly  palling  into  its  cells  through  the 
fmall  branches  of  the  arteries  which  open  into  them^ 
and  is  from  thence  asconftantly  returned  by  the  veins, 
fo  long  as  the  corpora  cavcrnofa  and  corpus  fpongio- 
fum continue  to  be  in  a  relaxed  and  pliant  ftate.  But 
when,  from  any  nervous  influence,  or  other  means, 
which  it  is  not  necelTary  here  to  define  or  explain,  the 
eredores  penis,  ejaculatores  feminis,  levaiores  ani,  &c. 
are  induced  to  contrad,  the  veins  undergo  a  certain 
degree  of  comprelfion,  and  the  palfage  of  the  blood 
through  them  is  fo  much  impeded,  that  it  coUeds  in 
them  in  a  greater  proportion  than  they  are  enabled  t« 
carry  olF,  fo  that  the  penis  gradually  enlarges ;  and 
being  more  and  more  forcibly  drawn  up  againfl  theos 
pubis,  the  vena  magna  itfelf  is  at  length  comprclfed, 
and  the  penis  becomes  fully  diflcnded.  But  as  the 
caufcs  which  firft  occafioncd  this  diflcntion  fublide, 
the  penis  gradually  returns  to  its  ftate  of  relaxation. 

§   7.  Female  Organs  of  Ceneratioti. 

Anatomical  writers ufually  divide  the  female  or-  m, 
gans  of  generation  into  external  and  internal.  In  the 
firfl  divilion  they  include  the  tnons  vcmris, labia puden- 
di,  pcrin.tum,cUt'jris,nymphtif  and  carunciilx  tnyrtifor- 
nies  ;  and  in  the  latter,  the  vagina  with  the  uterus  and 
its  appendages. 

J  B  2  The 


bags  called  veficulx  feminales  perform  copulation  quickly  ;  whereas  others  that  want  them,  as  inthe  dog  kind, 
are  tedious  in  copulation  :  That  in  the  human  body,  at  lead,  there  is  a  free  communication  between  the  vafa 
deferentiaand  vcliculx  ;  and  in  animals  where  the  author  has  obfcrved  no  communication  between  the  vafa 
dcfercntia  and  vcliculae,  there  may  be  acommunicaiion  by  veifcls  not  yet  difcovered,  and  which  may  be  com- 
pared to  the  hcpato-cyftic  duds  in  fowls  and  filhcs  :  That  the  fluid  in  the  end  of  the  vafa  defereniia  and  the 
veliculae  feminales  are  fimilar,  according  to  the  author's  own  obfervation  :  That  the  veficulae  in  fome  animals 
incrcafe  and  decreafe  with  the  tefticlc  at  particular  feafons  :  That  in  birds  and  certain  fifties,  there  is  a  dila- 
tation of  the  ends  of  the  vafa  defereniia,  which  the  author  himfclf  allows  to  be  a  refcrvoir  for  [he  femen. 

With  refped  to  the  circuni fiance  of  the  bulb  of  the  urethra  anfwcring  the  purpofc  of  a  refervoir,  the  au- 
thor has  mentioned  no  fads  which  tend  to  cflablilh  this  opinion.  See  obfervatioiis  on  certain  Farts  oj  the  A- 
nimal  Oeconoviy. 

(r)  Both  Hciller  and  Morgagni  obfervc,  that  they  kave  fometimes  not  been  able  to  find  thefe  glands  ;  fo 
tbat  they  do  not  fecm  to  cxifl  in  all  fubjeds. 


748  ANA! 

of  the  The  mons  venerh,  which  is  placed  on  the  upper  pare 
Alidumen.  of  the  fympTiyfis  pubis,  is  internally  compofed  of  adi- 
^-—^^—^  pgfc  membranes,  which  makes  it  loft  and  prominent : 
it  divides  into  two  parts  called /rt^;<»^//(3'c'//(/;,  which  de- 
fcending  towards  the  rcitum,  from  which  they  arc 
divided  by  the  pcrinaeum,  form  what  is  called  the 
foiirchettc.  The  pcrinaeum  is  that  Helliy  fpace  which 
extends  about  an  inch  and  an  half  from  the  fourchet- 
tc  to  the  anus,  and  from  thence  about  two  inches  to 
the  coccyx. 

The  labia  pudcndi  being  feparatcd,  we  obfervc  a  fiil- 
cus  caWtiJoifa  t?:agiia  ,-  in  ihe  upper  part  of  which  is 
placed  the  clitoris,  a  fmall  round  fpongy  body,  in  fome 
meafurc  refembling  the  male  penis,  but  impervious, 
compofed  of  two  corpora  cavernofa,  arifmg  from  the 
tuberoiities  of  the  olla  ifchii ;  funiilhed  with  two  pair 
of  mufcles,  the  crciSlorcs  clitoridis,  and  tliefpliinfter 
or  conftrittor  oilii  vaginae  ;  and  terminating  in  a  glans, 
which  is  covered  with  its  prepuce.  From  the  lower 
part,  on  each  fide  of  tlie  folFa,  pafs  the  nympho;,  two 
membranous  and  fpongy  folds  which  feem  dcltined  for 
ul'eful  purpofes  in  parturition,  by  tending  to  enlarge 
the  volume  of  the  vagina  as  the  child's  head  pall'es 
through  it.  Between  thcfc,  about  the  middle  of  the 
folia  magna,  we  perceive  the  orilice  of  the  vagina  or  os 
externum,  clofcd  by  folds  and  wrinkles  ;  and  about 
half  an  inch  above  this,  and  about  an  inch  below  the 
clitoris,  appears  the  meatus  urinarius  or  orifice  of  the 
urethra,  much  fliortcr,  though  fomewhat  larger,  than 
in  men,  with  a  little  prominence  at  its  lower  edge, 
which  facilitates  the  introdudion  of  the  catheter. 

The  OS  extcrnam  is  fiirroundcd  internally  by  fcveral 
membranous  folds  called  cariuicutj:  myrt'iformes ,  which 
are  partly  the  remainsofa  thin  membrane  called^)' '«'•'■'> 
that  covers  the  vagina  in  children.  In  general  the  hy- 
men is  fufficiently  open  to  admit  the  palfage  of  the 
mcnfes,  if  it  exills  at  the  time  of  their  appearance  ; 
fometimes,  however,  it  has  been  found  perfectly  cIj- 
fed. 

The  vagina,  fituated  between  the  urethra  and  the 
reftum,  is  a  incmbranous  cavity,  furrouudcd  efpeci.illy 
at  its  external  extremity  W'ith  a  fpongy  and  vafcular 
fubflancc,  which  is  covered  by  tlie  fphindlor  oftii  va- 
ginae. It  terminates  in  the  uterus,  about  half  an  inch 
above  the  os  tincx,  and  is  wider  and  fliorter  in  women 
who  have  had  children  than  in  virgins. 

All  ihcfe  pans  are  plentifully  fupplicd  with  blood- 
vell'cls  and  nerves.  Around  the  nymph;^;  there  are 
febaceous  follicles,  which  pour  out  a  fluid  to  lubricate 
the  inner  furface  of  the  vagina  ;  and  the  meatus  urina- 
rius, like  the  urethra  in  the  male  fubjcft,  is  conllantly 
nioirtcncd  by  a  mucus,  which  defends  it  againfl  the 
acrimony  of  the  urine. 

The  utenii  is  a  hollow  vifcus,  fituated  in  the  hy- 
pograftric  region,  between  the  reftum  and  bladder.  It 
is  deflincd  to  receive  the  firft  rudiments  of  the  foetus, 
and  to  afiid  in  the  devtlopemcni  of  all  its  parts,  till  it 
arrives  at  a  flate  of  perfedion,  and  is  fitted  to  enter 
into  the  world,  at  the  time  appointed  by  the  wife  Au- 
thor of  nature. 

The  ntcrus,  in  its  unimpregnated  Haie,  refemblcs  a 
pearin  lliape,  foniewlut  iialtcned,  with  its  fundus  or 
bottom  part  turned  towards  the  abdomen,  and  its  cer- 
vix or  neck  furrouudcd  by  the  vagina.  The  entrance 
into  its  cavity  forms  a  little  protuberance,  which  has 


O      M      Y. 


Part  III 


been  compared  to  the  mouth  of  a  tench,  and  is  there-    Of  the 
fore  called  os  tinat.  Abdomen- 

The  fubftanccof  the  uterus,  which  is  of  a  confider-  *~~~  ' 
able  thicknels,  appears  to  be  compofed  of  nuifcular  and 
fmall  ligamentous  libres,fmall  branches  of  nerves, fome 
lymphatics,  and  with  arteries  and  veins  innumerable. 
Its  ncrvesare  chiefly  derived  from  the  inicrcoflal,  and 
itsartcrics  and  veins  from  the  hypogallric  and  fperma- 
tic.  The  membrane  which  lines  iis  cervix,  is  a  conti- 
nuation of  the  inner  membrane  of  the  vagina;  but  the 
outer  furface  of  tlic  body  of  the  uterus  is  covered  with 
the  peri tonnium, which  isreflededovcrit,anddcfcends 
from  thence  to  the  inteflinum  rcvihim.  Thisduplica- 
ture  of  iheperitoiiiKuin,  by  palling  ofl' from  the  fides  of 
the  uterus  to  the  fides  of  the  pelvis,  is  there  firmly  con- 
nefled,  and  forms  what  are  called  ligamotta  uteri  la- 
ta;  which  not  only  ferve  to  fupport  the  uterus,  but  to 
convey  nerves  and  blood-veffels  to  it. 

The  ligavicnta  uteri rotutida  arife  from  the  fides  of 
the  fundusutcri,  and  palFrng along  within  the  fore-part 
of  the  ligamenta  lata,  defcend  through  the  abdominal 
rings,  and  terminate  in  the  fubflance  of  the  mons  ve- 
neris. The  fubflancc  of  thefe  ligaments  is  vafcular, 
and  although  both  they  and  the  ligamenta  lata  admit 
the  uterus  in  the  virgin  flate,  to  move  only  about  an 
inch  up  and  down,  yet  in  the  courfe  of  pregnancy  they 
admit  of  conliderable  diflenfion,  and  after  parturition 
return  nearly  to  their  original  flate  with  furpriling 
quickncfs. 

On  each  fide  of  the  inner  furface  of  the  uterus,  in 
the  angle  near  the  fundus,  a  fmall  orifice  is  to  be  dif- 
covercd,whichis  the  beginning  of  one  of  the  tubas  fal- 
lopianx.  Each  of  thefe  tubes,  which  are  two  in  num- 
ber, palfing  through  the  fubftance  of  the  uterus,  is  ex- 
tended along  the  broad  ligaments,  till  it  reaches  the 
edge  of  the  pelvis,  from  whence  it  reflefts  back  ;  and 
turning  over  behind  the  ligaments,about  an  inch  of  its 
extremity  is  feen  hanging  loofe  in  the  pelvis,  near  the 
ovarium.  Thefe  extremities,  havinga  jagged  appear- 
ance, arc  c^WcA  finibri.c,  or  morj'ui  diaboli.  Each  tuba 
Fallopiaiia  is  ufually  about  tjiree  or  four  inches  long. 
Their  cavities  are  at  firfl  very  fmall,  but  become  gra- 
dually larger,  like  a  trumpet,  as  they  approach  the 
fimbrix. 

Near  the  fimbiix  of  each  tuba  Fallopiana,  about 
an  inch  from  the  uterus,  is  fituated  an  oval  body 
called  ovarium,  of  about  half  the  fize  of  the  male  tef- 
ticlc.  Each  of  thefe  ovaria  is  covered  by  a  produftion 
of  the  peritona:um,and  hangs  loofe  in  the  pelvis.  They 
are  of  a  flat  and  angular  form,  and  appear  to  be  com- 
pofed of  a  white  and  cellular  fubftance,  in  which  we 
arc  able  to  difcovcr  fcveral  minute  vcficles  filled  with  a 
coagulable  lymph,  of  an  uncertain  number,  commonly 
exceeding  tain  each  ovary.  In  the  female  of  riper  years, 
thefe  veficles  become  exceedingly  turgid,  and  a  kindof 
yellow  coagulum  is  gradually  formed  within  one  of 
them,  which  increafes  for  a  certain  lime.  In  concep- 
tion, one  of  thefe  mature  ova  is  fuppofcd  to  be  impreg- 
nated with  the  male  femcn,  and  to  be  fqueezed  out  of 
its  nidus  into  the  Fallopian  tube  ;  after  which  the  rup- 
tured part  forms  a  fubflancc  which  in  fome  animals  is 
of  a  yellow  colour,  and  is  therefore  called  corpus  lu- 
tfum  ;  and  it  isobferveable,  that  the  number  of  thefe 
fears  or  fillures  in  the  ovarium,  conllantly  eorrcfponds 
with  the  number  of  foctufes  excluded  by  the  mother. 


Part  III. 


A      N 


Of  the 
Abdomen. 


5   3.  Of  Conception. 

Man,  being  ever  curious  and  inquifitive,  has  natu- 
rally been  led  to  enquire  alter  the  origin  of  his  exift- 
cnce ;  and  the  fubjcdl;  of  generation  has  employed  the 
philofophical  world  in  all  ages:  but  in  following  na- 
ture up  to  her  niinuic  recellcs,  ihc  philoloplicr  I'uon 
finds  himfelf  bewildered,  and  his  imagination  often 
fupplics  that  which  he  fo  eagerly  wiflies  to  difcover^ 
but  which  is  deftiued  perhaps  never  to  be  revealed  to 
him.  Of  the  many  theories  which  have  been  formed 
on  this  fubjcft,  that  of  the  ancient  philofophcrs  fccms 
to  have  been  the  niofl  fnnple  :  they  confidercdthc  male 
femen  as  alone  capable  of  forming  the  fcctus,  and  be- 
lieved that  the  female  only  afforded  it  a  lodgingin  the 
womb,  and  fupplicd  it  with  nourilhment  after  it  was 
pcrfeftly  formed.  This  opinion,  however,  foon  gave 
place  to  another,  in  which  the  female  was  allowed  a 
more  conliderable  fliare  in  conception. 

This  fccond  fyflem  conlidered  the  fcetus  as  being 
formed  by  the  mixture  of  the  fcminal  liquor  of  both 
fexcs,  by  a  certain  arrangement  of  its  fevcral  particles 
in  the  uterus.  But  in  the  i6th  century,  veliclcs  or 
eggs  were  difcovered  in  theovariaor  female  tefliclcs; 
the  foetus  had  been  found  fometimes  in  the  abdomen, 
Kni.  fometimes  in  the  Fallopian  tubes ;  and  the  two 
former  opinions  were  exploded  in  favour  of  a  new  doc- 
trine. The  ovaria  were  compared  toa  bunch  of  grapes, 
being  fuppofed  toconfift  of  veliclcs,  each  of  which  had 
a  flalk  ;  fo  that  it  might  be  difengaged  without  hurting 
the  reft,  or  fpilling  the  liquor  it  contained.  Each  vc- 
ficle  was  faid  to  include  a  little  animal,  almoft  com- 
plete in  all  its  parts;  and  the  vapour  of  the  male  femen 
being  conveyed  to  the  ovarium,  was  fuppofed  to  pro- 
duce a  fermentation  in  the  veficle,  which  approached 
the  nearcft  to  maturity ;  and  thus  inducing  it  to  difen- 
gage  itfelf  from  the  ovarium,  it  palled  into  the  tuba 
Fallopiana,  thro'  which  it  was  conveyed  to  the  uterus. 
Here  it  was  fuppofed  to  take  root  like  a  vegetable 
feed,  and  to  form,  with  the  velFcls  originating  from 
the  uterus,  what  is  called  the  pluvciita;  by  means  of 
which  the  circulatiom  is  carried  on  between  the  mo- 
ther and  the  fretus. 

This  opinion,  with  all  its  abfurdities,  continued  to 
be  almofl  univcrfally  adopted  till  the  clofc  of  the  fame 
century,  when  Licwenhoeck,  by  means  of  his  ghllcs 
difcovered  cert:iin  opakc  particles,  which  he  dcfcrib- 
cd  as  fo  many  animalcula,  floating  in  the  fcminal  fluid 
of  the  male. 

This  difcovery  introduced  a  new  fchifm  among  the 
philofophers  of  that  time,  and  gave  rife  to  a  fyflem 
which  is  not  yet  entirely  exploded.  According  to 
this  theory  the  male  femen  paffiug  into  the  tub*  Kal- 
lopianas,  one  of  the  animalcula  penetrates  into  the  fub- 
ftancc  of  the  ovarium,  and  enters  intooneof  its  veliclcs 
or  ova.  This  impregnatcdovum  is  then  fqueczed  from 
its  hufk,  through  the  coats  of  the  ovarium,  and  beinu; 
feized  by  the  finibrix,  is  conducted  through  the  tube 


r      O       M       Y.  749 

to  the  uterus,  where  it  is  nourilhcd  till  it  arrives  at  a  Of  the 
ftatc  of  perfe(flion.  In  this  fy ftem  there  is  much  inge-  Abdomea.^ 
nuity  ;  but  there  are  certain  circumflanccs  fuppofed  to  "  " 
take  place,  which  have  been  hitherto  inexplicable.  A 
celebrated  tnodern  writer,  M.  BufFon,  endeavours  to 
reftore,  in  fome  meafure,  the  mofl  ancient  opinion, by 
allowing  the  female  femen  afhare  in  thisoffice  ;  alTert- 
ing,  that  animalcula  or  organic  partid'  s  arc  to  be  dif- 
covered in  the  fcminal  liquor  of  both  fexes:  he  derives 
the  female  femen  from  the  ovaria,  and  he  contends  that 
no  ovum  exifls  in  thofe  parts.  But  in  this  idea  he  is 
evidently  miflaken  ;  and  the  opinion  now  moft  gene- 
rally adopted  is,  thatan  impregnation  of  the  ovum,  by 
the  influence  of  the  male  femen,  is  cirential  to  concep- 
tion (s).  That  the  ovum  is  to  be  impregnated,  there 
can  be  no  doubt ;  but  as  the  manner  in  which  fiich  an 
impregnation  is  fuppofed  to  take  place,  and  the  means 
by  which  the  ovum  afterwards  gets  into  the  Fallopi- 
an tube, and  from  thence  into  the  uterus,  are  flill  found- 
ed chiefly  on  hypothclis,  we  w'ill  not  attempt  to  ex- 
tend fartjier  the  invclligaiion  of  a  fnbjccl  concerning 
which  fo  little  can  be  advanced  with  certainty. 

\  4.  Of  the  Fxtus  in  Utero. 

Opportunities  of  difledling  the  human  gravid       "■*• 
uterus  occurring  but  fcldom,  the  ftate  of  the  embryo 
(t)  immediately  after  conception  cannot  be  perfeftly 
known. 

When  the  ovum  dcfcends  into  the  uterus,  it  is  fup- 
pofed to  be  very  minute  ;  and  it  is  not  till  a  confider- 
able  time  after  conception  that  the  rudiments  of  the 
embryo  begin  to  be  afcertaiued. 

About  the  third  or  fourth  week  the  eye  may  difco- 
ver  the  firll  lineaments  of  the  foetus  ;  but  thefe  linea- 
ments are  as  yet  very  impcrfcift,  it  being  only  abour 
the  lize  of  a  houfe-fly.  Two  little  veficles  appear  m 
an  almofl  tranfparent  jelly  ;  the  largefl  of  which  is  dc- 
ftined  to  become  the  head  of  the  firtus,  and  the  other 
fmaller  one  is  refcrvcd  for  the  trunk.  But  at  this  pe- 
riod no  extremities  are  to  be  feen  ;  the  umbilical  cord 
appears  only  as  a  very  minute  thread,  and  the  placenta 
does  not  as  yet  abforb  the  red  particles  of  the  blood. 
At  lix  weeks,  not  only  the  head  but  the  feature!,  of  the 
face  begin  to  be  developed.  The  nofe  appears  like  a 
a  fmall  prominent  line, and  wc  are  able  to  difcover  ano- 
ther line  under  it,  which  is  deftined  for  the  feparaiion 
of  the  lips.  Two  black  points  appear  in  the  phce  of 
eyes,  and  two  minute  holes  mark  the  cars.  At  the 
fides  of  the  trunk,  both  above  and  below,  wc  fee  four 
minute  protuberances,  which  arc  the  rudiments  of  the 
arms  and  legs.  At  the  end  of  eight  weeks  the  body 
of  the  foetus  is  upwards  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  both 
the  hands  and  feet  are  to  be  diflinguilhed.  The  up- 
per extremities  are  found  to  incrcafe  faftcr  than  the 
lower  ones,  and  the  feparation  of  the  fingers  is  accom- 
pliflied  fooner  than  that  of  the  toes. 

At  this  period  the  human  form  may  be  dccifively 
afcertained;  all  the  parts  of  the  face  may  be  diflin- 
guilhed 


(s)  The  learned  Abbe  Spallanzani  has  thrown  much  lighton  this  curious  fubjeifl,  and  has  proved  by  a  variety 
of  experiments  that  the  animalcule  exifts  entire  in  the  female  ovum,  and  that  the  male  feed  is  only  nccelfary  to 
vivify  and  put  it  in  motion.  His  experiments  and  obfervations  are  worthy  the  attentive  pcrufal  of  every  pbyfio- 
logill. 

(t)  The  rudiments  of  the  child  are  ufually  diftinguilhcd  by  this  name  till  the  human  figure  c»n  be  diftincl" 
ly  afcertained,  and  then  it  has  the  appellation  o(  fatiu. 


750 

<v  tl  e 
Abdomen 


ANA*: 

guilTicd,  the  f.mpc  of  the  body  is  clearly  marked  out, 
•  tlie  haunches  and  the  abdomen  arc  elevated,  the  fingers 
'  and  toes  arc  feparated  from  each  other,  and  the  inter- 
lines appear  like  minute  threads. 

At  the  end  of  the  third  month,  the  foetus  mcafiires 
about  three  inches  ;  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  month, 
five  inches  ;  in  the  fifth  month,  fix  or  fevcn  inches  ;  in 
the  fixth  month,  eight  or  nine  inches  ;  in  the  feventb 
month,  eleven  or  twelve  inches  ;  in  the  eighth  month, 
fourteen  or  fifteen  inches  ;  and  at  the  end  of  the  ninth 
month,  or  full  time,  front  eighteen  to  twenty-two 
inches.  But  as  we  have  not  an  opportunity  of  exa- 
mining the  fame  focrus  at  different  periods  of  pregnan- 
<y,  and  as  their  lize  and  length  may  be  influenced  by 
the  conflitution  and  modeol'litcof  the  motlier,  calcu- 
lations of  this  kind  mull  be  very  uncertain. 

The  fcetus  during  all  tliis  time  allunies  an  oval  fi- 
gure, which  correfj'onds  with  the  fliape  of  the  uterus. 
Its  chin  is  found  reclining  on  its  breaft  with  its  knees 
drawn  up  towards  its  chin,  and  its  arms  folded  over 
them.  But  it  fecras  likely,  that  the  pofture  of  fome 
of  thefe  parts  is  varied  in  the  latter  months  of  preg- 
nancy, fo  as  to  cavife  thofe  painful  twitches  which  its 
mother  ufually  feels  from  time  to  time.  In  natural 
cafes,  its  head  is  probably  placed  towards  the  os  tincae 
from  the  time  of  conception  to  that  of  iis  birth  ; 
though  formerly  it  was  confidered  as- being  placed 
towards  the  fundis  uteri  till  about  the  eighth  or  ninth 
month,  when  the  head,  by  becoming  fpccifically  hea- 
vier than  the  other  parts  of  the  body,  was  fuppofed 
to  be  turned  downwards. 

The  capacity  of  the  uterus  increafes  in  proportion 
to  the  growth  of  the  foetus,  but  without  becoming 
thinner  in  itsfubftance,  as  might  naturally  be  expeded. 
The  nourifliment  of  the  foetus,  during  all  this  time, 
feems  to  be  derived  from  the  placenta,  which  appears 
to  be  originally  formed  by  tiiat  part  of  the  ovum  which 
is  next  the  fundus  uteri.  The  remaining  part  of  the 
ovum  is  covered  by  a  membrane  cMedJfougy  chori- 
on {v)  ;  within  which  is  another  called  true  chorion, 
uhich  includes  a  third  termed  amnios  (v)  :  this  con- 
tains a  watery  fluid,  which  is  the  liquor  amnii  (w),  in 
which  the  foetus  floats  till  the  time  of  its  birth.  On 
the  fide  next  the  foetus,  the  placenta  is  covered  by  the 
amnios  and  true  chorion  ;  on  the  lide  next  the  mother 
it  has  a  produdlion  continued  from  the  fpongy  chori- 
on. The  amnios  and  chorion  arc  remarkably  thin  and 


M      Y. 


Part  II  r. 


tranfparent,having  no  blood-vcfTcIsenteringinto  their      of  the 
comjioiition.The  fpongy  chorion  is  opake  and  vafcular.  Abdomen. 

Jn  the  firft  months  ofprcgnancy,theinvolucra  bear  a  ' " ' 

largcproportionto  their  contents;  but  this  proportion 
is  afterwards  reverfcd,  as  the  foetus  incrcal^cs  in  bulk. 

The  placenta,  whicli  is  the  medium  through  which 
the  bloud  is  conveyc  d  from  the  mother  to  the  foetus, 
and  the  manner  iii  which  this  conveyance  takes  place, 
dcferve  next  to  be  confidered. 

The  placenta  is  a  broad,  flat,  and  fpongy  fubfbance, 
like  a  cake,  clofely  adhering  to  the  inner  furface  of 
the  womb,  ufually  near  the  fundus,  and  appearing  to 
be  chiefly  made  up  of  ihe  ramifications  of  the  umbili- 
cal arteries  and  vein,  and  partly  of  the  extremities  of 
tlic  uterine  vends.  The  arteries  of  the  uterus  difchargc 
their  contents  into  the  fubflance  of  this  cake  ;  and  the 
veins  of  the  placenta,  receiving  the  blood  either  by  a 
direft  communication  of  vctrels,  or  by  abforption,  at 
length  form  the  umbilical  vein,  which  pail'es  on  to  the 
linus  of  the  vena  porta,  and  from  thence  to  the  vena 
cava,  by  means  of  the  canalis  venofus,  a  communica- 
tion that  isclofedin  the  adult.  But  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  through  the  heart  is  not  conduced  in  the 
foetus  as  in  the  adult :  in  the  latter,  the  blood  is  carried 
from  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart  through  the  pulmo- 
nary artery,  and  is  returned  to  the  left  auricle  by  the 
pulmonary  vein  ;  but  a  dilatation  of  the  lungs  is  efTen- 
tial  to  the  paflagc  of  the  blood  through  the  pulmonary 
vcUels,  and  this  dilatation  cannot  take  place  till  after 
the  child  is  born  and  has  refpired.  This  deficiency, 
however,  is  fupplied  in  the  foetus  by  the  immediate 
communication  between  the  rin;ht  and  left  auricle, 
through  an  oval  opening,  in  the  feptum  which  divides 
the  two  auricles,  ciWtA  foramen  ovale.  The  blsod  is 
likewifc  tranfmitted  from  the  pulmonary  artery  to  th» 
aorta,  by  means  of  a  duA  called  canalis  arteriofus, 
which,  like  the  canalis  venofus,  and  foramen  ovalse, 
gradually  clofes  after  birth. 

The  blood  is  returned  again  from  the  foetus  through 
two  arteries  called  the  umbilical  arteries,  which  arife 
from  the  iliacs.  Thefe  two  vefTels  taking  a  winding 
courfc  with  the  vein,  form  with  that,  and  the  mem- 
branes by  which  they  arc  furrounded,  what  is  called 
the  umbilical  chor^.  Thefe  arteries,  after  ramifying 
through  the  fubflance  of  theplacenta,  difchargc  their 
blood  into  the  veins  of  the  uterus  ;  in  the  fame  manner 
as  the  uterine  arteries  difchargcd  their  blood  into  the 

branches 


(u)  Dr  Hunter  has  defcribed  this  as  a  lamella  from  the  inner  furface  of  the  uterus.  In  the  latter  months 
of  pregnancy  it  becomes  gradually  thinner  and  more  connected  with  tlie  chorion  :  he  has  named  it  mcmbrana 
fad-.ica,  or  diciil.ia,  as  it  iscafl  off' with  the  placenta.  Signior  Scarpa,  with  more  probability,  conliders  it  as 
being  compofed  of  an  infpilfated  coagulable  lymph. 

(v)  In  fome  quadrupeds,  the  urine  appears  to  be  conveyed  from  the  bladder  through  a  canal  called  urachus, 
to  the  allantnis,  which  is  a  refervoir,  rtfcivibling  along  and  blind  gut,  fituatcd  btiween  the  chorion  and  am- 
nios. The  human  foetus  feems  to  have  no  fuch  refervoir,  though  fome  writers  have  fuppofed  that  it  does  ex- 
llt.  From  the  top  of  the  bladder  a  few  longitudinal  fibres  are  extended  to  the  umbilical  chord  ;  and  thefe  fi- 
bres have  been  confidered  as  the  urachus,  though  without  having  been  ever  found  pervious. 

(w')  The  liquor  amnii  coagulates  like  the  lymph.  It  has  been  fuppofed  to  pafs  into  the  oefophagus,  and  to 
afford  nourifliment  to  the  foetus  -,  but  this  does  not  feeni  probable.  Children  have  come  into  the  world  with- 
•ut  an  oefophagus,  or  any  communication  between  the  Ifomach  and  the  mouth  ;  but  there  has  been  no  well  at 
tefled  inflance  of  a  child's  having  been  born  without  a  placenta  ;  and  it  dees  not  feem  likely,  that  any  of  the 
fluid  can  be  abforbed  through  the  pores  of  the  Ikin,  the  fkiu  in  the  foetus  being  cvcrj  where  covered  with  a 
great  quantity  of  mucus. 


Part  III. 


A       N 


O       M       Y. 


Of  the 

Abdomen,  conftantly  palling  in  ac  one  lide  of  the  pi 

'  out  a:  the  other  ;  but  iu  what  particular  maimer  it 


75' 


branches  of  the  umbilical  vein.     So  that  the  blood  is    gets  through,  the  placenta  is  a  point  iiot  yet  deter-     Oftlie 
conftantly  palling  in  at  one  lide  of  the  placenta  and     mined.  AWomei 


EXPLANATION  ok  PLATES  XXV.  XXVL  and  XXVII. 


Plate    XXV. 

Fic.  I.  Shows  the  Contents  of  the  Thorax  and  Ab- 
domen in  litu. 
I.  Top  of  the  trachea,  or  wind-pipe.  2  %,  The  in- 
ternaljiigularvcins.  33,  The  fiibclaviaa  veins.  4,  Th« 
vena  cava  dcfccndens.  5,  The  right  auricle  of  the 
heart.  6,  The  right  ventricle.  7,  Part  of  the  left 
ventricle.  8,  Theaorta  defcendens.  9,  The  pulmo- 
nary artery.  10,  The  right  lung,  part  of  which  is 
cut  ofFtofhow  the  great  blood  vcU'els.  11,  The  left 
lung  entire.  12  12,  The  anterior  edge  of  the  dia- 
phragm. 13  13,  The  two  grcai  lobes  of  the  liver. 
1 4,  The  ligamenium  rotunduni .  i  j,  The  gall-bladder. 
16,  The  ftomach.  17  17,  The  jejunum  and  ilium. 
18,  The  fpleen. 

Fig.  2.  Shows  the  Organs  fubfervient  to  the  Chy- 
lopoietic  Vifccra, — with  thofe  of  Urine  and  Ge- 
neration. 

I  I,  The  under  fide  of  the  two  great  lobes  of  the 
liver,  a,  Lobulus  Spigclii.  2,  The  ligamentum  ro- 
tundum.  3,  The  gallbladder.  4.  The  pancreas. 
5,  The  fpleen.  6  6,  The  kidneys.  7,  The  aorta 
dcfccndens.  8,  Vena  cava  afcendcns.  9  9,  The  renal 
veins  covering  the  arteries.  10,  A  probe  under  the 
fpermatic  veffcls  and  a  bit  of  the  inferior  mefcnte- 
ric  artery,  and  over  the  ureters.  1 1  1 1,  The  ureters. 
12  12,  The  iliac  arteries  and  \cins.  13,  The  redum 
inicftinum.     14,  The  bladder  of  urine. 

Fig.  3.  Shows  the  Chylopoietic  Vifcera,  and  Or- 
gans fubfervient  to  them,  taken  out  of  the  Body  en- 
tire. 

A  A,  The  under  fide  of  the  two  great  lobes  of  the 
liver.  B,  Ligamentum  rotundum.  C,  The  gall- 
bladder. D,  l3u(Sus  cyfiicus.  E,  Dudiis  hepaticus. 
F,  Dudus  communis  cholcdochus.  G,  Vena  porta- 
rum.  H,  Artcria  hepatica.  I  I,  The  flomach. 
K  K,  Venae  &  arteri;r  gallro-cpiploicae,  dcxtrae  & 
finiftras.  L  L,  Venas  &  arterias  coronariae  veutriculi. 
M,  The  fpleen.  N  N,  Mefocolon,  with  its  vellcls. 
000,  Inteflinum  colon.  P,  One  of  the  ligaments 
of  the  colon,  which  is  a  bundle  of  longitudinal  mufcu- 
lar  fibres.  ()^Q^Q^Q^,  Jejunam  and  ilium.  R  R,  Sig- 
moid flexure  of  the  colon  with  the  hgainent  continued, 
and  over  S,  The  rccluin  ijiteftinum.  TT,  Levators 
ani.  U,  Sphinder  ani.  V,  The  place  to  which  the 
profiate  gland  is  connefled.    W,  The  anus. 

Fig.  4.  Shows  the  Heart  of  a  Foetus  at  the  full 
time,  with  the  Right  Auricle  cut  open  to  fuow 
the  Foramen  Ovale,  or  pallage  between  both  Au- 
ricles. 

a.  The  right  ventricle,  b,  The  left  ventricle. 
c  c,  The  outer  fide  of  the  right  auricle  ftretchcd  out. 
d  d,  Tlie  poftcrior  lide,  which  forms  the  anterior  fide 
of  the  fcptum.  c,The  foramen  ovale,  wiih  the  mem- 
brane or  valve  which  covers  ihcleft  lide.    f,  Vcua  ca- 

I 


va  inferior  palling  through  g,  A  portion  of  the  dia- 
phragm. 

Fig.  J.  Shows  the  Heart  and  Large  Veffels  of  a  Foe- 
tus at  the  full  lime. 

a,  The  left  ventricle,  b,  The  right  ventricle,  c,  A 
part  of  the  right  auricle,  d.  Left  auricle,  e  e,  The 
right  branch  of  the  pulmonary  artery,  f,  Arteria 
pulmonalis.  g  g.  The  left  branch  of  the  pulmonary 
artery,  with  a  number  of  its  largell  branches  diilcd- 
cd  from  the  lungs,  h,  The  canalis  artcriofus.  i.  The 
arch  of  the  aorta,  k  k.  The  aorta  dcfccndens.  1,  The 
left  fubclavian  artery,  m.  The  left  carioid  artery, 
n,  The  right  carotid  artery,  o,  The  right  fubclavian 
artery,  p,  The  origin  of  the  right  carotid  and  right 
fubclavian  arteries  in  one  common  trunk,  q,  The  ve- 
na cava  fupcrior  or  dcfccndens.  r.  The  right  com- 
mon fubclavian  vein,  s.  The  left  common  fubclavian 
vein. 

N.  B.  All  the  parts  defcribed  in  this  figure  are  to 
be  found  in  the  adult,  except  the  canalis  artcriofus. 

Plate  XXVL 

Fig.  I.  Exhibits  the  more  fuperficial  Lymphatic  Vcf- 
fels  of  the  Losver  Extremity. 
A,  The  fpine  of  the  os  ilium.  B,  The  os  pubis. 
C,  The  iliac  artery.  Jj,  The  knee.  E,  E,  F,  Branches 
of  ihe  crural  artery.  G,  The  mufculus  gaftrocncmius. 
H,  The  tibia.  I,  The  tendon  of  the  mufculus  tibia- 
lis anticus.  On  the  outlines,  a,  A  lymphatic  veffel 
belonging  to  the  top  of  the  foot,  b.  Its  firft  divifioa 
into  branches,  c,  c,  c.  Other  divifions  of  the  fame 
lymphatic  veffel.  d,  A  fmali  lymphatic  gland.  e,Thc 
lymphatic  velTcls  which  lie  between  the  ikin  and  the 
raufcles  of  the  thigh,  {f.  Two  lymphatic  glands  ac 
the  the  upper  part  of  the  thigh  below  the  groin,  g  g. 
Other  glands,  h,  A  lymphatic  veffel  which  paffes  by 
the  fide  of  thofc  glands  without  communicating  with 
tlicm  ;  and,  bending  towards  the  infide  of  the  groin  ac 
[i],  opens  into  the  lymphatic  gland  (k).  1  1,  Lym- 
phatic glands  in  the  groin,  which  are  common  to  the 
lymphatic  veffcls  of  the  genitals  and  thofe  of  the  low- 
er extremity,  m,  n,  A  plexus  of  lymphatic  veffcls 
paffing  on  the  infide  of  the  iliac  artery. 

Fig.  2.  Exhibits  a  Back  View  of  the  Lower  Extremity, 
differed  foas  to  fhuw  the  dceper-fcatcd  Lymphatic 
Veffels  which  accompany  the  Arteries. 

A,  the  OS  pubis.  B.  The  tuberofiiy  of  the  if- 
chium.  C,  That  part  of  the  os  ilium  v.hich  was  ar- 
ticulated with  the  OS  facrura.  D,  The  extremity  of 
the  iliac  artery  appearing  above  the  groin.  K,  The 
knee.  F  F,  The  two  cut  furfaces  of  the  triceps 
mufclc,  which  was  divided  to  fliow  the  lymphatic  vef- 
fcls that  pafs  through  its  perforation  along  with  the 
crural  artery.  G,  The  edge  of  the  mufculus  gracilis. 
H,  The  gaftrocncmius  and  foleus,  much  Ihrunk  by 
being  dricdj  and  by  the  foleus  being  fcparaieJ  from 

tLc 


752  A      N       A      T 

Of  the  the  tibia  to  expofc  the  vends.  I,  The  heel.  K,  The 
Alidomcn.  foig  of  the  foot.  L,  The  fupcrficial  lymphatic  vcflcls 
'  "  '  palling  over  the  knee,  to  get  to  the  thigh.  On  the 
out-lines  ;  M,  The  poilcrior  tibial  artery,  a,  A  lym- 
phatic vctTel  accompanying  the  poflerior  tibial  artery, 
b,  The  fame  vcfTel  crolling  the  artery,  c,  A  fmall  lym- 
phatic gland,  thro'  which  this  decp-feated  lymphatic 
vellcl  pafl'es.  d.  The  lymphatic  vcirel  pafling  under  a 
fmall  part  of  the  foleus,  which  is  left  attached  to  the 
bone,  the  reft  being  removed,  c.  The  lymphatic  vef- 
fel  crolling  the  popliteal  artery,  f,  g,  h,  Lymphatic 
glands  in  the  ham,  through  which  the  lymphatic  vef- 
lel  paflcs.  i,  The  lymphatic  velTel  paifing  with  the 
crural  artery,  through  the  perforation  of  the  triceps 
nuifcle.  k.  The  lymphatic  veflcl,  after  it  has  paiTed 
the  perforation  of  the  triceps,  dividing  into  branches 
which  embrace  the  artery  (1).  m,  A  lymphatic  gland 
belonging  to  the  decp-feated  lymphatic  veHcl.  At  this 
place  thofe  velVcls  pafs  to  the  fore  part  of  the  groin, 
where  they  communicate  with  the  fupcrficial  lympha- 
tic vcflels.  n,  A  part  of  the  fupcrficial  lymphatic  vef- 
fel  appearing  on  the  brim  of  the  pelvis. 

Fig.  3.  Exhibits  the  Trunk  of  the  Human  Subjcft, 
prepared  to  fliow  the  Lymphatic  VelTels  and  the 
Dudus  Thoraeicus. 

A,  The  neck.  B  B,  The  two  jugular  veins. 
C,  The  vena  cava  fupcrior.  D  D  D  D,  The  fub- 
clavian  veins.  E,  The  beginning  of  the  aorta,  pulled 
to  the  left  fide  by  means  of  a  ligature,  in  order  to 
Ihow  the  thoracic  d\.\i\  behind  it.  F,  The  branches 
ariling  from  the  curvature  of  the  aorta.  G  G,  The 
two  carotid  arteries.  H  H,  The  firft  ribs,  1 1,  The 
trachea.  K  K,  The  fpine.  L  L,  the  vena  azygos 
M  M,  The  defccnding  aorta.  N,  The  coeliac  artery, 
dividing  into  three  branches.  O,  Thefuperior  mefen- 
teric  artery.  P,  The  right  crus  diaphragmatis. 
Q_Q_,  The  two  kidneys.  R,  The  right  emulgent  ar- 
tery. S  S,  The  external  iliac  arteries,  g  d,  The 
mufculi  pfoaj.  T,  The  internal  iliac  artery.  U,  The 
cavity  of  the  pelvis.  X  X,  The  fpine  of  tlie  os  ilium. 
Y  Y,  The  groins,  a,  A  lymphatic  gland  in  the 
groin,  into  w  hich  lymphatic  velli:ls  from  the  lower  ex- 
tremity are  fecn  to  enter,  i  />,  The  lymphatic  veflels 
of  the  lower  extremities  palTing  under  Poupart's  liga- 
ment. cc,A  plexus  of  the  lymphatic  vefTels  lying  on 
each  fide  of  the  pelvis.  </,  The  pfoas  mufcle  with 
lymphatic  vefTels  lying  upon  its  inflde.  e,  A  plexus 
of  lymphatics,  which  having  palled  over  the  brim  of 
the  pelvis  at  {c),havifig  entered  the  cavity  of  the  pel- 
vis, and  received  the  lymphatic  veffcls  belonging  to  the 
vifcera  conuincd  in  that  cavity,  next  afcends,  and  paf- 
fcs  behind  the  iliac  artery  to  (g).  f,  Some  lymphatic 
vefTels  of  the  left  fide  palTing  over  the  upper  part  of 
the  OS  facrum,  to  meet  thofe  of  the  right  lide.  g,  The 
right  pfoas,  with  a  large  plexus  of  lymphaiics  lying  on 
its  inflde  /•  h,  The  plexus  lying  on  each  lide  of  the 
fpine.  /  /■  /,  Spaces  occupied  by  the  lymphatic  glands. 
k.  The  trunk  of  the  ladeals,  lying  on  the  under  fide  of 
the  luperior  mefenteric  artery.  /,  The  fame  dividing 
into  two  branches,  one  of  which  palTes  on  each  lide  of 
the  aorta;  that  of  the  right  fide  being  fcen  to  enter 
the  thoracic  duct  at  {>'/).  vi,  The  thoracic  duct  be- 
ginning from  the  large  lymphatics.  ;;,  The  duct  pafs- 
ing  under  the  lower  part  of  the  crus  diaphragmatis. 


O      M      Y. 


Part  III. 


and  under  the  right  eraulgent  artery.     0,  The  thora-     Of  the 
cie  dud  penetrating  the  thorax,     p,  Some  lymphatic  Abdomen. 
velVels  joining  that  dutt  in  the  thorax,     q,  The  tho-         "       ' 
racic  du(5t  palling  under  the  curvature  of  the  aorta  to 
get  to  the  left  fubclavian  vein.  The  aorta  being  drawn 
aflde  to  fhow  the  dud.     r,  A  plexus  of  lymphatic  vcf- 
fcls  palling  upon  the  trachea  from  the  thyroid  gland  ta 
the  thoracic  dud. 

Plate  XXVU. 

Fig  r.  Reprefents  the  Under  and  Pofterior  Side  of 
the  Bladder  of  Urine,  &c. 
a.  The  bladder,  b  b,  The  infcrtion  of  the  ureters. 
c  c.  The  vafadefereniia,  which  conveythefcmcn  from 
the  teflicles  to  d  d.  The  veliculas  feminales, — and  pafs 
through  e.  The  proflraie  gland,  to  dilcharge  them- 
felves  into  f.  The  beginning  of  the  urethra. 

Fig.  2.  A  tranfverfe  Sedlion  of  the  Penis, 
gg,  Corpora  cavernofa  penis,    h.  Corpus  caverno- 
fum  urethrae.   i.  Urethra,   k,  Septum  penis.  1 1,  The 
feptum  between  the  corpus  cavernofum  urethrae  and 
that  of  the  penis. 

Fig.  ■!.  A  Longitudinal  Sedion  of  the  Penis. 
m  m.  The  corpora  cavernofa  penis,  divided  by  o, 
The  feptum  penis,     n.  The  corpus  cavernofum  glan- 
dis,  which  is  the  continuation  of  that  of  the  urethra. 

Fig.  4.  Reprefents  the  Female  Organs  of  Genera- 
tion, 
a.  That  fide  of  the  uterus  which  is  next  the  os  fa-  ' 
crum.  I,  Its  futidus.  3,  Its  cervix,  b  b.  The  Fal- 
lopian or  uterine  tubes,  which  open  into  the  cavity  of 
the  uterus ; — but  the  other  end  is  open  within  the  pel- 
vis, and  furroundcd  by  c  c.  The  fimbriae,  d  d.  The 
ovaria.  e,  The  os  internum  uteri,  or  mouth  of  the 
womb,  f  f,  The  ligamenta  rotunda,  which  palTes 
without  the  belly,  and  is  fixed  to  the  labia  pudendi. 
g^,  The  cut  edges  of  the  ligamenta  lata,  which  con- 
reds  the  uterus  to  the  pelvis,  h.  The  infide  of  the 
vagina,  i.  The  orifice  of  the  urethra,  k.  The  cli- 
toris furrounded  by  (1,)  The  praeputium.  m  m.  The 
labia  pudendi.     n  n.  The  nymphac. 

Fig.  5.  Shows  the  Spermatic  Duds  of  the  Teflicle 
lillcd  with  Mercury. 
A,  The  vas  deferens.  B,  Its  beginning,  which 
forms  the  poflerior  part  of  the  epididymis.  C,  The 
middle  of  the  epididymis,  compofed  of  ferpcntinc 
duds.  D,  The  head  or  anterior  part  of  the  epididy- 
mis unravelled,  e  e  e  e.  The  whole  duds  which  com- 
pofe  the  head  of  the  epididymis  unravelled,  f  f.  The 
vafa  dcferentia.  g  g,  Rcte  tcltis.  h  h.  Some  redili- 
nea!  duds  which  fend  off  the  vafa  deferentia.  i  i.  The 
fubflance  of  the  tefticle. 

Fig.  6.   The  right  Teflicle  entire,  and  the  Epidi- 
dymis filled  with  Mercury. 
A,  The  beginning  of  the  vas  deferens.    B,  The  vas 
deferens  afceiiding  towards  the  abdomen.   C,  The  po- 
flerior part  of  the  epididymis,  XizmtA  gUbia  vihior. 

D,  The  fpermatie  velTels  inclofed  in  cellular  fubflance. 

E,  The  body  of  the  epididymis.  F,  Its  head,  named 
gtob;ii  viajor.  G,  Its  beginning  from  the  teflicle. 
H,  The  body  of  the  tellicle,  inclofed  in  the  tunica  al- 

bugiuea. 

PART 


AN.A'I'  ()\I  v 


/'/./  / 


I'laU  \\\ 


■  /i^f./'A.uj- 


*  iJ/a  / 


An  \'I() viy 


PlaU    VWl 


/^ 


W, 


^^ 


\ 


AxA'F'o^nr 


Plate  AW  II 


V 


/v/     / 


^=N 


./;«•/ .  ''/«/.«/■ 


Part  IV. 


N 


O      M      Y, 


Part  IV.     Of  the  THORAX. 


753 


Of  the 
Thorax, 


THE  THORAX,  er  chest,  is  that  cavity  of  the 
iriuik  w  hich  extends  from  the  clavicles,  or  the 
lower  part  of  the  neck,  tothcdiapliragm,  andiucliulcs 
ilic  vital  organs,  which  are  tlie  heart  and  lungs  ;  and 
likcwifc  the  trachea  and  ccfophagus. — This  cavity  is 
formed  by  the  ribs  aiid  vcrttbrse  ot  the  back,  covered 
by  a  great  number  of  miifcles,  and  by  the  common  in- 
teguments, and  anteriorly  by  two  glandular  bodies 
called  the  breajh.  The  fpaces  between  the  ribs  are 
filled  up  by  mulcular  fibres,  which  from  their  lituatiou 
arc  called  intcrcojlal  vwfdis. 

Sect.     I.     Of  the  Breafts. 

115.  The  ireaffj  may  be  defined  to  be  two  large  conglo- 

merate glands,  mixed  with  a  good  dcalofadipofe  mem- 
brane. The  glandular  part  is  compofed  ot  an  infinite 
number  of  minute  arteries,  veins,  and  nerves. 

The  arteries  are  derived  from  two  different  trimks  ; 
one  of  which  is  called  the  i>itcrnal,  and  the  other  the 
external  viatnmary  artery.  The  firil  of  thcfe arifcs  from 
the  fubclavian,  and  the  latter  from  the  axillary. 

The  veins  everywhere  accompany  the  arteries,  and 
are  dillinguilhed  by  the  fame  name.  The  nerves  arc 
chiefly  from  the  vertebral  pairs.  Like  all  other  con- 
glomerate glands,  the  brealls  are  made  up  of  a  great 
many  fmall  dillincl  glands,  in  which  the  milk  is  fc- 
creted  from  the  ultimate  branches  of  arteries.  The 
excretory  dufts  of  thefe  feveral  glands  gradually  unit- 
ing as  they  approach  the  nipple,  from  the  tubuli  lacli- 
feri,  which  are  ufually  more  than  a  dozen  in  number, 
and  open  at  its  apex,  but  luivc  little  or  no  commimica- 
tion,  as  has  been  fuppofcd,  at  the  root  of  the  nipple. 
Thefe  dufts,  in  their  courfe  from  the  glands,  arc  fur- 
rounded  by  a  ligamcntary  elalUc  fubltance,  which  ter- 
minates with  them  in  the  nipple.  Both  thisfubftancc, 
and  the  duds  which  it  contains,  are  capable  of  confi- 
derable  exteufion  and  contraftion  ;  but  in  their  natu- 
ral flatc  arc  moderately  conjugated,  fo  as  to  prevenr 
an  involiuit;u-y  rtow  of  milk,  luilefs  the  diflcnding  force 
be  very  great  from  the  accimiulation  of  too  great  a 
quantity. 

The  whole  fubflance  of  the  nipple  is  very  fpongy 
and  clallic  :  its  external  fiu'face  is  imevcn,  and  full  of 
fmall  tubercles.  The  nipple  is  furrounded  with  a  dilk 
or  circle  of  a  different  colour,  called  the  areola  ;  and  ou 
the  infidc  of  the  Ikin,  under  the  areola,  arc  many  fc- 
baceons  glands,  which  pour  out  a  mucus  to  defend  the 
areola  and  nipple  :  for  the  Ikin  upon  thefe  parts  is  very 
thin ;  and  the  nervous  papilla:  lying  very  bare,  arc 
much  expofcd  to  irritation. 

The  breads  are  formed  for  the  fecrction  of  milk, 

which  is  dellined  for  the  uoiu-ilhmcnt  of  the  child  for 

fome  time  after  its  birth.     This  fecrction  begins   to 

lake  place  foon  after  tlic  delivery,  and  continues  to  fiow 

Vol.  I. 


formany  months  in  very  large  quandtles,  if  thcwonian. 

futklcs  her  child. 

The  operation  of  fuclion  depends  on  the  principles 
of  the  air-pump,  and  the  fiow  of  milk  through  the 
laitifcrous  tubes  is  facilitated  by  their  being  flretched 
out. 

Theniilk,  examined  chemically,  appears  to  be  com- 
pofed of  oil,  mucilage,  and  water,  and  of  a  conlidcr- 
able  quantity  of  fugar.  The  generality  of  phyfiolo- 
gills  have  fuppofcd  that,  like  the  chyle,  it  frequently 
retains  the  properties  of  the  aliment  and  medicines  ta- 
ken into  the  flomach ;  but  from  fome  late  experiments*, 
this  fuppolitioa  appears  to  be  ill-founded. 

Sect.  II.     Of  tie  Pleura. 

The  cavity  of  the  thorax  is  every  where  lined  by  a 
membrane  of  a  fii'm  textile  called /'/t«r/i-  It  is  com- 
pofed of  two  dilUnct  portions  or  bags,  which,  by  being 
applied  to  each  other  laterally,  form  a  fcptum  called 
viediajlinuJH  ;  which  divides  the  cavity  into  two  parts> 
and  is  attached  polleriorly  to  the  vertebras  of  the  back» 
and  anteriorly  to  the  flernum.  But  the  twolamins  of 
which  this  fcptum  is  formed,  do  not  every  where  ad- 
here to  each  other  ;  for  at  the  lower  part  of  the  thorax 
they  are  feparated,  to  afford  a  lodgement  to  the  heart  ; 
and  at  the  upper  part  of  the  cavity,  they  receive  be- 
tween them  the  thymus. 

The  pleiu-a  is  plentifidly  fupplied  with  arteries  and 
veins  from  the  internal  mammary  and  the  intercoflals. 
Its  nerves,  which  arc  very  inconliderable,  arc  derived 
chiefly  from  the  dorfal  and  intercoflal nerves. 

The  furface  of  the  pleiu-a,  like  that  of  the  perito- 
neum and  other  membranes  lining  cavities,  is  con- 
ftantly  bedewed  with  a  ferous  moifliu'e(\v)  which  pre- 
vents adhelion  of  the  vifcera. 

Tlie  medialliinmi,  by  dividing  the  breaft  into  two 
cavities,  obviates  many  inconveniences,  to  \\  hicli  wc 
HujulJ  othci  wife  be  liable.  It  prevents  the  two  lobes  of 
the  lungs  from  comprelling  each  other  when  wc  lic^n 
one  fide  ;  and  confrqucntly  contributes  to  the  freedom 
of  rcfpiration,  whch  is  dillurbcd  by  the  Icaft  prcifure 
on  the  lungs.  If  the  pomt  of  a  fword  penetrates  be- 
tween the  ribs  into  the  cavity  of  the  thorax,  the  limgs 
on  that  fide  ceafe  to  perform  then-  office  j  becaufe  die 
air  being  admitted  through  the  wound,  prevents  the  di- 
latation of  tjiat  lobe  ;  w'hile  the  other  lobe,  which  is 
feparated  from  it  by  the  mediaiUnum,  remains  unhurt^ 
audcoutiuues  to  perform  its  function  as  ul'ual. 

Sect.  III.     Of  the  Thymus. 

The  thymus  is  a  glandular  fubflance,  the  ufe  of 
which  is  not  perfectly  afcertaincd,  its  excretory  dud 
not  having  yet  been  difcovcrcd.     It  is  ot  an  oblong 


•  "Jturm.  dt 


lltt 


(w)  When  this  riuid  is  exhaled  in  too  great  a  quantity,  orisaot  properly  carried  ott,  it  accunialatcs  and  «on- 
iUtutcs  the  hydrops  pc^oris. 


Of  the 

Thorax. 


754  ANA! 

figure,  and  is  larger  in  tiie  foetus  and  in  young  chil- 
dren tlian  in  adulis,  being  Ibnictinics  nearly  cti;iccJ  in 
very  old  fubjcfts.  It  is  placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
thorax,  between  the  two  laminx  of  the  mediaflinum  ; 
but  at  firfl  is  not  altogether  contained  within  tlic  cavity 
of  the  chefl,  being  foand  to  border  ujx)ii  the  upper  ex- 
U'einity  of  the  flernum. 

Sect.  W .Of  the  Diaphmgin. 

iiS.  The  cavity  of  the  thorax  is  feparatcd  from  that  of 

the  abdomen,  by  a  flelliy  and  membranous  fcptum 
called  the  diaphragm  ormidrijf.  The  greatell  part  of 
is  compofed  of  mufcular  fibres  j  and  on  this  account 
fyftematic  writers ufually  place  it  very  properly  among 
the  nuifclcs.  Its  middlcpart  is  very  tendinous,  and  it  is 
covered  by  the  pleura  above,  aifcl  by  tlic  peritonaeum 
below.  It  fecms  to  have  been  improperly  named 
fepttnn  tranfveifum,  as  it  does  not  make  a  plain  tranf- 
verfc  divilion  of  the  two  cavities,  but  forms  a  kind  of 
vault,  the  fore  part  of  which  is  attached  tothdler- 
imm.  Laterally  it  is  fixed  to  the  Lift  of  the  true  ribs, 
and  to  all  the  falfe  ribs  ;  and  its  lower  and  pollerior 
part  is  attached  to  the  vertebras  lumborum,  where  it 
may  be  faid  to  be  divided  ijito  two  portions  or  criu'a 

(X). 

The  principal  arteries  of  the  diaphragm  are  derived 
from  the  aorta,  and  its  veins  pafs  into  tlie  vena  cava. 
Its  nerves  are  chiefiy  derived  from  the  cervical  pairs. 
It  affords  a  palTage  to  the  vena  cava  tlirough  its  tendi- 
nous part,  and  to  the  cefophagus  through  its  flethy 
portion.  The  aorta  palTes  down  bchuid  it  between  its 
crura. 

The  diaphragm  not  only  ferves  to  divide  the  thorax 
from  the  abdomen,  but  by  its  mufcular  ftrufture  is  ren- 
dered one  of  the  chief  agents  in  refpiration.  When 
its  fibres  coniracl,  its  convex  fide,  which  is  turned  to- 
wards the  thorax,  becomes  gradually  flat,  and  by  in- 
creafing  the  cavity  ofthebreaft,  affords  room  for  a 
complete  dilatation  of  the  lungs,  by  means  of  the  air 
uhich  is  then  drawn  into  them  by  the  ac't  of  infpira- 
tion.  The  fibres  of  the  diaphragm  then  relax  ;  and  as 
i:  refumes  its  former  ftatc,  tiie  cavity  of  the  thorax  be- 
comes gradually  diminifhed,  and  the  air  is  driven  oul 
again  from  the  lungs  by  a  motion  contrary  to.  the  for- 
mer one,  called  t.v/;r<7/;o«. 

It  is  in  fome  meafure  by  means  of  the  diaphragm, 
that  we  void  the  fasces  at  the  anus,  and  empty  the  uri- 
nary bladder.  Befides  tliefe  offices,  the  ads  of  cough- 
ing, fneezing,  fpcaking,  laughing,  gaping,  and  figh- 
ing,  could  not  take  place  without  its  affiftance;  and 
the  gentle  prefTure  which  all  the  abdominal  vifccra  re- 
ceive from  its  conftant  and  regular  motion,  cannot  fail 
to  aflift  in  the  perfonnance  of  the  fevcral  functions 
which  were  afcribed  to  thofc  vifcera. 


O      M      Y. 

Sect.  V.  Oj  the  Trachea. 


I'art  IV. 


The  trachea  or  windpipe,  is  a  cartilaginous  and 
membranous  canal,  through  which  the  air  jiafles  into 
the  lungs.  Its  upper  part,  which  is  called  the  larynx, 
is  compofed  of  five  cartilages.  The  uppcrmoftof  ihefe 
cartilages  is  placed  over  tlie  glottis  or  mouth  of  the 
larynx,  and  is  called  epiglottis,  wliich  has  been  before 
fpoken  of,  as  clofing  the  paflagc  to  the  lungs  in  the 
aft  of  fwallowing.  At  the  fides  of  the  glottis  are  pla- 
ced the  two  arytenoidc  cartilages,  v\luch  are  of  a  very 
complex  figure,  not  eafy  to  be  defcribed.  The  ante- 
rior and  larger  part  of  the  larynx  is  made  up  of  two 
cartilages  :  one  of  which  is  called  thjrohles  or  fciitifor- 
7ms,  from  its  being  jhaped  like  a  buckler;  and  the 
other  cricoides  or  annularis,  from  its  refembling  a  ring. 
Both  thefe  cartilages  may  be  felt  immediately  under 
the  Ikin,  at  the  fore  part  of  the  throat,  and  the  thy- 
roides,  by  its  convexity,  forms  an  eminence  called /o- 
vitnn  ada/ni,  whicli  is  ufually  more  confiderablc  in  the 
male  than  in  the  female fubjeft. 

All  tliefe  cai'tilages  are  united  to  each  other  by  means 
of  very  clailic,  ligamentous  fibres  ;  and  are  enabled, 
by  the  affiftance  of  their  fcveral  mufcles,  to  dilate  or 
contraft  tlie  paflagc  of  the  larynx,  and  to  perform  that 
variety  of  motion  which  feems  to  point  out  the  larynx 
as  the  principal  organ  of  the  voice  ;  for  when  the  air 
pairesout  tlirough  a  wound  m  the  trachea,  it  produces 
no  found. 

Thefe  cartilages  are  moiftened  by  a  mucus,  which 
feems  to  be  fecreted  by  minute  glands  fituated  near 
them.  The  nppcruart  of  the  trachea  is  covered  ante- 
riorly and  laterally  by  a  confiderablc  body,  which  is 
luppofed  to  be  of  a  glandular  ftruftiire,  and  from  its 
fituation  near  the  thyroid  cartilage  is  called  the  thyroid 
gland  ;  though  its  excretory  duft  lias  not  yet  been  dif- 
covered,  or  its  real  ufe  afcertained. 

The  glottis  is  interiorly  covered  by  a  very  fine  mem- 
brane, which  is  moiftened  by  a  conftant  fupply  of  a 
watery  fluid.  From  tlie  larynx  the  canal  begins  to 
x.Akei\icna.me  oi tracheaor  afpera arteria,  and  extends 
from  thence  as  far  down  as  the  third  or  fourtli  verte- 
bra of  the  back,  where  it  divides  into  two  branches, 
which  are  the  right  and  left  bronchial  tube.  Each  of 
thefe  bronchi  (v)  ramifies  through  the  fiibftance  of 
that  lobe  of  the  lungs  to  which  it  is  dillributed,  by 
an  infinite  number  of  branches,  which  are  formed  of 
cartilages  fcparated  from  each  other  like  thofe  of  the 
trachea,  by  an  intervening  membranous  and  ligamen- 
tary  fubftance.  Each  of  thefe  cartilages  is  of  an  angu- 
lar figiu-c  ;  and  as  they  become  gi-adually  lefs  and  Icfe 
in  their  diameter,  the  lower  ones  in  fome  meafure 
received  into  thofe  above  them,  when  the  linigs,  after 
being  inflated,  gradually  collapfc  by  the  air  being  puih- 

cd 


Of  the 
Thorar. 

IJJ. 


(x)  Anatomical  writers  have  ufually  defcribed  the  diaphragm  as  being  made  up  of  two  mufcles  united  by 
a  middle  tendon  ;  and  thefe  two  portions  or  cruraform  what  they  fpeakof  as  the  inferior  mufcle,  arifing  from 
the  (ides  and  fore  part  of  tlie  vertebrae. 

(y)  The  right  bronchial  tube  is  ufually  found  to  be  fomewhat  ftiorter  and  thicker  than  the  left ;  and  M. 
Portal,  who  has  publilhed  a  memoir  on  the  aftion  of  the  lungs  on  the  aorta  in  refpiration,  obferves,  that  the 
left  bronchial  tube  is  clofely  connected  by  the  aorta  ;  and  from  fome  experiments  he  is  induced  to  conclude, 
that  in  the  firft  refpirations,  the  air  only  enters  ijito  the  right  lobe  of  the  liuigs.  jyiemoires  de  /'  Academie 
Riyaledei  ScienceSf  1769. 


IV, 


N 


Of  the     ed  out  from  them  in  exfpiratiou.     As  tlic  branches  of 
Thorax,    the  bronchi  become  more  minute,  their  cartilages  be- 

^•"^ '  conic  more  and  more  angular  and  membranous,  till  at 

Icngtii  they  arc  fomid  to  be  perfcdlly  membranous,  and 
at  lafl  become  iiivilibic. 

The  trachea  is  furniflied  with  flefliy  or  mufcular 
fibres ;  fome  of  which  pafs  tlirough  its  whole  extent 
longitudinally,  while  the  others  are  can-ied  round  it  in 
a  circular  du'ctUou ;  lb  that  by  the  contraction  or  re- 
laxation of  ihefe  fibres,  it  is  enabled  to  ihorten  or 
lengthen  itfclf,  and  likewife  to  dilate  or  contrail  the 
diameter  of  its  pailage. 

The  trachea  and  its  branches,  in  all  their  ramifica- 
tions, arc  furniflied  with  a  great  numbcroffmall  glands 
which  are  lodged  in  their  cellular  fubllance,  and  dif- 
chargc  a  mucous  fluid  on  the  inner  furface  of  thefetnbes. 

The  cartilages  of  the  trachea,  by  keeping  it  con- 
ftanily  open,  afrbrd  a  free  palfage  to  the  air,  whicli  we 
arc  obliged  to  be  incelfintly  ret'piring  ;  and  its  mem- 
branous part,  by  being  capable  of  coiitraftion  and  di- 
latation, enables  us  to  receive  and  expel  the  air  in  a 
greater  or  Icfs  quantity,  and  with  more  or  lefs  veloci- 
ty, as  may  be  requu-ed  in  fuiging  or  in  declamation. 
This  membranous  flrufture  of  the  ti-achca  poflcriorly, 
fecms  likewife  to  aiiiil  in  the  dcfcent  of  the  food,  by 
preventing  that  impediment  to  us  palfage  down  the 
oefophagus,  which  might  be  expected  if  the  cartilages 
were  complete  rings. 

The  trachea  receives  its  arteries  from  the  carotid 
and  fubclavian  arteries,  and  its  veins  pafs  into  the  ju- 
gulars. Its  nerves  arife  fi-om  the  recurrent  branch  of 
the  eighth  paL',  and  from  the  cervical  plexus. 

Sect.  VI.  Oflhi  Lungs. 

uj;  The  lungs  fill  the  greater  part  of  the  cavity  of  the 

breall.  They  are  of  a  foft  and  fpungy  texture,  and 
are  divided  into  two  lobes,  which  arc  feparated  from 
each  other  by  the  mcdiaftinum,  and  ai'e  externally  co- 
vered by  a  production  of  the  pleura.  Each  of  thefe  is 
divided  into  two  or  tliree  lellcr  lobes  ;  .-md  we  coni- 
monly  iind  three  in  the  right  lide  of  the  cavity,  and 
two  in  the  left. 

To  difcover  the  (IruClure  of  the  limgs,  it  is  required 
to  follow  the  ramifications  of  the  bronchi,  which  were 
defcribcd  ui  the  lafl  lection.  Thefi;  becoming  gradu- 
ally more  and  more  minute,  at  length  terminate  in  the 
cellular  (paces  or  veficles,  which  make  up  the  greatell 
part  of  the  fubllance  of  the  liuigs,  and  readily  commu- 
nicate with  each  othci'. 

The  lungs  fcem  to  pofTefs  but  little  fcnlibility. 
Their  nerves,  which  arc  fniall,  and  few  in  number, 
are  derived  (roin  the  intcrcoltal  and  eighth  pair.  This 
laft  pair  having  reached  the  thorax,  fends  otf  a  branch 
on  each  fide  of  the  trachea,  called  the  rxurnnt,  whicii 
rcafccnds  at  the  back  of  the  trachea,  to  which  it  fur- 
Jiilhes  branches  hi  its  afcent,  as  well  as  to  the  cefopha- 
giis,  but  it  is  chiefly  dillributcd  to  the  larynx  and  its 
niufclcs.  By  dividing  the  reciurcnt  and  fuperior  la- 
ryngeal nerves  at  their  origin,  an  animal  is  deprived 
of  its  voice. 

There  arc  two  fcries  of  arteries  which  can-y  blood 
to  the  lungs  :  thefe  arc  the  artcrix  bronchiales,  and 
iJic  pulmonary  artery. 

The  ancris  braachialcs  begin  iifually  by  two  branch- 


^      O      M      Y. 

cs  ;  oneofwliicli  commonly  arifcs  from  the  right  in- 
tcrcoltal, and  the  other  from  the  trunk  of  the  aorta  : 
but  fonictimts  there  arc  three  of  tiicfe  arteries,  and  in 
fome  fubjeCts  only  one.  The  ufe  of  thefe  arteries  is 
to  ferve  for  the  nourilhinent  of  the  lungs,  and  their  ra- 
mifications arc  feen  creeping  every  whereon  the  branch- 
es of  the  bronchi.  The  blood  is  brought  back  from 
them  by  the  bronchial  vein  into  the  vena  azygos. 

The  pulmonary  artery  and  vein  are  not  intended  for 
the  nourilhment  of  the  lungs  ;  but  the  blood  in  its 
palfage  tlirough  them  is  deflined  to  undergo  fome 
changes,  or  to  acquire  certain  effential  properties  (from 
the  action  of  the  air),  which  it  has  loll  in  its  circula- 
tion through  the  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  pul- 
monary artery  receives  the  blood  from  the  right  ven- 
tricle of  the  heart,  and  dividing  into  two  branches,  ac- 
companies the  bronchievery  where,  by  its  ramifications 
through  the  lungs  j  and  the  blood  is  afterwards  con- 
veyed back  by  the  pulmonary  vem,  whicli  gradually 
forming  a  confidcrable  trunk,  goes  to  empty  itfelf  into 
the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart ;  fo  that  the  quantity  of 
blood  which  enters  into  the  limgs,  is  perhaps  greater 
than  that  which  is  fent  in  the  fame  proportion  of  tim© 
tlirough  all  the  other  parts  of  the  body. 

Sect.  VII.  OfRcfpiration. 

Respiration  conflitutes  one  of  thofc  fimclions 
which  are  properly  termed  -jital,  as  being  effential  to 
life  ;  for  to  live  and  to  breathe  are  m  faCt  fynonymous 
terms.  It  confifts  in  an  alternate  contraction  and  dilata- 
tion of  the  thorax,  by  lirlt  infpiring  air  into  the  lungs, 
and  then  expelling  it  from  them  in  exfpu-ation. 

It  will  perhaps  be  eafy  to  diflinguilh  and  point  ou  t 
the  feveral  phenomena  of  refpiration  ;  but  to  explain 
their  phylical  caufc  will  be  attended  with  difliculty  : 
for  it  will  uatiu-ally  be  enqiJred,  how  the  lungs,  when 
emptied  of  the  air,  and  conu-aCted  by  exfpiration,  be- 
come again  inflated,  they  themfelvcs  being  perfedly 
pafhve  .'  How  the  ribs  are  elevated  in  oppolition  to 
their  ouii  natural  lituation  .'  and  why  the  diaphragm  is 
conn-aCted  downwards  towai-ds  the  abdomen  ?  Wcrcwc 
to  affert  that  the  ah",  by  forcing  its  way  into  the  cavity 
of  the  limgs,  dilated  them,  and  confequently  elevated 
the  ribs,  and  prelfed  dowi  the  diapliragm,  we  fliould 
fpeak  erroneoufly.  What  induces  the  firA  infpiration, 
it  is  not  eafy  to  afcertahi ;  but  after  an  animal  has  once 
refpu-ed,  it  would  fcem  likely  that  the  blood,  after  ex- 
fpiration, finding  its  palfage  through  the  limgs  obllruc- 
ted,  becomes  a  liimulus,  which  induces  the  intcrcoltal 
mufclcs  and  the  diaphragm  to  coiinaCt, and  cnlai-gcthe 
cavity  of  tlie  thorax,  in  confcqutnce  perhaps  of  a  cer- 
tain nervous  influence,  whicli  we  will  not  here  attempt 
to  explain.  The  air  then  rulhes  into  the  Itmgs  ;  every 
branch  of  the  bronchial  tubes,  and  all  the  cellular  fpa- 
ces  into  which  they  open,  become  fully  dilated  ;  and 
the  pulmonary  veflels  being  equally  diilcndc<l,the  blood 
flows  through  them  with  cafe.  But  as  the  ftimulus 
which  firft  occafioned  this  dilatation  ceafcs  to  operate, 
the  raufcles  gradually  contract,  the  di.iphragni  riles  iip- 
\yai-ds  again,  and  diminiihes  the  cavity  of  the  chell ;  the 
ribs  return  to  their  former  Itate  ;  and  as  the  air  pad'cs 
out  in  exfpiration,  the  lungs  gradually  collapfe,  .ind  a 
rcliltance  to  the  palfage  of  the  blood  a'gain  takes  place. 
Bm  the  heart  continuing  to  receive  and  expel  the 
5  C  2  blood 


I  It. 


7s6  A       N       A      1 

Of  the  blood,  lhcpiilmou:iry  artery  begins  again  to  be  dillciid- 
rhorw.  td,  the  lliniiiliis  is  renewed,  and  the  fame  progrcl'sis 
""""  repeated,  and  continues  to  be  repeated,  in  a  regular 
fucccffion,  during  life  :  for  thougli  the  nuifclcs  of  refpi- 
raiion,  having  a  mixed  motion,  are  (unlike  the  heart) 
in  fonie  nieafurc  dependent  on  the  will,  yet  no  human 
being,  after  having  once  refpired,  can  live  many  mo- 
inents  without  it.  In  an  attempt  to  hold  one's  breath, 
the. blood  foon  begins  to  diP.eud  the  vciiis,  which  arc 
unable  to  empty  tlieir  contents  into  the  heart ;  and  \vc 
are  able  only,  during  a  \cry  little  rime,  to  refill  tlic  fti- 
mulus  to  infpiration.  In  drowning,  the  circulation 
feems  to  be  flopped  upon  this  pruiciple  j  and  in  hang- 
ing, t!ie  prclUire  made  on  the  jugular  veins,  may  co- 
operate with  the  floppageof  rtfpirationin  brhigiug  on 
death. 

Till  within  tli  cfe  few^  years  phyfiologifls  were  entire- 
ly ignorant  of  the  ufc  of  refpiration.  It  was  at  Itngth 
■difcovercd  in  part  by  the  illi'llrious  Dr  Prieilley.  He 
found  that  the  au-  cxfpired  by  animals  was  phlogiflica- 
ted  ;  and  that  the  air  was  titter  for  refpiration,  or  for 
fupporting  animal  life,  in  proportion  as  it  was  freer 
from  the  phlogillic  principle.  It  had  long  been  obfer- 
ved,  that  the  blood  in  palfing  throan;h  the  lungs  ac- 
quired a  more  llorid  coloiu".  He  therefore  fufpccted, 
that  it  was  owing  to  its  having  imparted  phlogillou  to 
the  air:  and  he  fatislied  himielf  of  the  truth  of  this 
idea  by  experiments,  which  fliowcd,  that  the  crail'cracn. 
turn  of  extravalFated  blood,  phlogifticated  air  in  pro- 
portion as  it  loll  its  dark  colour.  He  farther  found, 
that  blood  thus  reddened  had  a  llrong  aitraclion  for 
phlogiflon  ;  infomuch  that  it  was  capable  of  taking  it 
-from  phlogillicated  air,  thereby  becoming  of  a  darker 
colour.  From  hence  it  appeared  that  the  blood,  in  its 
circulation  through  the  arterial  fyllem,  imbibes  a  cou- 
fiderablc  quantity  of  phlogillon,  which  is  difchargcd 
from  it  to  the  air  in  the  lungs. 

Tliis  difcovery  haslince  been  profecnted  by  two  very 
ingenious  phyliologills,  Dr  Crawford  and  Mr  Elliot. 
It  has  been  iliown  by  profellurs  Black  and  Irvine,  that 
tlitferent  bodies  have  ditferenr  capacities  for  containing 
fire.  For  example,  that  oil  and  w-ater,  when  equally 
hot  to  the  fcnfe  and  the  tlierpiometcr,  contain  difFe- 
Tcnt  proportions  of  that  principle  ;  and  that  unequal 
ciuantities  of  it  are  required,  in  order  to  raifc  thofc 
lubftauccstc  like  tcmperatiu-es.  The  enquiries  ol  Dr 
Crawford  and  Mr  Klliot  tend  to  prove,  that  the  capa- 
cities of  bodies  for  contahiing  fire  are  diminiflied  by 
the  atidition  of  phlogiflon,  and  iucreafed  b^-  its  fcpara- 
tion  :  the  capacity  of  calx  of  antimony,  for  example, 
being  greater  than  that  of  the  antimony  itfelf.  Com- 
jnon  air  contains  a  great  quantity  of  fire  ;  combuflible 
bodies  very  little.  In  combullion,  a  double  cledive 
attrailion  takes  place ;  the  phlogillon  of  the  body  be- 
ing transferred  to  the  air,  the  lire  contained  in  the  air 
to  the  combullible  body.  But  as  the  capacity  of  the 
latter  is  not  increafed  fo  much  as  that  of  the  former  is 
diminilhcd,  only  part  of  the  extricated  fire  will  be  ab- 
forbed  by  the  body.  Theremainderihereforewillraife 
the  temperature  of  the  compound  ;  and  hence  we  may 
account  for  the  heat  attending  combuflion.     As  the 


O      M      Y. 


Pan  IV. 


ufe  of  refpiration  is  to  dephlogiiUcate  the  blood,  it  fecins 
probable,  that  a  like  double  eleclive  attraflion  takes 
place  in  thisproccfs;  the  phlogiflon  of  the  blood  be- 
ing nansferrcd  to  the  nk,  and  tiie  tire  contained  in  the 
air  to  tlie  blood;  but  with  tliis  ditfcrencc,  that  the  ca- 
pacities being  equal,  the  whole  of  the  extricated  tire  is 
abforbed  by  the  latter.  The  blood  in  this  flatc  circu- 
lating through  the  body,  imbibes  phlo:;,iflon,  and  of 
coiu-fc  gives  out  its  fire  ;  part  only  of  which  is  abfoib- 
cd  by  the  parts  furnilhing  the  phlogiflon,  the  remain- 
der, as  in  combullion,  becoming  fcnlible;  and  is  therC' 
fore  the  caufc  of  the  heat  ot  the  body,  or  what  is  call- 
ed animal  heat. 

In  confirmation  of  this  doclrine  it  may  be  obferved, 
that  the  venous  blood  contains  lefs  lue  than  tlie  arte- 
rial ;  combullible  bodies  lefs  than  incombufliblc  ones  ; 
and  that  air  contains  lefs  of  this  principle,  according 
as  it  is  rendered,  by  combmation  with  plilogiflon,  lefs 
fit- for  refpiration  (z). 

In  afcending  very  high  mountains,  refpiration  is 
found  to  become  lliort  and  frequent,  and  Ibnietiines  to 
be  attended  with  a  fpitting  of  lilood.  Thcfc  fymptoms 
fcem  to  be  occalioned  by  the  air  being  too  rare  and 
thin  to  dilate  the  lungs  fulficieutly  ;  and  the  blnod 
gradually  accumulating  in  the  pulmonary  velFels,  fonic- 
limes  burlls  through  their  coats,  and  is  brought  up  by 
couojhing.  This  has  likewife  been  accounted  lor  in  a 
dilicrent  way,  by  fuppoling  that  the  air  contained  in 
the  blood,  not  receivhig  an  equal  preillux  from  that  of 
the  atmofphere,  expands,  and  at  length  ruptures  the 
very  minute  branches  of  the  pulmonary  velfels  ;  ujion 
the  fame  principle  that  fruits  and  animals  put  under 
the  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  are  fcen  to  fwell  as  the 
outer  ail-  becomes  exluuiflcd.  But  Dr  Darwin  of 
Litchfield  has  lately  pUblilhed  fomcexperiments,  which 
fetra  to  prove,  tliat  no  air  or  elaitic  vapoiu-  docs  cxifl 
in  the  blood-veil'els,  as  has  been  generally  fuppofed  ; 
and  he  is  induced  to  impute  the  fpitting  of  blood,  wjiich 
has  fomeiimes  taken  place  in  afcending  high  moun- 
tains, to  accident,  or  to  violent  cxeriiuus  ;  as  it  never 
ha]ipens  to  animals  that  are  put  into  the  exhaulled  re- 
ceiver of  an  au--pu:np,  wlierc  the  diminuiion  of  prelfure 
is  many  times  greater  than  on  the  fumiiiii  of  tlic  high- 
eil  mountains. 

Sect.  VIII.  Of  the  Voice. 

Restiration  has  already  been  defcribed  as  afford- 
ing us  many  advantages;  and  ucxt  to  that  of  life,  its 
moll  important  ufe  fecins  to  be  chatof  forming  the  voice 
and  fpeech.  The  ancients,  and  almoft  all  the  moderns, 
have  conlidcred  the  organ  of  fpeech  as  a  kind  of  niufi- 
cal  inftrument,  which  may  be  cc'upared  to  a  flute,  to 
an  hautboy,  to  an  organ,  &.c.  and  they  argue  after  tlic 
following  manner. 

The  trachea,  which  begins  at  the  root  of  the  tongue, 
and  goes  to  terminate  In  the  lungs,  may  be  compared 
to  the  pipe  of  an  organ,  the  lungs  dilating  like  bellows 
during  the  time  of  inlpiraiiou  ;  and  as  the  air  is  driven 
out  from  them  in  exfpiration,  it  fiiidsits  palfage  flrait- 
cncd  by  the  cartilages  ot  the  larynx,  againit  whlcli  it 

llrikes* 


Of  the 

Thorax, 


(z)  See  Crawford's  Kxperiments  and  Obfcrvations  on  Animal  Heat,  and  Elliot's  Philofophical  obfcrva- 
yqns. 


Part  IV. 


N       A      T      O       M       Y. 


Of  the     ftrikes.     As  tlicfe  c.iitilagcs  arc  more  or  Itfs  claftic, 
Thorax,    they  occafioii  in  their  tiirn  more  orlcfs  vibration  in  the 
^~~^^~~~'  nir,  anJ  thus  produee  the  found  of  the  voice  ;  the  va- 
riation in  the  found  and  tone  of  which  depends  on  the 
IVaie  of  the  glottis,  which,  when  flraitciicd,  produces 
an  acute  tone,  and  a  grave  one  when  diluted. 

The  late  M.  P'ertin  communicated  to  the  French 
Academy  of  Sciences  a  very  ingenious  theory  on  the 
formation  of  the  voice.  He  confidered  the  organ  of 
the  voice  as  a  ft'in^,  as  well  as  a  wind,  inflrument ;  fo 
tJiat  what  art  lias  hitherto  been  miable  to  conftuft, 
nnd  what  both  the  fatlicrs  Mcrfenne  and  Kircher,  fo 
much  wiflicd  to  ice,  M.  Ferein  imagined  he  hatl  at 
length  difcovercd  in  the  human  body.  He  obfervcs, 
that  there  are  at  the  edges  of  the  glottis  certain  tendi- 
nous chords,  placed  horizontally  acrofs  it,  which  are 
capable  of  confulcrable  vibration,  fo  as  to  produce 
lound,  in  the  fame  manner  as  it  is  produced  by  the 
firings  of  a  violin  or  a  harpfichord  ;  and  he  fuppofcs 
that  the  air,  as  it  palles  out  from  the  huigs,  aebs  as  a 
bow'  on  thefe  firings,  while  the  efforts  of  the  breall 
and  lungs  regulate  its  motion,  and  produce  the  variety 
of  tones.  So  that  according  to  this  fyflem  the  varia- 
tion in  the  voice  is  not  occafioncd  by  the  dilatation  or 
contraclion  of  the  glottis,  but  by  the  diftenfion  or  re- 
laxation of  thefe  firings,  the  found  being  more  or  lefs 
aciitc^in  proportion  as  they  are  more  or  lefs  flrctched 
out.  Another  writer  on  this  fiibjcft  fujjpofes,  that  the 
organ  of  voice  is  a  double  inflrumcnt,  w  hich  produces 
in  unifon  two  founds  of  a  different  nature  ;  one  by 
means  of  the  air,  and  the  other  by  means  of  the  chords 
of  the  glottis.  Neither  of  thefe  fyltcms,  however,  are 
tuiivcrfally  adopted.  They  are  both  liable  to  infupe- 
rable  difficulties  ;  fo  that  the  manner  in  which  the  voice 
is  formed  has  never  yet  been  fatisfaftorily  afccrtained  : 
we  may  obfervc,  however,  that  the  found  produced  by 
the  glottis  is  not  articulated.  To  eff"c«l  this,  it  is  re- 
quired to  pais  through  the  mouth,  where  ir  is  differ- 
ently modilied  by  the  action  of  the  tongiie,  which  is 
cither  pulhed  againfl  the  teeth,  or  upwards  towards  the 
palate  ;  detaining  it  in  its  palfage,  or  permitting  it  to 
ilovv  freely,  by  contracting  or  dilating  the  mouth. 

Sfct.  IX.     OfDejcnioti, 

ij,.  By  dejeclion  we  mean  the  adl  of  voiding  the  f«ces 

at  the  anus;  and  an  account  of  the  manner  in  which 
this  is  conduftcd  W'asreftrved  for  this  part  of  the  work, 
becaufe  it  fccmed  to  require  a  knowledge  of  rcfpiraiion 
to  be  perfettly  underffood. 

The  intcflines  were  defcribed  as  having  a  perLftaltic 
motion,  by  which  the  fasces  were  gradually  advancing 
to\^ards  the  anus.  Now,  w  henever  the  fseces  arc  accu- 

'  mulated  in  the  intclLinum  rettnm  in  a  fufficiciit  quan- 

tity to  become  iroublefome,  cither  by  their  weight  or 
acrimony,  they  excite  a  certain  uncalinefs  which  in- 
duces us  to  go  to  flool. — To  efTett  this,  we  begin  by 
makhii',  .■.  confidcralle  ir.fpiration  ;  in  confcqucnce  of 
which  the  diaphra  j^ui  is  carried  downwards  towards  the 
lower  belly;  ilie  abiiominal  mufcles  ai'c  at  the  fame 
time  connaftcd  in  ob<  ii>-ncc  to  the  will  ;  and  the  in- 
teffincs  being  conipreiicd  on  all  lides,  the  re fiftancc  of 
x\\tji.hiii(fe:  is  overcome,  and  the  faeces  pals  out  at  the 
anus ;  which  ij  afterwards  drawn  up  by  its  longitudinal 
£br«s,  whicJi  are  called  hvaioris  ani,  and  tlicn  by 


757 

Of  the 

Thorjrx. 

' ' 


means  oi\x.%fphii!{}er  is  again  contraftcd  ;  but  it  fome- 
timcs  happens,  as  in  dyfeuteries  for  inflance,  that  the 
faeces  are  very  liquid,  and  have  eonlldtrablc  acrimony ; 
and  then  the  irritation  theyoccafion  is  more  frequent, 
fo  as  lb  promote  their  difcharge  without  any  preffure 
from  the  diaphragm  or  abdominal  mufcles  ;  and  fomc- 
times  involuntarily,  as  is  the  cafe  when  the  fphijitter 
becomes  paralytic. 

Sect.  X.  Of  the  Pericardium,  and  of  the  HeaN  and 
its  Auricles. 

The  two  membraneous  bags  of  the  pleura,  which  I'cricer- 
were  defcribed  as  forming  the  mcdiafUnum,  recede  dium. 
one  from  the  other,  fo  as  to  afford  a  lodgement  to  a  tirin 
membranous  fac,  m  which  the  heart  is  fccurely  lodged  ; 
this  fac,  which  is  l\\e  pericardium,  appears  to  be  com- 
pofcd  of  two  tunics,  luiited  to  each  other  by  cellular 
membrane — The  outer  coat,  which  is  thick,  and  in 
fome  places  of  a  tendinous  complexion,  is  a  produclion 
of  the  mcdiafUnum  ;  the  inner  coat,  wliich  is  extreme- 
ly tliin,  isreffeftcd  over  the  auricles  and  ventricles  of 
the  Ivcart,  in  the  (;ime  manner  as  the  tunica  conjuiifti- 
va,  after  lining  the  eye  lids,  is  rericdcd  over  the  eye. 

This  bag  adheres  to  the  tendinous  part  of  the  dia- 
pliragin,  and  contains  a  coagulable  lymph,  the  liquor 
l>ei  ici'.rdii,  which  ferves  to  lubricate  the  heart  and  fa- 
cilitate its  motions  ;  and  fccnis  to  be  fecretcd  and  ab- 
forbed  in  the  fame  manner  as  it  is  in  the  other  cavities 
of  the  body. 

The  arteries  of  the  pericardium  are  derived  from  the 
plu-enic,  and  its  veins  pafs  into  veins  of  the  fame  name  ; 
its  nerves  are  likewife  branches  of  the  phrenic. 

The  fizc  of  the  pericardium  is  adapted  to  that  of 
the  heart,  being  ufually  large  enough  to  contain  it 
loofcly.  As  its  cavity  docs  not  extend  to  the  flcrnura, 
the  limgs  cover  it  in  infpiraiion  ;  and  as  it  every  where 
inverts  the  heart,  itcffeftuilly  fecures  it  from  bcin";  in- 
jured by  lymph,  pus,  or  any  other  fluid,  exuavautcd 
into  the  cavities  of  the  thorax. 

The  heart  is  a  hollow  mufcle  of  a  conical  fliapc,  fi- 
tuated  tranfverfely  between  the  twolaminx  of  the  rac- 
diaflinum,  at  the  lower  part  of  the  thorax  ;  havijig  its 
bafis  turned  towards  the  right  fide,  and  its  point  or 
apex  towards  the  left — Its  lower  furfacc  is  fomewhat 
flattened  towards  the  diaphragm.  Its  bahs,  from 
W'hieh  the  great  vclTcls  originate,  is  covered  with  fat, 
axl  it  has  two  hollow  and  ffelhy  appendages,  called 
auriclei, — Round  thefe  fcvcral  openings,  the  heart 
fcems  to  be  of  a  firm  ligamentous  texture,  from  wliich 
all  its  fibres  Item  to  originate  ;  and  as  they  aJva;icc 
from  ther.ce  towards  the  apex,  the  fubllaace  of  die 
heart  fecms  to  become  thin;;tr. 

The  heart  includes  two  cavities  or  :•  if w/r/c/i?/,  which 
ar  cfeparatcd  from  each  oilier  by  a  fleftij  feptura  ;  one 
of  the  fe  is  called  the  right,  and  the  other  the  left,  ven- 
tricle ;  though  perhaps,  with  refpect  to  ihcii-  fituation, 
it  would  be  more  proper  to  dilliiiguillt  them  into  the 
anterior  and  pofleriur  ventriciet. 

The  heart  is  exteriorly  covered  by  a  very  fine  mem- 
brane ;  and  its  fbuAure  is  perfeftly  mufti.lar  i>r  riclhy, 
bc'ng  comj-Kifcd  of  librcs  which  arc  defcribed  as  pal- 
ling in  different  du  colions  ;  fome  as  being  extended 
longitudinally  from  the  bafis  to  the  apex  ;  others,  as 
takiJig  an  oblii^uc  or  fpiral  coarl'e  ;  and  a  third  fort  as 

bcirg 


1J5 

H«art,  and 
its  auxicUt. 


ANA! 

bcin;;  placed  in  a  tranvcvfc  iliredion  (a) — Wiihiii 
ihc luo \ c-nuiclcswc obfcrvc fcvcral fiuTows ;  and  there 
arc  likcwile  tendinous  firings,  which  arilc  from  flclhy 
columna  in  the  two  cavities,  and  arc  attached  to  the 
valves  of  the  auricles  :  That  tjie  ufe  of  thcfc  and  the 
other  valves  of  the  heart  may  be  imderlbod,  it  niuft. 
be  obftrved,  that  four  large  vclfels  pafs  out  from  the 
balls  ot  the  heart,  viz.  two  arteries  and  t\\o  veins  ; 
and  that  each  of  thcfe  vcllcls  is  fiu-nilhed  with  a  thin 
membranous  produftion,  which  is  attached  all  round 
to  the  borders  of  their  fevcral  orifices,  from  whence 
hanging  loofcly  down  they  appear  to  be  divided  into 
two  or  three  dillinft  portions.  But  as  their  ufcs  in  the 
arteries  and  veins  arc  dittcrcnt,  fo  arc  they  diH'ereiuly 
difpofcd.  Tliofc  of  the  arteries  are  intended  to  give 
way  to  the  pall'agc  of  the  blood  into  them  from  the 
ventricles,  but  to  oppofe  its  return:  and,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  valves  of  the  veins  are  conllruded  fo  as  to 
allow  the  blood  only  to  pafs  into  the  heart.  In  confe- 
quencc  of  thefe  ditferent  ufes,  we  find  the  valves  of 
the  pulmonary  artery  and  of  the  aorta  attached  to  the 
fjrificcs  of  thofe  velfels,  fo  as  to  have  their  concave 
fui-faccs  turned  towards  the  artery  :  and  their  convex 
furfaces,  which  mutually  meet  together,  be'mg  placed 
towards  the  ventricle,  only  permit  the  blcxjd  to  pafs 
one  way,  wliich  is  uiio  the  ai-teries.  There  are  ufual- 
ly  three  of  thel'c  valves  belonging  to  the  pulmonary  ar- 
tery, and  as  many  to  the  aorta  ;  and  from  their  figure 
tliey  are  called  vitlvul.t  fcmilu/tans.  The  communica- 
tion between  the  two  great  veins  and  the  ventricles  is 
by  means  of  the  two  appendages  or  aiuiclcs  into  which 
the  blood  is  difchargcil  ;  fo  that  the  other  valves  which 
may  be  faid  to  belong  to  the  veins,  are  placed  in  each 
ventricle,  where  the  auricle  opens  into  it.  The  valves 
in  the  right  ventricle  arc  ufually  three  in  number,  and 
are  named  vahuLa  trki/fpidcs  ;  but  in  the  left  ventricle 
we  commonly  obferve  only  two,  and  thcfc  arc  the 
vahiilx  m'ltrales.  The  membranes  which  form  thefe 
valves  in  each  cavity  are  attached  fo  as  to  project:  fome- 
ivhat  forward  ;  and  Iwth  the  IrkuJ fides  and  the  mit  rales 
arc  conncdled  with  the  tendinous  ftrings,  which  were 
defcribed  as  ariliug  from  the  tlefliy  columna-.  By  tlie 
conUMdion  of  either  ventricle,  the  blood  is  driven  into 
the  artery  which  commmiicates  with  that  ventricle;  and 
ihefe  tendinous  firings  being  gradually  relaxed  as  the 
fides  of  ihc  cavity  are  brought  nearer  to  each  other, 
the  valves  naturally  clofe  the  opening  into  the  auricle, 
and  the  blood  neccffarily  directs  its  courfe  into  the 
then  only  open  pall'age,  whicli  is  into  the  artery  ;  but 
after  this  contraction,  the  jieart  becomes  relaxed,  the 
tendinousflrings  are  again  flrctchcd  out,  and,  drawing 
the  valves  of  the  auricle  downwards,  the  blood  ispour- 
cd  by  the  veins  into  the  ventricle,  from  whence,  by 
another  conti-aetion,  it  is  again  thrown  iiuothe  artery, 
as  will  be  defcribed  hereafter.  The  right  ventricle  is 
not  quite  fo  long,  though  fomewhat  larger,  than  tjie 
left ;  but  the  latter  has  more  fubflauce  than  the  other  : 
and  this  fecms  to  be,  bceaufc  it  is  intended  to  iranfniit 


O       M       Y. 


Part  IV. 


the  blood  to  the  mod  diilant  parts  of  the  body,  wlicre- 
as  tlie  rigiit  ventricle  dillributes  it  only  to  the  lungs. 

The  heart  receives  its  nerves  from  the  par  vagum 
and  the  intcrcoftals.  The  arteries  which  Icrve  for  its 
nouriihment  are  two  in  number,  and  arife  from  the 
aorta.  They  furround  in  fome  meafure  the  balis  of 
the  heart,  and  from  this  com-fe  arc  called  the  coronary 
arteries.  From  thefe  arteries  the  blood  is  returned  by 
veins  of  tlie  fame  name  into  the  auricles,  and  even  in- 
to the  ventricles. 

The  mufcular  bags  called  the  auricles  are  fituatej  at 
the  bafis  of  tlic  heart,  at  the  fides  of  each  other ; 
and  corrcfponding  with  the  two  ventricles,  are  like 
thofe  two  cavities  dillinguilhed  into  right  and  Itft. 
Thefe  facs,  which  are  interiorly  micqual,  luve  exter- 
nally a  jagged  appendix  ;  which,  from  its  having  beca 
compared  to  the  extremity  of  an  car,  has  given  thcin 
their  name  of  auricles. 

Sect.     XL     ^"g'ology,    or    a    Defcription    of  the 
BlooJ-vejfels. 

Th  e  heart  has  been  defcribed  as  contrading  itfelf, 
and  throwing  the  blood  from  its  two  ventricles  ijito 
the  pulmonaj-y  artery  and  the  aorta,  and  then  as  rc- 
laxingiifclf  andreceivLng  a  frelh  fupply  from  two  large 
veins,  which  are  the  pulmonary  vein  and  the  vena  ca- 
va. We  will  now  point  out  the  prLicipal  diflributlons 
of  thefe  velfels. 

T\\c  pulmonary  artery  arifesfrom  the  right  ventricle 
by  a  large  trunk,  which  foon  divides  into  two  confi- 
derable  branches,  which  pals  to  the  right  and  left  lobes 
of  the  lungs:  each  of  thcfe  branches  is  afterwards 
divided  and  fubdivided  into  an  infinite  number  of 
branches  and  ramifications,  which  extend  through  the 
whole  fubllance  of  the  lungs  ;  and  from  thefe  branches 
the  blood  is  returned  by  the  veins,  which,  contrary  to 
the  courfe  of  the  arteries,  begin  by  very  minute  ca- 
nals, and  gradually  become  larger,  forming  at  length 
fom  large  trunks  called  pulmonary  veins,  which  termi- 
nate in  the  left  auricle  by  one  common  opening,  from 
w^hcncc  the  blood  palfes  into  the  left  ventricle.  From 
this  fame  ventricle  raifes  the  aorta  or  great  artery, 
which  at  its  beginning  is  nearly  an  inch  in  diameter  : 
it  foon  fends  olf  two  branches,  the  coronaries,  w-hich 
go  to  be  diftributed  to  the  heart  and  its  auricles.  After 
this,  at  or  about  th9  third  or  foiu-th  vertebra  of  the 
back,  it  makes  a  conliderable  curvature  ;  from  this 
curvature  (b)  ai-ife  three  arteries  ;  one  of  which  foon 
divides  into  two  branches.  The  firll  two  are  the  left 
fubclavian  and  the  left  carotid,  and  the  third  is  a  com- 
mon trunk  to  the  right  fubclavian  and  right  carotid  ; 
though  fometimes  both  the  carotids  arifc  difliniilly 
from  the  aorta. 

The  t wo  tars//Vj-afcend  within  the fubclavians,along 
the  fides  of  the  trachea  ;  and  when  they  liave  reached 
the  larynx,  divide  into  two  principal  branches,  the  in- 
ternal and  external  carotid.     The  firll  of  thefe  runs  a 

little 


Of  the 
'riiorax. 


I  Si* 


(a)  Authors  differ  about  the  courfe  and  dillinftions  of  thel'c  fibres;  audit  feems  right  to  obferve,  that  the 
flrudure  of  the  heart  being  more  coinpaCl:  than  that  of  other  mufcles,  its  fibres  are  not  cafily  fcparated. 

(b)  Anatomifls  ufually  call  the  upper  part  of  this  curvsLtm-e  aorta  a/cendtns ;  and  the  oilier  part  of  the  artery 
to  its  divifion  at  the  iliacs,  aorta  defcendens  :  but  they  differ  about  the  place  where  this  dillint'tion  is  to  be  iiiiro- 
tluced  ;  and  it  fecms  fufiicJcntly  to  anfwer  every  purpofe,  to  fpcak  only  of  the  aorta  and-its  curvature. 


ANA' 

little  way  backwards  in  a  bending  dircdion  ;  and  liav- 
ing  reached  the  under  part  of  the  ear,  pafl'cs  through 
tlic  canal  into  tlic  os  pctrofum,  and  entering  into  the 
cavity  of  tlie  cranium,  is  diflributed  to  the  brain  and 
the  membranes  which  invelopc  it,  and  likewife  to  the 
eye.  The  externa/ carotid  divides  into  fcvcral  branches, 
•which  are  diflributed  to  the  larynx,  pharynx,  and 
other  parts  of  the  neck ;  and  to  the  jaws,  lips,  tongue, 
eyes,  temples,  and  all  the  external  parts  of  the  head. 

Ezch/ui>c/avia;!  is  likewife  divided  into  a  greatnum- 
ber  of  branches.  It  fends  oft  the  vertebral  artery, 
wliich  pafles  through  the  openings  we  fee  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  tranfverfe  procclfes  of  the  vertebra:  of  the 
neck,  and  in  its  courfc  fends  off"  many  ramifications 
to  the  neighbouring  parts.  Some  of  its  branches  are 
dillributed  to  the  ipinal  marrow,  and  after  a  confider- 
able  inrieCCion  it  enters  into  the  cranium,  and  is  dif- 
tributcd  to  the  brain.  Thtfubclavia/i  likewife  fends 
oft"  branches  to  the  mufcles  of  the  neck  and  fcapula  ; 
and  tlie  m  ediaflinum,  thymus,  pericardium ,  diapliragm, 
the  breafls,  and  the  mufcles  of  the  thorax,  and  even 
of  the  abdomen,  derive  branches  from  the  fubclavian, 
which  are  dillinguilhed  by  dift'crent  names,  alluding 
to  tlie  parts  to  which  they  are  diflributed  ;  as  the  7/nim- 
?/iary,  the  phrenic,  the  intercojial,  &c.  But  notwith- 
ftanding  the  great  number  of  brandies  which  have 
been  defcribed  as  arifmg  from  the>fubclavian,  it  is  ftill 
a  conliderable  artery  when  it  reaches  the  axilla,  where 
it  drops  its  former  name,  which  alludes  to  its  pafTage 
under  the  clavicle,  and  is  called  the  axillary  artery ; 
from  which  a  variety  of  branches  are  dillributcd  to  the 
mufcles  of  the  brcafl,  fcapula,  and  arm — But  its  main 
trunk  taking  the  nameof  ^ra£-/i/i7///,runsalongon  thcin- 
fideof  the  arm  near  the  OS  humeri, tillit  reaches  the  joint 
of  the  fore-arm,  and  then  it  divides  into  two  branches. 
This  divifion  however  is  different  in  different  fubjecf  s ; 
for  in  fome  it  takes  place  higher  up  and  in  others  low- 
er downi.  When  it  happens  to  divide  above  the  joint, 
it  may  be  confidered  as  a  happy  difpofition  in  cafe  of 
an  accident  by  bleeding ;  for  fuppofmg  the  artery  fo 
be  unfortunately  punftured  by  the  lancet,  and  that  the 
hasniorrhage  coidd  only  be  flopped  by  making  a  liga- 
ture on  the  velFel,  one  branch  would  remain  unhm't, 
through  which  the  blood  would  pafs  uninterrupted  to 
the  fore-arm  and  hand.  One  of  the  two  branches  of 
the  brachialis  plunges  dowTi  under  tlie  flcxpr  mufcles, 
and  rims  along  the  edge  of  the  ulna ;  while  the  other 
is  carried  along  the  outer  furface  of  tlie  radius,  and  is 
eafily  felt  at  the  WTifl,  where  it  is  only  covered  by  the 
common  integuments.  Both  thefc  branches  commonly 
unite  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  form  an  arterial 
arch  from  whence  branches  are  detached  to  tlie  lin- 
gers. 

The  aorta,  afterhaving  given  off"at  its  curvature  the 
carotids  and  fubclavians  which  convey  blood  to  all  the 
upper  parts  of  the  body,  defcends  upon  the  bodies  of 
the  vertebrae  a  little  to  the  left,  as  far  as  the  os  facrum, 
where  it  drops  the  name  of  aorta,  and  divides  into 
two  conliderable  branches.  In  this  courfe,  from  its 
curvature  to  its  bifurcation,  it  fends  oft"  feveral  arteries 
in  the  following  order  :  I .  One  or  two  little  arteries, 
firfl  demonftrated  by  Ruyfch  as  going  to  the  bronchi, 
and  called  ar/iT/.r  bronchiales  Ruyfchii.  a.Tlieartcriae 
oefophagcae.  Thcfcare  commonly  tlircc or  fourinnum- 


r      O      M      Y. 

bcr.  They  arile  from  the  fore-part  of  the  aorta,  and 
are  dillributcd  chiefly  to  the  oefophagus.  3.  The  in- 
ferior intercoflal  arteries,  which  arc  diflributed  be- 
tween the  ribs  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  arteries  of 
the  three  or  four  fuperior  ribs  are,  which  are  derived 
from  the  fubclavian.  Thefe  arteries  fend  off  branches 
to  the  medulla  fpinalis.  4.  The  diaphragmatic  or  in- 
ferior phrenic  arteries,  which  go  to  the  diaphragm, 
llomacii,  omentum,  duodenum,  pana'cas,  fpleen,  li- 
ver, and  gall-bladder.  5.  The  coeliac,  which  fends 
oft  the  coronary-flomachic,  the  fplenic,  and  the  hepa- 
tic artery.  6.  The  fuperior  mefenteric  artery,  which 
is  diflributed  to  the  mefentcry  and  fmall  inteflines. 
7.  The  emulgcnts,  wliich  go  to  the  kidneys.  8.  The 
arteries,  which  arc  diflributed  to  the  glandulas  renales. 
9.  The  fpermaiic.  10.  The  uiferior  mefenteric  arte- 
ry, which  ramifies  tlirough  the  lower  portion  of  the 

mefentcry  and  the  large  inteflines A  branch  of  this 

artery  which  goes  to  the  reclum  is  called  the  inxernal 
harnorrk'jidal.  11.  The  lumbar  arteries,  and  a  very 
fmall  branch  called  \\icfacra,  which  are  diflributed  to 
the  mufcles  of  the  loins  and  abdomen,  and  to  the  os  fa- 
crum and  medulla  fpinalis. 

The  trunk  of  the  aorta,  wlien  it  has  reached  the 
lafl  vertebra  lumborum,  or  the  os  facrum,  drops  the 
name  of  aorta,  and  fcparates  into  two  forked  branches 
called  the  iliacs.  Each  of  thefe  foon  divides  into  two 
branches  ;  one  of  w'hich  is  called  the  internal  iliac,  or 
hypogaflric  artery,  and  is  diflributed  upon  the  contents 
of  the  pelvis  and  upon  the  mufcles  on  its  outer  fide. 
One  branch,  called  pudenda  communis,  fends  fmall  ra- 
mifications to  the  end  of  the  redum  under  the  name  of 
h^morrhoidales  externa,  and  is  afterwards  diflributed 
upon  the  penis.  The  other  branch,  the  external  iliac, 
after  having  given  oft"  the  circumflex  artery  of  the  os 
ilium  and  the  epigaifric,  which  is  diltributed  to  the 
recli-mufclcs,  palfes  outof  the  abdomen  under  Poupart's 
ligament,  and  takes  the  name  of  crural  artery.  It  de- 
fcends on  the  inner  part  of  the  thigh  dofe  to  the  os  fe- 
moris,  fending  off  branches  to  the  mufcles,  and  then 
linking  deeper  in  the  hind  part  of  the  thigh,  reaches 
the  ham,  where  it  takes  the  name  oi popliteal :  after 
this  it  i'eparates  into  two  confiderable  branches  ;  oncof 
which  is  called  the  anterior  tibial  artery  ;  the  other  di- 
vides into  two  branches,  and  thefc  arteries  all  go  to  be 
diib-ibuicd  to  tlie  leg  and  foot. 

The  Wlood,  which  is  thus  diflributed  by  the  aorta  to 
all  parts  of  the  body,  is  brought  back  by  the  veins, 
which  are  fuppofed  to  be  continued  from  the  ultimate 
branches  of  arteries  ;  and  unitmg  together  as  they  ap- 
proach the  heart,  at  length  form  the  large  trunks,  the 
vena  cava  afccndens,  and  vena  cava  defccndens. 

All  the  veins  which  bring  back  the  blood  from  the 
upper  extremities,  and  from  the  head  and  breall,  pafs 
into  the  vcnu  c.iva  dcfcendcns ;  and  chofc  which  rctura 
it  from  the  lower  parts  of  the  body  terminate  in  the 
vena  cava  afcendens  ;  and  thefe  two  cavas  uniting  to- 
gether as  they  approach  the  heart,  open  by  one  com- 
mon orifice  into  the  left  auricle. 

It  docs  not  here  feem  to  be  ncceflTary  to  follow  the 
diftcrent  divifions  of  the  veins  as  we  did  thofe  of  the 
arteries  ;  and  it  will  be  fulficicnt  to  remark,  that  in 
general  every  artery  is  accompanied  by  its  vein,  and 
that  both  arc  diiliiiguifhed  by  the  fame  name.     But, 


759 


Of  the 

Thorax. 


760  A      N    A      T 

Of  the  '.  like  many  oilier  general  rules,  this  too  lias  its  exccp- 
Thorax.^  lions  (c).  Tlie  veins,  for  inllance,  which  accompany 
^""^'■^  the  external  and  internal  carotid,  are  not  callcil  the 
carotid  veins,  but  the  external  and  hilanul  jugular. — 
In  the  thorax,  there  is  a  vein  dillinguilhed  hy  a  proper 
name,  and  this  is  the  rtzj^^o/,  or  !'.'/;rf ///;<?/>./;•/.  Tliis 
vein,  which  is  a  pretiy  conlidcrable  one,  runs  along 
by  the  right  lide  of  the  vertebrx  of  the  back,  and  is 
chiefly  deltincd  to  receive  the  blood  from  tlie  iiitcr- 
coflals  on  that  fu'.c,  and  from  the  lower  half  of  thofe 
on  the  left  fide,  and  to  convey  it  into  the  vena  cava 
dcfceiidcns.  In  the  abdomen  we  meet  with  a  vein, 
which  is  lljll  a  more  remarkable  one,  and  this  is  the 
veua portit,  which  performs  the  office  botli  of  an  ar- 
tery and  a  vein.  It  is  formed  by  a  re-union  of  all 
tlie  veins  which  conic  from  the  llomach,  intcllincs,  o- 
mentum,  pancreas,  and  fpleen,  fo  as  to  compofe  one 
gi-cat  trunk,  which  goes  to  ramify  through  the  liver  ; 
aiid  after  liaving  depofited  the  bile,  its  raniilications 
unite  and  bring  back  mto  the  vena  cava,  not  only  tlie 
blood  which  the  vena  portx  had  carried  into  the  liver, 
but  likewifc  the  blood  from  the  hepatic  artery.  Every 
artery  has  a  vein  which  corrcfponds  with  it ;  but  tlie 
trmiks  and  branches  of  the  veins  are  more  numerous 
than  thofe  of  the  arteries. — Tlie  rcafons  for  this  dif- 
pofiiion  are  perhaps  more  dilHcult  to  be  explained  ;  the 
blood  in  its  courfe  through  the  veins  is  much  farther 
removed  from  the  foiu'ce  and  caufeof  its  motion,  which 
are  in  the  heart,  than  it  was  when  in  the  arteries  ;  fo 
that  its  courfe  is  confequently  Icfs  rapid,  and  enough 
of  it  could  not  poiiibly  be  brought  back  to  the  heart 
in  the  moment  of  its  dilatation,  10  equal  the  quantity 
wliich  is  driven  into  the  arteries  from  tJie  two  vcn- 
tiicles,  at  the  time  tliey  coniraft ;  and  the  equilibri- 
um w  liich  is  fo  ellcniial  to  the  continuance  of  life  and 
health  would  confequently  bedellroyed,  ifthe  capacity 
of  the  veins  did  not  exceed  that  of  the  arteries,  in  the 
fame  proportion  that  the  rapidity  of  the  blood's  motion 
through  the  arteries  exceeds  that  of  its  return  tlu-ough 
llie  veins. 

A  large  artery  ramifying  through  the  body,  and 
continued  to  the  minute  branch(Bo'  veins,  wliich  gra- 
dually luiite  together  to  form  a  large  trunk,  may  be 
compared  to  two  trees  united  to  each  other  at  tlicir 
lops ;  or  rather  as  having  their  raniilications  fo  dif- 
pofed  that  the  two  u-unks  terminate  in  one  common 
point  ;  and  if  w-e  farther  fuppofe,  that  both  thefe 
trunks  and  their  branches  arc  hollow,  and  that  a  fluid 
is  inceflantly  circulated  tlirough  them,  by  enter- 
ing into  one  of  the  trunks  and  returning  through 
the  other,  we  Ihall  be  enabled  to  conceive  how  the 
blood  is  circulated  tlu'ough  the  veflels  of  the  human 
body. 

Every  trunk  of  an  artery,  before  it  divides,  is 
nearly  cylindrical,  or  of  equal  diameter  tlu-ough  its 
whole  length,  and  fo  are  all  its  branches  when  exa- 
Hiined  feparately.  But  every  trunk  feeras  to  contain 
lefs  blood  than  the  many  branches  do  into  which  that 
trunk  feparates  ;  and  each  of  thefe  branches  probably 


O      M       Y. 


Part  IV. 


contains  lefs  blood  than  the  ramifications  do  into  which     Of  tlie 
it  is  fubdividcd  :  and  it  is  ilic  fame  with  the  veins  ;  the    Thorax, 
volume ol  their  fevcral  rainitications,  when  conlidered  ^^~^'~— ^ 
together,  being  found  to  exceed  that  of  the  great  irunk 
which  they  form  by  their  union. 

The  return  of  the  blood  through  the  veins  to  the 
heart,  is  promoted  by  tlie  adion  of  the  mufcles,  and 
the  pulfaiion  of  the  arteries.  And  tliis  retwn  is  like- 
wife  greatly  allifled  by  the  valves  wliich  are  to  be  met 
witli  in  tlie  veins,  and  which  conlUtute  one  of  the 
great  diflLidions  between  them  and  the  arteries. 
Thefe  valves,  which  arc  fuppofed  to  be  formed  by  the 
inner  coat  of  the  veins,  permit  the  blood  to  flow  from 
the  extremities  towards  the  heait,  but  oppofeitsretiu-n. 
They  are  mofl  frequent  in  the  fmaller  veins.  As  the 
column  of  blood  increafes,  they  fcem  to  become  lefs 
neeelTary ;  and  therefore  in  the  vena  cava  afccndens,wc 
meet  with  only  one  valve,  which  is  near  its  origin. 

The  arteries  are  conipofed  of  fevcral  tunics.     Some 
WTitcrs  enumerate  rive  of  thefe  tunics ;  but  perhaps  wc 
may  more  properly  reckon  only  three,  viz.  the  nervous , 
lanj'eiilar,  and  cuticular  coats.    The  veins  are  by  fomc 
anatomilts  dcfcribed  as  having  the  fame  number  of 
coats  as  the  arteries  ;  but  as  they  do  not  fecm  to  be 
irritable,  we  cannot  with  propriety  fuppofe  them  to 
have  a  mufcular  tiuiic.     We  arc  aware  of  Dr  Verf- 
chuir's  *  experiments  toprovetliatthcjugulai'and  fome  •  /j,  ji,, 
other  veins  jxilfcfs  a  ccrtahi  degree  of  irritability  j  but  ttrUmm  et 
it  is  certain,  that  his  experiments,  repeated  by  others,  Vtnarum  v» 
have  produced  a  different  rcfult ;  and  even  he  himfelf  "'■'''»''''• 
allows,  that  fomctimes  he  was  imable  to  diilinguilh  ^'°' 
any  fucli  property  in  tlie  veins.     Both  thefe  fcries  of 
velfels  are  nourilhed  by  ilill  more  minute  iU'tcries  and 
veins,  which  arc  fccii  creeping  over  their  coats,  and 
ramifying  tlirough  their  whole  fubltance,  and  are  i:i\\- 
ci^  ztifa  'jaforiit/i i  they  have  likevvife  many  minute 
brandies  of  nerves. 

The  arteries  are  much  ftronger  than  the  veins,  and 
they  feem  to  require  this  force  to  be  enabled  to  refifl 
the  impetus  with  which  the  blood  circulates  tlirough 
them,  and  to  impel  it  on  towards  the  veins. 

When  the  heart  coiura<5ts,  it  impels  the  blood  into 
the  arteries,  and  fenlibly  dillends  them ;  and  thefe  vcf- 
fels  again  contract,  as  the  heart  becomes  relaxed  to  re- 
ceive more  blood  from  the  auricles;  fo  that  the  caufe 
of  the  conu'aetion  and  dilatation  of  the  arteries  fccms 
to  be  eafy  to  be  underAood,  being  owing  in  part  to 
their  own  contradile  power,  and  in  part  to  the  aclion 
of  the  heart ;  but  in  the  veins,  the  elfeds  of  this  im- 
pulfe  not  being  fo  fenfibly  felt,  and  the  velfels  them- 
felves  having  little  or  no  contractile  power,  the  blood 
feems  to  flow  in  a  conflant  and  equal  flream :  and  this, 
together  with  its  palfing  gradually  from  a  fmall  chan- 
nel into  a  larger  one,  leeins  to  be  the  reafon  why  the 
veii:s  havenopulfatory  motion,  except  the  large  ones 
near  the  heart ;  and  in  thefe  it  feems  tg  be  occafioned 
by  the  motion  of  the  diaphragm,  and  by  the  regurgi- 
tation of  the  blood  in  the  cavas. 

Sect. 


(c)  In  the  extremities,  fomc  of  the  decp-fcated  veins,  and  all  the  fuperficial  ones,  take  a  courfe  different 
fiiom  that  of  the  arteries. 


Part  IV. 


Sect.  XII. 


ANA," 

Of  the  Atliott  of  tht   Heart,  Auricles, 
and  yjrteriei. 


117. 


l«8. 


The  heart,  at  the  time  it  contracts,  drives  the  blood 
from  its  ventricles  into  the  arteries  ;  and  the  arteries 
being  thus  filled  and  diflendcd,  are  naturally  inclined 
to  contract  the  moment  the  heart  begins  to  dilate,  and 
ceafes  tofupply  thera  with  blood.  Thefc  alternate  mo- 
tions of  contradion  and  dilatation  of  the  licart  and  ar- 
teries, arc  diilingiiilhcd  by  thenamcsofy5y?o/f  and  dia- 
Jlolc.  When  the  heart  is  in  a  flatc  of  contraction  or 
fyflolt,  the  arteries  are  at  that  inftant  diflendcd  with 
blood,  and  in  their  diaflolc  ;  and  it  is  in  this  (late  we 
feel  their  pulfatory  motion,  which  we  call  the  pulfi. 
When  the  heart  dilates,  and  the  arteries  contract,  the 
blood  is  impelled  onwards  into  the  veuis,  through  which 
it  is  returned  back  to  the  heart.  While  the  heart, 
however,  is  in  its  fyllole,  the  blood  cannot  pafs  from 
the  veins  into  the  ventricles,  but  is  detained  in  the  au- 
ricles, which  .ire  two  refervoirs  formed  for  this  ufc, 
till  the  diaftole,  or  dilatation  of  the  heart,  takes  place  ; 
and  then  the  diflendcd  auricles  contract,  and  drive  the 
blood  mto  the  ventricles  :  fo  that  the  auricles  have  an 
alternate  fyflole  and  diaflolc  as  well  as  the  heart. 

Although  both  the  ventricles  of  the  heart  contraft 
at  the  fame  time,  yet  the  blood  palTes  from  one  to  the 
other.  In  the  fame  moment,  for  inflance,  that  the 
left  ventricle  drives  the  blood  inro  the  aorta,  the  right 
ventricle  impels  it  into  the  pulmonary  artery,  which 
is  dillributcd  tlirough  all  the  fubftance  of  the  hmgs. 
The  blood  is  afterwards  brought  back  into  the  left  ven- 
tricle by  the  pulmonary  vein,  at  the  fame  time  that 
the  blood  is  returned  by  the  cavas,  into  the  right  ven- 
tricle, from  all  the  other  parts  of  the  body. 

This  feems  to  be  the  mode  of  aftion  of  the  heart 
and  its  veffels  :  but  the  caufe  of  this  action  has,  like 
all  other  intricate  and  intercfling  fubje£ls,  been  differ- 
ently explained.  It  feems  to  depend  on  the  flimulus 
made  on  the  different  parts  of  the  heart  by  the  blood 
itfelf,  which  by  its  quantity  and  heat,  or  other  proper- 
ties (d),  is  perhaps  capable  of  tirfl  exciting  that  mo- 
tion, which  is  afterwards  continued  tlirough  lite,  inde- 
pendent of  the  will,  by  a  regular  return  of  blood  to 
the  auricles,  in  a  quantity  proportioned  to  that  which 
is  thrown  into  the  arteries.  ■" 

The  heart  polfeffcs  the  vii  infita,  or  principle  of  ir- 
ritability, in  a  much  creatcr  degree  than  any  other 
mufcle  of  the  body.  The  pulfe  is  quicker  in  young 
than  in  old  lubjedts,  becaufe  the  former  arc  c.rt.  par. 
more  irritable  than  the  latter.  Upon  the  fame  prin- 
ciple we  may  explain,  why  the  pulfc  is  conflantly 
quicker  in  weak  than  inroboil  pcrfons. 

Sect.  XIII.     Of  the  Circulation. 

Akter  what  has  bcenobferved  of  the  ftruftitrc  and 
action  of  the  heart  and  its  auricles,  and  likewife  of  the 
Vol.  I. 


r      O      M      Y. 

arteries  and  veins,  there  fcem  to  be  but  very  few  argu- 
mtnts  rcquu-eJ  to'dcraonflratc  ilxe.  cifcuiaiion  of  the 
b!(,o:!,  w  hich  has  long  linec  been  eflablifhcd  as  a  racdi- 
cal  truili.  This  circulation  may  be  defined  to  be  a 
perpetual  motion  of  the  blood,  in  cbnfcquencc  of  the 
adion  of  the  heart  and  arteries,  which  impel  it  through 
all  the  parts  of  the  body,  ft-oni  whence  it  is  brought 
back  by  the  veins  to  the  heart. 

A  very  faiisfactory  proof  of  this  circulation,  and  t 
proof  cafy  to  be  uudcrllood,  may  be  deduced  from  the 
different  ctledts  of  prelTure  o\\  an  artery  and  a  vein.  If 
a  ligature,  for  inflance,  is  palfed  round  an  artery,  the 
vcllel  fwcUs  confidcrably  between  the  ligature  and  the 
heart;  whereas  if  we  tic  up  a  vein,  it  only  become* 
filled  between  the  extremity  and  the  ligature,  and  thij- 
is  what  v/e  every  day  obferve  in  bleeding.  The  liga- 
ture we  pafs  round  the  arm  on  thefc  occalions,  com-" 
preffes  the  fupcrficial  veins  ;  and  the  return  of  the  bload 
through  them  being  impeded,  they  become  diflcnded. 
When  the  ligature  is  too  loofc,  t!ie  veins  are  not  fuf- 
ficienily  coniprelfcd,  and  the  blood  continues  its  pro* 
giefs  tow-ards  the  heart ;  and,  on  the  contrary,  when 
it  is  made  too  tight,  the  arteries  themfclvcs  become 
conipreifed  ;  and  the  flow  of  the  blood  through  ihcni 
being  impeded,  the  veins  cannot  be  diflcnded. 

Another  phasnomenon,  which  effectually  proves  the 
circulation,  is  the  lofs  of  blojd  that  every  living  ani- 
mal fuflains  by  opening  only  a  lUigle  artery  of  a  mode- 
rate fize  ;  for  it  continues  to  tlow  from  the  wounded 
vcfTcl  till  the  equilibrium  isdcflroyed  which  isclfential 
to  life.  This  truth  was  not  unknown  to  the  ancients ; 
and  it  feems  flrangc  that  it  did  not  lead  them  to  a 
knowledge  of  the  circidatiou,  as  it  fufficiently  proves, 
that  all  the  other  velfels  mufl  communicate  with  that 
which  is  opened.  Galen,  who  Lived  more  than  1 500 
years  ago,  drew  this  conclufion  from  it  ;  and  if  we  far- 
ther obferve,  that  he  dcfcribcs  (after  Erafillratus,  who 
floiu-iihcd  about  450  years  before  him)  the  feveral  valves 
of  the  heart,  and  determines  their  dil'pofition  and  ufcs, 
it  will  appear  wonderful,  that  a  period  of  near  2000 
years  fhould  afterwards  elapfc  before  the  true  courfc 
of  the  blood  was  afccrtained.  This  difcovery,  Ibi* 
which  we  are  indebted  to  the  immortal  Harvey,  has 
thrown  new  lights  on  phyfiology  and  the  doiftrine  of 
difcafes,  and  conllitutes  one  ot  the  moll  important  pe- 
riods of  anatomical  hiflory. 

Sect.  XIV.     Of  the  Nature  of  the  BlozJ. 

Bloot,  recently  drawn  from  a  vcirf  into  a  bafon, 
Mould  fcem  to  be  an  homogeneous  fluid  of  a  red  co- 
lour (  e)  ;  but  when  fuffered  to  rcfl,  it  loon  coagulates, 
and  divides  into  two  parts,  which  arc  diflinguiihcd  by 
the  namcsof  crajfamcnium  zndftr:tm.  The  cralfamcn- 
tum  is  the  red  coagnlum,  and  the  fcrum  is  the  water 
in  which  it  floats.  Each  of  thefc  may  be  again  fep»- 
rated  into  two  Others ;  for  the  cralTamcntum,  by  bcin:; 
5  W  repeatedly 


I  if. 


(d)  Dr  Harvey  long  ago  fuggefted,  that  the  blood  is  polTcircd  of  a  living  principle  ;  and  Mr  J.  Hunter  has 
lately  endeavoured  to  revive  tliis  dodtrine  ;  in  fupport  of  which  he  has  adduced  many  ingenious  arguments. 
The  fubjedl  is  a  curious  one,  and  defcrves  to  be  profecutcd  as  an  inquiry  which  cannot  but  be  intcrefting  to 
phyfiologifls. 

(e)  The  blood,  as  it  flows  through  the  arteries,  isobferved  to  be  more  f.orid  Oian  it  is  in  the  veins ;  and 
this  rcdnels  is  acquired  in  its  palTagc  tlirough  the  lungs.      Fid.  fed.  vii. 


76: 


Of  the 
1  h(>rax. 


*   Htiijini 
£/i}.FarCl. 


130. 


ANA! 

xt\ttnc&\y  waflicdin  warm  water,  gives  out  all  its  red 
rlub'.iks,  anJ  what  rtniaiiis  appears  to  be  cojnpofcdot 
the  coagulable  lymph  (k),  which  is  a  gelatinous  ful)- 
ilancc,  capable  ol  being  hardened  by  tire  till  it  becomes 
perfccily  horny  :  and  it' we  cxpofc  the  feruni  to  a  ccr- 
nin  degree  of  heat,  part  of  it  will  be  found  10  coagu- 
late like  the  white  of  an  egg,  and  there  will  remain  a 
clcir  and  limpid  water,  refembling  urine  both  in  its 
appearance  and  fmell. 

The  fcrum  and  crairamentum  differ  in  their  propor- 
tion in  different  conllitiuious  ;  in  a  ftrong  perfon,  the 
cralfamentum  is  in  a  greater  proponitui  to  the  fcrum 
than  in  aweakone  ;•  and  the  fame  difference  is  found 
to  take  place  in  difeafcs  (c). 

Sect.  XV.     Of  Nutrition. 

The  variety  of  fundlions which  we  have  defcribed 
as  being  incclbnily  performed  by  the  living  body,  and 
the  coiuinual  circulation  of  the  blood  through  it,  mull 
neccfl'arily  occalion  a  conftant  diffipation  of  the  feveral 
parts  which  enter  into  its  compolition.  In  fpeaking 
of  the  infenlible  perfpiration,  we  obferved  how  much 
was  inccffantly  paffing  offfrom  the  lungs  and  the  fur- 
face  of  the  Ikin.  The  difchaige  by  urine  is  likewifc 
every  day  confiderablc  ;  and  great  pa;  t  of  the  bile,  fa- 
liva,'&c.  are  excluded  by  ftool.  But  the  folid,  as  well 
as  the  fluid  parts  of  the  body,  require  a  conllant  rc- 
ncwalof  nutritious  particles.  They  are  expofedtothc 
attrition  of  the  fluids  which  are  circulated  through 
them  ;  and  the  contraftion  and  relaxation  tlicy  repeat 
fo  many  thoufand  times  in  every  day,  would  necclla- 
rily  occafion  a  dillbluiion  of  the  machine,  if  the  re- 
newal was  not  proportioned  to  the  waflc. 

It  is  eafy  to  conceive  how  the  chyle  formed  from 
the  aliment  isalTiniilatcd  into  the  nature  of  blood,  and 
repairs  the  lofs  of  the  iluid  parts  of  our  body;  but 
how  the  folids  are  renewed,  has  never  yet  been  fatis- 
fa<aorily  explained.  The  nutritious  parts  of  the  blood 
are  probably  dcpofited  by  the  arteries  by  exfudation 
through  their  pores  into  the  tela  cellulofa  ;  and  as  the 
folid  parts  of  the  body  arc  in  the  embryo  only  a  kind 
of  jelly,  which  gradually  acquires  the  degree  of  con- 
fiftcnce  they  are  found  tohave  when  the  body  arrives 


O      M      Y. 


Part  IV. 


at  a  more  advanced  age  ;  and  ihefe  fame  parts  which 
confift  of  bones,  cartilages,  ligaments,  mufcles,  &c. 
are  fomclimes  reduced  again  bydifeafe  to  a  gelatinous 
llatc  ;  we  may,  with  fome  degree  of  prabability,  con- 
lider  the  co-gulable  lymph  as  the  fource  of  nutrition. 
If  the  fupply  of  nourilliment  exceeds  the  degree  of 
walle,  the  body  inereafes  ;  and  this  happens  in  infancy 
and  ia  youth  :  for  at  thofc  periods,  but  more  particu- 
larly the  former  one,  the  tluids  bear  a  large  proportion 
to  the  folids  ;  and  the  fibres  being  foft  and  yielding, 
arc  proportion.ably  more  capable  of  extenfion  and  in- 
creafe.    But  when  the  fupply  of  nutrition  only  equals 
the  waftc,  we  neither  increafe  nor  decreafe  ;  and  we 
find  this  to  be  the  cafe  when  the  body  has  attained  its 
full  growth  or  aimi  :  for  the  folids  having  then  acqui- 
red a  certain  degree  of  firmnefs  and  rigidity,  do  not 
permit  a  farther  increafe  of  the  body.     But  as  we  ap- 
proach to  old  age,  rigidity  begins  to  be  in  excefs,  and 
the  fluids  (  h  )  bear  a  much  lefs  proportion  to  the  folids 
than  before.     Tnc  dillipation  of  the  body  is  greater 
than  the  fupply  of  nourilhment ;  many  of  the  fmaller 
velFels become  gradually  impervious  (i) ;  and  thelibres 
loiing  their  moilturc  and  their  elafliciiy,  appear  flaccid 
and  wrinkled.     The  lilies  and  the  rofes  difappear,  be- 
eaufe  the  fluids  by  which  they  were  produced  can  no 
longer  reach  the  extremities  of  the  capillary  vtllels  of 
the  ikin.     As  thefe  changes  take  place,  the  nervous 
power  being  proportionably  weakened,  the  irritability 
and  fenfibility  of  the  body,  which  were  formerly  fo 
remarkable,  arc  greatly  diminiflicd  ;  and  in  advanced 
life,   the  hearing,  the  eye-iight,  and  all  the  other 
fenfes,  become  gradually  impaired. 

Sect.  XVI.     Of  the  Glands  and  Secretions. 

The  glands  are  commonly  underAood  to  be  fmall, 
roundiQi,  or  oval  bodies  formed  by  the  convolution  of 
a  great  number  of  vcll'els,  and  dellined  to  feparate  par- 
ticular humours  from  the  mafs  of  blood. 

They  are  nfually  divided  into  two  clafTes ;  but  it 
feems  more  proper  to  diftinguiOi  three  kindsof  glands, 
viz.  the  mucus,  conglobate,  and  conglomerate. 

The  mucous  glands,  or  follicles,  as  they  arc  moH 
commonly  called,  arc  fiiiall  cylindrical  tubes  continued 

from 


(r)  It  n'ay  not  be  improper  toobfcrvc,  that  till  of  late  the  coagulable  lymph  has  been  confounded  with  the 
Ceruhi  of  the  blood,  w-hich  contains  a  fubflance  that  is  likewifc  coagulable,  though  only  when  expofed  to  heat, 
or  combined  w  ith  certain  chemical  fubllances  ;  whereas  the  other  coagulates  fpontaneoufly  when  expofed  to 
the  air  or  to  reft. 

(g)  When  the  blood  fcparatcs  inio/c/.vm  and  crajfamcrtuiu,  if  the  latter  be  covered  with  a  cruft  of  a  whi- 
tifli  or  buff  colour,  it  has  been  ufually  confidered  as  a  certain  proof  of  the  blood's  being  in  a  ftate  of  too  great 
viftidity.  This  appearance  commonly  taking  place  in  inflammatory  difeafcs,  has  long  fcrved  to  confirm  the 
•luory  which  afcribes  the  caufe  of  inflammation  to  lentor  and  obflrudions.  But  from  the  late  Mr  Hewfons' 
experiments  it  appears,  that  when  the  atSion  of  the  arteries  is  incrcafed,  the  blood,  inftcad  of  being  more 
xifcid,  is,  on  the  contrary,  more  fluid  than  in  the  ordinary  flate,  previous  to  inflammation:  and  that  in 
confcqucnce  of  this,  the  coat;ulable  lymph  fuffers  the  red  globules,  which  are  the  heavieft  part  of  the  blood, 
to  fall  down  to  the  bottom  before  it  coagulates:  f<>  that  the  craffamcntuni  is  divided  into  rwo  parts ;  one  of 
which  is  found  to  conflll  of  the  coagulable  lymph  alone  (in  this  cafe  termed  the  buff  J  ;  and  the  other,  partly 
of  this  and  partly  of  the  red  globules. 

(h)  As  the  fluids  become  lefs  in  proportion  to  the  folids,  their  acrimony  is  found  to  increafe  ;  and  this  may 
perhaps  compcnfate  for  the  want  of  fluidity  in  the  blood  by  diminifliing  its  eohefion. 

(i)  In  infancy,  the  arteries  are  numerous  and  large  in  refpeft  10  the  veins,  and  the  lymphatic  glands  are 
larger  than  at  any  other  time  of  life  ;  whereas,  in  old  age,  the  capacity  of  the  venous  fyflcin  exceeds  that  of 
the  arteric:,  and  the  lymphatic  fyflcui  alraoft  difappcars. 


Part  IV. 


N 


or  the 
I'horaz. 


from  the  ends  of  arteries.  In  fome  parts  of  the  body, 
as  in  the  tonlils,  for  example,  fevcralof  tbcfc  rollicles 
may  be  Iccn  folded  together  in  oiic  common  covering, 
and  opci'.ing  into  one  common  linus.  Thcfc  follicles 
«re  the  velltls  that  fccretc  and  pour  out  mucus  in  the 
mouth,  oefophagus,  ftomach,  intelliucs,  and  other 
parts  of  the  body. 

The  conglobatt glanJs  are  peculiar  to  the  lymphatic 
fj  ftem.  Kvcry  lymphatic  vein  paifcs  through  a  gland 
of  this  kind  in  its  way  to  the  thoracic  duel.  They  are 
met  with  in  dilfcrent  parts  of  the  body,  pariicuiarly 
ui  the  axilla,  groin,  and  niefcntcry,  and  arc  cither  lo- 
litary  or  in  diuinft  cluUers. 

The  conglomerat:  gtandt  are  of  much  greater  bulk 
than  the  conglobate,  and  fcem  to  be  an  ailcmblagc  of 
many  fmaller  glands.  Of  this  kind  are  thclivcr,  kid- 
neys, &c.  Some  of  them,  as  the  pancreas,  parotids, 
&c.  have  a  granulated  appearance,  i^ll  tlicfe  conglo- 
merate glands  are  plentiluUy  fupplied  with  blood- 
velTcls  ;  but  their  nerves  arc  in  general  very  minute, 
and  few  in  number.  Each  little  granulated  portion 
furnilhes  a  fmall  tube,  which  unites  with  other  fimi- 
lar  duds,  to  form  the  common  excretory  dud  of  the 
gland. 

The  principal  glands,  and  thehumoursthey  fecrete, 
have  been  already  defcribed  in  dilfercnt  parts  of  this 
work  ;  and  there  only  remains  for  us  to  examine  the 
general  flrutture  of  the  glands,  and  to  explain  the  me- 
chanilm  of  fecrction.  On  the  Hrfl  of  thefc  fubjeds 
twodiffcrenifyftcms  have  been  formed  ;  each  of  which 
has  had,  and  llill  continue  to  have,  its  adherents. 
One  of  ihefe  fy  Hems  was  advanced  by  Malpighi,  who 
fuppofcd  that  an  artery  entering  into  a  gland  ramities 
very  minutely  through  its  whole  fubftance  ;  and  that 
its  branches  ultimately  terminate  iu  a  veficular  cavity 
or  follicle,  from  whence  the  fecrcteJ  riuid  palles  out 
through  the  excretory  dud.  This  doctrine  at  firft 
met  with  few  opponents  ;  but  the  celebrated  Ruyfch, 
who  firft  attempted  minute  injei^tions  with  wax,  attcr- 
■wards  difputcd  the  exiilencc  of  thcfe  follicles,  and  af- 
ferted,  that  every  gland  appears  to  be  a  continued  fe- 
ries  of  velTcls,  which  after  being  repeatedly  convol.i- 
ted  in  their  courfe  through  its  lubftance,  at  length  ter- 
minate in  the  excretory  dud.  Anaiomifts  are  ftill 
divided  between  thefc  two  fyllems:  that  of  Malpighi, 
however,  feems  to  be  the  beft  founded. 

The  mode  of  fecretion  has  been  explained  in  a  va- 
riety of  ways,  and  they  are  all  perfedly  hypothetical. 
In  fuch  an  inquiry  it  is  natural  to  alk,  how  one  gland 
conftaiitly  fcparatesa  particular  hunvmr, while  another 
gland  fecreics  one  of  a  very  dilferent  nature  from  the 
hluod  .'  The  bile,  for  inftance,  is  fep.iratcd  by  the 
liver,  and  the  urine  by  the  kidneys.  Are  thcfe  fecrc- 
tions  to  be  imputed  to  any  pLirticulardifpofiiions  in  the 
fluids,  or  is  their  caufe  to  be  looked  for  in  the  folids  ? 

It  has  been  fuppofed,  that  every  gland  contains 
within  itfelf  a  fermenting  p'inciple,  by  which  it  is 
enabled  to  change  the  natire  of  the  blood  it  receives, 
and  to  endue  it  with  a  particular  property.  So  that, 
according  to  this  fyftcm,  the  blood,  as  it  circulates 
ihroHghthe  kidneys, becomes  mixed  witli  the  ferment- 
ing principle  of  thofe  glands,  and  a  part  of  it  is  con- 
verte.l  into  urine;  and  again,  in  the  liver,  in  the  fa- 
lival  and  other  glands,  lie  bile,  the  fiUvj,  3::  J  o;hcr 


r      O      M      Y. 

juice5,aregencraiedfromafimilirctiife,  Butitfeems 
to  be  impolliblc  for  any  liquor  to  be  confined  in  a 
place  expofed  to  the  circulation,  without  being  car- 
ried away  by  the  torrent  of  blood,  every  part  of  which 
would  be  equally  atieded  ;  and  this  fyltem  of  fermen- 
tation has  lung  bacn  rcjeded  as  vague  and  chimerical, 
liut  as  the  caule  of  Iccretion  continued  to  be  looked 
for  iu  the  fluids,  the  former  fyftcm  was  fucceeded  by 
another,  in  which  recourfe  was  had  to  the  analogy  of 
the  humours.  It  was  obferved,  that  if  paper  is  moift- 
ened  with  water,  and  oil  and  water  art  afterwards 
poured  upon  it,  that  the  water  only  will  be  permitted 
to  pafs  through  it ;  but  that,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the 
paper  has  been  previouilyfoaked  in  oil  iuftead  ot  water, 
I  he  oil  only,  anU  nut  the  water.willbeiiltcred  tiirouJii 
it.  Thclc  ubiervations  led  to  a  fuppolitioii,  chat  every 
lecrctory  organ  is  originally  furnilhed  with  a  humour 
aualagous  to  that  whjch  it  i»  afterwards  dcltined  to 
leparatc  from  the  blood  ;  and  that  in  confcqience  of 
this  dilpofition,  the  fecretory  veilels  of  the  liver,  for 
inltance,  will  only  auinit  the  bilious  particles  of  the 
blood,  while  all  the  other  humours  will  be  excluded. 
This  fyltem  is  an  ingenious  one,  but  the  dirilcu.iie* 
with  which  it  abounds  arc  unanfwtrable  ;  for  oil  and 
water  are  immifciule  ;  whereas  the  blood,  as  i;  is  cir- 
culated through  the  body,  appears  to  be  an  homoge- 
nous  fluid,  tviry  oil  wil.  pafs  through  a  paper 
moiftcned  only  with  one  kind  of  oil;  and  wine,  or 
fpirits  mixed  w  ith  water,  will  eafily  be  iiltered  through 
a  paper  prcviouily  foakcd  in  water.  Upon  the  fauie 
principle,  all  our  humours,  though  ditt'cring  i.i  their 
other  properties,  yet  agreeing  in  that  of  being  perfect- 
ly mifcibic  w  ith  each  other,  will  all  ealily  pals  through- 
thc  fame  tiltrc — But  thefc  aie  not  all  the  objcdionx 
to  this  fyftem.  The  humours  which  are  fuppofed  to 
be  placed  in  the  fecretory  veiFcls  for  the  determina- 
tion of  limilir  particles  of  the  blood,  muft  beoriginally 
feparated  without  any  analogous  fluid  ;  and  that  which 
happens  once,  may  as  ealily  happen  always.  Again, 
it  fometimes  happens  from  a  vicious  difpoiition,  thai 
humours  are  filtered  through  glands  which  are  natu- 
rally not  intended  to  atford  them  a  palTage  ;  and  when 
this  once  Las  happened,  it  ought,  according  to  this 
fyftem,  to  be  expedcd  always  to  do  fo  :  whereas  this 
is  not  the  cafe ;  and  we  are,  after  all,  naturally  led  to 
feek  for  the  caufe  of  fecretion  in  the  folids.  It  does 
not  fcem  right  to  afcribe  it  to  any  particular  figire  oi 
the  fecretory  vclTels ;  becaufe  the  fof:  texture  of  thole 
parts  docs  not  permit  them  to  preferve  any  conftanc 
Ihape.  and  our  fluids  feem  to  be  capable  of  accommo- 
dating thcmfclves  to  every  kind  of  figure.  Some  have 
imputed  it  to  the  diflerence  of  diimeter  in  the  oriiires 
of  the  different  fecretory  velTeh.  To  this  dodrino 
objedions  have  like  wife  been  railed;  and  it  has  been 
argued,  that  the  velfels  of  the  liver,  for  inftance, 
would,  upon  this  principle,  afl^ord  a  palfage  not  only  to 
the  bile,  but  to  all  the  other  humours  of  lefs  coalift- 
ence  with  it.  In  reply  to  this oiijcdion,  it  has  been 
luppofed,  that  fecondary  vclRh  cxiil,  which  originate 
from  the  firft,  and  permit  all  the  huaionrs  thinner  than 
the  bile  top.ifs  through  them. 

Each  of  ihefe  hypothcfcs  is  probably  very  remote 
from  the  trutli. 


J  D 


IrlXPL.^NA' 


ANATOMY. 

EXPLANATION  of  PLATE  XXVIIL 


Part  V. 


Tins  plate  rcprcfcntf)  the  Heart  in  lltu,  all  the  hrge 
Arteries  and  Veins,  with  (omeotthe  Mufclcs,  &:c. 

Muscles,  &c Superior  Extremity. — a,  Maf- 

fctcr.  b,  Complexus.  C,  Digallriciis.  d,  Os  hyoides. 
c,  Thyroid  gland,  f.  Levator  fcapnljs.  g,  Ciiculla- 
ris.  hh.  The  clavieles  cut.  i, 'I'he  deltoid  imilcle. 
k,  Biceps  flexor  cubiti  cut.  1,  Coraco-brachialis. 
m,  Triceps  extenfor  cubiti.  n,  The  headsof  the  pro- 
nator teres,  flexor  carpi  radialcs,  and  flexor  digitorum 
fublimis,  cut.  o.  The  flexor  carpi-ulnaris,  cut  at  its 
extremity,  p,  Flexor  digitorum  profundus,  q.  Supi- 
nator radii  longus,  cut  at  us  cxirtmity.  r,  Liganun- 
lum  carpi  tranfverlak.  s,  I'xicnforcs  carpi  radialcs. 
I,  Latiiliuuis  dorii.  u.  Anterior  edge  of  the  ferratus 
amicus  major,  vv.  The  interior  part  of  the  dia- 
phragm. WW,  Its  anterior  edge  cut.  xx,  The  kid- 
neys,    y,  Tranfverfus  abdominis,     z,  Os  ilium. 

iNhERiOR  E.XTREMITY. — ii,  Pfoas  uiagnus.  t,  lli- 
acus  internus.  c,  The  flefliy  origin  of  tlie  tenfor  va- 
gina fcmoris.  dJ,  The  ofla  pubis  cut  from  eachothcr. 
f,  Mulculus  peftineus  cut  fi'om  its  origin,  f,  Short 
head  of  the  triceps  abdudor  fcmoris  cut.  g,  The  great 
lieadof  the  Q-iceps.  /■,  The  long  liead  cut.  ;,  Vallus 
internus.  k,  Vaflus  externus.  /,  Crureus.  m,  Gemel- 
lus a,  Soleus.  o,  Tibia.  />,  Peronaeus  longus.  g,  Pe- 
rouDEUs  brevis.  r,  Fibula. 

Heart  and  Bi.ood-vessei.s A,  The  heart,  with 

the  coronary  artery  and  veins.  B,  The  right  auricle 
of  the  heart.  C,  The  aorta  afcendens.  D,  The  left 
fubclavian  artery.  E,  The  left  carotid  artery.  F,  The 
common  trimk  which  fends  off  thcright  fubclavian  and 


right  carotid  arteries.  G,  The  carotis  externa.  II,  Ar- 
teria  facialis,  which  fends  oft' the  coronary  arteries  of 
the  lips.  I,  Artcria  temporalis  profunda.  K,  Aor- 
ta dcfcendens.  L  L,  Tlie  iliac  arteries, — which  fends 
otfiM  M,  The  femoral  or  crural  arteries.  N.  B.  The 
other  arteries  in  this  figure  have  the  fame  diflribution  as 
the  veins  of  the  fame  name  : — And  generally,  in  tlie 
anatomical  plates,  the  dcfeription  to  be  found  on  the 
one  fide,  points  out  the  fame  parts  in  the  other, 
I,  The  frontal  vein.  2,  The  facial  vein.  3,  Vena 
temporalis  profimda.  4,  Vena  occipitalis.  5,  Vena 
jugularis externa.  6,  Venajugularis  interna,  covering 
the  .a'teria  carotis  communis.  7,  The  vafcular  arch  on 
the  palm  ofthe  hand,  which  is  formed  by,  8,  The  radial 
artery  and  vein,  and,  9,  The  ulnar  artery  and  vein. 
10  10,  Cephiilic  vein.  11,  Balilic  vein,  that  on  the 
right  fide  cut.  12,  Median  vein,  i?.  The  humeral 
vein,  which,  with  the  median,  covers  the  humeral  ar- 
tery. 14  14,  The  external  thoracic  or  mammary  ar- 
teries and  veins.  1 5.  The  axillary  vein,  covering  the 
artery.  16  16,  The  fubclavian  veins,  which,  with 
(6  6)  the  jugulars,  form,  17,  The  vena  cava  fupe- 
rior.  18,  The  cutaneous  arch  of  veins  on  the  fore  part 
ofthe  foot.  19,  The  vena  tibialis  antica,  covering 
the  artery.  20,  The  vena  profmida  fcmoris,  covering 
the  artery.  21,  The  upper  part  of  the  vena  faphena 
major.  22,  The  femoral  vein.  23  2;!,  The  iliac 
veins.  24  24,  Vena  cava  inferior.  25  25,  The  renal 
veins  covering  the  arteries.  26  26,  The  diaphragin«- 
lic  veins. 


Of   (he 
Tliorax. 


Part  V.     Of  the  BRAIN  and  NERVES. 


131; 

In  tegu- 
ments of 
the  braio- 


Sect.  I.  Of  tht  Brain  and  its  Integuments. 

THE  bones  ofthe  cranium  were  defcribed  in  the 
olleologicalpartofthiswork.asinclofirjg  the  brain, 
and  defending  it  from  external  injury  :  but  they  are  not 
its  only  proteftion  ;  for  when  we  make  an  horizontal 
fcfkion  through  thefe  bones,  we  find  this  mafs  every- 
where furrounded  by  two  membranes  (k),  the  dura  and 
pia  mater. — The  firfl  of  thefe  lines  the  interior  furfacc 
ofthe  cranium,  to  which  it  everywhere  adheres  flrong- 
ly  (i.),  but  more  particularly  at  the  futures,  and  at  the 
many  foramina  through  which  velTcls  pafs  between  it 


and  the  pericranium.  The  (/«rrfw<7/ir/-(M)  is  perfciS- 
ly  fmoothandinclallic,and  i ts inner furface  is conflant- 
ly  bedewed  with  a  fine  pellucid  fiuid.which  every  where 
feparatesit  from  the  piamater.  The  dura  mater  fends 
offfeveralconfiderableproceires.which  divide  the  brain 
into  feparate  portions,  and  prevent  them  from  compref- 
fing  each  other.  Of  thefe  proceffes  there  is  one  fupe- 
rior,  and  longitudinal,  called  thcfa/x,  oxfaicifontipro- 
ccfs,  from  itsrefcmblancc  to  a  fcyihe.  It  arifcs  from 
the  fpine  of  theos  frontis, near  the  chriflagalli,  and  ex- 
tending along  in  the  diredion  of  the  fagittal  future,  to 
beyond  the  lambdoidal  future, divides  the  brain  into  two 

hemif- 


(k)  The  Greeks  called  thefe  membranes  ?!ieninges  ;  but  the  Arabians,  fuppofing  them  to  be  the  fource  of  all 
the  other  membranes  ofthe  body,  afterwards  gave  them  the  names  of  dura  and  pia  mater ;  by  which  they  are 
row  ufually  diflinguidied. 

(l)  In  young  fubjedls  tills  adhefion  is  greater  than  in  adults  ;  but  even  then,  in  the  healthy  fubjcfl,  it  is  no 
where  cafily  feparable,  without  breaking  through  feme  of  the  minute  vcfTels  by  means  of  which  it  is  attached 
to  the  bone. 

(m)  This  membrane  is  commonly  defcribed  as  confiftingof  twolaminse  ;  of  which  the  external  one  is  fuppo- 
.  fed  to  perform  the  office  of  perioitcum  internum  to  the  cranium,  while  the  internal  one  forms  the  folds  and 
procelles  of  the  dura  mater.  In  the  natural  ftatc,  however,  no  fuch  feparation  is  apparent  ;  like  other  mem- 
branes, we  may  indeed  divide  it,  not  into  two  only,  but  many  laminx  ;  but  this  divifionis  artificial,  and  depends 
du  the  dexterity  of  the  anaiouiifl. 


IM.,1,  \\\  II 


■..■/'./■ 


PartV.  ANA' 

Of  the  hemifphcrcs.  A  little  below  the  lambdoi  Jal  future,  it 
Urain  and  divides  into  two  broad  wings  or  cxpanlions  called  the 
Nerves,  tranfverfe  or  lateral  prDce^fs,  which  pre  vents  the  lobes 
of  the  cerebrum  from  preiling  on  the  cerebellum.  Bc- 
fides  tliefe  tiiere  is  a  fourth,  which  is  fituated  under 
the  tranfverfe  proceflcs,  and  being  continued  to  the 
fpine  of  the  occiput,  divides  the  cerebellum  into  two 
lobes. 

The  blood,  after  being  diflributed  through  the  ca- 
vity of  the  cranium  by  means  of  the  arteries,  is  return- 
ed, as  iu  the  other  parts  of  the  body,  by  veins  which 
all  pafs  on  to  certain  channels,  lituated  behind  thefc 
fevcral  procelfes. 

Thefe  canalsor  finufes  communicate  withcachother, 
and  empty  thcmfclves  into  the  internal  jugular  veins, 
which  convey  the  blood  into  the  vena  cava.  They  arc 
in  faft  triangular  veins,  running  through  the  fubflance 
of  the  diu-a  mater,  and,  like  the  proccll'es,  are  dilliii- 
guiflied  into  lo'igitudiiial  and  lateral ,-  and  where  thefe 
three  meet,  and  where  the  fourth  proccfs  paircsoff,  we 
obfcrve  a  foitfth  linus,  which  is  called  lorcular  ;  Hcro- 
philus,  who  firft  defcribed  it,  having  fuppofcd  that  the 
blood  at  the  imion  of  thefe  two  veins,  is  as  it  were,  in 
aprefs. 

Bcfides  thefe  four  canals,  which  were  known  to  the 
ancients,  modern  anatoniills  enumerate  many  others, 
by  gi\*.ng  the  appellation  oifiiiujei  to  other  veins  of  the 
dura  mater,  which  for  the  moft  part  empty  themfelves 
into  fome  of  thofe  wehave  juit  now  defcribed.  There 
are  the  inferior  longitudinal  fuius,  the  fupcrior  and  in- 
ferior pen-ous  finufes,  the  cavernous  finuics,  the  circu- 
lar fmus,  and  the  anterior  and  pollerior  occipital  fi- 
nufes. 

Thefe  finufes  or  veins,  bybeing  conveyed  through  a 
thick  denfe  membrane,  firmly  fufpended,  as  the  dura 
mater  is,  within  the  cranium,  arc  Icfs  liable  to  rupture; 
at  the  fame  time  they  are  well  fupported,  and  by  run- 
ning every  where  along  the  inner  fiu-faceof  the  bones, 
they  are  prevented  from  prethngon  thefubilancc  of  the 
brain.  To  prevent  too  great  a  dilatation  of  them,  we 
find  filaments  (called  chorda  Willifii,  from  their  having 
been  firft  noticed  by  Willis)  ftretchcd  acrofs  their  ca- 
vities ;  and  the  oblique  manner  in  which  the  veins  from 
the  brain  run  through  the  fubftance  of  the  brain  into 
thefe  channels,  ferves  the  purpofe  of  a  valve,  which 
prevents  the  blood  from  turning  back  into  the  fmaller 
and  weaker  velFels  of  the  brain. 

The  pia  mater  is  a  much  foftcr  and  finer  membrane 
than  the  dura  mater ;  being  exceedingly  delicate,  tran- 
fparent,  and  vafcular.  It  inverts  every  part  of  tiic  brain 
and  fends  oflan  infinite  number  of  elongations,  which 
inlinuate  themfelves  between  the  convolutions,  and 
even  into  the  fubftance  of  the  brain.  This  membrane 
is  compofed  of  two  laminas  ;  of  which  the  exteriorone 
is  named  tunica  arachiioidta,  from  its  thinnefs,  which  is 
equal  to  that  of  a  fpider's  web.  Thefe  two  laminx  are 
intimately  adherent  to  each  other  at  the  upper  part  of 
the  brain,  but  are  eafily  feparable  at  the  balls  of  the 
brain,  and  through  the  whole  Icngtii  of  the  medulla 
fpinalis.  The  external  layer,  or  tunica  arachnoidea, 
appears  to  be  fpread  uniformly  over  the  furfacc  of  the 
brain,  but  without  entering  into  its  furrows  as  the  in- 
ner layer  does  ;  the  latter  being  found  to  infinuate  it- 
felf  between  the  convolutions,  and  even  into  the  inte- 
rior cavities  of  the  brain.     The  blood-vclltls  ol  the 


^       O       M       Y. 

brain  arc  diftributcd  through  it  in  iheirway  to  thator- 
gan,  and  are  therefore  divided  into  very  minute  rami- 
fications, before  they  penetrate  the  fubftance  of  the 
brain. 

There  arc  feveral  parts  included  under  the  general 
denomination  oi  brain.  One  of  thefe,  which  is  of  the 
fofteftconliftencc,  and  fills  the  greaieft  part  of  the  ca- 
vity of  thccranium,  is  the  arebrnm,  or  brain,  properly 
fo  called.  Another  portion,  which  is  featcd  in  the  in- 
ferior and  pofterior  part  of  the  head,  is  the  cirebelluv!  ,- 
and  a  third,  which  derives  its  origin  from  both  thefe, 
is  the  medulla  oblongata. 

The  cerebrum  is  a  medullary  mafs  of  a  moderate  con- 
fiftence,  filling  up  exactly  all  the  upper  part  of  the  ca- 
vity of  the  cranium,  and  divided  into  two  hemflphcrcs 
by  the  falx  of  the  dura  mater.  Each  of  thefe  hcmif- 
phcresisufuallydiliinguilhed  mioan interior, amiddte, 
and  a  pojlerior  lobe.  The  firft  of  thefc  is  lodged  on  the 
orbital  procefles  of  the  os  frontis ;  the  middle  lobes  lie 
on  the  middle  folFas  of  the  bafisof  the  cranium,  and  the 
pofterior  lobes  are  placed  on  the  tranfverfe  feptum  of 
the  OS  oecipitis,  immediately  over  the  cerebellum,  from 
which  they  are  feparatcd  by  the  iareral  procelfes  of  the 
dura  mater.  Thefe  two  portions  aftbrd  no  diftinguifh- 
ing  mark  of  feparation ;  and  on  this  account  Haller, 
and  many  other  modern  anatomifls,  omit  the  diftinc- 
tion  of  middle  lobe,  and  fpcakonly  of  the  anterior  and 
pofterior  lobes  of  the  brain. 

The  cerebrum  appears  to  be  compofed  of  two  dif- 
tin6t  fubdances.  Of  ihcfc,  the  exterior  one,  which  is 
of  a  greyifli  or  alh-colour,  is  called  the  cortex,  and  is 
fomewhat  foftcr  than  the  other,  which  is  very  white, 
and  is  called  medulla  ox  fubjlantia  alba. 

After  having  removed  the  falx,  and  fcparated  the 
two  htmifpheres  from  each  other, we  perceive  a  white 
convex  body,  the  corpus  callofum,  which  is  a  portion 
of  themedullaryfubrtance.uniting  the  two  hemifphcres 
to  each  other,  and  not  inverted  by  the  cortex.  By 
making  an  horizontal  incilion  in  the  brain,  on  a  level 
with  this  corpus  callofum,  we  difcover  two  oblong  ca- 
vities, named  \.\\c  anterior  or  lateral  fentrictes,  one  in 
each  hemifpherc.  Thefe  two  ventricles,  which  com- 
municate with  each  other  by  a  hole  immediately  under 
the  plexus  choroides,  arc  fcparated  laterally  by  a  very 
fine  medullary  partition,  callcdyj^/uw  lucidum,  from  its 
thinnefs  and  tranfparency.  The  low-cr  edge  of  this 
feptum  is  fixed  to  the  fornix,  which  is  a  kind  of  me- 
dullary arch  (as  its  name  implies)  (ituated  under  the 
corpus  callofum,  and  nearly  of  a  triangular  fl)apc.  An- 
teriorly the  fornix  fendsotf'two  medullary  chords,  cal- 
led its  anterior  crura ;  which  feeni  to  be  united  to  each 
other  by  a  portion  of  medullary  fubftance,  named  com- 
t»i{fi/ra  anterior  cerebri.  Thefc  crura  diverging  from 
one  another,  are  loft  at  the  outer  fide  of  the  lower  and 
fore-partof  the  third  ventricle.  Pofteriorly  the  fornix 
is  formed  into  two  other  crura,  which  unite  with  two 
medullary  protuberances  called  pedei  hippocampi,  and 
{omclxmc^cornuaaninionii,  that  extendalong  the  back- 
part  of  the  lateral  ventricles.  The  concave  edge  of  the 
pedes  hippocampi  is  covered  by  a  medullary  lamina, 
called  corpus  fitnbriatum. 

Neither  the  edges  of  the  fornix,  nor  its  pofterior 
crura,  can  be  well  diftinguilhed,  till  we  have  removed 
the  plexus  choroides.  This  is  a  produi5lion  of  the  pia 
mater,  which  is  fpread  over  the  lateral  ventricles.  Its 

loofe 


765 


Of  the 

Brain  ^ol 

Ncncl. 

Ij4 

The  braia. 


»J5 
Cerebrum. 


766 

Of  the 

Urain  and 

Kcrvei. 


N 


O      M      Y. 


Part  V. 


»  /);/>.  Je 

Uflndiluh 
Cerebri . 


t  Rati* 
AM. 
toni   vl. 
v.  371. 


loofc  edges  arc  collcded,  fo  as  to  appear  like  a  vafcu-     termiiutes,  was  by  ihc  ancients  fuppofed  to  be  of  a     Of  the 
lar  baud  on  each  lidc.  glandular  ftrutliirc, and dcHined  tofiUcr  tbefcrolily  of  Crain  aod 

When  \\c  have  removed  ihis  plexus,  we  difcovcr     ihe  brain.  Spigclius  pretended  to  have  difcovcrcj  iis    Ncrvet.  ^ 


excretory  duct,  but  it  feenis  certain  that  no  fuch  duct 
cxifls.  li  is  of  an  oblong  Ibape,  compofed,  as  it  were 
of  two  lobes.  In  ruuiiiiant  animals  it  is  much  larger 
than  in  man. 

From  the  pofterior  part  of  the  third  veniricle,  we  fee 
afmall  groove  or  channel,  dcfccndiug  obliquely  back- 
wards. This  channel,  which  is  called  the  aqucduil  of 
Sylvius,  though  it  was  known  to  the  ancients,  opens 
into  another  cavity  of  the  brain,  placed  between  the 
ihajami  iiervonunoi'li'coruw,  !,Yc(o  cMci\,he^i\i{c  i\\c     cerebellum  and  medulla  oblongata,    and   called  the 

fourth  vciitrici!.  p    V,| 

The  cenbcUupi,  which  is  divided  into  two  lobes,  is    '*•'"'• 


fcveral  othtr  protuberances  included  in  the  lateral 
ventricles.  Thele  are  the  corpora  Ihiata,  the  ih.ila- 
nii  nervorum  opiiconim,  the  tubcrcula  quadrugc- 
niina,  and  the  pineal  gl.Mid. 

The  corj^ora  Jiriulu  arc  two  curved  oblong  eminen- 
ces, that  extend  along  the  anterior  part  of  the  lateral 
ventricles.  They  derive  their  name  from  their  Uriatcd 
appearance,  which  is  owing  to  an  iutcrmixturc  of  the 
cortical  and  medullary  fubllanccs  of  the  brain.     '1  he 


optic  nerves  arife  ciiicHy  from  them,  and  they  arc  like 
wife  compofed  both  of  the  cortex  and  medulla.  They 
arc  feparated  from  the  corpora  liriata  only  by  a  kind 
of  medullary  chord,  thegeminum  centrum  (emi-circu- 
lare.  The  thalami  are  nearly  of  an  oval  fliapc,  and 
are  lituated  at  the  bottom  of  the  upper  cavity  of  the  la- 
teral ventricles.  They  are  clolcly  united,  and  at  their 
convex  part  fecm  to  become  one  body. 

Anteriorly,  in  the  fpace  between  the  thalami,  we 
obferve  an  orifice  by  which  the  lateral  ventricles  com- 
nuinicate,  and  another  leads  down  from  this,  under  the 
different  appellations  o(  foramen  cotnmuiie  anttriui, 
vulva  iter  ad  iifutidibuium,  but  more  properly  iter  ad 
tertiuvi  veutricuhnn  ;  and  the  feparation  of  the  thala- 
mi from  each  other  poflerioily,  forms  another  open- 
ing or  interflicc  called  anus.  This  has  been  fuppofed 
to  communicate  with  the  third  vcntiicle  ;  but  it  does 
not,  the  bottom  of  it  being  Ihut  up  by  the  pia  mater. 
The  back  part  of  the  anus  is  formed  by  a  kind  of  me- 
dulhry  band,  which  connects  the  thalami  to  each 
other,  and  is  called  co7nvhifura  pojlerior  cerebri. 

Behind  the  thalami  and  commilfura  pofterior,  we 
obferve  a  fmall,  foft,  grcyilli,  and  oval  body,  about  the 
fizeofapea.  1  his  is  (he  glandula  pinealis  i  itisde- 
fcribed  by  Galen  under  the  name  of  oonariou,3.wA  has 
been  rendered  famous  by  Defcartes,  who  fuppofed  it 


commonly  fuppofed  to  be  of  a  firmer  texture  than  the 
cerebrum  ;  but  ihctruth  is,thatin  thcgreaiernumbcr 
offubjeds,  there  appears  to  be  no  fenliblc  difference  in 
the  confidancc  of  ibcfc  two  parts.  It  has  more  of  the 
cortical  than  of  the  medullary  fubllancc  in  its  compo- 
fition. 

The  furrow  that  divides  the  two  lobes  of  the  cere- 
bellum leads  anteriorly  to  a  proctfs,  compofed  of  me- 
dullary and  cortical  fubllanccs,  covered  by  the  pia  ma- 
ter i  and  which, from  its  being  divided  into  numerous 
furrows,  refcmbling  the  rings  of  the  earth-worm,  is 
named  proajfus  vcrnujortiiis.  This  proccfs  fti  ms  x 
kind  of  ring  in  its  courfc  between  the  lobes. 

The  furface  of  the  cerebellum  does  not  afford  thofe 
circumvolutions  which  appear  in  the  cerebrum  ;  but 
infteadof  thefc,  we  obferve  a  great  number  of  minute 
furrows,  running  parallel  to  each  other,  and  nearly 
in  a  iranlverfc  direction.  The  pia  mater  inlinuates  it- 
felt  into  thefc  furrows. 

When  we  cut  into  the  fubftance  of  the  cerebellum, 
from  above  downwards,  we  find  the  medullary  part 
running  in  a  kind  of  raniifyingcourfe,  anil  exhibitiKg 
an  ajipcarance  that  has  got  the  name  of  arbor  vitn. 
'Ihel'c  ramifications  unite  to  form  amedullary  trunk; 


to  be  the  feat  of  the  foul.     Galen  feems  formerly  to     the  middle,  anterior,  and  moll  conliderable  part  of 


have  entertained  the  fame  opinion.  Some  modern 
wriiers  have,  with  as  little  rcafon,  imagined  that  the 
foul  is  placed  in  the  corpus  callofum. 

The  pineal  gland  rcfts  upon  four  remarkable  emi- 
nences, difpofed  in  pair?,  and  feated  immediately  below 
it.  Thefe  tubercles,  which  by  the  ancients  were  called 
tcflei  and  iiatn,  have,  lince  the  time  of  Winilow,  been 
more  commonly  named  /.'  I>  rcuia  quadrugcmina. 

Under  the  thalami  we  obferve  another  cavity,  the 
thiri!  ventricle,  which  teru\iuates  anteriorly  in  a  fu  all 
medullary  canal,  the  infundibulum,  that  leads  to  the 


which  forms  two  procclfcs,  the  cruiaccrebclli;  which 
unite  with  the  crura  cerebri,  to  fornr  the  mediila  ob- 
longata. The  lalt  furuilhes  two  other  procelfes,  which 
lofe  thcmfelvts  under  the  nates,  and  thus  unite  the 
lobes  of  the  cerebellum  to  the  poiUrior  part  of  the  ce- 
rebrum. Under  the  nates  weobfervc  a  tranfverfc  me- 
dullary line,  or  linea  alba,  running  froBi  one  of  thc[e 
procelies  to  the  other  ;  and  between  them  we  find  a 
very  thin  inedullary  lamina,  coveredwith  the  pia  ma- 
ter, which  the  generality  ofan.Ttomifls  have  (thougii 
fccniingly  v\  ithout  reafon)conlidered  a?  a  valve  Ibrmtd 


glandula'pituitaria.   It  has  been  doubled,  whether  the  for  doling  the  communication  between  the  fourth  vcn- 

infundibiilum  is  really  hollow  ;  but  fome  late  experi-  tri  le  and  the  aquaedudus  bylvii.     Vieull'ens  named  it 

ments  on  this  parts  of  the  brain  *  by  Profiflbr  Murray  valvtila  i/.ajor  cerebri.  1^7 

of  Upfal,  clearly  prove  i:  to  be  a  medullary  canal,  fur-  The  medulla  oblongata  is  fittiated  in  the  middle,    Medulla 

rounded  by  bothlaminasof  liic  piamaicr.     After  free-  lower,  and  pofterior  part  of  the  cranium,  and  mny  be  oblongata, 

zing  the  brain,  this  channel  was  found  filled  with  ice  ;  confidered    as  a  jiroduclion  or  eontinu..liou    of  the 

and  de  Hrfcn  tells  -|-  us,  he  found  it  dilated,  and  filled  whole  m<dullary  fubllance  of  the  rerebrnm  .»nd  cere- 

wiih  a  cab.areous  matter  (n).  btlhim.  being  formed  by  the  n:.ion  of  iwoconfi  'er  blc 

The  foft  fpongy  body  in  which  the  infundibulum  medullary  proct  Acs  of  the  cerebrum, called  «:<ra  a-r^- 

bri. 


(s)  The  under  part  of  it,  however  appears  to  be  impervious  ;  at  leaft  no  iijedion  that  can  be  depended  on 
has  been  made  to  pafs  from  it  into  theglandula  pituitaria  without  laceration  of  parts. 


Part  V. 


N 


Of  the  bri,  with  two  other  finallcr  ones  from  the  cerebellum, 
Ilraiii  and  which  were  jull  now  fpokcn  ot  under  the  name  oicru- 
^  Nerve.,    ^a  cercbilli. 

The  crura  cerebri  arifc  from  the  middle  and  lower 
part  of  each  hcmil'phcre.  They  arc  feparattd  from 
each  other  at  their  origin,  but  arc  united  below,  where 
they  termLiatc  in  a  middle  protuberance,  the  pom  Va- 
rolii, fo  called,  becaufe  Varolius  compared  it  to  a 
bridge.  This  name,  however,  can  convey  no  idea  of 
its  real  appearance.  It  is,  in  fa(5l,  nothing  more  than 
a  medullary  protuberance,  nearly  of  a  femi-fpherical 
fliape,  which  imites  the  crura  cerebri  to  thofc  of  the 
cerebellum. 

Between  the  crura  cerebri,  and  near  the  anterior 
edge  of  the  pons  Varolii,  are  two  tubercles,  conipofed 
externally  of  medullary,  and  uittrnally  of  cintritious, 
fubflance,  to  which  tullachius  firfl  gave  the  name  of 
eMii!eiiti,e  mamtllani^ 

Along  the  middle  of  the  poflerior  furfacc  of  the  me- 
dulla oblongata,  where  it  forms  the  anterior  part  of 
the  fourth  ventricle,  we  obfcrve  a  kind  of  fiurow 
which  runs  do%\niwards  and  terminates  in  a  point.  A- 
bout  an  inch  above  the  lower  extremity  of  tjiis  fiifure, 
feveral  medullary  filaments  are  to  be  fcen  nuining  to- 
wards it  on  each  (ide  in  an  oblique  dircftion,  fo  as  to 
give  it  the  appearance  of  a  writing-pen  ;  hence  it  is 
called  calainiti fcriftorius. 

From  the  pofterior  part  of  the  pons  Varolii,  the  me- 
dulla oblongata  defccnds  obliquely  backwards :  at  its 
fore-part,  immediately  behind  the  pons  Varolii,  we 
obferve  two  pair  of  eminences,  which  were  defcribcd 
by  Euflachins,  but  received  no  particular  appellation 
till  the  time  of  Vieullens,  who  gave  tliem  the  names 
of  corpora  olivaria  and  corpora  fyramiilalta.  The  for- 
mer are  the  ontermoft,  being  placed  one  on  each  iide. 
They  are  nearly  of  an  oval  Ihapc,  and  are  compofcd 
of  medulla,  with  flreaks  of  cortical  fubflance.  Be- 
tween tliefe  are  the  corpora  p)Tamidalia,  each  of 
which  terminates  in  a  point.  In  the  human  fubjetl 
thefe  four  eminences  are  fomctimes  not  eafily  dilliix- 
guilhed. 
,,g  The   medulla fpinalh,  ox  fpinal  marrow,  which  is 

Medulla  t'l^  name  given  to  the  medullary  chord  that  is  extend- 
%)inaUs.  ed  down  the  vertebral  canal,  from  the  great  foramen 
of  the  occipital  bone  to  the  bottom  of  the  lafl  lumbar 
vertebra,  is  a  continuation  of  the  medulla  oblongata. 
Like  the  other  parts  of  the  brain,  it  isinvcfled  by  the 
diu-a  and  pia  mater.  The  firfl  of  thefe,  in  its  pallage 
out  of  the  cranium,  adheres  to  the  foramen  of  the  os 
occipitis.  Its  connedion  with  the  ligamentary  fub- 
flance that  lines  the  cavity  of  the  fpinc,  is  only  by 
means  of  cellular  membrane  ;  but  between  tlic  feveral 
vertebrce,  where  the  nerves  pafsoutofthc  fpine,  it 
fends  ort' prolongations,  which  adhere  ftrongly  to  the 
vertebral  ligaments.  Here,  as  in  the  cranium,  the 
dura  mater  has  its  fmufcs  or  large  veins.     There  are 


^      O       M       Y. 

two  in  number,  and  arc  fecn  running  on  each  fide  of 
the  medullary  column,  from  the  foramen  magnum  of  1 
the  OS  occipitis  to  the  lower  part  of  the  os  facrnm. 
They  communicate  together  by  rami/ymg  branches  at 
each  vertebra,  and  terminate  in  the  vertebra*,  inter- 
coftal,  and  facral  veins. 

The  pia  mater  is  connefted  with  the  dura  mater  by 
means  of  a  thin  tranfparent  fubflance,  which  from  its 
ijidentations  between  the  fpinalnerves  hasobtainedthc 
name  of  ligavtentum  Hititiculatnm.  It  is  fomewhar 
firmer  than  the  tunica  arochnoidca,  but  in  other  re- 
fpeftsrcfemblcs  that  membrane.  Its  ufe  is  to  fupiiort 
the  fpinal  marrow,  that  it  may  not  affcft  the  medulla 
oblongata  by  its  weight. 

The  fpinal  marrow  itfclf  is  externally  of  a  white  co- 
lour ;  but  upon  cutting  into  it  we  find  its  middle-part 
compofcd  of  a  darker  coloured  mafs,  refcmbling  the 
cortex  of  the  brain.  When  the  man-ow  has  reached 
the  firfl  lumbarvertebra,  it  bccomcsextremely  narrow, 
and  at  length  terminates,  in  an  oblong  protuberance  ; 
from  the  extremity  of  which  the  pia  mater  fends  ofi'a 
prolongation  or  ligament,  refcmbling  a  nerve,  that 
perforates  the  dura  mater,  and  is  fixed  to  the  os  coc- 

The  medulla  fpinalis  gives  rife  to  50  or  51  pair  of 
nerves,  but  they  are  not  all  of  the  fame  lize,  nor  do 
they  all  run  in  the  fame  direftion.  The  upper  ones 
are  thinner  than  the  rert,  and  arc  placed  almoil  tranf- 
verfely :  as  we  defcciul  we  find  them  running  more 
and  morely  obliquely  downwards,  till  at  length  their 
courfe  is  almoft  perpendicular,  fo  that  the  lowcrmolt 
nerves  exhibit  an  appearance  that  is  called  catida  tqui- 
na,  from  its  refcniblancc  to  a  horfc's  tail. 

The  arteries  that  ramify  through  the  different  parts 
of  the  brain,  are  derived  from  the  hitcrnal  c.irotid  and 
from  the  vertebral  arteries.  The  medulla  fpinalis  is 
fupplied  by  the  anterior  and  poflerior  fpinal  arteries, 
and  likewife  receives  branches,  from  the  cervical,  the 
inferior  and  fupcrior  vnteccoUaL,  tlie  Uimbar,  and  ihf 
facral  arteries. 

Sect.  II.    Of  the  Nerves. 

The  nerves  are  medullary  chords,  differing  from 
each  other  in  fize  colour  and  conlillence  and  de- 
riving their  origin  from  the  medulla  oblongata  and  me- 
dulla fpinalis.  There  are  59,  and  fomctimes  40,  pair 
of  thefe  nerves  ;  nine  (o)of  which  originate  from  the 
medulla  oblongata,  and  ^o  or  51  from  the  medulla  fpi- 
nalis. They  appear  to  be  perfcdly  inelallic,  and  like- 
wife  to  pollefs  no  irritability.  If  we  irritate  mufcular 
fibres,  they  immediately  coutrad  ;  but  nothing  of  this 
fort  happens  if  we  irritate  a  nerve.  They  carry  with 
them  a  covering  from  the  pia  mater  ;  but  derive  no  tu- 
nic from  the  diu-amattr,  as  hath  been  generally,  though 
crroneoully,  fuppofcd,  ever  lince  the  limcof Galen  (r), 

the 


iti 


(o)  It  has  been  afual  to  defcribc  the  ten  pair  of  nerves  as  arifing  from  the  medulla  oblongata ;  but  as  the  tenth 
pan-  arife  in  the  firme  manner  as  the  other  fpinal  nerves,  Santorini,  Heiltcr,  Haller,  .and  others,  iVcm  very 
properly  to  have  clalfed  them  among  the  ncrvesof  the  fpine. 

(p)  Baron  HuUcr  and  Profeflbr  Zinn  fecm  to  have  been  the  firft  who  dcmonftrated,  that  the  dura  mater  is  rc- 
fleclcd  upon  and  adheres  to  tlie  periollcuin  at  the  edges  of  the  foramina  that  atibrd  a  palTage  to  ihc  nerves  out  jf 
the  craniiun,  and  vertebral  canal,  or  is  fooii  loiliji  the  cellular  fubilance. 


768 


Of  the 
lira  in  and 

Ncrve$. 


A      N       A       T 

the  outer  covering  of  the  nerves  being  in  fa<5l  nothi  ig 
more  than  tlic  cellular  membrane.  'Mils  covering  is 
very  thick  \\  here  the  nerve  is  cxpofcd  to  the  action  of 
mulcles  ;  but  where  it  runs  through  a  bony  canal,  or 
is  fccuie  from  prclfurc,  the  cellular  tunic  is  extremely 
thin,  or  altogether  wanting.  We  have  inflances  of 
this  Ln  the  jKjrtio  mollis  of  the  auditory  nerve,  and  in 
the  nerves  of  the  heart. 

By  elevating,  carefully  and  gently,  the  brain  ft-oin 
the  balls  of  the  cranium,  we  (ind  the  firfl  nine  pair  a- 
riiing  in  the  following  order  :  I.  The  nervi  olfaAorii, 
dirtributed  through  the  pituitary  membrane,  which 
conllltutes  the  organ  of  fmell.  2.  'Ihc  optici,  which 
go  to  the  eyes,  \\  here  they  receive  the  impreifions  of 
vifiblc  objects.  3.  The  oculorum  motorcs,  fo  called 
becaufe  they  are  diftributed  to  the  mufclesof  the  eye. 
4.  The  pathetici,  dil^ributed  to  the  fuperior  obliijue 
mufcles  of  the  eyes,  the  moiion  of  which  is  cxpreliive 
of  certain  pallions  of  the  foul.  J.  Tlic  nerves  of  litis 
pair  foon  divide  into  three  principal  branches,  and  each 
of  thefe  has  a  different  name.  Its  upper  divillon  is  the 
ophthalamicus,  which  is  diltributed  to  vai'ious  parts  of 
tlie  eyes,  eye-lids,  forehead,  nofc,  and  integuments 
of  the  face.  The  fccond  is  called  the  maxillaris  fu- 
perior, and  the  third  ynaxillaris  inferior;  both  which 
names  allude  to  their  diliribution.  6.  The  abduclores; 
each  of  thefe  nerves  is  dillributed  to  the  abductor  muf- 
cleoftheeye,  fo  called,  becaufe  it  helps  to  draw  the 
globe  of  the  eye  from  the  nofe.  7.  The  auditorii  (q_), 
which  are  dillributed  iliiough  the  organs  of  hearing. 
8.  The  par  vagum,  which  derives  its  name  from  the 
great  number  of  parts  to  which  it  gives  branches  both 
ill  the  thorax  and  abdomen.  9.  The  linguales,  or  hy- 
po-glolli,  which  are  dillributed  to  the  tongue,  and  ap- 
pear to  contribute  both  to  the  organ  of  talle  and  to  the 
motions  of  the  tongue  (k). 

li  has  ah-eady  been  obferved,  that  the  fpinal  mar- 
row fends  off  30  or  31  pair  of  nerves  ;  thefe  arc  chieHy 
diftributed  to  the  exterior  parts  of  the  trunk  and  to  the 
extremities.  They  are  commonly  diilinguilhed  into 
the  cervical,  dorfai,  lumbar,  sxiAjacral  ucrves.  The 
cervical,  which  pafs  out  from  between  the  feveral  ver- 
tebrae of  the  neck,  are  eight  (s)  in  number  ;  the  dor- 
fai, twelve  ;  the  lumbar,  five  ;  and  the  facral,  rive  or 

4 


O      M 


Part  V. 


Of  the 

Brain  and 

Ntrvet, 


fix;  the  number  of  the  latter  depending  on  the  number 
of  holes  in  the  os  lacrum.  Each  fpinal  nerve  at  its  ori- 
gin is  compofed  of  two  fafciculi  of  medullary  fibres. 

One  of  thefe  fafciculi  arifes  from  the  anterior,  and  the  " 
other  from  the  poflerior,  Airface  of  the  medulla.  Thefe 
fafciculi  are  feparatcd  by  the  ligamentum  denticulatum, 
after  which  we  find  them  contiguous  to  one  another. 
They  then  perforate  the  dura  mater,  and  unite  to  form 
a  conllderable  knot  or  ganglion.  Each  of  thefe  gan- 
glions fends  off  two  branches  ;  one  anterior,  and  the 
other  poltcrior.  The  anterior  branches  communicate 
with  each  other  at  their  coming  out  of  the  fpinc,  and 
likcwife  fend  off  one,  and  fometimcs  more  branches, 
to  alfift  in  the  formation  of  tlieintcrcoflal  nerve. 

The  knots  or  ganglions  of  the  nerves  juft  now  fpo- 
kcn  of,  are  not  only  to  be  met  with  at  their  exit  from 
tlie  fpiiie,  but  likcwife  in  various  parts  of  the  body. 
Tiicy  occur  in  the  nerves  of  the  medulla  oblongata,  as 
well  as  in  thofc  of  the  fpine.  They  are  not  the  etf  eels 
of  difeafe,  but  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  fame  parts  of 
the  fame  nerves,  both  in  the  foetus  and  adult.  ThejT' 
are  commonly  of  an  oblong  Ihape,  and  of  a  grey  ilh  co- 
lour, fomewhat  inclined  to  red,  which  is  perhaps  ow- 
ing CO  their  being  exu-emely  vafcular.  Internally  wc 
are  able  to  diftiuguifli  fomcthing  like  an  intermixture 
of  the  nervous  filaments. 

Some  writers  have  confidered  them  as  fomany  little 
brains  ;   Lancili  fancied  he  had  difcovered  mufcular 
fibres  in  them,  but  they  are  certainly  not  of  an  irrita- 
ble nature.     A  late  writer,  Dr  Johnllone*,  imagines  •  £^ay,  «j 
they  arc  intended  to  deprive  us  of  the  powerof  the  will  tU  Ufc  of 
over  certain  parts,  as  the  heart,  for  inflance  :  but  if '*<•  Gan^/i'- 
this  hypochelis  were  well  founded,  we  fltouldmeet  with""' "/'" 
them  only  in  the  nerves  leading  to  involuntary  muf-  ■""^"• 
cles  ;  whereas  it  is  certain,  chat  the  voluntary  mufcles 
receive  their  nerves  tlu-ough  ganglions.     Doetor  Mon- 
ro, from  obferving  the  accui-ate  intermixture  of  the 
minute  nerves  which  compofe  them,  confiders  ihem  as 
new  fourees  of  nervous  cnergyf .  ^  Ohferva* 

The  nerves,  like  the  blood-velfcls,  in  their  courfe  thm  on  th* 
through  the  body,  communicate  with  each  other  ;  and  Ntrveut 
each  of  thefe  communications  conflitutes  what  is  call- 
ed z  ptexui,  from  whence  branches  are  again  detached 
to  different  paits  ot  the  body.     Some  of  thefe  are  con- 
stant 


(q^)  This  pair,  foon  after  its  cnirance  into  the  meatus  auditorius  internus,  feparates  into  two  branches.  One 
of  thefe  is  of  a  very  loft  and  pulpy  confidence,  is  called  the  portui  viollis  of  the  fevenlh  pair,  and  is  fpread 
over  the  inner  part  of  the  car.  The  other  pallcs  out  through  the  aquedud  of  Kallopius  in  a  firm  chord,  which 
is  dilliuguillicd  as  the  portio  dura,  and  is  diftributed  to  the  external  ear  and  other  p;u-ts  of  the  neck  and  face. 

(r)  Hcifterhas  fummed  up  the  ufes  of  thefe  nine  pair  of  nerves  in  the  following  Latin  verfes  : 

"  Olfacicm,  arneru,  oculofqtie  ntoverts,  patienjque, 

"  Ca/lans,  abdticens,  audieiifque,  vagiinfque,  loqueiifqiie." 
(s)  Bcfides  thefe,  there  is  another  pair  called  acefforii,  which  arifes  from  the  medulla  fpinalis  at  its  begin- 
ning ;  and  afccnding  through  che  great  foramen  of  the  os  occipitis  into  the  cranium,  pali'es  out  again  dole  to 
the  eightii  pair,  with  which,  however,  it  does  not  unite  ;  and  it  is  afterwards  diftributed  chiefly  to  the  mulcles 
of  the  neck,  back,  .ind  fcapula.  In  this  courfe  it  fends  off  filaments  to  different  parts,  and  likcwife  communicates 
w  ith  feveral  other  nerves.  Phyfiologifts  are  at  a  lofs  how  to  account  for  the  fingular  origin  and  coiu-fe  of  thefe 
nervi  accelforii.  The  ancients  confidered  them  as  branches  of  the  eighth  pair,  diftributed  to  mufcles  of  the 
fcapula  :  Willis  likcwife  confidered  chcm  as  appendages  to  that  pair,  and  on  lliat  account  named  ihcmacccjfotii. 
They  are  fometimes  called  ihc/pi/julpair  :  but  as  this  latter  name  is  applicable  to  all  the  nerves  of  the  i^ine 
iniifcriminatcly,  it  feems  better  co  adopt  tliat  given  by  Willis. 


Tart  V.  A       N       A       T 

Of  the      ftant  and  confiderable  enough  to  be  diftingaiOicd  by 


O      M       Y. 


Urainand    particular  nanics,  as  v\\tfeniiluiiar  plexus ;  the  fuimo- 
^  Ncrvei.  ^  nary  jilcxui  ;   the  hepatic,  the  cardiac,  &c. 

Jt  would  be  foreign  to  the  purpole  of  this  work,  to 
follow  the  nerves  through  all  their  dirtriLutions  ;  but 
it  may  be  remembered,  that  in  dcfcribing  the  ditfercnt 
vifcera,  mention  was  made  of  the  nerves  diftributcd  to 
them.  There  is  one  pair,  however,  called  the  inter- 
coftal,  or  great  fywpathetic  nerve,  which  fcems  to  re- 
quire particular  notice,  becaufeithasanalmofl  univcr- 
fal  connciJUon  and  corrcfpondence  with  all  the  other 
nerves  of  the  body.  Authors  are  not  perfectly  agreed 
about  the  origin  of  the  intercolUl  ;  but  it  may  perhaps 
rot  improperly  be  defcribed,  as  beginning  from  fila- 
ments of  the  fifth  and  fixth  pair  ;  it  then  paifes  out  of 
the  cranium,  through  the  bony  canal  of  the  carotid, 
from  whence  it  defcends  laterally  clofc  to  the  bodies  of 
the  vertebras, and  receives  branches  from  almoll  all  the 
vertebral  nerves  ;  forming  almofl  as  many  ganglions  in 
itscourfe  through  the  thorax  and  abdomen.  It  fends  off 
aninfinite  number  of  branches  to  the  vifcera  in  thofc 
cavities,  and  forms  feveral  plexufes  with  the  branch- 
es of  the  eighth  pair  or  par  vagum. 

That  the  nerves  are  dellined  to  convey  the  principles 
of  motion  and  fenfibility  to  the  brain  from  all  parts  of  the 
fyftem,  there  can  be  no  doubt ;  but  how  thefc  cftcfts 
arc  produced,  no  one  has  ever  yet  been  able  to  de- 
termine. The  inquiry  has  been  a  conflant  fource  of 
hypothecs  in  all  ages,  and  has  produced  fome  ingeni- 
ous ideas,  and  many  erroneous  pofitions,  but  with- 
out having  hitherto  afforded  much  fatisfaclory  infor- 
mation. 


Somephyfiologiftshaveconfidereda  trunkof  nerves 
as  a  folid  chord,  capable  of  being  divided  into  an  infi- 
nite number  of  filaaicnts,  by  means  of  which  the  im- 
prcliions  of  feeling  arc  conveyed  to  the  fenforium  com- 
mune. Others  have  fuppofed  it  to  be  a  canal,  which  af- 
terwards feparates  into  more  minute  channels  i  or, per- 
haps, as  being  an  alfemblage  of  many  very  fmall  and 
didind  tubes,  connected  to  each  other,  and  thus  form- 
ing a  cylindrical  chord.  They  who  contend  for  their 
being  folid  bodies,  are  of  opinion,  that  feeling  isocca- 
fioned  by  vibration  ;  fo  that,  for  indance,  according  ti> 
this  fyrtem,  by  pricking  the  finger,  a  vibration  would 
be  occalioncd  in  the  nerve,  diflributcd  through  its  fub- 
llance  ;  and  the  cfFetts  of  this  vibration,  when  ex- 
tended to  the  fenforium,  would  be  an  cxcital  of  pain. 
But  the  inelalticity,  the  foftncfs,  the  connection,  and 
the  fituation  of  the  nerves,  are  fo  many  proofs  that 
vibration  has  no  fliare  in  the  caufe  of  feeling. 

Others  have  fuppofed,  that  in  the  brain  and  fpinal 
marrow,  a  very  fubtile  fluid  is  fccreted,  and  from 
thence  conveyed  through  the  imperceptible  tubes, 
which  they  coniidcr  as  exifling  in  the  nerves.  They 
hare  farther  fuppofed,  that  this  very  fubtile  fluid,  to 
which  chcy  have  given  the  name  of  animal fpiriti,  is 
fecrcttJ  in  the  cortical  fubltance  of  the  brain  and  fpi- 
nal  marrow,  from  whence  it  palFcs  through  the  me- 
dullary fubflance.  This,  like  the  other  fyflcm,  is 
founded  altogether  on  hypothefis  ;  but  it  feems  to  be 
an  hypothclis  derived  from  much  more  probable  prin- 
ciples, and  there  are  many  ingenious  arguments  to  b« 
brought  in  its  fupport. 


769 


EXPLANATION    of    PLATE    XXIX. 


Fig.  I.  Reprefcnts  the  Inferior  part  of  the  Brain  ; 
— the  Anterior  part  of  the  whole  Spine,  including  the 
Medulla  Spinalis  ; — withtheorigin  and  large  portions 
of  alltheNERVES. 

A  A,  The  anterior  lobes  of  the  cerebrum.  BB,Thc 
latcrallobesof  the  cerebrum.  C  C,  The  two  lobes  of 
the  cerebellum.  D,  Tuber  annulare.  E,  The  paf- 
fage  from  the  third  ventricle  to  the  infundibulum. 
F,  The  medulla  oblongata,  which  fends  off  the  me- 
dulla fpinalis  through  the  fpine.  GG,  Tliatpartof 
the  OS  occipitis  which  is  placed  above  (H  H)  the 
tranfverfe  procelTes  of  the  firil  cervical  vertebra. 
I  I,  &c.  The  feven  cervical  vertebra,  with  their  in- 
termediate cartilages.  K  K,  &c.  The  twelve  dorfal 
vertebrae,  with  their  intermediate  cartilages.  LL,&c. 
The  five  lumbar  vertebrae,  with  their  intermediate 
cartilages.  M,  The  os  facrum.  N,  The  os  coc- 
cygis. 

Nerves. — 1 1,  The  firft  pair  of  nerves,  named  «/• 
fafiory,  which  goto  the  nofe.  22,  The  fecond  pair, 
named  optic,  which  goes  to  form  the  tunica  retina  of 
the  eye.  3  3,  The  third  pair,  named  motor  occuli ;  it 
fupplics  moft  of  the  mufclcs  of  the  eye-ball.  4  4,  The 
fourth  pair,  named  pathetic, — which  is  wholly  fpcnt 
upon  the  mufculus  trochlearis  of  the  eye.  j  5,  The 
fifth  pair  divides  into  three  branches The  firfl,  na- 
med opthalmie,  goes  to  the  orbit,  fupplies  the  lachry- 
mal gland,  and  fends  branches  out  tothc  forehead  and 
nofc — The  fcconJ,namedy?//iT;ur  maxillary ^  fupplicj 
Vot.  I. 


or  the 

Briiii  and 

Nenrci. 


the  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  fome  of  thcmufcles  of 
the  lips. — The  third  named  inferior  maxillary, \i  fpent 
upon  the  mufclcs  and  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw,  tongue, 
and  mufclesof  the  lips.  6  6,  The  iixth  pair,  which, 
after  fending  off  the  beginning  of  the  intcrcoflal  or 
great  fympathetic,  is  fpent  upon  tiic  abdudor  oculi. 
7  7,  The  feventh  pair,  named  auditory,  divides  into 
two  branches. — The  largefl,  named  pnrtio  mcllii,  is 
fpent  upon  the  internal  car.  The  fmallefl,  portio  dura, 
Joins  to  the  fifth  pair  within  the  internal  ear  by  a  re- 
fiefted  branch  from  the  fecond  of  the  fifth  ;  and  w  ith- 
in  the  tympanum,by  a  branch  from  the  third  of  the  fifth 

named  chorda  tympani Vid.  fig.  3.  near  B.  8  8,  &c. 

The  eighth  pair,  i\3.mci^ par  vagum, — which  accompa- 
nies the  intcrcoil.il,  and  is  fpent  upon  the  tongue, la- 
rynx, pharynx,  lungs, and  abdominal  vifcera.  99,  The 
ninth  pair,  which  are  fpent  upon  the  tongue.  10  10, 
&c.  The  intercoflal,  or  great  fympathetic,  which  is 
feeii  from  the  Iixth  pair  to  the  bottom  of  the  pelvis  on 
each  fide  of  the  fpine,  and  joining  with  all  the  nerves  of 
the  fpine  ; — in  its  progrefs  fupplying  the  heart,  and, 
with  the  par  vagum,  the  contents  of  the  abdomen  and 
pelvis.  II  II,  The  accelforius,  which  is  fpcnt  upon 
the  ftcrnocleido-mafloidjEus  and  trapezius  mufcles. 
12  12,  The  firll  cervical  nerves; — 13  13,  The  fecond 
cervical  nerves  ; — both  I'pentupon  the  msifcles  that  lie 
on  the  neck,  and  teguments  of  the  neck  and  head. 
14  1 4,  The  third  cervical  nerves,  which,  after  fending 
off(iy  I  J,  &c.)  thcphrcnic  nerves  to  the  diaphragm, 
5   E  fupply 


77© 


N 


O      M      Y. 


Part  V. 


Of  the     Aipply  tlie  mufclcs  and  teguments  that  lie  on  the  fide 
Urain  and  olthc  neck  and  topofthc  Ihoulder.    i6  i6,   The  hra- 

ti'^''":*-  chial  plexus,  formed  by  the  fourth,  fifth,  lixth,  fc- 
venth  ccrvicals,  and  firll  dorfal  nerves  ;  which  fupply 
the  nuifcles  and  teguments  of  the  fuperior  extremity. 
1 7  I  7,  TIic  twelve  dorfal,  or  proper  in  tcrcollal  nerves, 
which  arc  fpcntupon  the  intcrcortal  nuifcles  and  fonic 
of  the  large  mufclcswhich  lie  upon  the  thorax.  i8  l8. 
The  five  lumbar  pairs  of  nerves,  which  fupply  the 
lumbar  and  abdominal  mufcles,  and  fomc  of  the  tegu- 
ments and  mufcles  of  the  inferior  extremity.  19  19, 
The  facro-fciatic,  or  pofterior  crural  nerve,  formed 
by  the  two  inferior  lumbar,  and  three  fuperior  of  the 
OS  facrum.  This  large  nerve  fupplies  thegrcatcfl  part 
of  the  mufcles  and  teguments  of  the  inferior  extremi- 
ty. 20,  The  ftomachic  plexus,  formed  by  the  eighth 
pair.  21  21,  Branches  of  the  folar  or  cxliac  plexus, 
formed  by  the  eighth  pair  and  intercollals,  which 
fupply  the  flomach  and  chylopoietic  vifccra.  2222, 
Branches  of  the  fuperior  and  inferior  mefcnteric  plcx- 
ufcs,  formed   by  the  eighth  pair  and  intercollals. 


which  fupply  the  chylopoietic  vifccra,   with  part  of  Of  the 

the  organs  of  urine  and  generation.    23  23,  Nerves  Drain  and 

which  accompany  tlie  fpermatic  cord.   2424,  Tlichy-  Nfvss. 
pogallric  plexus,  which  fupplies  the  organs  of  urine        ' 
and  generation  within  the  pelvis. 

Fig.  2,  3,  4,  J.  Shuw  different  Views  of  the  Infe- 
rior part  of  the  Brain,  cut  perpendiculary  through 
tiic  Middle, — with  the  Origin  and  large  Portions 
of  all  the  Nerves  which  pais  out  through  the  Bones 
of  the  Cranium, — and  the  three  firft  Cervicals. 
A,  The  anterior  lobe.      B,  The  lateral  lobe  of  the 

cerebrum.     C,  One  of  the  lobes  of  the  cerebellum. 

D,  Tuber  annulare.     E,  Corpus  pyramidale,  in  the 

middle  of  the  medulla  oblongata.    K,  The  corpusoli- 

vare,  in  the  fide  of  the  medulla  oblongata.     G,  The 

medulla  oblongata.     H,  The  medulla  fpinalis. 

Nerves. — I  2345678  and  9,  Paris  of  nerves. 

10  10,  Nervus  accelforius,  which  conies  from — 11,12, 

and  13,  The  three  lirft  cervical  nerves. 


Part  VI.     Of  the  SENSES,  and  their  ORGANS. 


140. 


141. 


IN  treating  of  the  fenfes,  we  mean  to  confine  our- 
ftlves  to  the  external  ones  of /o;/cA,  ta/le,  ftneliitig, 
hearing,  and  vijiori.  The  word/f/./c,  when  applied  to 
thefe  hve,  fcems  to  imply  not  only  the  fenlation  ex- 
cited in  the  mind  by  certain  imprelfions  made  on  the 
body,  but  likewifc  the  organ  dellined  to  receive  and 
tranfmit  thefe  imprelFions  to  the  fenforiuni.  Each  of 
thefe  organs  being  of  a  peculiar  flrudture,  is  fufcep- 
tiblc  only  of  particular  imprelFions,  which  will  be 
pointed  out  as  we  proceed  todefcribe  each  of  them  fe- 
paratcly. 

Sect.  I.     OJ  Touch. 

The  fenfcof  touch  may  be  defined  to  be  the  facul- 
ty diflinguiihing  certain  properties  ol  bodies  by  the 
Jecl.  In  a  general  acceptation,  this  definition  might 
perhaps  not  improperly  be  extended  to  every  part  of 
the  body  poffcfTed  offenfibility  (t),  but  it  is  common- 
ly confined  to  the  nervous  papillae  of  the  cutis,  or  true 
fkin,  whicli,  with  its  appendages,  and  their  feveral 
ufes,  have  been  already  defcribed. 

The  exterior  properties  of  bodies,  fuch  as  their  fo- 


lidity,  moifture,  inequality,  fmoothnefs,  dryncfs,  or 
fluidity,  and  likewife  their  degree  of  heat,  feeui  all  to 
be  capable  of  making  differcni  inipreiFions  on  the  pa- 
pillse,  and  confcqucntly  of  exciting  different  ideas  in 
the  fenforiuni  commune.  But  the  organ  of  touch,  like 
all  the  other  fenfes,  is  not  equally  delicate  in  every 
part  of  the  body,  or  in  every  fubjedt ;  being  in  fomc 
much  more  exquillte  than  it  is  in  others. 

Sect.  II.     OftheTajle. 

The  fenfc  of  tafle  is  feated  chiefly  in  the  tongue  ; 
the  fituation  and  figure  of  which  are  fufiiciently  known. 

On  the  upper  furface  of  this  organ  wc  may  obferve 
a  great  number  of  papillse,  which,  on  account  of  their 
difference  in  fize  and  fliape,  are  commonly  divide  into 
three  clalFes.  The  largeft  are  fituated  towards  the  ba- 
fis  of  the  tongue.  Their  number  commonly  varies 
from  feven  to  nine,  and  they  fecm  to  be  mucous  folli- 
cles.  Thofc  ol  the  fccond  clafs  are  fomewhat  fnialler, 
and  of  a  cylindrical  (hape.  They  are  moll  numerous 
about  the  middle  of  the  tongue.  Thofe  of  the  third 
clafs  arc  very  minute,  and  of  a  conical  Ihape.     They 

are 


14*. 


(t)  In  the  courfeof  this  article,  mention  has  often  been  made  of  the  fenfibility  or  infcniibility  of  different 
parts  of  the  body  :  it  will  therefore,  perhaps,  not  be  aniifs  to  obferve  in  this  place,  that  many  pans  which  were 
formerly  fuppofcd  to  pofi'efs  the  moft  txquifitc  fcnfe,  arc  now  known  to  have  but  little  or  no  feeling,  at  Icaflin 
a  found  flate  j  for  in  an  inflamed  Hate,  even  the  boi!CS,  the  mod  ini'enfible  parts  of  any,  become  fufceptible  of 
the  moll  painful  fenfations.  This  curious  difcovcry  is  due  to  the  late  Baro:i  Haller.  His  experiments  prove, 
that  the  bones,  cartilages,  ligaments  tendons,  epidermis,  and  membranes  (as  the  pleura,  pericardium,  dura 
and  pia  mater,  periollcum.  Sec),  may  in  a  healthy  flatc  be  confidered  as  iufenfible.  Asfcnlibility  depends  on 
the  brain  and  nerves,  of  courfe  different  parts  will  polfcfs  a  greater  or  Icfs  degree  of  feeling,  in  proportion  as 
ihey  are  fupplicd  with  a  greater  or  fnialler  number  of  nerves.  Upon  this  principle  it  is,  that  the  Ikin,  mufcles, 
flomach,  intellincs,  urinary  bladder,  ureters,  uterus,  vagina,  penis,  tongue,  and  retina,  are  extremely  fcnfi- 
ble,  while  the  lungs  and  glands  have  only  an  obfcurc  degree  of  feeling. 


N  \T()MV 


PUlr  \\I\ 


<^^^^tL, 


1>art  VI. 


N       A 


Of  the 
Sebfca. 


Mi- 


are  very  numerous  on  the  apex  and  cdgcsofthe  tongue, 
and  have  been  fiippofcd  to  be  formed  by  the  extremi- 
ties of  its  nerves. 

We  obfcrve  a  line,  the  lhi:a  lingua  maliniia,  run- 
ning along  the  middle  of  the  tongue,  and  dividing  it  as 
it  were  into  two  portions.  Towards  the  bafis  of  tiie 
tongue,  we  meet  with  a  little  civity,  named  by  Mor- 
gagni/« /■«'«-'?;  cvcum,  wliich  ftems  tobc  nothing  more 
than  a  common  termination  of  I'ome  of  the  excretory 
dufts  of  mucous  glands  fituated  within  the  fubftancc  of 
the  tongue. 

,  We  have  already  obfervcd,  that  this  organ  is  every 
where  covered  by  thccuticle,  which,  by  forming  a  re- 
duplication, called  the  fnruutn,  at  its  under  part, 
ferves  to  prevent  the  "too  great  motion  of  the  tongue, 
and  to  fix  it  in  its  fituation.  But,  bclidcs  this  at- 
tachment, the  tongue  is  conneiScd  by  means  of  its 
mufcles  and  membranous  ligaments,  to  the  lov/er  jaw, 
the  OS  hyoides,  and  the  ftyloid  procell'cs. 
The  principal  arteries  of  the  tongue  are  thelinguales, 
which  arife  from  the  extcrnalcarotid.  Its  veins  empty 
themfelves  into  the  external  iup;ulars.  Its  nerves  arife 
from  the  fifth,  eighth,  and  ninth,  pair. 

The  variety  of  taftes  feein  to  be  occafioned  by  tlte 
different  impreilions  made  on  the  papillas  by  the  food. 
The  different  Hate  of  the  papillx  with  rcfped  to  their 
nioiflure,  their  figure,  or  their  covering,  fccnis  to 
produce  a  confiderable  difference  ui  the  talle,  not  only 
in  different  people,  but  in  the  fame  fubjeA,  in  fickncfs 
and  in  health.  The  great  ufe  of  the  talle  feems  to  be 
to  enable  us  to  diftingiiilh  wholcfonic  and  faliitary  food 
from  that  which  is  unhealthy  ;  and  we  obfcrve  that 
many  quadrupeds,  by  having  their  papillas  (u)  very 
large  and  long,  have  the  faculty  of  dillinguilhing  fla- 
vours with  infiitite  accuracy. 

Sect.  III.  Of  Smelling, 

The  fenfc of  fmelling,  like  the  fenfe  of  taftc,  feems 
intended  to  direft  us  to  a  proper  choice  of  aliment, 
and  IS  chiefly  feated  in  the  nofe,  which  is  dillinguilhed 
into  its  external  and  internal  parts.  The  lituation  and 
figure  of  the  former  of  thcfe  do  not  fcein  to  require  a 
definition.  It  is  compofed  of  bones  and  cartilages,  co- 
vered by  mufcular  fibres  and  by  the  common  integu- 
ments. The  bones  make  up  the  upper  portion,  and 
the  cartilages  the  lower  one.  The  feptum  n.irium,  like 
the  nofe,  is  likewifc  in  part  bony,  and  in  part  cartila- 
ginous. Thcfe  bones  and  their  conneiitions  were  de- 
fcribcd  in  the  oflcology. 

The  internal  part  of  the  nofe,  befides  the  offa  fpon- 
giofa,  has  lix  cavities  or  linufcs,  the  maxillary,  the 
frontal,  and  the  fphenoid,  which  were  all  dtfcribcd  with 
the  bones  of  the  head.  They  all  open  into  the  no- 
llrils  ;  and  the  nofe  likewifc  comnuuiicatcs  with  the 
mouth,  larynx,  and  pharynx,  polferiorly  behind  the 
velum  palati. 

All  thefe  feveral  parts,  which  are  included  in  the  in- 
ternal divilion  of  the  nofe,  viz.  the  inner  furface  of  tlie 
noftrils,  the  lamellas  of  thcoffafpongiofa,  and  tlic  fmu- 


i'      O      M      Y.  771 

fes,  are  lined  by  a  thick  and  very  vafeular  membrane,     Of  the 
which,  though  not  unknown  to  the  ancients,  was  firll     Scufct. 
well  defcribcd   by  Schneider*,   and  is  therefore  now  '~^q^, 
commonly nzmcd m^wl/raniif ituiliiria i>chfiiiJi.ri.'This ig^,ig  Ijh. 
membrane  is  truly  the  organ  of  fmelling  ;  but  its  real  iii. 
flruduredoes  not  yet  fccm  to  be  perfectly  undcrllood. 
It  appears  to  be  a  continuation  of  the  cuticle,  which 
lines  the  iiuier  uu-face  of  the  mouth.     In  fome  parts 
of  the  nofe  it  is  fmooth  and  firm,  and  in  others  it  is 
loofe  and  fpongy.     It  is  conftantly  moiflened  by  a  mu- 
cous fecretion  ;  the  finer  parts  of  which  are  carried  off 
by  the  air  we  breathe,  and  the  remainder,  by  being  re- 
tained in  the  linufcs,  acquu-es  confiderable  confiftcncc. 
The  manner  in  which  this  mucus  is  fecreted  lias  not 
yet  been  fatisfadorily  afccrtained  ;  but  it  feems  to  be 
by  means  of  mucous  follicles. 

Its  arteries  ai'c  branchesol  the  internal  maxillary  and 
internal  carotid.  Its  veins  empty  then;felves  into  the 
internal  jugulars.  The  firft  pau-  of  nerves,  the  olfac- 
tory, are  fpread  over  every  part  of  it,  and  it  likewifc 
receives  branches  from  the  fifth  pair. 

After  what  has  been  faid  of  the  pituitary  membrane, 
it  will  not  be  difficult  to  conceive  how  the  air  we  draw 
in  at  the  noftrils,  being  impregnated  with  the  effluvia 
of  bodies,  excites  in  us  that  kind  of  fenfation  we  call 
fmelling.  As  thcfe  eflluvia,  from  thck  bciiig  exceed- 
ingly light  and  volatile,  caimot  be  capable  in  a  fniall 
quantity  of  making  any  gi-cat  impreifion  on  the  extre- 
mities of  the  olfaitory  nerves,  it  was  neccirary  to  give 
confiderable  extent  to  the  pituitary  membrane,  that  by 
this  means  a  greater  number  of  odoriferous  particles 
might  be  admitted  at  the  fame  time.  When  we  willi 
to  take  in  much  of  the  effluvia  of  any  thing,  we  natu- 
rally clofe  the  mouth,  that  all  the  air  we  infpu-c  may 
pafs  through  the  noflrils  ;  and  at  the  fame  time,  by 
means  of  the  mufcles  of  the  nofe,  the  noflrils  are  dila- 
ted, and  a  greater  quantity  of  air  is  drawn  into  tliem. 

In  many  quadrupeds,  the  fenfe  of  fmelling  is  much 
more  cxtcnfivc  and  delicate  than  it  is  in  the  human 
fubjec^ ;  and  in  the  human  fubjed  it  feems  to  be  more 
per  fed!  the  lefs  it  is  vitiated  by  a  variety  of  flnells.  It 
is  not  always  in  the  fame  flate  of  perfection,  being  na- 
tiu-ally  affeded  by  every  change  of  the  pituitary  mem- 
brane, and  of  the  lymph  w  ith  which  that  membrane 
is  moilfencd. 

Sect.  IV.  Of  Hearing, 


Before  weundertakc  to  explain  the  manner  in  which 
we  are  enabled  to  receive  the  impreirions  of  found,  it 
will  be  necclfary  to  defcribc  the  car,  which  is  the  organ 
of  hearing.  It  is  commonly  dillinguillicd  into  external 
and  internal.  The  former  of  thefe  divilions  includes 
all  that  wc  are  able  to  dilcover  without  dilfeclion,  and 
the  meatus  au«iitorius,  as  far  as  the  tympanum  ;  and 
the  latter,  all  the  other  parts  of  the  ear. 

The  external  ear  is  a  cartilaginous  funnel,  covered 

by  the  common  integuments,  and  attached,  by  means 

of  its  ligaments  and  mufcles,  to  the  temporal  bone. 

Although  capable  only  of  a  very  obfciu-e  motion,  it  is 

5  E  2  found 


H4 


(u)  Malpighl's  defcription  of  the  papilla:,  which  has  been  copied  by  many  anatomical  writers,  feems  to  have 
been  taken  chiefly  from  the  tongues  of  fheep. 


A      N       A      T 

found  to  have  fevcral  mufclcs.  Dilf'trcnt  parts  of  it 
arc  dillinouUhcd  by  diffc-rcnt  names  ;  all  its  cartilaj^i- 
noiis  part  is  called  a  a  or  'Jiing,  to  diflingnilh  it  from 
the  loft  and  pendent  part  below,  called  the  iob.-.  Its 
outer  circle  or  border  is  called  helix,  and  the  feniicirclc 
within  this,  antihctix.  The  moveable  cartilage  placed 
imme^liately  before  the  meatus  auditorius,  which  it 
may  be  made  to  clofe  cxaftly,  is  named  tragus  ,-  and 
an  eminence  oppolite  to  this  at  the  extremity  of  the 
aniihelix,  is  tailed a//<i/rrt^n/.  The  concha  is  a  conli- 
derable  cavity  formed  by  the  extremities  of  the  helix 
and  antihelix.  The  meatus  auditorius,  which  at  its 
openmg  is  cartilaginous,  is  lined  with  a  very  thin  mem- 
brane, which  is  a  continuation  of  the  cuticle  irom  the 
fm-face  of  the  ear. 

In  this  canal  wc  find  a  yellow  wax,  which  is  fecreted 
by  a  number  of  minute   glands  or  follicles,  each  of 
which  has  an  excretory  duct.     This  fccretion,  which 
is  at  lirfl  of  an  oily  coniillcnce,  defends  the  membrane 
of  the  tympanum  from  the  uijurics  of  the  air  ;  and  by 
its  bitterncis,  prevents  minute  infects  from  entering  in- 
to the  ear.     But  when  from  neglcdtor  difcafe  it  accu- 
mulates in  too  great  a  quantity,  it  fometimes  occalions 
deafnefs.     The  inner  extremity  of  the  meatusis  doled 
by  a  very  thin  tranfparcnt  membrane,  the  membrana 
tympani,  which  is  fct  iii  a  bony  circle  like  the  head  of 
a  drum.   In  the  lail  century  Rivinus,  profeffor  at  Licp- 
iic,  fancied  he  had  difcovered  a  hole  in  this  mem- 
brane, fiuTounded  by  a  fphincter,  and  affording  a  paf- 
fage  to  the  air,  between  the  external  and  internal  car. 
Cowper,  Heifter,  and  fome  other  anatoraifts,  have  ad- 
mitted tliis  fuppoied  foramen,  which  certainly  does  not 
cxiil.  Whenever  there  is  any  opening  in  the  membra- 
na tympani,  it  may  be  conlidercd  as  accidental.     Un- 
der the    membrana  tympani  runs   a  branch   of  the 
fifth  pair  of  nerves,  called  chorda  tyniftafi'i ;  and  beyond 
this  membrane  is  the  cavity  of  the  tympanum,  wliich 
is  aliout  feven  or  eight  lines  wide,  and  half  fo  ma.iy 
in  depth  ;    it  is  fcmifpherical,   and  every  w  here  li- 
ned by  a  very  fine  membrane.     There  are  four  open- 
ings to    be  obfervcd   in    this   cavity.     It    communi- 
cates with  the  month  by  means  of  the   Eullachian 
tube.     This    canal,  which  is  in  part  bony  and   in 
part  cartilaginous,  begins  by  a  vciy  narrow  opening 
at  the  anterior  and  almoli  fupcrior  part  of  the  tympa- 
imm,  incrcalingin  iize  as  it  advances  towards  the  pa- 
late of  the  mouth,  where  it  terminates  by  an  oval  open- 
ing. This  tube  is  evi  ry  where  lined  by  the  fame  mem- 
brane that  covers  the  iniide  of  the  mouth.     The  real 
life  of  this  canal  does  not  feem  to  liave  been  liitheno 
fatisfaclorily  afecrtaiued  ;    but  foinid  would  feem  to 
be  conveyed  through  it  to  the  membrana  lympani,  deaf 
perfons  being  often  obfervcd  to  lillen  aiieniively  with 
their  mouths  open.     Oppolite  to  this  is  a  niinuic  paf- 
fage,  whivh  leads  to  the  iinuofities  of  the  raailoid  pro- 
ccfs  ;  and  the  two  other  openings,  which  are  in  the  in- 
ternal procefs  of  the  OS  petrofum,  are  the  fencflraova- 
lis,  and  fencllra  rotunda,  both  of  which  are  covered  by 
a  very  fine  membrane. 

There  are  three  dillinft  bones  in  the  cavity  of  the 
tympanum ;  and  thefe  are  the  malleus,  incus,  andllapes 


O      M       Y. 


Part  VI. 


Befidcs  thefe  there  is  a  fourth,  which  is  the  oi  orbicit- 
laie,  conlidcred  by  fome  anatomilts  as  a  proeefs  of  the 
ftapes,  which  is  necelfarily  broken  off  by  the  violence 
we  are  obliged  to  ufe  in  gtttuig  at  thefe  bones ;  but 
when  accurately  coalidered,  it  fecmsto  be  a  diftind 
bone. 

The  malleus  is  fuppofed  toTefemblc  a  hammer,  be- 
ing larger  at  one  extremity,  which  is  its  head,  than  it 
is  at  the  other,  which  is  its  handle.  The  latter  is  at- 
tached to  the  membrana  tympani,  and  the  head  of  the 
bone  is  articulated  with  the  incus. 

The  incus,  as  it  is  called  from  its  fhape,  though  it 
feems  to  have  lefs  refemblance  to  an  anvil  than  to  one 
of  the  denies  molwcs  with  its  roots  widely  fcparated 
from  each  other,  is  diftinguifhed  into  its  body  and  its 
legs.  One  of  its  legs  is  placed  at  the  cnu'y  of  the  ca- 
nal which  leads  to  the  maftoid  proeefs  ;  and  the  other, 
which  is  fomewhat  longer  is  articulated  with  the  flapts, 
or  ratlier  with  the  os  orbiculare,  which  is  placed  be- 
tween tliem. 

The  third  bone  is  very  properly  named /Za^.'/,  being 
perfeiJlly  Ihapcd  like  a  llirrup.  Its  bafis  is  fixed  into 
he  tenellra  ovalis,  and  its  upper  part  is  articulated 
with  the  OS  orbiculare.  What  is  called  ihcfcneflra  ro- 
luiidu,  though  perhaps  improperly,  as  it  is  more  oval 
than  round,  is  obfervcd  a  little  above  the  other,  in  an 
eminence  formed  by  the  os  petrofum,  and  is  clofcd  by 
a  continuation  of  the  membrane  that  lines  t)ie  inner 
furface  of  the  tympanum.  The  ftapes  and  malleus  are 
each  o{  thcin  furnilhed  with  a  little  niufcle,  the  ftape- 
deus  and  tenlbr  tympani.  The  firft  of  thefe,  which  is 
the  fmallcll  in  the  body,  arifes  from  a  little  cavern  in 
the  poflerior  and  upper  part  of  the  cavity  of  the  tym- 
panum ;  and  its  tendon,  after  palling  through  a  hole 
in  tlie  fame  cavern,  is  infcrtcd  at  the  back  part  of  the 
head  of  the  ftapes.  Thismufcle,  by  drawing  the  flapes 
obliquely  upwards,  aifills  in  Ibetching  the  membrana 
tympani. 

The  tenfor  tympani  (x),  or  intemns  mallei,  as  it  is 
called  by  fome  writers,  arifes  from  the  cartilaginous 
extrenii"y  of  the  Kuflachian  tube,  and  is  infcrted  into 
the  back  na;t  of  the  handle  of  the  malleus,  which  it 
ferves  to  p  II  iiwards,  and  of  courfe  helps  to  (Iretch 
the  mem  bra. a  tympani. 

'I'lio  labyri,.th  is  the  only  part  of  the  car  which  re- 
mains to  be  ilcfcribed.  It  is  fit  •  '.ted  in  the  os  petro- 
liun,  and  is  fcparated  from  the  tympanum  by  a  parti- 
tion which  is  every  where  bony,  except  at  the  two  fc- 
nellra;.  It  is  compofed  of  thi-ee  parts  ;  and  thefe  arc 
the  velUbiilum,  the  femicircular  canals,  and  the  cocli- 
lea. 

The  vcl  '"■iluiii  is  an  irregular  cavity,  much  fmaller 
than  the  t  ,">ipanum,  fiuiated  nearly  It  thecentreof  the 
ospetrofii  s  between  the  tympanum,  ihc  cochlea,  and 
the  femi  ir^  ular  canals.  It  is  open  on  the  fide  of  the 
tympani!  Ill  by  means  of  the  feneftra  ovalis,  and  com- 
municai'  '.•  with  the  upper  portion  of  the  cochlea  by  an 
oblong  •  ■■ramcn,  which  is  under  the  feneftra  ovalis, 
from  V.  liich  it  is  icparatcd  only  by  a  very  thin  par- 
tition. 

Each  of  the  three  fcinicircular  ca7ials  forms  about 

half 


Of  the 

Sciifct. 


(x)  Some  anaiomifts  deftribe  three  mufcles  of  the  malleus  ;  but  only  this  one  feems  to  defcrve  the  name  of 
mulcle;  what  arc  called  the  t.\7^r/;.vjaiid  obii^uus  tiioilei,  fccming  to  be  ligaments  rather  than  mufclcs. 


Partvr.  ana: 

Of  the     half  acircle  of  nearly  a  line  in  diameter,  and  running 
SenCet.     each  in  a  different  direction,  they  arc  dillinj^uilhcd  into 

* ^""^  vertical,  oblique,  and  horizontal.     7"hclc  three  canals 

open  by  both  their  extremities  into  the  vcftibulura  ; 
but  the  vertical  and  the  oblique  being  united  together 
at  one  of  their  extremities,  there  arc  only  live  orilices 
to  be  fcen  in  the  vcltibuluni. 

The  cochlea  is  a  canal  which  takes  a  fpiral  courfe, 
not  unlike  the  flicll  of  a  fnail.  Krom  its  balls  to  its 
apex  it  makes  two  turns  and  a  half;  and  is  divided  in- 
to two  canals  by  a  very  thin  lamina  or  feptum,  which 
is  in  part  bony  and  in  part  membranous,  in  fuch  a 
manner  that  thcfc  two  canals  only  communicate  with 
each  other  at  the  point.  One  of  them  opens  into  the 
veftibulum,  and  the  other  is  covered  by  the  membrane 
that  clofes  the  fencftra  rotunda.  The  bony  lamella 
which  feparatesthe  twocanals  is  exceedingly  thin, and 
fills  about  two  thirds  of  the  diameter  of  ihe  canal. 
The  reft  of  the  feptum  is  compofed  oi  a  moft  delicate 
membrane,  which  lines  the  whole  inner  furfacc  of  the 
cochlea,  and  feems  to  form  this  diviiion  in  the  fame 
manner  as  the  two  membranous  bags  of  the  pleura,  by 
being  applied  to  each  other,  form  the  mediaftinum. 

Every  part  of  the  labyrinth  is  furnifhed  with  a  very 
delicate  pcriofteura,  and  filled  with  a  watery  fluid,  fe- 
rreted as  in  other  cavities.    This  tiuid  tranfniits  to  the 
nerves  the  vibrations  it  receives  from  the  membrane 
clofing  the  feneftra  rotunda,  and  from  the  balls  of  the 
flapes,  where  it  refts  on  the  fcneftrum  ovale.     When 
this  fluid  is  collected  in  too  great  a  quantity,  or  is 
comprclTed  by  the  (tapes,    it  is  fuppoled  to  efcape 
throuf^h  two  minute  canals  or  aqueduits,  lately  dcfcri- 
•  D:  aqiit-^^'^  ^Y  Dr  Cotunni  *,  an  ingenious  phyfician  at  Na- 
Juaibui  Au-  pies.     One  of  tlitfe  aquedu.ts  opens  into  the  bottom 
rit  Humanx  Of  thc  velHbulum,  and  the  other  into  the  cochlea,  near 
Jnurii^,       the  fenellra rotunda.     They  both  pafs  through  the  os 
»vo,  1760.  pftrofum,  and  comnumirare  with  the  cavity  of  the 
cranium  where  the  H.uid  thit  palfcs  through  them  is 
is  abforbed  ;  and  ihcy  are  lined  by  a  membrane  which 
is  fuppofftd  to  be  a  produflioi,  >>f  the  dura  mater. 
■    The  arteries  of  the  external  ear  come  from  the  tem- 
poral and  other  branches  of  the  exterml  carotid,  and 
its  veins  pifs  into  thc  jugular.     The  internal  ear  re- 
ceives branches  of  arteries  from  the  bililary  and  ca- 
rotids, and  its  veins  empty  themf'.  lvesi:!to  the  linufes 
of  tlie  dura  mater,  and  into  the  intern.;!  jugular. 

The  portio  mollis  of  the  feventli  pair  is  dillributed 
through  the  cochlea,  thc  vcllibulnm,  and  the  ferai- 
cirrular  canals  ;  and  the  portio  dura  fends  oft'a  branch 
to  the  tympanum,  and  other  branches  to  the  external 
car  and  parts  near  it. 

The  f:nfe  of  hearing,  in  producing  which  all  the 
parts  we  have  defrribed  affift,  is  occalioned  by  a  cer- 
tain modulation  of  the  air  collected  by  thc  funnel  like 
Hiape  of  thc  external  ear,  and  conveyed  through  the 
meatus  auditorius  to  (he  meinbrana  tympani.  That 
found  is  propagated  by  means  of  thc  air,  is  very  eafily 
proved  by  ringing  a  bell  under  the  receiver  of  an 
air-pump  ;  thc  found  it  affords  being  found  to  dimiuifh 


:      O     M      Y. 

gradually  as  the  air  becomes  exhanftcj,  till  at  length 
it  ceafes  tobc  heard  at  all.  Sound  moves  througi)  thc 
sir  with  inhnite  velocity  ;  but  thc  degree  of  its  motion 
feems  to  depend  on  thc  flate  of  the  air,  as  it  conltant- 
ly  moves  falter  in  a  denlc  and  dry,  than  it  docs  in  a 
moift  and  rarefied,  air.     ^c  Acouftici,  u"  20. 

That  the  air  vibrating  on  thc  membrana  tympani 
communicates  its  vibration  to  thc  different  pans  oi 
the  labyriniii,  and  by  means  of  the  fluid  contained  in 
this  cavity  affeds  the  auditory  nerve  fo  as  to  produce 
found,  feems  to  be  very  probable  j  but  the  lltuation, 
the  minutenefs,  and  thc  variety  of  the  parts  which 
compofc  ilie  car,  do  not  permit  much  to  be  advanced 
with  certainty  concerning  their  mode  of  action. 

Some  of  thefe  parts  fcem  toconftitute  the  immediate 
organ  of  hearing,  and  thefe  are  all  thc  parts  of  thc 
veliibulum  :  but  there  arc  others  which  feem  intended 
for  the  perfedion  of  this  fenfc,  without  being  abfo- 
lutely  ell'cntial  to  it.  It  has  happened,  for  initance, 
that  the  mcrabranaiyrapani,  and  the  little  bones  of  the 
ear,  have  bcendeltroyed  bydifeafc,  without  depriving 
the  patient  of  the  fcnfe  of  hearing  (y). 

Sound  is  more  or  lefs  loud  in  proportion  to  the 
ftrength  of  the  vibration  ;  and  the  variety  of  fouuds 
feems  to  depend  on  the  difference  of  this  vibration  ^ 
for  the  more  quick  and  frequent  it  is,  thc  more  acute 
will  be  thc  found,  and  vie;  verfa. 

Before  we  conclude  this  article,  it  will  be  right  to 
explain  certain  phenomena,  which  will  be  found  to 
have  a  relation  to  thc  organ  of  hearing. 

Every  body  has,  in  confequenccofpanicular  founds, 
occalionally  felt  that  difagreeablc  fenfation  which  is 
ufually  c3.]\e.i\  fetting  theteith  on  edge  :  and  the  caufe 
of  this  fenfation  may  be  traced  to  the  communication 
which  the  portio  dura  of  the  auditory  nerve  has  with 
the  branches  of  the  fifth  pair  that  are  dil'ributed  to 
the  teeth,  being  probably  occafioned  by  the  violent 
tremor  produced  in  the  membrana  tympani  by  thefe 
very  acute  founds.  Upon  the  fame  principle  we  may 
explain  the  ftrong  idea  of  found  which  a  perfon  has 
who  holds  a  vibrating  ftring  between  his  teeth. 

The  humming  which  is  fometimes  perceived  in  the 
ear,  without  any  exterior  caufe,  may  be  occalioned 
ei(herby  an  incrcafed  action  of  thc  arteries  in  che  ears, 
or  by  convnllive  contradlions  of  the  mufcles  of  the 
malleus  and  (tapes,  afic(fting  thc  auditory  nerve  in 
fuch  a  manner  as  to  produce  the  idea  of  found.  An 
ingenious  philofiphical  writer*  has  lately  difcovertd, 
that  there  arc  founds  liable  to  be  excited  in  thc  ear  by 
irritation,  and  without  any  alliftancc  from  the  vibra- 
tions of  the  air. 

Sect.V.     OfVifion\. 

Th  b  eyes  which  conftitutc  the  organ  of  vifion,  arc 
fitnated  in  two  Iwny  cavities  named  or  hits,  where  they 
tre  furrounded  by  feveral  parts,  which  arc  either  in- 
tended to  protect  them  from  external  injury,  or  to  af- 
fift iu  their  motion. 

The 


773 


Of  the 
SriiTct. 


•  Elliu', 
Piitt/ifiti- 
til  Ol/iroa» 
tiomi  om  tbt 
Smfri  ./ 
Kijiim  and 
ffearlHg, 
8vo. 

t  S.-t  Of  tin. 
I4». 


(y)  This  obfervation  has  led  to  a  fuppofition,  that  a  perforation  of  this  membrane  may  in  fome  cafes  of 
deafucfs  be  ufeful  ;  and  Mr  Chefelden  relates,  that,  fome  years  ago,  a  malcficlor  was  pardoned  on  condition 
that  he  Ihould  fiibmit  to  this  operation  ;  but  the  public  clamour  raifed  againll  it  was  fo  great,  that  it  was  ihouglu 
right  not  to  perform  it. 


A       N       A      ^ 

The  globe  of  (lie  eye  is  immediately  covered  by  two 
cye-lids  or  palpebra:,  which  arc  compolcd  of  mulciilar 
tibres  covered  by  the  common  integuments,  and  li- 
ned by  a  very  fine  and  fmooth  membrane,  whicli  is 
from  thence  extended  over  part  of  the  globe  of  the 
eye,  and  is  called  tunica  conjunCliva.  Each  eye-lid  is 
cartilaginous  at  its  edge  ;  and  this  border  which  is  cal- 
led tarjus,  is  furnilhed  with  a  row  of  hairs  named  cilia 
or  eyc-lajheri. 

The  cilia  fcrvc  to  proteft  the  eye  from  infetts  and 
minute  bodies  floating  in  the  air,  and  likewife  to  mo- 
derate the  aflion  of  the  rays  of  light  in  their  pallao-e 
to  the  retina.  At  the  roots  of  thcfc  hairs  tlicre  arc 
febaceous  follicles,  fird  noticed  by  Meibomius,  which 
difcliarge  a  glutinous  liniment.  Sometimes  tlie  fluid 
they  fecrcte  has  too  much  vifcidity,  and  the  eye-lids 
become  glued  to  each  other. 

The  upper  border  of  the  orbit  is  covered  by  the 
eye-brows  or  fupercilia,  which  by  means  of  their  two 
mufcles  are  capable  of  being  brought  towards  each 
other,  or  of  being  carried  upwards.  They  have  been 
confidered  as  fcrving  to  protect  the  eyes,  but  they  are 
probably  intended  more  for  ornament  than  utility  ( z) . 

The  orbits,  in  which  the  eyes  arc  placed,  are  fur- 
nilhed with  a  good  deal  of  fat,  which  affords  a  foft 
bed  on  which  the  eye  performs  its  fcveral  motions. 
The  inner  angle  of  each  orbit,  or  that  part  of  it 
which  is  near  the  nofe,  is  called  canthus  uiajor,  or  the 
great  angli ;  and  the  outer  angle,  which  is  on  the  op- 
pofiie  lide  of  the  eye,  is  the  caiithui  minor,  or  little 
angle. 

The  little  reddifli  body  which  we  obferve  in  the 
great  angle  of  the  eye-lids,  and  which  is  called  carun- 
cula  lachryvtain,  is  fuppofed  to  be  of  a  glandular  llruc- 
ture,  and,  like  the  follicles  of  the  eye-lids,  to  fecretc 
an  oily  humour.  But  its  flructurc  and  ufe  do  not 
feem  to  have  been  hitherto  accurately  determined. 
Thcfnrfaccof  the  eyeisconftantly  moillencd  by  a  very 
fine  limpid  fluid  called  the  tears,  which  is  chiefly,  and 
perhaps  wholly,  derived  from  a  large  gland  of  the  con- 
glomerate kind,  liluated  in  a  fniall  dcprellion  of  the 
OS  frontis  near  the  outer  angle  of  the  eye.  Its  excre- 
tory dufls  pierce  the  tunica  conjiindivajufl  above  the 
cartilaginous  borders  of  the  upper  eye-lids.  When 
the  tears  were  fuppofed  to  be  fecrctcd  by  the  carun- 
culc,  this  gland  was  z^Wz^ giandula  innoniinala ;  but 
row  that  iis  ftruiJlure  and  ufes  arc  afcertained,  it  very 
properly  has  the  name  oi glandula lachrymalis.  The 
tears  poured  out  by  thcduijlsof  tliisglandare,in  a  natu- 
ral and  healty  ftatc,  incclFantly  fpread  over  the  furface 
of  the  eye,  to  keep  it  clear  and  tranfparent,  by  means 
of  the  eye-lids,  and  as  conftanily  pafs  out  at  the  oppo- 
llte  corner  of  the  eye  or  inner  angle,  through  two  mi- 
nute oriflces,  the  punfta  lachrymalia(A);  being  deter- 
mined into  thcfe  little  openings  by  a  reduplication  of 
the  tunica  co.njunJliva,  (haped  like  a  crefcent,  the  two 


Of  the 

Seufct. 


:^       O      M       Y.  PartVf. 

points  of  which  anfwer  to  the  punfla.  This  reduplica- 
tion is  named  meiiihrana,  or  valvulafeniilunaris.  Kach 
of  ihcfc  punda  is  the  beginning  of  a  fmall  excretory 
tube,  through  which  the  tears  pafs  into  a  little  pouch 
or  refcrvoir,  tne  facculus  lachrymalis,  which  lies  in 
an  excavation  formed  partly  by  the  nafal  procefs  of 
the  OS  maxillare  iupcrius,  and  partly  by  the  os  unguis. 
The  lower  part  of  this  fac  forms  a  duCt  called  tlie  d:ic- 
till  ad nurti,  which  is  continued  through  a  bony  chan- 
nel, and  opens  into  the  nofe,  through  which  the  tears 
arc  occafionally  difcharged  (b). 

The  motions  of  the  eye  are  performed  by  fix  muf- 
cles ;  fourof  which  are  llraight  and  twooblique.  The 
flraight  niufclcs  arc  dillinguiilied  by  the  name  oi  ele- 
vator, deprt:[for,  addiUlor,  and  abdiUhr,  from  their  fc- 
veral ufes  in  elevating  and  depreliing  the  eye,  drawing 
it  towards  the  nofe,  or  carrying  it  from  the  nofe  to- 
wards the  temple.  All  thcfe  four  mufcles  arife  from 
the  bottom  of  the  orbit,  and  are  iuferted  by  fiat  ten- 
dons into  the  globe  of  the  eye.  The  oblique  mufcles 
arc  intended  for  the  more  compound  motions  of  the 
eye.  The  flrfl  of  thcfe  mufcles,  the  obliquus  fuperior, 
does  not, like  the  other  four  mufcles  we  have  dtfcribed, 
arife  from  the  bottom  of  the  orbit,  but  from  the  edge 
of  the  foramen  that  iranfmits  the  optic  nerve,  which 
fcparates  the  origin  of  this  mufcle  from  that  of  the 
others.  From  this  beginning  it  paffcs  in  a  flraight 
line  towards  a  very  fmall  cartilaginous  ring,  the  fitua- 
tion  of  which  is  marked  in  the  fkeletoH  by  3  little  hol- 
low in  the  internal  orbitar  procefs  of  the  os  frontis. 
The  tendon  of  the  mufcle,  after  parting  through  this 
ring,  is  infcrted  into  the  upper  part  of  the  globe  of 
the  eye,  which  it  fcrves  to  draw  forwards,  at  the  fame 
time  turning  the  pupil  downwards. 

Tlie  obliquus  inferior  arifes  from  the  edge  of  the  or- 
bit, under  tlie  opening  of  the  dudus  lachrymalis  ;  and 
is  inferted  fonicwhat  pofleriorly  into  the  outer  lide  of 
the  globe,  ferving  to  draw  the  eye  forwards  and  turn 
the  pupil  upwards.  When  either  of  thefe  two  mufcles 
ads  feparately,  the  eye  is  moved  on  its  axis  ;  but  wheil 
they  ad  together,  it  is  comprelfcd  both  above  and  be- 
low. The  eye  itfelf,  which  is  now  to  be  defcribed, 
with  its  tunics,  Juimours,  and  component  parts,  is 
nearly  of  a  fphcrical  figure.  Of  iis  tunics,  the  con- 
jundiva  has  been  already  defcribed  as  a  partial  cover- 
ing, refleded  from  the  inner  furface  of  tlie  eye-lids 
over  the  anterior  portion  of  the  eye.  What  has  been 
named  albugitiea  cannot  properly  be  confidered  as  a 
coat  of  the  eye,  being  in  fad  nothing  more  than  the 
tendons  of  the  flraight  mufcles  fpread  ovcrfome  parts 
of  the  fclcrotica. 

The  immediate  tunics  of  the  eye,  which  are  to  be 
demonftrated  when  its  partial  coverings,  and  all  the 
otiier  parts  with  which  it  is  farrounded,  are  removed, 
are  the  fclecrotica,  cornea,  choroidcs,  and  retina. 

T\itfclerotica,  which  is  the  exterior  coat,  is  every 

where  , 


(z)   It  is  obfervable,  that  the  eye-brows  are  peculiar  to  the  human  fpecics. 

(a)  Ii  fometimes  happens,  that  this  very  pellucid  fluid,  which  nioiflens  the  eye,  being  poured  out  through 
the  excretory  duds  of  the  lachrymal  gland  fafter  than  it  can  be  carried  off  through  the  punda,  trickles  down 
the  cheek,  and  is  then  ftridly  and  properly  ciUcd  tears. 

(b)  When  thedudus  ad  nares  becomes  obflruded  in  confequencc  of  difeafe,  the  tears  are  no  longer  able  10 
pafs  into  the  nollrils  ;  the  facculus  lachrymalis  becomes  dillendcd  ;  and  inflammation,  and  fometimes  ulcera- 
tion taking  place,  conftitute  the  difeafe  zaXlci  Jijlitla  lachrymalii. 


Part  VI. 


N       A 


Of  the 
Senfcs. 


where  white  and  opaque,  and  is  joined  at  its  anterior 
edge  to  another,  which  has  more  convexity  than  any 
'  other  part  of  the  globe,  and  being  exceedingly  tranl- 
parent  is  called  cornea  (c).  Tliefetwo  parts  are  per- 
fedly  diflcrent  in  their  ftruflure  ;  fothat  fomeauato- 
mifts  fuppofc  them  to  be  as  diftincl  from  each  other  as 
the  glafs  of  a  watch  is  from  the  cafe  into  which  it  is 
fixed.  Thefcleroticais  of  a  compact  fibrous  flrudure  ; 
the  cornea,  on  the  other  hand,  is  compofcd  of-a  great 
number  of  laminae  united  by  cellular  membrane,  ^y 
macerating  them  in  boiling  water,  they  donotfeparate 
from  each  other,  as  fome  writers  have  aflcrted  j  but 
the  cornea  foon  foftens,  and  becomes  of  a  glutinous 
confiftence. 

The  ancients  fuppofed  the  fclerotica  to  be  a  conti- 
nuation of  the  dura  mnter.  Morgagni  and  fome  other 
modern  writers  are  of  the  fameopinion  ;  but  tliispoint 
is  difputed  by  Winilow,  Hallcr,  Zin,  and  otliers. 
The  truth  feems  to  be,  that  the  fclerotica,  though  not 
a  production  of  the  dura  mater,  adheres  intimately  to 
that  membrane. 

The  choroids  is  focalled  beeaufe  it  is  furnifhed  with 
a  great  number  of  vellels.  It  haslikewife  been  named 
uvea,  on  account  of  its  rcfemblance  to  a  grape.  Many 
modern  anatomical  writers  haveconlidered  it  as  a  pro- 
dudlion  of  the  pia  mater.  This  waslikcwife  the  opi- 
nion of  the  ancients  ;  butthe  flrengthand  thicknefs  of 
the  choroides,  when  compared  with  the  delicate  Ilruc- 
ture  of  the  pia  mater,  arefuiKcientprools  of  their  be- 
ing twodiilin<^  membranes. 

The  choroides  has  of  late  generally  becndcfcribed 
as  confifling  of  two  laminas  ;  the  innermoft  of  which 
has  been  named  after  Ruyfch,  who  firft  dcfcribed  it. 
It  is  certain,  however,  that  Kuyfch's  diftinction  is  ill 
founded,  at  Icaft  with  rcfpe(5t  to  the  human  eye,  in 
whieh  we  are  unable  todemonftrate  any  fuch  ftrufture, 
although  the  tunica  choroides  of  Iheep  and  fome  other 
quadrupeds  may  ealily  be  feparated  into  two  layers. 

The  choroides  adheres  intimately  to  the  fclerotica 
round  the  edge  of  the  cornea  ;  and  at  the  place  of  this 
union,  we  may  obfcrve  a  little  whitilh  areola,  named 
I'lgamentum  ciliare,  though  it  is  not  of  a  ligamentous 
nature. 

They  who  fuppofe  the  choroides  to  be  compofed  of 
two  laminae,  defcribe  (he  external  one  as  terminating 
in  the  ligamentum  ciliare,  and  the  internal  one  as  ex- 
tending farther  to  form  the  iris,  which  is  the  circle 
we  arc  able  todiltinguilli  through  the  cornea  ;  but  this 
part  is  of  a  very  different  flruclure  from  the  choroides  ; 
fo  that  fome  late  writers  h.ivc  perhaps  not  improperly 
conlidcred  the  iris  as  a  diftincl  membrane.  It  derives 
its  name  from  the  variety  of  its  colours,  and  is  perfo- 
rated in  its  middle.  This  perforation,  which  is  called 
the  pupil  or  fight  oi  the  eye,  is  clofed  in  the  fatus  by 


r      O      M      Y. 

a  very  thin  vafcular  membrane.  This  membrana  pa- 
pillaris commonly  difappears  about  the  feventh  month. 

On  the  under  lide  of  the  iris  we  obferve  many  mi- 
nute fibres,  called  ciliary  proaffes,  which  pafs  in  radii 
or  parallel  lines  from  the  circumference  to  the  centre. 
The  contradtion  and  dilatation  of  the  pupil  are  fuppofed 
to  depend  on  the  adlion  of  thefe  proceilcs.  Some  have 
conlidered  them  asmufcular,  but  they  arc  not  of  an  ir- 
ritable nature:  others  have  fuppofed  them  to  be  fila- 
ments of  nerves  :  but  their  real  flrucfurc  has  never 
yet  been  clearly  afceriained. 

Befides  thefe  ciliary  procefles,  anatomifts  ufually 
fpeak^of  the  circular  fibres  of  the  iris,  butitefuch 
feem  to  exift. 

The  pollerior  furface  of  the  iris,  the  ciliary  pro* 
cefl'es,  and  part  of  the  tunica  choroides,  are  covered 
by  a  black  mucus  for  the  purpofes  of  accurate  and  dif- 
liHcl  vilion  ;  but  the  manner  in  which  it  is  fecreted 
has  not  been  determined. 

Immediately  under  the  tunica  choroides  we  find  the 
third  and  inner  coat,  called  the  reiitia,  which  feems 
to  be  merely  an  expanlion  of  the  pulpy  fiibftance  of 
the  optic  nerve,  extending  to  the  border  of  the  cry- 
flalline  humour. 

The  greatefl  part  of  the  globe  of  the  eye,  within 
thefe  fcvcrul  tunics,  is  filled  by  a  very  tranfparent  and 
gelatinous  humour  of  conliderable  confiftcncc,  which, 
from  its  fuppofed  rcfemblance  to  fufed  glafs,  is  called 
the  vitreous  humour.  It  is  inverted  by  a  very  fine  and 
delicate  membrane,  called  tunicaviirea, and  fometimes 
arach/ioideu — It  is  fuppofed  to  be  compofed  of  two  la- 
minae i  one  of  which  dips  into  its  fubflance,  and  by 
dividing  the  humour  into  cells  adds  to  its  lirmnefs.  The 
fore-part  of  the  vitreous  humour  is  a  little  hollowed, 
to  receive  a  very  white  and  tranfparent  fubllance  of  a 
firm  texture,  and  of  a  lenticular  and  fome  what  convex 
fhape,  named  the  cry flalitne  humour.  It  is  included  in 
a  capfula.  which  feems  to  be  formed  by  a  feparation 
of  the  two  lamina:  of  the  tunica  vitrea. 

The  fore-part  of  the  eye  is  filled  by  a  very  thin  and 
tranfparent  fluid,  named  the  aquaus  humcur,  which 
occupies  all  the  fpace  between  the  cryrtalline  and  the 
prominent  cornea — That  part  of  the  choroides  which 
is  called  the  irii,  and  which  comes  forward  to  form  the 
pupil,  appears  to  be  fufpended  as  it  were  in  this  hu- 
mour, and  has  occalioned  this  portion  of  the  eye  to  be 
dirtinguilhed  into  two  parts.  One  of  thefe,  which  is 
the  little  fpace  between  the  anterior  furface  of  the 
cryrtalline  and  the  iris,  called  tiic  foferior  chjnier  ; 
and  the  oiher,  which  is  the  fpace  between  the  iris  and 
the  cornea,  is  called  the  anterior  ckav:ber  of  the  eye 
(d).  Both  thefe  fp.ices  are  completely  filled  with  the 
aqueous  humour,  (e). 

The  eye  receives  its  arieriesfrom  the iniernalcaro- 

•  tid 


(c)  Some  writers,  who  have  f^iven  the  name  of  corr.ea  to  all  this  outer  coat,  have  named  what  is  here  and 
moft  commonly  called /fA-rt/^t-./,  cornea  opaca  ;  and  its  anterior  and  tranfparent  portion,  cornea  lucida. 

(d)  We  are  aware  that  fome  anatomifts,  particularly  Licutaud,  are  of  opinion,  that  the  iris  is  tyeuj  where 
in  clofe  cont.id  with  the  cryrtalline,  and  that  it  is  of  coarfc  ri^iht  to  fpeak  only  of  one  chamber  of  the  eye  • 
but  as  this  does  not  appear  to  be  the  cafe,  the  fituation  of  the  iris  and  the  two  chambers  of  the  eve  are  here 
defcribed  in  the  ufual  way. 

(E )  When  th  cryrtalline  becomes  opaque,  fo  as  to  prevent  the  pafTa^e  of  the  rays  of  li->ht  to  the  retina  it 
conftitutcswhatisealleda  cataraO  ;  and  the  operation  of  couching  conliftsin  removing  the1li.'"tafcd  cryrtalline 

front 


776  ANA! 

Of  the     tiJ  through  the  foramina  optica;  atul  its  veins  pifs 
Scaiet.     through  the  foramiua  laccra,  and  empty  thcmfclvcs 

' ^' '  into  the  lateral  linufes.     Some  of  the  ramifications  of 

thcfc  vcllcls  appear  on  the  inner  furfacc  of  the  iris, 
where  they  are  fccn  to  make  very  minute  convolutions, 
vhich  arc  futiicicnily  remarkable  to  be  diltinguilhed 
by  the  name  oi circuha  artenrj'us,  though  perhaps  im- 
properly, as  they  arc  chieriy  branches  of  veins. 

The  optic  nerve  pallesin  at  the  pollcrior  part  of  the 
eye,  in  a  confiJcrable  crunk,  to  be  expanded  lor  the 
purpofcs  of  vilion,  of  which  it  is  now  univcrfallyfnp- 
pofcd  to  be  the  immediate  feat.  But  McfTrs  Mariotic 
and  Mery  contended,  that  the  choroidcs  is  the  feat  of 
this  fenfe  ;  and  the  ancients  luppofcd  the  cryltalline 
to  be  fo.  Bclides  the  opiic,  the  eye  receives  branches 
from  the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  andlixth  pair  of  nerves. 
The  humours  of  the  eye,  together  with  the  cornea, 
arccalculatcd  torefraftand  convcrgcthe  rays  of  light 
in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  form  at  the  bottom  of  the  eye 
adiftinftimagc  of  the  objed  we  look  at ;  and  the  point 
where  tbcfe  rays  meet  is  called  the  jocui  of  the  eye. 
On  the  retina,  as  in  the  camera  cbfcura,  the  objcd; 
is  pointed  in  an  inverted  polition  ;  and  it  is  only  by 
habit  that  we  are  enabled  to  judge  of  its  true  iitua- 
tion,  and  likcwifc  of  its  dirtance  and  magnitude.     To 


O       M       Y. 


PartVf. 


a  young  gentleman  who  was  born  blind,  and  who  was 
couched  by  Mr  Chefcldcn,  every  objcd  (us  he  ex- 
preil'ed  himfelf)  fcemtd  to  touch  his  eyes  as  what  he  ^ 
felt  did  his  fkin  ;  and  lie  thought  noobje>its  fo  agree- 
able as  thofc  which  wcrefmooih  and  regular,  although 
for  fome  time  hccoiJd  form  nojudgmcnt  of  their  Ihapc, 
or  gucfs  what  it  was  in  any  ot  them  that  was  plcaling 
to  liLm. 

In  order  to  paint  objedls  diftinflly  on  the  retina, 
the  cornea  is  required  to  have  fuch  a  degree  of  con- 
vexity, that  the  raysoflight  may  be  collected  at  a  cer- 
tain point,  foas  to  terminate  exactly  on  the  retina. 

If  the  cornea  is  too  prominent,  the  rays,  by  diverging 
too  foon,  will  be  united  before  tlity  reach  the  retina, 
as  is  the  cafe  with  near-lighted  people  or  7/yi!/>t'/  ;  and 
on  the  contrary,  if  it  is  not  fulhcicntly  convex,  the  rays 
will  not  be  perfectly  united  when  they  reach  the  back 
part  of  the  eye  ;  and  this  happens  to  long-lighted  peo- 
ple or  prejbi,  being  found  conftantly  to  take  place  as 
we  approach  to  old  age,  when  the  eye  gradually  fiat- 
tens  \i).  Thefe  defcils  are  to  be  fupplicd  by  means  of 
glalles.  He  who  has  too  prominent  an  eye,  will  find 
his  vilion  improved  by  means  of  a  concave  glafs  ;  and 
upon  the  fame  principles,  a  convex  glafs  will  be  found 
ufcful  to  a  pcrfon  whofc  eye  is  naturally  too  flat. 


or  the 
Sciifcs. 


EXPLANATION    of    PLATE    XXX. 


Figure  r.  Shows  the  Lachrymal  Canals,  after  the 
Common  Teguments  and  Bones  have  been  cut  away. 

a;  The  lachrymal  gland,  b.  The  two  punfta  la- 
chrymalia,  from  which  the  two  lachrymal  canals  pro- 
ceed  to  c,  The  lachrymal fac.  d.  The  large  lachrymal 
duifl.  e.  Its  opening  into  the  nofc.  f,  The  caruncu- 
la  lachrymalis.    g.  The  eye-ball. 

Fig.  2.  An  interior  View  of  the  Coats  and  Humours 
of  the  Eye. 

a  a  a  a.  The  tunica  fclerotica  cut  in  four  angles,  and 
turned  back,  b  bbb.  The  tunica  choroidcs  adhering 
to  the  inlide  of  the  fclerotica,  and  the  ciliary  veflels 
are  feen  paffingovcr — cc,  Thereiinawhich  covers  the 
vitreous  humour,  d  d,  The  ciliary  procelTes,  which 
were  continued  from  the  choroid  coat,  c  e.  The  iris. 
f,  The  pupil. 
Fig.  3.  Shows  the  Optic  Nerves,  and  Mufcles  of 
the  Eye. 

a,  a,  The  two  optic  nerves  before  they  meet,  b.  The 
two  optic  nerves  conjoined,  c.  The  right  optic  nerve. 
d,  Mufculus  attoUens  palpebrx  fuperioris.  e,  Attol- 
lensoculi.  f,  Abduftor.  g  g,  Obliquus  fupcrior,  or 
trochlearis.     h,  Adduftor.     i.  The  eye-ball. 

Fig.  4.  Shows  the  Eye-ball  with  its  Mufcles. 
a,  The  optic  nerve,  b,  Mufculus  trochlearis.  c,  Part 
of  the  OS  fronris,  to  which  the  trochlea  or  pully  is  fix- 
ed, through  which, — d.  The  teudonsof  the  trochlearis 
pafTes.  e,  Attollcns  oculi.  f,  Adduftor  oculi.  g,  Ab- 
dudor  oculi.     h,  Obliquus  inferior,     i,  Part  of  the 

4 


fuperior  maxillary  bone  to  which  it  is  fixed,  k.  The 
eye-ball. 

Fig.  5.  Reprefcnts  the  Nerves  and  Mufcles  of  the 
Right  Eye,  after  part  of  the  Bones  of  the  orbit  have 
been  cut  away. 

A,  The  eye-ball.  B,  The  lachrymal  gland.  C,  Muf- 
culus abdudlor  oculi.  D,  Attolens.  E,  Levator 
palpebra;  fuperioris.  F,  DeprcfFor  oculi.  G,  Adduc- 
tor. H,  Obliquus  fuperior,  with  its  pully.  I,  Its 
infcrtion  into  the  fclerotic  coat.  K,  Part  of  the  obli- 
quus inferior.  L,  The  anterior  part  of  the  os  frontis 
cut.  M,  The  crifla  galli  of  the  ethmoid  bone.  N, 
The  poflerior  part  of  the  fphcnoid  bone.  O,  Tranf- 
vcrfc  fpinous  procefs  of  the  fphcnoid  bone.  P,  The 
carotid  artery,  denuded  where  it  palTes  through  the 
bones.  Q^  The  carotid  artery  within  the  cranium. 
R,  the  occular  artery. 

Nerves aa,  The  optic  nerve,     b.  The  third 

pair c.  Its  joining  with  a  branch  of  the  firft  branch 

of  the  fifth  pair,  to  form  1, — The  lenticular  ganglion, 
which  fends  off  the  ciliary  nerves,  d.  e  e.  The 
fourth  pair,  f.  The  trunk  of  the  fifth  pair,  g.  The 
firfl  branch  of  the  fifth  pair,  named  ophthalmic. — 
h.  The  frontal  branch  of  it.  i.  Its  ciliary  branches, 
along  with  which  the  n.ifal  twig  is  fent  to  the  nofe. 
k.  Its  branch  to  the  lachrymal  gland.  1,  The  lenticu- 
lar ganglion,  ni.  The  fecond  branch  of  the  fifth  pair, 
named  fuperior  maxilUry.  n.  The  third  branch  of  rhc 
fifth  pair,  named  inferior  maxillary,  o,  The  fixLh  pair 

of 


from  its  bed  in  the  vitreous  humour.  In  this  operation  the  cornea  is  perforated,  and  the  aqueous  humour  efcapes 
out  of  the  eye,  but  it  is  conftantly  renewed  again  in  a  very  Hiort  time.  The  manner,  however,  in  which  it  is 
fecretcd,  has  not  yet  been  determined. 

(f)  Upon  this  principle,  they  who  in  their  youtharc  neax-fightcdmay  expeifl  to  fee  better  at  they  adranc* 
in  life^  as  their  eyes  gradually  become  more  flat. 


Anatomv 


I'IrtteXXX 


,\/.  J 


Nb 


y^y    /r 


A 


V  "■ 


.Ji^.-^iUjf 


Part  VI.  ANA 

Of  the     of  nerves, — which  fends  off  p,  The  beginning  of  the 
Senfcj.     great  fympathciic.     q,  Tlie  remainder  of  the  fixth 
■*'~^'^~  psir,  fpent  on  c.  The  abdudor  oculi. 

Fig.  6.  Reprefcnts  the  head  of  a  youth,  where  the 
upper  part  of  the  cranium  is  fawed  off, — to  (liow  the  up- 
per part  of  the  brain,  covered  by  the  pia  mater,  the 
velfcls  of  which  are  minutely  filled  with  wax. 

A  A,  The  cut  edges  of  the  upper  part  of  the  cra- 
nium. B,  The  two  tables  and  intermediate  diplufc'. 
BB,  The  two  hemifpheresof  the  cerebrum.  CC,Thc 
incifure  made  by  the  falx.  D,  Part  of  the  tentorium 
cerebello  fuper  expanfum.  E,  part  of  thx  lalx,  which 
is  fixed  to  the  crilla  galli. 

Fig.  7.  Reprefcnts  the  parts  of  the  External  Ear, 
with  the  Parotid  Gland  and  its  Dufl. 

a  a.  The  helix,  b.  The  antihelix.  c.  The  anti- 
iragus.  d,  The  tragus,  e.  The  lobe  of  the  ear.  f. 
The  cavitas  innominata.  g,  The  fcapha.  h.  The 
concha,  i  i.  The  parotid  gland,  k,  A  lymphatic 
gland,  which  is  often  found  before  the  tragus.  1,  The 
duel  of  the  parotic  gland,  ni.  Its  opening  into  the 
mouth. 

Fig.  8.  A  view  of  the  poftcrior  part  of  the  external 


r      O      M      Y. 

ear, meatus  auditorius.tympanum,  with  its  fmall  bones, 
and  Euflachian  tube  of  the  right  fide. 

a.  The  back  part  of  the  meatus,  with  the  fmall  ce- 
ruminous  glands,  b.  The  incus,  c.  Malleus,  d.  The 
chorda  tympani  e,  Membrana  tympini.  f.  The 
Euftachian  tube,     g.  Its  mouth  from  the  fauces. 

Fig.  9.  Reprefcnts  the  anterior  part  of  the  right 
external  ear,  the  caviry  of  the  tympanum — its  fmall 
bones,  cochlea,  and  fcmicircular  canals. 

a.  The  malleus,  b.  Incus  with  its  long  leg,  relling 
upon  the  ftapcs.  c,  Membrana  tympani.  d,  e.  The 
Euftachian  tube,  covered  by  part  of — f  f,  The  muf- 
culus  circumflexuspalati.  i,  2,  3,  The  three  fcmi- 
circular canals.  4,  The  vciliblc.  j.  The  cochlea. 
6,  The  portio  mollis  of  the  fevemh  pair  of  nerves. 

Fic.  10.  Shows  the  raufcles  which  compofc  th« 
flefliy  fubftance  of  the  Tongue. 

a  a.  The  tip  of  the  tongue,  with  fome  of  the  papil- 
Ije  minimae.  b.  The  root  of  the  tengue.  c.  Part  of 
the  membrane  of  the  tongue,  which  covered  the 
epiglottis,  d  d.  Part  of  the  mufculus  hyo-glolfus. 
c.  The  lingualis.  f,  Genio-gloflus.  g  g.  Part  of  ihc 
flylo-gloITus. 


777 


Of  the 
^cnfei. 


ANA 

As/rroim  of  Plants.     See  Plants. 

j4s  ATOMY  of  Brutes.     See  Comparative  Anatomy. 

ANAXAGORAS,  one  of  the  mofl:  celebrated  philo- 
fophers  of  antiquity,  was  born  at  Clazomcne  in  Ionia, 
about  the  70th  Olympiad.  He  was  difcipleof  Anaxi- 
nienes;  and  gave  up  his  patrimony,  to  be  more  at  lei- 
fiu-e  for  the  Iludy  of  philofophy.  He  went  firfl;  to 
Athens,  and  there  taught  eloquence  ;  after  which, 
having  put  himfclf  under  the  tuition  of  Anaximenes, 
he  gave  IcH'ons  in  philofophy  in  the  fame  city.  Thefe 
he  only  gave  to  fome  particular  friends  and  difciplcs, 
and  with  extreme  caution.  This,  however,  did  not 
prevent,  but  rather  was  the  caufc  of,  his  being  accufcd 
of  impiety,  and  thrown  into  prifon,  notwithftanding 
the  credit  and  influence  of  Pericles,  who  was  his  diu 
ciple  and  intimate.  Having  been  condemned  to  exile, 
he  calmly  yielded  to  the  enbrts  of  envy,  and  opened 
fchool  at  Lampfacum,  where  he  was  extremely  honour- 
ed during  the  remainder  of  his  life,  and  flill  more  af- 
ter his  death,  having  had  flatues  erei5led  to  his  memo- 
ry. He  is  faid  to  have  made  fome  predictions  relative 
to  the  phenomena  of  nature,  upon  which  he  wrote  fome 
trcatifes.  His  principal  tenets  may  be  reduced  to  the 
following: — All  things  were  in  the  beginning  confu- 
fcdly  placed  together,  without  order  and  without  mo- 
tion. The  principle  of  tilings  is  at  the  fame  time  one 
and  multiplex,  whichobtaiuedthe  name  of /jo;// ar«/iT;Vj, 
or  fimilar  pai-ticles,  deprived  of  life.  But  there  is  be- 
lides  this,  from  all  eternity,  another  principle,  namely, 
an  infinite  and  incorporeal  fpirit,  who  gave  thefe  parti- 
cles a  motion  ;  in  virtue  of  which,  fuch  as  are  homo- 
geneal  united,  and  fuch  as  were  hctcrogeneal  fcparated, 
according  to  their  ditfcrcnt  kinds.  In  this  manner  all 
tilings  being  put  into  motion  by  the  fpirit,  and  fimilar 
things  being  united  to  fuch  as  were  fimilar,  fuch  as 
had  a  circular  motion  produced  heavenly  bodies,  the 
lighter  particles  afcenued,  thofe  which  were  heavy  de- 

VOL.  I. 


ANA 
fcended.     The  rocks  of  the  earth,  being  drawn  up  by 
the  force  of  the  air,  took  fire,  and  became  liars,  be- 
neath which  the  fun  and  moon  took  their  ftations. 
Thus  he  did  not  look  upon  tlie  ftars  as  divinities. 

ANAXARCHUS,  a  philofopher  of  Abdera,  high- 
ly efleemed  by  Alexander  the  Great.  His  end  was 
peculiarly  tragical  :  having  the  misfortune  to  fall  into 
the  hands  of  the  enemy,  they  pounded  him  alive  in  a 
mortar. 

ANAXIMANDER,  a  famous  Greek  philofopher, 
born  at  Miletus  in  the  42d  Olympiad,  in  the  time  of  Po- 
lycrates  tyrant  of  Samos.  He  was  the  lirft  who  pub- 
licly taught  philofophy,  and  wrote  upon  philofophical 
fubjeds.  He  carried  his  refcarches  into  nature  very 
far  for  the  time  in  which  he  lived.  It  is  faid,  that  he 
difcovered  the  obliquity  of  the  Zodiac,  was  the  firfl 
who  publilhed  a  geographical  table,  invented  the  gnO' 
mon,  and  fet  up  the  firfl  fim-dial  in  an  open  place  at 
Lacedaemon.  He  taught,  that  infinity  of  things  was 
the  principal  and  univcrfal  clement ;  that  this  infinite 
always  preferved  its  unity,  but  that  its  parts  underwent 
changes  ;  that  all  things  came  from  it ;  and  that  all 
were  about  to  return  into  it.  According  to  all  appear- 
ance, he  meant  by  this  obfcure and  indeterminate  prin- 
ciple the  chaos  of  tilt  other  philofophers.  He  allcrted, 
that  there  are  an  infinity  of  worlds;  that  the  flars  are 
compofcd  of  air  and  fire,  which  are  carried  in  their 
fpheres,  and  that  thefe  fphcrcs  arc  gods ;  and  that  the 
earth  is  placed  in  the  midllof  the  univcrfc,asin  a  com- 
mon centre.  He  added,  that  infinite  worlds  were  the 
produdof  infinity,  and  that  corruption  proceeded  from 
fcparation. 

ANAXIMENES,  born  at  Milenis,  an  eminent 
Greek  philofopher,  friend,  fcholar,  and  fuccciibr  of 
Anaximander.  He  diti'iifcd  fome  degree  of  light  upon 
the  obfcurity  of  his  mailer's  fyllem.  He  made  the  firfl 
principle  of  things  to  confiA  i:\  the  air,  which  he  con- 
5  «'  fidered 


Anaxar- 
chut 

B 

Aaiiime- 


A  N  C 


[     778     ] 


A  N  C 


Aouinic- 
net 

II 
Ancellori. 


lidereilasimmeiifeor  infinite,  and  to  whicli  heafcribcd 
a  perpetual  motion.  He  ali'ertcd,  that  all  things  which 
proceeded  from  it  were  dciinitcand  circuinlcribcd  ;  and 
that  this  air,  fhtrcfort,  was  God,  fuicc  the  divine 
puwerrcljgnedinitand  agitated  it.  Coldueis  and  moi- 
ilure,  heat  and  motion,  rendered  it  viiible,  and  drelFed 
it  in  different  I'ornis,  according  to  the  different  degrees 
of  its  condenfatiou.  All  the  elements  thus  proceed 
from  heat  and  cold.  The  earth  was,  in  his  opinion, 
one  continued  Hat  furfacc. 

Anaximenes,  the  fon  ofAriflodes  of  Lampfacus 
an  orator,  the  dii'ciple  of  Diogenes  the  Cynic,  and  of 
Zoilus  the  railer  againll  Homer.  He  was  preceptor 
to  Alexander  of  Macedon,  and  followed  him  to  the 
w;u-s.  Alexander  being  inlcnfcd  againll  the  people  of 
Lampfacus,  they  fent  this  philolbphcr  to  intercede  for 
them.  Alexander  knowing  the  caufc  of  his  coming, 
fwore  that  he  would  do  the  very  reverfc  of  whatever  he 
dclired  of  him.  Anaximenes  begged  of  him  to  dcltroy 
Lampfacus.  Alexander,  imwilllng  to  break  his  oath, 
and  not  able  to  chide  this  ftratagem,  pardoned  Lanip- 
iacus  much  againll  his  will. 

ANAXIMANDIIIANS,  in  the  hiflory  of  philofo- 
phy,  the  followers  of  Anaxim.ander  ;  the  moll  ancient 
of  the  pliilofophical  aihcills,  who  admitted  of  no  other 
fubftancc  in  nature  than  matter. 

ANAZARBUS  (Pliny),  Anazarba  (Stcphanuj)  ; 
a  town  of  Cilicia,  on  the  river  Pyramus,  tlic  birth 
place  of  Diofcorides,  and  of  the  poet  Oppian.  It 
Was  fometimes  called  C^efayca,  in  honoiu-  cither  of 
Augullus  or  of  Tiberius.  The  inhabitants  arc  called 
u4iiazarbin't  {?Xn\'j^,  and  on  zom%  Anazarhles,  after 
the  Greek  idiom.  It  was  dellroyed  by  a  dreadful 
earthquake  in  the  year  525,  along  with  feveral  other 
important  cities  :  but  they  were  all  repaired  at  a  vafl 
expence  by  the  emperor  Juflin  ;  who  was  fo  much  af- 
fected with  their  misfortune,  that,  putting  ofFthe  dia- 
dem and  purple,  he  appeared  for  leveral  days  in  fack- 
cloth. 

ANBERTKEND,  in  the  eaftern  language,  a  cele- 
liratcd  book  of  the  Brachmans,  whercui  the  Indian 
philofophy  and  religion  are  contained.  The  word  in 
its  literal  fcnle  denotes  the  ciflcrn  wherein  is  the  wa- 
ter of  life.  The  anbcrtkend  is  divided  into  50  beths, 
or  difcourfes,  each  of  which  coufifls  of  ten  chapters. 
It  has  been  tranllated  from  the  original  Indian  into 
Arabic,  imdcr  the  title  of  Morat  al  Maani,  q.  d.  th; 
iiiarr(j-u!  t,j'  'ii.tilligeiici. 

ANCARANO,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  march  of  An- 
cona,  liruatedin  E.  Long.  14.  54.  N.  Lat.  42.  48. 

ANC'ASTER,  a  town  of  Lincolnfhire,  lituated  in 
W.  Long.  30'.  N.  Lat.  52.  ;o.  It  gives  title  of  duke 
to  the  noble  family  of  Bertie. 

ANCENIS,  a  tovn  of  France,  in  the  province  of 
Britany.     W.  Long.  i.  9.  N.  Lat.  47.  20. 

ANCESTORS,  thofe  from  whom  a  perfon  is  de- 
fcended  in  a  ilraight  line.  The  word  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  a»ceJfor,  contrafled  from  ariteajfor,  q.  d. 
goer  b.forc. 

Moil  nations  have  paid  honours  to  their  anccflors. 
It  was  properly  the  departed  fouls  of  their  ibrefathcrs 
that  the  Romans  wordiipped  under  the  denominations 
of  ral:',  leni'ircs,  and  ho-if:hclil gods.  Hence  the  an- 
cifnt  tombs  were  a  kmd  of  temples,  or  rather  altars, 


wherein  oblations  were  made  by  the  kiudi-cj  of  the  Anccftort. 
dcceafcd.  ' \y—' 

TheRufTians  have  ftill  their annivcrfaryfca/ls in  me- 
mory of  their  ancellors,  which  tlity  call  rodilolifabot, 
q.d.  kiiiijolk' sfjhbiiili,'v,'\\i:ii:in  they  make  formal  vilils 
to  the  dead  in  their  graves,  and  carry  tliem  jirovifions, 
eatables,  and  prefents  of  divers  oihir  kinds.  They 
interrogate  them,  with  loud  lamentable  cries.  What 
they  are  doing?  How  tliey  fpciid  their  time  ?  What 
it  is  they  want  ?  and  the  like. 

The  <)iiojas,  a  people  of  Africa,  offer  facritices  of 
rice  and  wine  to  their  anccflors  before  ever  ility  un- 
dertake any  confiderable  adlion.  The  anni  verfaries  of 
their  deaths  arc  always  kept  by  their  families  with 
great  foleranity.  The  king  invokes  the  foul  of  his  fa- 
ther and  mother  to  make  trade  llomilh  and  the  chacc 
fucceed. 

Tlie  Chinefe  fecm  to  have  diflinguifhcd  thciufclves 
above  all  other  nations  in  the  veneration  they  bear 
their  ancellors.  By  the  laws  of  Confucius,  part  of 
the  duty  which  children  owe  their  parents  conlifls  in 
worlhipping  them  when  dead.  This  i'ervice,  which 
makes  a  conlidcrable  part  of  the  natm-al  religion  of 
llic  Chinefe,  is  faid  to  have  been  iullituted  by  the  em- 
peror Kun,  the  filth  in  order  from  the  foundation  of 
that  ancient  empire.  Bibl.  Un.tom.  vii.  The  Chinefe 
have  both  a  folemn  and  ordinary  worfhip  which  they 
pay  their  ancellors.  The  former  is  held  regularly  twice 
a-ycar,  viz.  in  fpring  and  autumn,  with  nuich  pomp. 
A  perfon  who  was  prefent  at  it  gives  the  following  ac- 
count of  the  ceremonies  on  that  occalion  :  The  i'acri- 
fices  were  made  in  a  chapel  well  adorned,  where  there  ; 

were  fix  altars  furniflied  with  ccnfcrs,  tapers,  and  flow- 
ers. Tliere  were  three  miniflers,  and  behind  tlicm  two 
young  acolites.  The  tliree  former  went  with  a  pro- 
found lilence,  and  frequent  genuflexions,  tow-ards  the 
five  altars,  pouring  out  wine  :  afterwards  they  drew 
near  to  the  lixth,  and  when  they  came  to  the  foot  of 
the  altar,  half  bowed  down,  they  faid  their  prayers 
with  a  low  voice.  That  being  finilhed^  the  three  mi- 
niflers went  to  the  altar,  the  ofliciating  prieft  took  up 
a  vetrd  full  of  wine,  and  drank  ;  then  he  lifted  up  the 
head  of  a  deer  or  goat ;  after  which,  taking  fire  from 
the  altar,  they  all  lighted  a  bit  of  paper  ;  and  the  mi- 
niller  of  the  ceremonies  tiu-nnig  towards  the  people, 
faid  with  a  high  voice,  that  he  gave  them  thanks  in 
the  name  of  their  anccflors  tor  having  fo  well  honoiu-- 
ed  tlicm  ;  and  in  recompencc  he  promifed  them,  on 
their  part,  a  plentiful  harvell,  a  fruitful  illue,  good 
health,  and  long  life,  and  all  thofe  advantages  that 
are  moll  plcaling  to  men. 

The  Cliinefe  give  their  anccflors  another  fimpler 
and  more  private  worlhip.  To  this  end  they  have  in 
their  houfes  a  niclie  or  hollow  place,  where  they  put 
the  names  of  their  dcceafed  fathers,  and  make  prayers 
and  offerings  of  perfumes  and  fpiccs  to  them  at  ceriaia 
times,  with  bowing,  &c.  They  do  the  like  at  their 
tombs. 

The  JeAVS  fettled  in  China  are  faid  to  worfhip  their 
anccflors  like  the  lieathens,  and  with  the  fame  cere- 
monies, except  that  they  offer  not  fwine's  flefh.  Near 
their  fynnagogue  they  have  a  hall,  or  court  of  ancellors, 
wherein  are  niches  for  Abraliam,  Ifaac,  &c.  The  Je- 
fuits  alfo  conformed,  and  were  permitted  by  their  ge- 
neral 


A  N  C 


t    779     ] 


A  N  C 


Anchor. 


Aochilopj  neral  to  conform  lo  this  and  many  other  fupcrftitious 

cuiloms  of  the  Chint-re. 
_      There  is  one  peculiarity  of  another  kind,  wherein 

the  Chiuefe  Ihow  their  regard  for  ilieir  anceflors  :  in 
proportion  as  any  of  their  dcfcendants  arc  preferred  to 

a  higher  degree  or  dignity,  their  dead  anteflors  are  at 
the  fametimcprcferrcd  and  ennobled  with  them.  The 
kings  Ven,  Van,  Veu,  Van,  andChcu,  Cum,  whowere 
defcendcd  from  vafTal  kings,  when  tlity  moiuited  the 
imperial  throne,  raifcd  their  anceflors  from  the  vaflal 
or  depending  flatc  wherein  thefc  had  lived,  to  the  dig- 
nity of  emperors  ;  fo  that  the  fame  honours  were  for 
the  future  rendered  them  as  if  they  had  been  emperors 
of  China.  The  fame  example  was  followed  by  the 
fubfequcnt  kings,  and  now  obtains  among  the  grandees 
and  literati ;  all  now  worlhip  their  anceflors,  accord- 
ing to  the  rank  which  they  themfelvcs  hold  in  the 
world.  If  the  fon  be  a  mandarin  and  the  father  only 
a  doftor,  the  latter  is  buried  as  a  dodor,  but  facrificcd 
to  as  a  mandarin.  The  like  holds  in  degradations, 
where  the  condition  of  their  fathers  is  that  of  their 
ions. 

ANCHILOPS,  AytuKK,  contraHion,  and  m-^,  eye  ; 
in  medicine,  denotes  an  abfcefs,  or  collcfbion  or  mat- 
ter, between  the  great  angle  of  the  eye  and  the  nofe. 
If  fuffered  toremam  too  long,  or  unlkilfully  managed, 
it  degenerates,  the  ftagnating  humours  corrupt,  and 
an  ulcer  i§  produced.  When  the  tumor  is  brolLe,  and 
thetears  flow  involoaiarily,  whilfltheos  lachrymaleis 
not  carious,  it  is  an  agylops  ;  but  when  the  ulcer  is  of 
a  long  Handing,  deep,  fetid,  and  the  os  lachrymale  be- 
comes carious,  it  is  zfijiula.  The  cure  is  by  rellric- 
tion  and  excifion,  tying  it  at  tlic  root  on  the  glandula 
lachrymalis,  and,  when  ready,  cutting  it  off.     See 

SuRGERY-//;</tX. 

ANCHISES,  in  fabulous  hiUory,  a  Trojan  prince, 
defcendcd  from  Dardaixus,  and  the  fon  of  Capys.  Ve- 
nus madclove  to  him  in  the  form  of  a  beautiful  nymph; 
ajid  bore  him  .lEneas,  the  hero  of  Virgil's  yEneid. 

ANCHOR  [aiichora,  Lat.  from  nyt-^jfct,  Greek),  a 
heavy,  flrong,  crooked  inllrumcnt  of  iron,  dropped 
from  a  Ihip  into  the  bottom  of  the  water,  to  retain  her 
111  a  convenient  llation  in  a  harbour,  road,  or  river. 

The  moll  ancient  anchors  are  faid  to  have  been  of 
flonc  ;  and  fomctiines  of  wood,  to  which  a  great  quan- 
tity of  lead  was  ufually  fixed.  In  forae  places,  balkets 
full  of  flunes,  and  facks  filled  with  fand,  were  employ- 
ed for  the  fame  ufe.  All  thefc  were  let  down  by  cords 
into  the  fea,  and  by  thcii'  weight  flayed  the  courfe  of 
the  fltip.  Afterwards  they  were  compofed  of  iron, 
andfurnilhed  with  teeth,  which,  being  faflcned  to  tixc 
bottom  of  the  fea,  prclcrved  the  vcfl'cl  immoveable  ; 
whence  tc/VivTiic  and  daita  are  frequently  taken  for  an- 
chors in  the  Greek  and  Latin  poets.  At  firfl  there  was 
only  one  tooth,  whence  anchors  were  called  iTifocsjun: 
but  in  a  Ihort  time  the  fecond  was  added  by  Kupala- 
mus,or  Anacharlis,  the  Scythian  pliilolbpher.  The  an- 
chors with  two  teeth  were  called  «/ifiCsXo/,ora/i<^(yo.uci; 
andfromancientmonamentsappear  to  have  been  much 
the  fame  with  thole  ulcd  in  oiu"  days,  only  the  tranf- 
vcrfc  piece  of  wood  upon  tlicir  handles  (the  /lock)  is 
wanting  mall  of  them.  Every  fliip  had  fevcral  an- 
chors ;  one  of  which,  furpalfing  all  the  refl  in  bignels 
and  ftrcngth,  waspec  liarly  termed  hib or /acrj,  and 


Plate 
XXXI. 

I.D°I1 


was  ncverufed  butin  extreme  danger  ;  wheacey5»cr*;«  Ancher. 
anchor  avifotvcit,  is  proverbially  applied  to  fuch  as  arc  ""^ — » — 
forced  to  their  lad  refuge. 

1  he  anchors  now  made  arc  contrived  fo  as  to  fmk 
into  the  ground  as  foon  as  they  reach  it,  and  to  hold 
a  great  flrain  before  they  can  be  loofencdor  dillodged 
from  their  flation.  They  are  compofed  of  ihanJ.,  a 
flock,  a  ring,  and  two  arms  with  their  flukes.  The 
flock,  which  is  a  long  piece  of  timber  fixed  acrofi  the 
iliank,  ferves  to  guide  the  flukes  in  a  direiition  perpen- 
dicular to  the  furface  of  the  groimd  ;  fo  that  one  of 
them  finks  into  it  by  its  own  weight  as  foon  as  it  falls, 
and  is  flill  prefcrvcd  flcadily  in  tliat  pofiiiou  by  the 
ftock,  which  together  with  the  Ibank,  Lies  flat  on  the 
bottom.  lu  this  iituation  it  mull  neceflarily  ftiflain  a 
great  eflbrt  before  it  can  be  dragged  tlirough  the  earth 
horizontally.  Indeed  tliis  can  only  be  effccled  by  the 
violence  of  the  wind  or  tide,  or  both  of  them,  fome- 
times  increafed  by  die  turbulence  of  the  fea,  and  aft- 
ing  upon  the  fliip  to  as  to  flrctch  the  cable  to  its  utmofl 
teniion,  wliieh  accordingly  may  diflodge  the  anchor 
from  its  bed,  efpecially  it  the  ground  bcfoft  and  oozy, 
or  rocky.  When  the  anchor  is  thus  dilplaced,  it  is 
faid,  in  the  fea  phrafe,  to  come  htme. 

That  the  figure  of  this  ufcfui  inflrumcnt  may  be 
more  clearly  undcrflood,  let  us  fuppofc  a  long  mafly 
beam  of  iron  ereiled  perpendicularly,  b,  at  the  lower  g  ^ 
end  of  which  are  two  arms,  d  e,  of  equal  thicknefs  ^ 
with  the  beam(ufually  called  tlie_/Z'd«j(),only  that  they 
taper  towards  the  points,  which  are  derated  above  die 
horizontal  plane  at  an  angle  of  50  degrees,  or  in- 
clined to  the  Ihank  at  an  angle  of  60  degrees  ;  on  the 
upper  part  of  each  arm,  (in  this  poUdon)  is  a  fluke  or 
thick  plate  of  iron,  ^  h,  commonly  fliapcd  like  an 
ifofcles  triangle  whole  bafe  reaches  inwards  to  the 
middle  of  the  arm.  On  the  upper  end  of  the  fhank  is 
fixed  the  flock  tranfverfely  with  the  flukes  ;  the  flock 
is  a  long  beam  of  oak,/,  in  two  parts,  llrongly  bolted, 
and  hooped  together  with  iron  rings.  See  alio  N°  2. 
Clolc  above  the  Hock  is  the  ring  a,  to  which  the  cable 
is  faflened,  or  bciit  :  the  ring  is  curioully  covered  with 
a  number  of  pieces  of  fliort  rope,  which  are  twilled 
about  it  fo  as  to  form  a  very  thick  texture  or  covering 
called  the  {mdiJening,  and  ufed  to  prefervc  the  cable 
from  being  frcted  or  chafed  by  the  u-on. 

Every  Ihip  has,  or  ought  to  have,  three  princippj 
anchors,  with  a  cable  to  each,  viz.  the  Ihect,  rnaitrijfc- 
arjcre,  (which  is  the  <7//<r^or<7 yicrd  of  the  ancients)  ; 
the  befl  ho\vcT,/cco>id  aitcre  ,•  and  fmall  bower,  aucri 
d'  affourchc,  fo  called  from  their  ufual  litiiauon  on  the 
fhip's  bows.  There  are  befides  fmaller  anchors,  for 
removing  a  fliip  from  place  to  place  in  a  harbour  or 
river,  where  there  may  not  be  room  or  wind  for  failing; 
thefc  are  the  flreani-anchor,  ar.crv  detaiie ;  thekcd^'C 
and  grappling,  grapim  :  this  lafl,  however,  is  chieify 
defigncd  for  boats. 

Mithod  of  Alaking  AscHOR!;.  The  goodnefs  of  the 
anchor  is  a  point  of  great  importance.  Great  care  is 
therefore  to  be  taken,  that  the  metal  it  is  made  of  be 
neither  too  foft  nor  too  brittle  ;  the  latter  rendering  it 
liable  to  break  and  the  former  to  flraitcn. 

The  ihank,  aims,  and  flakes,  are  fiifl  forged  fcpa- 

rately  ;  then  the  hole  is  made  jt  one  end  of  the  Ihank 

for  the  ring,  which  being  alfo  preyioifly  forged,  is 

J  K  2  put 


A  N  C  [78 

Anchor,   put  into  the  hole  of  the  fhank,  and  the  two  ends  fluit 
'''—<^—'  to<^ct]icr.     Atlcr  which  the  arms  arc  Ihiit  to  the  Ihank 
one  after  the  other,  and  the  anchor  is  tinilhed. 

Proof  is  made  of  ancliors,  by  rifing  ihcm  to  a 
jrrcat  height,  and  then  letting  them  fall  again  on  a 
kind  of  iron  block  placed  acrofs  tor  the  piirpofe.  To 
try  whether  the  flukes  will  turn  to  the  bottom  and 
take  hold  of  the  ground,  they  place  the  anchor  on  an 
even  ftirface,  with  the  end  of  one  of  the  llukes,  and 
one  of  the  ends  of  the  ilock  refling  on  the  furface  ;  in 
cafe  the  anchor  turns,  and  the  point  of  the  tiuke  rifes 
upwards,  the  anchor  is  good. 

In  England,  France,  and  Holland,  anchors  are  made 
of  forged  iron  ;  but  in  Spain  they  are  fometimes  made 
of  copper,  and  likcwife  in  feveral  parts  of  the  South- 
Sea. 

For  the  proportions  of  anchors,  according  10  Man- 
waring,  the  Ihank  is  to  be  thrice  the  length  of  one  of 
the  rtukes,  and  half  the  length  of  the  beam.  Accord- 
ing to  Aubm,  the  length  of  the  anchor  is  to  be  four 
tenths  of  the  greatcfl  breadth  of  the  lliip  ;  fo  that  the 
Ihank,  (.  gr.  of  an  anchor  in  a  velTel  30  feet  wide,  is 
to  be  1 2  feet  long.  When  the  Ihank  is,  for  iuilance 
eight  feet  long,  the  two  arms  are  to  be  feven  feet  long, 
meafiu-ing  them  acccrding  to  their  curvity.  As  to  the 
deoree  of  curvity  given  the  arms,  there  is  no  rule  for 
it  r  the  workmen  are  here  left  to  their  own  difcretion. 

The  latter  writerobferves,  that  the  anchor  of  a  large 
heavy  vefl'el  is  fmaller,  in  proportion,  than  tliat  of  a 
kffer  and  lighter  one.  The  i  ealbn  he  gives  is,  that 
though  the  fea  employes  an  equal  force  againft  a  fmall 
vefTel  as  againfl  a  great  one,  fuppoling  the  extent  of 
wood  upon  which  the  water  afts  to  be  equal  in  both, 
yet  the  little  velfel,  by  reafon  of  its  fuperior  lightnefs, 
does  not  make  fo  much  refiltance  as  the  greater  ;  the 
defeift  whereof  muft  be  fupplied  by  the  weight  of  the 

anchor. 

From  thefe,  and  other  hydroftatic  principles,  the 
following  table  has  been  formed  ;  wherein  is  ihown, 
by  meansof  the  fliip's breadth  within,  how  many  feet 
the  beam  or  Ihank  ought  to  be  long,  giving  it  four- 
tenths  or  two  filths  of  the  ihip's  breadth  within  :  by 
which  proportion  might  be  regulated  tiie  length  of  the 
other  p.arts  of  the  anchor.  In  this  table  is  reprefented 
likewife  the  weight  an  anchor  ought  to  be  for  a  Hiip 
fwim  eight  feet  broad  to  4J,  inereal'mg  by  one  foot's 
breadth  ;  fuppoling  that  all  anchors  are  firailar,  or  that 
[heir  v.eights  are  as  the  cubes  of  the  lengths  of  the 

feanks. 

Feet.  r  Pounds 


O       ] 


A  N  C 


'Fccr. 

S 

, 

9 

g 

10 

0 

Ki 

11 

TJ 

c 

K- 

12 

< 

•=■ 

•3 

0 

M 

J3 

ij 

0 

pJ3 

•0 

16 

17 

St 

K 

19 

20 

1   1 

- 

1 

21 

L 

3' 

4 

4' 

41 

51 

5' 

6 

6! 

6? 

7t 

7! 

S 


J3 


33 
47 
64 
84 
no 
14Q 

I7J 
216 
262 
314 
373 

439 
512 

59^ 


Feet. 
22 

Feet. 

C  Pounds, 

1 

8« 

1 

681 

23 

9" 

773 

24 

9' 

884 

25 

10 

1000 

26 

lO' 

II24 

27 

10' 

1259 

28 

L^ 

0 

II' 

1405 

§ 

29 

11' 

1562 

«j    ?o 

12 

1728 

> 

c 

31 

< 

12? 

J  - 

1906 

^2 

.G 

I2t 

2097 

33 

0 

13; 

2300 

.g 

34 

.g 

13; 

^ 

2515 

■3 

35 

£0 

14 

2742 

eg 

36 
37 

14' 
14' 

2986 

3242 

38 

15' 

3512 

59 

15' 

3796 

40 

16 

4096 

41 

16' 

4426 

42 

16J 

4742 

43 

ni 

5088 

44 

174 

5451 

L  45 

18 

.  5833 

Anchor, 


M.  Bougucr,  in  his  Train  de  N/cvire,  direifls  to 
take  the  length  of  the  fliank  in  inches,  and  to  divide 
the  cube  of  it  by  1160  for  the  weight.  The  reafon 
is  obvious;  becaufe  the  quotient  ot  the  cube  of  201 
inches,  which  is  the  length  of  an  anchor  weighing 
7000  tb.  divided  by  the  weight,  is  1 160  ;  and  there- 
fore, by  the  rule  of  three,  this  will  be  a  common  di- 
vifor  for  the  cube  of  any  length,  and  a  liiigle  opera- 
tion will  fuffice. 

The  fame  author  gives  the  following  dimenlions  of 
tlie  feveral  parts  of  an  anchor.  The  two  arms  gene- 
rally form  the  arch  of  a  circle,  whefe  centre  is  tliree- 
eighths  of  the  fliank  from  the  vertex,  or  point  where 
it  is  fixed  to  the  (liank  ;  and  each  arm  is  equal  to  the 
fame  length,  or  the  radius  ;  fo  that  the  two  arms  to- 
gether make  an  arch  of  120  degrees  :  the  flukes  are 
half  the  length  of  the  arms,  and  their  breadth  two- 
fifths  of  the  faid  length.  With  refpeft  to  the  thick- 
nefs,  the  circumference  at  the  throat,  or  vertex  of  the 
fhank,  is  generally  made  about  the  fifth  part  of  its 
length,  and  the  fmall  end  two-tliirds  of  the  throat ; 
the  fmall  end  of  the  arms  of  the  flukes,  three-fourths 
oi  the  cu-cumference  of  the  fliank  at  the  tluoat.  Thefe 
dimenlions  Ihouldbc  bigger,  when  the  iron  is  of  a  bad 
quality,  efpecially  if  call  iron  is  ufcd  inflead  of  forged 
ii'on. 

At  AscHOR,  the  fituation  of  a  (hip  which  rides  by 
licr  anchor  in  a  road  or  haven,  &c.  Plate  XXXI.  lig.  i. 
N°3.  reprefents  the  fort  part  of  a  Ihip  as  riding  in 
this  fituation.  See  alio  Buoy-Rope. 

Tiifjh  the  AscHOR,  to  draw  up  the  flukes  upon  the 
fliip's  Jide  after  it  is  catted.  Sec  the  articles  Davit 
and  FisB. 

To  Jletrthe  Ship  to  her  Anchor,  is  to  fleer  the  fhip's 
head  towards  the  place  where  the  anclior  lies  when  they 
are  heaving  the  cable  into  the  Ihip  ;  that  the  cable  may 
thereby  enter  the  haufe  with  leisrelillance,  and  the- 
Ihip  advance  towards  the  aiitlior  with  greater  facility. 

Anchor~ 


A  N  C  r     7^1     ]  A  N  C 

Anchor        y4.\'cH0R-C round  is  a  bottom  which  is   neither  too    fome  woods  where  it  abounds,  the  ground  fccms  en-    Anchufi 

1         deep,  too  Ihallow,  nor  rocky  ;  as  in  the  fnil  tlic  cable    tircly  covered  with  its  yellow  tlowcrs.     It  is  a  pcrcn-         I 
Anchufa.  bears  too  nearly  perpendicular,  and  is  thereby  apt  to     nial   plant,  which   feldom  riles  a  foot  hi>;h  in  good    Ancient.^ 
jerk  the  anchor  out  ot  the  ground  ;   in  the  fccond,  the     ground,  but  not  above  half  that  height  where  the  foil 
lliip's   bottom  is  apt  to  (Irike  at  low  water,  or  when     is  poor.  The  rlowcrs  grow  in  loofc  Ipikcs  upon  fmooth 
the  fea  runs  high,  by  which  flic  is  expofed  to  the  dan-     ftalks.     6.  The  fenipcrvirens,  or  evtr-grcen  Iwragc, 
ger  of  linking  ;  and  in  the  third,  the  anchor  is  liable 
to  hook  the   broken  and  pointed  ends  of  rocks,  and 
tear  away  its  Hukcs,  whilil  the  cable,  from  the  fame 
caulc,  is  coiillauily  in  danger  of  being  cut  tlirough  as 
it  rubs  on  their  edges. 

Anchor,  in  architecture,  is  a  fort  of  carving,  fonie- 
what  refembling  an  author.  It  is  commonly  placed 
as  part  of  the  enrichments  of  the  boultins  of  capitals 
oftheTufcan,  Doric,  and  Ionic  orders,  and  alio  of 
the  boultins  of  bed-mouldings  of  the  Doric,  Ionic, 
and  Corinthian  cornices,  anchors  and  eggs  being  car- 
ved alternately  tln^ough  the  whole  building. 

Anchors,  in  heraldry,  arc  emblems  of  hope,  and 
are  taken  for  fuch  in  a  fpiritual  as  well  as  a  temporal 
fenfe. 

Anchorage,  in  law,  is  a  duty  upon  (liips  for  the 
ufe  of  the  port  or  harbour  where  they  call  anchor. 

ANCHOVY,  in  ichthyology,  the  Englilh  name  of 
the  clupea  encraficolus.     Sec  Clui'ea. 

ANCHOVY-PEAR.     SceGRiAS. 

ANCHUSA,  Ai.KANET  or  BuGLOSs  :  A  genus  of 
themonogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  pentandria  clafs 
of  plants  ;  and  in  the  uatiu-al  method  ranking  under 
the  41ft  order,  afpenfuilf.  The  c«/)'.v  is  a  quincjuc- 
partite  perianthiwn,  oblongand  perliflent :  The  corolla 
is  inonopetalous  and  funnel-lhapcd,  the  throat  clofed 
with  fcales :  i'YxejIawiiia  coufill  of  five  (liort  filaments  ; 
the  autherse  oblong  and  covered  :  'T\\cpijli!lri?ii  has  four 
gcrmina,  a  filitorm  llylus,  and  obtufe  lligma  :  There 
is  wo  perlcarpium,  the  calyx  containing  the  feeds  in  its 
bofom  :  Th.c  f^eds  are  foiu-,  obloug,  gibbous,  and  en- 
graven at  the  bafe. 

Species.  I.  The  officinalis, or  greater  garden-bnglofs, 
is  a  native  of  France  and  of  the  warmer  parts  of  Europe, 
but  will  thrive  well  enough  in  the  climate  of  Britain  ; 
though  the  roots  feldom  continue  longer  than  two  years 
there,  unlefs  they  happen  to  grow  in  rubbilh,  oroutof 
an  old  wall,  where  they  will  live  three  or  foiu- years. 
3.  The  angultifolia,  or  percnialwildborage,  grows  to 
the  height  of  two  feet  when  cultivated  in  gardens;  but 
in  thofe  places  where  it  grows  wilil  is  feldom  more  than 
afoot  and  an  half  high.  The  kavesof  this  fort  are 
narrow  ;  the  fpikes  of  flowers  come  out  double,  and 
have  no  leaves  about  them  ;  the  flowers  are  fmall,  and 
of  a  red  colour.  The  roots  will  continue  two  years  in 
a  poor  foil.  3.  The  undulata,  or  Portugal  buglofs, 
is  a  biennial  plant,  wliich  grows  to  the  height  of  two 
feet,  and  fends  out  many  lateral  branches.  The  flow- 
ers are  of  a  bright  blue  colour,  and  grow  in  an  imbri- 
cated fpikc.  4.  The  oricnialis,  or  eafleru  buglofs,  is 
a  native  of  the  Levant.  It  is  a  perennial  plant,  with 
long  trailing  branches  which  lie  on  the  ground.  The 
flowers  arc  yellow,  and  alwut  the  llze  of  the  common 
buglofs,  and  there  is  a  fuccelTion  of  thefe  on  the  fame 
plants  great  part  of  the  year.  j.  The  virgiuiana,  or 
puccoon,  grows  naturally  in  the  woods  of  North-Ame- 
rica; and  being  .an  early  plant,  generally  flowers  be- 
fore the  new  leaves  come  out  011  the  trees  ;  fo  that  ia 


is  a  very  hardy  perennial  plant,  with  weak  trailing 
branches.  It  grows  natwally  in  fome  parts  of  Britain 
and  Spain.  The  flowers  are  blue,  and  come  our  be- 
tween the  leaves  on  the  fpike,  -like  the  fourth  fort. 
They  appear  during  a  great  part  of  the  year.  7.  The 
cretica,  or  warted  buglofs  of  Crete,  is  a  low  trailing 
animal  plant,  whofc  branches  feldom  extend  more 
than  lix  incites.  The  rlowcrs  are  fmall,  of  a  brighc 
blue  colour,  and  are  collected  iuto  fmall  bunches  at 
the  extremity  of  the  branches.  The  plants  pcrilh  foon 
after  their  feeds  are  ripe.  8.  The  tinctoria,  or  true 
alkanet,  grows  naturally  in  the  Levant,  but  is  equally 
hardy  with  the  tirfl  fpeeics.  The  flowers  grow  in  long 
fpikes,  commgoui  imbriciithii ,  like  the  tiles  of  a  houfe. 

Culture.  All  the  fpecies  of  anchufa  may  be  propa- 
gated by  feeds  ;  which  (hould  be  fown,  either  in  the 
ipringor  autumn,  upon  a  bed  of  light  fandy  earth  ;  and 
when  the  plants  are  rtrong  enough  to  be  removed,  they 
mull  be  plantcil  on  beds  at  two  feet  ditlance  from  one 
another,  and  watered,  if  the  feafon  requires  it,  till  they 
have  taken  root ;  afler  which  they  will  require  no  other 
care  than  to  keep  them  free  from  weeds. 

MedioialVjc!,  &c.  The  dowers  of  the  firfl  fpecies 
have  obtained  the  name  of  c.rdia!  flowers  ;  to  which 
they  have  no  other  title  than  that  they  moderately  cool 
and  foftcn,  without  offending,  the  palate  or  ftomach  ; 
and  thus,  in  warm  climates,  or  in  hot  difeafcs,  may  in 
fome  meafiirercfrelh  the  patient.  The  rootof  thclinc- 
toria  is  likewifc  ufed,  not  as  polfciicd  of  any  medici- 
nal virtue,  but  on  accoimt  of  its  imparting  au  elegant 
red  colour  to  oily  fubllanccs  ;  fo  is  frequently  direc- 
ted asa  colouring  ingredient  for ointmcts,  plaltcrs,  &c. 
As  the  colour  is  confined  to  the  cortical  part,  the  fmall 
roots  are  to  be  preferred,  as  having  proportioiiably 
morebarkthau  thelargeones.  The  alkaiieirootwhicli 
grows  in  Enjrland  is  greatly  inferior  to  what  comes 
from  France,  and  fome  other  parts  of  Europe. 

ANCHYLOBLEFHARON.      See    Ancyloble- 

PHARON. 

ANCHYLOPS.     See  Anchilops. 

ANCHYLOSIS.     See  Ancylosis. 

ANCIENT,  or  Antient,  a  term  applied  to  things. 
which  cxiilcd  long  ago  ;  thus  we  fay,  ancient  nations, 
ancient  culloms,  &c.     See  Antkjuities. 

Ancient,  fometimes  denotes  elderly,  or  of  long 
flandmg,  in  oppolition  to  young,  or  new ;  thus  we  fay, 
an  ancient  barriiler,  ancient  buildings. 

Ancient,  in  a  military  fenfe,  denotes  either  the 
enfign  or  colours. 

Ancient,  in  Gups  of  war,  the  llreamcr  or  flag 
borne  in  the  fleni. 

ANCIENT  DEMESME,  in  Englifli  law,  isatenm-e, 
whereby  all  manors  belonging  to  the  crown  in  William 
the  Conqueror's  and  St  Edward's  time  were  held. 
The  numbers,  names,  &:c.  hereof  were  entered  by  the 
Conqueror,  in  a  book  called  Dom^fday  Book,  yet  rc- 
mamiiig  iu  the  Exchequer  ;  fo  that  fuch  l.inds  as  by 
that  book  appeared  to  have  belonged  to  the  crown  at 

ilwt 


A  N  C 


Li  7«a   ] 


A  N  C 


Anciemty,  ib«  tiuic,  arccallcd  ancient  demefiu. — The  tenants  in 
.rtuciilgii.    aacicut  dcnicfnc  are  of  two  fijrts  ;  one  who  hold  their 

' ^~      bnds  frankly  by  charter  ;  the  other  by  copy  ofcoiin- 

roU,  or  by  the  verge,  at  the  will  ot  the  lord,  according 
to  the  ciillom  of  the  manor — The  advantages  of  this 
tenure  arc,  i .  That  tenants  holding  by  charter  cannot 
bcrightfully  mpleadtd  out  of  their  manor  ;  and,  when 
they  are,  they  may  abate  the  writ,  by  pleading  the  te- 
nure. 2.  They  are  tree  from  toll  for  all  thuigs  relating 
to  iheu-  livelihood  and  hulbandry  ;  nor  can  be  impaii- 
nelled  on  any  inquelt. — Thefc  tenants  held  origmally 
by  plowing  the  kmg'sland,  plalliing  his  hedges,  and 
the  like  fervice,  for  the  maintenance  of  his  houfehold  ; 
and  it  w  as  on  this  account  that  fuch  liberties  were  gi- 
ven them,  for  which  they  may  have  writs  of  monftra- 
vcruKt  to  fuch  as  take  the  duties  of  toll,  &:c. — No 
lands  are  tobeaccomucd  ancient  demefne,  but  fuch  as 
are  held  in  focage.  Whether  land  be  ancient  demefiie 
or  not,  fhall  be  tried  by  the  Boo!; of  Domesday. 

ANCIENTY,  in  fome  ancient  ftatutes,  is  ufed  for 
cldcrlhip  or  feniority.  The  elder  liiler  can  demand  no 
luorc  than  her  other  lifters,  belide  the  chief  mefiie,  by 
rcafon  of  her  ancienty.  This  word  is  ufed  in  the  fta- 
tute  of  Ireland,  14  Hen.  III. 

ANCILLON  (David),  a  minUler  of  the  reformed 
church  at  Metz,  where  he  was  born  the  1 7th  of  March 
1617.     He  fludied  from  the  ninth  or  tenth  year  of  his 
age  in  the  Jefuits  college,  where  he  gave  fuch  proofs 
of  his  genius,  that  the  heads  of  the  fociety  tried  every 
means  to  draw  him  over  to  their  religion  and  party  ; 
but  he  continued  firm  againlf  then-  attacks.     He  went 
to  Geneva  in  1623  ;  and  lludied  divinity  under  Span- 
licim,  Diodati,  and  Tronchin,  who  conceived  a  very 
great  cfleem  for  him.    He  left  Geneva  in  April  1641, 
and  ottered  himfelf  to  the  fynod  of  Charenton  in  order 
to  take  upon  him  the  office  of  a  miniller  :  his  abilities 
were  greatly  admired  by  the  examiners,  and  the  whole 
aflcmbly  were  fo  highly  pleafed  with  him,  that  they 
gave  him  the  chiu-chof  Meaux,  the  moll  confiderable 
then  unprovided  for.  Hereheacqiured  a vafl  reputation 
for  his  learning,  eloquence,  and  virtue,  and  was  even 
highly  refpeclcd  by  thofc  of  the  Romaa-catholic  com- 
munion.    He  returned  to  his  own  country  in  the  year 
16  J5,  where  heremaiued  till  the  revocation  of  the  e- 
di(5t  of  Nantes  in  168  j.     He  retired  to  Francfort  after 
this  fatal  blow  ;  and  having  preached  m  the  French 
church  at  Hanau,  the  whole  congregation  were  fo  edi- 
fied by  it,  that  they  immediately  called  together  the 
heads  of  the  families,  in  order  to  propofe  tliat  he  might 
be  invited  to  accept  bemg  miniller  there.     The  pro- 
polition  wasagrced  to  ;  and  he  began  the  exercifeof  his 
minifb-y  in  tliat  cluu-ch  about  the  end  of  the  year  i6Sj. 
His  preaclimg  made  fo  great  a  noife  at  Hanau,  that 
the  profcllors  of  divinity,  and  the  German  and  Dutch 
miniftcrs,  attended  his  fcrmons  frequently  :  the  count  of 
Hanau  himfelf,  who  had  never  before  been  feenin  the 
French  cluircl:,  came  tltithcr  to  hear  Mr  Ancillon  : 
they  came  frum  the  neighbouring  parts,  and  even  from 
Francfort ;  people  who  luiderflood  nothing  of  French 
fiockcd  together  with  great  eagerncfs,  and  faid  they 
loved  to  fee  him  fpeak.     This  occadoned  a  great  jca- 
loufy  in  the  tv.-o  other  minillers  ;  which  tended  to  make 
bis  lltuation  uneafy.     He  therefore  v\ent  to  Berlin  ; 
where  he  met  with  a  kind  reception  from  his  highnels 


the  tlcflor,  and  was  made  minifterof  the  city.  Here 
lie  had  the  plcafiu-e  of  feeing  his  eUlelllbn  made  judge 
and  dircdor  of  the  French  in  the  fame  city,  and  his  o- 
iherfon  rewarded  with  a  peniion  and  entertained  at  tlic 
univerfity  of  Francfort  upon  the  Oder.  He  had  like- 
wife  the  fatisfaetion  of  feeing  his  brother  made  judge 
of  all  the  French  in  tile  flates  of  Brandenbiirgh  ;  and  Mr 
Cayart,  his  fon-hi-law,  enghiecr  to  his  elcdtoral  high- 
nefs.  He  enjoyed  ihefc  agreeable  circumllanccs,  and 
fcveral  others,  till  his  death,  which  happened  atBtalin 
the  3d  of  Septemper,  1692,  when  he  was  7jyx:arsof 
age. — Mr  Ancillon  having  got  a  confiderable  fortwtc  by 
marriage,  was  enabled  thereby  to  gratify  his  paliion 
for  books  ;  his  library  was  accordingly  very  curious 
and  large,  and  he  increafed  it  every  day  with  all  that 
appeared  new  and  important  in  the  republic  of  letters^ 
ib  that  at  laft  it  was  one  of  tin:  noblefl  coUecf  ions  in  the 
hands  of  any  private  perfon  in  the  kingdom.  He  pub- 
liHicd  a  book,  in  quarto,  in  which  the  whole  difputc 
concerning  Traditions  is  fully  examined:  he  alfo  wrote 
an  apology  for  Luther,  Zuinglius,  Calvin,  and  Bcza, 
and  fcveral  other  pieces. 

ANCLAM,  a  Arong  town  of  Germany,  in  the  cir- 
cle of  Upper  Saxony,  and  duchy  of  Pomerania,  re- 
markable for  its  excellent  paflm'es.  It  is  fcated  on  the 
river  Pene.     E.  Long.  14.  5.  N.  Lat.  54.  10. 

ANCLE,  or  Ankle.     Sec  Ankle. 

ANCONA  (marquifateof),  a  province  in  th«  pope's 
territories  in  Italy.  It  lies  between  the  gulph  of  Ve- 
nice and  mount  Appeninc,  which  bound  it  011  the 
nortli ;  Abruzzoon  the  eafl ;  the  duchy  of  Spoletto, 
and  that  of  Urbino,  on  the  well.  The  air  is  indiffe- 
rent ;  but  the  foil  is  fruitful,  particularly  in  hemp  and 
flax;  and  there  is  great  plenty  of  waxattdhoney.  It 
contains  fevcral  large  towns,  as  Fcrmo,  Loretto,  Rc- 
canati,  Maccrata,  Jeli,  Tolentino,  Afcoli,  Ofimo,  St 
Severino,  Monte  Alto,  Camerino,  and  Kipatranfone, 
which  are  all  archiepifcopal  or  cpifcopal  fees. 

Ancona,  afea-port  townof  Italy,  the  capital  of  the 
marquifate  of  that  name,  and  the  fee  ofabifliop.  It 
was  formerly  the  fineft  port  in  all  Italy,  being  built  by 
the  emperor  Trajan,  about  the  year  1 1 S  ;  but  was  al- 
moil  rained,  and  its  trade  lofl :  however,  it  has  agam 
begun  to  revive.  Its  harbour  is  the  befl  in  all  the 
pope's  dominions.  The  town  liesroimd  it  on  two  hills ; 
one  of  which  is  at  the  point  of  Cape  St  Syriaco,  from 
whence  there  is  a  delightful  profpe<5l.  On  the  other 
Hands  the  citadel,  which  commands  the  town  and  har- 
bour. The  flrceisof  this  city  are  narrow  and  uneven  ; 
and  the  public  and  private  buildings  inferior  to  thofeof 
the  other  great  towns  in  Italy.  The  cathedral  is  a  low 
dark  itrudure  ;  and  though  the  front  is  covered  with 
fine  marble,  the  architettiu-e  has  neither  beauty  nor  re- 
gularity. Thechurch  of  St  Dominic,  and  that  of  the 
Francifcans,  have  each  an  excellent  picture  of  Titian. 
The  exchange,  where  the  merchants  meet,  is  a  hand- 
fome  fquarc  portico,  in  which  is  an  eqneflrian  flatuc 
of  Trajan,  who  firfl  built  the  port.  At  the  foiu-  cor- 
ners arcfourothcr  flatues.  Thctriumphalarch  of  Tra- 
jan remains  almoll  entire,  with  its  iafcription.  The 
common  people  in  this  town  are  a  little  particul  ir  and 
fantallical  in  then-  drcfs,  but  the  better  fort  follow  the 
French  mode.  It  is  a  great  thoroughfare  from  the 
north  of  Italy  to  Loretto ;  which  rendersprovifious  very 

dear. 


AncIsM 

H 

Ancoaa. 


A  N  C 


[    783 


1 


A  N  C 


Ancones    dear.     The  tide  docs  not  rife  here  above  a  foot,  and 
I         near  the  Mcditcrrdiiean  it  is  I'carce  vilible.     E.  Long. 
Aucourt.    ,j.  J.  N.  i,at.  43.  -6. 

"^  ^  '  ANCtiNEs,  in  architcdure,  the  corners  or  quoins 
of  walls,  crols-bcains,  or  rafters. — Vitruvius  calls  the 
confules  by  the  fame  name. 

ANCOiNY,  in  the  iron-works,  a  piece  of  half- 
wrought  iron,  of  about  three  quarters  of  too  weight, 
and  of  the  Ihapc  of  a  bar  in  the  mid  lie,  bat  rude  and 
un\\Tought  at  the  ends.  The  proccfs  tor  bringing  the 
iron  to  this  llate  is  this  :  They  firll  melt  ott  a  jiiccc 
from  a  fow  of  cad  iron,  of  the  proper  lizc  j  tiiis  they 
hammer  at  the  forge  into  a  niafs  of  two  feet  long,  and 
of  a  fquare  fliape,  which  they  call  a  bloom ;  when  this 
is  done,  they  fend  it  to  the  finery  ;  where,  after  two  or 
three  heats  and  workings,  they  bring  it  to  this  hgurc, 
snd  call  it  an  a/uoity.  The  middle  part  beat  out  at  the 
finery,  is  about  three  feet  long,  and  of  the  ihapc  and 
thickncfs  the  whole  is  to  be  ;  this  is  then  fent  to  the 
chafcry,  and  there  the  ends  are  wrought  to  the  Ihape 
of  the  middle,  and  the  whole  made  into  a  bar.  Sec 
Bar. 

ANCORARUM  urbs,  Avx!,p»>y  nox/e,  a  city  in 
the  Nomos  Aphroditopolitcs,  towards  the  Red  Sea  ; 
fo  called  becaufe  there  was  in  theneighbourhiwdallone 
quarry,  in  which  they  hewed  flonc  anchors  (Pto- 
lemy)  before  iron  anchorscamc  to  be  ufed.  The  gcn- 
tilitious  name  is  Ancyropolitii,  (Stcphanus). 

ANCOIJ  RT(  Klorent-Carton'd )  ,an  eminent  French 
ador  and  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Kontainblcau,  Oc- 
tober 1 66 1.  He  fludicd  in  the  Jefuit's  college  at  Paris, 
under  father  de  la  Rue ;  who,  difcovering  in  him  a  re- 
markable vivacity  and  capacity  for  learning,  was  ex- 
tremely defirous  of  engaging  him  in  their  order  ;  but 
Ancourt's  averfion  to  a  religious  life  rendered  all  his 
efforts  inelfcefual.  After  he  had  gone  through  a  courfe 
of  philofophy,  he  applied  himfelf  to  the  civil  law,  and 
was  admitted  advocate  at  i  yyearsof  age.  But  falling 
in  love  with  an  adrcfs,  he  was  induced  to  go  upon  the 
ilage,  and  he  married  her.  As  he  had  all  the  qualifi- 
tations  necell'ary  for  the  theatre,  he  foon  greatly  diflin- 
guilhed  himfelf  :  and  not  being  fatisfied  with  the  ap- 
plaufe  only  of  an  aftor,  he  began  to  WTite  pieces  for 
the  ftage ;  many  of  which  had  Inch  prodigious  fuccefs, 
that  mofl  of  tJie  players  grew  rich  from  the  profits  of 
them.  His  merit  in  this  way  procured  him  a  very  fa- 
vourable reception  at  court ;  and  Lewis  XIV.  Ihowed 
him  many  marks  of  his  favour.  His  fprightly  conver- 
fation  and  polite  behaviour  made  his  company  agreeable 
to  all  the  men  of  figure  both  at  court  and  in  the  city 
and  the  moft  confidcrable  pcrfons  were  extremely  plea- 
fcd  to  have  him  at  their  houfcs.  Having  taken  a  jour- 
ney to  Dunkirk,  to  fee  his  cldefl  daughter  who  lived 
there,  he  took  the  opportunity  of  paying  his  compli- 
ments to  the  eledor  of  Bavaria,  who  was  then  at  Bnif- 
fels  :  this  prince  received  him  with  the  utmofl  civility; 
andhavingdetained  him  a  confidcrable  time,  difmiilcd 
him  witli  a  prefent  of  a  diamond  valued  at  1000  pi- 
ftoles  ;  he  likcwife  rewarded  him  in  a  very  generous 
manner,  when,  upon  his  coming  to  Paris, Ancourt  com- 
poled  an  entertainment  for  his  diverllon.  Ancourt  be- 
gan at  length  to  grow  weary  of  the  theatre,  which  he 
quitted  in  Lent  1 71S,  and  retired  to  his  efiate  of  Cour- 
ccllcsle  Roy,  ui  Beny,  where  he  applied  himfelf  whol- 


ly to  devotion,  and  compofcd  a  tranflation  of  David's 
Plalnis  in  vcrfc,  and  a  facrcd  tragedy,  which  were  ne- 
ver printed.  He  died  the  6th  of  December,  1736,  be- 
ing 65  years  of  age — The  plays  whicli  he  wrote  arc 
52  i  I  all;  moll  of  which  were  printed  feparatelvat  the 
time  w^hen  they  w  ere  firfl  reprefcnicd  ;  they  were  after- 
wards collettcd  into  five  volumes,  then  uito  fcven,  and 
atlaftin  oiiine.  This lall  edition  is  the  mofl  complete. 

ANCRE,  a  fniall  town  of  France,  in  Picardy,  with 
the  title  of  a  marquifatc,  featcd  on  a  little  river  of  the 
fame  name.     E.  Long.  2.  4J.  N.  Lat.  49.  ^9. 

ANGUS  MARTius,  the  lourth  king  of  tlie  Ro- 
mans, fucceeded  by  Tullius  Hoftilius,  6^9ycar<j  be  .'ore 
Chrifl.  He  defeated  the  Latiiis,  fubdued  the  Fide- 
nates,  conquered  the  Sabincs,  Volfcii,  and  V'eientines, 
enlarged  Rome  by  joining  to  it  mount  Janicula,  and 
made  the  harboiu-of  Oflia.  He  died  about  61 5. years 
before  the  ChrifUan  a;ra. 

ANCYLE,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  fliield  that  fell, 
as  was  pretended,  fromheaven,  in  the  reign  of  Numa 
Pompilius  ;  at  which  time,  likcwife,  a  voice  was  heard 
declarhig  that  Rome  fhould  be  miftrefsof  the  woild  as 
long  as  Ihe  fhould  prcfervc  this  holy  buckler.  It  was 
kept  with  great  care  in  the  temple  of  Mars,  under  the 
direitionot  twelve priefls;  andleallany  (houldattempt 
to  fteal  it,  eleven  others  were  made  fo  like,  as  not  to 
be  difllnguilhed  from  the  facred  one.  Thefe  ancylia 
were  carried  in  proceliion  every  year  round  the  city  of 
Rome. 

Ancyle,  in  furgery.     See  ANCvtosis. 

ANCYLOBLEPHARON,  (from  .^x^x©^  bt,:t 
and  ,8xf<f«fn  an  eyi-lid)  ;  a  difcafe  of  the  eye,  which 
clofes  the  eye-lids.  Sometimes  the  eye-lids  grow  to- 
gether, and  alio  to  the  tunica  albugmea  of  the  eye, 
from  careleffnefs  when  there  is  an  ulcer  in  tjiefe  parts. 
Both  thefe  cafes  are  called  ancylobhfkaron  by  the 
Greeks.  This  difordcr  mufl  be  diflingiiilhcd  from  that 
coalition  of  the  eye-lids  whicli  happens  from  vifcid  mat- 
ter gluing  them  together.  If  the  cohelion  is  on  the 
cornea,  the  fight  is  inevitably  lofl.  This  hath  fomc- 
tinies  happened  in  the  fmall-pox.  If  there  is  only  a 
growing  together  of  the  eye-lids,  llicy  may  be  fcpara- 
tcd  with  the  fpccilkun,  and  pledgets  kept  between  them 
to  prevent  their  re-union.  If  the  eye-lids  adhere  to  the 
eye,  they  are  to  be  feparated  by  a  fine-edged  knife  ; 
and  then-  re-union  is  to  be  prevented  by  a  proper  ufc  of 
injedions,  and  lint  placed  between  them,  after  dipping 
it  in  fomc  proper  liniment. 

ANCYLOGLOSSUM,  (from  <}xt/xgc  crooked  and 
yKoi7T»  the  tongue)  ;  a  contraction  of  the  ligaments  of 
the  tongue.  Some  liavc  this  imperfedion  from  ihci.- 
birth,  others  from  (bme  difeafe.  In  the  rirfl  cafe,  the 
membrane  which  fupports  the  tongue  is  too  fhori  or 
too  hard  ;  in  the  latter,  an  ulcer  under  the  tongue,  heal- 
ing and  forming  a  cicatrix,  is  fometimes  the  caufc  : 
Thefe  fpeak  w  ith  fomc  difficiiUy.  The  ancylogloai  by 
nature  aie  late  before  they  fpeak  :  but  when  they  be- 
gin, they  foon  fpeak  properly.  Thefe  we  call /ow^af- 
tieJ.  Mauriceau  fays,  that  in  this  cafe  it  is  aljnall  mem- 
branous production,  wliich  extends  from  the  frienulum 
to  the  tip  of  the  tongue,  that  hinders  the  child  from 
fucking,  &c.  He  juflly  condemns  the  cruel  practice 
among  nurfes,  of  tearing  this  membrane  with  their 
nails  ;  for  thus  ulcers  arclbmctinies  foriscd,  which  are 

of 


AND 


L    784    ] 


AND 


Ancylofis  of  difficult  cure  :  he  advifcs  to  fnip  it  with  fciflars  in 
II         two  or  three  places,  taking  care  not  to  extend  the 
Awdima^.  p„ji,[s  of  the  fciliurs  lb  far  as  the  frasnuhim.     The  in- 
'       '       '  itanccs  rarely  occur  which  require  any  kind  of  allift- 
aucc  ;  for  if  the  child  can  thruil  the  tip  of  its  tongue 
to  the  outer  edge  of  its  lip,  this  difcafc  does  not  exiil ; 
and  if  the  tongue  is  not  greatly  rcltraincd,  the  frenu- 
lum will  flrctch  bv  the  child's  fucking  and  crying. 

ANCYLOSIS,' in  furgcry,  implies  a  diltortion  or 
ftilfnefs  of  the  joints,  caulcd  by  a  fctilcment  of  the  hu- 
mours, or  a  diiltnfion  of  the  nerves,  and  therefore  re- 
medies of  a  mollifying  aiid  relaxing  nature  are  requi- 
red. 

ANCYRA,  the  capital  of  Galatia,  (Livy,  Pliny, 
Ptolemy)  ;  at  no  great  diftanee  from  the  river  Halys, 
(Livy):  laid  to  be  built  by  Midas,  king  of  Phrygia, 
and  to  take  its  name  from  an  anchor  found  there,  (Pau- 
fanias).  It  was  greatly  improved  by  Augullus,  deem- 
ed the  fecond  founder  of  it,  as  appears  from  the  F\flar- 
tnor  Alley  ranuvt.  It  is  now  called  Augur  a,  or  Angoura. 
E.  Long.  350.  Lat.  41.  20. 

ANCYSTRUM,  in  botany  :  A  genus  of  the  digy- 
niaordcr,  belonging  to  the  diandriaclafs  of  plants  ;  the 
elVcntial  characters  of  which  are :  The  calyx  is  a  fingle- 
leaved,  foiu--toothcd  perianthium,  four-awned,  the 
awns  terminated  with  crofs-barbs  :  The  corolla  is  tour- 
cleft;  the  lligma  penciled. 

ANDARAT.-t,  in  antiquity,  a  fort  of  gladiators, 
who,  mounted  on  horfcback  or  in  chariots,  fought 
hoodwinked,  having  a  helmet  that  covered  their  eyes. 
ANDALUSIA,  is  the  moll  weflern  province  of 
Spain,  having  Ellramadura  and  La  Mancha  on  the 
north  ;  the  kingdomof  Granada,  the  ilraightsof  Gibral- 
tar, and  the  Ocean,  on  the  call  and  foiuii  ;  and,  on  the 
weft,  the  kingdom  of  Algarvain  Portugal,  from  which 
it  is  feparatcd  by  the  ri\  cr  Guadiana.  It  is  about  182 
miles  long,  and  I  50  broad.  The  ciiicf  cities  and  towns 
are  Seville,  the  capital,  Bacza,  Gibraltar, Corduba,  Ca- 
diz, Medina,  Sidonia,  Jatn,  Port  St  Mary,  &c.  It  is 
the  bell,  moll  fruitful,  ami  the  richcll  part  of  all  Spain. 
There  is  a  good  air,  a  fercnc  Iky,  a  fertile  foil,  and  a 
great  extent  on  the  fca-coall  tit  for  commerce. 

Nevj  AsDiLusiA,  a  divilion  of  tl)e  province  of  Ter- 
ra Firm  a  in  South-America,  whofc  boundaries  cannot 
be  well  afcertained,  as  the  Spaniards  pretend  a  rigiit  to 
tountricsin  \\  liich  they  have  never  eflablilhed  any  fet- 
tlements.  According  to  the  mofl  reafonable  limits,  it 
extends  in  length  500  miles  from  nortli  to  fouth,  and 
about  270  in  breadth  from  eail  10  weft.  The  interior 
couniryis  woody  and  mountainous,  variegated  with  line 
valleys  thatyicld  corn  and  paflurage.  I'he  produce  of 
tlie  countiy  conlills  chiefly  in  dying-drugs,  gums,  me- 
dicinal roots,  brazil  wood,  fugar,  tobacco,  and  fome 
valuable  timber.  To  this  province  alfo  belonged  five 
valuable  pearl-liiherics.  The  capital  of  New  Andalu- 
fia  is  Coniana,  Cinnana,  or  New  Corduba,  iituated  in 
N.  Lat.  9.  55.  about  nine  miles  from  the  north  fea. 
Here  the  Spaniards  laid  the  foundation  of  a  xawn  in 
the  year  1520.  The  place  is  flrong  by  nature,  and 
fortified  by  a  caftle  capable  of  making  a  vigorous  dc^ 
fence  ;  as  appeared  in  the  year  1670,  when  it  was  af- 
faultcd  by  the  buccanncers,  who  were  repulied  with 
Very  great  (laughter. 

Andaman  or  Anpf.man  Illands,  in  the  Eafl 
ludies,  Iituated  about  So  leagues  dillancc  from  Tanaf- 


ferimonthe  coaflofSiam.  They  are  but  little  known ;   Andant* 
only  the  Eall  India  (liips  fometimes  touch  at  them,  and         II 
arc  fupplicd  by  the  natives  with  rice,  herbs, and  fruits :  AnJerfon. 
the  iniiabitants  are  by  fome  rcprefentcd  as  an  haruilefs  '      ^— ' 
inottcnfive  race  of  men,  and  by  others  as  cannibals. 
E.  Long.  92.  o.  N.  Lat.  from  to",  to  i  j°. 

AN'D.'^NTE,  in  mulic,  lignifics  a  movcfnent  mode- 
rately flow,  between  largo  and  allegro. 

ANDECAVI,  (Tacitus)  ;  Andegavi,  (Pliny)  ; 
Andk;,  (Cxfar")  ;  Andi,  (Lucan)  :  A  people  of  Gal- 
lia Ccltica,  having  the  Turonesto  the  Eafl,  the  Namnc- 
tes  to  the  weft,  the  Piftones  to  the  fouth,  and  the  Au- 
lerci  Citnomani  to  the  nortli :  now  A/ijou. 

ANDEGAVI,  or  Andegavus,  a  town  of  Gallia 
Ccltica  (Pliny,  Ptolemy)  ;  now  AngUns.  Called  An- 
dccavi,  (Tacitus).     W.  Long.  30.  Lat.  47.  30. 

ANDELY,  a  town  of  Normandy  in  France,  parted 
in  two  by  a  paved  caufcway.  Here  is  a  foimtain  to 
which  pilgrims  flock  from  all  parts,  to  be  cured  of 
their  dilbrders,  on  the  feaft-day  of  the  faint  to  which 
it  is  dedicated.  It  is  20  miles  S.  E.  of  Rouen,  and 
five  N.  W.  of  Paris.  E.  Long.  r.  30.  N.  Lat.  49. 
20. 

ANDENA,  in  old  writers,  denotes  the  fwath  made 
in  mowing  of  hay,  or  as  much  gi-ound  as  a  man  can 
ftride  over  at  once. 

ANDEOL  (St),  a  town  of  France,  in  the  Vivarez, 
five  miles  S.  of  St  Viviers,  whofc  bilhop  formerly  rc- 
lided  there.     E.  Long.  a.  50.  N.  Lat.  44.  24. 

ANDERAB,  the  moft  fouthern  city  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Balkh,  pollelfcd  by  the  Ulbeck  Tartars.  It 
is  very  rich  and  populous,  but  a  place  of  no  great 
flrength.  The  neighbouring  mountains  yield  excel- 
lent quarries  of  lapis  lazulli,  in  which  the  Buckhars 
drive  a  great  trade  with  Perlia  and  India. — This  city 
is  Iituated  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  dividing  the  do- 
minions of  the  Great  Mogul  and  Perfia  from  Great 
Biickharia.  As  there  is  no  other  way  of  crolfing  thcfe 
mountains  but  by  the  road  through  this  city,  all  tra- 
vellers with  goods  muft  pay  4  per  cent.  On  this  ac- 
count the  Khan  of  Balkh  maintains  a  good  number  of 
foldicrs  in  the  place. 

ANDERNACAT,  a  city  of  Cologne,  in  the  circle 
of  tlie  Lower  Rhine.  It  is  Iituated  in  a  plain  on  the 
river  Rhine  ;  and  is  fortified  with  a  wall,  caftle,  and 
bulwarks.  It  has  a  U'ade  in  ftonc  jugs  and  pitchers, 
which  are  fcnt  to  the  mineral  waters  at  Dunchllcin. 
There  are  tlircc  monafteries  here  and  feveral  churches. 
E.  Lon;>;.  7.  4.  N.  Lat  50.  27. 

ANDERO  (St),  a  fca-port  town  in  the  bay  of'Bif- 
cay,  in  Old  Caflilc,  fcated  on  a  fmall  peninfula.  It  is 
a  trading  town,  and  contains  about  700  houfes,  two 
parilh-cluirchcs,  and  four  monafteries.  Here  the  Spa- 
niards build  and  lay  up  fome  of  their  men  of  war.  \V, 
Long.  4.  ^o.  N.  Lat.  4?.  20. 

ANDERSON  (Sir  Edward),  a  younger  Ton  of  an 
ancient  Scotch  family  fettled  in  Lincolnlhirc.  He 
was  fome  time  a  ftudcnt  of  Lincoln  college,  Oxford  ; 
and  removed  from  tlicncc  to  the  Inner  Temple,  whera 
he  applied  himfelf  diligently  to  the  ftudy  of  the  law, 
and  became  a  barriflcr.  In  the  9th  of  quteu  Eliza- 
beth he  was  both  lent  a)id  funimcr  reader,  and  in  the 
,1 6th  double  reader  He  was  appointed  her  mijelly's 
fcrgeantat  lawin  tjie  19th  year  of  her  reign;  and  fome 
lime  after,  one  of  the  jullices  ofailizc.     In  15S2  he 


AND 


[    785     ] 


AND 


f^iiiretoDt  was  made  lord  chief  juflice  of  the  common  pleas,  and 
Ande*.    ill  the  year  following  was  knighted.     He  held  his  of- 

^" — >/—  fice  to  the  end  of  his  life,  died  in  the  year  i6oj,  and 
was  buried  at  Eyworth  in  Bcdfordlliirc.  He  was  an 
able,  but  pundilious  lawyer  ;  a  fcoiirge  to  the  I'uri- 
tans;  and  a  Arcnuous  fiipporter  of  the  ellablilhcd 
church.  His  works  arc,  i.  Reports  of  many  princi- 
pal cafes  argued  and  adjudged  in  tlie  time  of  queen 
Elizabeth,  in  the  common  bench.  Lond.  1644,  tol. 
2.  Refolutionsand  judgments  on  the  cafes  and  matters 
agitated  in  all  the  courts  of  Wcftminllcr,  in  the  latter 
end  of  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth.  Publidied  by 
John  Goldlborough,  Efq;  Lond.  1653,  4to.  iicfides 
thefc,  there  is  a  nianufcript  copy  of  his  Reading*  lUll 
in  being. 

Anderson  (Adam),  a  native  of  Scotland,  was 
brother  te  the  re verend  James  Anderfon,  D.  D.  editor 
of  the  Dip/omata  Scotia'  and  Royal  Cenealogies,  many 
years  fince  miniflcr  of  the  Scots  prclbytcrian  church 
in  Swallow-ftrcet,  Piccadilly,  and  well  known  in  thofe 
days  among  the  people  of  that  perfuafioc  rchdent  in 
London,  by  the  name  of  Bilhop  Anderfon,  a  learned 
but  imprudent  man,  who  loll  a  confidcrablc  part  of  his 
property  in  the  fatal  year  1 720.  He  married,  and  had 
ilfuc  a  fon,  and  a  daughter,  who  was  the  wife  of  an 
efficer  in  the  army. 

Adam  Anderfon  was  for  40  years  a  clerk  in  the 
South  Sea  Houfe  ;  and  at  length  arrived  to  his  acme 
there,  being  appointed  chief  clerk  of  the  Stock  and 
New  Annuities,  which  office  he  retained  till  his  death. 
He  was  appointed  one  of  the  truftees  for  eftablilhing 
the  colony  of  Georgia,  in  America  ;  and  was  alfo  one 
of  the  court  of  aflldants  of  the  Scots  corporation  in 
London.  The  time  of  the  publication  of  his  "  Hif- 
torical  and  Chronological  Dcdudioii  of  Trade  and 
Commerce,"  a  work  replete  with  ufeful  information, 
«ras  about  the  year  i  762.  He  was  twice  married  ; 
by  the  tirft  wife  he  had  ilfue  a  daughter,  married  to 
one  Mr  Hardy,  an  apothecary  in  the  Strand,  who  are 
both  dead  without  ilfuc  ;  he  afterwards  became  the 
third  hufband  of  the  widow  of  Mr  Coulter,  formerly 
a  wholefale  linen-draper  in  Cornhill,  by  whom  he 
had  no  iifue.  She  was,  like  him,  tall  and  graceful  ; 
and  her  face  has  been  thought  to  have  fome  refcm- 
blancc  to  that  of  the  evcr-living-countcfs  of  Dcfmond, 
given  in  Mr  Pennant's  hrft  Tour  in  Scotland.  Mr  An- 
derfon died  at  his  houle  in  Red  Lion-ltreet,  Clcrken- 
•well,  January  10,  i77j.  He  had  a  good  library  of 
books,  which  were  fold  by  his  widow,  who  furvived 
him  fcveral  years,  and  died  in  1781. 

ANDES,  a  great  chain  of  mountains  in  South  Ame- 
rica, which,  running  from  the  moft  northern  part  of 
Peru  to  the  flraits  of  Magellan,  between  3  and  4000 
miles,  arc  the  longcft  and  mofl  remarkable  in  the 
world.  The  Spaniards  call  them  the  CordUtera  dc  los 
Andes ;  they  form  two  ridges,  the  lowcrmoll  of  which 
is  overfpread  with  woods  and  groves,  and  the  upper- 
moft  covered  with  everlafting  fnow.  Thofe  who  have 
been  at  the  top,  affirm,  that  the  (ky  is  always  ferenc 
and  bright ;  the  air  coKI  and  piercing  ;  and  yet  fo  thin, 
that  thty  wercfcarcc  ablctobrcathe,and  thcrcfpiration 
was  much  thicker  than  ordinary  ;  and  this  is  attended 
with  rcacliin;^  nad  vomiting  ;  which,  however,  has 
been  coniidercd  by  fome  as  merely  accidental.  W  hen 
»hev  looked  downwards^  the  country  was  hid  hv  the 
■  Vol..  I. 


clouds  that  hovered  on  the  mountain's  fides.  The 
raoumainsjuft  mentioned,  which  have  been  frequently 
afccnded,  are  much  inferior  in  height  to  many  others 
in  this  enormous  chain.  The  following  is  the  account 
given  of  the  moimtain  called  tichincha,  by  the  matbe- 
maiicians  fent  by  the  kings  of  b" ranee  and  Spain  to 
make  obfervations  in  relation  to  the  figure  of  the  earthj 
Soon  after  our  artiils  arrived  at  ^uito,  ihey  deter- 
mined to  continue  the  fcries  of  the  triangles  for  mea- 
furing  an  arch  of  the  meridian  to  the  S.  of  that  city  j 
the  company  accordingly  divided  themfelves  into  two 
bodies,  confiding  of  French  and  Spaniards,  and  each 
retired  to  the  part  affigned  them.  Don  George  Juait 
and  M.  Godin,  who  were  at  the  head  of  one  party, 
went  to  the  mountain  of  Pambamarca ;  while  M. 
Rongeur,  dc  la  Condaminc,  and  Don  Ulloa,  together 
with  their  ailiftants,  climbed  up  to  the  higheft  fummit 
of  Pichincha.  Both  parties  fuffercd  extremely,  as 
well  from  the  feverity  of  the  cold  as  from  the  iinpc- 
tuofty  of  the  winds,  which  on  thefc  heights  blow 
with  incelfant  violence  ;  difficulties  the  more  painful, 
as  they  had  been  little  ufcd  to  fuch  fcnfations.  Thus, 
in  the  torrid  zone,  nearly  under  the  equinoflijl,  where 
it  is  natural  to  fuppofe  they  had  moft  to  fear  from  the 
heat,  their  grcatcft  pain  was  caufed  by  the  exceffivc- 
nefs  of  the  cold. 

Their  firft  fcheme  for  fhelter  and  lodging  in  thefc 
uncomfortable  regions,  was  to  pitch  a  tield-tent  fof 
each  company ;  but  on  Pichincha  this  could  not  be 
done  from  the  narrownefs  of  the  fummit :  they  were 
therefore  obliged  to  be  contented  with  a  hut  fo  fmall 
that  they  could  hardly  all  creep  into  it.  Nor  will  this 
appear  ftrangc,  if  the  reader  conliders  the  bad  difpo- 
fltion  and  fmallnefs  of  the  place,  it  being  one  of  the 
loftielt  crags  of  i  rocky  mountain,  100  fathoms  above 
the  highcil  part  of  the  defart  of  Pichincha.  Such 
Was  the  fituation  of  their  manfion,  which,  like  all  the 
other  adjacent  parts,  foon  became  covered  with  ice  and 
fnow.  The  afcent  up  this  flupendons  rock  from  the 
bafe,  or  the  place  where  the  mules  could  come,  to 
their  Iiabitation,  was  fo  craggy  as  only  to  be  climbed 
on  foot  ;  and  to  perform  it  toll  them  four  hours  conti- 
nual labour  and  pain,  from  the  violent  efforts  of  the 
body,  and  the  fabtility  of  the  air;  the  Utter  being  fuch 
as  to  render  refpiration  difficult. 

The  flrange  manner  of  living  to  which  our  anifls 
were  reduced  during  the  time  they  were  employed  in 
a  geometrical  mcnfurationof  fome  degrees  of  the  me- 
ridian, may  not  perhaps  prove  unentertaining  to  the 
reader  ;  and  therefore  the  following  account  is  given 
as  a  fpccimen  of  it.  The  defart  of  Pichincha,  both 
with  regard  to  the  operations  performed  there  and  its 
inconveniences,  differing  very  little  from  others,  aa 
idea  may  be  very  ealily  formed  of  the  fatigues,  hard- 
Ihips,  and  dangers,  to  which  they  were  continually 
expofed  during  the  time  they  were  profccuting  the  en- 
terprife,  with  the  conduct  of  which  they  had  been  ho- 
noured. The  princip.1l  difTcrence  between  the  feve- 
ral  dcfarts  confilled  in  their  greater  or  Iclfer  dillaiicc 
from  places  w  here  ihey  could  procure  provifions  ;  and 
in  the  inclemency  of  the  weather,  which  w:ir  propor- 
tionate to  the  heiglu  of  the  moniitains,  and  ilie  fcafoN 
of  the  year. 

They  generally  kept  within  their  hut.  Indccdthcy 

were  obli-yed  to  do  ihis,  both  on  account  of  the  in- 

5  G  tcmcntfs 


And«. 


AND 


[     786     ] 


AND 


Andes,     tf  rfcncfs  of  the  colJ,  the  violence  of  the  wiiij,  and 

>< '  thtir  being  continually  involved  in  fo  thick  a  fog,  that 

an  oijert  at  lix  or  eight  paces  was  hardly  ilifcerniblc. 
When  the  fog  cleared  up,  the  clouds  by  ihcir  gravity 
moved  nearer  to  ihc  fiuface  of  the  earth,  and  on  all 
fides  lurrourided  the  mountains  to  a  vaft  diftancc,  re- 
prefcnting  the  fea,  with  their  rock  like  an  illaiid  in  the 
centre  of  it.  When  this  happened  they  heard  ihc 
horrid  noifes  of  the  tempcfls,  which  then  difcharged 
thcmfelvcs  on  ^uito  and  the  neighbouring  country. 
They  faw  the  lighmings  iiiue  from  the  clouds,  and 
heard  the  thunders  roll  far  beneath  them  :  and  whilfl 
the  lower  parts  were  involved  in  tempefls  of  thunder 
and  rain,  they  enjoyed  a  deligluful  ferenity  ;  the  wind 
was  abated,  the  fky  clear,  and  the  enlivening  rays  of 
the  fun  moderated  the  feverity  of  the  cold.  But  their 
circumftanccs  were  very  ditferent  when  the  clouds 
rofe  :  their  thicknefs  rendered  refpiration  difficult;  the 
fnow  and  hail  fell  continually  ;  and  the  wind  returned 
with'  all  its  violence  ;  fo  that  it  was  inipolfible  eniirc- 
ly  to  overcome  the  fears  of  being,  together  with  their 
hut,  blown  down  the  precipice,  on  whofc  edge  it  was 
built,  or  of  being  buried  under  it  by  the  daUy  accu- 
jnujations  of  ice  and  fnow. 

The  wind  was  often  fo  violent  in  thefc  regions,  that 
its  velocity  dazzled  the  fight,  whilft  their  fears  were 
increafcd  from  the  dreadful  conculhons  of  the  preci- 
pice, caufed  by  the  fall  of  enormous  fragments  of 
rocks.  Thefc  craflies  were  the  more  alarming,  as  no 
other  noifes  are  heard  in  thcfe  defarts  :  and  during  the 
night,  their  reft,  which  they  fo  greatly  wanted,  was 
frequently  dillurbcd  by  fuch  fudden  founds.  When 
the  weather  was  any  thing  fair  with  them,  and  the 
clouds  gathered  about  fome  of  the  other  mountains 
which  had  a  connection  with  theirobfervations,  fothat 
they  could  not  make  all  the  ufe  they  defircd  of  this  in- 
terval of  good  weather,  they  left  their  luit  to  excrcife 
thcmfelves.  Sometimes  they  defcended  tofoine  fmall 
diftance  ;  and  at  others  amufed  themfelves  with  roll- 
ing large  fragments  of  rocks  down  the  precipice ;  and 
thefe  frequently  required  the  joint  ftrength  of  them 
all,  though  they  often  faw  the  fame  efFedcd  by  the 
mere  force  of  the  wind.  But  they  always  took  care  in 
their  excurfionsnot  togofofarout,  bui  that  on  the  lead 
appearance  of  the  doudsgathcring  about  theircottage, 
which  often  happened  very  fuddenly,  they  could  re- 
gain their  flielter.  The  door  of  their  hut  was  faftened 
with  thongs  of  leather,  and  on  the  infide  not  the  fmal- 
lefl  crevice  was  left  unftopped  ;  befiJe  which,  it  was 
very  compaftly  covered  w  itii  flraw :  but,  notwith- 
ftanding  all  thtir  care,  the  wind  penetrated  through. 
The  days  were  often  little  better  than  the  nights  ;  and 
all  the  light  they  enjoyed  was  that  of  a  lamp  or  two, 
which  they  kept  continually  burning. 

Though  their  hut  was  fmall,  and  crowded  with  in- 
habitants, beiide  the  heat  of  the  lamps;  yet  the  in- 
tenfenefsof  the  cold  was  fuch,  that  every  one  of  them 
was  obliged  to  have  a  chafing  difti  of  coals.  Thefe  pre- 
cautions would  have  rendered  the  rigour  of  the  cliniarc 
fupportable,  had  not  the  imminent  danger  of  perilhing 
by  being  blown  down  the  precipice  roufedthera,  every 
time  it  fnovved,  to  encounter  ihe  feverity  of  the  out- 
ward air, and  10  Tally  out  with  fliovels  to  free  the  roof  of 
their  hiitfrom  the  maifes  of  fnow  which  were  gather- 
ing on  it.  Nor  would  it,  without  this  precaution,  have 


been  able  to  fupport  the  weight.  They  were  not  in-  AnJe* 
deed  without  icrv.ints  and  Indians;  but  thefc  were  fo  ——<^— 
benumbed  with  the  cold,  that  it  was  with  great  diffi- 
culty they  could  get  them  out  of  a  fmall  tent,  where 
thty  kept  acontinu.il  fire.  So  that  all  our  artills  could 
obtain  from  them  was  to  take  their  turns  in  this  la- 
bour ;  and  even  then  they  went  very  unwillingly  about 
it,  and  confequenily  performed  it  very  flowly. 

It  may  eafily  be  conceived  what  this  company  fuf- 
fercd  from  the  afperiiiesof  fuch  a  climate.  Their  feet 
were  fwclled  ;  and  fo  tender,  that  they  could  not  even 
bear  the  heat:  and  walking  was  attended  with  ex- 
treme pain.  Their  hands  were  covered  with  chil- 
blains; their  lips  fwelled  and  chopped;  fo  that  every 
motion  in  fpeaking,  or  the  like,  drew  the  blood  ;  con- 
fequently  they  were  obliged  to  (itid  taciturnity,  and 
little  difpofed  to  laugh,  as,  by  caullng  a  diftenfion  of 
the  lips,  it  produced  fuch  filfures  as  were  very  painful 
for  two  or  three  days  after. 

Their  common  food  in  this  inhofpitable  region  was  a 
little  rice  boiled  w  ith  fome  rtefli  or  fowl,  procured  from 
Qiiito  ;  and,  inftead  of  fluid  water,  their  pot  was  fill- 
ed with  ice;  they  had  the  fame  refource  with  regard 
to  what  they  drank;  and  while  they  were  eating,  eve- 
ry one  was  obliged  to  keep  his  plate  over  a  chafing- 
dilh  of  coals,  to  prevent  his  provilions  from  freezing. 
The  fame  was  done  with  regard  to  the  water.  At  firfl 
they  imagined  the  drinking  flrong  liquors  would  dif- 
fufe  a  heat  through  the  body,  and  confequently  rea- 
der it  lefs  fenlible  of  the  painful  fharpnefs  of  the  cold ; 
but,  to  their  furprife,  they  felt  no  manner  of  ftrength 
in  fuch  liquors,  nor  were  they  any  greater  preferva- 
tive  againfl  the  cold  than  the  common  water. 

At  the  fame  time  they  found  it  impolfible  to  keep 
the  Indians  together.  On  their  firfl  feeling  of  the  cli- 
mate, their  thoughts  were  immediately  turned  on  de- 
ferting  their  mailers.  The  firfl  inflance  they  had  of 
this  kind  was  fo  unexpedted,  that,  had  not  one,  of  a 
better  difpolition  than  the  refl,  ftaid  and  acquainted 
them  of  their  defign,  it  might  have  proved  of  very  bad 
confequence.  The  affair  was  this  :  There  being  on  the 
top  of  the  rock  no  room  for  pitching  a  tent  for  the  In- 
dians,they  ufed  every  evening  to  retire  to  a  cave  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountain  ;  where,  befide  a  natural  diminu- 
tion of  the  cold,  they  could  keep  a  continual  fire;  and, 
confequently  enjoyed  more  comfortable  quarters  than 
their  mailers.  Before  they  withdrew  at  night,  they 
faflened,  on  the  outfide,  the  door  of  the  hut,  which 
was  fo  low  that  it  was  impolfible  to  go  in  or  out  without 
{looping  ;  and  as  every  night  the  hail  and  fnow  which 
had  fallen  formed  a  wall  againfl  the  door,  it  was  the 
bufinefs  of  one  or  two  of  the  Indians  to  come  early  and 
remove  this  obftrudion.  For  though  the  negro  fervants 
were  lodged  in  a  little  tent,their  hands  and  feet  were  fo 
covered  with  chilblains,  that  they  would  rather  have 
fufTcrcd  themfelves  to  have  been  killed  than  move. The 
Indians  therefore  came  conftantly  up  to  difpatch  this 
work  betwixt  nine  and  ten  in  the  morning:  but  they 
had  not  been  there  above  four  or  five  days,  when  they 
were  not  a  little  alarmed  to  fee  ten,  eleven,  and  twelve 
o'clock  conie.without  any  news  of  their  labourers;  when 
they  were  relieved  by  the  honefl  fervant  mentioned  a- 
bove,  who  had  withflood  the  feduclion  of  his  country- 
men, and  informed  his  maflers  of  the  defcrtion  of  the 
four  others.     As  foon  as  the  fnow  was  cleared  away 

from 


AND 


t    787    ] 


AND 


Andes,    the  door,  they  difpatchcd  the  Indian  to  the  corrcgidor 

""~^' of  Quito,  who  with  equal  difpatch  fent  other  Indians, 

threatening  to  chaftilc  them  Icvcrcly  if  tlicy  were 
wanting  in  their  duty. 

But  the  fear  of  punifhment  was  not  fufficient  to  in- 
duce them  to  fupport  the  rigour  of  this  liiuation  ;  for 
within  two  days  they  dcferted.  The  corrcgidor  there- 
fore, to  prevent  any  other  inconvenience,  fcnt  four  In- 
dians under  the  care  of  an  alcalde,  and  gave  orders  for 
their  being  relieved  every  fourth  day. 

Twenty-three  tedious  days  our  artifls  fpcnt  on  this 
rock,  vi/..  10  the  6th  of  September,  and  even  without 
any  polFibiliiy  of  finifliing  their  obfervations  of  the 
angles :  for  when  it  was  fair  and  clear  weather  with 
them,  the  others,  on  whofe  fummits  the  fignals  which 
formed  the  triangles  for  mcafuriug  the  degrees  of  the 
meridian,  were  hid  in  theclouds;  and  when  thofe  were 
clear,  Pichinchawas  involved  in  clouds.  It  was  there- 
fore necelFary  to  crcd  their  lignals  in  a  lower  fituation, 
and  in  a  more  favourable  region.  This,  however,  did 
not  produce  any  change  in  their  habitation  till  the  be- 
ginning of  December  ;  when,  having  finiflied  the  ob- 
fervations which  particularly  concerned  PicliLiicha, 
they  proceeded  to  others  ;  but  with  no  abatement  ei- 
ther of  inconveniences,  cold,  or  fatigue;  for  the  pla- 
ces where  they  made  their  obfervations bein;j  necella- 
rily  on  thchighell  parts  of  the  defarts,  the  only  rcfpite 
in  which  they  enjoyed  fome  little  eafe  was  during  the 
fliort  interval  of  palling  from  one  to  the  other. 

In  all  their  ftations  fubfequent  to  that  on  Pichincha, 
during  their  fatiguing  meniuration  of  the  degrees  of 
tlic  meridian,  each  company  lodged  in  a  field-tent, 
which,  though  fmall,  they  found  Icfsinconveiiient  than 
the  hut  on  Pichincha  ;  though  at  the  fame  time  tiiey 
had  more  trouble,  being  oftener  obliged  to  clear  it 
from  the  fnow,  as  tiie  weight  of  it  would  otherwife 
liave  demolilheii  the  tent.  At  lirft,  indeed,  they  pitch- 
ed it  in  the  moll  Ihdtercd  places  ;  but  on  taking  a  refo- 
lution  that  the  tents  thcmfelvcslhould  ferve  for  fignals, 
toprevcntthcinconvenience  of  having  others  of  wood, 
they  removed  them  to  a  more  expofed  lituation,  where 
the  inipetuofuy  of  ihc  winds  fometimcs  tore  up  the  pi- 
quets, and  blew  them  down. 

Though  this  mountain  is  famous  for  its  great  height, 
it  is  conliderably  lower  than  the  inount^in  of  Cotopaxi  : 
but  it  is  impofTiblc  to  conceive  the  colJnefs  of  the  fuin- 
mit  of  the  lait-mentioned  mountain  from  that  felt  on 
this  ;  lince  it  mull  exceed  every  idea  that  can  be  form- 
ed by  the  human  mind,  tho'  tlicy  are  both  ftated  in  the 
midil  of  thctorrid  zone.  Inall  this rangeof  mountains, 
there  is  faid  to  be  a  conllant  inferior  boundary,  beyond 
which  the  fnow  never  melts:  this  boundary,  in  the 
midft  of  the  torrid  zone,  is  faid  by  fome  to  be  2434  fa- 
thoms above  the  level  of  the  fea  ;  by  others,  only  24CO 
feet.  The  fnow  indeed  falls  much  lower,  but  then  it 
is  fubje(5l  to  be  melted  the  very  fame  day.  It  is  affirm- 
ed, that  there  arc  in  the  Andes  1 6  volcanoes  or  burn- 
ing mountains,  which  throw  out  fire  and  linoke  with  a 
terrible  noife.  The  height  of  Chiraborazo,  laid  to  be 
the  highcft  peak  of  the  Andes,  has  been  determined  by 
geometrical  calculations  to  be  20,282  feet.  But  the 
great  differences  between  the  calculations  of  the  h(;ight 
of  mountains  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  mull  very 
much  diminilh  the  cre.lit  of  fuch  calculations.  Inllan- 
ecs  of  this  we  have  already  given  under  the  article  i^-^r- 


NA.  No  lefs  remarkable  are  the  differences  concerning     Aedes 
the  height  of  the  peak  of  Tencritfe;  which,  accoruiug         |i 
to  the  calculations  of  Varenius,  is  three  miles  and  three  Andrada. 
quarters,  or  19,800  feet;  according  to  thbfe  of  Dr  He-  '      ^"^ 
berden,  it  isonly  15,396  feet;  and  according  to  thofc 
ofM.  Feuille,  is  no  more  than  13,128  feet.     From 
thcfe  fpccimens,  we  can  fcarce  avoid  concluding,  that 
all  the  methods  hitherto  invented  for  calculating  the 
exact  height  of  mountains  are  infutficient. 

As  all  or  moll  rivers  have  their  fourcc  in  mountains, 
it  is  no  wonder  a  great  number  run  down  the  iides  of 
the  Andes.  Some  hurry  along  with  a  prodigious  rapi- 
dity ;  while  others  form  beautiful  cafcades,  or  run 
through  holes  in  rocks,  which  look  like  bridges  of  a 
Aupendous  height.  There  is  a  public  road  through 
the  mountains  looo  miles  in  length,  part  of  which 
runs  from  Quito  to  Cufco. 

Andes,  a  hamlet  of  Mantua  in  Italy,  the  birth- 
place of  Virgil.  Hence  the  epithet  .i idimi  (liilius 
Italcus).  Now  called /^/rto/a,  two  milci  to  the  weft 
of  Mantua. 

ANDETRIUM;  Andretium  (Strabo) ;  Ande- 
CRiUM,  or  Andrecium  (Ptolemy):  An  inland  town 
of  Dalmatia.  The  genuine  name  is  Andctrium  ( Infcrip- 
tion.)  It  is  defcrioed  as  lituated  near  Salo  ix,  on  \ 
naturally  Urongand  inaccelTible  rock,  furrounded  with 
deep  vallrys,  with  rapid  torrents  :  from  wnich  i;  ap- 
pears to  be  the  citadel  now  called  Clilfa.  E.  Long.  1 7. 
46.  N.  Lat.  43.  20. 

ANDELSE,  a  city  of  Languedoc  in  France,  fitaa- 
ted  in  E.  Long.  3.  40.  and  N.  Lat.  43.  45. 

ANDOMADUNUM;  Ando.matu.su.m  (Ptole- 
my);  and  A.vtematunum  (Antonine)  ;  Ctvii/s 
LiNGONU.M  (Tacitus)  :  A  city  of  Oallia  Bclgica  ; 
no^  La'^gres  in  Champagne,  lituated  on  an  eminence 
(which  fcems  to  julliiy  the  termination  dunum),  oa 
the  burdersof  Burgundy,  at  the  fpringsof  the  Marne. 
Tacitus  calls  an  inhabitant  Lineon.  E.  Lon^.  c.  22 
N.  Lat.  49.  o. 

ANDOVER,  a  large  market  town  in  Hampfliire, 
on  the  London  road.  It  is  feated  on  a  branch  of  the 
river  Tefl,  and  fends  two  members  to  parliament.  It 
has  fe  veral  inns,  which  afford  good  accommodations  for 
travellers  ;  and  has  a  mat  ket  on  Saturday,  well  Hocked 
with  provilions.  It  is  governed  by  a  bailiff,  a  fteward, 
a  recorder,  ten  approved  men,  and  twenty-two  capital 
burgelfcs,  who  yearly  choofe  the  bailitF,  and  heeleds 
two  ferjeants  at  mace  to  attend  him.  The  living  is  a 
vicarage,  valued  at  171I.  4s.  4d.  iu  the  king's  books. 
W.  Long.  o.  56.  N.  Lat.  yi.  20. 

ANDRADA  (Diego  de  Payvad')  or  Andrapius, 
a  learned  Portugucle,  born  at  Conimbria,  whodiflin- 
guifhrd  himfelf  at  the  council  of  Trent,  where  king 
Seballian  fent  hira  as  one  of  his  divines.  There  is 
fcarce  any  Catholic  author  who  has  been  more  quo- 
ted by  the  Proteftants  than  he,  becaufe  he  maintained 
fome  opinions  a  little  extravagant  concerning  the  fal- 
vationofthe  Heathens.  Andrada  was  elleemed  an 
e.\cellent  preacher.  His  fermons  were  publiihed  in 
three  parts,  the  fccond  of  which  was  tranllated  into 
Spanilh  by  Benedict  dc  Alcoran.  Many  encomiums 
have  been  beftowed  upon  Andrada.  Oforius,  in  his 
preface  tothe"  Orthodox  Explanationsof.^ndradius," 
gives  him  the  charafter  of  a  man  of  wit,  vail  applica- 
tion, great  knowledge  in  the  languages,  with  all  the 
5  G  2  ztil 


AND 


[ 


Andrea. 


Andrachne  zeal  and  eloquence  neceflary  to  a  good  preacher  j  and 
Rofwcidtisftys,that  he  brought  to  the  council  of  Trent 
:he  luiderftanding  of  a  moft  profound  divine,  and  the 
eloquence  of  a  confumnute  orator. 

ANDRACHNE,  Bastaro  Okpine  :  A  genus  of 
the  gynandria  order,  belonging  to  the  moncecia  clafs 
of  plants ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under 
the  58th  order,  Trkocca-.  The  charaftcrs  are  ;  The 
male  ca/jix  conlifts  of  rive  leaves  ;  the  corolla  has  rive 
petals;  and  the /lamina,  which  arc  alfo  five  in  num- 
ber, are  inferted  into  the  ftylus:  The  female  ca/yx  is 
divided  into  five  leaves  ;  there  is  no  cortlla  ,-  the//)// 
arc  three  ;  and  the  capfule  is  trilocular,  containing 
three  feeds. 

species.  I.  The  telephoides,  or  herbaceous  trailing 
andrachne,  is  a  low  plant,  whofe  branches  trail  upon 
the  ground.  The  leaves  are  fmall,  of  an  oval  Ihape, 
fmooth,  and  of  a  fca-green  colour.  It  is  found  wild  in 
fomc  partsof  Italy  and  the  Archipelago  ;  but  is  a  plant 
of  no  great  beauty,  and  therefore  feldom  cultivated. 
3.  The  fruticofa,  or  flirubby  baftard  orpine,  is  a  native 
of  China  and  fome  places  of  America,  where  it  rifcs  12 
or  i4fecrhigh.  The  leaves  are  fpear-lhaped,  pointed, 
and  fmooth  ;  and  under  them  are  produced  the  foot- 
llalks  of  the  flowers,  which  are  fmall,  and  of  a  herba- 
ceous white  colour.  ?.  The  arborea,  with  a  tree-like 
flalk.  This  fpecies  was  difcovcred  by  the  late  Dr 
William  Houflon,  growing  naturally  at  Campeachy. 
It  has  a  (Irong  woody  flem,  which  rifcs  more  than  20 
?"cct  high,  and  fends  out  many  branches  on  every  fide. 
A  fourth  fort  is  alfo  mentioned  by  Mr  Miller  as  raifed 
by  him  from  feeds  fent  from  Jamaica.  It  agrees  in 
general  with  the  third  fort ;  but  the  leaves  are  fomc- 
Vhat  like  the  laurel,  only  much  larger. 

Cultur:.  The  firfl  fpecies  may  be  raifed,  by  fowing 
the  feeds  in  March,  on  a  moderate  hot-bed.  The  plants 
may  be  removed  inio  fmall  pots,  and  plunged  into  ano- 
ther very  moderate  hot-bed,  to  bring  them  forward  ; 
but  in  mild  weather  they  (hould  have  plenty  of  air  ad- 
mitted to  them,  and  be  frequently  refrcflied  with  wa- 
ter. In  June  they  will  produce  flowers,  and  the  feeds 
Will  ripen  in  Augu/l  and  September. — The  otlier  fpe- 
cies are  very  tender,  and  therefore  nuift  be  kept  con- 
ftantly  in  the  bark-llovc.  It  is  very  difRcult  to  procure 
good  feeds  of  thefc  forts  ;  the  covers  often  containing 
nothing,  though  they  appear  very  fair  outwardly. 

ANDRAPODISMUS,  in  ancient  writers,  the  fell- 
ing of  perfons  for  flaves.  Hence  alfo auchapodiPes,  a 
dealer  in  flaves,  more  particularly  a  kidnapper,  who 
lieals  men  or  children  to  fell  them  j  a  crime  for  which 
the  Thefialians  were  note  1. 

ANDRATODOCAPELI,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of 
dealers  in  flaves.  The  ar.drapodocapclt  had  a  particular 
procefs  for  taking  ofFinoles and  the  like  disfigurements 
<>n  the  faces  of  the  flaves  they  kept  for  fale,  by  nib- 
bing them  with  bran.  At  Athens,  feveral  places  in 
tlie  forum  were  appointed  for  the  fale  of  flaves.  Up- 
on the  firfl  day  of  every  month,  the  merchants  called 
.Ai<rf«TKft>:«<r»xt»  brought  them  into  the  market,  and 
txpofed  them  to  fale  -,  the  crier  Handing  upon  a  flone 
ercfted  for  that  purpofe,  called  the  people  together. 
ANDRE.'^  (St),  a  fmall  village  on  the  Malabar 
coaft  iathe  Eafl-Indies,  founded  originally  by  the  Por- 
f.igucfe.    It  likes  its  name  from  a  church  dedicated  to 


788     J  AND 

St  Andrew,  and  fcrvcd  by  the  priefts  of  St  Thomas. — 
On  the  flioreof  St  Andrea,  about  half  a  league  oat  in 
the  fca,  lies  Mud-bay,  a  place  which  few  in  the  world 
can  parallel.  It  is  open  to  the  wide  ocean,  and  has  nei- 
ther ifland  nor  bank  to  break  the  force  of  the  billows, 
which  come  rolling  with  great  violence  from  all  parts, 
in  the  fouth-wefl  moiifoons  :  but  on  this  bank  of  mud 
they  lofe  themfelvcs  in  a  moment ;  and  fliips  lie  on  it 
as  fecurc  as  in  the  bed  harbour,  without  motion  or  di- 
flurbance.  It  reaches  about  a  mile  along  Ihore,  and 
has  been  obfervcd  to  fliift  its  place  from  the  northward 
about  three  miles  in  30  years.  From  St  Andrea  to 
Kranganor,  about  12  leagues  to  the  fouth,  the  water 
has  the  bad  property  of  canfing  fvvellings  in  the  legs  of 
ihofc  who  drink  it  conflantly.  Some  it  affeds  in  one 
leg,  and  fome  in  both.  It  caufes  no  pain,  but  itch- 
ing ;  nor  docs  the  fwelled  leg  feem  heavier  to  the 
owner  than  the  fmall  one,  though  fomc  have  been  fecn 
a  yard  in  circumference  at  the  ancle.  The  Komiflt 
legends  impute  the  caufc  of  this  diflemper  (for  which 
no  preventative  or  cure  hath  been  hitherto  found)  to 
a  curfc  laid  by  St  Thomas  upon  his  murderers  and 
their  poltcrily  ;  though,  according  to  the  Romans 
themfelvcs,  St  Thomas  was  killed  by  the  Tillingi 
priefls  at  Meliaphur,  on  the  coalluf  Coromandel,  about 
400  miles  diflant,  and  where  the  natives  have  not 
this  diflemper. 

ANDREAS  (John),  a  celebrated  canonift  in  the 
14th  century,  was  born  at  Mugello,  near  Florence; 
and  was  profelforof  canonlaw  at  Padua,  Pifa,  and  af- 
terwards at  Bologna.  It  is  faid  that  he  macerated  his 
body  with  fafting  ;  and  lay  upon  the  bare  ground  every 
night  for  aoyears  together,  covered  only  with  the  fkin 
of  a  bear.  This  is  attefled  by  very  good  authors ;  but 
if  the  ftory  which  Poggius  tells  of  him  in  his  Jefts  be 
true,  he  muR  afterwards  have  relaxed  much  of  this 
continency  :  "  Joannem  Andream,  (fays  he),  doflo- 
rem  Bonnonienlera,  cujus  fama  admcdum  vulgata  eft, 
fubagitantem  ancillam  domeflicam  uxor  deprchendit: 
re  infuetaftupefafta  mulier  in  virum  verfa,  Ubinunc, 
ait,  Joannes,  eft  fapicntia  veftra  .'  ille  nil  amplius  locu- 
tus.  In  vulva  iftius,  refpondit,  loca  admodum  fapien- 
tiae  accommodato."  The  French  tranflation  of  this 
perhaps  will  not  be  difpleafing. 

"Jeaii,  dit  Andre,  fa7iieux  DoBeur  des  Loix, 

Fut  pris  tin  jour  au  peche  d' amourette  : 

II  acolloit  line  jeune  foubrette. 

Sa  jemme  vi'it,  fii  tin  figtte  de  croix. 

Ho  h»,  dit  elle,  eft  ce  vous  P  iton  je  penfe  : 

Vous,  doiit  par  tout  eti  vante  la  prudence. 

Qn^efl  dovenu  cet  efprit  f  fubtil P 

Le  ton   Andre,  pour  ftiivatit foti  negoce, 

Honteux  pourtant,  ma  Joi,  reponditil. 

Prude  net,  ejprit,  tout  giJI  datis  cette  J'offi. 

Since  it  is  agreed  that  John  Andreas  had  a  baftard, 
this  ftory  is  at  the  bottom  very  probable  ;  and  it  was 
perhaps  with  the  mother  of  Banicontius  that  his  wife 
found  him.  Andreas  had  a  beautiful  daughter,  named 
Novella,  whom  he  loved  extremely  :  and  he  is  faid  to 
have  inflruited  her  fo  well  in  all  parts  of  learning,  that 
when  he  wasengaged  inanyaffairwhich  hindered  him 
from  reading  lectures  to  hi  sfcholars,  he  fent  his  daugh- 
ter in  his  room  ;  and  left  her  beauty  lliould  prevent  the 

at- 


Andrei, 
.\iidrca». 


AND 


[    789    ] 


AND 


AndreM.  attention  of  the  bearers,  (he  had  a  little  curtain  drawn 
before  her.  To  perpetuate  the  memory  of  this  daugh- 
ter, he  iniitlcd  his  commentary  upon  the  Decretals  of 
Gregory  IX.  the  Novella-.  He  married  hcrtojohn 
Calderinus,  a  learned  canonift.  The  tirll  work  ot  An- 
dreas was  his  Glofs  upon  the  Sixth  Book  of  the  De- 
cretals,which  he  wrote  when  he  was  very  young.  He 
wrote  alfo  Gloiies  upon  the  Clementines  ;  and  a  Com- 
mentary in  regulas  Sexti,  which  he  entitled  Mcrcu- 
rialei,  becaufe  he  either  engaged  in  it  on  Wednefdays 
i^dicbiii  Mcrcurii) ,  or  becaufe  he  infertcd  his  Wednef- 
days difputes  in  it.  He  enlarged  the  Speculum  of 
Durant,  in  the  year  1347.  This  is  all  which  Mr  Bayle 
mentions  of  his  writings,  though  he  wrote  many  more. 
Andreas  died  of  the  plague  at  Bologna,  in  1348,  after 
he  had  been  a  profeffor  45  years  ;  and  was  buried  in 
the  church  of  the  Dominicans.  Many  eulogiums  have 
been  bellowed  upon  him.  He  has  been  called  ^rf/i/- 
dodor  decretorinn  :  In  his  epitaph.  Rabbi  doiioru7ii ; 
lux,  cenfor  nor7naqui  inorum ;  '<  Rabbi  of  the  dolors, 
the  light,  cenfor,  and  rule  of  manners:"  And  it  is 
faid,  tliat  Pope  Boniface  called  him  lumen  tnundi, 
"  the  light  of  the  world." 

Andreas  (John)w»sborn  a  Mahometan,  atXativa 
in  the  kingdom  of  Valencia,  and  fuccecded  his  father 
in  the  dignity  of  alfaqui  of  that  city.  He  was  en- 
lightened with  the  knowledgeof  thcChriftian  religion 
by  being  prefent  at  a  fermon  in  the  great  church  of 
Valencia  on  the  day  of  AiTumption  of  the  blelfed  Vir- 
gin, in  the  year  1487.  Upon  tliis  he  deiired  to  be 
baptized  ;  and,  in  memory  of  the  calling  of  St  John 
and  St  Andrew,  he  received  the  name  John  Andreas. 
"  Having  received  holy  orders  (fays  he),  and,  from 
an  alfaqui  and  a  Have  of  Lucifer,  become  a  pricft  and 
miniller  of  Chrill;  1  began,  like  St  Paul,  to  preach 
and  publiih  the  contrary  of  what  I  had  erroncoully  be- 
lieved and  aflerted ;  and,  with  the  allillance  of  Al- 
miglity  God,  1  converted  at  firft  a  great  many  fouls  of 
the  Moors,  who  were  in  danger  of  hell,  and  under  the 
dominion  of  Lucifer,  and  condufted  them  into  the  way 
offalvation.  After  this,  I  was  fcnt  ior  by  the  molt 
catholic  princes  king  Ferdinand  and  queen  Ifabella, 
in  order  to  preach  in  Granada  to  the  Moors  of  that 
kingdom,  which  their  majellies  had  conquered  :  by 
God's  blelFingon  my  prtaching,  an  infinite  number  of 
Moors  were  brought  to  abjure  Mahomet,  and  to  turn 
to  Chrift.  A  little  after  this,  I  was  made  a  canon  by 
their  grace  ;  and  fent  for  again  by  the  moll  ChrilUan 
queen  Ifabella  to  Arragon,  that  I  might  be  employed 
in  the  convcrfion  of  the  Moorsofthofc  kingdoms,  who 
Hill  pcrlifled  in  their  errors,  to  the  great  contempt  and 
difhonour  of  our  crucified  Saviour,  aud  the  prodigious 
lofsand  danger  of  all  Chriiiian  princes.  But  this  ex- 
cellent and  pious  dtlign  of  her  M.ijcfly  was  rendered 
inetfcflual  by  her  deatli."  At  the  dcllre  of  Martin 
Garcia,  bifliop  of  Barcelona,  he  undertook  to  tranf- 
late  from  the  Arabic,  into  the  lan>i,mge  of  Arragon, 
thcsvholelaw  of  the  Moors  ;  and  atijr  having  finiihed 
this  undertaking,  hr  compofed  his  famous  work  of  The 
Coiifiil'ion  of  the  Se{l  of  Mahtaned  :  it  contains  twelve 
chapters,  wherein  lie  has  collefted  the  fabulous  llories, 
impollures,  forgeries,  brutalities,  folliet,  obfcenities, 
abfurdities,  impoflibilities,  lies,  and  contradic'tions, 
which  Maliomet,  in  order  to  deceive  the  limple  people, 
has  difpcrfed  in  the  writings  of  that  fcrt,  and  cfpccial- 


ly  in  the  akoran,  which,  as  he  fays,  was  revealed  to  Ananinl 
him  in  one  niglit  by  an  angel,  in  tlie  city  of  Mckc  ;         H 
though  in  another  place  he  contradicf  s  himfelf,  and  af-   Andrew, 
firms  that  he  was  20  years  in  conipoiing  it.     Andreas         "       ' 
tells  us,  be  wrote  this  work,  that  not  only  the  learned 
among  Chrilti.uis,  but  even  the  common  piople  mijilit 
know  the  different  belief  and  doctrine  of  the  Moors  : 
aud  on  the  one  hand  might  laugh  and  ridicule  fuch  iu- 
folcnt  and  brutal  notions,  and  on  the  other  miglu  la- 
ment their  blindnefs  and  dangerous  condition.     This 
book,  which  was  publilhed  at  firfl  in  Spanifh,  has  been 
trandatcd  into  fevcral  languages  ;  all  thofc  who  write 
againft  the  Mahometans  quote  it  very  much. 

ANDREINI  (Ifabella),  a  native  of  Padua,  was  an 
excellent  poetefs,  andone  of  the  belt  comedians  in  Ita- 
ly, towards  the  beginning  of  the  I7tli  century.  The 
Intenti  of  Pavia  thought  they  did  tiieir  Society  an  ho- 
nour by  admitting  her  a  member  of  it ;  and  fhc,  in  ac- 
knowledgementofthishonour, ncverforgoi  tomeniion 
amonglt  her  titles  that  oi  Academica  Infanta  :  licr 
titles  werithefe,  "  Ifabella  AiiJrtini,  coniica  gclofa, 
acadcniica  infanta,  delta  I'accefla."  She  was  alfoa  wo- 
man of  extraordinary  beauty  ;  which,  added  to  a  fine 
voice,  made  her  charm  both  the  eyes  and  ears  of  tlic 
audience.  She  diedof  a  mifcarriage,  at  Lyons,  the 
loth  of  June,  1604,  in  the  42d  year  of  her  age.  Her 
death  being  a  m  uter  of  gci.cral  concern  and  lamenta- 
tion, there  were  many  Latin  and  Italian  elegies  print- 
ed to  her  memory  :  feveral  of  tlicfe  pieces  were  placed 
before  her  poems  in  the  edition  of  Milan,  in  1605. 
Belides  her  fonnets,  madrigals,  longs,  and  eclogues, 
thercisapaftoral  of  hersintitled  Myrtilla.and  letters, 
printed  at  Venice  in  1610.  She  fung  extremely  well, 
played  admirably  on  feveral  inltriinients,  nnderlli'oj 
the  French  andSpanilh  languages,  and  was  not  unac- 
quainted with  philofophy. 

ANDRKLINUS  (Publius  FauAus),  born  at  Forli 
in  Italy,  lie  was  a  long  time  profeffor  of  poetry  and 
philofopiiy  in  the  univerdty  of  Paris.  Lewis  Xll.  of 
France  m  idc  him  his  poet  laureat ;  and  Eral^inus  tells 
us  he  was  likcwifc  poet  to  the  queen.  His  pen  was  not 
wliolly  employed  in  making  verfes  ;  for  he  wrote  alfo 
moral  and  proverbial  letters  in  profe, which  were  print- 
ed feveral  times.  His  poems, which  are  chiefly  in  La- 
tin, are  infertcd  in  Vol.  I.  of  the  Deltci.r  Poctaru::i  It.i- 
lurtim.  Mr  De  la  Monnoie  tells  us,  "that  Andrelinus, 
when  he  was  but  22  years  old,  received  the  crown  of 
laurel :  That  his  love-verfes,  divided  into  four  books, 
intitled /./:■;■//,  from  the  name  of  his  millrcfs,  were 
elleemed  fo  fine  by  the  Roman  Academy,  that  they 
adjudged  the  prize  of  the  Latin  elegy  to  the  author." 
He  died  in  i  ji8.  This  author's  manner  of  life  was 
not  very  exemplary  ;  yet  he  was  fo  fortunate,  f.iys  K- 
rafmus,  that  though  he  took  the  liberty  of  rallying  the 
divines,  he  was  never  brought  into  trouble  about  it. 

ANDREW  (St),  the  apofllc,  born  at  Bcthfiida  iu 
Galilee,  brother  to  Simon  Peter.  He  had  been  a  dif- 
ciple  of  John  the  baptill,  and  followed  Jcfus  u|'on  the 
tellimony  given  of  him  by  the  batpifl,  (John  i.  30,  37, 
S:c.)  He  followed  our  Saviour  with  anothcrot  John's 
difciples,  and  wentintothe  houfe  where  Jefus  lodged  : 
here  he  continued  from  about  four  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon till  it  w.-is  night.  This  was  the  firfl  difciple 
whom  our  Saviour  received  into  his  train.  Andrew 
introduced  his  brother  Siuiou,  aud  they  palled  a  day 

>vitk 


AND 


t    790    ] 


AND 


Andrew,  witliCIirift,  after  which  they  went  to  the  marriage  ia 
Andrew'*  Cana  (;V.  ii.),  and  at  lall  returned  to  their  ordinary 
"  occupation.     Sonic  months  after,  Jefus  meeting  them 

while  they  were  both  hlhing  together,  called  them  to 
him,  and  promifed  to  make  them  filhersof  men.  Im- 
mcdiaicly  they  left  their  nets,  followed  him,  (Matt, 
iv.  19.)  and  never  afterwards  feparated  from  him. 

i^fter  our  Saviour's  afcenlion,  his  apolUcs  having 
determined  by  lot  what  parts  of  the  world  they  Ihould 
fcvcrally  take,  Scythiaand  the  ntighbouringcountries 
fell  to  St  Andrew,  who  according  to  Eiifebius,  after 
he  had  planted  the  gofpel  in  fcveral  places,  came  to 
Patras  in  Achaia,  where,  endeavouring  to  convert  the 
proconful  yEgcas,  he  was  by  that  governnor's  orders 
fcourged  and  then  crucified.  The  particular  time  of 
his  fuffcring  martyrdom  is  not  known  ;  but  all  the  an- 
cient and  modern  manyrologies,  both  of  the  Greeks 
and  Latins,  agree  in  celebrating  his  fcllival  upon  the 
30th  of  November.  His  body  was  embalmed,  and  de- 
cently interred  at  Patraeby  Maximilla,  a  lady  of  great 
quality  and  eftate.  Afterwards  it  was  removed  toCon- 
llantinople  by  Conftantine  the  Great,  and  buried  in  the 
great  church,  which  he  had  built  to  the  honour  of  the 
apoftles.  There  is  a  crofs  to  be  feen  at  this  day  in  the 
church  of  St  Viftor  at  Marfcilles,  which  is  believed 
by  the  Romanifts  to  be  the  fame  that  St  Andrew  was 
fattened  to.  It  is  in  the  fliape  of  the  letter  X,  and  is 
inclofed  in  a  filver  fhrine.  Peter  Chryfologus  fays, 
that  he  was  crucified  upon  a  tree  ;  and  the  fpnrious 
Hippolytus  aifures  us  it  was  an  olive-tree. 

Andrew,  or  Knights  of  St  Amdrfjv,  an  order  of 
knights,  more  ufually  called  the  order  of  the  thiflle. 
(See  Thistle.) 

Knights  of  St  AsDRF.H',  is  alfoan  order  inflituted  by 
Peter  the  Great  of  Mufcovy  in  1698  ;  the  badge  of 
which  is  a  golden  medal ;  on  one  fide  whereof  is  re- 
prefentedSt  Andrew's  crofs, with  thefe  words,  Cuzar 
Ph'rn  T/iotiaraui  de  tout  la  Rufie.  This  medal,  being 
fiiflened  to  a  blue  ribbon,  is  lufpended  from  the  right 
Ihoulder. 

St  yisDREw's  Crofs,  one  in  form  of  the  letter  X. 
(Sec  Cross.) 

St^.sDnm  'sDaj,  a  feftival  of  the  Chriftian  church, 
celebrated  on  the  30th  of  November  in  honour  of  the 
apoflle  St  Andrew. 

ANDREW'S  (St),  a  town  of  Fifefliire,  in  Scotland, 
once  the  metropolis  of  the  piiflilh  kingdom,  lying  in 
\V.  Long.  2.  25.  N.  Lat.  56.  18.  If  we  may  credit 
legend,  St  Andrew's  owes  its  origin  to  a  fingular  ac- 
cident. StRegulas  (or  St  ^.v/if,  as  he  is  likeuifecal- 
led ),  a  Greek  of  Achaia,  was  warned  by  a  vifion  to  leave 
his  native  country,  and  vifit  Albion,  an  ille  placed  in 
the  remoteft  part  of  the  world  ;  and  to  take  with  him 
the  arm-bnne,  three  fingers,  and  three  toes  of  St  An- 
drew. He  obeyed,  and  fet  fail  with  his  companions, 
but  had  a  very  tempeftuouspairage.  After  being  toffed 
for  fome  time  on  a  ftormy  fea,  he  wasatlaftlhipwreck- 
ed  on  the  coafts  of  Otholania,  in  the  territories  of 
Hergufiis  king  of  the  pifts,  in  the  year  370.  On 
heariuj;  of  the  arrival  of  the  Strangers,  with  iheir 
precious  rclifls,  the  king  immediately  gave  orders  for 
their  reception,  afterwards  prefenting  the  faint  with 
his  own  palace,  and  building  near  it  the  church, 
which  rtil'  bears  the  name  of  5'  Rcgnlus. 

At  this  time  the  place  was  ftiled  Mucrofs,  or  the 


land  of  boars:  all  round  was  fore  ft,  and  the  lands  be-  Andrew'* 

flowed  on  the  Saint  were  called  Byrchid.     The  boars  * « ' 

equalled  in  fizc  the  ancient  Erymanthian  ;  as  a  proof 
of  which,  two  tufks,  each  fixteen  inches  long  and  four 
thick,  were  chained  to  the  altar  of  St  Andrew's.  St 
Regulus  changed'the  name  to Kilrymont ;  and  eftablifh- 
cd  here  the  firll  Chrillian  priells  of  the  country,  called 
Culdees.  1  his  church  was  fupreme  in  the  kingdom 
of  the  Pidls  ;  Ungus  having  granted  to  God  and  St  An- 
drew, that  it  Ihould  be  the  head  and  mother  of  all  tlic 
churches  in  his  dominions.  He  alfo  direded  that  the 
crofs  of  St  Andrew  Ihould  become  the  badge  of  the 
country.  In  yi8,  after  the  conqueft  of  the  Pifbs,  he 
removed  the  epifcopal  fee  to  St  Andrew's,  and  the  Bi- 
ihop  was  ftyled  rnaximtis  Scotoritvt  epifcofus.  In  144I, 
it  was  erected  into  an  archbilhopric  by  Sexius  IV.  at 
the  interceffion  of  James  III.  In  1606,  the  priory  w.is 
fupprelfed  ;  and,  in  161 7,  the  power  of  election  was 
transferred  to  eight  bilhops,  the  principal  of  St  Leo- 
nard's college,  the  archdeacon,  the  yicars  of  St  An- 
drew's, Lcuchars,  and  Coupar.  This  fee  contained  the 
greateft  part  of  the  fliirc  of  Fife,  with  apart  of  Perth, 
Forfar,  and  Kincardine  fhifes,  and  a  great  number  of 
parifhes,  churches,  and  chapels  in  other  diocefes. 

The  town  of  St  Andrew's  was  ercdcd  into  a  royal 
borough  by  David  I.  in  the  year  11 40,  and  their  pri- 
vileges afterwards  confirmed.  The  charter  of  Mal- 
colm II.  is  prefcrved  in  the  tolbooth ;  and  appears  writ- 
ten on  a  bit  of  parchment,  but  the  contents  equally 
valid  with  what  would  at  this  time  require  whole  (kins. 
Here  alfo  are  kept  the  filver  keys  of  the  city  ;  which, 
for  form's  fake,  are  delivered  to  the  king,  if  he  Ihould 
vifit  the  place,  or  to  a  viftorious  enemy,  in  token  of 
fubmiflion.  In  this  place,  likewife,  is  to  be  feen  the 
monllrous  ax  which,  in  1646,  took  off  the  heads  of  Sir 
Robert  Spotfwood  and  other  diftinguiflied  loyalifls. 
The  town  underwent  a  fiege  in  1337  ;  at  which  time 
it  was  poifeired  by  the  Englifti,  and  other  partizans  of 
Baliol ;  bat  the  loyalifts,  under  the  earls  of  March  and 
Fife,  made  themfelves  matters  of  it  in  three  weeks, 
by  the  help  of  their  battering  machines. 

St  Andrew's  is  now  greatly  reduced  in  the  number 
of  inhabitants  ;  at  prefent  fcarcely  exceeding  2000.  It 
is  impoffible  to  afcertain  the  fum  when  it  was  the  feat 
of  the  primate  :  All  that  can  be  known  is,  that  during 
the  period  of  its  fplendor,  there  were  between  60  and 
70  bakers ;  but  now  9  or  10  are  fufficicnt  for  the  place. 
It  is  a  mile  in  circuit,  and  contains  three  principal 
flreets.  On  entering  the  weft  port,  a  well-built  ftreet, 
ftraight,  and  of  vaft  length  and  breadth,  appears  ;  but 
fo  grafs-grown,  and  prefenting  fuch  a  dreary  foliiude, 
that  it  forms  the  perfcd  idea  of  having  been  laid  waftc 
by  the  pcftilence. 

The  cathedral  of  St  Andrew's  %vas  founded  by  Bi- 
Jliop  Arnold  in  1161,  but  did  not  attain  its  full  mag- 
nificence till  1318.  Its  length  from  eaft  to  well  was 
37ofeet;  thatof  the  tranfept,  322.  But  tho' this  vaft 
pile  was  157  years  in  building,  John  Knox,  in  June 
15J9,  efTedcd  its  demolition  in  a  fingle  day;  and  fo 
effectually  has  it  been  dcftroycd,  that  nothing  now  re- 
mains but  part  of  the  eaft  and  weft  ends,  and  of  the 
fouth  fide. 

Near  the  eaft  end  is  the  chapel  of  St  Regulus  ;  the 
tower  of  which  is  a  lofty  equilateral  triangle,  of  2ofeet 
each  fide,  and  103  feet  high  ;  the  body  of  the  chapel 

Tcmains, 


AND 


r  79 


Andrew'j-  remains,  but  the  two  fide  chapels  are  ruined.     The 
'~"~^'~~"  arches  of  the  windows  and  doors  arc  round,  and  fome 
even  more  than  fcmicirclcs  :  an  undoubted  proof  of 
their  antiquity. 

The  priory  was  founded  by  Alexander  I.  in  1 122  ; 
and  the  monies  (canons  regularof  St  Auguflinc)  were 
brought  from  Scone,  in  1 140,  by  Robert,  biihopof  this 
fee.  By  an  aft  of  parliament,  in  the  time  of  James  I. 
the  prior  had  precedence  of  all  abbots  and  priors,  and 
on  the  days  of  feftival  wore  a  mitre  and  all  cpifcopal 
ornaments.  Dependent  on  this  priory  were  thofe  of 
Lochleven,  Portmoak,Monimu(k,  the  Iflcof  May,and 
Pittcnwcem,  each  originally  a  feat  of  thcCuldees.  The 
revenuesof  the  houfe  were  vail,  viz.  In  money  223  7I. 
2S.  rod  1-2;  38  chaldrons,  i  boll,  3  firlots  of  wheat  ; 
132  ch.  7  bolls  of  bear  ;  114  ch.  3  bolls  i  peck  of 
meal ;  iji  ch.  10  bolls  i  firlot  i  peck  and  a  half  of 
oats  ;  3  ch.  7  bolls  of  peas  and  beans  :  480  acres  of 
land  alfo  belonged  to  it.  Nothing  remains  of  the  pri- 
ory except  the  walls  of  the  precind,  which  Ihow  its 
vafl  extent.  In  one  part  is  a  niofl  artlefs  gateway, 
formed  only  of  fevcn  Hones.  This  inclofure  begins 
near  the  cathedral,  and  extends  to  the  Ihore. 

The  other  religious  houfes  were,  one  of  Domini- 
cans, founded  in  1274,  by  bithop  Wilhart  ;  another  of 
Obfervantincs,  founded  by  bifliop  Kennedy,  and  linilh- 
ed  by  his  fuccelfor  Patrick  Graham  in  1478  ;  and,  ac- 
cording to  fome,  the  Carmelites  had  a  fourth. 

Immediately  above  the  harbour  flood  the  collegiate 
church  ofKirk-heugh,  originally  founded  by  Conllan- 
line  III.  who,  retiring  from  the  world,  became  here 
a  Culdce.  f'romiti  having  been  firft  built  on  a  rock,  it 
was  llyled,  Pra-pofitura  Sa7:({a  Mari/e  dc  rupi. 

On  the  call  fide  of  the  city  are  the  poor  remains  of 
the  caflle,  on  a  rock  overlooking  the  fea.  This  fortrefs 
was  founded,  in  1401,  by  Biiliop  Trail,  who  was  bu- 
ried near  the  high  altar  of  ihe  cathedral,  with  this 
fingular  epitaph  : 

Hicfttit  cede  ft  cc  i(ireSla  colamtia,  fcmflra 
Lucida  thuribulumredolens,  compana  fvnora. 

This  caftle  was  the  refidcnce  of  cardinal  Beaton  ; 
who,  after  the  death  of  GeorgeWilhart, apprehending 
fome  danger,  caufed  it  to  be  fortified  fo  flrongly  as  to 
be  at  that  time  deemed  impregnable.  In  this  fortrefs, 
however,  he  was  furprized  and  alfallinatcd  by  Norman 
Leily  with  I50thers.  They  feized  on  the  gate  of  the 
caftle  early  in  the  morningof  May  29,  1541^;  it  having 
been  left  open  for  the  workmen  who  were  tinifliing  the 
fortifications;  and  having  placed  cenrincls  at  thedoor 
of  the  cardinal's  apartment,  ihey  awakened  his  nume- 
rous domellics  one  by  one  ;  and,  turning  them  out  of 
the  ca/lle,  they,  without  violence,  tumult,  or  offering 
any  injury  to  any  other  pcrlon,  inriiiSedon  Beaton  the 
death  he  juflly  merited.  The  confpirators  were  im- 
mediately befiegcd  in  this  caflle  by  the  regent,  earl  of 
Arran ;  and  notwithftanding  they  had  acquired  no 
greater  flrength  than  150  men,  they  refifled  all  his 
efforts  for  five  months.  This,  however,  was  owing  to 
the  unfkilfulnefs  of  the  beliegcrs  mere  than  to  the 
ftrength  of  the  place  or  the  valour  of  the  befiegcd  ; 
for  in  1547  the  caflle  was  reduced  and  demoliihed. 
The  entrance  of  it  is  (lillto  be  ffcn  ;  and  the  window 
is  Oiown,  out  of  which  it  is  faid  the  cardinal  leaned  to 


I     ]  NAD 

glut  his  eyes  with  the  cruel  martyrdom  of  George  ABJr<r«-'i. 
Wilhart,  who  was  burnt  on  a  fpot  beneath.  ' " 

In  the  church  of  St  Salvator  is  a  mofl  beautiful  tomb 
of  bifliop  Kennedy,  who  died,  an  honour  10  his  fami- 
ly, in  1466.  The  Gothic  work  is  uncommonly  ele- 
gant. Within  the  tomb  were  difcovcred  lix  raaguiii- 
cent  maces,  which  had  been  concealed  here  in  trou- 
fome  times.  One  was  given  to  each  of  the  other  three 
Scotch  univerlitics,  and  three  arc  prelcrvcd  here.  I:i 
the  top  is  reprcfcntcd  our  Saviour  ;  around  are  an- 
gels, with  the  inflruments  of  the  pafllon. 

With  thefe  arc  fliown  fome  filver  arrows,  with  large 
filver  plates  affixed  to  them,  on  which  arc  infcribed 
the  arms  and  names  of  ilic  nolle  youth, viclors  in  the 
annual  competitions  in  the  generous  art  of  archery, 
which  were  dropt  but  a  few  years  ago  ;  and  golf  is 
now  the  reigning  game.  That  fport,  and  foot-b.ill, 
were  formerly  prohibited,  asufclefs  and  unprofitable 
to  the  public  ,  and  at  all  w^iaponjcha'^uingi,  or  reviews 
of  the  people,  it  was  ordered,  tWiX.  jute-ball  audg-Jfe 
be  utterly  cry ed  down,  and  that  bo-oi-vtar  kc s  be  tnasd  at 
ilk  pari jh  kirk,  a  pair  of  butts  and Jchutting  be  uf:d  : 
and  that  ilk  man  fchuite  fax  Jhtttet  at  leajt,  under  th: 
paine  to  be  raiped  upon  them  that  cuvi'uit  not,  at  leaf} 
t'jia  pennies,  to  be  given  to  them  that  cumniis  to  th:  bow- 
markes  to  drinke. 

The  celebrated  univerfity  of  this  city  was  founded  in 
141 1,  by  bilhop  Wardlaw  ;  and  the  nex  year  he  ob- 
tained from  Benedict  111.  the  bull  of  confirmation.  It 
confifledonce  ofihree  colleges,  i. St Salvator's, found- 
ed in  1458,  by  bilhop  Kennedy.  This  is  a  handfomc 
building,  with  a  court  or  quadrangle  within  :  on  one 
lide  is  the  church,  on  another  the  library  ;  the  third 
contains  apartments  for  Audents  :  the  fourth  is  un- 
finilhed.  2.  St  Leonard's  college  was  founded  by  pri- 
or Hepburn,  in  1522.  This  is  now  united  with  the 
lafl,  and  the  buildings  fold  and  converted  into  private 
houfes.  3.  The  new,  or  St  Mary's  college,  was  cftab- 
lilhed  by  archbilhop  Hamilton  in  1553  :  but  the  houfc 
was  built  by  Tames  and  David  Bethune,  or  Beaton^ 
who  did  not  live  to  complete  it.  This  is  faid  to  have 
been  the  fite  of  a  fchola  illuftris  long  before  the  eftab- 
lilhmentevenof  the  univerfity;  where  fcveraleminent 
clergymen  taught,  gratis,  the  fciences  and  languages. 
But  it  was  called  the  nrj)  college,  bccaufe  of  its  late 
crcftioninto  a  divinity  college  by  the  archbifliop. 

The  univerfity  is  governed  by  a  chancellor,  an  of- 
fice originally  deligned  to  be  perpetually  veiled  in  the 
archbifliopof  St  Andrew's;  but  fiuce  the  reformation, 
he  is  defied  by  the  two  principals,  and  the  profelFors 
of  both  the  colleges. 

The  reftor  is  the  next  great  officer;  to  whofc  care  is 
committed  the  privileges,difcipline,and  flatutes  of  the 
univerfity.  The  colleges  have  their  reilors,  and  pro- 
fclforsof  different  fciences,  who  are  indefatigable  in 
their  atier.tion  to  tlie  inftruiflion  of  thefludents,aiid  to 
that  elfential  article,  their  morals.  This  place  poireifes 
fcveral  very  great  advantages  refpefling  the  education 
of  youth.  The  air  is  pureand  falubrious  ;  the  place  for 
exercife.dryandcxtcnlive;theexercifest!icmfclvcsare 
healthy  and  innocent.  The  univerfity  is  fixed  in  a  pe- 
ninUilated  country,  remote  from  all commcrcewith  the 
world,  the  haunt  of  diilipation.  Krom  the  fmallnefs  ot 
the  focietycvcryfludent'scharii^er  is  perfeflly  known. 

No 


AND 


[     792     ] 


AND 


Andrew's.  No  little  irregularity  can  be  committed,  but  it  is  in- 
Ilaiitly  difcovertd  and  checked  :  vice  cannot  attain  a 
head  in  this  i)hce,  for  the  incorrigible  arc  never  per- 
riitted  to  remain  the  corrupters  ot  the  reft. 

The  trade  of  St  Andrew's  was  once  very  conlider- 
»ble.  Solace  as  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  this  place  had 
i;o  or  40  trading  vcirds,  and  carried  on  a  confiderable 
herring  and  white  tilhcry,  by  means  of  bulTes,  iu  deep 
water  ;  which  lilherics  had  for  ages  been  the  grand 
>fburcc  of  their  commerce,  wealth,  and  fplendour.  Af- 
ter the  death  of  the  king,  this  whole  coaft,  a:idSt  An- 
drew's in  particular,  became  a  fcene  of  murder,  plun- 
der, and  rapine  :  every  town  flittered  in  proportion  to 
its  magnitude  and  opulence.  Nor  were  thofe  hypocri- 
tical ruffians  faiisficd  with  the  Shipping,  merchandife, 
plate,  cattle,  and  whatever  came  within  their  light  ; 
they  alfo  laid  the  whole  coafl  under  contribution.  St 
Andrew's  was  required  to  pay  loool.  but  the  inhabi- 
tants not  being  able  to  raife  that  fum  after  being  thus 
plundered,  the  general  compounded  for  jool.  whicli 
was  raifed  by  a  loan  at  intcrefl,  and  hath  remained  a 
burden  upon  the  corporation,  it  isbclieved,  evci  fince. 
The  harbour  is  artificial,  guarded  by  piers,  with  a 
narrow  entrance,  to  give  flielter  to  veflels  from  the  vio- 
lence of  a  very  heavy  fea,  from  the  encroachments  of 
which  it  has  lufFered  much.  The  manufadlurcs  this 
city  might  in  former  times  poircfs,are  now  reduced  to 
one,  that  of  golf-balls  ;  which,  tritling  as  it  may  feem 
maintains  a  great  number  of  people.  It  is,  however, 
commonly  fatal  to  the  artiUs  ;  for  the  balls  are  made 
by  flufEng  a  great  quantity  of  feathers  into  aleathern 
cafe,  by  help  of  an  iron  rod,  with  a  wooden  handle, 
prclfcd  againlt  the  breaft,  which  fcldom  fails  to  bring 
on  a  confumption. 

Andrew's  (Lancelot),  bidiopof  Wincheder,  was 
born  at  London  in  IJSJ,  and  educated  at, Cambridge. 
After  feveral  preferments,  he  was  made  bifliop,  firft  of 
CJiichcfler,  then  of  Ely,  and,  in  1618,  was  raifed  to 
thefeeofWinchefter.  This  verylearned  prelate, who 
was  diflinguilhed  by  his  piety,  charity  and  integrity, 
may  be  jullly  ranked  with  the  bed  preachers  and  com- 
pleteftfcholarsof  hisage  ;  he  appeared  to  much  great- 
er advantage  in  the  pulpit  than  he  does  now  in  his 
works,  which  abound  with  Latin  quotations  and  trivial 
witticifms.  His  fermons,  thongh  full  of  puns,  were 
fuited  to  the  tafle  of  the  times  in  which  he  lived,  and 
were  confequently  greatly  admired.  He  was  a  man  of 
polite  manners  and  lively  converfation;  and  could  quote 
Greek  and  Latin  authors,  orevenpun  with  kingjames. 
There  is  a  pleafant  flory  related  of  him  in  the  life  of 
Waller  the  poet.  When  that  gentleman  was  young, he 
had  the  curiofity  to  go  to  court,  and  Hood  in  the  circle 
to  fceking  James  dine;  where, amongother  company, 
there  fat  at  table  two  bifltops,  Neale  and  Andrews. 
Tlie  king  propofed  aloud  this  quellion,  Whether  he 
might  not  take  his  fibjeds  money  when  he  needed  it, 
without  all  this  formality  of  paili  ;ment?  Neale  replied, 
"  God  forbid  you  (hould  not,  for  yon  are  the  brcith  of 
ournoflrils."  Whereupcn  tlie  kingtr.rncd,  and  faid  to 
thebiihopof  M  inthcfler,  '<  Well,  my  lord,  what  fay 
you?"  "Sir,  (replied  the  biflicp),  (  have  no  (l-iill  to 
judge  of  parliamentary  cafes."  '1  he  king  anfwercd, 
"  No  puts-off,iny  lord;  anfwer  mcprefenily."  "Then, 
Sir  (faid  he),  I  think  it  lawful  for  you  to  take  my  bro- 
ther Neal's  money,  for  he  olfers  it."  Mr  Waller 
4 


fays,  the  company  was  plcafed  with  this  anfwer,  but  Andrij 
the  wit  of  it  fcemed  to  attedl  the  king  ;  for  a  certain  || 
lord  coming  foon  after,  his  majefty  criedout,  "  O,  my  Andropy 
lord,  they  fayyou  lig  with  my  lady."  "  No,  Sir  (fays  ,  '^'j- 
his  Lord;hip,  in  coufulion),  but  I  like  her  company  " 
becaufc  ihe  has  fo  much  wit."  <•  Why  then  (fays  the 
king)  do  you  noi  lig  with  my  lord  of  Winchefter 
there  ?" — Thisgrcat  prelate  was  in  no  lefs  reputation 
andelleem  with  king  Charles  L  than  he  had  been  with 
his  prcderell'ors.  He  died  at  Winchcfter-houfe  in 
South wark,  September  27,  1626,  in  the  71  It  year  of 
his  age  ;  and  was  buried  in  the  parifli-church  of  St  Sa- 
viour's, wherehis  executors  erected  to  him  a  very  fair 
nionumentofmarblc  andalabafter,  on  which  isan  ele* 
gant  infcription,  in  Latin,  written  by  one  of  his  chap- 
lains. Mr  Milton  alfo,  at  17  years  ot  age,  wrote  a 
beautiful  elegy  on  his  death,  in  the  fame  language. 
Bilhop  Andrews  had,  I.  A  fliare  in  the  tranflation  of 
the  Pentateuch,  and  the  hillorical  books  from  Jufliua 
to  the  firft  book  of  Chronicles  cxclulively.  Healfa 
wrote,  2.  Tort.'/ra  Torti,  in  anfwer  to  a  work  of  Car- 
dinal Bellarmine,  in  which  that  cardinal  affumes  the 
name  of  Matthew  Tortus.  3.  A  Manual  of  Private 
Devotions  :  and,  4.  A  Manual  of  Direftions  for  the 
Vifitation  of  the  Sick  ;  belides  the  Sermons  andTraft* 
in  Englifh  and  Latin,  publilhed  after  his  death. 

ANDRIA,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  public  entertain- 
ments firft  inftituted  by  Minos  of  Crete,  and,  after 
his  example,  appointed  byLycurgus  at  Sparta,  at  which 
a  whole  city  or  tribe  aflifted.  They  were  managed 
with  the  ut  moft  frugality,  and  perfons  of  all  ages  were 
admitted,  the  younger  fort  being  obliged  by  the  law- 
giver to  repair  thither  as  to  fchools  of  temperance  and 
fobriety. 

Andria,  is  a  city  and  a  bilhop's  fee  in  the  territory 
of  Bari,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  It  is  pretty  large, 
well  peopled,  and  feated  in  a  fpacious  plain, four  milcr 
from  the  Adriatic  coaft.     E.  Long.  17.  4,   N.  Lat. 

41-  iJ- 

ANDRISCUS,  a  man  of  mean  cxtradion,  who, 
pretending  to  be  thefon  of  Perfeus  laftking  of  Mace- 
aoiiia,  took  upon  him  the  name  of  Philip,  for  which 
reafon  he  was  called  Pfeudo-Phirtppus,lh<tFalfe  Philip. 
After  a  complete  vidory  over  Jnventus,  the  Roman- 
Prsetor  fent  againft  him,  he  alFumed  kingly  power,  but 
cxercifed  it  with  vaft  cruelty.  At  laft,  the  Romans 
obliged  him  to  fly  into  Thrace,  where  he  was  betrayed 
and  delivered  into  the  hands  of  Metellus.  This  vic- 
tory gained  Macedonia  once  more  into  the  power  of 
the  Romans,  and  toMetellus  the  mmcof  fllacecfoiicus, 
but  coft  the  Romans  25,000  men.  Andrifcus  adorned 
the  triumph  of  Metcllus,  walking  in  chains  before  the 
general's  chariot. 

ANDROAS,  or  Androdamas,  among  ancient  na- 
turalifls,  a  kind  of  pyrittc,  to  which  they  attributed 
certain  magical  virtues. 

ANDROGEUS,  in  fabulous  hiftory,  the  fonofMi- 
nos  king  of  Crete,  was  murdered  by  the  Athenian 
youth  and  thofe  of  Megara,  who  envied  his  being  al- 
ways vidorat  the  Attic  games. ButMinos  having  after- 
wards taken  Athens  and  Megara,  obliged  the  inhabi- 
tants to  fend  him  an  annual  tribute  of  fcvcn  young  men 
and  as  many  virgins,  to  be  devoured  by  the  Minotaur; 
but  Thefeus  delivered  them  from  that  tribute. 

ANDROGYNES,  in  natural  hiftory,  a  name  gi- 


AND 


[    793    ] 


AND 


AaAro-    ven  to  thofe  living  crcatuturis  which,  by  a  monftrous 
gjDM.     formaiion  of  their  generative  parts,  fccm  ( for  it  is  only 

'"■■^^ fceraing)to  unite  in  thcmfelvcs  the  two  kxcs,  that  of 

the  male  and  of  the  female.  This  Ju/us  natura,  this 
dcfctt,  or  perhaps  redandancy,  ill  the  aninialllrutiture, 
is  defcribcd  by  medical  authors  in  the  following  man- 
ner.    *■  There  is  a  depravation  in  the  ftruflurcof  the 

<  parts  intended  by  nature  for  propagation,  when,  be- 

<  lides  thofe  concealed  parts  that  are  found  nccelFary 

*  for  the  dilcharge  of  prolific  fundions,  i)it  fui^mda 

*  of  the  other  fex  likcwife  appear.  This  monftrous 
'  produtlion  of  nature  is  diveriihcd  in  four  dilfcrcnt 

*  ways;  of  which  three  appear  in  males  and  one  in  fe- 

*  males.  In  men,  the  female  pudendum  doathed  with 
'  hair,  fomeiimesappcarscontiguous  totheperinaeum ; 
'  at  other  times  in  the  middle  of  the  fcrotum  ;  at  other 

*  times,  which  conflitutes  the  third  divcrfity,  through 
'  that  part  itfelf  which  in  the  midll  of  the  fcrotum  ex- 
'  hibits  the  form  of  a  pudendum,  urine  is  emitted. 

*  Near  that  part  which  is  the  tell  of  puberty,  and 

*  above  the  pudendum,  even  in  females,  the  mafculine 

*  genitals  appear  in  fome,  confpicuous  in  all  their  thrcq 
'  forms,  one  rcfembling  the  'ju-etravioryAxi,\.\\cui\icv 

*  like  the  two  tcllicles  :  but  for  the  molt  pan  it  hap- 

*  pens,  that,  of  the  two  inllrumcnts  of  generation,  one 

*  is  feeble  and  inert ;  and  it  is  extremely  rare  that  both 

*  are  found  fufficiently  valid  and  proper  for  feats  of 

*  love  ;  nay,  even  in  a  great  many,  both  thefe  niem- 
«  bersaredeficicntandiinpotcui,  fo  that  they  can  pcr- 

*  form  the  office  neither  of  a  male  nor  of  a  female.' 

With  refpeft  to  thcra,  it  appears,  from  a  collation 
of  all  the  circumftances  which  have  been  obferved  by 
Bituraliftsworthyofcredit,  that  there  is  no  fuch  thing 
as  a  perfciSt  <?«i/rci^j';;f,  or  real  henuaphro<lite  ;  that 
is  to  fjy,  a  living  creature  which,  by  its  unnatural,  or 
rather  preternatural  flruclurc,  poirelfcs  the  genuine 
powers  of  both  fexes,  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  be  qua- 
lified for  performing  the  funflions  of  cither  with  fuc- 
ccfs  :  theirregularity  of  their  fabrication  almoll  always 
confifts  in  fomething  fuperfluous  added  to  one  of  the 
two  fexes,  which  gives  it  the  appearance  of  the  other, 
without  bellowing  the  real  and  charadleriltical  diftinc- 
lion  ;  and  every /'t-rw^z/'Aroi/z/^is  almoft  ahvsysa  very 
woman.  Since  this  monftrous  exhibition  of  nature  is 
not  fuch  as  to  abrogate  the  rights  or  deftroy  the  cha- 
laclcrof  humanity  amongft  human  beings,  this  invo- 
luntary misfortune  implies  no  right  to  deprive  thofe 
upon  whom  it  is  inflifled  by  nature,  of  the  privileges 
natural  to  e\ery  citizen;  and  this  deficiency  is  no 
more  infeflio.is  than  any  other  corporeal  iiiuiilation,  it 
is  noteafy  to  lee  why  marriage  (hould  be  prohibited  t© 
one  of  tiicfe  unhappy  beings,  merely  on  accmmt  of  its 
equivocal  appearance,  which  afls  in  the  char.ii^Ur  of  its 
prevailing  fex.  If  fuch  a  creature,  by  the  defect  of  its 
conftrud;ioii,  Ihould  be  barren  ;  this  does  not  infer  any 
light  of  diti'olving  ihe  marriage  which  it miy  have  con- 
trafted,  more  than  ihe  fame  fterility  prcict^ding  from 
any  caufe  whither  known  or  unknown,  if  his  or  her 
confort  IhoiiLl  not  on  that  account  require  a  divorce. 
It  is  only  the  licentious  abjfe  ciihcrofoiicor  the  other 
fex  which  can  be  fnbjeded  to  the  animadvtrlion  of 
the  police.  Sec  HERMArHRoniTE. 

Such  are  thcfcntinientsof  the  authors  of  the  French 
Encyclopedic.  After  all,  we  cannot  forbear  io  add, 
iliat  from  fiicli  lieterogenous  matches  luturc  fceras  to 
Vol.  I. 


recoil  with  innate  and  inextinguilhable  horror.  Nor  Anitn- 
arc  any  of  thefc  invinciljle  averfions  implanted  in  our  i{)i«. 
frame  without  a  final  caufe  worthy  of  i(s  Author.  We  Andro^. 
wouldgladly  aik  ihcfc  free-thinking  gentlemen,  in  ca-  °^^"'"  ,. 
fct  where  the  fexes  are  founnaturally  confounded,  liow 
the  police  can,  by  its  moft  fevcre  and  rigorous  ar.imad- 
verlions,  either  dete(it  or  prevent  thofelicentiousabufts 
againft  which  they  remonftrate.'  Since,  therefore,  aa 
evil  fo  baneful  to  human  fociety  could  no  oiherwife  be 
prevented  than  by  the  fandion  of  Natuie  againft  fuck 
horrible  conjundions,  the  inftiniltive  antipathy  which 
they  infpircwashiglilyworthyofherwifdom  and  purity. 
Anbrocynes,  in  ancient  mythology,  creatures  of 
whom,  accordingto  thefable,  each  individual  poirefled 
the  powers  and  charadcrs  of  both  fexes,  having  two 
heads,  four  arms  and  two  feet.  Tlic  word  itfelf  is 
compoundcdof  two  Greek  radical  words  ;  <aJvf,  in  ge- 
nitive mJ fo(,  a  Ma/e ;  and  -yv/),  i  female.  Many  of  the 
rabbinical  writers  pretend,  that  Adara  was  created 
double,  one  body  being  male,  the  other  female,  which 
in  their  origin  not  being  eircntially  joined,  God  after- 
wards did  nothing  but  fcparatc  them. 

The  gods,  fays  Plato  in  his  Banquet,  had  formed 
the  ftruflure  of  man  round,  with  two  bodies  and  two 
fexes.     This  fantaftic  being,  poli'elfing  in  itlelf  th« 
whole  human  fyftcm,  was  endowed  with  a  gigantic 
force,  which   rendered   it  Infolcnt,  infomuch  that  it 
refolved  to  make  war  againft  the  gods.  Jupiter,  exaf- 
perated,  was  going  to  deftroy  it;  but,  forry  at  the 
fame  time  toannihilate  the  human  race.he  fatisfied  him- 
felf  with  debilitating  this  double  being,  by  disjoining 
the  male  from  the  female,  and  leaving  each  liaif  to  fab- 
lift  with  its  own  powers  alone.     He  afligncd  to  Apollo 
the  talk  of  repolifliing  thefc  two  half  bodies,  and  of 
extending  their  Ikins  fo  that  their  whole  fur/ace  mi^ht 
be  covered.  Apollo  obeyed,  and  faftcncd  it  at  the  urn- 
bUicus:  If  this  half  Ihould  ftill  rebel,  it  was  once  more 
to  be  fubdivided  by  another  fedion,  which  wo-.ild  only 
leave  it  one  of  the  parts  of  which  it  was  then  conllitu- 
tcd  ;  and  even  this  fourth  of  a  man  was  to  be  annihi- 
lated, if  it  Ihould  perfift  in  itsobfliaacy  and  mifchicf. 
The  idea  of  thefc  androgynes  might  well  be  borrowed 
from  a  palTage  in  Mofcs,  where  that  hilluiian  of  the 
birih  and  infancy  of  nature  defcribes  Adam  as  calling 
Eve  bo'it  of  his  bone  2.n&fcfh  of  his  fie  fh.  However  this 
may  be,  thefable  of  Plato  has  been  ufed  with  great 
ingenuity  by  a  French  poet,  who  has  been  rendered  al- 
moil  as  confpicuous  by  his  misfortunes  as  by  his  verfes. 
With  the  ancimt  philofopher,  he  attributes  the  pro- 
pcnfity  which  attrads  one  of  the  fexes  towards  the 
other,  to  the  natural  ardor  which  each  h.Tlf  of  the 
a/idrogyinsiecX  for  reunion;  and  their  ir.conftancy,  to 
the  difficulty  which  each  of  the  fcparated  parts  eHcoun- 
ters  in  its  efforts  to  recover  its  proper  and  original 
half.     If  a  woman  appears  to  us  amiable,  we  inftantly 
imagine  her  to  be  that  moiety  wit ii  whom  we  IhoiilJ 
only  have  conftitutcd  one  whole,  iiad  it  not  been  for  the 
infolencc  of  our  original  double-fexcd  progeniior: 

The  heart,  with  fond  credulity  imprefs'J, 
Tells  us  the  half  is  found,  then  hopes  for  reft  ; 
But  'tis  our  curfe,  that  fad  experience  Ihows, 
We  neither  find  oar  half  nor  gain  repofe. 

ANDROGYNOUS,    in   zoology,   aa  appellaiioa 

given  to  animals  which  have  both  the  male  and  female 

5  H  fex 


AND 


[     794     J 


AND 


Androide*  fex  in  the  fame  individual.— In  botany,  the  term  is 

" '  applied  to  iuch  plants  as  bear  both  male  and  female 

flowers  on  ihc  fame  root. 

ANDROIDES,  in  mechanics,  a.  human  figure, 
which,  by  certain  fpriiigs  or  other  movements,  is  ca- 
pable of  performing  fome  of  the  natural  motions  of  a 
living  man.  The  motions  of  the  human  body  are  more 
complicated,  and  confequently  more  ditRcult  to  be  imi- 
tated, than  thofc  of  any  other  creature  ;  whence  the 
conftrudion  of  an  androijes,  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to 
imitate  any  of  thcfc  actions  with  tolerable  exadlnefs, 
is  juftly  fuppofed  to  indicate  a  greater  Ikill  in  mecha- 
nics than  any  other  piece  of  workmanfliip  whatever. 

A  very  remarkable  figure  of  this  kind  appeared  in 
Paris,  in  the  year  i  738.  It  reprefented  a  flute  player, 
and  was  capable  of  performing  many  diifertnt  pieces 
of  mulicon  the  German  Hute;  which,  confidcring  the 
•tifficulty  of  blowing  that  inftnimen  t,  the  ditfercnt  con- 
tradions  of  the  lips  neceffary  to  produce  the  diftinftions 
between  the  high  and  low  notes,  and  the  complicated 
motions  of  the  fingers,  mull  appear  truly  wonderful. 
This  machine  was  the  invention  of  M.  Vaucanfen, 
nemberof  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences;  and  a  par- 
ticular dcfcription  of  it  was  publilhed  in  the  Memoirs 
of  the  Academy  for  that  year. 

The  figure  itfelf  was  about  five  feet  and  an  half  in 
height,  fituated  at  the  end  of  an  artificial  rock,  and  pla- 
ced upon  a  fquare  pedeflal  four  feet  and  an  half  high 
and  three  and  an  half  broad.  The  air  entered  the  body 
by  three  pipes  feparated  one  from  the  other.     It  was 
conveyed  to  them  by  nine  pair  of  bellows,  three  of 
which  were  placed  above  and  fix  below.     Thefe  were 
made  to  expand  and  contraS  regularly  in  fucceflion,  by 
means  of  an  axisof  ileel  turned  round  by  fome  clock- 
work.    On  this  axis  were  ditfcrent  protuberances  at 
proper  diftances,  to  which  were  fixed  cords  thrown 
over  pullies,  and  terminating  in  the  upper  boards  of 
the  bellows,  fo  that,  as  the  axis  turned,  thefe  boards 
werealternatclyraifed  and  letdown.     A  contrivance 
was  alfoufed  to  prevent  the  difagrceable  hifling  flutter- 
ing noifc   ufually  attending  the    motion  of  bellows. 
This  was  by  making  the  cord,  by  wltich  the  bellows 
was  moved,  prefs  in  its  defcent,  upon  one  endofafmall- 
er  lever,  the  other  end  of  which  afcending  forced  open 
the  fmall  le;«thern  valve  that  admitted  the  air,  and  kept 
it  fo,  till,  the  cord  being  relaxed  by  the  defcent  of  the 
upper  board,  the  lever  fell,  and  the  air  was  forced  out. 
Thus  the  bellows  performed  their  funftions  conftant- 
ly  without  the  leaft  hifling  or  other  noife  by  which  it 
could  be  judged  in  what  manner  the  air  was  conveyed 
to   the    machine.     The  upper  boards  of  three  of  the 
pairs  of  bellows  were  preflcd  down  by  a  weight  of 
four  pouads,  thofe  of  three  others  by  a  weight  of  two 
pounds,  and  thofe  of  the  three  remaining  ones  by  no- 
thing but  their  own  weight. 

The  three  tubes,  by  which  the  air  entered,  termina- 
ted in  three  fmall  refervoirs  in  the  trunk  of  the  figure. 
There thty  united,  and,  afcendingtowardsthe  throat, 
formed  the  cavity  of  the  mouth,  which  terir.inated  in 
two  fmall  lips  adapred  in  fome  meafure  to  perform  their 
proper  funftions.  Within  this  cavity  alfo  was  a  fmall 
moveable  tongue  ;  which  by  its  play,  at  proper  periods, 
admitted  the  air,  or  intercepted  its  palFage  to  the  flute. 
The  fingers,  lips,  and  tongue,  received  their  pro- 
per direftionsby  means  of  a  Heel  cylinder  turned  by 


clock-work.  It  was  divided  into  1 5  equal  parts,  which  Androidti. 
by  means  of  pegs,  prclfing  upon  the  ends  of  1 5  ditt'er-  ^"v      < 
ent  levers, cauled  thcothcr  extremities  to  afcend.  Se- 
ven of  thefe  levers  direttcd  the^ingers,  having  wires 
andchains  fixed  to  their  afcending  extremities,  which 
being  attached  to  the  fingers,  cauled  them  to  afcend  in 
proportion  as  the  other  extremity  was  prelled  down  by 
the  motion  of  the  cylinder,  and  vii:e  verfa.    Thus  the 
afcent  or  defcent  of  one  end  of  a  lever  produced  a  limi- 
lar  afcent  or  defcent  in  the  correfponding  finger,  by 
which  one  of  the  holes  of  the  flute  was  occafionally 
opened  or  flopped,  as  by  a  living  performer.    Three 
of  the  levers  fervcd  to  regulate  the  ingrefs  of  the  air, 
being  contrived  fo  as  to  open  and  Ihut,  by  means  of 
valves,  the  three  refervoirs  of  air  abovemcinioncd,  fo 
that  moreor  Icfsftrength  might  be  given,  and  a  higher 
or  lower  note  produced  as  occalion  required.    The  lips 
were  by  a  limilar  niechanifm,  directed  by  four  levers, 
one  of  which  opened  them,  to  give  the  air  a  freer  paf- 
fage  ;  the  other  contradted  them  ;  the  third  drew  them 
backward  ;  and  the  fourth  puflied  them  forward.  The 
lips  were  projected  upon  that  part  of  the  flute  which 
receives  the  air  ;  and,  by  the  different  motions  alrea- 
dy mentioned,  modified  the  tone  in  a  proper  manner. 
The  remaining  lever  was  employed  in  the  direction 
of  the  tongue,  which  it  eafily  moved,  fo  as  to  Ihut  or 
open  the  mouth  of  the  flute. 

Thus  we  fee  how  all  the  motions  neceflary  for  a 
German-flute-player  could  be  performed  by  this  ma- 
chine ;  butaconfiderable  difficulty  flill  remains,  name- 
ly, how  to  regulate  thefe  motions  properly,  and  make 
each  of  them  follow  injuft  fuccefTion.  This,  however, 
was  effedcd  by  the  following  fimple  method.  The 
extremity  of  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  was  terminated  oa 
the  right  lid*  by  an  endlefsfcrew,  confining  of  twelve 
threads,  each  placed  at  the  diftance  of  a  line  and  an 
half  from  the  other.  Above  this  fcrew  was  fixed  a 
piece  of  copper,  and  in  it  a  fleel  pivot,  which,  falling 
in  between  the  threads  of  the  fcrew,  obliged  the  cy- 
liniier  to  follow  the  threads,  and,  inflead  of  turning 
dircftly  round,  it  was  continually  pufhedto  one  fide. 
Hence,  if  a  lever  was  moved,  by  a  peg  placed  on  the 
cylinder  in  any  one  revolution,  it  could  not  be  moved 
by  the  fame  peg  in  the  fucceeding  revolution, becaufc 
the  peg  would  be  moved  a  line  and  a  half  beyond  it 
by  the  lateral  motion  of  the  cylinder.  Thus,  by  an  ar- 
tificial difpofition  of  thefe  pegs  in  different  parts  of 
the  cylinder,  the  ftatue  was  made,  by  the  fuccefTivc 
elevation  of  the  proper  levers,  to  exhibit  all  the  differ- 
ent motions  of  a  flute-player,  to  the  admiration  of  eve- 
ry one  who  faw  it. 

The  conftrudion  of  machines  capable  of  imitating 
even  the  mechanical  anions  of  the  human  body,  fliow 
cxquifite  flcill ;  but  what  fhall  we  fay  of  one  capable, 
not  only  of  imitating  actions  of  this  kind,  but  of  aiJling 
as  external  circumflances  require,  as  though  it  were 
endowed  with  life  and  reafon  ?  This,  neverihelefs, 
has  been  done.  M.  de  Kempclon,  agentleman  of  Pref- 
burg  in  Hungary,  excited  by  the  performances  of  M. 
de  Vancanfon,  at  firll  endeavoured  to  imitate  them, 
and  at  laft  far  excelled  them.  This  gentleman  con- 
flrudcd  an  AndroiJes  capable  of  playing  at  chefs  ! — 
Everyone  who  is  in  the  leaft  acquainted  with  this  game 
muftknow,  that  it  is  fo  far  from  being  mechanically 
performed,  as  to  require  a  greater  exertion  of  the  judg- 
ment 


AND 


Androide?.  ment  and  rational  faculties  than  is  fufiicient  to  accom- 
•* — w— — '  piifli  many  matters  of  greater  importance.  An  attempt 
therefore,  to  make  a  wooden  chefs-player,  muft  appear 
as  ridiculous  as  to  make  a  wooden  preacher  or  coun- 
fcllor  of  Aatc.  That  this  machine  really  was  made, 
however,  the  public  have  had  ocular  dcmonftration. 
The  inventor  went  to  Britain  in  1 783,  where  he  re- 
mained above  a  year  with  his  automaton. 

It  is  a  figure  as  large  at  life,  in  a  Turkifli  drcfs,  fit- 
ting behind  a  table  with  doors,  of  three  feet  and  a  half 
in  length,  two  in  depth,  and  two  and  a  half  in  height. 
The  chair  on  which  it  fits  is  fixed  to  the  table,  which 
runs  on  four  wheels.  The  automaton  leans  its  right 
arm  on  the  table,  and  in  its  left  hand  holJs  a  pipe: 
with  this  hand  it  plays  after  the  pipe  is  removed.  A 
chefs-board  of  18  inches  is  fixed  before  it.  This  table, 
or  rather  cupboard,  contains  wheels,  levers,  cylinders, 
and  other  pieces  ef  mechanifni ;  all  which  are  publicly 
difplayed.  The  veftments  of  the  automaton  arc  then 
lifted  over  its  head,  and  the  body  is  feen  full  of  fimilar 
wheels  and  levers.  There  is  a  little  door  in  its  thigh, 
which  is  likewife  opened  ;  and  with  this,  and  the  table 
alfo  open,  and  the  automaton  nnmvered,  the  whole  is 
wheeled  about  the  room.  The  doors  arc  then  Ihut, 
»nd  the  automaton  is  ready  to  play  ;  and  it  always 
takes  the  firft  move. 

At  every  motion  the  wheels  arc  heard  ;  the  image 
moves  its  head,  and  looks  over  every  part  of  the  chefs- 
board.  When  it  checks  the  queen,  it  (hakes  its  head 
twice,  and  thrice  in  giving  check  to  the  king.  It 
likewife  fliakes  its  head  when  a  falfc  move  is  made,  re- 
places the  piece,  and  makes  its  own  move  ;  by  which 
means  the  advcrfary  lofes  one. 

M.  de  Kempclen  remarks,  as  the  moft  furprifing  cir- 
cumftance  attending  his  automaton,  that  it  had  been 
exhibited  at  Prefburg,  Vienna,  Paris,  and  London,  to 
thoufands,  many  of  whom  were  mathematicians  and 
chefs-players,  and  yet  the  fccret  by  which  he  governed 
the  motion  of  its  arm  was  never  difcovercd.  He  prided 
himfelf  folely  on  the  conftruiflion  of  the  mechanical 
powers, by  which  the  arm  could  perform  ten  or  twelve 
nioves.  It  then  required  to  be  wound  up  like  a  watch, 
after  which  it  was  capable  of  continuing  the  fame  num- 
b,er  of  motions. 

The  automaton  could  not  play  unlcfs  M.  de  Kcm- 
pekn  or  his  fubftitute  was  near  it  to  direct  its  moves. 
A  finall  fquare  box,  during  the  game,  was  frequently 
confulted  by  the  cxhibiter;  and  herein  confiftcd  the 
fccret,  which  he  faid  he  could  in  a  moment  commu- 
nicate. He  who  could  beat  M.  de  Kempclen  was, 
of  courfe,  certain  of  conquering  the  automaton.  It 
was  made  in  1 769.  His  own  account  of  it  was  ; 
'<  C'efl  une  bagatelle  qui  n'eft  pas  fans  meritc  du  cote 
du  mechanifme,  miis  les  effets  n'en  paroilfent  fi  mer- 
Yclleux  que  par  la  harJieflc  de  Pidee,  &  par  I'hcurcux 
choiz  dcz  moyens  employes  pour  faire  illufion." 

The  llrongeft  and  bed-armed  loadllonc  was  allowed 
to  be  placed  on  the  machine  by  any  of  the  fpeftators. 

As  the  inventor  of  this  admirable  piece  of  mechanifm 
hath  not  yet  thought  proper  to  communicate  to  the 
public  the  means  by  which  it  is  actuated,  it  is  in" vain 
for  any,  except  thofe  who  are  exquifitely  Ikilled  in  me- 
chanics, to  form  conjectures  concerning  them Many 

other  curious  imitations  of  the  human  body,  as  well  as 
ibitofotlieranJmalSjhavcbeen  exhibited,  thoughnonc 


r  795  ] 


AND 


See  t'r.r  ar-  AnJroIcffy 


of  them  equal  to  the  laft  mentioned  o«ic. 
tide  At;TOMATON. 

ANDROLEPSY,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  an  afiion  Andram«. 
allowed  by  the  Athenians  againft  fuch  as  protected  .  ^^  . 
perfonsguilty  of  murder.  The  relations  ofthcdccca- 
fcd  were  empowered  to  feize  three  men  in  the  city  or 
houfe  whether  the  makfador  had  ficd,  till  he  were  ei- 
ther furrendered,  or  fatisfaftion  made  fome  way  or 
other  for  the  murder. 

ANDROMACHE,  the  wife  of  the  valiant  HeAor, 
the  mother  of  Aftyanax,  and  daughter  of  Eton  kiti<T 
of  Thebes  in  Cilicia.  After  the  death  of  Heflor  and 
the  dcArudtion  of  Troy,  (lie  married  Pyrrhus  ;  and  af- 
terwards Helcnus  the  fon  of  Pri.im,  with  whom  flic 
reigned  over  part  of  Epirus. 

ANDROMEDA,  in  aftronoray,  a  northern  con- 
ftcUation,  behind  Pcgafus,  Cainopcia,  and  Perfeus.  It 
reprefenis  the  figure  of  a  woman  chained  j  and  is 
fabled  to  have  been  formed  in  memory  of  Andromeda, 
daughter  of  Cepheus  and  CalTiopeia,  and  wife  of  Pcr- 
feusjby  whom  Ihehad  been  delivered  froma  fea-monfler, 
to  which  Ihe  had  been  cxpofed  to  be  devoured  for  her 
mother's  pride.  Minerva  tranflatedherinto  the  heavens. 

The  flars  in  the  conllellation  Andromeda  in  Ptole- 
my's catalogue  arc  23,  in  Tycho's  22,  in  Bayer's  27, 
in  Mr  Flamftead's  no  lefs  than  84. 

Andromeda,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  tragedy  of 
Euripides,  admired  by  the  ancients  above  all  the  other 
compofitions  of  that  poet,  but  now  loft. 

It  was  the  reprefentation  of  this  play,  in  a  hot  fum- 
mer  day,  that  occafioncd  that  epidemic  fever,  or  phren- 
zy,  for  which  the  AbJeritcs  arc  often  mentioned, 
wherein  they  walked  about  the  ftreets,  rche«rfing 
verfes,  and  ading  parts  of  this  piece.     See  Aedera. 

Andromeda,  or  Marjh  Cyjius  :  A  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  belonging  to  the  decandria  clafs  of 
plants ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  under  the 
rSth  order,  Bicornes.  The  charafters  are  :  The  calyx 
is  a  quinquepartite  perianthium,  fmall,  coloured,  and 
perfiftcnt :  The  corolla  is  monopetalous,  campaniilated, 
and  quinquefid,  with  refleaed  divifions:  The /lamina 
confill  often  fubulatcd  filaments,  Ihortcr  than  the  co- 
rolla ;  the  antheras  two-horned  and  nodding  :  The^i- 
flillum  has  a  roundilh  germen  :  a  cylindrical  ilylus  lar- 
ger than  the  ftamina,  and  perfiftcnt ;  and  an  obtufc 
ftigma:  The  pericarpium  is  a  roundilh  fivc-cornerej 
capfule,  with  five  cells  and  five  valves  :  The  faJt 
arc  very  numerous,  roundilh,  and  glofly. 

Spiciii.  I.  The  polifolia  is  a  low  plant,  growing 
naturally  in  bogs  in  the  northern  countries.  It  is  di^ 
ficultly  prefcrved  in  gardens  ;  and,  being  a  plant  of  no 
great  beauty,  is  feldom  cultivated.  2.  The  mariana,  a 
native  of  North  America.  It  is  a  low  Ihrub,  fending 
out  many  woody  ftalks  from  the  root,  which  are  gar- 
niilied  with  oval  leaves  placed  alternately  ;  the  llowers 
are  coUctJled  in  fmall  bunches,  are  of  an  herbaceous  co- 
lour.and  Ihapedlike  thofeofthc  ftrawberry-tree.  They 
appear  in  June  and  July.  5.  The  paniculaia*  is  a  na- 
tive of  Virginia  and  Carolina,  growing  in  nioiftpLices.  *  ^'a,. 
The  pl.intsufually  arrive  at  the  height  often  feet,  with  vyxi 
thin  leaves  fet  alternately,  and  having  their  edges  fine-  fi-  1.' 
ly  ferrated.  The  flowers  are  lubulous,  fmall,  and  of 
a  greenilh  white,  clofely  fet  horizontally  on  one  fide  of 
the  (lender  ftalks.  Thefe  flowers  are  faccceded  by  ber- 
ries, which  open  when  ripe;  and  divide  into  five  fcc- 
5  H  2  lions. 


AND 


[     796    ] 


AND 


.Andromedt  lion's,  inctofing  many  finall  feeds.     4.  The  arborca  is 

II         a  naiivc  of  the  fame  countries,  where  it  is  called  the 

AnJrona.  forrcl-tret.     It  grows  to  the  height  of  20  feet,  with  a 

"       " trunk  lifiially  live  or  llx  inches  thick.     The  branches 

arellenJcr,  thick  let  with  leaves  like  thofcofthcpear- 
tice.  Kroni  the  ends  of  the  brajichcs  proceed  many 
/lender  ftalks,  on  one  fide  of  which  hang  m-iny  fmall 
w  hitc  flowers  like  thofc  of  the  luawbcrry-irce.  j.Tiic 
calyculata,isana[ivcof  Siberia,  and  like  wife  of  North- 
>^n.erica.  It  grows  on  mofi'y  land,  and  is  therefore 
very  diiScult  to  keep  in  gardens.  The  leaves  ire  flia- 
ped  like  thcfc  cf  the  box-tree,  and  arc  of  the  fame  con- 
fif^ence,  having  fcvcral  fmall  puncturcson  them.  The 
flowers  grow  in  fliort  fpikes  froin  the  extremity  of  the 
branches.  T'aey  arc  produced  fingle  between  two 
leaves,  are  of  a  white  colour,  and  a  cylindrical  or 
pichtr-like  fiiape.     There  are  ten  other  fpecles. 

Prcfiagation  a'ld  Culture.  All  the fe  forts,  except 
four,  are  hardy  plants.  The  fourth  fpccics  requires 
to  be  fhtltered  from  froft  in  winter,  but  iti  the  fummcr 
fliould  be  frequently  watered. 

The  above  plants  fucceed  bell  upon  boggy  and  moifl 
grounds.  'Von  muft  procure  the  feeds  from  the  places 
w  here  they  grow  naturally  ;  a  year  before  which  a 
boggy  or  the  moiftcit  part  of  your  garden  Ihould  be 
du<r,  and  the  roots  of  all  weeds  cleareil  off.  As  the  weeds 
begin  to  rife,  fo  conftantly  flioald  the  ground  be  again 
dug,  and  fea  or  drift  fand  fliould  be  plentifully  mixed 
with  the  natural  foil.  By  this  management  till  the 
feeds  arrive,  the  ground  being  made  tolerably  fine,  the 
feeds  fliouldbe  lown  very  fliallowin  the  moilt  or  boggy 
land  ;  or  if  the  land  fhould  be  fo  boggy  that  it  cannot 
be  eafily  worked  fo  as  to  be  proper  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  feeds,  then  let  a  futncient  quantity  of  foil 
from  a  frelh  pafture,  mixed  with  drift  fand,  be  laid 
over  the  bog,  and  let  the  feeds  be  fown  therein.  The 
bog  will  in  time  abforb  this  foil,  but  the  feeds  will 
come  up  ;  and  this  is  the  niofl  ef{'e<5lual  method  of 
procuring  plants  of  this  kind  from  feeds.  The  firft 
year  after  they  come  up  they  fhould  be  Ihaded  in  very 
hot  weather  :  and  after  that  they  will  require  little  or 
no  care.  Another  method  of  increafing  tliefc  ihrubs 
is  by  layers  or  fuckers  ;  fo  that  whoever  has  not  the 
conveniencyof  procuring  the  feeds  from  abroad,  Ihould 
get  a  plant  or  two  of  the  forts  he  mo/l  likes.  Thcfe 
he  (hould  plant  in  a  boggy  fitnation,  and  in  a  very 
little  time  he  w  ill  have  increafe  enough ;  for  they  throw 
cut  fuckers  in  prodigious  plenty,  and,  if  they  like  the 
fituation,  to  a  great  diftance.  Thefe  may  be  taken 
oiF,  and  planted  where  they  are  to  remain. 

ANDK.ON,  ill  Grecian  antiquity,  denotes  the  a- 
partment  in  hojfcs  dcfigned  for  the  ufc  of  men  ;  in 
which  fenfe  it  flands  oppofed  to  Cynxceum — The 
Creeks  alfo  gave  their  dining-rooms  the  title  of  au- 
dron,  becaufc  the  women  had  no  admittance  to  feafts 
with  the  men. 

ANDRONA,  in  ancient  writers,  denotes  a  ftreet, 
or  public  place,  v.'here  pcoi;le  met  andconverfcd  t»^e- 
ther.  In  fume  writers,  androna  is  more  exprelsly 
nfed  for  the  fpace  between  two  houfcs ;  in  which 
fenfe,  the  Greeks  alfo  ufe  the  term  iirJf««,  for  the 
way  or  palfage  between  two  apartments. 

Andkona  isalfoufed,  in  ecclefiafiical  writers,  for 
that  part  in  churches  deftined  for  the  men.  Anciently 
it  was  the  cuftom  for  the  men  and  women  to  have  fepa- 


rste  apartments  in  places  of  worfhip,  where  they  per-  Andreeini 
formed  their  devotions  afunder  ;  which  method  is  Hill       •  tl 
religioully  oblerved  in  the  Greek  church.    The  «/.«,     Androi. 
or  <«'.-^r6«a,  wasin  thcfouthcrn  fide  of  the  church,  and  ^~~~''~~' 
the  womens  apartment  on  the  northern. 

ANDKONICUS  1.  ilmperor  of  the  Eift,  caufcd 
Alexius  II.  who  had  been  put  under  bis  care,  to  be 
Itrangled  ;  and  then  took  poiiellion  of  the  throne  of 
Conllantinople  in  1183  :  but  the  people  becoming  ex- 
.ifpcrated  a  this  cruellies,  proclaimed  Ifaac  .^ngchis  em- 
peror, and  put  Andronicus  in  irons  :  they  then  ihruit 
out  his  eyes  ;  and,  having  led  him  throuj^h  the  city  in 
an  ignominious  manner,  hanged  him. 

AsuRONicvs  of  Cyiihus,  built  at  Athens  an  oftagon 
tower,  with  figures  carved  on  each  lidc,  rcprcfeniing 
the  eight  principal  winds.  A  brafs  triton  at  the  furn- 
mit,  with  a  rod  in  its  hand,  turned  round  by  the  w  ind, 
pointed  to  the  quarter  from  whence  it  blew.  Iroin 
this  model  is  derived  the  cufloni  of  placing  weather- 
cocks on  fieeples. 

ANDROPHAGI,  in  ancient  geography,  the  name 
of  a  nation  whofe  country,  according  to  Hcrodo:us, 
was  adjacent  10  Scythia.  Their  name,  compounded  of 
two  Greek  words,  lignifies  man-cattn.  Iierodotus 
does  not  inform  us  whether  their  manner  of  fubfiliing 
correfponded  w  ith  their  name  ;  whether  thty  were  fo 
favage  as  to  eat  human  /Iclli.  See  the  article  Ah- 
THRoporHAGl.  They  are  repiefentcd,  however, as 
the  raoft  barbarous  and  fierce  of  all  nations.  '1  hey 
were  not  governed  by  laws:  the  care  of  their  cattle 
was  their  chief  employment.  Their  drefs  was  like 
that  of  the  Scythians;  and  they  had  a  language  pe- 
culiar to  themfelves. 

ANDROPOGON,  or  Man's-beard,  in  bouny  : 
A  genus  of  the  monoecia  order,  belonging  to  the  po- 
lygamia  clafs  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  ranking  un- 
der the  4th  order,  Cramina.  Tht hermaphrodite  caly;^ 
is  a  one-flowered  bivalved  glume:  The  corolla  is  a 
bivalved  glume  awn'd  at  thebifs:  The  J; ami n a  tontid 
of  three  capillary  filaments;  the  anthcrje  are  oblong 
and  bifurcated:  The  pH':ulutii  has  an  oval  .gcrmen  ; 
with  twocapillary  fty li  coalefccd, and  villous  ltigm.ita : 
There  is  no  peruarfium  :  The  feed  is,  one,  folitary, 
and  covered.  The  juate  calyx,  corolla,  and  flamina, 
the  fame  with  the  hermaphrodite  ;  but  the  corolla 

without  the  awn There  are  above  18  fpecies.     Of 

thcfe  the  moft  remarkable  is  the  nardns,  which  produ- 
ces the  Indian  nard  or  fpikcnard  of  the  (hops.  The 
fpikenard,  as  brought  from  the  Eaft  Indies,  is  a  con- 
geries of  fmall  fibres  iffuing  from  one  head,  and  mat- 
ted clofe  together,  fo  as  to  form  a  bunch  about  the  fizc 
of  the  finger,  with  fome  fmall  firings  at  the  oppofite 
end  of  the  head.  The  matted  fibres  (w^hich  are  the 
parts  chofen  for  medicinal  purpofes)  are  fuppofed  by 
fome  to  be  the  head  or  fpike  of  the  plant,  by  oihers 
the  root :  they  feem  rather  to  be  the  remains  of  the 
withered  llalks.  or  the  ribs  of  tlie  leaves:  fometimes 
entire  leaves  and  pieces  of  flalks  arc  found  among 
them  :  we  likewife  now  and  then  meet  with  a  n.imber 
of  thefe  bunches  iffuing  from  one  root.  Spikenard 
has  a  warm,  pungent,  bittcrilh  tafie  ;  and  a  ilron,';  not 
very  agreeable  fmcll.  It  is  ftomachic  and  carmina- 
tive ;  and  faid  to  be  alexipharmac,  diuretic,  and  em- 
menagogue  ;  but  at  prefcnt  it  is  very  little  employed. 

ANDROS,  one  of  the  ancient  Cyclades,  lying  be- 
tween 


AND 


Ainlrof.  tw^cn  Tcncdo!  and  Euboea :  being  one  mile  difiant 
■: — ^ '  from  the  former,  and  len  from  the  latter.  The  an- 
cients gave  it  various  names,  viz.  Cauros,  Lylia,  Ko- 
Bagria,  Epagris,  Ar.tandros,  and  Hydrulia.  The 
name  of  jlndrn  it  received  from  one  Andrciis,  ap- 
pointed, according  to  Diodorus  Siciilus,  Ly  llhada- 
manthus,  oneof  the  generals,  to  govern  ihcCyclades, 
after  they  had  of  their  own  accord  fabmittcd  toliiai. 
As  to  the- name  o{  Antandrm,  the  fame  a-.thor  tells 
us,  that  Afcaniiis  the  Ion  of /tneas,  being  taken  pri- 
foner  by  the  Pclifgians,  gave  them  this  illand  for  his 
ranfoni,  which  on  that  account  was  called  Ahtandroi, 
or  "  delivered  for  one  man."  The  name  of  Hydrufia 
it  obtain!.  J  in  common  with  other  places  wellfupplicd 
wiih  water.  It  had  formerly  a  city  of  great  note, 
bearing  the  fame  name,  and  lituatcti  very  advanta- 
groiidy  on  the  brow  of  an  hill  which  commanded  the 
whole  coaft.  In  this  city,  according  to  Strabo  and 
Pliny,  flood  a  famous  temple  dedicated  to  Bacchus. 
Near  this  temple  JViutianus,  as  quoted  by  Pliny,  tells 
us,  there  was  a  (pring  called  ihegiji  of  Jripitsr  ;  the 
water  of  which  had  the  tafle  of  wine  in  the  month  of 
January,  duriiigihcfeaft  of  Bacchus,  which  lafled  fe- 
ven  days.  The  lame  author  adds,  that  the  waters,  if 
carried  lo  a  place  where  the  temple  could  not  be  fecn, 
loft  their  miraculous  tafle.  Paufanius  makes  no  men- 
tion of  this  fpring  ;  but  fays,  that,  during  the  feaftof 
Bacchus,  wine  liowed,  or  was  at  Icaft  by  theAndrians 
btlifvcd  to  flow,  from  the  temple  of  that  god.  The 
prieils,  no  doubt,  found  their  account  in  keeping  up 
this  belief,  by  conveying,  through  fecret  conduits,  a 
great  quantity  of  wine  into  the  temple. 

TheAndritns  were  theiirft  of  all  thcillandtrs  who 
joined  the  Perfians  at  the  time  Xerxes  invaded  Greece ; 
and  therefore  Themiftocles,  after  the  victory  at  Sa- 
lamis,  rcfolved  to  attack  thecityofAndros,  and  oblige 
the  inhabitants  to  pay  large  contributions  for  the  main- 
tenance of  his  fleet.  Having  landed  his  men  on  the 
illand,  he  fcnt  heralds  to  the  magillrates,  acquainting 
ihem,  that  the  Athenians  were  coming  againft  them 
with  two  powerful  divinities, ^er/a.i^/o«  znijorcs  ;  and 
therefore  they  muft  part  with  their  money  by  fair 
means  or  foul.  The  Andrians  replied,  tlwt  they  like- 
V/ife  had  two  mighty  deities  who  were  very  fond  of 
their  illand,  viz. />ot/^r/;  and  i>i:pojftbitity ;  and  therefore 
could  give  no  money.  Themilloclcs,  not  fatisfied  with 
this  anfwer,  laid  fiege  to  the  town  ;  which  he  probably 
made  himfelf  mafler  of  and  deftroyed,  as  we  are  in- 
formed by  Plutarch,  that  Pericles,  a  few  years  after, 
fent  thither  a  colony  of  250  Athenians.  It  was,  how- 
ever, foon  retaken  by  the  Perlians  ;  and,  on  the  over- 
throw of  that  empire  by  Alexander  the  Great,  fubmit- 
led  to  him,  along  with  the  other  illands.  On  his  death 
it  fideil  with  Antigonus,  who  was  driven  out  by  Ptole- 
my. The  fuccelTors  of  the  laft  mentioned  prince  held 
it  to  the  time  of  the  Romans;  when  Attalus,  king  of 
Perganius,  bedeged  tlie  metropolis  at  the  head  of  a 
Roman  army  ;  and,  having  taken  it,  was  b;^  them  put 
In  pofl'tfiion  of  the  whole  illand.  Upon  the  death  of 
Attains,  the  republic  claimed  this  i:land,  as  well  as  his 
other  dominions,  in  virtue  of  his  laft  will. 

Andros  is  now  fubject  to  the  Turks  ;  and  contains  a 
town  ef  the  fame  name,  with  a  great  many  villages.  It 
is  the  moft  fruitful  iiland  in  all  the  lArcliipelago,  and 
yields  a  great  quautity  of  filk.     Tlierc  are  faid  to  be 


[    797     ] 


AND 


about  6cooinhabitanis,bcGdc5thofeof  the  villagesArri  Androt, 
and  AmolJeos,  whoare  aLaut  two  hundred,  have  a  dif-  II 
fcrent  language  and  cuftoms,  and  are  called  jitianoii.  ■*"''""«• 
There  are  vmonaftcries,  a  great  number  of  churches,  '  — ■ 
and  a  catbedril  for  the  biihops  of  the  Roman  catholic 
perfuaiiou  ;  but  raoftoftbe  inhabitants  are  oftheGreek 
communion.  The  Jefuiis  had  a  houfeand  a  chnrch  ux 
this  ifland  ;  but  they  were  forced  to  quit  them  long 
ago.  Here  arc  fome  delightful  valleys;  but  the  air  is 
bad,  and  the  water  of  the  city  worfc.  The  worntii 
would  be  agreeable  enough,  if  it  was  not  for  theirdrefs, 
which  is  very  unbecoming ;  lor  they  fluff  out  their 
clothes  without  thcleaft  regard  to  their  fliape  ;  but  the 
Albancfe  woraeumakc  amucli  better  appearance.  Tho 
pcafantsmake  wicker-balkct^,  wherewith  they  fapply 
the  grcatcft  part  of  the  Archipelago.  They  have  all 
forts  of  game  i.i  the  woods  and  mountains,  but  know 
nut  how  to  take  them  for  want  of  guns.  Their  prin- 
cipal food  is  goats  fleih  ;  for  there  is  co  fiQi  to  be  met 
with  on  their  coafls.  When  they  are  fick,  they  are  ob- 
liged to  let  the  difeafe  take  its  natural  courfe,  having 
neither  phylician  nor  furgcon  on  the  irtand.  A  cadi, 
allifted  by  a  few  of  the  principal  perfons  of  theidand, 
has  the  man.igenient  of  civil  affairs,  and  his  relideucc 
is  it!  the  caflle  :  an  aga,  who  preliJes  over  the  military 
force,  lives  in  the  tower  without  the  city.  About  twtf 
miles  from  theprefent  town  arcftill  to  be  feen  the  ruins 
of  a  ftrong  wall  with  the  fragments  of  many  colur.-.ns, 
chapiters,  bafes,  broken  ftatucs,  and  fevcral  iufcrip- 
tions,  fome  of  which  mention  the  fcnate  and  people  of 
Andros,  and  the  prieils  of  Bacchus  ;  from  which  it  is 
probable  that  this  was  the  lite  of  the  ancient  city.  E. 
Long   2  J.  50.  N.Lat.  37.50. 

ANDROS  ^anc.  gcog.),  an  ifland  in  the  Iriih  fea, 
(Pliny),  czWcCi  Htdros  by  Ptolemy:  Kow  Bardjej, 
diftint  about  a  mile  from  the  coaft  of  North-Wales. 

ANDROSACE:  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order, 
belonging  to  the  pentandria  clafs  of  plants;  and  in  the 
natural  method  ranking  under  the  21II  order.  Precis. 
The  elfential  characters  are,  Tiie  male  calyx  is  tive- 
Icaved;  the  corolla  is  five-pcialed;  the  ftamina  are  live, 
inferted  in  the  rudiment  of  the  flylus:  T\\e  female  a- 
lyxis  flve-leaved;  the  corolla  is  wantii^g  ;  theftyli  arc 
three;  the  capfule  is  trilocular;  the  feeds  arc  two. 
of  this  genus  Dr  Linnxus  reckons  fi.x. 

Species,  i.  The  maxima  grows  naturally  in  Auflria 
and  Bohemia,  among  the  corn.  It  hath  broad  leaves, 
wl;ich  fpread  near  the  ground  ;  from  the  cemreofthefc 
the  footllalksarife,  which  are  terminated  by  an  umbel 
of  white  flowers  like  tbofe  of  the  auricula.  Thcfe  ap- 
pear in  April  and  May,  and  the  feeds  ripen  in  June  ; 
foon  after  which  the  plants  periili.  2.  The  fcptentrio- 
nalis,viilora,  carnea,  and  laclea,  grow  naturally  on  the 
Alps  .ind  Helvetian  mount.iins,  as  alfo  in  Siberia.  They 
are  much  fmaller  than  the  former,  (eldom  growing 
more  than  three  inches  high.  Of  the  other  fpccies 
called  the  ekiigat3,^e  have  no  particular  defcription. 

Culture.  Thcfe  plants  arc  propagated  by  feeds, 
which  Ihould  be  fown  f)on  after  they  are  ripe,  other- 
wife  they  feldom  conic  up  the  fame  year.  If  per- 
mitted to  fcatier,  they  will  grow  better  than  whca 
they  are  fown. 

ANDRUM,  a  kind  of  hydrocele,  to  which  the  peo- 
ple of  Malabar  are  very  fu'.-jed. —  Its  origin  is  derived 
from  the  viiious  ^iiiaiiiy  of  ibc  country  waters,  imprc};- 

catcJ 


AND 


[    798    1 


A  N  E 


Andryali  nated  with  corrofive  muriatic  falts,  thcfource  of  mod 
II         other  difcafcs  that  infcd  the  Malabarians.    Its  (igns, 
Anduzc.    oj.  fyinptonis,  arc  aiierylipclas  of  the  fcrotum,  rttuni- 
'       "'       '  ing  every  new  moon,  by  which  the  lymphatics,  being 
eroded,  pour  a  ferous  falinc  liumourinto  the  cavity  of 
the  fcrotum.     The  andrum  is  incurable  j   thofe  once 
feized  with  it  have  it  for  life  :  but  if  is  not  dangerous, 
nor  very  troublcfoinc,  to  thofcufed  to  it  ;  tho'  foiue- 
limes  it  degenerates  into  an  hydrofarcocele.  The  me- 
thod of  prevention  is  by  a  heapof  fund  fetched  from  a 
liver  of  the  province  Mangatti,   and  ftrewed  in  the 
wells.  This  is  praftifed  by  the  rich.  As  to  the  cure, 
they  have  only  a  palliative  one  ;  which  is  by  incifion, 
or  tapping,  and  drawing  off  the  water  from  the  fcro- 
tum, once  in  a  month  or  two. 

ANDRYALA,  downy  sow-thistlf.  :  .igenusof 
the  polygamia  Kqualis  order,  belonging  to  the  fyngc- 
nefia  clafs  of  plants  ;  and  in  the  natural  method  rank- 
ing under  the  Ji<)ih.order,Co»jpoJita-femifio/cu/uj.Thc 
eflcntial  charaders  are  :  The  receptacle  is  villous  ;  the 
calyx  is  many  parted,  fubequal,  and  rounded  ;  and  the 
pappus  is  fimple  and  felhle. 

S[>;cies.  i.  Theintegrifolia  is  an  annual  plant, grow- 
ing naturally  in  the  fouth  of  France,  Spain,  and  Italy. 
It  rifes  to  the  height  of  a  foot  and  an  half,  with  woolly 
branching  ftalks.  The  flowers  are  produced  in  fmall 
dufters  ai  the  topof  the  flalks.  They  arc  yellow, 
and  like  thsfe  of  the  fow-ihiftle ;  fo  do  not  make  any 
great  appearance.  2.  The  ragufina  is  a  native  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  leaves  are  extremely  white, 
and  much  indented  on  their  edges.  The  flower-Ilalks 
grow  about  a  foot  high, having  fmall  cluflers  of  yellow 
flowers,  which  appear  in  July.  The  feeds  fometiraes 
ripen  in  Britain,  but  not  always.  3.  The  lanata  is  a 
native  of  Sicily  and  of  the  country  round  Montpelier. 
The  lower  leaves  are  indented  and  woolly,  but  thofe 
on  the  flalks  are  entire.  It  fcldom  rifcs  more  than  a 
foot  high,  fupporting  a  few  yellow  flowers  at  top.  4. 
The  finuata  grows  in  Spain  and  Portugal :  the  leaves 
are  broader,  longer,  and  more  downy,  thaneitherof 
.  the  other  forts  ;  the  flower-flalks  rifing  more  than  a 

foot  high.  They  branch  into  feveral  foot-flalks,  each 
fuftaining  one  large  yellow  flower,  thapcd  like  thofe 
of  hawk-weed,  which  arc  fucceedcd  by  oblong  black 
feeds  covered  with  down. 

Culture.  All  thefe  plants  are  eafily  propagated  by 
feeds, which  (liould  be  fown  in  autumn,  wliere  they  are 
to  remain,  and  will  require  no  other  culture  than  to 
thin  them  where  they  are  too  clofc,  and  to  keep  them 
free  from  weeds.  The  third  fort  mufl  have  a  light 
dry  foil. 

ANDUXAR,  a  city  in  the  province  of  Andalufia, 
in  Spain,  feated  on  the  river  Guadalquiver,  25  miles 
eafl  of  Cordova.  It  is  pretty  large,  indifTcrently  rich, 
and  defended  by  a  good  caflle.  It  is  adorned  with 
handfome  churches  and  feveral  religious  houfes,  and 
inhabited  by  many  families  of  high  rank.  The  land 
about  it  abounds  in  corn,  wine,  oil,  honey,  and  fruit 
of  all  forts  i  and  the  inhabitants  carry  on  a  confider- 
able  trade  in  filk.   W.  Long.  4.  2.  N.  Lat.  37.  4f. 

AN  DU  ZE,  a  town  of  France  in  Lower  Langucdoc, 
feated  on  the  river  Gardon.  It  carries  on  a  confider- 
able  trade  in  fcrges  and  woollen  cloth.  E.  Long.  3.42. 
N.  Lat.  43.  39. 


ANEAU   (Bartholomew),  a  native  of  Bourges  in     Aneiu 
France,  a  man  of  eminent  learning  in  the  i6th  cen-  | 

tury,  educated  under  IVlelchior  Volmar.  He  was  pro-  Anemome- 
fellor  at  Lyons,  where  he  propagated  the  dodlrincs  of  ''*"•  . 
the  Reformation  fecretly  for  a  long  time  :  but  on  the 
feflival  of  the  Holy  Sacrament  1565,  as  theproccfiion 
was  palling  on  towards  the  college,  there  was  a  large 
flone  thrown  from  one  of  the  windows,  upon  the  Hoil 
and  pricfl  who  carried  it.  The  people, enraged  at  this, 
broke  into  the  college,  and  alfallinatcd  IVlr  Aneau, 
wliom  they  imagined  to  have  been  the  occalion,  and 
the  college  itfelf  was  fhut  up  next  day  by  order  of  ih« 
city. 

ANECDOTE,  Anecdota,  a  term  ufed  by  fomc 
authors,  for  the  title  of  Secret  Hijiorics  ;  but  it  more 
properly  denotes  a  relation  of  detached  and  inierelling 
particulars.  The  word  is  Greek  «rixt(«T«,  q.  d.  ihings 
lift  yet  known,  or  hitherto  kept  fecret.  Procopius  gives 
this  title  to  a  book  which  he  publilhed  againfl  Jufli- 
nian  and  his  wife  Theodora  ;  and  he  feems  to  be  the 
only  perfon  among  the  ancients  who  has  reprefented 
princes  fuch  as  they  are  in  their  domeflic  relation. — 
Variilub  has  publilhed  Anecdotes  of  the  Houfc  of 
Medicis. 

Anecdotes  is  alfo  an  appellation  given  to  fuch 
works  of  the  ancients  as  have  not  yet  been  publilhed. 
In  which  fenfe,  M.  Muratori  giv«s  the  name  Anecdota 
Crttca  to  feveral  writings  of  the  Greek  fathers,  found 

in  the  libraries,  and  firlt  publilhed  by  him F.  Mar- 

tene   has  given  a  Thefaurus  AnecdotarumJ^ovus,  in 
folio,  5  vols. 

A  NEE,  in  commerce,  a  nieafure  for  grain,  ufed  in 
fome  provinces  of  France.  At  Lyons,  it  fignifies  alfo 
a  certain  quantity  of  wine,  which  is  the  load  an  afs 
can  carry  at  once  :  whicjt  is  fixed  at  80  Englifli  quarts, 
wine-meafure. 

AN  EMOMETER,inmechanics,implics  a  machine 
for  meafuring  the  force  and  velocity  of  the  wind. 

Various  machines  of  this  kind  have  been  invented 
at  different  times,  and  by  different  perfons.  The  fol- 
lowing has  been  often  experienced,  and  found  to  an- 
afwer  theintcntioB. 

Anopen  frame  of  wood,  ABCDEFGHI*,  is  fuppor-  .  pj,^ 
ted  by  the  fhaft  or  arbor  I.     In  the  two  crofs-picces  XXXI. 
H  K,  L  M,is  moved  a  horizontal  axis  Q,M,  by  means  fig.  3. 
of  the  four  fails  ah,  cm,  Of,  gh,    expofcd  t«  the  \yind 
in  a  proper  manner.  Upon  this  axis  is  fixed  a  cone  of 
wood,  MNO  ;  upon  which,   as  the  fails  move  round, 
a  weight  R,  or  S,  is  raifed  by  a  firing  round  itsfuper- 
ficcs,   proceeding  from  the  fmaller  to  the  larger  end 
NO.     Upon  this  larger  end  or  bafe  of  the  cone,  is 
fixed  a  rocket  wheel  k,  in  whofe  teeth  the  click  X 
falls,  to  prevent  any  retrograde  motion  from  the  de- 
pending weight. 

Theflruflure  of  this  machine  fufficientlyfhowsthat 
it  may  be  accommodated  to  tflimate  the  variable  force 
of  the  wind  ;  becaufe  the  force  of  the  weight  will  con- 
tinually increafeasthe  firing  advances  on  the  conical 
furface,  by  acting  at  a  greater  diflance  from  the  axis 
of  motion  ;  confequently,  if  fuch  a  weight  be  added 
on  the  fmaller  partM,  as  will  jufl  keep  the  machine 
in  equilibrio  in  the  wcakcfl  wind,  the  weight  to  be 
raifed  as  the  wind  becomes  ftronger,  will  be  increafed 
in  proportion,  and  the  diameter  of  the  coae  N  O  may 

be 


A  N  E  [799 

Anemone,  be  fo  large  ill  comparifoii  to  that  of  the  fmallcr  end  at 
-         M,  that  the  llrongcft  wind  Ihall  bat  juft  raife  the 
weight  at  the  greater  end. 

If,  for  example,  the  diameter  of  the  axis  be  to  that 
of  the  bafc  of  the  cone  N  O  as  i  to  28  ;  then,  if  S 
be  a  weight  of  one  pound  at  M  on  the  axis,  it  will  be 
equi  valent  to  28  pounds  when  raifed  to  the  greater  end: 
if,  therefore,  when  the  wind  is  wcakeft,  it  fupports 
one  pound  on  the  axis,  it  muft  be  28  times  asftrong  to 
raife  the  weight  to  the  bafe  of  the  cone.  If  therefore 
a  line  or  fcalc  of  28  equal  parts  be  drawn  on  the  fide 
of  the  cone,  the  ftreugth  of  the  wind  will  be  indica- 
ted by  that  number  on  which  the  firing  refls. 

ANEMONE,  WIND-FLOWER  :  A  genus  of  the  po- 
lyginia  order, belonging  to  thepolyandriaclafs  of  plants! 
and,  in  the  natural  method,  ranking  under  the  26th  or- 
der, lyiiiltiftliquc.  It  has  its  name  from  the  Greek 
«<//©>,,  iignifying  the  -wind ;  becaufe  the  flower  is  fup- 
pofed  not  to  open  unlefs  the  wind  blows. — The  cha- 
racters arc  :  There  is  no  calj^x  :  The  corolla  confifts 
of  petals  of  two  or  three  orders,  three  in  each  feries, 
oblongilh  :  The  Aamina  confift  of  nnmrrnns  capilla- 
ry filaments  ;  the  antherasdidymous  and  ercdl.  The 
pift ilium  has  numerous  gcrmina  collected  into  a  head  ; 
the  ftyli  arc  pointed  ;  the  llamina  obtufe  :  There  is 
no  pericardium ;  the  receptaculum  is  globular:  The 
/icdj  are  very  numerous. 

Of  this  genus  Dr  Linnaeus  enumerates  21  fpecies ; 
but  thofe  valuable  on  account  of  the  beauty  of  their 
flowers,  are  only  the  following,  i.  The  nemorofa, 
which  grows  wild  in  the  woods  in  many  parts  of  Bri- 
tain, where  it  flowers  in  April  and  May.  The  flowers 
arewhite,  purple,  or  reddilh  purple,  foraetimes  fingle, 
and  fometimes  double,  fo  that  they  make  a  pretty  ap- 
pearance. 2. The  appennina  is  likewife  a  native  of  Bri- 
tain, growing  in  woods.  The  flowers  of  this  fpecies, 
like  the  laft  are  fometimes  fingle,  and  fometimes  dou- 
ble ;  their  colours  are  white,  blue,  or  violet.  They 
appear  in  April.  3.  The  coronaria.  4.  The  hortenlis. 
Thefe  two  are  natives  of  the  Levant,  particularly  of 
the  Archipelago  illands,  where  the  borders  of  the 
fields  are  covered  with  them  of  the  moft  btautiful  co- 
lours. When  they  grow  wild  the  flowers  are  com- 
monly fingle;  but  by  culture  they  are  greatly  improv- 
ed :  they  become  large  and  double,  making  fome  of  the 
greateA  ornaments  of  gardens.  Their  principal  co- 
lours arc  red,  white,  purple,  and  blue  ;  fome  of  them 
are  finely  variegattd  with  with  red,white,  purple,  and 
many  intermediate  Ihades  of  thefe  colours. 

Culture.  The  fird  and  fecond  forts  may  be  propa- 
gated by  taking  up  tlieir  roots  when  the  leaves  decay, 
and  tranfplantinj^  them  in  wildcrnclFes,  where  they 
"Will  thrive  and  increafe  greatly,  if  they  are  notdifturb- 
ed.  The  two  lafl  forts  require  a  good  deal  of  care, 
and  ample  direftions  for  their  culture. — The  foil  in 
which  thefe  plants  will  thrive  extremely,  may  be  com- 
pofed  in  the  following  manner  :  Take  a  quantity  of 
frefli  untried  earth  (from  a  common  or  fome  other  pa- 
fture  Ijnd)  that  is  of  a  light  fandy  loam  or  hazel  mould, 
obferving  not  to  take  it  above  ten  inches  deep  below  the 
furface  ;  and  if  the  turf  be  taken  with  it,  the  better, 
provided  it  hath  time  to  rot  thoroughly  before  it  is 
ufed  :  mix  this  with  a  third  part  of  rotten  cow-dung, 
and  lay  it  in  a  heap,  keeping  it  turned  over  at  lead  once 
»  mouth  for  eight  or  ten  months,  the  better  to  mix  it. 


] 


A  N  E 


and  rot  the  dung  and  turf,  and  to  let  it  have  the  advan-  Anemone, 
tages  of  the  free  air.     In  doing  this  work,  be  careful  - — ^— — ' 
to  rake  our  all  the  great  ftones,  and  break  the  clods  ; 
but  by  no  means  liftorfcreen  the  earth,which  has  been 
found  very  hurtful  to  mjny  forts  of  roots.     This  earth 
fhould  be  mixed  twelve  months  before  it  is  ufed,  if  pof- 
fible  :  but  if  conftrained  to  ufe  it  fooner,  it  muft  be  the 
oftener  turned  over  to  mellow  and  break  the  clods  ; 
obferving  to  rake  out  all  the  parts  of  the  green  fward 
that  are  not  quiterotten,  before  it  isufed,  as  ihey  would 
be  prejudicial  to  the  roots  if  AifFered  to  remain.    The 
beginning  of  September  is  a  proper  feafon  to  prepare 
the  beds  for  planting,  which  (if  in  a  wet  foil)  (hould 
be  raifed  with  this  fort  ofcarth  fix  or  eight  inches  above 
the  furface  of  the  ground,  laying  at  the  bottom  fome 
of  the  Takings  of  the  heap  to  drain  off  the  moiAure  ; 
but,  in  a  dry  foil,  three  inches  above  the  furface  will  be 
fufficient ;  this  comport  (hould  be  laid  at  leaA  two  feet 
and  a  half  thick,  and  in  the  bottom  there  (hould  be 
about  four  or  five  inches  of  rotten  neats  dung,  or  the 
rotten  dung  of  an  old  melon  or  cucumber  bed.     The 
beds  muA  be  laid  (if  in  a  wet  foil)  a  little  round,  to 
flioot  ofi  the  water  ;   but  in  a  dry  one,  nearer  to  a  le- 
vel.    In  wetland,  where  thebedsarc  raifed  above  the 
furface,  it  will  be  proper  to  fill  up  the  paths  between 
them ,  in  winter,  either  with  rotten  tan  or  dung,  to  pro- 
ven t  the  froft  from  penetrating  into  the  Adesof  the  beds, 
which  otherwife  may  deAroy  their  roots.     The  earth 
fhould  be  laid  in  the  beds  at  leaA  a  fortnight  or  three 
weeks  before  the  roots  arc  planted,  and  a  longer  time 
would  be  yet  better,  that  it  may  fettle  ;  and  when  they 
are  planted.  Air  the  upper  part  of  the  foil  about  (ix 
ijiches  deep, with  a  fpade;  then  rake  it  even  and  fmooth, 
and  with  a  Aick  draw  lines  each  way  of  tlie  bed  at  lix 
inches  diAance,  fo  that  the  whole  may  be  in  fquares, 
that  the  roots  may  be  planted  regularly  :  then  with 
three  fingers  make  a  hole  in  the  centre  of  each  fquare, 
about  three  inches  deep,  laying  therein  a  root  with  the 
eye  uppcrmoA  ;  and  when  the  bed  is  finilhed,  with  the 
head  of  the  rake  draw  the  earth  fmooth,  fo  as  to  cover 
the  crown  of  the  roots  about  two  inches  thick. 

The  beA  feafon  for  planting  thefe  roots,  if  for  for- 
ward flowers,  is  about  the  latter  end  of  September, 
and  for  thofe  of  a  middling  feafon  any  time  in  Oclober  : 
butobferve  to  perform  this  work,  if  polTible,  at  or  near 
the  time  of  fome  gentle  (howers;  for  if  planted  when 
the  ground  is  perfe(511y  dry,  and  there  fliould  no  raia 
fall  for  three  weeks  or  a  month  after,  the  roots  will  be 
very  apt  to  grow  mouldy  upon  the  crown;  and  if  once 
theygetthisdiAcmper,  they  fcldom  come  togood  after. 
As  all  the  fine  varietiesof  thefe  flowers  were  firrt  ob- 
tained from  feeds,  fo  no  good  floriA  that  hath  garden, 
room  Aiould  negleit  to  fow  them  ;  in  order  to  which, 
he  fhould  provide  himfelf  with  a  quantity  of  good  roots 
of  the  lingle  (or  what  the  gardeners  call  fopf))  aue- 
monics,  of  the  beft  colours  and  fuch  as  have  ilrong 
Aems  and  large  flowers,  but  efpecially  fuch  as  have  more 
leaves  than  common,  and  alio  other  good  properties  : 
thefe  iliould  be  planted  early,  that  they  may  have 
Arength  to  produce  goo>l  feeds,  which  will  be  ripe  in 
three  wceksora  month's  time  after  the  flowers  are  pa  A; 
when  the  feeds  muA  be  carefully  gathered,  otherwife 
they  will  be  blown  away  in  a  (hort  time,  as  being  in- 
clofed  in  a  downy  fnbAance.  You  muA  prcferve  this 
feed  till  the  beginning  of  AugiiA,  when  you  may  ei- 
ther 


A  K  E 


[     800     1 


A  N  E 


Anemone,  thcr  fow  it  in  pots,  tubs,  or  a  wcU-prcpared  bcdof  light 
*— >^— '  earth  :  in  the  doing  of  it  you  mutl  be  careful  not  to 
let  your  feeds  be  in  heaps  ;  to  avoid  which,  the  belt 
method  is  to  mix  thcni  with  a  little  fine  fand,  and, 
when  fowu,  gently  llrcak  the  bed  with  a  llioiig  hair- 
i)riini. 

In  about  two  months  after  fowing,  the  plants  will 
begin  to  appear,  if  the  feafonhas  proved  favourable. 
'Ihc  firlt  winter  after  their  appearing  above  ground, 
they  arc  fubjecl  to  injuries  from  iiard  frofls,  or  too 
much  wet,  againft  both  of  which  you  mufl  equally  de- 
fcn<i  them  :  for  the  froll  is  very  apt  to  loofen  the  earth, 
fo  that  the  young  plants  arc  often  turned  ont  of  the 
ground,  after  which  a  fmall  froft  will  dcllroy  them  ; 
and  too  much  wet  often  rots  their  tender  roots,  fo  that 
all  your  former  trouble  may  be  loll  in  a  lliort  time  for 
want  of  care  in  this  particular  :  nor  is  any  thing  more 
dcllructive  to  thefe  tender  plants  than  the  cold  black 
frofts  and  winds  of  February  and  March,  from  which 
y<  u  mull  be  careful  to  defend  them,  by  placing  a  low 
reed-fence  on  the  north  and  call  lidesof  the  bed, which 
may  be  moveable,  and  only  fallcned  to  a  few  flakes 
to  fupport  it  for  the  prcfcnt,  and  may  be  taken  quite 
away  as  the  feafon  advances,  or  removed  10  the  louth 
and  weft  fides  of  the  bed,  to  fcreen  i:  from  the  vio- 
lence of  the  fun,which  often  impairs  thefe  plants  when 
young.  As  the  fpring  advances,  if  the  weather  lliould 
prove  dry,  you  mull  gently  refrelh  them  with  water, 
which  will  greatly  flrengthen  the  roots;  and  when  the 
green  leaves  arc  decayed,  if  your  roots  are  not  too 
thick  to  remain  in  the  fame  bed  anotherycar,  you  mud 
clcAr  ofi'all  the  weeds  anddecaycd  leaves  from  the  bed, 
and  lift  a  little  more  of  the  fame  prepared  good  cartli, 
about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick  over  the  furface,  and 
obferve  to  keep  them  clear  from  weeds  during  the  fum- 
incr  feafon,  and  at  Michaelmas  repeat  the  fame  earth- 
ing ;  but  as  thefe  roots  fo  left  in  the  ground  will  come 
lip  early  in  the  autumn,  the  beds  fliould  be  carefully 
covered  in  frolty  weather,  otherwife  their  leaves  will 
be  injured,  whereby  the  roots  will  be  weakened,  if  not 
dellroycd.  If  your  roots  fuccced  well,  many  of  them 
will  (lower  the  fcconii  year,  when  you  may  felcft  all 
fuch  as  you  like,  by  marking  them  with  a  flick  :  but 
you  fhould  not  dcllroy  any  of  then  till  after  the  third 
year,  when  you  hive  fecn  them  blow  flrong,  at  which 
time  you  Vv'ill  be  capp.blc  to  judge  of  their  gooJnefs  ; 
for  until  the  roots  have  acquirtil  flrength,  the  flowers 
will  not  Ihow  thcmfclves  to  advantage. 

The  fuT'le  (or  poppy)  anemonies  will  flower  moft 
part  of  the  winter  and  fpring  when  the  feafons  are  fa- 
vourable, if  they  are  planted  in  a  warm  lituation,  at 
whichtime  they  make  a  tine  appearance  ;  thereforcde- 
ferve  a  place  in  every  flower-garden,  efpecially  as  tkey 
require  little  culture.  Thcrc.are  fome  fine  blue  colours 
amongll  thcfc  lingle  aiiemo;iies,  which,  with  the  fear- 
lets  and  reds,  make  a  beautiful  mixture  ;  and  as  thefe 
begin  flowering  in  January  or  February,  when  the 
weather  is  cold,  ihey  v/ill  continue  a  long  time  in 
beauty,  provided  the  froft  is  not  looftverc,  or  if  they 
are  covered  with  mats.  The  feeds  of  thefe  are  ripe 
by  tlie  middle  or  end  of  May  ;  and  muft  be  gathered 
daily  as  ihcy  ripen,  otherwife  they  will  be  foon  blown 
away  by  the  winds. 

Horned  cattle,  when  removed  from  the  higher 
grounds  into  v.oods  and  woody  paftures,  frequently  cat 

2 


^ 


the  wood-anemone  ;  and,  accordinj^  to  Linneas  and  AnemoSe, 
Gunner,  many  obfcrvaiioiis  have  proved  that  it  caufcs  Anemof- 
the  bloody  flu.\.  among  them.  .    '°P' 

Sia-yixKMONK.      Scc  y^AlMAL- F/ovier. 

ANEMOSCOPE,  a  machine  that  ihows  either  ih« 
courfc  or  velocity  of  the  wind.     (See  alfo  the  article 

The  machine  which  Ihows  the  courfe  of  the  wind, 
or  from  what  point  of  the  compafs  it  blows,  coniifts 
of  an  index  moving  about  an  upright  circular  plate, 
like  the  dial  of  a  clock,  on  which  the  32  points  of 
the  compafs  are  drawn  inftead  of  the  hours.  The  in- 
dex, which  points  to  the  divifions  on  thedial,  is  turned 
by  a  horizontal  axis,  having  a  trundle-head  at  its  ex- 
ternal txtremiiy.  This  trundle-head  is  moved  by  a 
cog-wheel  on  a  perpendicular  axis  ;  on  the  top  of  which 
a  vancisfixad,  that  moves  with  the  courfc  of  the  wind, 
and  puts  the  whole  machine  in  motion.  The  whole 
contrivance  is  extremely  fimpic  ;  and  nothing  requi- 
red ill  the  conftruvaio-j,  but  that  the  number  of  cogs 
in  the  wheel,  and  rounds  in  the  trnndle  head,  be  equal j 
becaufe  ir  i>;  nrrriV^ry,  that  when  the  vane  moves  en- 
tirely round,  the  index  of  the  dial  alfo  make  a  com- 
plete revolution. 

Theanemofcope,  calculated  for  indicating  the  force 
or  velocity  of  the  wind,  is  the  fame  with  what  moft 
writers  call  an  ariemometir  ;  and  we  have  accordingly 
dcfcribed  one  of  ihofc  machiiirs  under  that  article. 
We  fliall  here  add  another,  contrived  by  the  late  Mr 
Pickering,  and  publilhcd  in  the  I'hUofophicul  Tr/iaf-  • 
anions,  N"  473. 

This  aneraofcopeisa  machine  four  feet  and  a  quarter 
high,  coufiiting  of  a  broad  and  weighty  pcdellal,  a 
pillar  faftencd  into  it,  and  an  iron  axis  of  about  half 
an  inch  diameter  fallened  into  the  pillar.  Upon  this 
axis  turns  a  wooden  tube  ;  at  the  top  of  which  is  jila- 
ccd  a  vane,  of  the  fame  materials,  21  inches  long,  con- 
fifting  of  a  quadrant,  graduated,  and  Qiod  with  an  iron 
rim,  notched  to  each  degree :  and  a  counterpoife  of 
wood,  as  in  the  figure,  "u  the  other.  Through  the 
centre  of  the  quadrant  runs  an  iron  pin,  upon  which 
are  faftencd  two  fmall  round  pieces  of  wood,  which 
fervc  as  moveable  radii  to  defcribc  the  degrees  upon 
the  quadrant,  and  as  handles  to  a  velum  or  fail,  whofe 
pane  is  one  foot  fquare,  made  of  canvas,  ftrctched  up- 
on four  battens,  and  painted.  On  the  upper  bat- 
ten, next  to  the  fhod  rim  of  the  quadrant,  is  a  fmall 
fpring  which  catches  at  every  notch  correfponding  to 
each  degi-ce,  as  the  wind  fhall,  by  prclFing  againft  the 
fail,  raifc  it  up  ;  and  prevents  the  falling  back  of  the 
fail,  upon  the  Icircningof  the  force  of  the  wind.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  wooden  tube,  is  an  iron  index,  which 
moves  round  a  circular  piece  of  wood  faftcned  to  the 
top  of  the  pillar  on  the  pcdeftal,  on  which  arc  dcfcri- 
bed the  52  points  of  the  compafs.  The  figure  of  this 
machine  is  given  on  Plate  XXXI.  fig.  4.  where  n  is 
the  pedellal ;  b,  the  pillar  on  which  the  iron  axis  is 
fitted  ;  c,  the  circle  of  wood,  on  which  are  dcfcribed 
the  32  points  of  the  compafs  ;  c,  the  wooden  tube  up- 
on its  axis  ;  ff  the  velum  ;  g,  the  graduated  quadrant ; 
h,  the  counterpoife  of  the  vane.  The  adjoining  figure 
reprefents  the  velum,  which  takes  off:  a  is  the  plane 
of  the  velum  ;  /',  the  fpring  ;  c c,  the  wooden  radii, 
d,  d,  the  holes  through  which  the  pin  in  the  centre 
of  the  quadrant  goes.     Its  ufes  arc  the  following. 

I.  Ha- 


i'h.ic  \\\r. 


A  N  E 


[    8oi     ] 


A  N  G 


cope, 
Antthum 


Anemof-  I.  Having!  circular  motion  round  the  iron  axis,  and 
being  furniilicd  witli  a  vane  at  top,  and  index  at  the 
bottom,  when  once  you  have  fixed  the  artilicial  car- 
dinal points,  defcribcd  on  the  roimd  piece  of  wood,  on 
the  pillar,  to  the  fame  quarters  of  the  heavens,  it  gives 
a  faitliful  account  of  that  quarter  from  which  the 
wind  blows.  2.  By  having  a  velum  or  fail  elevated  by 
the  wind  along  the  arch  ot  the  quadrant  to  an  height 
proportionable  to  the  power  of  the  column  of  wind 
prefling  againfl  it,  the  relative  force  of  the  wind,  and 
its  comparative  power,  at  any  two  times  of  examhia- 
lion,  may  be  accurately  taken.  3.  By  having  a  fpring 
iitted  to  the  notches  of  the  iron  with  which  the  qua- 
drant is  lliod,  the  velum  is  prevented  from  returning 
back  upon  the  fall  of  ilie  wiud  ;  and  tlie  niachLie  gives 
ihe  force  of  the  higliell  blaft,  fince  the  lall  time  of  ex- 
amination, \\  ithout  the  trouble  of  'vatcbirg  it. 

The  ingenious  contriver  of  this  macliinc  tells  us, 
that  he  carefully  examined  what  dependence  may  be 
had  upon  it,  (hiring  the  rtorms  of  February  1743-4, 
and  found  that  itannvercd  exceedingly  well ;  for  that, 
Jn  fuch  winds  as  the  failprs  call  vsolmtJlorMi,  the  ma- 
chine had  fix  degrees  to  fpare  fjr  a  more  violent  gufl, 
before  it  comes  to  a  horizontal  pofition.  It  is  certainly 
to  be  depended  up-Mi  in  ordinary  weather,  the  velum 
being  himg  fo  tenderly  as  to  feel  the  nioft  gentle 
breeze.  There  is,  however,  rcafon  to  fear,  that  the 
cxpofingthe  anemofcopeto  allwindsfor  acontinuance, 
mufl  dilorder  it,  efpecially  Irregular  blafts  and  fqualls. 
It  may  not  therefore  be  amifs,  ut  violent  weather,  for 
the  obferver  to  take  the  tube  with  its  vane  and  velum 
in  his  hand,  in  order  to  know  the  force  of  the  wuid  ; 
and,  when  he  has  linilhcd  his  obfervations,  to  cairy 
the  machine  into  the  houfe,  till  the  violence  of  the 
ftorm  is  abated^  when  it  may  be  replaced  in  its  former 
fituation. 

ANETHUM,  DILI,  and  iENNEL  :  A  genus  of  the 
digynia  order,  belonging  to  the  pciuandria  clafs  of 
plants  ;  and,  in  the  natural  method,  ranking  under 
the  45th  order,  Vmbeltatee.  The  elfential  charafters 
are:  The  fruit  is  oval,  comprcllcd,  fbiated;  and  the 
petals  (five)  are  involute,  entire,  and  very  ihort. 

Speciii.  I.  The  graveolens,  or  dill,  is  an  annual 
plant:  the  root  is  long,  llcnder,  andwiiite;  the  leaves 
arc  divided  into  a  multitude  of  tine,  long,  naiTow  feg- 
ments,  like  thofe  of  fennel,  but  of  a  bluifli  green  co- 
lour, and  lefs  f>rong  fjnell-  The  flalk  is  round  and 
firm,  growing  to  the  height  of  four  feet,  with  yel- 
low flowers  in  moderately  large  umbels.  2.  The  fe- 
niculum,  or  fennel;  of  which  there  arc  two  varieties, 
the  common  and  the  fweet.  The  fwcct  fennel  is  fmall- 
cr  in  all  its  parts  than  the  common,  except  the  feeds, 
which  arc  coiiliderably  larger.  The  feeds  of  the  twu 
forts  differ  likewifc  in  Ihape  and  colour  ;  thofe  of  the 
common  areroundilli,  oblong,  flattilh  on  one  fide,  and 
protuberant  on  the  other,  of  a  dark  almoft  blackilh  co- 
lour ;  thofe  of  the  fweet  arc  longer,  narrower,  not  fo 
flat,  generally  crooked, ^and  ota  whiiilh  or  pale  ycl- 
lowilh  colour.  Both  forts  arc  cultivated  in  gardens: 
the  common  is  a  perennial  plant :  the  fwcct  fennel  pe- 
riihcs  after  it  has  given  feed. 

Medicinal  lifts,     I.  Of  the  firfl  fpecies,  dill,  only 
the  feeds  are  ufed.     They  are  of  a  pale  yellow  ilh  co- 
lour, in  (hapc  nearly  oval,  convex  on  one  lidc,  and 
Vol.  I. 


flat  on  the  other.  Their  tafte  is  moderately  warm  and  Ancurii'm 
pungent ;  tlitir  fmell  aromatic,  but  not  of  the  mod  a-  li 
greeablc  kind.  Several  preparations  of  them  arc  kept  Aiig»«)rj. 
in  the  ihops.  They  arerccommcnded  as  a  carminative,  '  ' 
in  flatulent  colics,  procecdhig  from  a  cold  caufc  or  a 
vifcidity  of  the  juices — a.  Oi feniul  both  the  fccjs 
and  roots  arc  ufed  in  medicine.  The  feeds  of  boiii  tho 
fennels  have  an  aromatic  fmell,  and  a  moderately 
Warm  pimgent  tafte  :  thofe  of  the  fweet  fennel  arc  in 
flavour  inoft  agreeable,  and  alfo  have  a  coniidcrable 
degree  of  fweetntfs  ;  hence  the  ufe  of  tbefe  only  have 
been  directed.  They  arc  ranked  among  the  four 
greater  hot  feeds,  and  not  undcfervedly  l>x)ked  upoa 
as  good  ftomachics  and  carminatives.  A  limplc  water 
is  prepared  from  them  in  the  Ihops  ;  they  are  ingre- 
dients alfo  in  the  compound  fpirit  of  juniper,  and  fom» 
other  officinal  compofuions.  Tlie  root  is  far  kls  warm, 
but  Las  more  of  a  fweeiiOi  tafle,  than  the  feeds  ;  it  it 
one  of  the  five  roots  called  optii:ri ;  and  has  fomc- 
times  been  direfted  in  aperient  apozems.  Boerhaava 
fays,  that  this  root  agices  in  tafte,  fmell,  and  medical 
qualities,  with  the  celebrated ^//(/f/;^ of  the  Chinefc  j 
from  which,  however,  it  appears  to  be  very  conlidcr- 
ably  different — The  lc?vcs  of  fennel  arc  weaker  than 
either  the  nxits  or  feeds,  and  Jiave  very  rarely  been  em- 
ployed for  any  medicinal  ufe. 

ANEURISM,  ui  furgery,  a  tlirobbing  tumor,  dif- 
tcnded  with  blood,  and  formed  by  a  dilatation  or  rup- 
tiu-e  of  a]i  artery.     See  SuRcERV-A-i/^jc. 

ANGARI,  orfANGARii,  in  antiquity,  denote  pub- 
lic couriers  appointed  for  the  carrying  of  mcifagcs. 
The  ancient  Perfians,  BudjBus  obfcrvcs,  had  their 
ayyaf'.m  Jfuftayci;  w  hich  was  a  fct  of  couriers  on  horfc- 
back,  poftcd  at  certain  ftagcs  or  diilances,  always  is 
readinels  to  receive  the  diipatchcs  from  one,  and  for- 
ward them  to  another,  with  wonderful  celerity,  an- 
fwerhig  to  what  the  moderns  call /oy?/.  q.d.  fojiti,  aj 

being  pofted  at  certain  places  or  ftages The  angari 

were  alfo  called  by  the  Pcrfiansa/?<7/;rf.r  ;  by  the  Greek* 
»/i»P<iJf  o/ioi,  on  account  of  the  long  journeys  they  mad* 
in  one  day,  which,  according  to  Suida>',  amounted  not 
to  lefs  than  1500  lladia. 

ANGARIA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  kindofpnb* 
lie  fervice  impofcd  on  the  provincials,  which  confiflei 
in  providing  horfcs  and  carriages  for  tlie  conveyance  of 
military  ftores,  and  other  public  biu-dens.  Itisforae- 
tiraes  alfo  ufed  for  a  guard  of  foldiers,  poftcd  for  the 
defence  of  a  place.  In  a  more  general  fenfe,  it  is  ufed 
for  any  kind  of  oppreflion  01  ferviccs  performed  througk 
compidfion. 

ANG.^ZY.A,  one  of  the  Comorra  iflands,  lyuig 
ber\\'cen  the  north  end  of  Madagafcar  and  the  coafl 
of  Zanguebar  in  Africa,  from  Lat.  to"  to  150  S.  It 
is  inhabited  by  Moors,  who  trade  with  divers  parts  of 
the  continent,  in  cattle,  fruits,  a:ul  other  commodities 
of  the  illand  ;  which  they  exchange  for  callicoes  and 
other  cotton  cloths.  The  houfes  here  are  built  of  Hone, 
and  lime  made  of  calcined  oyftcr-lhclls  ;  with  which 
the  Walls  and  roof  are  plaftercd  in  a  very  elegant  man- 
ner. The  government  of  Angazya  is  a  pure  ariftocra- 
cy  ;  die  illand  bcijig  fubjccl  10  10  lords,  who  have  all 
the  title  oi  Suit  an.  The  people  are  very  careful  of 
their  women  ;  never  permitting  ftrangcrs  to  fee  them, 
uithout  pcrmifliou  from  a  fukan,  or  aa  order  whiclt 

g  I  cte 


A  N  G  [     8oa 

Aflfcicto.  the  ftranger  brings  with  him.  Many  of  them  read 
and  write-  Araldc  with  great  facility  ;  and  fomc  even 
undcriland  Portugucfc,  which  they  learn  from  their 
intciTourfc  with  Mofainbiquc,  whither  they  trade  in 
vcllcls  of  40  tons  burthen. 

ANGEIOTOM^  ,  in  fiirgcry,  implies  the  opening 
a  vein  or  artery,  as  in  bleeding:  and  confcqacntly 
includes  both  artcriotoniy  and  phlebotomy. 

ANGtL,  a  fpiriuial  intelligent  (ubftance,  the  firft 
in  rank  and  dignity  among  created  beings.  The  word 
yfng^l  is  Greek,  and  iignitics  a  I\L[fc>igcr :  the  Hebrew 
n»Viofignities  the  fame  thing.  The  angels  are  in  Da- 
niel (chap.  iv.  vcr.  1 3,  &c.)  called  -^'IS',  or  IVatchcrs, 
from  their  vigilance  :  for  the  fame  realon  they  .-ire,  in 
the  remains  we  have  of  the  prophecy  attributed  to  ii- 
noch,  named  Egregori ;  which  word  imports  the  fame 
in  Greek. 

Angels,  therefore,  in  the  proper  fignification  of  the 
word,  do  not  import  the  nature  of  uny  being,  but  only 
the  oliice  to  which  they  are  appointed,  efpecially  by 
way  of  mcllagc,  or  intcrcourfe  between  God  and  his 
creatures  ;  in  which  fenfe  they  are  called  the  mht'tjiers 
bfCod,  who  do  his  pleafure,  and  viiiiijlniigfpirils  fent 
forth  to  minifter  for  them  who  fliall  be  heirs  of  falva- 
tion.  That  there  are  fuch  beings  as  we  call  angels,  ihit 
is,  certain  permanent  fubflances,  invilible,  and  im- 
perceptible ro  our  fenfes,  endued  with  underflanding 
and  power  fuperior  to  that  of  human  nature,  created  by 
God,  and  fubje<5l  to  him  as  the  fupreme  Being  ;  mi- 
niitring  to  his  divine'providcnce  in  the  government  of 
the  world  by  his  appointment,  and  more  efpecially  at- 
tending the  affairs  of  mankind  ;  is  a  truth  fo  fully  at- 
tefted  by  Scripture,  that  it  cannst  be  doubted.  Nay, 
the  cxiflence  of  fuch  invifiblc  beings  was  generally 
acknowledged  by  the  ancient  heathens,  though  under 
<liffcrent  appellations:  the  Greeks  called  them  d.c- 
tnoiii ;  and  the  Romansjf  (•«//,  or  lares.  Epicurus  feenis 
to  have  been  the  only  one  among  the  old  philofophers 
who  abfolutely  rejeited  them.  Indeed,  the  belief  of 
middle  intelligences  influencing  the  affairs  of  the 
■world,  and  ferving  as  minillers  or  interpreters  be- 
tween God  and  man,  ii  as  extcnfive  as  the  belief  of  a 
God  ;  having  never,  fo  far  as  we  know,  been  called 
in  queftion  by  thofe  who  had  any  religion  at  all. 
When  ere-  Ui^  creation  of  angels  is  not  indeed  cxprefsly  men- 
aud.  tioned  by  Mofes  in  the  firft  of  Genclis,  yet  is  is  gene- 

rally conlidcred  byjuHic!Ousexporitorsa.s implied.  The 
realon  why  the  facrcd  hiilorian  is  (ilcnt  on  this  (iib- 
jcdt,  isfuppofedby  Berringtou  to  Lc  the  natural  prone- 
nefs  of  the  Gentile  world,  and  cvi  a  of  the  Jews,  to 
idolatry  *.  And  it  is  thought,  if  llicy  worlliippcd 
mere  material  elements,  which  was  the  cufe,  much 
more  might  they  be  inclined  to  wcrl^iip  fuch  fiiptrior 


] 


A  N  G 


•  On  the 
Crcatiou, 

See  alfo  Se-  3^,^  (ublime  beings  as  angels.  But  a  bc'.i.i;r  rcafon  is 
'^"^""'1  ""perhaps given  by  otlicr  writers,  viz.  that  this  firft  hil- 
to:y  WiiS  piirpofcly  and  principally  for  information  con- 
cernbig  the  viliblc  world  ;  the  invuiblc,  of  which  we 
know  but  in  i'art,  being  refervcu  (or  a  belter  life  ■\. 

Oit  what  day  they  were  created  has  been  matter  of 
conjtdure.     It  is  a  point  on  which  Icariicd  men  have 


tion. 

•t  Affem- 
bly's  .^a- 
not.  on 


Gen.  i. 30.  diff^cred."    The  Socinians,  indeed,  hold,   fays  l-ilhop 
^Worki,     HopkinsJ,  that  it  was  long  before  the  account  given  by 
p.  joj.        Mofes,  but  it  mud  have  been  within  the  fix  Jays  cre- 
ation;  bccaufc,  as  we  are  informed,  that '.vithi    this 
fpace  God  made  heaven  aad  earth,  and  aU  things  that 


are  therein.  All  the  writers  that  we  have  feeti  on  this    Angel. 

fubjecl,  think  they  were  iitcluded  in  the  firft.  day's  ' v ' 

work,  when  the  heavens  were  framed. 

It  has  iKen  thought  by  fonie  perlon,s,  that  the  words 
of  Job,  "  When  the  morning  (tars  fang  together,  and 
all  the  fons  of  God  ftiouied  for  joy,"  militate  againft 
the  creation  of  angels  within  the  lix  days.  About  the 
meaning  of  thcfc  words,  however,  cxpofitors  are  not 
agreed  ;  but  admitting  that  they  refer  literally  to  an- 
gels, Dr  Lightfoot,  Caryl,  and  others,  fee  no  diffi- 
culty in  the  palFage.  The  Doi^or  thinks  they  were 
created  on  the  rirlt  day,  with  the  heavens  ;  and  that 
they  were  fpeftators  of  God's  works  in  the  other  parts 
of  creation,  and  praifed  and  magnified  the  Lord  for 
his  works  all  along ;  fmging  and  Ihouting  when  God 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  earth,  as  the  Jews  did  at  the 
laying  the  foundation  of  the  temple,  Ezra  rii. 

On  a  fubjtft  of  this  nature  it  would  be  imprudent 
to  indulge  a  fpirit  of  conjec'iure  :  Scripture  is  the  only 
ftandard  by  which  truth  and  error  can  be  tried,  and  to 
this  we  muft  ultimately  appeal.  It  is  acknowledged 
that  Mofes  has  not  cxprelsly  men  tioned  angels  by  name  ; 
yet  as  we  have  remarked,  their  creation  is  undoubted- 
ly implied  i  for  the  heavens  muft  include  all  that  are  in 
them  ;  and  therefore  it  is  that  the  divine  penman  fays, 
in  the  conclulion  of  his  narrative,  "Thus  the  heavens 
and  the  earth  were  finilhcd,  and  all  the  hoftof  them." 
Of  t  he  Ao/// of  heaven,  the  angels  muft  form  a  confider- 
ablc  part ;  they  arc  cxprefsly  called  the  heavenly  hojfi 
and  the/jrwifj^/^fflf^w,  Dan.iv.  35.  Lukeii.  13.  And 
if  divine  authority  be  admitted  as  decifivc,  the  reafons 
adduced  by  Jehovah  for  the  fandification  of  a  fabbath, 
demonftrate  that  they  did  not  exift  previous  to  the  cre- 
ation of  the  heavens.  It  is,  furely,  alTerted  with  pro- 
priety, that  in/x  daysthe.  Lord  made  heaven  and  earth, 
the  fea,  and  all  that  in  them  is.  Similar  to  which  is  a 
declaration  of  the  divine  hiftorian  relating  to  tjic  fame 

fadt "  And  God  blefled  the  feventb  day  and  fandti- 

fied  it ;  bccaufe  that  in  it  he  had  refted  from  all  his 
work  which  God  created  and  made,"  Gen.  ii.  3.  Now 
if  angels  exifted  prior  to  the  fix  days  of  creation,  the 
language  of  Mofes  is  far  from  being  accurate  and  in- 
telligible ;  and  efpecially  when  it  is  conlidertd  that  the 
obfcurity  might  have  been  removed  by  adding,  <«  from 
all  the  work  which  God  had  then  created  and  made." 

But  if  angels  were  created  before  the  heavens,wherc 
could  they  exiit  ?  For,  as  the  learned  Gill  \  has  remark-  §  B«d. 
ed,  "  though  augtls  have  no  boilies,  and  fo  arc  not  in  Divio, 
place  circun.fcriptivcly ;  yet  as  they  are  creatures,  they  Tol.i.p.4f2. 
muft  have  an  ubi,  a  fonicwhere,  in  which  they  arc  de- 
finitively ;  fo  that  they  are  here,  and  not  there,  and 
much  lefs  every  where  :  Now  where  was  there  an  lyi/, 
a  fomewherc,  for  them  to  exift  in,  before  the  heavens 
and  the  eartli  were  made  ?  It  is  moft  reafonable,  there- 
fore to  conclude,  that  as  God  prepared  an  habitation 
for  all  the  living  creatures  before  he  made  them  :  as 
the  fea  for  the  nfties,  the  expanfc,  or  air,  for  the  fowls^ 
and  the  earth  for  men  and  beafls;   fo  he  made  the  hea- 
vens firft,  and  then  the  angels  to  dwell  in  them." 

That  this  was  the  faift,  will  appear  very  evicent,  if 
the  words  of  Mofes  be  impartially  confidercd.  •'  In 
the  beginning  (fays  he),  God  created  the  heavens  and 
the  earth  ;"  which  words  muft  refer  to  either  the  be- 
ginning of  c.-.  ation  or  of  time  :  if  to  the  former,  and 
angels  pre viou fly  exiftcdj  the  language  is  neither  intd- 

ligfblf^ 


A  N  G 


Aiig«l. 


•  Works, 
tol.  i,  III 


JFamily 
KxpoCtof. 

\  Script 
Proof,  of 
Chrift't 
Divin.  p. 
I29.  See 
alfoWhit- 
bjr  on  John 
i.  I. 


/lg!l>/e  nor  conformable  to  tr:/t/)  .•  if  to  the  latter,  the 
dilficulty  remains  ;  lor  wliat  is  time  but  tlie  nicafurc  of 
created  cxiltence.  "  Time  (fays  the  judicious  Char- 
nock*)  began  with  the  foundation  of  the  world  ;  before 
the  beginning  of  the  creation  and  the  bc2;inning  of 
time,  there  could  be  nothing  but  eternity;  nothing  but 
what  was  imcrcated,that  is,  nothing  but  what  was  with- 
out beginning."  But  if  angels  were  in  a  p.  c-cxiflcnr 
ftate,  the  hiltorian's  language  is  unaccoiuuably  flrange 
and  inaccurate  :  for  if  the  plir.ifc  hi  tin  b:ghimngy 
which  is  remarkably  cmphatical,  refer  to  the  creation 
of  the  heavens  and  the  earth  nnly ,  they  arc  mihappily 
exprefled  :  fo  exprellcd,  indeed,  as  to  convey  noraean- 
ing  to  thofe  who  conlidcr  words  as  the  vehicle  of 
thought,  and  as  uitended  to  txprefs  clearly  to  others 
the  meaning  of  the  writer.  For  the  natural  obvious 
fenfe  is  as  follows-"  In  the  beginning  of  the  creation  of 
the  heavens  and  the  earth,  God  created  the  heavens  and 
the  earth  ;"  which  language  is  not  only  a  departure 
from  that  perfpicuity  and  precilion  wliich  diAiiiguiih  all 
his  narrations,  but  entirely  irratiori.il  and  abfurd. 

That  the  words  /'/;  thi  lugi/iningrcici  to  the  (irfl 
creation,  cannot  be  doubted,  if  it  be  remembered  that 
Jehovah  himfelf  founds  a  t'aim  locicrmtyoix  thisvcry 
ground  :  "  Before  the  day  was,  I  am  he." — "  Before 
the  mountains  were  brouj^lu  forth,  or  ever  thou  hadft 
formed  the  earth  or  the  world,  even  from  cverlafling 
to  cverlafling,  thou  art  God."  Ifa.  xliii.  i3.  Pf.  ix.  2. 
See  alfo  Prov.  viii.  22,  2?.  &c.  Now  there  could  be 
no  propriety  in  this  kind  of  reafoning,  if  angels  or  any 
other  creatiurc  exilh  d  bclbre  the  creation  of  the  world, 
becaufe  all  claims  to  eternity  from  fuch  premifes  would 
apply  even  to  Gabriel  as  well  as  to  Jehovah.  "Before 
the  world  was,"  is,  in  Scriptiu-e  language,  a  plirafc 
always  exprcffive  of  eternity  ;  and  on  this  principle  the 
evangelifl  John  allerts  the  prc-exiflence  of  Jefus  Chrifl 
in  the  rirfl  chapter  of  his  hillory.  For  this  pm-pofe  he 
alludes  to  the  words  of  Mofts,  and  introduces  his  di- 
vine mailer  to  notice  by  celebrating  the  firll  att  .of 
his  creative  power.  "In  the  beginning  (fays  he) 
was  the  Word ;"  that  is,  Dr  Doddrigc  remarks  5,  be- 
fore the  foundation  of  the  world,  or  the  firfl  produc- 
tion of  any  creature  :  and  Dr  Sherlock  %  is  clearly  of 
opinion,  that  the  words,  in  their  mofl  common  and 
ufual  acceptation,  fignify  the  firfl  creation  of  all  things, 
and  are  a  demonllration  of  the  divinity  of  Chrill. 
Of  the  fame  mind  was  Dr  Owen.  He  fays,  that  if 
the  phrafe  beginning  does  not  abfolutely  and  formally 
cxprcfs  eternity, yti^i  doth  a  pre-cxiftcnceto  the  whole 
creation,  which  amounts  to  the  fame  thing  ;  for  no- 
thing can  pre-exid  before  all  creatures  but  the  nature 
of  God,  which  is  eternal,  unlcfs  we  fuppofe  a  creatiu-e 
before  the  creation  of  any.  But  what  is  meant  by  this 
exprcfTion  is  fidly  declared  by  other  palFages  of  Scrip- 
ture :  "  I  was  fet  up  from  everlafling,  before  the  be- 
ginning, or  ever  the  earth  was  :"  "  Glorify  thou  me 
with  thine  own.  felf,  with  the  glory  which  I  had  with 
ihce  before  the  world  was  ;"  both  which  palfages  not 


[     «03     ] 


A  N  G 


only  explain  the  text,  but  undeniably  prove  the  pre-   Angel, 
cxillence  of  ChriA  the  fon  of  God*.     It  flioidd  be  re-  ."^P'T""' 
membered,  that,  in  the  palfage  under  conlideration,  t^J'jiI 
the  Evangelill's  argument  for  the  divinity  of  Jefus  ,_  ^y' 
Chrill  is  grounded  on  his  prc-cxifting  the  creation  of  the  ' 
world  ;  and  it  is  confequcntly  aliened,  that  he  is  the 
creator  of  all  things  :  but  if  angels  had  a  being  before 
the  period  to  which  he  alludes,  the  argument  lofts  all 
its  force,  and  no  more  proves  the  divinity  of  Clu  ilt 
than  the  divinity  of  an  angel  (a). 

If,  thcrctbre,  the  words  of  Mofes  be  impartially 
viewed  in  their  obvious  natural  meaning,  and  compared 
with  other  palfages  of  Scripture  that  relate  to  the  fame 
fubjetS,  we  have  no  doubt,  but  every  unprejudiced 
mhid  will  perceive,  that  as  he  intended  to  give  a  fum- 
niary  hillory  of  the  creation  of  all  things  both  in  hca* 
vcn  and  in  earth,  he  h-is  done  it  in  language  intclli- 
gibk  and  accurate,  and  ia  terras  fufficicntly  explicit. 

As  to  the  nature  of  thcfc  beings,  wc  are  told,  that  Their  m- 
they  are  fpirits  :  but  whether  pure  fpirits  di  veiled  of  all  '""•  P""* 
matter,  or  united  to  fome  thin  bodies,  or  corporeal  vc-"''^"'^7* 
hides,  has  been  a  controverfy  of  long  ftanding.     Not  ""*'    *■* 
only  the  ancient  philofophers,  but  fomc  of  the  Chii- 
llian  fathers  wtTC  of  ojjmiou,  that  angels  were  cloathcd 
with  ethereal,  or  fiery,  bodies,  of  the  fame  nature  with 
thofe  which  we  Ihall  one  day  have  when  we  come  ta 
be  equal  to  them.     But  the  more  general  opinion  efpc- 
cially  of  later  times,  lias  been,  that  they  are  f.ibftance* 
entirely  fpiritual,  though  they  can  at  any  time  alFumc 
bodies,  and  appear  in  human  or  other  (hapes. 

That  the  angelical  jxjwers  and  abilities  vaftly  excel 
thofe  of  man,  cannot  be  denied,  if  wc  conlidcr,  that 
their  faculties  are  not  clogged  or  impeded,  as  our5 
are,  by  any  of  thofe  imperfedions  witich  arc  infcpara* 
ble  from  corporeal  being  ;  fo  that  their  undcrllanding* 
are  always  in  pcrfeft  vigour  ;  the  inclinations  regu- 
lar ;  their  motions  llrong  and  quick  ;  their  adlions  ir* 
refiflablc  by  material  bodies,  whofe  natural  qualities 
they  can  controul,  or  manage  to  their  purpofcs,  and 
occafion  either  blefFrngs  or  calamities,  public  or  pri- 
vate, here  below ;  inflances  of  which  are  too  numerous 
to  mention. 

Bcfides  their  attendance  on  God,  and  then-  waitino- 
and  executing  of  his  commands,  they  are  alfo  prcfumcd 
to  be  employed  in  taking  care  of  mankind  and  their 
concerns  :  and  that  every  man  had  fnch  a  tutelar  or 
guardian  angel,  even  from  his  birth,  was  a  firm  belief 
and  tradition  among  the  Jews  ;  and  our  Saviour  him*- 
felf  fecms  to  have  been  of  the  lame  fentiment.  The 
heathens  were  alfo  of  the  fame  perfualion,  and  thought 
it  a  crime  to  neglect  the  admonitions  of  fo  divine  a 
guide.  Socrates  publicly  confelfed  himfelf  to  be  un^ 
der  the  dirciJlion  of  fuch  an  angel,  or  dxmon,  as 
feveral  others  have  lince  been.  And  in  this  tutelar 
genius  of  each  pcrfon  they  believed  his  happincfs  and 
fortune  depended.  Every  genius  did  his  bell  for  the 
intercll  of  his  client ;  and  if  a  man  came  by  the  worft, 
it  was  a  lign  the  llrcngth  of  his  genius  was  inferior  to 
5   I  a  diac 


(a)  Of  this  Socinus  and  his  followers  were  aware  ;  and  therefore  artfully  endeavoured  to  evade  tlic  force  of 
tlie  apofile's  reafoning,  by  interpreting  the  phrafe  in  the  beginning  either  in  a  tigurative  fenfe,  or  as  refcrrinir  to 
the  begimiingof  Johnthc  Baptill's  miniilry.  We  will  only  fubjoin,  that  wcdonot  remember  to  have  feen  any 
.\vriter  deviate  from  the  primary  obvious  meaning  of  the  palfagp,  who  had  not  fomt  hypothcfis  to  fupponlnimi* 
eal  to  truth*  j 


A  N  G 


t     804     1 


A  N  G 


.*ngcl.    riiat  of  his  opponent,  that  is,  of  an  inferior  order; 

— * and  this  was  governed  by  cliance.     There  were  fonic 

genii,  whofe  afcendency  was  fo  great  over  otliers,  that 
their  very  prcfence  entirely  dil'concertcd  theii ;  which 
was  the  cafe  of  that  of  Augullus  iti  relpect  to  that  of 
Marc  Antony  :  and  for  the  famcrcafon,  perhaps,  foinc 
perfons  have  wit,  and  fpeak  well,  when  others  are  ab- 
fcnt,  in  whofe  prefencc  they  are  confounded,  and  out 
of  comucnancc.  The  Romans  thought  tlic  tutelar 
genii  of  thofc  who  attained  the  empire,  to  be  of  an 
eminent  order  ;  on  wliieh  account  they  had  great  ho- 
nours ihown  them.  Nations  and  cities  alfo  had  their  fe- 
veral  genii.  The  ancient  Ptrfians  fo  tirmly  believed 
the  minillry  of  angels,  and  their  fuperintcndance  over 
human  affairs,  that  they  gave  their  names  to  their 
niontlis,  and  the  days  of  their  month;  and  aliigned 
them  dillinct  offices  and  provinces :  and  it  is  from  them 
the  Jews  confefs  to  have  received  their  names  of  the 
months  and  angels,  which  they  brought  with  them 
when  they  returned  from  the  Babylonilh  captivity. 
After  which,  we  find,  they  alfo  alhgned  charges  to  the 
angels,  and  in  particular  the  patronage  of  empires  and 
nations;  Michael  being  the  prince  of  tlie  Jews,  as 
Raphael  is  fuppofed  to  have  been  of  tiie  Perfians. 

The  Mahometans  have  fo  great  a  rcfpect  for  the 
angels,  that  they  aecoimt  a  man  an  inlidcl  who  cither 
denies  their  e.xiftcncc,  or  loves  tliem  not.  They  believe 
them  to  be  free  from  lin,  enjoying  theprefence  of  God, 
to  whom  they  are  never  diibbcdient :  and  they  have 
fubtile  pure  bodies,  being  cheated  of  light ;  and  have 
no  diiliiiAion  of  fexcs,  nor  do  they  need  the  rcfrefli- 
ment  of  food  or  fleep.  They  fuppofe  them  to  have  dif- 
ferent forms  and  offices  :  that  fome  adore  God  in  feve- 
fal  pofliu-cs  ;  others  fing  his  praifes,  and  intercede  for 
men  :  fome  carry  ;ind  encompafs  his  throne  ;  others 
write  the  aftions  of  men,  and  are  aingned  guardians  of 
lliem. 

As  the  number  of  thefe  celeftial  fpirits  is  very 
great,  it  is  likewife  reafonable  to  believe  that  there 
are  feveral  orders  and  degrees  among  them ;  which  is 
alfo  confirmed  by  Scriptiu-e  ;  whence  ibme  fpecidative 
men  have  dillributed  them  into  nine  orders,  according 
to  the  different  names  by  which  they  are  there  called; 
and  reduced  thofe  orders  into  three  hhrarchics,  as  they 
call  them  :  to  the  firll  of  wliich  belong  ferapliim,  che- 
rubim, and  thrones  ;  to  tlie  fccond,  dominions,  virtues, 
and  powers;  and  to  the  third,  principalities,  arch-an- 
gels, and  angels.  They  imagine  farther,  that  there 
are  fome  who  conftantly  relide  in  lieaven  ;  others  who 
are  mmillcrs,  and  lent  forth,  as  there  is  occafion,  to 
execute  the  orders  they  receive  from  God  by  the  for- 
mer.    The  Jews  reckon  but  four  orders  or  companies 


of  angels,  each  headed  by  an  arch-angel  ;  the  firfl  or-     AngeU 

der  being  tfiat  of  Michael,  the  fccond  of  Gabriel,  the' '^ ' 

thirii  of  Uriel,  and  the  fourth  of  Raphael :  but  though 
the  Jews  believe  thera  to  be  four,  yet  it  fcems  there 
were  rather  feven.  The  Perlians  alio  held,  there  were 
fubonliuatc  degrees  among  tiie  angels. 

Although  the  angels  were  originally  created  pcrfeft,  of  the  fal- 
good,  and  obedient  to  their  mailer's  will,  yet  fome  of  Im  angel*, 
them  linned,  and  kept  not  tlicir  tirfl  eftate,  but  left 
their  habitation  ;  and  lb,  of  the  molt  blelfed  and  glorious 
became  the  moil  vile  and  mifcrable  of  all  God's  crea- 
tures. They  were  expelled  the  regions  of  light,  and 
cafl  down  tohell,  to  be  referved  in  everlalling  chains 
under  darknefs,  until  the  day  of  judgement.  With 
heaven  they  loll  their  heavenly  dilpolition,  which  de- 
lighted once  in  doing  good  and  prailingGod  ;  and  fell 
into  a  fettled  rancour  againft  him,  and  malice  againft 
men  :  their  inward  peace  was  gone  ;  all  delire  of  doing 
good  departed  from  them  ;  and,  iuffead  thereof,  rc- 
vcngelui  thoughts  and  dcfpair  took  poireffioii  of  them, 
and  created  an  eternal  hell  w  ithin  them. 

When, and  for  whatoftence, thefe  apoflate  fpiritsfell 
from  heaven  and  plunged  themfelves  into  luch  an 
abyfs  of  wiekednefs  and  wo,  are  quefUons  very  hard, 
if  not  impoffible,  to  be  determined  by  any  clear  evi- 
dence of  Scripture.  As  to  the  time,  we  are  certain 
that  it  could  not  be  before  the  fixtli  day  of  creation  ; 
becaufe  on  that  day  it  is  laid,  "  God  law  every  thhig 
that  he  had  made,  and  behold  it  was  very  good  :"  but 
that  it  was  not  long  after  is  very  pirobable,  as  it  muR 
have  preceded  the  fall  of  our  firfi;  parents.  Some  have 
iniagnied  it  to  have  been  after;  and  that  carnality,  or 
lulling  to  converfewith  women  upon  earth,  was  the  fin 
which  ruined  them  :  an  opinion  (b)  built  on  a  mifta- 
ken  interpretation  of  Scripture,  as  if  angels  were 
meant  by  the  fans  ofCo^vcho  are  faidto  have  begotten, 
the  mighty  men  of  old  on  the  daughters  of  men.  O- 
ihers  have  fuppofed,  that  the  angels,  being  informed 
of  God's  intention  to  create  man  after  his  own  image, 
and  ro  dignify  his  nature  by  Clirifl's  alTuming  of  it, 
and  thinking  their  glory  to  be  eclipfcd  thereby,  en- 
vied man's  hapjiinels,  and  lb  revolted:  and  with  this 
opinion  that  of  the  Mahometans  has  fome  affinity  ; 
who  arc  taught,  that  the  devil,  who  was  once  one  i>f 
thofe  angels  who  are  uearefl  God's  prefencc,  and 
named  Azazil,  forfeited  paradife  for  refuling  to  pay 
homage  to  Adam  at  the  command  of  God.  Bm  on 
what  oecafion  foever  itfirfllhowcd  itfclf,  pride  feenis 
to  have  been  the  leading  lin  of  the  angels  ;  who,  ad- 
miring and  valuing  themfelves  too  much  on  the  ex 
cellence  of  their  nature  and  the  height  of  their  flation, 
came  at  length  to  entertain  fo  little  refpecT:  for  their 

Creator 


(b)  This  opinion  feems  to  have  been  originally  occalloned  by  fome  copies  of  the  Septuagint,  which,  in  tlie 
days  of  St  Auflin,  hadin  this  place  the  angeis  of  Cod.  Laelantiusfuppofes  the  angels,  who  were  guilty  of  this 
enormity,  had  been  fent  down  by  God  to  guard  and  take  care  of  mankind  ;  and  being  endued  with  free-wiU, 
were  charged  by  him  not  to  forfeit  the  dignity  of  their  celellial  nature,  by  defiling  themfelves  with  the  corrup- 
tions of  the  earth  ;  but  that  the  devil  at  length  enticed  them  to  debauch  themfelves  by  women.  He  adds, 
that,  being  not  admitted  into  heaven  byreafon  of  the  wiekednefs  into  which  they  had  plunged  themfelves, 
they  fell  down  to  the  earth,, and  became  the  devil's  niLniflcrs  ;  but  that  thofe  that  were  begotten  by  them,  be- 
ing neither  angels  nor  men,  but  of  a  middle  nature,  were  not  received  into  hell,  no  more  than  their  parents 
were  into  heaven.  Hence  arofe  two  kinds  of  daemons,  celeflialand  tenclUal.  Thefe  are  unclean  fpirits,  the 
authors  of  whatever  giils  are  committed,  and  whofe  prince  is  the  devil.  From  hence  very  probably  proceeded 
Jw  notion  of  Incubi,  or  dsemons  who  are  fuppofed  to  have  carnal  knowledge  of  w'omcn. 


A  N  G 


[     805     ] 


A  N  G 


Creator,  as  to  be  guilty  of  dowuright  rebellion  and 
apoftacy. 

It  is  certain  from  Sciii'iure,  that  the  fallen  angels 
were  in  great  nunil)rrs,  and  that  there  were  alfo  fome 
order  and  fubordinatioii  prefcrved  among  them  ;  one 
cfpecialiy  being  coniiderrd  as  their  prince,  and  called 
by  feveral  names,  Dalz-Amb,  Satan,  or  i,a-„it/iui;l  by 
the  Jews;  Ahaiiviam,  by  the  Pcrfians;  and  Ai/;j,  by 
the  Mahometans.  'I'lieir  ccinltant  employment  is,  not 
only  doing  evil  thcmlelves,  but  endeavouring  by  all 
arts  and  means  to  feducc  and  pervert  mankind,  by 
tempting  them  to  all  kind  of  lin,  and  thereby  bringing 
them  into  the  fame  defpcratc  flatc  with  thcmfelves. 

Angel  is  likewife  a  tiilegiven  tobilhopsol  feveral 
churches.  In  this  fenfc  is  St  Paul  underflood  by  fomc 
authors,  where  he  fays,  IVomcit  ought  to  be  covered  in 
the  church,  becaufe  of  the  angels.  The  learned  Dr 
PrideaiixobfcrveSjthat  the  minifterof  the  fynagogue, 
who  officiated  in  ottering  up  the  public  prayers,  being 
the  mouth  of  the  congregation,  delegated  by  them  as 
their  reprcfentative,  meflengcr,  or  angel,  to  fpeak  to 
God  in  prayer  for  them,  was  therefore,  in  the  He- 
brew language,  called  the  angel  oi  the  church  ;  and 
from  thence  the  bilhops  of  the  feven  churches  ;of  Alia 
are,  by  a  name  borrowed  from  the  fynagogue,  called 
the  angels  of  thofe  churches. 

Angel,  in  commerce,  the  name  of  a  gold  coin  for- 
merly current  in  England.  It  had  its  name  from  the 
figure  of  an  angel  rcprefcnicd  upon  it,  weighed  four 
pennyweights,  and  was  twenty-three  and  a  half  carats 
fine.  It  had  ditt'ercnt  values  in  dilFcrcnt  reigns  ;  but 
is  at  prcfent  only  an  imaginary  fum,  or  money  of  ac- 
count, implying  ten  lliillings. 

AsciLL-t'tJh,  in  ichthyology,  a  fpecies  of  fqualus. 
See  S^^uALUs. 

ANGELIC,  or  Angelical,  fomething  belonging 
to,  or  that  partakes  of  the  nature  of  angels.  We  fay 
in  a/igelicallife,  &c.  St  Thomas  is  fly  led  the  angelical 
doflor.  The  angelical  falutation  is  called  by  the  Ro- 
manifts  Ave  Maria  ;   fometimes  fimply  angcliis. 

AxcELic  Carvient  (Angelica  vjjiis),  in  ancient 
times,  was  a  monkifli  garment,  which  laymen  put  on 
a  little  before  their  death,  that  they  might  have  the 
benefit  of  the  prayers  of  the  monks.  It  w.ij  from  them 
called  rt»^(^/;<r(7/,bccaufe  they  werecalled  aiigtli  who  by 
thcfc  ^TAytrsanimafalutifiiccurrebant.  Hence, where 
we  read  the  phrafc  luonachus  ad fuccurrendum  in  old 
books,  it  muft  be  underftood  of  one  who  had  put  on  the 
habit  when  he  was  at  the  point  of  death. 

ANGELICA:  A  genus  of  the  digynia  order,  be- 
longing to  the  peniandria  clafs  of  plants  ;  and  in  the 
natural  method  ranking  under  the  45th  order  Ujtibel- 
latx.  The  eflential  charadlcrs  are:  The  fruit  is  round- 
ifli,  angled,  folid,  with  reticilited  flyli  ;  the  coroUoe 
are  equal,  and  the  petals  incurvated. 

Species,  i.  The  faiiva,  or  common  angelica,  which 
is  cultivated  in  gardens  for  medicinal  ufc,  and  like- 
wife  for  a  fwfetmeat,  grows  naturally  in  the  northern 
countries.  The  root  of  this  fpecies  is  brown,  oblong, 
and  an  inch  or  two  thick,  fragrant,  and  acrid.  The 
leaves  are  very  large,  compofcd  of  pinnated  folia,  of 
an  oblong  oval  figure,  dentatcj  at  the  edge,  and  the 
oddlcaf  at  the  end  of  the  pinna  lobatcd  ;  the  ftalk  is 
round,  ftriated,  and  as  tiiick  as  achild's  arm.  The  um- 
bels arc  very  large,  and  of  a  globofc  figure  ;  the  flow- 


ers very  finall  and  grcenifli.  2.  The  arch-angelica  is  a   Anf  elUa 
nativcof  Hungary  and  Germany.  The  leaves  are  much  II 

larger  than  thole  of  the  former,  and  the  flowers  are  Argdites. 
yellow.  3.  The  fylveAris  grows  naturally  in  moift 
meadows,  and  by  the  fidps  ot  rivers,  in  many  parts  of 
Britain  ;  fo  is  feldom  admitted  into  gardens.  4.  The 
atro-purpurea  canadenlis  ;  5.  The  lucida  canadenfis  : 
Thele  arc  naiives  of  North  America,  but  have  neither 
beauty  nor  ufe. 

Culture.  The  common  angelica  delights  to  grow  ia 
a  moiil  foil  :  the  feeds  (hould  be  fown  foon  after  they 
are  ripe.  Wiien  the  plants  come  up  about  fix  inches 
high  they  tliould  be  tranfplantcd  very  wide,  as  their 
leaves  fpread  greatly.  If  they  arc  planted  on  the  fides 
of  ditches  or  pools  of  water,  about  three  feet  diftancc, 
they  will  thrive  exceedingly. 

Medicinal  U/es.  For  the  purpofes  of  medicine, 
Bohemia  and  Spain  produces  the  bed  kinds  of  angeli- 
ca. The  London  college  direct  the  roots  brought  from 
Spain  to  be  alone  made  ufc  of.  Angelica  roots  arc 
apt  to  grow  mouldy,  and  to  be  preyed  upon  by  infecls, 
unlefs  thoroughly  dried,  kept  in  a  dry  place,  and  fre- 
quently aired.  It  is  probable  that  the  roots  which 
arcfubje(5l  to  this  inconvenience  might  be  prefervcd, 
by  dipping  them  in  boiling  fpirit,  or  cxpofing  them  to 
its  fleam  after  they  arc  dried. 

AH  the  parts  of  angelica,  cfpecialiy  the  root,  have 
a  fragrant  aromatic  fmcU,  and  a  pleafant  bittcrilh 
warm  talle,  glowing  upon  the  lips  and  palate  for  along 
time  after  they  have  been  chewed.  The  flavour  of  the 
feeds  and  leaves  is  very  perilhablc,  particularly  that 
of  the  latter,  which,  on  being  barely  dried,  lofe  the 
grcatcfl  part  of  their  taftc  and  fincU  :  the  roots  arc 
more  tenacious  of  theirflavour,  though  evcnthcfelofc 
part  of  it  upon  keeping.  The  frcfli  root,  wounded  ear- 
ly in  ihefpring,yiclds  an  odorous  yellow  juice,  which 
llowly  exliccatcl,  proves  an  elegant  gummy  reiin, 
very  rich  in  the  virtues  of  the  angelica.  On  drying 
the  root,  this  juice  concretes  into  dillincl  moleeuijc, 
which,  on  cutting  it  longitudinally,  appear  dillributed 
in  little  veins:  in  this  llatc,  they  are  cxiradcd  by 
pure  fpirit,  but  not  by  watery  liquors. 

Angelica  ib  one  of  the  mod  elegant  aromatics  of 
European  growth,  though  little  regarded  in  tke  pre- 
fciit  pradicc.  The  root,  wliich  is  the  mod  efficacious 
part,  is  ufcd  in  the  aromatic  tincture  ;  and  the  ftalks 
make  an  agreeable  iwcetineat. 

ANGELICS  (Ancelici),  in  church  hiftory,  an 
ancient  fed  of  heretics,  fuppofcd  by  fomc  to  have  got 
this  appellation  from  their  Cicclfivc  veneration  of  an- 
gels ;  and  by  others  from  their  niaintaiiiing  that  the 
world  was  created  by  angels. 

Angelics  is  alfo  the  name  of  an  order  of  knights, 
iuditutedin  1191,  by  Angclus  Klavius  Comincims, 
emperor  of  Con.'buitinople. 

ANGELicsis  alfo  a  congreg.-.!ion  of  nuns,  founded" 
at  .Milan  in  i  J54,  by  Louif.i  Torelli,  countcfs  of  Gua- 
dalla.  They  obfervcthe  rule  of  St  .A.igudinc. 

ANGELITES,  in  ecclefiaftical  hiilory,  a  feet  of 
Chriftian  heretics,  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  .•\n3da- 
iius,  and  the  pontificate  of  Symmachus,.about  the  yc.ir 
494,  fo  called  from  ••^ngelium,  a  place  in  the  city  of 
Alexandria, where  they  held  their  fird  meetings.  They 
werecalled  likewife  S.verites,  from  one  Scvcrus,  who 
was  the  head  of  their  fed ;  as  alfo  TheoJoJians,  from 

one 


A  N  G 


[    806    ] 


A  N  G 


Angela,    otic  among  them  ramcd  Thcodofms,  wliom  tlicy  nude 

Angolos.    pope  at  Alexandria.     They  held,  that  the  perfons  of 

"         tlie  Trinity  are  not  tlie  fame  ;  tliat  none  of  them  ex- 

ifls  of  hiiiifcif,  and  of  his  own  nature  ;  but  that  there 

is  a  common  god  or  deity  exifting  in  them  all,  and 

that  each  is  God,  by  a  participation  of  this  deity. 

ANGELO  (Michael).  There  were  five  celebrated 
Italian  painters  of  this  namc,whofluiirinicd  in  the  16th 
and  ryih  centuries  ;  but  the  two  moll  diftiiiguifltcd  of 

them  are  thefe t'irrt,  Michael  Angelo  Buonarroti, 

who  was  a  moll  incomparable  painter,  fculptor,  and 
architect,  born  in  1474,  in  the  territory  of  Arezzi  in 
Tufcany.  He  was  the  difciple  of  Dominico  Ghirlan- 
daio;  and  creiflcd  an  acadeniyof  painting  and  fculpture 
in  Florence,  under  the  protcdlion  of  Lorenzo  di  Me- 
dicis;  which,  uponthe  troublcsof  that  houfe,  was  obli- 
ged to  remove  to  Bologna.  About  this  time  he  made 
an  image  of  Cupid,  which  he  carried  to  Rome,  broke 
offone  of  its  arms,  and  buried  the  image  in  a  place  he 
knew  would  foon  be  dug  up,  keeping  the  arm  by  him. 
It  was  accordingly  found,  and  fold  to  Cardinal  St  Gre- 
gory for  an  antique  ;  until  Michael,  to  their  confufion 
and  his  own  credit,  difcovered  his  artifice,  and  con- 
firmed it  by  the  deficient  arm  which  he  produced  :  it 
is  rather  unufual  for  the  manufadtiirers  of  antiques  to 
befo  ingenuous.  Hisreputation  was  fo  great  at  Rome, 
that  he  was  employed  by  pope  Sixtus  to  paint  his  cha- 
pel ;  and  by  the  command  of  Pope  Paul  III.  executed 
his  moft  celebrated  piece  Thi  lafl  judgment.  He  has 
the  charai5ler  of  being  the  greatelt  defigner  that  ever 
lived;  and  it  is  univerfally  allowed  that  no  painter  ever 
underflood  anatomy  fo  well.  He  died  immenfely  rich 
at  Rome,  in  IJ64. — Secondly,  Michael  Angelo  de 
Caravaggio,  born  at  that  village  in  Milan,  in  1569. 
He  was  at  firfl  no  more  than  a  bricklayer's  labourer  : 
but  he  was  lb  charmed  with  feeing  fome  painters  at 
work,  that  he  immediately  applied  liimfclf  to  the  art; 
and  made  fuch  a  progrefs  in  a  few  years,  that  he  was 
admired  as  the  author  of  a  new  ftylc  in  painting.  It 
was  obferved  of  Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti,  that  he 
was  incomparable  in  deligning,  but  knew  little  of  co- 
louring; and  of  Caravaggio,  that  he  had  as  good  a 
goQt  in  colouring  as  he  had  a  bad  one  in  dcfigning. 
There  is  one  pifture  of  his  in  the  Dominican  church 
at  Antwerp,  which  Reubens  ufed  10  call  his  mailer.  It 
is  faid  of  this  painter,  that  he  was  fo  ftrangely  content 
tious,  that  the  pencil  was  no  fooncr  out  of  his  hand 
but  his  fworJ  was  in  it.     He  died  in  1609. 

ANGKLO  (St)  a  fmall  but  (Irong  town  of  Italy, 
in  the  Capitanata.  There  are  feveral  other  towns  and 
ciftlcs  of  the  fame  name  in  Italy,  and  particularly  the 
caftle  of  St  Angelo  at  Rome.  E.  Long.  ij.  56.  N. 
Lat.  41.  43. 

ANGELOS  (los),  a  province  of  Mexico,  the  an* 
cient  republic  of  Tlafcala,  of  which  a  city  called  Tlaf- 
cala  was  once  the  capital.  That  ciiy  is  now  reduced 
to  an  inconfiderable  village,  and  has  given  place  to 
another  called  Ftitbla  dss  los  Angelas,  or  the  eity  of 
Angels.  It  is  fituated  in  W.  Long.  103.  12.  and 
N.  Lat.  19.  13.  It  was  formerly  an  Indian  town  ; 
but  in  I  j^o  was  entirely  abandoned  by  the  natives,  on 
account  of  the  cruelties  of  the  Spaniards.  A  fuc- 
ceediiig  viceroy  of  Mexico,  by  a  milder  treatment, 
tecallcJ  them  ;  and  the  town  is  now  exceedingly  rich 
and  populous,  fo  as  even  to  ric  with  Mexico  itfelf  in 


magnificence.  It  Is  fituated  on  the  river  Zacatiila,  in 
a  fine  valley,  about  25  leagues  to  the  eallward  of  Me- 
xico. In  the  middle  is  abcauiiful  and  fpacious  fquare, 
from  whence  run  the  principal  ilrtets  indiredl  lines, 
whicji  are  crolTed  by  others  at  right  angles.  One  fide 
is  almoll  entirely  occupied  by  the  magnificent  front  of 
the  cathedral  ;  while  the  other  three  confill  of  piaz- 
zas, under  which  are  the  Ihops  of  tradefmen.  The 
city  is  the  fee  of  a  biihop,  i'uff'ragan  to  the  archbilliop 
of  Mexico,  and  we  may  form  ajudgment  of  the  wealth 
of  the  place  by  the  revenue  of  the  cathedral  and  chap- 
ter, whichamounts  to  300,000  pieces  of  eight  annual- 
ly. It  mult  be  remembered,  however,  that  in  all  popilli 
countries  the  wealth  of  the  laity  by  no  means  bears 
a  due  proportion  to  that  of  the  clergy.  Wh.it  contri- 
butes greatly  to  increafe  the  riches  of  this  province 
is,  that  here  is  fituated  the  city  of  Vera  Cruz,  the 
natural  centre  of  all  the  American  treafures  belonging 
to  Spain.     See  Vera  Cruz. 

ANGELOT,  an  ancient  Englifli  gold  coin,  ftruck 
at  Paris,  while  under  fubjeflion  to  the  Englilli.  It 
was  thus  called  from  the  figure  of  an  angel  fupporting 
the  cfcutcheon  of  the  arms  of  England  and  France. 
There  was  another  coin  of  the  fame  dcnominatiou 
Aruck  under  Philip  de  Valois. 

ANGELCxisalfoufed  in  commerce  to  denotea  fmall 
fat,  rich  fort  of  chcefe,  brought  from  Normandy. 
Skinner  fuppofes  it  to  have  been  thus  called  from  the 
name  of  the  perfon  who  firft  made  up  in  tl\at  form, 
and  perhaps  llamped  it  with  his  own  name.  Menage 
takes  it  to  have  been  denominated  from  the  rcfemblancc 
it  bears  to  the  Englilh  coiji  called  a?igeht.  It  is  made 
chiefly  in  the  Pays  de  Bray,  whence  it  is  alfo  denomi- 
nated angelot  de  Bray.  It  is  commonly  made  in  vats, 
either  fquare  or  fliaped  like  a  heart. 

ANGER,  a  violent  palfion  of  the  mind,  confifting 
in  a  propenfity  to  take  vengeance  on  the  author  of  fome 
real  orfuppofcd  injury  done  to  the  offended  party. 

Anger  is  either  deliberative  or  inllinftlve  ;  and  the 
latter  kindis ralh  and  ungovernable,  becaufe itoperate« 
blindly,  without  affording  time  for  deliberation  or 
forelight.  Bifhop  Butler  very  juftly  obierves,  that  an- 
ger is  far  from  being  a  felfilli  paflion,  fince  it  is  natu- 
rally excited  by  injuriesoffcred  to  others  as  well  as  to 
ourfclves  ;  and  Was  defigned  by  the  Author  of  nature 
liot  only  to  excite  us  to  adl  vigoroudy  in  defending 
ourfclves  from  evil,  but  tointercft  us  in  the  defence 
or  refcue  of  the  injured  and  helplefs,  and  to  raife  us 
above  the  fear  of  the  proud  and  mighty  opprelTor. 

Neither,  therefore,  is  all  anger  linful  :  hence  the 
precept,  "  Be  ye  angry  and  fin  not." — It  becomes  fin- 
ful,  however,  and  contradicts  the  rule  of  fcripturc, 
when  it  is  conceived  upon  flight  and  inadequate  pro- 
vocations, and  when  it  continues  long.  It  is  then  con- 
trary to  the  amiable  fpirit  of  charity,  which  "  fufftr- 
eth  long,  and  is  not  cafily  provoked."  Hence  thefe 
other  precepts,  "  Let  every  man  be  flow  to  anger  ;" 
and,  "  Let  not  the  lun  godown  upon  your  wrath." 

Thefe  precepts,  and  all  reafoning  indeed  upon  the 
fubjeiit,  fuppofe  the  palfion  of  anger  to  be  within  our 
power  :  and  this  power  confifts  not  fo  much  in  any  fa- 
culty we  have  of  appeafing  our  wrath  at  (he  time  (for 
we  are  pafllve  under  the  fmart  which  an  injury  or  af- 
front occafions,  and  all  we  can  then  do  is  to  prevent 
its  breaking  out  into  adion),  as  in  fo  mollifying  our 

minds 


A  N  G 


[     807     ] 


A  N  G 


Aager. 


•  Kook  III 
part  ii. 
obap,  ;. 


mindsby  habitsefjiill  reflection,  as  to  be  IcfsirritaicJ 
'  by  imprcirions  of  injury,  and  to  be  fooncr  paciticd. 

As  rclicdions  proper  for  this  purpofc,  and  which 
may  be  c  lied  ihe/cduiivej  of  anger,  tlie  following  arc 
fuggcrted  by  Archdeacon  Palcy  in  his  excellent  trcatife 
,  of  Moral  and  Political  I  hilojophy* — "  The  pollibility 
of  millaking  the  motives  from  which  the  condiidl  tliac 
offends  us  proceeded  ;  how  ol ten  o^/r  offences  have  l)ccii 
the  effect  of  inadvertency  ,whcn  they  were  miftakcn  for 
malice  ;  the  inducement  which  prompted  our  adverfary 
to  aft  as  he  did,  and  how  powerfully  the  fame  induce- 
ment has,  at  one  time  or  other,  operated  upon  our- 
fclves  ;  that  he  is  fuft'ering  perhaps  under  a  contrition, 
which  he  is  afhamcd,  or  wants  opportunity,  to  con- 
fcfs  ;  and  how  iiUfT  ncrons  it  is  to  iriiinipii  by  coldnefs 
or  infult  over  a  fpirit  already  humbled  in  iccret  ;  that 
the  returns  of  kiudiicfs  are  fwcet,  and  that  there  is 
neither  honour,  nor  virtoe,  nor  ulc,  in  rcfiffing  them 
■^for  fome  perfons  think  thcmlelvcs  bound  to  chcrilh 
and  keep  alive  their  indignation,  when  they  tind  it  dy- 
ing away  of  itfelf.  We  may  remember  that  others  have 
their  palFions,  their  prejudices,  their  favorite  aims, 
their  fears,  their  cauiioiis,  iheir  intcrefts,  their  fud.- 
den  impulfes,  their  varieties  of  apprehcnfion,  as  well 
as  we  :  we  may  recoUefl  what  hath  fometimes  palled  in 
our  own  minds,  when  we  have  got  on  the  wrong  fide 
of  a  quarrel,  and  imagine  the  fame  to  be  palling  in  our 
advcrfary's  mind  now  ;  when  we  became  feiilible  of 
our  niifbehaviour,  what  palliations  we  perceived  in  it, 
and  expcttcd  others  to  perceive  ;  how  we  were  affect- 
ed by  the  kindnefs,  and  felt  the  fupcrioriiy,  of  a  ge- 
nerous reception  and  ready  forgivenels  ,  how  perfccu- 
tion  revived  our  fpirits  with  our  enmity,  and  feemed 
to  juftify  the  conduct  in  ourfelves  which  we  before 
blamed.  Add  to  this,  the  indecency  of  extravagant 
anger  ;  how  it  renders  us,  whilft  it  lalls,  the  fcorn  and 
fport  of  all  about  us,  of  which  it  leaves  us,  when  it 
ceafes,  fenfiblc  andalhamcd;  the  inconTcniencies  and 
irretrievable  mifcondud  into  which  our  irrafcibility 
has  fometimes  betrayed  us  :  the  fricndlhips  it  has  loll 
us  ;  the  diftrcircs  and  embarraflmcnts  in  which  we 
have  been  involved  by  it,  and  the  fore  repentance 
which  on  one  account  or  other  it  always  cod  us. 

"  But  the  refleftion  calculated  above  all  others  to 
allay  that  haughtincfs  of  temper  which  is  ever  finding 
cut  provocation,  and  which  renders  anger  fo  impetu- 
ous, is  that  which  the  gofpel  propofcs  .  namely,  that 
wcourfelves  arc, or  Ihurtly  (hall  be,  fuppliants  tor  mer- 
cy and  pardon  at  the  judgnicnt-fcat  of  God.  Imagine 
our  fecrct  fins  all  difclofed  and  brought  to  light ;  ima- 
gine us  thus  humbled  and  expofed;  trembling  under 
the  hand  of  God  ;  calling  ourfelves  on  hiscompalfion  ; 
crying  out  for  mercy — imagine  fucha  creature  to  talk 
of  fatisfailion  and  revenge,  refufmg  to  be  inireatcd, 
difiiaining  to  forgive,  extreme  to  mark  and  to  relent 
what  is  done  aniifs :  imagine^  I  fay,  (his  ;  and  you  can 


hardly  feign  10  yourfclf  an  inftauce  of  more  impioiM 
an  unnatural  arrogance." 

Phylicians  and  naturalifts  afford  inftances  of  very 
extraordinary  eflefls  of  this  paflion.  Borrichius  cured 
a  woman  of  an  inveterate  tertian  ague,  which  had  baf- 
fled the  artof  phyfic,  by  putting  the  patient  in  a  furi- 
ous fit  of  anger.  Valcrioh  madeufc  ot  the  fame  means, 
with  the  like  fucccfs,  in  a  quartan  ague.  The  fame 
pallion  has  been  equally  falutary  to  paralytic,  gouty, 
and  even  dumb  perfons  ;  to  which  kit  it  has  fometimes 
given  the  ufeof  fpeech.  Ktmullcr  gives  divers  inllan- 
ccsof  very  lingular  cures  wrought  by  anger  ;  among 
others,  he  mentions  a  pcrfon  laid  up  in  the  gout,  who, 
being  provoked  by  his  phyfician,  flew  upon  him,  and 
was  cured.  It  is  true,  the  remedy  is  fomcwhat  dange- 
rous in  the  application,  when  a  patient  does  not  knov/ 
how  to  ufe  it  with  moderation.  We  meet  with  fevcral 
inltances  of  princes  to  whom  it  has  proved  mortal ;  e. 
g^.  Valentinianthefirft,Wencclks,  Matthiiis,Corvinus 
king  of  Hungary,  and  others.  There  arc  allbinftances 
wherein  it  has  produced  the  cpilepfy,  jaundice,  cho- 
lera morbus,  diarrhoea,  &c.  In  fadt,  this  paffion  is  of 
furha  nature,  that  it  quickly  throws  the  wliolc  ncrvons 
fyftem  into  preternatural  commotions,  by  a  violent 
Itrielurcofthe  nervous  and  mufcular  part?;  aiidfurpri- 
fingly  augments  not  only  thefyffolcof  the  heart  and  of 
its  contiguous  vclfels,  but  alfo  the  tone  of  the  fibrous 
parts  in  the  whole  body.  It  is  alio  certain,  that  this 
palTton,  by  the  fpafmodic  ffriJlnre  it  produces  in  the 
parts,  exerts  its  power  principallydn  the  Itomach  and 
iuteftines,  which  are  highly  nervous  and  membranous 
pans  ;  wiience  the  fymptoms  are  more  dangerous,  m 
proportion  to  the  greater  coufent  of  ihe  llomach  and, 
iinelHnes  with  the  other  nervous  parts,  and  almoft 
witli  the  whole  body. — The  unhappy  influence  of  an- 
ger likcwife,  on  the  biliary  and  hepatic  da«s,  is  very 
furpriijng;  fince,  byanintenfe  conltridion  of  thcfe, 
the  livcris  not  only  rendered  fcirrlious,  but  ftnnes  alfo 
arc  often  generated  in  the  gall-Uadder  and  biliary 
duifls:  thefe  accidents  have  fcarce  any  other  origin 
thananobffruftionof  the  free  motion  and  cifluxof  the 
bile,  by  means  of  this  violent  ftriclurc.  From  fuch  a 
ftrit'lure  of  thefe  durtslikewifc  proceeds  the  jaundice, 
which  in  proccfsof  tinirlays  a  foundation  for  calculous 
concretions  ii  the  gall- bladder.  LalUy,  by  incrc.-ifing 
the  motion  01  the  fluid,  or  the  fpafms  of  the  fibrous 
parts,  by  n.caiis  of  anger,  a  larger  quantity  of  blood 
is  propelled  with  an  impetus  to  certain  parts  ;  whence 
it  happens  that  they  arc  too  uuuh  diffended,  and  the 
oriticcsof  the  veins  dift-iouted  there  opened.  It  is 
evident  from  experience,  that  anger  has  a  great  ten- 
dency to  excite  enormous  hxmorrhagics,  ei'her  from 
the  nofc,  the  aperture  of  the  pulmonary  artery,  the 
veil..,  of  the  anus  ;  or  in  women,  from  the  utrn'ii,  ef- 
peci  lly  in  ihofe  previoully  accuilomcd  and  dlfpofcd  to 
fuch  cvacLutions. 


Anger. 


END  OF  THE  FIRST  VOLUME. 


DIRECTIONS  ret  piactko  the  PLATES  of  VOL.  1. 


Pakt  I. 


Plate. 

page. 

I. 

•                                      ^ 

92 

U. 

. 

200 

in. 

m                                                » 

208 

rv. 

- 

228 

V. 

»                                                • 

372 

VI. 

. 

278 

vir. 

- 

380 

VIII.  1 

IX.  i 

- 

320 

X. 

Pakt  IL 

338 

XI.     1 

XII.  : 

«                           « 

496 

XIII. 

m 

506 

XIV.  ■) 

XV.    : 

• 

«8 

Plate. 

XVI. 

XVIL 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII, 

xxin.  I 

XXIV.  J 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIIL 

XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 


(Part  J  I.  continued.} 


PiM. 

040 
65a 

656 

702 

704 

704 

706 

73a 


75* 

764 
770 
776 
8co 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORMA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
L  u  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


form  L9-25m-7,'()3(D861bs«)444 


LOS  ANGELES 


D     000  162  057 


